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diff --git a/731-h/731-h.htm b/731-h/731-h.htm new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6f75859 --- /dev/null +++ b/731-h/731-h.htm @@ -0,0 +1,38912 @@ +<!DOCTYPE html PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD XHTML 1.0 Strict//EN" +"http://www.w3.org/TR/xhtml1/DTD/xhtml1-strict.dtd"> +<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> +<head> +<meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8" /> +<meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css" /> +<title>The Project Gutenberg eBook of History Of The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, Volume 1 by Edward Gibbon</title> +<link rel="coverpage" href="images/cover.jpg" /> +<style type="text/css"> + + body { margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + div.chapter {page-break-before: always; margin-top: 4em;} + p { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + +p.poem {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + font-size: 90%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +p.letter {text-indent: 0%; + margin-left: 10%; + margin-right: 10%; + margin-top: 1em; + margin-bottom: 1em; } + +a:link {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:visited {color:blue; text-decoration:none} +a:hover {color:red} + +</style> + </head> + <body> + +<div style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold;'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, by Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and +most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions +whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms +of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online +at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you +are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the +country where you are located before using this eBook. +</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The History of The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire<br /> +Volume 1</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edward Gibbon</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Commentator: H. H. Milman</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Release Date: November, 1996 [eBook #731]<br /> +[Most recently updated: March 7, 2021]</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Language: English</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0'>Character set encoding: UTF-8</div> +<div style='display:block; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Produced by: David Reed and David Widger</div> +<div style='margin-top:2em;margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> + + <h1> + HISTORY OF THE DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE + </h1> + <h2> + Edward Gibbon, Esq. + </h2> + <h2> + With notes by the Rev. H. H. Milman + </h2> + <h3> + Vol. 1 + </h3> + <h4> + 1782 (Written), 1845 (Revised) + </h4> + <p> + <br/> <br/> + </p> + <hr /> + +<h2>Contents</h2> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_INTR"> Introduction </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_PREF"> Preface By The Editor. +</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_PREF2"> Preface Of The Author. +</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_PREF3"> Preface To The First +Volume. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#link2H_PREF4"> Preface To The Fourth +Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap01.1"> Chapter I: The Extent Of +The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of +The Antonines. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap01.2"> Chapter I: The Extent Of +The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap01.3"> Chapter I: The Extent Of +The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap02.1"> Chapter II: The +Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In +The Age Of The Antonines. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap02.2"> Chapter II: The +Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap02.3"> Chapter II: The +Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap02.4"> Chapter II: The +Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines. Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap03.1"> Chapter III: The +Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The +Antonines. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap03.2"> Chapter III: The +Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap04.1"> Chapter IV: The +Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus—Election Of +Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His +Assassination By The Prætorian Guards. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap04.2"> Chapter IV: The +Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap05.1"> Chapter V: Sale Of The +Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The +Prætorian Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius +Niger In Syria, And Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare +Against The Murderers Of Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of +Severus Over His Three Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New +Maxims Of Government. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap05.2"> Chapter V: Sale Of The +Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap06.1"> Chapter VI: Death Of +Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of Macrinus.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation +Of Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of +The Roman Finances. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap06.2"> Chapter VI: Death Of +Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of Macrinus.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap06.3"> Chapter VI: Death Of +Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of Macrinus.—Part III. +</a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap06.4"> Chapter VI: Death Of +Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of Macrinus.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap07.1"> Chapter VII: Tyranny Of +Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa +And Italy, Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars +And Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of +Maximus And Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.— +Usurpation And Secular Games Of Philip. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap07.2"> Chapter VII: Tyranny Of +Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap07.3"> Chapter VII: Tyranny Of +Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap08.1"> Chapter VIII: State Of +Persion And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy +By Artaxerxes. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap08.2"> Chapter VIII: State Of +Persion And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap09.1"> Chapter IX: State Of +Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In +The Time Of The Emperor Decius. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap09.2"> Chapter IX: State Of +Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap09.3"> Chapter IX: State Of +Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap10.1"> Chapter X: Emperors +Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And +Gallienus.—The General Irruption Of The Barbarians.—The +Thirty Tyrants. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap10.2"> Chapter X: Emperors +Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap10.3"> Chapter X: Emperors +Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap10.4"> Chapter X: Emperors +Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap11.1"> Chapter XI: Reign Of +Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, +Triumph, And Death Of Aurelian. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap11.2"> Chapter XI: Reign Of +Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap11.3"> Chapter XI: Reign Of +Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap12.1"> Chapter XII: Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.—Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap12.2"> Chapter XII: Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap12.3"> Chapter XII: Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap13.1"> Chapter XIII: Reign Of +Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, +Galerius, And Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of +Order And Tranquillity.—The Persian War, Victory, And +Triumph.—The New Form Of Administration.—Abdication And +Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap13.2"> Chapter XIII: Reign Of +Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap13.3"> Chapter XIII: Reign Of +Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap13.4"> Chapter XIII: Reign Of +Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap14.1"> Chapter XIV: Six +Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxentius.—Six Emperors +At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius.—Victories Of +Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.—Reunion Of The Empire Under The +Authority Of Constantine. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap14.2"> Chapter XIV: Six +Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap14.3"> Chapter XIV: Six +Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap14.4"> Chapter XIV: Six +Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.1"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. </a> +</p> + +<p class="letter"> +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, +Manners, Numbers, And Condition Of The Primitive Christians. +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.2"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.3"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.4"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.5"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.6"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.7"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.8"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. </a> +</p> + +<p> +<a href="#chap15.9"> Chapter XV: Progress +Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. </a> +</p> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="link2H_INTR" id="link2H_INTR"></a> + Introduction + </h2> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"></a> + Preface By The Editor. + </h2> + <p> + The great work of Gibbon is indispensable to the student of history. The + literature of Europe offers no substitute for “The Decline and Fall of the + Roman Empire.” It has obtained undisputed possession, as rightful + occupant, of the vast period which it comprehends. However some subjects, + which it embraces, may have undergone more complete investigation, on the + general view of the whole period, this history is the sole undisputed + authority to which all defer, and from which few appeal to the original + writers, or to more modern compilers. The inherent interest of the + subject, the inexhaustible labor employed upon it; the immense + condensation of matter; the luminous arrangement; the general accuracy; + the style, which, however monotonous from its uniform stateliness, and + sometimes wearisome from its elaborate ar., is throughout vigorous, + animated, often picturesque, always commands attention, always conveys its + meaning with emphatic energy, describes with singular breadth and + fidelity, and generalizes with unrivalled felicity of expression; all + these high qualifications have secured, and seem likely to secure, its + permanent place in historic literature. + </p> + <p> + This vast design of Gibbon, the magnificent whole into which he has cast + the decay and ruin of the ancient civilization, the formation and birth of + the new order of things, will of itself, independent of the laborious + execution of his immense plan, render “The Decline and Fall of the Roman + Empire” an unapproachable subject to the future historian: <a + href="#linknote-1.101" name="linknoteref-1.101" id="linknoteref-1.101">101</a> + in the eloquent language of his recent French editor, M. Guizot:— + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.101" id="linknote-1.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.101">return</a>)<br/> [ A considerable portion + of this preface has already appeared before us public in the Quarterly + Review.] + </p> + <p> + “The gradual decline of the most extraordinary dominion which has ever + invaded and oppressed the world; the fall of that immense empire, erected + on the ruins of so many kingdoms, republics, and states both barbarous and + civilized; and forming in its turn, by its dismemberment, a multitude of + states, republics, and kingdoms; the annihilation of the religion of + Greece and Rome; the birth and the progress of the two new religions which + have shared the most beautiful regions of the earth; the decrepitude of + the ancient world, the spectacle of its expiring glory and degenerate + manners; the infancy of the modern world, the picture of its first + progress, of the new direction given to the mind and character of man—such + a subject must necessarily fix the attention and excite the interest of + men, who cannot behold with indifference those memorable epochs, during + which, in the fine language of Corneille— + </p> +<p class="poem"> + ‘Un grand destin commence, un grand destin s’achève.’” +</p> + <p> + This extent and harmony of design is unquestionably that which + distinguishes the work of Gibbon from all other great historical + compositions. He has first bridged the abyss between ancient and modern + times, and connected together the two great worlds of history. The great + advantage which the classical historians possess over those of modern + times is in unity of plan, of course greatly facilitated by the narrower + sphere to which their researches were confined. Except Herodotus, the + great historians of Greece—we exclude the more modern compilers, + like Diodorus Siculus—limited themselves to a single period, or at + ‘east to the contracted sphere of Grecian affairs. As far as the + Barbarians trespassed within the Grecian boundary, or were necessarily + mingled up with Grecian politics, they were admitted into the pale of + Grecian history; but to Thucydides and to Xenophon, excepting in the + Persian inroad of the latter, Greece was the world. Natural unity confined + their narrative almost to chronological order, the episodes were of rare + occurrence and extremely brief. To the Roman historians the course was + equally clear and defined. Rome was their centre of unity; and the + uniformity with which the circle of the Roman dominion spread around, the + regularity with which their civil polity expanded, forced, as it were, + upon the Roman historian that plan which Polybius announces as the subject + of his history, the means and the manner by which the whole world became + subject to the Roman sway. How different the complicated politics of the + European kingdoms! Every national history, to be complete, must, in a + certain sense, be the history of Europe; there is no knowing to how remote + a quarter it may be necessary to trace our most domestic events; from a + country, how apparently disconnected, may originate the impulse which + gives its direction to the whole course of affairs. + </p> + <p> + In imitation of his classical models, Gibbon places <i>Rome</i> as the cardinal + point from which his inquiries diverge, and to which they bear constant + reference; yet how immeasurable the space over which those inquiries + range! how complicated, how confused, how apparently inextricable the + causes which tend to the decline of the Roman empire! how countless the + nations which swarm forth, in mingling and indistinct hordes, constantly + changing the geographical limits—incessantly confounding the natural + boundaries! At first sight, the whole period, the whole state of the + world, seems to offer no more secure footing to an historical adventurer + than the chaos of Milton—to be in a state of irreclaimable disorder, + best described in the language of the poet:— + </p> +<p class="poem"> + —“A dark<br /> + Illimitable ocean, without bound,<br /> + Without dimension, where length, breadth, and height,<br /> + And time, and place, are lost: where eldest Night<br /> + And Chaos, ancestors of Nature, hold<br /> + Eternal anarchy, amidst the noise<br /> + Of endless wars, and by confusion stand.” +</p> + <p> + We feel that the unity and harmony of narrative, which shall comprehend + this period of social disorganization, must be ascribed entirely to the + skill and luminous disposition of the historian. It is in this sublime + Gothic architecture of his work, in which the boundless range, the + infinite variety, the, at first sight, incongruous gorgeousness of the + separate parts, nevertheless are all subordinate to one main and + predominant idea, that Gibbon is unrivalled. We cannot but admire the + manner in which he masses his materials, and arranges his facts in + successive groups, not according to chronological order, but to their + moral or political connection; the distinctness with which he marks his + periods of gradually increasing decay; and the skill with which, though + advancing on separate parallels of history, he shows the common tendency + of the slower or more rapid religious or civil innovations. However these + principles of composition may demand more than ordinary attention on the + part of the reader, they can alone impress upon the memory the real + course, and the relative importance of the events. Whoever would justly + appreciate the superiority of Gibbon’s lucid arrangement, should attempt + to make his way through the regular but wearisome annals of Tillemont, or + even the less ponderous volumes of Le Beau. Both these writers adhere, + almost entirely, to chronological order; the consequence is, that we are + twenty times called upon to break off, and resume the thread of six or + eight wars in different parts of the empire; to suspend the operations of + a military expedition for a court intrigue; to hurry away from a siege to + a council; and the same page places us in the middle of a campaign against + the barbarians, and in the depths of the Monophysite controversy. In + Gibbon it is not always easy to bear in mind the exact dates but the + course of events is ever clear and distinct; like a skilful general, + though his troops advance from the most remote and opposite quarters, they + are constantly bearing down and concentrating themselves on one point—that + which is still occupied by the name, and by the waning power of Rome. + Whether he traces the progress of hostile religions, or leads from the + shores of the Baltic, or the verge of the Chinese empire, the successive + hosts of barbarians—though one wave has hardly burst and discharged + itself, before another swells up and approaches—all is made to flow + in the same direction, and the impression which each makes upon the + tottering fabric of the Roman greatness, connects their distant movements, + and measures the relative importance assigned to them in the panoramic + history. The more peaceful and didactic episodes on the development of the + Roman law, or even on the details of ecclesiastical history, interpose + themselves as resting-places or divisions between the periods of barbaric + invasion. In short, though distracted first by the two capitals, and + afterwards by the formal partition of the empire, the extraordinary + felicity of arrangement maintains an order and a regular progression. As + our horizon expands to reveal to us the gathering tempests which are + forming far beyond the boundaries of the civilized world—as we + follow their successive approach to the trembling frontier—the + compressed and receding line is still distinctly visible; though gradually + dismembered and the broken fragments assuming the form of regular states + and kingdoms, the real relation of those kingdoms to the empire is + maintained and defined; and even when the Roman dominion has shrunk into + little more than the province of Thrace—when the name of Rome, + confined, in Italy, to the walls of the city—yet it is still the + memory, the shade of the Roman greatness, which extends over the wide + sphere into which the historian expands his later narrative; the whole + blends into the unity, and is manifestly essential to the double + catastrophe of his tragic drama. + </p> + <p> + But the amplitude, the magnificence, or the harmony of design, are, though + imposing, yet unworthy claims on our admiration, unless the details are + filled up with correctness and accuracy. No writer has been more severely + tried on this point than Gibbon. He has undergone the triple scrutiny of + theological zeal quickened by just resentment, of literary emulation, and + of that mean and invidious vanity which delights in detecting errors in + writers of established fame. On the result of the trial, we may be + permitted to summon competent witnesses before we deliver our own + judgment. + </p> + <p> + M. Guizot, in his preface, after stating that in France and Germany, as + well as in England, in the most enlightened countries of Europe, Gibbon is + constantly cited as an authority, thus proceeds:— + </p> + <p> + “I have had occasion, during my labors, to consult the writings of + philosophers, who have treated on the finances of the Roman empire; of + scholars, who have investigated the chronology; of theologians, who have + searched the depths of ecclesiastical history; of writers on law, who have + studied with care the Roman jurisprudence; of Orientalists, who have + occupied themselves with the Arabians and the Koran; of modern historians, + who have entered upon extensive researches touching the crusades and their + influence; each of these writers has remarked and pointed out, in the + ‘History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire,’ some negligences, + some false or imperfect views, some omissions, which it is impossible not + to suppose voluntary; they have rectified some facts, combated with + advantage some assertions; but in general they have taken the researches + and the ideas of Gibbon, as points of departure, or as proofs of the + researches or of the new opinions which they have advanced.” + </p> + <p> + M. Guizot goes on to state his own impressions on reading Gibbon’s + history, and no authority will have greater weight with those to whom the + extent and accuracy of his historical researches are known:— + </p> + <p> + “After a first rapid perusal, which allowed me to feel nothing but the + interest of a narrative, always animated, and, notwithstanding its extent + and the variety of objects which it makes to pass before the view, always + perspicuous, I entered upon a minute examination of the details of which + it was composed; and the opinion which I then formed was, I confess, + singularly severe. I discovered, in certain chapters, errors which + appeared to me sufficiently important and numerous to make me believe that + they had been written with extreme negligence; in others, I was struck + with a certain tinge of partiality and prejudice, which imparted to the + exposition of the facts that want of truth and justice, which the English + express by their happy term <i>misrepresentation</i>. Some imperfect (<i>tronquées</i>) + quotations; some passages, omitted unintentionally or designedly cast a + suspicion on the honesty (<i>bonne foi</i>) of the author; and his violation of + the first law of history—increased to my eye by the prolonged + attention with which I occupied myself with every phrase, every note, + every reflection—caused me to form upon the whole work, a judgment + far too rigorous. After having finished my labors, I allowed some time to + elapse before I reviewed the whole. A second attentive and regular perusal + of the entire work, of the notes of the author, and of those which I had + thought it right to subjoin, showed me how much I had exaggerated the + importance of the reproaches which Gibbon really deserved; I was struck + with the same errors, the same partiality on certain subjects; but I had + been far from doing adequate justice to the immensity of his researches, + the variety of his knowledge, and above all, to that truly philosophical + discrimination (<i>justesse d’esprit</i>) which judges the past as it would judge + the present; which does not permit itself to be blinded by the clouds + which time gathers around the dead, and which prevent us from seeing that, + under the toga, as under the modern dress, in the senate as in our + councils, men were what they still are, and that events took place + eighteen centuries ago, as they take place in our days. I then felt that + his book, in spite of its faults, will always be a noble work—and + that we may correct his errors and combat his prejudices, without ceasing + to admit that few men have combined, if we are not to say in so high a + degree, at least in a manner so complete, and so well regulated, the + necessary qualifications for a writer of history.” + </p> + <p> + The present editor has followed the track of Gibbon through many parts of + his work; he has read his authorities with constant reference to his + pages, and must pronounce his deliberate judgment, in terms of the highest + admiration as to his general accuracy. Many of his seeming errors are + almost inevitable from the close condensation of his matter. From the + immense range of his history, it was sometimes necessary to compress into + a single sentence, a whole vague and diffuse page of a Byzantine + chronicler. Perhaps something of importance may have thus escaped, and his + expressions may not quite contain the whole substance of the passage from + which they are taken. His limits, at times, compel him to sketch; where + that is the case, it is not fair to expect the full details of the + finished picture. At times he can only deal with important results; and in + his account of a war, it sometimes requires great attention to discover + that the events which seem to be comprehended in a single campaign, occupy + several years. But this admirable skill in selecting and giving prominence + to the points which are of real weight and importance—this + distribution of light and shade—though perhaps it may occasionally + betray him into vague and imperfect statements, is one of the highest + excellencies of Gibbon’s historic manner. It is the more striking, when we + pass from the works of his chief authorities, where, after laboring + through long, minute, and wearisome descriptions of the accessary and + subordinate circumstances, a single unmarked and undistinguished sentence, + which we may overlook from the inattention of fatigue, contains the great + moral and political result. + </p> + <p> + Gibbon’s method of arrangement, though on the whole most favorable to the + clear comprehension of the events, leads likewise to apparent inaccuracy. + That which we expect to find in one part is reserved for another. The + estimate which we are to form, depends on the accurate balance of + statements in remote parts of the work; and we have sometimes to correct + and modify opinions, formed from one chapter by those of another. Yet, on + the other hand, it is astonishing how rarely we detect contradiction; the + mind of the author has already harmonized the whole result to truth and + probability; the general impression is almost invariably the same. The + quotations of Gibbon have likewise been called in question;—I have, + <i>in general</i>, been more inclined to admire their exactitude, than to + complain of their indistinctness, or incompleteness. Where they are + imperfect, it is commonly from the study of brevity, and rather from the + desire of compressing the substance of his notes into pointed and emphatic + sentences, than from dishonesty, or uncandid suppression of truth. + </p> + <p> + These observations apply more particularly to the accuracy and fidelity of + the historian as to his facts; his inferences, of course, are more liable + to exception. It is almost impossible to trace the line between unfairness + and unfaithfulness; between intentional misrepresentation and undesigned + false coloring. The relative magnitude and importance of events must, in + some respect, depend upon the mind before which they are presented; the + estimate of character, on the habits and feelings of the reader. + Christians, like M. Guizot and ourselves, will see some things, and some + persons, in a different light from the historian of the Decline and Fall. + We may deplore the bias of his mind; we may ourselves be on our guard + against the danger of being misled, and be anxious to warn less wary + readers against the same perils; but we must not confound this secret and + unconscious departure from truth, with the deliberate violation of that + veracity which is the only title of an historian to our confidence. + Gibbon, it may be fearlessly asserted, is rarely chargeable even with the + suppression of any material fact, which bears upon individual character; + he may, with apparently invidious hostility, enhance the errors and + crimes, and disparage the virtues of certain persons; yet, in general, he + leaves us the materials for forming a fairer judgment; and if he is not + exempt from his own prejudices, perhaps we might write <i>passions</i>, yet it + must be candidly acknowledged, that his philosophical bigotry is not more + unjust than the theological partialities of those ecclesiastical writers + who were before in undisputed possession of this province of history. + </p> + <p> + We are thus naturally led to that great misrepresentation which pervades + his history—his false estimate of the nature and influence of + Christianity. + </p> + <p> + But on this subject some preliminary caution is necessary, lest that + should be expected from a new edition, which it is impossible that it + should completely accomplish. We must first be prepared with the only + sound preservative against the false impression likely to be produced by + the perusal of Gibbon; and we must see clearly the real cause of that + false impression. The former of these cautions will be briefly suggested + in its proper place, but it may be as well to state it, here, somewhat + more at length. The art of Gibbon, or at least the unfair impression + produced by his two memorable chapters, consists in his confounding + together, in one indistinguishable mass, the <i>origin</i> and <i>apostolic</i> + propagation of the new religion, with its <i>later</i> progress. No argument for + the divine authority of Christianity has been urged with greater force, or + traced with higher eloquence, than that deduced from its primary + development, explicable on no other hypothesis than a heavenly origin, and + from its rapid extension through great part of the Roman empire. But this + argument—one, when confined within reasonable limits, of + unanswerable force—becomes more feeble and disputable in proportion + as it recedes from the birthplace, as it were, of the religion. The + further Christianity advanced, the more causes purely human were enlisted + in its favor; nor can it be doubted that those developed with such artful + exclusiveness by Gibbon did concur most essentially to its establishment. + It is in the Christian dispensation, as in the material world. In both it + is as the great First Cause, that the Deity is most undeniably manifest. + When once launched in regular motion upon the bosom of space, and endowed + with all their properties and relations of weight and mutual attraction, + the heavenly bodies appear to pursue their courses according to secondary + laws, which account for all their sublime regularity. So Christianity + proclaims its Divine Author chiefly in its first origin and development. + When it had once received its impulse from above—when it had once + been infused into the minds of its first teachers—when it had gained + full possession of the reason and affections of the favored few—it + <i>might be</i>—and to the Protestant, the rationa Christian, it is + impossible to define <i>when</i> it really <i>was</i>—left to make its way by its + native force, under the ordinary secret agencies of all-ruling Providence. + The main question, the <i>divine origin of the religion</i>, was dexterously + eluded, or speciously conceded by Gibbon; his plan enabled him to commence + his account, in most parts, <i>below the apostolic times;</i> and it was only by + the strength of the dark coloring with which he brought out the failings + and the follies of the succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt and + suspicion was thrown back upon the primitive period of Christianity. + </p> + <p> + “The theologian,” says Gibbon, “may indulge the pleasing task of + describing religion as she descended from heaven, arrayed in her native + purity; a more melancholy duty is imposed upon the historian:—he + must discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption which she + contracted in a long residence upon earth among a weak and degenerate race + of beings.” Divest this passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the + subsequent tone of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a + Christian history written in the most Christian spirit of candor. But as + the historian, by seeming to respect, yet by dexterously confounding the + limits of the sacred land, contrived to insinuate that it was an Utopia + which had no existence but in the imagination of the theologian—as + he <i>suggested</i> rather than affirmed that the days of Christian purity were a + kind of poetic golden age;—so the theologian, by venturing too far + into the domain of the historian, has been perpetually obliged to contest + points on which he had little chance of victory—to deny facts + established on unshaken evidence—and thence, to retire, if not with + the shame of defeat, yet with but doubtful and imperfect success. Paley, + with his intuitive sagacity, saw through the difficulty of answering + Gibbon by the ordinary arts of controversy; his emphatic sentence, “Who + can refute a sneer?” contains as much truth as point. But full and + pregnant as this phrase is, it is not quite the whole truth; it is the + tone in which the progress of Christianity is traced, in <i>comparison</i> with + the rest of the splendid and prodigally ornamented work, which is the + radical defect in the “Decline and Fall.” Christianity alone receives no + embellishment from the magic of Gibbon’s language; his imagination is dead + to its moral dignity; it is kept down by a general zone of jealous + disparagement, or neutralized by a painfully elaborate exposition of its + darker and degenerate periods. There are occasions, indeed, when its pure + and exalted humanity, when its manifestly beneficial influence, can compel + even him, as it were, to fairness, and kindle his unguarded eloquence to + its usual fervor; but, in general, he soon relapses into a frigid apathy; + <i>affects</i> an ostentatiously severe impartiality; notes all the faults of + Christians in every age with bitter and almost malignant sarcasm; + reluctantly, and with exception and reservation, admits their claim to + admiration. This inextricable bias appears even to influence his manner of + composition. While all the other assailants of the Roman empire, whether + warlike or religious, the Goth, the Hun, the Arab, the Tartar, Alaric and + Attila, Mahomet, and Zengis, and Tamerlane, are each introduced upon the + scene almost with dramatic animation—their progress related in a + full, complete, and unbroken narrative—the triumph of Christianity + alone takes the form of a cold and critical disquisition. The successes of + barbarous energy and brute force call forth all the consummate skill of + composition; while the moral triumphs of Christian benevolence—the + tranquil heroism of endurance, the blameless purity, the contempt of + guilty fame and of honors destructive to the human race, which, had they + assumed the proud name of philosophy, would have been blazoned in his + brightest words, because they own religion as their principle—sink + into narrow asceticism. The <i>glories</i> of Christianity, in short, touch on no + chord in the heart of the writer; his imagination remains unkindled; his + words, though they maintain their stately and measured march, have become + cool, argumentative, and inanimate. Who would obscure one hue of that + gorgeous coloring in which Gibbon has invested the dying forms of + Paganism, or darken one paragraph in his splendid view of the rise and + progress of Mahometanism? But who would not have wished that the same + equal justice had been done to Christianity; that its real character and + deeply penetrating influence had been traced with the same philosophical + sagacity, and represented with more sober, as would become its quiet + course, and perhaps less picturesque, but still with lively and + attractive, descriptiveness? He might have thrown aside, with the same + scorn, the mass of ecclesiastical fiction which envelops the early history + of the church, stripped off the legendary romance, and brought out the + facts in their primitive nakedness and simplicity—if he had but + allowed those facts the benefit of the glowing eloquence which he denied + to them alone. He might have annihilated the whole fabric of + post-apostolic miracles, if he had left uninjured by sarcastic insinuation + those of the New Testament; he might have cashiered, with Dodwell, the + whole host of martyrs, which owe their existence to the prodigal invention + of later days, had he but bestowed fair room, and dwelt with his ordinary + energy on the sufferings of the genuine witnesses to the truth of + Christianity, the Polycarps, or the martyrs of Vienne. And indeed, if, + after all, the view of the early progress of Christianity be melancholy + and humiliating we must beware lest we charge the whole of this on the + infidelity of the historian. It is idle, it is disingenuous, to deny or to + dissemble the early depravations of Christianity, its gradual but rapid + departure from its primitive simplicity and purity, still more, from its + spirit of universal love. It may be no unsalutary lesson to the Christian + world, that this silent, this unavoidable, perhaps, yet fatal change shall + have been drawn by an impartial, or even an hostile hand. The Christianity + of every age may take warning, lest by its own narrow views, its want of + wisdom, and its want of charity, it give the same advantage to the future + unfriendly historian, and disparage the cause of true religion. + </p> + <p> + The design of the present edition is partly corrective, partly + supplementary: corrective, by notes, which point out (it is hoped, in a + perfectly candid and dispassionate spirit with no desire but to establish + the truth) such inaccuracies or misstatements as may have been detected, + particularly with regard to Christianity; and which thus, with the + previous caution, may counteract to a considerable extent the unfair and + unfavorable impression created against rational religion: supplementary, + by adding such additional information as the editor’s reading may have + been able to furnish, from original documents or books, not accessible at + the time when Gibbon wrote. + </p> + <p> + The work originated in the editor’s habit of noting on the margin of his + copy of Gibbon references to such authors as had discovered errors, or + thrown new light on the subjects treated by Gibbon. These had grown to + some extent, and seemed to him likely to be of use to others. The + annotations of M. Guizot also appeared to him worthy of being better known + to the English public than they were likely to be, as appended to the + French translation. + </p> + <p> + The chief works from which the editor has derived his materials are, I. + The French translation, with notes by M. Guizot; 2d edition, Paris, 1828. + The editor has translated almost all the notes of M. Guizot. Where he has + not altogether agreed with him, his respect for the learning and judgment + of that writer has, in general, induced him to retain the statement from + which he has ventured to differ, with the grounds on which he formed his + own opinion. In the notes on Christianity, he has retained all those of M. + Guizot, with his own, from the conviction, that on such a subject, to + many, the authority of a French statesman, a Protestant, and a rational + and sincere Christian, would appear more independent and unbiassed, and + therefore be more commanding, than that of an English clergyman. + </p> + <p> + The editor has not scrupled to transfer the notes of M. Guizot to the + present work. The well-known zeal for knowledge, displayed in all the + writings of that distinguished historian, has led to the natural + inference, that he would not be displeased at the attempt to make them of + use to the English readers of Gibbon. The notes of M. Guizot are signed + with the letter G. + </p> + <p> + II. The German translation, with the notes of Wenck. Unfortunately this + learned translator died, after having completed only the first volume; the + rest of the work was executed by a very inferior hand. + </p> + <p> + The notes of Wenck are extremely valuable; many of them have been adopted + by M. Guizot; they are distinguished by the letter W. <a + href="#linknote-1.102" name="linknoteref-1.102" id="linknoteref-1.102">102</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.102" id="linknote-1.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.102">return</a>)<br/> [ The editor regrets that + he has not been able to find the Italian translation, mentioned by Gibbon + himself with some respect. It is not in our great libraries, the Museum or + the Bodleian; and he has never found any bookseller in London who has seen + it.] + </p> + <p> + III. The new edition of Le Beau’s “Histoire du Bas Empire, with notes by + M. St. Martin, and M. Brosset.” That distinguished Armenian scholar, M. + St. Martin (now, unhappily, deceased) had added much information from + Oriental writers, particularly from those of Armenia, as well as from more + general sources. Many of his observations have been found as applicable to + the work of Gibbon as to that of Le Beau. + </p> + <p> + IV. The editor has consulted the various answers made to Gibbon on the + first appearance of his work; he must confess, with little profit. They + were, in general, hastily compiled by inferior and now forgotten writers, + with the exception of Bishop Watson, whose able apology is rather a + general argument, than an examination of misstatements. The name of Milner + stands higher with a certain class of readers, but will not carry much + weight with the severe investigator of history. + </p> + <p> + V. Some few classical works and fragments have come to light, since the + appearance of Gibbon’s History, and have been noticed in their respective + places; and much use has been made, in the latter volumes particularly, of + the increase to our stores of Oriental literature. The editor cannot, + indeed, pretend to have followed his author, in these gleanings, over the + whole vast field of his inquiries; he may have overlooked or may not have + been able to command some works, which might have thrown still further + light on these subjects; but he trusts that what he has adduced will be of + use to the student of historic truth. + </p> + <p> + The editor would further observe, that with regard to some other + objectionable passages, which do not involve misstatement or inaccuracy, + he has intentionally abstained from directing particular attention towards + them by any special protest. + </p> + <p> + The editor’s notes are marked M. + </p> + <p> + A considerable part of the quotations (some of which in the later editions + had fallen into great confusion) have been verified, and have been + corrected by the latest and best editions of the authors. + </p> + <p> + June, 1845. + </p> + <p> + In this new edition, the text and the notes have been carefully revised, + the latter by the editor. + </p> + <p> + Some additional notes have been subjoined, distinguished by the signature + M. 1845. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="link2H_PREF2" id="link2H_PREF2"></a> + Preface Of The Author. + </h2> + <p> + It is not my intention to detain the reader by expatiating on the variety + or the importance of the subject, which I have undertaken to treat; since + the merit of the choice would serve to render the weakness of the + execution still more apparent, and still less excusable. But as I have + presumed to lay before the public a <i>first</i> volume only <a href="#linknote-1.1" + name="linknoteref-1.1" id="linknoteref-1.1">1</a> of the History of the + Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, it will, perhaps, be expected that I + should explain, in a few words, the nature and limits of my general plan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.1" id="linknote-1.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.1">return</a>)<br/> [ The first volume of the + quarto, which contained the sixteen first chapters.] + </p> + <p> + The memorable series of revolutions, which in the course of about thirteen + centuries gradually undermined, and at length destroyed, the solid fabric + of human greatness, may, with some propriety, be divided into the three + following periods: + </p> + <p> + I. The first of these periods may be traced from the age of Trajan and the + Antonines, when the Roman monarchy, having attained its full strength and + maturity, began to verge towards its decline; and will extend to the + subversion of the Western Empire, by the barbarians of Germany and + Scythia, the rude ancestors of the most polished nations of modern Europe. + This extraordinary revolution, which subjected Rome to the power of a + Gothic conqueror, was completed about the beginning of the sixth century. + </p> + <p> + II. The second period of the Decline and Fall of Rome may be supposed to + commence with the reign of Justinian, who, by his laws, as well as by his + victories, restored a transient splendor to the Eastern Empire. It will + comprehend the invasion of Italy by the Lombards; the conquest of the + Asiatic and African provinces by the Arabs, who embraced the religion of + Mahomet; the revolt of the Roman people against the feeble princes of + Constantinople; and the elevation of Charlemagne, who, in the year eight + hundred, established the second, or German Empire of the West. + </p> + <p> + III. The last and longest of these periods includes about six centuries + and a half; from the revival of the Western Empire, till the taking of + Constantinople by the Turks, and the extinction of a degenerate race of + princes, who continued to assume the titles of Cæsar and Augustus, after + their dominions were contracted to the limits of a single city; in which + the language, as well as manners, of the ancient Romans, had been long + since forgotten. The writer who should undertake to relate the events of + this period, would find himself obliged to enter into the general history + of the Crusades, as far as they contributed to the ruin of the Greek + Empire; and he would scarcely be able to restrain his curiosity from + making some inquiry into the state of the city of Rome, during the + darkness and confusion of the middle ages. + </p> + <p> + As I have ventured, perhaps too hastily, to commit to the press a work + which in every sense of the word, deserves the epithet of imperfect. I + consider myself as contracting an engagement to finish, most probably in a + second volume, <a href="#linknote-1.2a" name="linknoteref-1.2a" + id="linknoteref-1.2a">2a</a> the first of these memorable periods; and to + deliver to the Public the complete History of the Decline and Fall of + Rome, from the age of the Antonines to the subversion of the Western + Empire. With regard to the subsequent periods, though I may entertain some + hopes, I dare not presume to give any assurances. The execution of the + extensive plan which I have described, would connect the ancient and + modern history of the world; but it would require many years of health, of + leisure, and of perseverance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.2a" id="linknote-1.2a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2a (<a href="#linknoteref-1.2a">return</a>)<br/> [ The Author, as it + frequently happens, took an inadequate measure of his growing work. The + remainder of the first period has filled <i>two</i> volumes in quarto, being the + third, fourth, fifth, and sixth volumes of the octavo edition.] + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>February</i> 1, 1776. + </p> + <p> + P. S. The entire History, which is now published, of the Decline and Fall + of the Roman Empire in the West, abundantly discharges my engagements with + the Public. Perhaps their favorable opinion may encourage me to prosecute + a work, which, however laborious it may seem, is the most agreeable + occupation of my leisure hours. + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>March</i> 1, 1781. + </p> + <p> + An Author easily persuades himself that the public opinion is still + favorable to his labors; and I have now embraced the serious resolution of + proceeding to the last period of my original design, and of the Roman + Empire, the taking of Constantinople by the Turks, in the year one + thousand four hundred and fifty-three. The most patient Reader, who + computes that three ponderous <a href="#linknote-1.3" name="linknoteref-1.3" + id="linknoteref-1.3">3</a> volumes have been already employed on the events + of four centuries, may, perhaps, be alarmed at the long prospect of nine + hundred years. But it is not my intention to expatiate with the same + minuteness on the whole series of the Byzantine history. At our entrance + into this period, the reign of Justinian, and the conquests of the + Mahometans, will deserve and detain our attention, and the last age of + Constantinople (the Crusades and the Turks) is connected with the + revolutions of Modern Europe. From the seventh to the eleventh century, + the obscure interval will be supplied by a concise narrative of such facts + as may still appear either interesting or important. + </p> + <p> + B<small>ENTINCK</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>March</i> 1, 1782. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.3" id="linknote-1.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.3">return</a>)<br/> [ The first six volumes of + the octavo edition.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="link2H_PREF3" id="link2H_PREF3"></a> + Preface To The First Volume. + </h2> + <p> + Diligence and accuracy are the only merits which an historical writer may + ascribe to himself; if any merit, indeed, can be assumed from the + performance of an indispensable duty. I may therefore be allowed to say, + that I have carefully examined all the original materials that could + illustrate the subject which I had undertaken to treat. Should I ever + complete the extensive design which has been sketched out in the Preface, + I might perhaps conclude it with a critical account of the authors + consulted during the progress of the whole work; and however such an + attempt might incur the censure of ostentation, I am persuaded that it + would be susceptible of entertainment, as well as information. + </p> + <p> + At present I shall content myself with a single observation. + </p> + <p> + The biographers, who, under the reigns of Diocletian and Constantine, + composed, or rather compiled, the lives of the Emperors, from Hadrian to + the sons of Carus, are usually mentioned under the names of Ælius + Spartianus, Julius Capitolinus, Ælius Lampridius, Vulcatius Gallicanus, + Trebellius Pollio and Flavius Vopiscus. But there is so much perplexity in + the titles of the MSS., and so many disputes have arisen among the critics + (see Fabricius, Biblioth. Latin. l. iii. c. 6) concerning their number, + their names, and their respective property, that for the most part I have + quoted them without distinction, under the general and well-known title of + the <i>Augustan History</i>. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="link2H_PREF4"></a> + Preface To The Fourth Volume Of The Original Quarto Edition. + </h2> + <p> + I now discharge my promise, and complete my design, of writing the History + of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, both in the West and the + East. The whole period extends from the age of Trajan and the Antonines, + to the taking of Constantinople by Mahomet the Second; and includes a + review of the Crusades, and the state of Rome during the middle ages. + Since the publication of the first volume, twelve years have elapsed; + twelve years, according to my wish, “of health, of leisure, and of + perseverance.” I may now congratulate my deliverance from a long and + laborious service, and my satisfaction will be pure and perfect, if the + public favor should be extended to the conclusion of my work. + </p> + <p> + It was my first intention to have collected, under one view, the numerous + authors, of every age and language, from whom I have derived the materials + of this history; and I am still convinced that the apparent ostentation + would be more than compensated by real use. If I have renounced this idea, + if I have declined an undertaking which had obtained the approbation of a + master-artist,<a href="#linknote-1.4" name="linknoteref-1.4" + id="linknoteref-1.4">4</a> my excuse may be found in the extreme difficulty + of assigning a proper measure to such a catalogue. A naked list of names + and editions would not be satisfactory either to myself or my readers: the + characters of the principal Authors of the Roman and Byzantine History + have been occasionally connected with the events which they describe; a + more copious and critical inquiry might indeed deserve, but it would + demand, an elaborate volume, which might swell by degrees into a general + library of historical writers. For the present, I shall content myself + with renewing my serious protestation, that I have always endeavored to + draw from the fountain-head; that my curiosity, as well as a sense of + duty, has always urged me to study the originals; and that, if they have + sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the secondary + evidence, on whose faith a passage or a fact were reduced to depend. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.4" id="linknote-1.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.4">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dr. Robertson’s Preface + to his History of America.] + </p> + <p> + I shall soon revisit the banks of the Lake of Lausanne, a country which I + have known and loved from my early youth. Under a mild government, amidst + a beauteous landscape, in a life of leisure and independence, and among a + people of easy and elegant manners, I have enjoyed, and may again hope to + enjoy, the varied pleasures of retirement and society. But I shall ever + glory in the name and character of an Englishman: I am proud of my birth + in a free and enlightened country; and the approbation of that country is + the best and most honorable reward of my labors. Were I ambitious of any + other Patron than the Public, I would inscribe this work to a Statesman, + who, in a long, a stormy, and at length an unfortunate administration, had + many political opponents, almost without a personal enemy; who has + retained, in his fall from power, many faithful and disinterested friends; + and who, under the pressure of severe infirmity, enjoys the lively vigor + of his mind, and the felicity of his incomparable temper. Lord North will + permit me to express the feelings of friendship in the language of truth: + but even truth and friendship should be silent, if he still dispensed the + favors of the crown. + </p> + <p> + In a remote solitude, vanity may still whisper in my ear, that my readers, + perhaps, may inquire whether, in the conclusion of the present work, I am + now taking an everlasting farewell. They shall hear all that I know + myself, and all that I could reveal to the most intimate friend. The + motives of action or silence are now equally balanced; nor can I + pronounce, in my most secret thoughts, on which side the scale will + preponderate. I cannot dissemble that six quartos must have tried, and may + have exhausted, the indulgence of the Public; that, in the repetition of + similar attempts, a successful Author has much more to lose than he can + hope to gain; that I am now descending into the vale of years; and that + the most respectable of my countrymen, the men whom I aspire to imitate, + have resigned the pen of history about the same period of their lives. Yet + I consider that the annals of ancient and modern times may afford many + rich and interesting subjects; that I am still possessed of health and + leisure; that by the practice of writing, some skill and facility must be + acquired; and that, in the ardent pursuit of truth and knowledge, I am not + conscious of decay. To an active mind, indolence is more painful than + labor; and the first months of my liberty will be occupied and amused in + the excursions of curiosity and taste. By such temptations, I have been + sometimes seduced from the rigid duty even of a pleasing and voluntary + task: but my time will now be my own; and in the use or abuse of + independence, I shall no longer fear my own reproaches or those of my + friends. I am fairly entitled to a year of jubilee: next summer and the + following winter will rapidly pass away; and experience only can determine + whether I shall still prefer the freedom and variety of study to the + design and composition of a regular work, which animates, while it + confines, the daily application of the Author. + </p> + <p> + Caprice and accident may influence my choice; but the dexterity of + self-love will contrive to applaud either active industry or philosophic + repose. + </p> + <p> + D<small>OWNING</small> S<small>TREET</small>, <i>May</i> 1, 1788. + </p> + <p> + P. S. I shall embrace this opportunity of introducing two <i>verbal</i> + remarks, which have not conveniently offered themselves to my notice. 1. + As often as I use the definitions of <i>beyond</i> the Alps, the Rhine, + the Danube, &c., I generally suppose myself at Rome, and afterwards + at Constantinople; without observing whether this relative geography may + agree with the local, but variable, situation of the reader, or the + historian. 2. In proper names of foreign, and especially of Oriental + origin, it should be always our aim to express, in our English version, a + faithful copy of the original. But this rule, which is founded on a just + regard to uniformity and truth, must often be relaxed; and the exceptions + will be limited or enlarged by the custom of the language and the taste + of the interpreter. Our alphabets may be often defective; a harsh sound, + an uncouth spelling, might offend the ear or the eye of our countrymen; + and some words, notoriously corrupt, are fixed, and, as it were, + naturalized in the vulgar tongue. The prophet <i>Mohammed</i> can no + longer be stripped of the famous, though improper, appellation of + Mahomet: the well-known cities of Aleppo, Damascus, and Cairo, would + almost be lost in the strange descriptions of <i>Haleb, Demashk</i>, and + <i>Al Cahira:</i> the titles and offices of the Ottoman empire are + fashioned by the practice of three hundred years; and we are pleased to + blend the three Chinese monosyllables, <i>Con-fû-tzee</i>, in the + respectable name of Confucius, or even to adopt the Portuguese corruption + of Mandarin. But I would vary the use of Zoroaster and <i>Zerdusht</i>, + as I drew my information from Greece or Persia: since our connection with + India, the genuine <i>Timour</i> is restored to the throne of Tamerlane: + our most correct writers have retrenched the <i>Al</i>, the superfluous + article, from the Koran; and we escape an ambiguous termination, by + adopting <i>Moslem</i> instead of Musulman, in the plural number. In + these, and in a thousand examples, the shades of distinction are often + minute; and I can feel, where I cannot explain, the motives of my choice. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap01.1"></a> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines—Part + I. + </h2> + <h3> + Introduction. + </h3> +<p class="letter"> + The Extent And Military Force Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines. +</p> + <p> + In the second century of the Christian Æra, the empire of Rome + comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilized portion + of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by + ancient renown and disciplined valor. The gentle but powerful influence of + laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their + peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and + luxury. The image of a free constitution was preserved with decent + reverence: the Roman senate appeared to possess the sovereign authority, + and devolved on the emperors all the executive powers of government. + During a happy period of more than fourscore years, the public + administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, + Hadrian, and the two Antonines. It is the design of this, and of the two + succeeding chapters, to describe the prosperous condition of their empire; + and afterwards, from the death of Marcus Antoninus, to deduce the most + important circumstances of its decline and fall; a revolution which will + ever be remembered, and is still felt by the nations of the earth. + </p> + <p> + The principal conquests of the Romans were achieved under the republic; + and the emperors, for the most part, were satisfied with preserving those + dominions which had been acquired by the policy of the senate, the active + emulations of the consuls, and the martial enthusiasm of the people. The + seven first centuries were filled with a rapid succession of triumphs; but + it was reserved for Augustus to relinquish the ambitious design of + subduing the whole earth, and to introduce a spirit of moderation into the + public councils. Inclined to peace by his temper and situation, it was + easy for him to discover that Rome, in her present exalted situation, had + much less to hope than to fear from the chance of arms; and that, in the + prosecution of remote wars, the undertaking became every day more + difficult, the event more doubtful, and the possession more precarious, + and less beneficial. The experience of Augustus added weight to these + salutary reflections, and effectually convinced him that, by the prudent + vigor of his counsels, it would be easy to secure every concession which + the safety or the dignity of Rome might require from the most formidable + barbarians. Instead of exposing his person and his legions to the arrows + of the Parthians, he obtained, by an honorable treaty, the restitution of + the standards and prisoners which had been taken in the defeat of Crassus. + <a href="#linknote-1.1a" name="linknoteref-1.1a" id="linknoteref-1.1a">1a</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.1a" id="linknote-1.1a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.1a">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, (l. liv. p. + 736,) with the annotations of Reimar, who has collected all that Roman + vanity has left upon the subject. The marble of Ancyra, on which Augustus + recorded his own exploits, asserted that <i>he compelled</i> the Parthians to + restore the ensigns of Crassus.] + </p> + <p> + His generals, in the early part of his reign, attempted the reduction of + Ethiopia and Arabia Felix. They marched near a thousand miles to the south + of the tropic; but the heat of the climate soon repelled the invaders, and + protected the un-warlike natives of those sequestered regions. <a + href="#linknote-1.2c" name="linknoteref-1.2c" id="linknoteref-1.2c">2c</a> The + northern countries of Europe scarcely deserved the expense and labor of + conquest. The forests and morasses of Germany were filled with a hardy + race of barbarians, who despised life when it was separated from freedom; + and though, on the first attack, they seemed to yield to the weight of the + Roman power, they soon, by a signal act of despair, regained their + independence, and reminded Augustus of the vicissitude of fortune. <a + href="#linknote-1.3a" name="linknoteref-1.3a" id="linknoteref-1.3a">3a</a> On + the death of that emperor, his testament was publicly read in the senate. + He bequeathed, as a valuable legacy to his successors, the advice of + confining the empire within those limits which nature seemed to have + placed as its permanent bulwarks and boundaries: on the west, the Atlantic + Ocean; the Rhine and Danube on the north; the Euphrates on the east; and + towards the south, the sandy deserts of Arabia and Africa. <a + href="#linknote-1.4a" name="linknoteref-1.4a" id="linknoteref-1.4a">4a</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.2c" id="linknote-1.2c"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2c (<a href="#linknoteref-1.2c">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, (l. xvi. p. 780,) + Pliny the elder, (Hist. Natur. l. vi. c. 32, 35, [28, 29,]) and Dion + Cassius, (l. liii. p. 723, and l. liv. p. 734,) have left us very curious + details concerning these wars. The Romans made themselves masters of + Mariaba, or Merab, a city of Arabia Felix, well known to the Orientals. + (See Abulfeda and the Nubian geography, p. 52) They were arrived within + three days’ journey of the spice country, the rich object of their + invasion. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + Note: It is this city of Merab that the Arabs say was the residence of + Belkis, queen of Saba, who desired to see Solomon. A dam, by which the + waters collected in its neighborhood were kept back, having been swept + away, the sudden inundation destroyed this city, of which, nevertheless, + vestiges remain. It bordered on a country called Adramout, where a + particular aromatic plant grows: it is for this reason that we real in + the history of the Roman expedition, that they were arrived within three + days’ journey of the spice country.—G. Compare <i>Malte-Brun, + Geogr</i>. Eng. trans. vol. ii. p. 215. The period of this flood has been + copiously discussed by Reiske, (<i>Program. de vetustâ Epochâ Arabum, + rupturâ cataractæ Merabensis</i>.) Add. Johannsen, <i>Hist. Yemanæ</i>, + p. 282. Bonn, 1828; and see Gibbon, note 16. to Chap. L.—M. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + Note: Two, according to Strabo. The detailed account of Strabo makes the + invaders fail before Marsuabæ this cannot be the same place as Mariaba. + Ukert observes, that Ælius Gallus would not have failed for want of water + before Mariaba. (See M. Guizot’s note above.) “Either, therefore, they + were different places, or Strabo is mistaken.” (Ukert, <i>Geographie der + Griechen und Römer</i>, vol. i. p. 181.) Strabo, indeed, mentions Mariaba + distinct from Marsuabæ. Gibbon has followed Pliny in reckoning Mariaba + among the conquests of Gallus. There can be little doubt that he is wrong, + as Gallus did not approach the capital of Sabæa. Compare the note of the + Oxford editor of Strabo.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.3a" id="linknote-1.3a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3a (<a href="#linknoteref-1.3a">return</a>)<br/> [ By the slaughter of Varus + and his three legions. See the first book of the Annals of Tacitus. + Sueton. in August. c. 23, and Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 117, &c. + Augustus did not receive the melancholy news with all the temper and + firmness that might have been expected from his character.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.4a" id="linknote-1.4a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4a (<a href="#linknoteref-1.4a">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. l. ii. Dion + Cassius, l. lvi. p. 833, and the speech of Augustus himself, in Julian’s + Cæsars. It receives great light from the learned notes of his French + translator, M. Spanheim.] + </p> + <p> + Happily for the repose of mankind, the moderate system recommended by the + wisdom of Augustus, was adopted by the fears and vices of his immediate + successors. Engaged in the pursuit of pleasure, or in the exercise of + tyranny, the first Cæsars seldom showed themselves to the armies, or to + the provinces; nor were they disposed to suffer, that those triumphs which + <i>their</i> indolence neglected, should be usurped by the conduct and valor of + their lieutenants. The military fame of a subject was considered as an + insolent invasion of the Imperial prerogative; and it became the duty, as + well as interest, of every Roman general, to guard the frontiers intrusted + to his care, without aspiring to conquests which might have proved no less + fatal to himself than to the vanquished barbarians. <a href="#linknote-1.5" + name="linknoteref-1.5" id="linknoteref-1.5">5</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.5" id="linknote-1.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Germanicus, Suetonius + Paulinus, and Agricola were checked and recalled in the course of their + victories. Corbulo was put to death. Military merit, as it is admirably + expressed by Tacitus, was, in the strictest sense of the word, <i>imperatoria + virtus</i>.] + </p> + <p> + The only accession which the Roman empire received, during the first + century of the Christian Æra, was the province of Britain. In this single + instance, the successors of Cæsar and Augustus were persuaded to follow + the example of the former, rather than the precept of the latter. The + proximity of its situation to the coast of Gaul seemed to invite their + arms; the pleasing though doubtful intelligence of a pearl fishery + attracted their avarice; <a href="#linknote-1.6" name="linknoteref-1.6" + id="linknoteref-1.6">6</a> and as Britain was viewed in the light of a + distinct and insulated world, the conquest scarcely formed any exception + to the general system of continental measures. After a war of about forty + years, undertaken by the most stupid, <a href="#linknote-1.7" + name="linknoteref-1.7" id="linknoteref-1.7">7</a> maintained by the most + dissolute, and terminated by the most timid of all the emperors, the far + greater part of the island submitted to the Roman yoke. <a + href="#linknote-1.8" name="linknoteref-1.8" id="linknoteref-1.8">8</a> The + various tribes of Britain possessed valor without conduct, and the love of + freedom without the spirit of union. They took up arms with savage + fierceness; they laid them down, or turned them against each other, with + wild inconsistency; and while they fought singly, they were successively + subdued. Neither the fortitude of Caractacus, nor the despair of Boadicea, + nor the fanaticism of the Druids, could avert the slavery of their + country, or resist the steady progress of the Imperial generals, who + maintained the national glory, when the throne was disgraced by the + weakest, or the most vicious of mankind. At the very time when Domitian, + confined to his palace, felt the terrors which he inspired, his legions, + under the command of the virtuous Agricola, defeated the collected force + of the Caledonians, at the foot of the Grampian Hills; and his fleets, + venturing to explore an unknown and dangerous navigation, displayed the + Roman arms round every part of the island. The conquest of Britain was + considered as already achieved; and it was the design of Agricola to + complete and insure his success, by the easy reduction of Ireland, for + which, in his opinion, one legion and a few auxiliaries were sufficient. + <a href="#linknote-1.9" name="linknoteref-1.9" id="linknoteref-1.9">9</a> The + western isle might be improved into a valuable possession, and the Britons + would wear their chains with the less reluctance, if the prospect and + example of freedom were on every side removed from before their eyes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.6" id="linknote-1.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar himself conceals + that ignoble motive; but it is mentioned by Suetonius, c. 47. The British + pearls proved, however, of little value, on account of their dark and + livid color. Tacitus observes, with reason, (in Agricola, c. 12,) that it + was an inherent defect. “Ego facilius crediderim, naturam margaritis + deesse quam nobis avaritiam.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.7" id="linknote-1.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Claudius, Nero, and + Domitian. A hope is expressed by Pomponius Mela, l. iii. c. 6, (he wrote + under Claudius,) that, by the success of the Roman arms, the island and + its savage inhabitants would soon be better known. It is amusing enough to + peruse such passages in the midst of London.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.8" id="linknote-1.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.8">return</a>)<br/> [ See the admirable + abridgment given by Tacitus, in the life of Agricola, and copiously, + though perhaps not completely, illustrated by our own antiquarians, Camden + and Horsley.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.9" id="linknote-1.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.9">return</a>)<br/> [ The Irish writers, jealous + of their national honor, are extremely provoked on this occasion, both + with Tacitus and with Agricola.] + </p> + <p> + But the superior merit of Agricola soon occasioned his removal from the + government of Britain; and forever disappointed this rational, though + extensive scheme of conquest. Before his departure, the prudent general + had provided for security as well as for dominion. He had observed, that + the island is almost divided into two unequal parts by the opposite gulfs, + or, as they are now called, the Friths of Scotland. Across the narrow + interval of about forty miles, he had drawn a line of military stations, + which was afterwards fortified, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, by a turf + rampart, erected on foundations of stone. <a href="#linknote-1.10" + name="linknoteref-1.10" id="linknoteref-1.10">10</a> This wall of Antoninus, + at a small distance beyond the modern cities of Edinburgh and Glasgow, was + fixed as the limit of the Roman province. The native Caledonians + preserved, in the northern extremity of the island, their wild + independence, for which they were not less indebted to their poverty than + to their valor. Their incursions were frequently repelled and chastised; + but their country was never subdued. <a href="#linknote-1.11" + name="linknoteref-1.11" id="linknoteref-1.11">11</a> The masters of the + fairest and most wealthy climates of the globe turned with contempt from + gloomy hills, assailed by the winter tempest, from lakes concealed in a + blue mist, and from cold and lonely heaths, over which the deer of the + forest were chased by a troop of naked barbarians. <a href="#linknote-1.12" + name="linknoteref-1.12" id="linknoteref-1.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.10" id="linknote-1.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.10">return</a>)<br/> [ See Horsley’s Britannia + Romana, l. i. c. 10. Note: Agricola fortified the line from Dumbarton to + Edinburgh, consequently within Scotland. The emperor Hadrian, during his + residence in Britain, about the year 121, caused a rampart of earth to be + raised between Newcastle and Carlisle. Antoninus Pius, having gained new + victories over the Caledonians, by the ability of his general, Lollius, + Urbicus, caused a new rampart of earth to be constructed between Edinburgh + and Dumbarton. Lastly, Septimius Severus caused a wall of stone to be + built parallel to the rampart of Hadrian, and on the same locality. See + John Warburton’s Vallum Romanum, or the History and Antiquities of the + Roman Wall. London, 1754, 4to.—W. See likewise a good note on the + Roman wall in Lingard’s History of England, vol. i. p. 40, 4to edit—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.11" id="linknote-1.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.11">return</a>)<br/> [ The poet Buchanan + celebrates with elegance and spirit (see his Sylvæ, v.) the unviolated + independence of his native country. But, if the single testimony of + Richard of Cirencester was sufficient to create a Roman province of + Vespasiana to the north of the wall, that independence would be reduced + within very narrow limits.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.12" id="linknote-1.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.12">return</a>)<br/> [ See Appian (in Proœm.) + and the uniform imagery of Ossian’s Poems, which, according to every + hypothesis, were composed by a native Caledonian.] + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of the Roman frontiers, and such the maxims of Imperial + policy, from the death of Augustus to the accession of Trajan. That + virtuous and active prince had received the education of a soldier, and + possessed the talents of a general. <a href="#linknote-1.13" + name="linknoteref-1.13" id="linknoteref-1.13">13</a> The peaceful system of + his predecessors was interrupted by scenes of war and conquest; and the + legions, after a long interval, beheld a military emperor at their head. + The first exploits of Trajan were against the Dacians, the most warlike of + men, who dwelt beyond the Danube, and who, during the reign of Domitian, + had insulted, with impunity, the Majesty of Rome. <a href="#linknote-1.14" + name="linknoteref-1.14" id="linknoteref-1.14">14</a> To the strength and + fierceness of barbarians they added a contempt for life, which was derived + from a warm persuasion of the immortality and transmigration of the soul. + <a href="#linknote-1.15" name="linknoteref-1.15" id="linknoteref-1.15">15</a> + Decebalus, the Dacian king, approved himself a rival not unworthy of + Trajan; nor did he despair of his own and the public fortune, till, by the + confession of his enemies, he had exhausted every resource both of valor + and policy. <a href="#linknote-1.16" name="linknoteref-1.16" + id="linknoteref-1.16">16</a> This memorable war, with a very short + suspension of hostilities, lasted five years; and as the emperor could + exert, without control, the whole force of the state, it was terminated by + an absolute submission of the barbarians. <a href="#linknote-1.17" + name="linknoteref-1.17" id="linknoteref-1.17">17</a> The new province of + Dacia, which formed a second exception to the precept of Augustus, was + about thirteen hundred miles in circumference. Its natural boundaries were + the Niester, the Teyss or Tibiscus, the Lower Danube, and the Euxine Sea. + The vestiges of a military road may still be traced from the banks of the + Danube to the neighborhood of Bender, a place famous in modern history, + and the actual frontier of the Turkish and Russian empires. <a + href="#linknote-1.18" name="linknoteref-1.18" id="linknoteref-1.18">18</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.13" id="linknote-1.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.13">return</a>)<br/> [ See Pliny’s Panegyric, + which seems founded on facts.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.14" id="linknote-1.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxvii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.15" id="linknote-1.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodotus, l. iv. c. 94. + Julian in the Cæsars, with Spanheims observations.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.16" id="linknote-1.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Epist. viii. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.17" id="linknote-1.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxviii. + p. 1123, 1131. Julian in Cæsaribus Eutropius, viii. 2, 6. Aurelius Victor + in Epitome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.18" id="linknote-1.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.18">return</a>)<br/> [ See a Memoir of M. + d’Anville, on the Province of Dacia, in the Academie des Inscriptions, + tom. xxviii. p. 444—468.] + </p> + <p> + Trajan was ambitious of fame; and as long as mankind shall continue to + bestow more liberal applause on their destroyers than on their + benefactors, the thirst of military glory will ever be the vice of the + most exalted characters. The praises of Alexander, transmitted by a + succession of poets and historians, had kindled a dangerous emulation in + the mind of Trajan. Like him, the Roman emperor undertook an expedition + against the nations of the East; but he lamented with a sigh, that his + advanced age scarcely left him any hopes of equalling the renown of the + son of Philip. <a href="#linknote-1.19" name="linknoteref-1.19" + id="linknoteref-1.19">19</a> Yet the success of Trajan, however transient, + was rapid and specious. The degenerate Parthians, broken by intestine + discord, fled before his arms. He descended the River Tigris in triumph, + from the mountains of Armenia to the Persian Gulf. He enjoyed the honor of + being the first, as he was the last, of the Roman generals, who ever + navigated that remote sea. His fleets ravaged the coast of Arabia; and + Trajan vainly flattered himself that he was approaching towards the + confines of India. <a href="#linknote-1.20" name="linknoteref-1.20" + id="linknoteref-1.20">20</a> Every day the astonished senate received the + intelligence of new names and new nations, that acknowledged his sway. + They were informed that the kings of Bosphorus, Colchos, Iberia, Albania, + Osrhoene, and even the Parthian monarch himself, had accepted their + diadems from the hands of the emperor; that the independent tribes of the + Median and Carduchian hills had implored his protection; and that the rich + countries of Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria, were reduced into the + state of provinces. <a href="#linknote-1.21" name="linknoteref-1.21" + id="linknoteref-1.21">21</a> But the death of Trajan soon clouded the + splendid prospect; and it was justly to be dreaded, that so many distant + nations would throw off the unaccustomed yoke, when they were no longer + restrained by the powerful hand which had imposed it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.19" id="linknote-1.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Trajan’s sentiments are + represented in a very just and lively manner in the Cæsars of Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.20" id="linknote-1.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius and Sextus + Rufus have endeavored to perpetuate the illusion. See a very sensible + dissertation of M. Freret in the Académie des Inscriptions, tom. xxi. p. + 55.] <a name="linknote-1.21" id="linknote-1.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.21">return</a>)<br/> [Dion Cassius, l. lxviii.; + and the Abbreviators.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap01.2"></a> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + It was an ancient tradition, that when the Capitol was founded by one of + the Roman kings, the god Terminus (who presided over boundaries, and was + represented, according to the fashion of that age, by a large stone) + alone, among all the inferior deities, refused to yield his place to + Jupiter himself. A favorable inference was drawn from his obstinacy, which + was interpreted by the augurs as a sure presage that the boundaries of the + Roman power would never recede. <a href="#linknote-1.22" + name="linknoteref-1.22" id="linknoteref-1.22">22</a> During many ages, the + prediction, as it is usual, contributed to its own accomplishment. But + though Terminus had resisted the Majesty of Jupiter, he submitted to the + authority of the emperor Hadrian. <a href="#linknote-1.23" + name="linknoteref-1.23" id="linknoteref-1.23">23</a> The resignation of all + the eastern conquests of Trajan was the first measure of his reign. He + restored to the Parthians the election of an independent sovereign; + withdrew the Roman garrisons from the provinces of Armenia, Mesopotamia, + and Assyria; and, in compliance with the precept of Augustus, once more + established the Euphrates as the frontier of the empire. <a + href="#linknote-1.24" name="linknoteref-1.24" id="linknoteref-1.24">24</a> + Censure, which arraigns the public actions and the private motives of + princes, has ascribed to envy, a conduct which might be attributed to the + prudence and moderation of Hadrian. The various character of that emperor, + capable, by turns, of the meanest and the most generous sentiments, may + afford some color to the suspicion. It was, however, scarcely in his power + to place the superiority of his predecessor in a more conspicuous light, + than by thus confessing himself unequal to the task of defending the + conquests of Trajan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.22" id="linknote-1.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Ovid. Fast. l. ii. ver. + 667. See Livy, and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, under the reign of + Tarquin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.23" id="linknote-1.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.23">return</a>)<br/> [ St. Augustin is highly + delighted with the proof of the weakness of Terminus, and the vanity of + the Augurs. See De Civitate Dei, iv. 29. * Note: The turn of Gibbon’s + sentence is Augustin’s: “Plus Hadrianum regem hominum, quam regem Deorum + timuisse videatur.”—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.24" id="linknote-1.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.24">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Augustan History, + p. 5, Jerome’s Chronicle, and all the Epitomizers. It is somewhat + surprising, that this memorable event should be omitted by Dion, or rather + by Xiphilin.] + </p> + <p> + The martial and ambitious spirit of Trajan formed a very singular contrast + with the moderation of his successor. The restless activity of Hadrian was + not less remarkable when compared with the gentle repose of Antoninus + Pius. The life of the former was almost a perpetual journey; and as he + possessed the various talents of the soldier, the statesman, and the + scholar, he gratified his curiosity in the discharge of his duty. + </p> + <p> + Careless of the difference of seasons and of climates, he marched on foot, + and bare-headed, over the snows of Caledonia, and the sultry plains of the + Upper Egypt; nor was there a province of the empire which, in the course + of his reign, was not honored with the presence of the monarch. <a + href="#linknote-1.25" name="linknoteref-1.25" id="linknoteref-1.25">25</a> But + the tranquil life of Antoninus Pius was spent in the bosom of Italy, and, + during the twenty-three years that he directed the public administration, + the longest journeys of that amiable prince extended no farther than from + his palace in Rome to the retirement of his Lanuvian villa. <a + href="#linknote-1.26" name="linknoteref-1.26" id="linknoteref-1.26">26</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.25" id="linknote-1.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxix. p. 1158. + Hist. August. p. 5, 8. If all our historians were lost, medals, + inscriptions, and other monuments, would be sufficient to record the + travels of Hadrian. Note: The journeys of Hadrian are traced in a note on + Solvet’s translation of Hegewisch, Essai sur l’Epoque de Histoire Romaine + la plus heureuse pour Genre Humain Paris, 1834, p. 123.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.26" id="linknote-1.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.26">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Augustan History + and the Epitomes.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this difference in their personal conduct, the general + system of Augustus was equally adopted and uniformly pursued by Hadrian + and by the two Antonines. They persisted in the design of maintaining the + dignity of the empire, without attempting to enlarge its limits. By every + honorable expedient they invited the friendship of the barbarians; and + endeavored to convince mankind that the Roman power, raised above the + temptation of conquest, was actuated only by the love of order and + justice. During a long period of forty-three years, their virtuous labors + were crowned with success; and if we except a few slight hostilities, that + served to exercise the legions of the frontier, the reigns of Hadrian and + Antoninus Pius offer the fair prospect of universal peace. <a + href="#linknote-1.27" name="linknoteref-1.27" id="linknoteref-1.27">27</a> The + Roman name was revered among the most remote nations of the earth. The + fiercest barbarians frequently submitted their differences to the + arbitration of the emperor; and we are informed by a contemporary + historian that he had seen ambassadors who were refused the honor which + they came to solicit of being admitted into the rank of subjects. <a + href="#linknote-1.28" name="linknoteref-1.28" id="linknoteref-1.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.27" id="linknote-1.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.27">return</a>)<br/> [ We must, however, + remember, that in the time of Hadrian, a rebellion of the Jews raged with + religious fury, though only in a single province. Pausanias (l. viii. c. + 43) mentions two necessary and successful wars, conducted by the generals + of Pius: 1st. Against the wandering Moors, who were driven into the + solitudes of Atlas. 2d. Against the Brigantes of Britain, who had invaded + the Roman province. Both these wars (with several other hostilities) are + mentioned in the Augustan History, p. 19.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.28" id="linknote-1.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Appian of Alexandria, in + the preface to his History of the Roman Wars.] + </p> + <p> + The terror of the Roman arms added weight and dignity to the moderation of + the emperors. They preserved peace by a constant preparation for war; and + while justice regulated their conduct, they announced to the nations on + their confines, that they were as little disposed to endure, as to offer + an injury. The military strength, which it had been sufficient for Hadrian + and the elder Antoninus to display, was exerted against the Parthians and + the Germans by the emperor Marcus. The hostilities of the barbarians + provoked the resentment of that philosophic monarch, and, in the + prosecution of a just defence, Marcus and his generals obtained many + signal victories, both on the Euphrates and on the Danube. <a + href="#linknote-1.29" name="linknoteref-1.29" id="linknoteref-1.29">29</a> The + military establishment of the Roman empire, which thus assured either its + tranquillity or success, will now become the proper and important object + of our attention. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.29" id="linknote-1.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxi. Hist. + August. in Marco. The Parthian victories gave birth to a crowd of + contemptible historians, whose memory has been rescued from oblivion and + exposed to ridicule, in a very lively piece of criticism of Lucian.] + </p> + <p> + In the purer ages of the commonwealth, the use of arms was reserved for + those ranks of citizens who had a country to love, a property to defend, + and some share in enacting those laws, which it was their interest as well + as duty to maintain. But in proportion as the public freedom was lost in + extent of conquest, war was gradually improved into an art, and degraded + into a trade. <a href="#linknote-1.30" name="linknoteref-1.30" + id="linknoteref-1.30">30</a> The legions themselves, even at the time when + they were recruited in the most distant provinces, were supposed to + consist of Roman citizens. That distinction was generally considered, + either as a legal qualification or as a proper recompense for the soldier; + but a more serious regard was paid to the essential merit of age, + strength, and military stature. <a href="#linknote-1.31" + name="linknoteref-1.31" id="linknoteref-1.31">31</a> In all levies, a just + preference was given to the climates of the North over those of the South: + the race of men born to the exercise of arms was sought for in the country + rather than in cities; and it was very reasonably presumed, that the hardy + occupations of smiths, carpenters, and huntsmen, would supply more vigor + and resolution than the sedentary trades which are employed in the service + of luxury. <a href="#linknote-1.32" name="linknoteref-1.32" id="linknoteref-1.32">32</a> + After every qualification of property had been laid aside, the armies of + the Roman emperors were still commanded, for the most part, by officers of + liberal birth and education; but the common soldiers, like the mercenary + troops of modern Europe, were drawn from the meanest, and very frequently + from the most profligate, of mankind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.30" id="linknote-1.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.30">return</a>)<br/> [ The poorest rank of + soldiers possessed above forty pounds sterling, (Dionys. Halicarn. iv. + 17,) a very high qualification at a time when money was so scarce, that an + ounce of silver was equivalent to seventy pounds weight of brass. The + populace, excluded by the ancient constitution, were indiscriminately + admitted by Marius. See Sallust. de Bell. Jugurth. c. 91. * Note: On the + uncertainty of all these estimates, and the difficulty of fixing the + relative value of brass and silver, compare Niebuhr, vol. i. p. 473, &c. + Eng. trans. p. 452. According to Niebuhr, the relative disproportion in + value, between the two metals, arose, in a great degree from the abundance + of brass or copper.—M. Compare also Dureau ‘de la Malle Economie + Politique des Romains especially L. l. c. ix.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.31" id="linknote-1.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar formed his legion + Alauda of Gauls and strangers; but it was during the license of civil war; + and after the victory, he gave them the freedom of the city for their + reward.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.32" id="linknote-1.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.32">return</a>)<br/> [ See Vegetius, de Re + Militari, l. i. c. 2—7.] + </p> + <p> + That public virtue, which among the ancients was denominated patriotism, + is derived from a strong sense of our own interest in the preservation and + prosperity of the free government of which we are members. Such a + sentiment, which had rendered the legions of the republic almost + invincible, could make but a very feeble impression on the mercenary + servants of a despotic prince; and it became necessary to supply that + defect by other motives, of a different, but not less forcible nature—honor + and religion. The peasant, or mechanic, imbibed the useful prejudice that + he was advanced to the more dignified profession of arms, in which his + rank and reputation would depend on his own valor; and that, although the + prowess of a private soldier must often escape the notice of fame, his own + behavior might sometimes confer glory or disgrace on the company, the + legion, or even the army, to whose honors he was associated. On his first + entrance into the service, an oath was administered to him with every + circumstance of solemnity. He promised never to desert his standard, to + submit his own will to the commands of his leaders, and to sacrifice his + life for the safety of the emperor and the empire. <a href="#linknote-1.33" + name="linknoteref-1.33" id="linknoteref-1.33">33</a> The attachment of the + Roman troops to their standards was inspired by the united influence of + religion and of honor. The golden eagle, which glittered in the front of + the legion, was the object of their fondest devotion; nor was it esteemed + less impious than it was ignominious, to abandon that sacred ensign in the + hour of danger. <a href="#linknote-1.34" name="linknoteref-1.34" + id="linknoteref-1.34">34</a> These motives, which derived their strength + from the imagination, were enforced by fears and hopes of a more + substantial kind. Regular pay, occasional donatives, and a stated + recompense, after the appointed time of service, alleviated the hardships + of the military life, <a href="#linknote-1.35" name="linknoteref-1.35" + id="linknoteref-1.35">35</a> whilst, on the other hand, it was impossible + for cowardice or disobedience to escape the severest punishment. The + centurions were authorized to chastise with blows, the generals had a + right to punish with death; and it was an inflexible maxim of Roman + discipline, that a good soldier should dread his officers far more than + the enemy. From such laudable arts did the valor of the Imperial troops + receive a degree of firmness and docility unattainable by the impetuous + and irregular passions of barbarians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.33" id="linknote-1.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.33">return</a>)<br/> [ The oath of service and + fidelity to the emperor was annually renewed by the troops on the first of + January.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.34" id="linknote-1.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacitus calls the Roman + eagles, Bellorum Deos. They were placed in a chapel in the camp, and with + the other deities received the religious worship of the troops. * Note: + See also Dio. Cass. xl. c. 18. —M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.35" id="linknote-1.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.35">return</a>)<br/> [ See Gronovius de Pecunia + vetere, l. iii. p. 120, &c. The emperor Domitian raised the annual + stipend of the legionaries to twelve pieces of gold, which, in his time, + was equivalent to about ten of our guineas. This pay, somewhat higher than + our own, had been, and was afterwards, gradually increased, according to + the progress of wealth and military government. After twenty years’ + service, the veteran received three thousand denarii, (about one hundred + pounds sterling,) or a proportionable allowance of land. The pay and + advantages of the guards were, in general, about double those of the + legions.] + </p> + <p> + And yet so sensible were the Romans of the imperfection of valor without + skill and practice, that, in their language, the name of an army was + borrowed from the word which signified exercise. <a href="#linknote-1.36" + name="linknoteref-1.36" id="linknoteref-1.36">36</a> Military exercises were + the important and unremitted object of their discipline. The recruits and + young soldiers were constantly trained, both in the morning and in the + evening, nor was age or knowledge allowed to excuse the veterans from the + daily repetition of what they had completely learnt. Large sheds were + erected in the winter-quarters of the troops, that their useful labors + might not receive any interruption from the most tempestuous weather; and + it was carefully observed, that the arms destined to this imitation of + war, should be of double the weight which was required in real action. <a + href="#linknote-1.37" name="linknoteref-1.37" id="linknoteref-1.37">37</a> It is + not the purpose of this work to enter into any minute description of the + Roman exercises. We shall only remark, that they comprehended whatever + could add strength to the body, activity to the limbs, or grace to the + motions. The soldiers were diligently instructed to march, to run, to + leap, to swim, to carry heavy burdens, to handle every species of arms + that was used either for offence or for defence, either in distant + engagement or in a closer onset; to form a variety of evolutions; and to + move to the sound of flutes in the Pyrrhic or martial dance. <a + href="#linknote-1.38" name="linknoteref-1.38" id="linknoteref-1.38">38</a> In + the midst of peace, the Roman troops familiarized themselves with the + practice of war; and it is prettily remarked by an ancient historian who + had fought against them, that the effusion of blood was the only + circumstance which distinguished a field of battle from a field of + exercise. <a href="#linknote-1.39" name="linknoteref-1.39" id="linknoteref-1.39">39</a> + It was the policy of the ablest generals, and even of the emperors + themselves, to encourage these military studies by their presence and + example; and we are informed that Hadrian, as well as Trajan, frequently + condescended to instruct the unexperienced soldiers, to reward the + diligent, and sometimes to dispute with them the prize of superior + strength or dexterity. <a href="#linknote-1.40" name="linknoteref-1.40" + id="linknoteref-1.40">40</a> Under the reigns of those princes, the science + of tactics was cultivated with success; and as long as the empire retained + any vigor, their military instructions were respected as the most perfect + model of Roman discipline. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.36" id="linknote-1.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.36">return</a>)<br/> [ <i>Exercitus ab exercitando</i>, + Varro de Lingua Latina, l. iv. Cicero in Tusculan. l. ii. 37. 15. There is + room for a very interesting work, which should lay open the connection + between the languages and manners of nations. * Note I am not aware of the + existence, at present, of such a work; but the profound observations of + the late William von Humboldt, in the introduction to his posthumously + published Essay on the Language of the Island of Java, (uber die + Kawi-sprache, Berlin, 1836,) may cause regret that this task was not + completed by that accomplished and universal scholar.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.37" id="linknote-1.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Vegatius, l. ii. and the + rest of his first book.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.38" id="linknote-1.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.38">return</a>)<br/> [ The Pyrrhic dance is + extremely well illustrated by M. le Beau, in the Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xxxv. p. 262, &c. That learned academician, in a + series of memoirs, has collected all the passages of the ancients that + relate to the Roman legion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.39" id="linknote-1.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. de Bell. Judaico, + l. iii. c. 5. We are indebted to this Jew for some very curious details of + Roman discipline.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.40" id="linknote-1.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Panegyr. c. 13. + Life of Hadrian, in the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + Nine centuries of war had gradually introduced into the service many + alterations and improvements. The legions, as they are described by + Polybius, <a href="#linknote-1.41" name="linknoteref-1.41" + id="linknoteref-1.41">41</a> in the time of the Punic wars, differed very + materially from those which achieved the victories of Cæsar, or defended + the monarchy of Hadrian and the Antonines. The constitution of the + Imperial legion may be described in a few words. <a href="#linknote-1.42" + name="linknoteref-1.42" id="linknoteref-1.42">42</a> The heavy-armed + infantry, which composed its principal strength, <a href="#linknote-1.43" + name="linknoteref-1.43" id="linknoteref-1.43">43</a> was divided into ten + cohorts, and fifty-five companies, under the orders of a correspondent + number of tribunes and centurions. The first cohort, which always claimed + the post of honor and the custody of the eagle, was formed of eleven + hundred and five soldiers, the most approved for valor and fidelity. The + remaining nine cohorts consisted each of five hundred and fifty-five; and + the whole body of legionary infantry amounted to six thousand one hundred + men. Their arms were uniform, and admirably adapted to the nature of + their service: an open helmet, with a lofty crest; a breastplate, or coat + of mail; greaves on their legs, and an ample buckler on their left arm. + The buckler was of an oblong and concave figure, four feet in length, and + two and a half in breadth, framed of a light wood, covered with a bull’s + hide, and strongly guarded with plates of brass. Besides a lighter spear, + the legionary soldier grasped in his right hand the formidable <i>pilum</i>, a + ponderous javelin, whose utmost length was about six feet, and which was + terminated by a massy triangular point of steel of eighteen inches. <a + href="#linknote-1.44" name="linknoteref-1.44" id="linknoteref-1.44">44</a> This + instrument was indeed much inferior to our modern fire-arms; since it was + exhausted by a single discharge, at the distance of only ten or twelve + paces. Yet when it was launched by a firm and skilful hand, there was not + any cavalry that durst venture within its reach, nor any shield or + corselet that could sustain the impetuosity of its weight. As soon as the + Roman had darted his <i>pilum</i>, he drew his sword, and rushed forwards to + close with the enemy. His sword was a short well-tempered Spanish blade, + that carried a double edge, and was alike suited to the purpose of + striking or of pushing; but the soldier was always instructed to prefer + the latter use of his weapon, as his own body remained less exposed, + whilst he inflicted a more dangerous wound on his adversary. <a + href="#linknote-1.45" name="linknoteref-1.45" id="linknoteref-1.45">45</a> The + legion was usually drawn up eight deep; and the regular distance of three + feet was left between the files as well as ranks. <a href="#linknote-1.46" + name="linknoteref-1.46" id="linknoteref-1.46">46</a> A body of troops, + habituated to preserve this open order, in a long front and a rapid + charge, found themselves prepared to execute every disposition which the + circumstances of war, or the skill of their leader, might suggest. The + soldier possessed a free space for his arms and motions, and sufficient + intervals were allowed, through which seasonable reinforcements might be + introduced to the relief of the exhausted combatants. <a + href="#linknote-1.47" name="linknoteref-1.47" id="linknoteref-1.47">47</a> The + tactics of the Greeks and Macedonians were formed on very different + principles. The strength of the phalanx depended on sixteen ranks of long + pikes, wedged together in the closest array. <a href="#linknote-1.48" + name="linknoteref-1.48" id="linknoteref-1.48">48</a> But it was soon + discovered by reflection, as well as by the event, that the strength of + the phalanx was unable to contend with the activity of the legion. <a + href="#linknote-1.49" name="linknoteref-1.49" id="linknoteref-1.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.41" id="linknote-1.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.41">return</a>)<br/> [ See an admirable + digression on the Roman discipline, in the sixth book of his History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.42" id="linknote-1.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Vegetius de Re Militari, + l. ii. c. 4, &c. Considerable part of his very perplexed abridgment + was taken from the regulations of Trajan and Hadrian; and the legion, as + he describes it, cannot suit any other age of the Roman empire.] <a + name="linknote-1.43" id="linknote-1.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.43">return</a>)<br/> [Vegetius de Re Militari, + l. ii. c. 1. In the purer age of Cæsar and Cicero, the word miles was + almost confined to the infantry. Under the lower empire, and the times of + chivalry, it was appropriated almost as exclusively to the men at arms, + who fought on horseback.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.44" id="linknote-1.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.44">return</a>)<br/> [ In the time of Polybius + and Dionysius of Halicarnassus, (l. v. c. 45,) the steel point of the + pilum seems to have been much longer. In the time of Vegetius, it was + reduced to a foot, or even nine inches. I have chosen a medium.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.45" id="linknote-1.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.45">return</a>)<br/> [ For the legionary arms, + see Lipsius de Militia Romana, l. iii. c. 2—7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.46" id="linknote-1.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.46">return</a>)<br/> [ See the beautiful + comparison of Virgil, Georgic ii. v. 279.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.47" id="linknote-1.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.47">return</a>)<br/> [ M. Guichard, Memoires + Militaires, tom. i. c. 4, and Nouveaux Memoires, tom. i. p. 293—311, + has treated the subject like a scholar and an officer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.48" id="linknote-1.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.48">return</a>)<br/> [ See Arrian’s Tactics. + With the true partiality of a Greek, Arrian rather chose to describe the + phalanx, of which he had read, than the legions which he had commanded.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.49" id="linknote-1.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Polyb. l. xvii. (xviii. + 9.)] + </p> + <p> + The cavalry, without which the force of the legion would have remained + imperfect, was divided into ten troops or squadrons; the first, as the + companion of the first cohort, consisted of a hundred and thirty-two men; + whilst each of the other nine amounted only to sixty-six. The entire + establishment formed a regiment, if we may use the modern expression, of + seven hundred and twenty-six horse, naturally connected with its + respective legion, but occasionally separated to act in the line, and to + compose a part of the wings of the army. <a href="#linknote-1.50" + name="linknoteref-1.50" id="linknoteref-1.50">50</a> The cavalry of the + emperors was no longer composed, like that of the ancient republic, of the + noblest youths of Rome and Italy, who, by performing their military + service on horseback, prepared themselves for the offices of senator and + consul; and solicited, by deeds of valor, the future suffrages of their + countrymen. <a href="#linknote-1.51" name="linknoteref-1.51" + id="linknoteref-1.51">51</a> Since the alteration of manners and government, + the most wealthy of the equestrian order were engaged in the + administration of justice, and of the revenue; <a href="#linknote-1.52" + name="linknoteref-1.52" id="linknoteref-1.52">52</a> and whenever they + embraced the profession of arms, they were immediately intrusted with a + troop of horse, or a cohort of foot. <a href="#linknote-1.53" + name="linknoteref-1.53" id="linknoteref-1.53">53</a> Trajan and Hadrian formed + their cavalry from the same provinces, and the same class of their + subjects, which recruited the ranks of the legion. The horses were bred, + for the most part, in Spain or Cappadocia. The Roman troopers despised the + complete armor with which the cavalry of the East was encumbered. <i>Their</i> + more useful arms consisted in a helmet, an oblong shield, light boots, and + a coat of mail. A javelin, and a long broad sword, were their principal + weapons of offence. The use of lances and of iron maces they seem to have + borrowed from the barbarians. <a href="#linknote-1.54" name="linknoteref-1.54" + id="linknoteref-1.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.50" id="linknote-1.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Veget. de Re Militari, l. + ii. c. 6. His positive testimony, which might be supported by + circumstantial evidence, ought surely to silence those critics who refuse + the Imperial legion its proper body of cavalry. Note: See also Joseph. B. + J. iii. vi. 2.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.51" id="linknote-1.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.51">return</a>)<br/> [ See Livy almost + throughout, particularly xlii. 61.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.52" id="linknote-1.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. + xxxiii. 2. The true sense of that very curious passage was first + discovered and illustrated by M. de Beaufort, Republique Romaine, l. ii. + c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.53" id="linknote-1.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.53">return</a>)<br/> [ As in the instance of + Horace and Agricola. This appears to have been a defect in the Roman + discipline; which Hadrian endeavored to remedy by ascertaining the legal + age of a tribune. * Note: These details are not altogether accurate. + Although, in the latter days of the republic, and under the first + emperors, the young Roman nobles obtained the command of a squadron or a + cohort with greater facility than in the former times, they never obtained + it without passing through a tolerably long military service. Usually they + served first in the prætorian cohort, which was intrusted with the guard + of the general: they were received into the companionship (contubernium) + of some superior officer, and were there formed for duty. Thus Julius + Cæsar, though sprung from a great family, served first as contubernalis + under the prætor, M. Thermus, and later under Servilius the Isaurian. + (Suet. Jul. 2, 5. Plut. in Par. p. 516. Ed. Froben.) The example of + Horace, which Gibbon adduces to prove that young knights were made + tribunes immediately on entering the service, proves nothing. In the first + place, Horace was not a knight; he was the son of a freedman of Venusia, + in Apulia, who exercised the humble office of coactor exauctionum, + (collector of payments at auctions.) (Sat. i. vi. 45, or 86.) Moreover, + when the poet was made tribune, Brutus, whose army was nearly entirely + composed of Orientals, gave this title to all the Romans of consideration + who joined him. The emperors were still less difficult in their choice; + the number of tribunes was augmented; the title and honors were conferred + on persons whom they wished to attack to the court. Augustus conferred on + the sons of senators, sometimes the tribunate, sometimes the command of a + squadron. Claudius gave to the knights who entered into the service, first + the command of a cohort of auxiliaries, later that of a squadron, and at + length, for the first time, the tribunate. (Suet in Claud. with the notes + of Ernesti.) The abuses that arose caused by the edict of Hadrian, which + fixed the age at which that honor could be attained. (Spart. in Had. &c.) + This edict was subsequently obeyed; for the emperor Valerian, in a letter + addressed to Mulvius Gallinnus, prætorian præfect, excuses himself for + having violated it in favor of the young Probus afterwards emperor, on + whom he had conferred the tribunate at an earlier age on account of his + rare talents. (Vopisc. in Prob. iv.)—W. and G. Agricola, though + already invested with the title of tribune, was contubernalis in Britain + with Suetonius Paulinus. Tac. Agr. v.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.54" id="linknote-1.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.54">return</a>)<br/> [ See Arrian’s Tactics.] + </p> + <p> + The safety and honor of the empire was principally intrusted to the + legions, but the policy of Rome condescended to adopt every useful + instrument of war. Considerable levies were regularly made among the + provincials, who had not yet deserved the honorable distinction of Romans. + Many dependent princes and communities, dispersed round the frontiers, + were permitted, for a while, to hold their freedom and security by the + tenure of military service. <a href="#linknote-1.55" name="linknoteref-1.55" + id="linknoteref-1.55">55</a> Even select troops of hostile barbarians were + frequently compelled or persuaded to consume their dangerous valor in + remote climates, and for the benefit of the state. <a href="#linknote-1.56" + name="linknoteref-1.56" id="linknoteref-1.56">56</a> All these were included + under the general name of auxiliaries; and howsoever they might vary + according to the difference of times and circumstances, their numbers were + seldom much inferior to those of the legions themselves. <a + href="#linknote-1.57" name="linknoteref-1.57" id="linknoteref-1.57">57</a> Among + the auxiliaries, the bravest and most faithful bands were placed under the + command of præfects and centurions, and severely trained in the arts of + Roman discipline; but the far greater part retained those arms, to which + the nature of their country, or their early habits of life, more + peculiarly adapted them. By this institution, each legion, to whom a + certain proportion of auxiliaries was allotted, contained within itself + every species of lighter troops, and of missile weapons; and was capable + of encountering every nation, with the advantages of its respective arms + and discipline. <a href="#linknote-1.58" name="linknoteref-1.58" + id="linknoteref-1.58">58</a> Nor was the legion destitute of what, in modern + language, would be styled a train of artillery. It consisted in ten + military engines of the largest, and fifty-five of a smaller size; but all + of which, either in an oblique or horizontal manner, discharged stones and + darts with irresistible violence. <a href="#linknote-1.59" + name="linknoteref-1.59" id="linknoteref-1.59">59</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.55" id="linknote-1.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Such, in particular, was + the state of the Batavians. Tacit. Germania, c. 29.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.56" id="linknote-1.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Marcus Antoninus obliged + the vanquished Quadi and Marcomanni to supply him with a large body of + troops, which he immediately sent into Britain. Dion Cassius, l. lxxi. (c. + 16.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.57" id="linknote-1.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 5. + Those who fix a regular proportion of as many foot, and twice as many + horse, confound the auxiliaries of the emperors with the Italian allies of + the republic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.58" id="linknote-1.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Vegetius, ii. 2. Arrian, + in his order of march and battle against the Alani.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.59" id="linknote-1.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.59">return</a>)<br/> [ The subject of the + ancient machines is treated with great knowledge and ingenuity by the + Chevalier Folard, (Polybe, tom. ii. p. 233-290.) He prefers them in many + respects to our modern cannon and mortars. We may observe, that the use of + them in the field gradually became more prevalent, in proportion as + personal valor and military skill declined with the Roman empire. When men + were no longer found, their place was supplied by machines. See Vegetius, + ii. 25. Arrian.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap01.3"></a> + Chapter I: The Extent Of The Empire In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The camp of a Roman legion presented the appearance of a fortified city. + <a href="#linknote-1.60" name="linknoteref-1.60" id="linknoteref-1.60">60</a> As + soon as the space was marked out, the pioneers carefully levelled the + ground, and removed every impediment that might interrupt its perfect + regularity. Its form was an exact quadrangle; and we may calculate, that a + square of about seven hundred yards was sufficient for the encampment of + twenty thousand Romans; though a similar number of our own troops would + expose to the enemy a front of more than treble that extent. In the midst + of the camp, the prætorium, or general’s quarters, rose above the others; + the cavalry, the infantry, and the auxiliaries occupied their respective + stations; the streets were broad and perfectly straight, and a vacant + space of two hundred feet was left on all sides between the tents and the + rampart. The rampart itself was usually twelve feet high, armed with a + line of strong and intricate palisades, and defended by a ditch of twelve + feet in depth as well as in breadth. This important labor was performed by + the hands of the legionaries themselves; to whom the use of the spade and + the pickaxe was no less familiar than that of the sword or <i>pilum</i>. Active + valor may often be the present of nature; but such patient diligence can + be the fruit only of habit and discipline. <a href="#linknote-1.61" + name="linknoteref-1.61" id="linknoteref-1.61">61</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.60" id="linknote-1.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Vegetius finishes his + second book, and the description of the legion, with the following + emphatic words:—“Universa quæ in quoque belli genere necessaria + esse creduntur, secum legio debet ubique portare, ut in quovis loco + fixerit castra, armatam faciat civitatem.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.61" id="linknote-1.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.61">return</a>)<br/> [ For the Roman + Castrametation, see Polybius, l. vi. with Lipsius de Militia Romana, + Joseph. de Bell. Jud. l. iii. c. 5. Vegetius, i. 21—25, iii. 9, and + Memoires de Guichard, tom. i. c. 1.] + </p> + <p> + Whenever the trumpet gave the signal of departure, the camp was almost + instantly broke up, and the troops fell into their ranks without delay or + confusion. Besides their arms, which the legionaries scarcely considered + as an encumbrance, they were laden with their kitchen furniture, the + instruments of fortification, and the provision of many days. <a + href="#linknote-1.62" name="linknoteref-1.62" id="linknoteref-1.62">62</a> Under + this weight, which would oppress the delicacy of a modern soldier, they + were trained by a regular step to advance, in about six hours, near twenty + miles. <a href="#linknote-1.63" name="linknoteref-1.63" id="linknoteref-1.63">63</a> + On the appearance of an enemy, they threw aside their baggage, and by easy + and rapid evolutions converted the column of march into an order of + battle. <a href="#linknote-1.64" name="linknoteref-1.64" id="linknoteref-1.64">64</a> + The slingers and archers skirmished in the front; the auxiliaries formed + the first line, and were seconded or sustained by the strength of the + legions; the cavalry covered the flanks, and the military engines were + placed in the rear. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.62" id="linknote-1.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero in Tusculan. ii. + 37, [15.]—Joseph. de Bell. Jud. l. iii. 5, Frontinus, iv. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.63" id="linknote-1.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Vegetius, i. 9. See + Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xxv. p. 187.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.64" id="linknote-1.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.64">return</a>)<br/> [ See those evolutions + admirably well explained by M. Guichard Nouveaux Memoires, tom. i. p. 141—234.] + </p> + <p> + Such were the arts of war, by which the Roman emperors defended their + extensive conquests, and preserved a military spirit, at a time when every + other virtue was oppressed by luxury and despotism. If, in the + consideration of their armies, we pass from their discipline to their + numbers, we shall not find it easy to define them with any tolerable + accuracy. We may compute, however, that the legion, which was itself a + body of six thousand eight hundred and thirty-one Romans, might, with its + attendant auxiliaries, amount to about twelve thousand five hundred men. + The peace establishment of Hadrian and his successors was composed of no + less than thirty of these formidable brigades; and most probably formed a + standing force of three hundred and seventy-five thousand men. Instead of + being confined within the walls of fortified cities, which the Romans + considered as the refuge of weakness or pusillanimity, the legions were + encamped on the banks of the great rivers, and along the frontiers of the + barbarians. As their stations, for the most part, remained fixed and + permanent, we may venture to describe the distribution of the troops. + Three legions were sufficient for Britain. The principal strength lay upon + the Rhine and Danube, and consisted of sixteen legions, in the following + proportions: two in the Lower, and three in the Upper Germany; one in + Rhætia, one in Noricum, four in Pannonia, three in Mæsia, and two in + Dacia. The defence of the Euphrates was intrusted to eight legions, six of + whom were planted in Syria, and the other two in Cappadocia. With regard + to Egypt, Africa, and Spain, as they were far removed from any important + scene of war, a single legion maintained the domestic tranquillity of each + of those great provinces. Even Italy was not left destitute of a military + force. Above twenty thousand chosen soldiers, distinguished by the titles + of City Cohorts and Prætorian Guards, watched over the safety of the + monarch and the capital. As the authors of almost every revolution that + distracted the empire, the Prætorians will, very soon, and very loudly, + demand our attention; but, in their arms and institutions, we cannot find + any circumstance which discriminated them from the legions, unless it were + a more splendid appearance, and a less rigid discipline. <a + href="#linknote-1.65" name="linknoteref-1.65" id="linknoteref-1.65">65</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.65" id="linknote-1.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacitus (Annal. iv. 5) + has given us a state of the legions under Tiberius; and Dion Cassius (l. + lv. p. 794) under Alexander Severus. I have endeavored to fix on the + proper medium between these two periods. See likewise Lipsius de + Magnitudine Romana, l. i. c. 4, 5.] + </p> + <p> + The navy maintained by the emperors might seem inadequate to their + greatness; but it was fully sufficient for every useful purpose of + government. The ambition of the Romans was confined to the land; nor was + that warlike people ever actuated by the enterprising spirit which had + prompted the navigators of Tyre, of Carthage, and even of Marseilles, to + enlarge the bounds of the world, and to explore the most remote coasts of + the ocean. To the Romans the ocean remained an object of terror rather + than of curiosity; <a href="#linknote-1.66" name="linknoteref-1.66" + id="linknoteref-1.66">66</a> the whole extent of the Mediterranean, after + the destruction of Carthage, and the extirpation of the pirates, was + included within their provinces. The policy of the emperors was directed + only to preserve the peaceful dominion of that sea, and to protect the + commerce of their subjects. With these moderate views, Augustus stationed + two permanent fleets in the most convenient ports of Italy, the one at + Ravenna, on the Adriatic, the other at Misenum, in the Bay of Naples. + Experience seems at length to have convinced the ancients, that as soon as + their galleys exceeded two, or at the most three ranks of oars, they were + suited rather for vain pomp than for real service. Augustus himself, in + the victory of Actium, had seen the superiority of his own light frigates + (they were called Liburnians) over the lofty but unwieldy castles of his + rival. <a href="#linknote-1.67" name="linknoteref-1.67" id="linknoteref-1.67">67</a> + Of these Liburnians he composed the two fleets of Ravenna and Misenum, + destined to command, the one the eastern, the other the western division + of the Mediterranean; and to each of the squadrons he attached a body of + several thousand marines. Besides these two ports, which may be considered + as the principal seats of the Roman navy, a very considerable force was + stationed at Frejus, on the coast of Provence, and the Euxine was guarded + by forty ships, and three thousand soldiers. To all these we add the fleet + which preserved the communication between Gaul and Britain, and a great + number of vessels constantly maintained on the Rhine and Danube, to harass + the country, or to intercept the passage of the barbarians. <a + href="#linknote-1.68" name="linknoteref-1.68" id="linknoteref-1.68">68</a> If we + review this general state of the Imperial forces; of the cavalry as well + as infantry; of the legions, the auxiliaries, the guards, and the navy; + the most liberal computation will not allow us to fix the entire + establishment by sea and by land at more than four hundred and fifty + thousand men: a military power, which, however formidable it may seem, was + equalled by a monarch of the last century, whose kingdom was confined + within a single province of the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-1.69" + name="linknoteref-1.69" id="linknoteref-1.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.66" id="linknote-1.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.66">return</a>)<br/> [ The Romans tried to + disguise, by the pretence of religious awe their ignorance and terror. See + Tacit. Germania, c. 34.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.67" id="linknote-1.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Plutarch, in Marc. Anton. + [c. 67.] And yet, if we may credit Orosius, these monstrous castles were + no more than ten feet above the water, vi. 19.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.68" id="linknote-1.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.68">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lipsius, de Magnitud. + Rom. l. i. c. 5. The sixteen last chapters of Vegetius relate to naval + affairs.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.69" id="linknote-1.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Voltaire, Siecle de Louis + XIV. c. 29. It must, however, be remembered, that France still feels that + extraordinary effort.] + </p> + <p> + We have attempted to explain the spirit which moderated, and the strength + which supported, the power of Hadrian and the Antonines. We shall now + endeavor, with clearness and precision, to describe the provinces once + united under their sway, but, at present, divided into so many independent + and hostile states. Spain, the western extremity of the empire, of Europe, + and of the ancient world, has, in every age, invariably preserved the same + natural limits; the Pyrenæan Mountains, the Mediterranean, and the + Atlantic Ocean. That great peninsula, at present so unequally divided + between two sovereigns, was distributed by Augustus into three provinces, + Lusitania, Bætica, and Tarraconensis. The kingdom of Portugal now fills + the place of the warlike country of the Lusitanians; and the loss + sustained by the former on the side of the East, is compensated by an + accession of territory towards the North. The confines of Grenada and + Andalusia correspond with those of ancient Bætica. The remainder of + Spain, Gallicia, and the Asturias, Biscay, and Navarre, Leon, and the two + Castiles, Murcia, Valencia, Catalonia, and Arragon, all contributed to + form the third and most considerable of the Roman governments, which, from + the name of its capital, was styled the province of Tarragona. <a + href="#linknote-1.70" name="linknoteref-1.70" id="linknoteref-1.70">70</a> Of + the native barbarians, the Celtiberians were the most powerful, as the + Cantabrians and Asturians proved the most obstinate. Confident in the + strength of their mountains, they were the last who submitted to the arms + of Rome, and the first who threw off the yoke of the Arabs. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.70" id="linknote-1.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.70">return</a>)<br/> [ See Strabo, l. ii. It is + natural enough to suppose, that Arragon is derived from Tarraconensis, and + several moderns who have written in Latin use those words as synonymous. + It is, however, certain, that the Arragon, a little stream which falls + from the Pyrenees into the Ebro, first gave its name to a country, and + gradually to a kingdom. See d’Anville, Geographie du Moyen Age, p. 181.] + </p> + <p> + Ancient Gaul, as it contained the whole country between the Pyrenees, the + Alps, the Rhine, and the Ocean, was of greater extent than modern France. + To the dominions of that powerful monarchy, with its recent acquisitions + of Alsace and Lorraine, we must add the duchy of Savoy, the cantons of + Switzerland, the four electorates of the Rhine, and the territories of + Liege, Luxemburgh, Hainault, Flanders, and Brabant. When Augustus gave + laws to the conquests of his father, he introduced a division of Gaul, + equally adapted to the progress of the legions, to the course of the + rivers, and to the principal national distinctions, which had comprehended + above a hundred independent states. <a href="#linknote-1.71" + name="linknoteref-1.71" id="linknoteref-1.71">71</a> The sea-coast of the + Mediterranean, Languedoc, Provence, and Dauphiné, received their + provincial appellation from the colony of Narbonne. The government of + Aquitaine was extended from the Pyrenees to the Loire. The country between + the Loire and the Seine was styled the Celtic Gaul, and soon borrowed a + new denomination from the celebrated colony of Lugdunum, or Lyons. The + Belgic lay beyond the Seine, and in more ancient times had been bounded + only by the Rhine; but a little before the age of Cæsar, the Germans, + abusing their superiority of valor, had occupied a considerable portion of + the Belgic territory. The Roman conquerors very eagerly embraced so + flattering a circumstance, and the Gallic frontier of the Rhine, from + Basil to Leyden, received the pompous names of the Upper and the Lower + Germany. <a href="#linknote-1.72" name="linknoteref-1.72" id="linknoteref-1.72">72</a> + Such, under the reign of the Antonines, were the six provinces of Gaul; + the Narbonnese, Aquitaine, the Celtic, or Lyonnese, the Belgic, and the + two Germanies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.71" id="linknote-1.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.71">return</a>)<br/> [ One hundred and fifteen + <i>cities</i> appear in the Notitia of Gaul; and it is well known that this + appellation was applied not only to the capital town, but to the whole + territory of each state. But Plutarch and Appian increase the number of + tribes to three or four hundred.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.72" id="linknote-1.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.72">return</a>)<br/> [ D’Anville. Notice de + l’Ancienne Gaule.] + </p> + <p> + We have already had occasion to mention the conquest of Britain, and to + fix the boundary of the Roman Province in this island. It comprehended all + England, Wales, and the Lowlands of Scotland, as far as the Friths of + Dumbarton and Edinburgh. Before Britain lost her freedom, the country was + irregularly divided between thirty tribes of barbarians, of whom the most + considerable were the Belgæ in the West, the Brigantes in the North, the + Silures in South Wales, and the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk. <a + href="#linknote-1.73" name="linknoteref-1.73" id="linknoteref-1.73">73</a> As + far as we can either trace or credit the resemblance of manners and + language, Spain, Gaul, and Britain were peopled by the same hardy race of + savages. Before they yielded to the Roman arms, they often disputed the + field, and often renewed the contest. After their submission, they + constituted the western division of the European provinces, which extended + from the columns of Hercules to the wall of Antoninus, and from the mouth + of the Tagus to the sources of the Rhine and Danube. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.73" id="linknote-1.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Whittaker’s History of + Manchester, vol. i. c. 3.] Before the Roman conquest, the country which is + now called Lombardy, was not considered as a part of Italy. It had been + occupied by a powerful colony of Gauls, who, settling themselves along the + banks of the Po, from Piedmont to Romagna, carried their arms and diffused + their name from the Alps to the Apennine. + </p> + <p> + The Ligurians dwelt on the rocky coast which now forms the republic of + Genoa. Venice was yet unborn; but the territories of that state, which lie + to the east of the Adige, were inhabited by the Venetians. <a + href="#linknote-1.74" name="linknoteref-1.74" id="linknoteref-1.74">74</a> The + middle part of the peninsula, that now composes the duchy of Tuscany and + the ecclesiastical state, was the ancient seat of the Etruscans and + Umbrians; to the former of whom Italy was indebted for the first rudiments + of civilized life. <a href="#linknote-1.75" name="linknoteref-1.75" + id="linknoteref-1.75">75</a> The Tyber rolled at the foot of the seven hills + of Rome, and the country of the Sabines, the Latins, and the Volsci, from + that river to the frontiers of Naples, was the theatre of her infant + victories. On that celebrated ground the first consuls deserved triumphs, + their successors adorned villas, and <i>their</i> posterity have erected + convents. <a href="#linknote-1.76" name="linknoteref-1.76" id="linknoteref-1.76">76</a> + Capua and Campania possessed the immediate territory of Naples; the rest + of the kingdom was inhabited by many warlike nations, the Marsi, the + Samnites, the Apulians, and the Lucanians; and the sea-coasts had been + covered by the flourishing colonies of the Greeks. We may remark, that + when Augustus divided Italy into eleven regions, the little province of + Istria was annexed to that seat of Roman sovereignty. <a + href="#linknote-1.77" name="linknoteref-1.77" id="linknoteref-1.77">77</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.74" id="linknote-1.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.74">return</a>)<br/> [ The Italian Veneti, + though often confounded with the Gauls, were more probably of Illyrian + origin. See M. Freret, Mémoires de l’Académie des Inscriptions, tom. + xviii. * Note: Or Liburnian, according to Niebuhr. Vol. i. p. 172.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.75" id="linknote-1.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.75">return</a>)<br/> [ See Maffei Verona + illustrata, l. i. * Note: Add Niebuhr, vol. i., and Otfried Müller, <i>die + Etrusker</i>, which contains much that is known, and much that is conjectured, + about this remarkable people. Also Micali, Storia degli antichi popoli + Italiani. Florence, 1832—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.76" id="linknote-1.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.76">return</a>)<br/> [ The first contrast was + observed by the ancients. See Florus, i. 11. The second must strike every + modern traveller.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.77" id="linknote-1.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. l. + iii.) follows the division of Italy by Augustus.] + </p> + <p> + The European provinces of Rome were protected by the course of the Rhine + and the Danube. The latter of those mighty streams, which rises at the + distance of only thirty miles from the former, flows above thirteen + hundred miles, for the most part to the south-east, collects the tribute + of sixty navigable rivers, and is, at length, through six mouths, received + into the Euxine, which appears scarcely equal to such an accession of + waters. <a href="#linknote-1.78" name="linknoteref-1.78" id="linknoteref-1.78">78</a> + The provinces of the Danube soon acquired the general appellation of + Illyricum, or the Illyrian frontier, <a href="#linknote-1.79" + name="linknoteref-1.79" id="linknoteref-1.79">79</a> and were esteemed the + most warlike of the empire; but they deserve to be more particularly + considered under the names of Rhætia, Noricum, Pannonia, Dalmatia, Dacia, + Mæsia, Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.78" id="linknote-1.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Tournefort, Voyages en + Grece et Asie Mineure, lettre xviii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.79" id="linknote-1.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.79">return</a>)<br/> [ The name of Illyricum + originally belonged to the sea-coast of the Adriatic, and was gradually + extended by the Romans from the Alps to the Euxine Sea. See Severini + Pannonia, l. i. c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + The province of Rhætia, which soon extinguished the name of the + Vindelicians, extended from the summit of the Alps to the banks of the + Danube; from its source, as far as its conflux with the Inn. The greatest + part of the flat country is subject to the elector of Bavaria; the city of + Augsburg is protected by the constitution of the German empire; the + Grisons are safe in their mountains, and the country of Tirol is ranked + among the numerous provinces of the house of Austria. + </p> + <p> + The wide extent of territory which is included between the Inn, the + Danube, and the Save,—Austria, Styria, Carinthia, Carniola, the + Lower Hungary, and Sclavonia,—was known to the ancients under the + names of Noricum and Pannonia. In their original state of independence, + their fierce inhabitants were intimately connected. Under the Roman + government they were frequently united, and they still remain the + patrimony of a single family. They now contain the residence of a German + prince, who styles himself Emperor of the Romans, and form the centre, as + well as strength, of the Austrian power. It may not be improper to + observe, that if we except Bohemia, Moravia, the northern skirts of + Austria, and a part of Hungary between the Teyss and the Danube, all the + other dominions of the House of Austria were comprised within the limits + of the Roman Empire. + </p> + <p> + Dalmatia, to which the name of Illyricum more properly belonged, was a + long, but narrow tract, between the Save and the Adriatic. The best part + of the sea-coast, which still retains its ancient appellation, is a + province of the Venetian state, and the seat of the little republic of + Ragusa. The inland parts have assumed the Sclavonian names of Croatia and + Bosnia; the former obeys an Austrian governor, the latter a Turkish pacha; + but the whole country is still infested by tribes of barbarians, whose + savage independence irregularly marks the doubtful limit of the Christian + and Mahometan power. <a href="#linknote-1.80" name="linknoteref-1.80" + id="linknoteref-1.80">80</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.80" id="linknote-1.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.80">return</a>)<br/> [ A Venetian traveller, the + Abbate Fortis, has lately given us some account of those very obscure + countries. But the geography and antiquities of the western Illyricum can + be expected only from the munificence of the emperor, its sovereign.] + </p> + <p> + After the Danube had received the waters of the Teyss and the Save, it + acquired, at least among the Greeks, the name of Ister. <a + href="#linknote-1.81" name="linknoteref-1.81" id="linknoteref-1.81">81</a> It + formerly divided Mæsia and Dacia, the latter of which, as we have already + seen, was a conquest of Trajan, and the only province beyond the river. If + we inquire into the present state of those countries, we shall find that, + on the left hand of the Danube, Temeswar and Transylvania have been + annexed, after many revolutions, to the crown of Hungary; whilst the + principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia acknowledge the supremacy of the + Ottoman Porte. On the right hand of the Danube, Mæsia, which, during the + middle ages, was broken into the barbarian kingdoms of Servia and + Bulgaria, is again united in Turkish slavery. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.81" id="linknote-1.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.81">return</a>)<br/> [ The Save rises near the + confines of <i>Istria</i>, and was considered by the more early Greeks as the + principal stream of the Danube.] + </p> + <p> + The appellation of Roumelia, which is still bestowed by the Turks on the + extensive countries of Thrace, Macedonia, and Greece, preserves the memory + of their ancient state under the Roman empire. In the time of the + Antonines, the martial regions of Thrace, from the mountains of Hæmus and + Rhodope, to the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, had assumed the form of a + province. Notwithstanding the change of masters and of religion, the new + city of Rome, founded by Constantine on the banks of the Bosphorus, has + ever since remained the capital of a great monarchy. The kingdom of + Macedonia, which, under the reign of Alexander, gave laws to Asia, derived + more solid advantages from the policy of the two Philips; and with its + dependencies of Epirus and Thessaly, extended from the Ægean to the + Ionian Sea. When we reflect on the fame of Thebes and Argos, of Sparta and + Athens, we can scarcely persuade ourselves, that so many immortal + republics of ancient Greece were lost in a single province of the Roman + empire, which, from the superior influence of the Achæan league, was + usually denominated the province of Achaia. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of Europe under the Roman emperors. The provinces of + Asia, without excepting the transient conquests of Trajan, are all + comprehended within the limits of the Turkish power. But, instead of + following the arbitrary divisions of despotism and ignorance, it will be + safer for us, as well as more agreeable, to observe the indelible + characters of nature. The name of Asia Minor is attributed with some + propriety to the peninsula, which, confined betwixt the Euxine and the + Mediterranean, advances from the Euphrates towards Europe. The most + extensive and flourishing district, westward of Mount Taurus and the River + Halys, was dignified by the Romans with the exclusive title of Asia. The + jurisdiction of that province extended over the ancient monarchies of + Troy, Lydia, and Phrygia, the maritime countries of the Pamphylians, + Lycians, and Carians, and the Grecian colonies of Ionia, which equalled in + arts, though not in arms, the glory of their parent. The kingdoms of + Bithynia and Pontus possessed the northern side of the peninsula from + Constantinople to Trebizond. On the opposite side, the province of Cilicia + was terminated by the mountains of Syria: the inland country, separated + from the Roman Asia by the River Halys, and from Armenia by the Euphrates, + had once formed the independent kingdom of Cappadocia. In this place we + may observe, that the northern shores of the Euxine, beyond Trebizond in + Asia, and beyond the Danube in Europe, acknowledged the sovereignty of the + emperors, and received at their hands either tributary princes or Roman + garrisons. Budzak, Crim Tartary, Circassia, and Mingrelia, are the modern + appellations of those savage countries. <a href="#linknote-1.82" + name="linknoteref-1.82" id="linknoteref-1.82">82</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.82" id="linknote-1.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.82">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Periplus of + Arrian. He examined the coasts of the Euxine, when he was governor of + Cappadocia.] + </p> + <p> + Under the successors of Alexander, Syria was the seat of the Seleucidæ, + who reigned over Upper Asia, till the successful revolt of the Parthians + confined their dominions between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean. When + Syria became subject to the Romans, it formed the eastern frontier of + their empire: nor did that province, in its utmost latitude, know any + other bounds than the mountains of Cappadocia to the north, and towards + the south, the confines of Egypt, and the Red Sea. Phœnicia and Palestine + were sometimes annexed to, and sometimes separated from, the jurisdiction + of Syria. The former of these was a narrow and rocky coast; the latter was + a territory scarcely superior to Wales, either in fertility or extent. <a + href="#linknote-1.821" name="linknoteref-1.821" id="linknoteref-1.821">821</a> + Yet Phœnicia and Palestine will forever live in the memory of mankind; + since America, as well as Europe, has received letters from the one, and + religion from the other. <a href="#linknote-1.83" name="linknoteref-1.83" + id="linknoteref-1.83">83</a> A sandy desert, alike destitute of wood and + water, skirts along the doubtful confine of Syria, from the Euphrates to + the Red Sea. The wandering life of the Arabs was inseparably connected + with their independence; and wherever, on some spots less barren than the + rest, they ventured to for many settled habitations, they soon became + subjects to the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-1.84" name="linknoteref-1.84" + id="linknoteref-1.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.821" id="linknote-1.821"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 821 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.821">return</a>)<br/> [ This comparison is + exaggerated, with the intention, no doubt, of attacking the authority of + the Bible, which boasts of the fertility of Palestine. Gibbon’s only + authorities were that of Strabo (l. xvi. 1104) and the present state of + the country. But Strabo only speaks of the neighborhood of Jerusalem, + which he calls barren and arid to the extent of sixty stadia round the + city: in other parts he gives a favorable testimony to the fertility of + many parts of Palestine: thus he says, “Near Jericho there is a grove of + palms, and a country of a hundred stadia, full of springs, and well + peopled.” Moreover, Strabo had never seen Palestine; he spoke only after + reports, which may be as inaccurate as those according to which he has + composed that description of Germany, in which Gluverius has detected so + many errors. (Gluv. Germ. iii. 1.) Finally, his testimony is contradicted + and refuted by that of other ancient authors, and by medals. Tacitus says, + in speaking of Palestine, “The inhabitants are healthy and robust; the + rains moderate; the soil fertile.” (Hist. v. 6.) Ammianus Macellinus says + also, “The last of the Syrias is Palestine, a country of considerable + extent, abounding in clean and well-cultivated land, and containing some + fine cities, none of which yields to the other; but, as it were, being on + a parallel, are rivals.”—xiv. 8. See also the historian Josephus, + Hist. vi. 1. Procopius of Cæserea, who lived in the sixth century, says + that Chosroes, king of Persia, had a great desire to make himself master + of Palestine, <i>on account of its</i> extraordinary fertility, its opulence, and + the great number of its inhabitants. The Saracens thought the same, and + were afraid that Omar. when he went to Jerusalem, charmed with the + fertility of the soil and the purity of the air, would never return to + Medina. (Ockley, Hist. of Sarac. i. 232.) The importance attached by the + Romans to the conquest of Palestine, and the obstacles they encountered, + prove also the richness and population of the country. Vespasian and Titus + caused medals to be struck with trophies, in which Palestine is + represented by a female under a palm-tree, to signify the richness of he + country, with this legend: <i>Judæa capta</i>. Other medals also indicate this + fertility; for instance, that of Herod holding a bunch of grapes, and that + of the young Agrippa displaying fruit. As to the present state of he + country, one perceives that it is not fair to draw any inference against + its ancient fertility: the disasters through which it has passed, the + government to which it is subject, the disposition of the inhabitants, + explain sufficiently the wild and uncultivated appearance of the land, + where, nevertheless, fertile and cultivated districts are still found, + according to the testimony of travellers; among others, of Shaw, Maundrel, + La Rocque, &c.—G. The Abbé Guénée, in his <i>Lettres de quelques + Juifs à Mons. de Voltaire</i>, has exhausted the subject of the fertility of + Palestine; for Voltaire had likewise indulged in sarcasm on this subject. + Gibbon was assailed on this point, not, indeed, by Mr. Davis, who, he + slyly insinuates, was prevented by his patriotism as a Welshman from + resenting the comparison with Wales, but by other writers. In his + Vindication, he first established the correctness of his measurement of + Palestine, which he estimates as 7600 square English miles, while Wales is + about 7011. As to fertility, he proceeds in the following dexterously + composed and splendid passage: “The emperor Frederick II., the enemy and + the victim of the clergy, is accused of saying, after his return from his + crusade, that the God of the Jews would have despised his promised land, + if he had once seen the fruitful realms of Sicily and Naples.” (See + Giannone, Istor. Civ. del R. di Napoli, ii. 245.) This raillery, which + malice has, perhaps, falsely imputed to Frederick, is inconsistent with + truth and piety; yet it must be confessed that the soil of Palestine does + not contain that inexhaustible, and, as it were, spontaneous principle of + fertility, which, under the most unfavorable circumstances, has covered + with rich harvests the banks of the Nile, the fields of Sicily, or the + plains of Poland. The Jordan is the only navigable river of Palestine: a + considerable part of the narrow space is occupied, or rather lost, in the + <i>Dead Sea</i> whose horrid aspect inspires every sensation of disgust, and + countenances every tale of horror. The districts which border on Arabia + partake of the sandy quality of the adjacent desert. The face of the + country, except the sea-coast, and the valley of the Jordan, is covered + with mountains, which appear, for the most part, as naked and barren + rocks; and in the neighborhood of Jerusalem, there is a real scarcity of + the two elements of earth and water. (See Maundrel’s Travels, p. 65, and + Reland’s Palestin. i. 238, 395.) These disadvantages, which now operate in + their fullest extent, were formerly corrected by the labors of a numerous + people, and the active protection of a wise government. The hills were + clothed with rich beds of artificial mould, the rain was collected in vast + cisterns, a supply of fresh water was conveyed by pipes and aqueducts to + the dry lands. The breed of cattle was encouraged in those parts which + were not adapted for tillage, and almost every spot was compelled to yield + some production for the use of the inhabitants. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + Pater ispe colendi Haud facilem esse viam voluit, primusque par artem + Movit agros; curis acuens mortalia corda, Nec torpere gravi passus sua + Regna veterno. Gibbon, Misc. Works, iv. 540. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + But Gibbon has here eluded the question about the land “flowing with milk + and honey.” He is describing Judæa only, without comprehending Galilee, + or the rich pastures beyond the Jordan, even now proverbial for their + flocks and herds. (See Burckhardt’s Travels, and Hist of Jews, i. 178.) + The following is believed to be a fair statement: “The extraordinary + fertility of the whole country must be taken into the account. No part was + waste; very little was occupied by unprofitable wood; the more fertile + hills were cultivated in artificial terraces, others were hung with + orchards of fruit trees the more rocky and barren districts were covered + with vineyards.” Even in the present day, the wars and misgovernment of + ages have not exhausted the natural richness of the soil. “Galilee,” says + Malte Brun, “would be a paradise were it inhabited by an industrious + people under an enlightened government. No land could be less dependent on + foreign importation; it bore within itself every thing that could be + necessary for the subsistence and comfort of a simple agricultural people. + The climate was healthy, the seasons regular; the former rains, which fell + about October, after the vintage, prepared the ground for the seed; that + latter, which prevailed during March and the beginning of April, made it + grow rapidly. Directly the rains ceased, the grain ripened with still + greater rapidity, and was gathered in before the end of May. The summer + months were dry and very hot, but the nights cool and refreshed by copious + dews. In September, the vintage was gathered. Grain of all kinds, wheat, + barley, millet, zea, and other sorts, grew in abundance; the wheat + commonly yielded thirty for one. Besides the vine and the olive, the + almond, the date, figs of many kinds, the orange, the pomegranate, and + many other fruit trees, flourished in the greatest luxuriance. Great + quantity of honey was collected. The balm-tree, which produced the + opobalsamum, a great object of trade, was probably introduced from Arabia, + in the time of Solomon. It flourished about Jericho and in Gilead.”—Milman’s + Hist. of Jews. i. 177.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.83" id="linknote-1.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.83">return</a>)<br/> [ The progress of religion + is well known. The use of letter was introduced among the savages of + Europe about fifteen hundred years before Christ; and the Europeans + carried them to America about fifteen centuries after the Christian Æra. + But in a period of three thousand years, the Phœnician alphabet received + considerable alterations, as it passed through the hands of the Greeks and + Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.84" id="linknote-1.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, lib. + lxviii. p. 1131.] + </p> + <p> + The geographers of antiquity have frequently hesitated to what portion of + the globe they should ascribe Egypt. <a href="#linknote-1.85" + name="linknoteref-1.85" id="linknoteref-1.85">85</a> By its situation that + celebrated kingdom is included within the immense peninsula of Africa; but + it is accessible only on the side of Asia, whose revolutions, in almost + every period of history, Egypt has humbly obeyed. A Roman præfect was + seated on the splendid throne of the Ptolemies; and the iron sceptre of + the Mamelukes is now in the hands of a Turkish pacha. The Nile flows down + the country, above five hundred miles from the tropic of Cancer to the + Mediterranean, and marks on either side the extent of fertility by the + measure of its inundations. Cyrene, situate towards the west, and along + the sea-coast, was first a Greek colony, afterwards a province of Egypt, + and is now lost in the desert of Barca. <a href="#linknote-1.851" + name="linknoteref-1.851" id="linknoteref-1.851">851</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.85" id="linknote-1.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Ptolemy and Strabo, with + the modern geographers, fix the Isthmus of Suez as the boundary of Asia + and Africa. Dionysius, Mela, Pliny, Sallust, Hirtius, and Solinus, have + preferred for that purpose the western branch of the Nile, or even the + great Catabathmus, or descent, which last would assign to Asia, not only + Egypt, but part of Libya.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.851" id="linknote-1.851"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 851 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.851">return</a>)<br/> [ The French editor has a + long and unnecessary note on the History of Cyrene. For the present state + of that coast and country, the volume of Captain Beechey is full of + interesting details. Egypt, now an independent and improving kingdom, + appears, under the enterprising rule of Mahommed Ali, likely to revenge + its former oppression upon the decrepit power of the Turkish empire.—M.—This + note was written in 1838. The future destiny of Egypt is an important + problem, only to be solved by time. This observation will also apply to + the new French colony in Algiers.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + From Cyrene to the ocean, the coast of Africa extends above fifteen + hundred miles; yet so closely is it pressed between the Mediterranean and + the Sahara, or sandy desert, that its breadth seldom exceeds fourscore or + a hundred miles. The eastern division was considered by the Romans as the + more peculiar and proper province of Africa. Till the arrival of the + Phœnician colonies, that fertile country was inhabited by the Libyans, + the most savage of mankind. Under the immediate jurisdiction of Carthage, + it became the centre of commerce and empire; but the republic of Carthage + is now degenerated into the feeble and disorderly states of Tripoli and + Tunis. The military government of Algiers oppresses the wide extent of + Numidia, as it was once united under Massinissa and Jugurtha; but in the + time of Augustus, the limits of Numidia were contracted; and, at least, + two thirds of the country acquiesced in the name of Mauritania, with the + epithet of Cæsariensis. The genuine Mauritania, or country of the Moors, + which, from the ancient city of Tingi, or Tangier, was distinguished by + the appellation of Tingitana, is represented by the modern kingdom of Fez. + Salle, on the Ocean, so infamous at present for its piratical + depredations, was noticed by the Romans, as the extreme object of their + power, and almost of their geography. A city of their foundation may still + be discovered near Mequinez, the residence of the barbarian whom we + condescend to style the Emperor of Morocco; but it does not appear, that + his more southern dominions, Morocco itself, and Segelmessa, were ever + comprehended within the Roman province. The western parts of Africa are + intersected by the branches of Mount Atlas, a name so idly celebrated by + the fancy of poets; <a href="#linknote-1.86" name="linknoteref-1.86" + id="linknoteref-1.86">86</a> but which is now diffused over the immense + ocean that rolls between the ancient and the new continent. <a + href="#linknote-1.87" name="linknoteref-1.87" id="linknoteref-1.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.86" id="linknote-1.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.86">return</a>)<br/> [ The long range, moderate + height, and gentle declivity of Mount Atlas, (see Shaw’s Travels, p. 5,) + are very unlike a solitary mountain which rears its head into the clouds, + and seems to support the heavens. The peak of Teneriff, on the contrary, + rises a league and a half above the surface of the sea; and, as it was + frequently visited by the Phœnicians, might engage the notice of the + Greek poets. See Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, tom. i. p. 312. Histoire des + Voyages, tom. ii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.87" id="linknote-1.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.87">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Voltaire, tom. xiv. + p. 297, unsupported by either fact or probability, has generously bestowed + the Canary Islands on the Roman empire.] + </p> + <p> + Having now finished the circuit of the Roman empire, we may observe, that + Africa is divided from Spain by a narrow strait of about twelve miles, + through which the Atlantic flows into the Mediterranean. The columns of + Hercules, so famous among the ancients, were two mountains which seemed to + have been torn asunder by some convulsion of the elements; and at the foot + of the European mountain, the fortress of Gibraltar is now seated. The + whole extent of the Mediterranean Sea, its coasts and its islands, were + comprised within the Roman dominion. Of the larger islands, the two + Baleares, which derive their name of Majorca and Minorca from their + respective size, are subject at present, the former to Spain, the latter + to Great Britain. <a href="#linknote-1.871" name="linknoteref-1.871" + id="linknoteref-1.871">871</a> It is easier to deplore the fate, than to + describe the actual condition, of Corsica. <a href="#linknote-1.872" + name="linknoteref-1.872" id="linknoteref-1.872">872</a> Two Italian sovereigns + assume a regal title from Sardinia and Sicily. Crete, or Candia, with + Cyprus, and most of the smaller islands of Greece and Asia, have been + subdued by the Turkish arms, whilst the little rock of Malta defies their + power, and has emerged, under the government of its military Order, into + fame and opulence. <a href="#linknote-1.873" name="linknoteref-1.873" + id="linknoteref-1.873">873</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.871" id="linknote-1.871"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 871 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.871">return</a>)<br/> [ Minorca was lost to + Great Britain in 1782. Ann. Register for that year.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.872" id="linknote-1.872"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 872 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.872">return</a>)<br/> [ The gallant struggles + of the Corsicans for their independence, under Paoli, were brought to a + close in the year 1769. This volume was published in 1776. See Botta, + Storia d’Italia, vol. xiv.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.873" id="linknote-1.873"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 873 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.873">return</a>)<br/> [ Malta, it need scarcely + be said, is now in the possession of the English. We have not, however, + thought it necessary to notice every change in the political state of the + world, since the time of Gibbon.—M] + </p> + <p> + This long enumeration of provinces, whose broken fragments have formed so + many powerful kingdoms, might almost induce us to forgive the vanity or + ignorance of the ancients. Dazzled with the extensive sway, the + irresistible strength, and the real or affected moderation of the + emperors, they permitted themselves to despise, and sometimes to forget, + the outlying countries which had been left in the enjoyment of a barbarous + independence; and they gradually usurped the license of confounding the + Roman monarchy with the globe of the earth. <a href="#linknote-1.88" + name="linknoteref-1.88" id="linknoteref-1.88">88</a> But the temper, as well + as knowledge, of a modern historian, require a more sober and accurate + language. He may impress a juster image of the greatness of Rome, by + observing that the empire was above two thousand miles in breadth, from + the wall of Antoninus and the northern limits of Dacia, to Mount Atlas and + the tropic of Cancer; that it extended in length more than three thousand + miles from the Western Ocean to the Euphrates; that it was situated in the + finest part of the Temperate Zone, between the twenty-fourth and + fifty-sixth degrees of northern latitude; and that it was supposed to + contain above sixteen hundred thousand square miles, for the most part of + fertile and well-cultivated land. <a href="#linknote-1.89" + name="linknoteref-1.89" id="linknoteref-1.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.88" id="linknote-1.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergier, Hist. des Grands + Chemins, l. iii. c. 1, 2, 3, 4, a very useful collection.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-1.89" id="linknote-1.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-1.89">return</a>)<br/> [ See Templeman’s Survey of + the Globe; but I distrust both the Doctor’s learning and his maps.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap02.1"></a> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Of The Union And Internal Prosperity Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The +Antonines. +</p> + <p> + It is not alone by the rapidity, or extent of conquest, that we should + estimate the greatness of Rome. The sovereign of the Russian deserts + commands a larger portion of the globe. In the seventh summer after his + passage of the Hellespont, Alexander erected the Macedonian trophies on + the banks of the Hyphasis. <a href="#linknote-2.1" name="linknoteref-2.1" + id="linknoteref-2.1">1</a> Within less than a century, the irresistible + Zingis, and the Mogul princes of his race, spread their cruel devastations + and transient empire from the Sea of China, to the confines of Egypt and + Germany. <a href="#linknote-2.2" name="linknoteref-2.2" id="linknoteref-2.2">2</a> + But the firm edifice of Roman power was raised and preserved by the wisdom + of ages. The obedient provinces of Trajan and the Antonines were united by + laws, and adorned by arts. They might occasionally suffer from the partial + abuse of delegated authority; but the general principle of government was + wise, simple, and beneficent. They enjoyed the religion of their + ancestors, whilst in civil honors and advantages they were exalted, by + just degrees, to an equality with their conquerors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.1" id="linknote-2.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.1">return</a>)<br/> [ They were erected about + the midway between Lahor and Delhi. The conquests of Alexander in + Hindostan were confined to the Punjab, a country watered by the five great + streams of the Indus. * Note: The Hyphasis is one of the five rivers which + join the Indus or the Sind, after having traversed the province of the + Pendj-ab—a name which in Persian, signifies <i>five rivers</i>. * * * G. + The five rivers were, 1. The Hydaspes, now the Chelum, Behni, or Bedusta, + (<i>Sanscrit</i>, Vitashà, Arrow-swift.) 2. The Acesines, the Chenab, (<i>Sanscrit</i>, + Chandrabhágâ, Moon-gift.) 3. Hydraotes, the Ravey, or Iraoty, (<i>Sanscrit</i>, + Irâvatî.) 4. Hyphasis, the Beyah, (<i>Sanscrit</i>, Vepâsà, Fetterless.) 5. The + Satadru, (<i>Sanscrit</i>, the Hundred Streamed,) the Sutledj, known first to the + Greeks in the time of Ptolemy. Rennel. Vincent, Commerce of Anc. book 2. + Lassen, Pentapotam. Ind. Wilson’s Sanscrit Dict., and the valuable memoir + of Lieut. Burnes, Journal of London Geogr. Society, vol. iii. p. 2, with + the travels of that very able writer. Compare Gibbon’s own note, c. lxv. + note 25.—M substit. for G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.2" id="linknote-2.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.2">return</a>)<br/> [ See M. de Guignes, + Histoire des Huns, l. xv. xvi. and xvii.] + </p> + <p> + I. The policy of the emperors and the senate, as far as it concerned + religion, was happily seconded by the reflections of the enlightened, and + by the habits of the superstitious, part of their subjects. The various + modes of worship, which prevailed in the Roman world, were all considered + by the people, as equally true; by the philosopher, as equally false; and + by the magistrate, as equally useful. And thus toleration produced not + only mutual indulgence, but even religious concord. + </p> + <p> + The superstition of the people was not imbittered by any mixture of + theological rancor; nor was it confined by the chains of any speculative + system. The devout polytheist, though fondly attached to his national + rites, admitted with implicit faith the different religions of the earth. + <a href="#linknote-2.3" name="linknoteref-2.3" id="linknoteref-2.3">3</a> + Fear, gratitude, and curiosity, a dream or an omen, a singular disorder, + or a distant journey, perpetually disposed him to multiply the articles of + his belief, and to enlarge the list of his protectors. The thin texture of + the Pagan mythology was interwoven with various but not discordant + materials. As soon as it was allowed that sages and heroes, who had lived + or who had died for the benefit of their country, were exalted to a state + of power and immortality, it was universally confessed, that they + deserved, if not the adoration, at least the reverence, of all mankind. + The deities of a thousand groves and a thousand streams possessed, in + peace, their local and respective influence; nor could the Romans who + deprecated the wrath of the Tiber, deride the Egyptian who presented his + offering to the beneficent genius of the Nile. The visible powers of + nature, the planets, and the elements were the same throughout the + universe. The invisible governors of the moral world were inevitably cast + in a similar mould of fiction and allegory. Every virtue, and even vice, + acquired its divine representative; every art and profession its patron, + whose attributes, in the most distant ages and countries, were uniformly + derived from the character of their peculiar votaries. A republic of gods + of such opposite tempers and interests required, in every system, the + moderating hand of a supreme magistrate, who, by the progress of knowledge + and flattery, was gradually invested with the sublime perfections of an + Eternal Parent, and an Omnipotent Monarch. <a href="#linknote-2.4" + name="linknoteref-2.4" id="linknoteref-2.4">4</a> Such was the mild spirit + of antiquity, that the nations were less attentive to the difference, than + to the resemblance, of their religious worship. The Greek, the Roman, and + the Barbarian, as they met before their respective altars, easily + persuaded themselves, that under various names, and with various + ceremonies, they adored the same deities. <a href="#linknote-2.5" + name="linknoteref-2.5" id="linknoteref-2.5">5</a> The elegant mythology of + Homer gave a beautiful, and almost a regular form, to the polytheism of + the ancient world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.3" id="linknote-2.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.3">return</a>)<br/> [ There is not any writer + who describes in so lively a manner as Herodotus the true genius of + polytheism. The best commentary may be found in Mr. Hume’s Natural History + of Religion; and the best contrast in Bossuet’s Universal History. Some + obscure traces of an intolerant spirit appear in the conduct of the + Egyptians, (see Juvenal, Sat. xv.;) and the Christians, as well as Jews, + who lived under the Roman empire, formed a very important exception; so + important indeed, that the discussion will require a distinct chapter of + this work. * Note: M. Constant, in his very learned and eloquent work, + “Sur la Religion,” with the two additional volumes, “Du Polytheisme + Romain,” has considered the whole history of polytheism in a tone of + philosophy, which, without subscribing to all his opinions, we may be + permitted to admire. “The boasted tolerance of polytheism did not rest + upon the respect due from society to the freedom of individual opinion. + The polytheistic nations, tolerant as they were towards each other, as + separate states, were not the less ignorant of the eternal principle, the + only basis of enlightened toleration, that every one has a right to + worship God in the manner which seems to him the best. Citizens, on the + contrary, were bound to conform to the religion of the state; they had not + the liberty to adopt a foreign religion, though that religion might be + legally recognized in their own city, for the strangers who were its + votaries.” —Sur la Religion, v. 184. Du. Polyth. Rom. ii. 308. At + this time, the growing religious indifference, and the general + administration of the empire by Romans, who, being strangers, would do no + more than protect, not enlist themselves in the cause of the local + superstitions, had introduced great laxity. But intolerance was clearly + the theory both of the Greek and Roman law. The subject is more fully + considered in another place.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.4" id="linknote-2.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.4">return</a>)<br/> [ The rights, powers, and + pretensions of the sovereign of Olympus are very clearly described in the + xvth book of the Iliad; in the Greek original, I mean; for Mr. Pope, + without perceiving it, has improved the theology of Homer. * Note: There + is a curious coincidence between Gibbon’s expressions and those of the + newly-recovered “De Republica” of Cicero, though the argument is rather + the converse, lib. i. c. 36. “Sive hæc ad utilitatem vitæ constitute + sint a principibus rerum publicarum, ut rex putaretur unus esse in cœlo, + qui nutu, ut ait Homerus, totum Olympum converteret, idemque et rex et + patos haberetur omnium.”—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.5" id="linknote-2.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.5">return</a>)<br/> [ See, for instance, Cæsar + de Bell. Gall. vi. 17. Within a century or two, the Gauls themselves + applied to their gods the names of Mercury, Mars, Apollo, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The philosophers of Greece deduced their morals from the nature of man, + rather than from that of God. They meditated, however, on the Divine + Nature, as a very curious and important speculation; and in the profound + inquiry, they displayed the strength and weakness of the human + understanding. <a href="#linknote-2.6" name="linknoteref-2.6" + id="linknoteref-2.6">6</a> Of the four most celebrated schools, the Stoics + and the Platonists endeavored to reconcile the jaring interests of reason + and piety. They have left us the most sublime proofs of the existence and + perfections of the first cause; but, as it was impossible for them to + conceive the creation of matter, the workman in the Stoic philosophy was + not sufficiently distinguished from the work; whilst, on the contrary, the + spiritual God of Plato and his disciples resembled an idea, rather than a + substance. The opinions of the Academics and Epicureans were of a less + religious cast; but whilst the modest science of the former induced them + to doubt, the positive ignorance of the latter urged them to deny, the + providence of a Supreme Ruler. The spirit of inquiry, prompted by + emulation, and supported by freedom, had divided the public teachers of + philosophy into a variety of contending sects; but the ingenious youth, + who, from every part, resorted to Athens, and the other seats of learning + in the Roman empire, were alike instructed in every school to reject and + to despise the religion of the multitude. How, indeed, was it possible + that a philosopher should accept, as divine truths, the idle tales of the + poets, and the incoherent traditions of antiquity; or that he should + adore, as gods, those imperfect beings whom he must have despised, as men? + Against such unworthy adversaries, Cicero condescended to employ the arms + of reason and eloquence; but the satire of Lucian was a much more + adequate, as well as more efficacious, weapon. We may be well assured, + that a writer, conversant with the world, would never have ventured to + expose the gods of his country to public ridicule, had they not already + been the objects of secret contempt among the polished and enlightened + orders of society. <a href="#linknote-2.7" name="linknoteref-2.7" + id="linknoteref-2.7">7</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.6" id="linknote-2.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.6">return</a>)<br/> [ The admirable work of + Cicero de Natura Deorum is the best clew we have to guide us through the + dark and profound abyss. He represents with candor, and confutes with + subtlety, the opinions of the philosophers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.7" id="linknote-2.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.7">return</a>)<br/> [ I do not pretend to + assert, that, in this irreligious age, the natural terrors of + superstition, dreams, omens, apparitions, &c., had lost their + efficacy.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the fashionable irreligion which prevailed in the age of + the Antonines, both the interest of the priests and the credulity of the + people were sufficiently respected. In their writings and conversation, + the philosophers of antiquity asserted the independent dignity of reason; + but they resigned their actions to the commands of law and of custom. + Viewing, with a smile of pity and indulgence, the various errors of the + vulgar, they diligently practised the ceremonies of their fathers, + devoutly frequented the temples of the gods; and sometimes condescending + to act a part on the theatre of superstition, they concealed the + sentiments of an atheist under the sacerdotal robes. Reasoners of such a + temper were scarcely inclined to wrangle about their respective modes of + faith, or of worship. It was indifferent to them what shape the folly of + the multitude might choose to assume; and they approached with the same + inward contempt, and the same external reverence, the altars of the + Libyan, the Olympian, or the Capitoline Jupiter. <a href="#linknote-2.8" + name="linknoteref-2.8" id="linknoteref-2.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.8" id="linknote-2.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Socrates, Epicurus, + Cicero, and Plutarch always inculcated a decent reverence for the religion + of their own country, and of mankind. The devotion of Epicurus was + assiduous and exemplary. Diogen. Lært. x. 10.] + </p> + <p> + It is not easy to conceive from what motives a spirit of persecution could + introduce itself into the Roman councils. The magistrates could not be + actuated by a blind, though honest bigotry, since the magistrates were + themselves philosophers; and the schools of Athens had given laws to the + senate. They could not be impelled by ambition or avarice, as the temporal + and ecclesiastical powers were united in the same hands. The pontiffs were + chosen among the most illustrious of the senators; and the office of + Supreme Pontiff was constantly exercised by the emperors themselves. They + knew and valued the advantages of religion, as it is connected with civil + government. They encouraged the public festivals which humanize the + manners of the people. They managed the arts of divination as a convenient + instrument of policy; and they respected, as the firmest bond of society, + the useful persuasion, that, either in this or in a future life, the crime + of perjury is most assuredly punished by the avenging gods. <a + href="#linknote-2.9" name="linknoteref-2.9" id="linknoteref-2.9">9</a> But + whilst they acknowledged the general advantages of religion, they were + convinced that the various modes of worship contributed alike to the same + salutary purposes; and that, in every country, the form of superstition, + which had received the sanction of time and experience, was the best + adapted to the climate, and to its inhabitants. Avarice and taste very + frequently despoiled the vanquished nations of the elegant statues of + their gods, and the rich ornaments of their temples; <a + href="#linknote-2.10" name="linknoteref-2.10" id="linknoteref-2.10">10</a> + but, in the exercise of the religion which they derived from their + ancestors, they uniformly experienced the indulgence, and even protection, + of the Roman conquerors. The province of Gaul seems, and indeed only + seems, an exception to this universal toleration. Under the specious + pretext of abolishing human sacrifices, the emperors Tiberius and Claudius + suppressed the dangerous power of the Druids: <a href="#linknote-2.11" + name="linknoteref-2.11" id="linknoteref-2.11">11</a> but the priests + themselves, their gods and their altars, subsisted in peaceful obscurity + till the final destruction of Paganism. <a href="#linknote-2.12" + name="linknoteref-2.12" id="linknoteref-2.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.9" id="linknote-2.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Polybius, l. vi. c. 53, + 54. Juvenal, Sat. xiii. laments that in his time this apprehension had + lost much of its effect.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.10" id="linknote-2.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.10">return</a>)<br/> [ See the fate of + Syracuse, Tarentum, Ambracia, Corinth, &c., the conduct of Verres, in + Cicero, (Actio ii. Orat. 4,) and the usual practice of governors, in the + viiith Satire of Juvenal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.11" id="linknote-2.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Seuton. in Claud.—Plin. + Hist. Nat. xxx. 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.12" id="linknote-2.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Pelloutier, Histoire des + Celtes, tom. vi. p. 230—252.] + </p> + <p> + Rome, the capital of a great monarchy, was incessantly filled with + subjects and strangers from every part of the world, <a + href="#linknote-2.13" name="linknoteref-2.13" id="linknoteref-2.13">13</a> + who all introduced and enjoyed the favorite superstitions of their native + country. <a href="#linknote-2.14" name="linknoteref-2.14" + id="linknoteref-2.14">14</a> Every city in the empire was justified in + maintaining the purity of its ancient ceremonies; and the Roman senate, + using the common privilege, sometimes interposed, to check this inundation + of foreign rites. <a href="#linknote-2.141" name="linknoteref-2.141" + id="linknoteref-2.141">141</a> The Egyptian superstition, of all the most + contemptible and abject, was frequently prohibited: the temples of Serapis + and Isis demolished, and their worshippers banished from Rome and Italy. + <a href="#linknote-2.15" name="linknoteref-2.15" id="linknoteref-2.15">15</a> + But the zeal of fanaticism prevailed over the cold and feeble efforts of + policy. The exiles returned, the proselytes multiplied, the temples were + restored with increasing splendor, and Isis and Serapis at length assumed + their place among the Roman Deities. <a href="#linknote-2.151" + name="linknoteref-2.151" id="linknoteref-2.151">151</a> <a + href="#linknote-2.16" name="linknoteref-2.16" id="linknoteref-2.16">16</a> + Nor was this indulgence a departure from the old maxims of government. In + the purest ages of the commonwealth, Cybele and Æsculapius had been + invited by solemn embassies; <a href="#linknote-2.17" name="linknoteref-2.17" + id="linknoteref-2.17">17</a> and it was customary to tempt the protectors + of besieged cities, by the promise of more distinguished honors than they + possessed in their native country. <a href="#linknote-2.18" + name="linknoteref-2.18" id="linknoteref-2.18">18</a> Rome gradually became + the common temple of her subjects; and the freedom of the city was + bestowed on all the gods of mankind. <a href="#linknote-2.19" + name="linknoteref-2.19" id="linknoteref-2.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.13" id="linknote-2.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Seneca, Consolat. ad + Helviam, p. 74. Edit., Lips.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.14" id="linknote-2.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Dionysius Halicarn. + Antiquitat. Roman. l. ii. (vol. i. p. 275, edit. Reiske.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.141" id="linknote-2.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.141">return</a>)<br/> [ Yet the worship of + foreign gods at Rome was only guarantied to the natives of those countries + from whence they came. The Romans administered the priestly offices only + to the gods of their fathers. Gibbon, throughout the whole preceding + sketch of the opinions of the Romans and their subjects, has shown through + what causes they were free from religious hatred and its consequences. + But, on the other hand the internal state of these religions, the + infidelity and hypocrisy of the upper orders, the indifference towards all + religion, in even the better part of the common people, during the last + days of the republic, and under the Cæsars, and the corrupting principles + of the philosophers, had exercised a very pernicious influence on the + manners, and even on the constitution.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.15" id="linknote-2.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.15">return</a>)<br/> [ In the year of Rome 701, + the temple of Isis and Serapis was demolished by the order of the Senate, + (Dion Cassius, l. xl. p. 252,) and even by the hands of the consul, + (Valerius Maximus, l. 3.) After the death of Cæsar it was restored at the + public expense, (Dion. l. xlvii. p. 501.) When Augustus was in Egypt, he + revered the majesty of Serapis, (Dion, l. li. p. 647;) but in the + Pomærium of Rome, and a mile round it, he prohibited the worship of the + Egyptian gods, (Dion, l. liii. p. 679; l. liv. p. 735.) They remained, + however, very fashionable under his reign (Ovid. de Art. Amand. l. i.) and + that of his successor, till the justice of Tiberius was provoked to some + acts of severity. (See Tacit. Annal. ii. 85. Joseph. Antiquit. l. xviii. + c. 3.) * Note: See, in the pictures from the walls of Pompeii, the + representation of an Isiac temple and worship. Vestiges of Egyptian + worship have been traced in Gaul, and, I am informed, recently in Britain, + in excavations at York.— M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.151" id="linknote-2.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.151">return</a>)<br/> [ Gibbon here blends + into one, two events, distant a hundred and sixty-six years from each + other. It was in the year of Rome 535, that the senate having ordered the + destruction of the temples of Isis and Serapis, the workman would lend his + hand; and the consul, L. Paulus himself (Valer. Max. 1, 3) seized the axe, + to give the first blow. Gibbon attribute this circumstance to the second + demolition, which took place in the year 701 and which he considers as the + first.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.16" id="linknote-2.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian in + Apologetic. c. 6, p. 74. Edit. Havercamp. I am inclined to attribute their + establishment to the devotion of the Flavian family.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.17" id="linknote-2.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.17">return</a>)<br/> [ See Livy, l. xi. + [Suppl.] and xxix.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.18" id="linknote-2.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Macrob. Saturnalia, l. + iii. c. 9. He gives us a form of evocation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.19" id="linknote-2.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Minutius Fælix in + Octavio, p. 54. Arnobius, l. vi. p. 115.] + </p> + <p> + II. The narrow policy of preserving, without any foreign mixture, the pure + blood of the ancient citizens, had checked the fortune, and hastened the + ruin, of Athens and Sparta. The aspiring genius of Rome sacrificed vanity + to ambition, and deemed it more prudent, as well as honorable, to adopt + virtue and merit for her own wheresoever they were found, among slaves or + strangers, enemies or barbarians. <a href="#linknote-2.20" + name="linknoteref-2.20" id="linknoteref-2.20">20</a> During the most + flourishing æra of the Athenian commonwealth, the number of citizens + gradually decreased from about thirty <a href="#linknote-2.21" + name="linknoteref-2.21" id="linknoteref-2.21">21</a> to twenty-one thousand. + <a href="#linknote-2.22" name="linknoteref-2.22" id="linknoteref-2.22">22</a> + If, on the contrary, we study the growth of the Roman republic, we may + discover, that, notwithstanding the incessant demands of wars and + colonies, the citizens, who, in the first census of Servius Tullius, + amounted to no more than eighty-three thousand, were multiplied, before + the commencement of the social war, to the number of four hundred and + sixty-three thousand men, able to bear arms in the service of their + country. <a href="#linknote-2.23" name="linknoteref-2.23" + id="linknoteref-2.23">23</a> When the allies of Rome claimed an equal share + of honors and privileges, the senate indeed preferred the chance of arms + to an ignominious concession. The Samnites and the Lucanians paid the + severe penalty of their rashness; but the rest of the Italian states, as + they successively returned to their duty, were admitted into the bosom of + the republic, <a href="#linknote-2.24" name="linknoteref-2.24" + id="linknoteref-2.24">24</a> and soon contributed to the ruin of public + freedom. Under a democratical government, the citizens exercise the powers + of sovereignty; and those powers will be first abused, and afterwards + lost, if they are committed to an unwieldy multitude. But when the popular + assemblies had been suppressed by the administration of the emperors, the + conquerors were distinguished from the vanquished nations, only as the + first and most honorable order of subjects; and their increase, however + rapid, was no longer exposed to the same dangers. Yet the wisest princes, + who adopted the maxims of Augustus, guarded with the strictest care the + dignity of the Roman name, and diffused the freedom of the city with a + prudent liberality. <a href="#linknote-2.25" name="linknoteref-2.25" + id="linknoteref-2.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.20" id="linknote-2.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 24. + The Orbis Romanus of the learned Spanheim is a complete history of the + progressive admission of Latium, Italy, and the provinces, to the freedom + of Rome. * Note: Democratic states, observes Denina, (delle Revoluz. d’ + Italia, l. ii. c. l.), are most jealous of communication the privileges of + citizenship; monarchies or oligarchies willingly multiply the numbers of + their free subjects. The most remarkable accessions to the strength of + Rome, by the aggregation of conquered and foreign nations, took place + under the regal and patrician—we may add, the Imperial government.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.21" id="linknote-2.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodotus, v. 97. It + should seem, however, that he followed a large and popular estimation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.22" id="linknote-2.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Athenæus, + Deipnosophist. l. vi. p. 272. Edit. Casaubon. Meursius de Fortunâ Atticâ, + c. 4. * Note: On the number of citizens in Athens, compare Bœckh, Public + Economy of Athens, (English Tr.,) p. 45, et seq. Fynes Clinton, Essay in + Fasti Hel lenici, vol. i. 381.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.23" id="linknote-2.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.23">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very accurate + collection of the numbers of each Lustrum in M. de Beaufort, Republique + Romaine, l. iv. c. 4. Note: All these questions are placed in an entirely + new point of view by Niebuhr, (Römische Geschichte, vol. i. p. 464.) He + rejects the census of Servius fullius as unhistoric, (vol. ii. p. 78, et + seq.,) and he establishes the principle that the census comprehended all + the confederate cities which had the right of Isopolity.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.24" id="linknote-2.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Appian. de Bell. Civil. + l. i. Velleius Paterculus, l. ii. c. 15, 16, 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.25" id="linknote-2.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Mæcenas had advised him + to declare, by one edict, all his subjects citizens. But we may justly + suspect that the historian Dion was the author of a counsel so much + adapted to the practice of his own age, and so little to that of + Augustus.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap02.2"></a> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Till the privileges of Romans had been progressively extended to all the + inhabitants of the empire, an important distinction was preserved between + Italy and the provinces. The former was esteemed the centre of public + unity, and the firm basis of the constitution. Italy claimed the birth, or + at least the residence, of the emperors and the senate. <a + href="#linknote-2.26" name="linknoteref-2.26" id="linknoteref-2.26">26</a> + The estates of the Italians were exempt from taxes, their persons from the + arbitrary jurisdiction of governors. Their municipal corporations, formed + after the perfect model of the capital, <a href="#linknote-2.261" + name="linknoteref-2.261" id="linknoteref-2.261">261</a> were intrusted, + under the immediate eye of the supreme power, with the execution of the + laws. From the foot of the Alps to the extremity of Calabria, all the + natives of Italy were born citizens of Rome. Their partial distinctions + were obliterated, and they insensibly coalesced into one great nation, + united by language, manners, and civil institutions, and equal to the + weight of a powerful empire. The republic gloried in her generous policy, + and was frequently rewarded by the merit and services of her adopted sons. + Had she always confined the distinction of Romans to the ancient families + within the walls of the city, that immortal name would have been deprived + of some of its noblest ornaments. Virgil was a native of Mantua; Horace + was inclined to doubt whether he should call himself an Apulian or a + Lucanian; it was in Padua that an historian was found worthy to record the + majestic series of Roman victories. The patriot family of the Catos + emerged from Tusculum; and the little town of Arpinum claimed the double + honor of producing Marius and Cicero, the former of whom deserved, after + Romulus and Camillus, to be styled the Third Founder of Rome; and the + latter, after saving his country from the designs of Catiline, enabled her + to contend with Athens for the palm of eloquence. <a href="#linknote-2.27" + name="linknoteref-2.27" id="linknoteref-2.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.26" id="linknote-2.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.26">return</a>)<br/> [ The senators were + obliged to have one third of their own landed property in Italy. See Plin. + l. vi. ep. 19. The qualification was reduced by Marcus to one fourth. + Since the reign of Trajan, Italy had sunk nearer to the level of the + provinces.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.261" id="linknote-2.261"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 261 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.261">return</a>)<br/> [ It may be doubted + whether the municipal government of the cities was not the old Italian + constitution rather than a transcript from that of Rome. The free + government of the cities, observes Savigny, was the leading characteristic + of Italy. Geschichte des Römischen Rechts, i. p. G.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.27" id="linknote-2.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.27">return</a>)<br/> [ The first part of the + Verona Illustrata of the Marquis Maffei gives the clearest and most + comprehensive view of the state of Italy under the Cæsars. * Note: + Compare Denina, Revol. d’ Italia, l. ii. c. 6, p. 100, 4 to edit.] + </p> + <p> + The provinces of the empire (as they have been described in the preceding + chapter) were destitute of any public force, or constitutional freedom. In + Etruria, in Greece, <a href="#linknote-2.28" name="linknoteref-2.28" + id="linknoteref-2.28">28</a> and in Gaul, <a href="#linknote-2.29" + name="linknoteref-2.29" id="linknoteref-2.29">29</a> it was the first care + of the senate to dissolve those dangerous confederacies, which taught + mankind that, as the Roman arms prevailed by division, they might be + resisted by union. Those princes, whom the ostentation of gratitude or + generosity permitted for a while to hold a precarious sceptre, were + dismissed from their thrones, as soon as they had performed their + appointed task of fashioning to the yoke the vanquished nations. The free + states and cities which had embraced the cause of Rome were rewarded with + a nominal alliance, and insensibly sunk into real servitude. The public + authority was everywhere exercised by the ministers of the senate and of + the emperors, and that authority was absolute, and without control. <a + href="#linknote-2.291" name="linknoteref-2.291" id="linknoteref-2.291">291</a> + But the same salutary maxims of government, which had secured the peace + and obedience of Italy were extended to the most distant conquests. A + nation of Romans was gradually formed in the provinces, by the double + expedient of introducing colonies, and of admitting the most faithful and + deserving of the provincials to the freedom of Rome. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.28" id="linknote-2.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.28">return</a>)<br/> [ See Pausanias, l. vii. + The Romans condescended to restore the names of those assemblies, when + they could no longer be dangerous.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.29" id="linknote-2.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.29">return</a>)<br/> [ They are frequently + mentioned by Cæsar. The Abbé Dubos attempts, with very little success, to + prove that the assemblies of Gaul were continued under the emperors. + Histoire de l’Etablissement de la Monarchie Francoise, l. i. c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.291" id="linknote-2.291"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 291 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.291">return</a>)<br/> [ This is, perhaps, + rather overstated. Most cities retained the choice of their municipal + officers: some retained valuable privileges; Athens, for instance, in form + was still a confederate city. (Tac. Ann. ii. 53.) These privileges, + indeed, depended entirely on the arbitrary will of the emperor, who + revoked or restored them according to his caprice. See Walther Geschichte + des Römischen Rechts, i. 324—an admirable summary of the Roman + constitutional history.—M.] + </p> + <p> + “Wheresoever the Roman conquers, he inhabits,” is a very just observation + of Seneca, <a href="#linknote-2.30" name="linknoteref-2.30" + id="linknoteref-2.30">30</a> confirmed by history and experience. The + natives of Italy, allured by pleasure or by interest, hastened to enjoy + the advantages of victory; and we may remark, that, about forty years + after the reduction of Asia, eighty thousand Romans were massacred in one + day, by the cruel orders of Mithridates. <a href="#linknote-2.31" + name="linknoteref-2.31" id="linknoteref-2.31">31</a> These voluntary exiles + were engaged, for the most part, in the occupations of commerce, + agriculture, and the farm of the revenue. But after the legions were + rendered permanent by the emperors, the provinces were peopled by a race + of soldiers; and the veterans, whether they received the reward of their + service in land or in money, usually settled with their families in the + country, where they had honorably spent their youth. Throughout the + empire, but more particularly in the western parts, the most fertile + districts, and the most convenient situations, were reserved for the + establishment of colonies; some of which were of a civil, and others of a + military nature. In their manners and internal policy, the colonies formed + a perfect representation of their great parent; and they were soon + endeared to the natives by the ties of friendship and alliance, they + effectually diffused a reverence for the Roman name, and a desire, which + was seldom disappointed, of sharing, in due time, its honors and + advantages. <a href="#linknote-2.32" name="linknoteref-2.32" + id="linknoteref-2.32">32</a> The municipal cities insensibly equalled the + rank and splendor of the colonies; and in the reign of Hadrian, it was + disputed which was the preferable condition, of those societies which had + issued from, or those which had been received into, the bosom of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-2.33" name="linknoteref-2.33" id="linknoteref-2.33">33</a> + The right of Latium, as it was called, <a href="#linknote-2.331" + name="linknoteref-2.331" id="linknoteref-2.331">331</a> conferred on the + cities to which it had been granted, a more partial favor. The magistrates + only, at the expiration of their office, assumed the quality of Roman + citizens; but as those offices were annual, in a few years they circulated + round the principal families. <a href="#linknote-2.34" + name="linknoteref-2.34" id="linknoteref-2.34">34</a> Those of the + provincials who were permitted to bear arms in the legions; <a + href="#linknote-2.35" name="linknoteref-2.35" id="linknoteref-2.35">35</a> + those who exercised any civil employment; all, in a word, who performed + any public service, or displayed any personal talents, were rewarded with + a present, whose value was continually diminished by the increasing + liberality of the emperors. Yet even, in the age of the Antonines, when + the freedom of the city had been bestowed on the greater number of their + subjects, it was still accompanied with very solid advantages. The bulk of + the people acquired, with that title, the benefit of the Roman laws, + particularly in the interesting articles of marriage, testaments, and + inheritances; and the road of fortune was open to those whose pretensions + were seconded by favor or merit. The grandsons of the Gauls, who had + besieged Julius Cæsar in Alesia, commanded legions, governed provinces, + and were admitted into the senate of Rome. <a href="#linknote-2.36" + name="linknoteref-2.36" id="linknoteref-2.36">36</a> Their ambition, instead + of disturbing the tranquillity of the state, was intimately connected with + its safety and greatness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.30" id="linknote-2.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Seneca in Consolat. ad + Helviam, c. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.31" id="linknote-2.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Memnon apud Photium, (c. + 33,) [c. 224, p. 231, ed Bekker.] Valer. Maxim. ix. 2. Plutarch and Dion + Cassius swell the massacre to 150,000 citizens; but I should esteem the + smaller number to be more than sufficient.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.32" id="linknote-2.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Twenty-five colonies + were settled in Spain, (see Plin. Hist. Nat. iii. 3, 4; iv. 35;) and nine + in Britain, of which London, Colchester, Lincoln, Chester, Gloucester, and + Bath still remain considerable cities. (See Richard of Cirencester, p. 36, + and Whittaker’s History of Manchester, l. i. c. 3.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.33" id="linknote-2.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Aul. Gel. Noctes + Atticæ, xvi 13. The Emperor Hadrian expressed his surprise, that the + cities of Utica, Gades, and Italica, which already enjoyed the rights of + <i>Municipia</i>, should solicit the title of <i>colonies</i>. Their example, however, + became fashionable, and the empire was filled with honorary colonies. See + Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum Dissertat. xiii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.331" id="linknote-2.331"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 331 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.331">return</a>)<br/> [ The right of Latium + conferred an exemption from the government of the Roman præfect. Strabo + states this distinctly, l. iv. p. 295, edit. Cæsar’s. See also Walther, + p. 233.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.34" id="linknote-2.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Spanheim, Orbis Roman. + c. 8, p. 62.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.35" id="linknote-2.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Aristid. in Romæ + Encomio. tom. i. p. 218, edit. Jebb.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.36" id="linknote-2.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 23, + 24. Hist. iv. 74.] + </p> + <p> + So sensible were the Romans of the influence of language over national + manners, that it was their most serious care to extend, with the progress + of their arms, the use of the Latin tongue. <a href="#linknote-2.37" + name="linknoteref-2.37" id="linknoteref-2.37">37</a> The ancient dialects of + Italy, the Sabine, the Etruscan, and the Venetian, sunk into oblivion; but + in the provinces, the east was less docile than the west to the voice of + its victorious preceptors. This obvious difference marked the two portions + of the empire with a distinction of colors, which, though it was in some + degree concealed during the meridian splendor of prosperity, became + gradually more visible, as the shades of night descended upon the Roman + world. The western countries were civilized by the same hands which + subdued them. As soon as the barbarians were reconciled to obedience, + their minds were open to any new impressions of knowledge and politeness. + The language of Virgil and Cicero, though with some inevitable mixture of + corruption, was so universally adopted in Africa, Spain, Gaul, Britain, and + Pannonia, <a href="#linknote-2.38" name="linknoteref-2.38" + id="linknoteref-2.38">38</a> that the faint traces of the Punic or Celtic + idioms were preserved only in the mountains, or among the peasants. <a + href="#linknote-2.39" name="linknoteref-2.39" id="linknoteref-2.39">39</a> + Education and study insensibly inspired the natives of those countries + with the sentiments of Romans; and Italy gave fashions, as well as laws, + to her Latin provincials. They solicited with more ardor, and obtained + with more facility, the freedom and honors of the state; supported the + national dignity in letters <a href="#linknote-2.40" name="linknoteref-2.40" + id="linknoteref-2.40">40</a> and in arms; and at length, in the person of + Trajan, produced an emperor whom the Scipios would not have disowned for + their countryman. The situation of the Greeks was very different from that + of the barbarians. The former had been long since civilized and corrupted. + They had too much taste to relinquish their language, and too much vanity + to adopt any foreign institutions. Still preserving the prejudices, after + they had lost the virtues, of their ancestors, they affected to despise + the unpolished manners of the Roman conquerors, whilst they were compelled + to respect their superior wisdom and power. <a href="#linknote-2.41" + name="linknoteref-2.41" id="linknoteref-2.41">41</a> Nor was the influence + of the Grecian language and sentiments confined to the narrow limits of + that once celebrated country. Their empire, by the progress of colonies + and conquest, had been diffused from the Adriatic to the Euphrates and the + Nile. Asia was covered with Greek cities, and the long reign of the + Macedonian kings had introduced a silent revolution into Syria and Egypt. + In their pompous courts, those princes united the elegance of Athens with + the luxury of the East, and the example of the court was imitated, at an + humble distance, by the higher ranks of their subjects. Such was the + general division of the Roman empire into the Latin and Greek languages. + To these we may add a third distinction for the body of the natives in + Syria, and especially in Egypt, the use of their ancient dialects, by + secluding them from the commerce of mankind, checked the improvements of + those barbarians. <a href="#linknote-2.42" name="linknoteref-2.42" + id="linknoteref-2.42">42</a> The slothful effeminacy of the former exposed + them to the contempt, the sullen ferociousness of the latter excited the + aversion, of the conquerors. <a href="#linknote-2.43" name="linknoteref-2.43" + id="linknoteref-2.43">43</a> Those nations had submitted to the Roman + power, but they seldom desired or deserved the freedom of the city: and it + was remarked, that more than two hundred and thirty years elapsed after + the ruin of the Ptolemies, before an Egyptian was admitted into the senate + of Rome. <a href="#linknote-2.44" name="linknoteref-2.44" + id="linknoteref-2.44">44</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.37" id="linknote-2.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.37">return</a>)<br/> [ See Plin. Hist. Natur. + iii. 5. Augustin. de Civitate Dei, xix 7 Lipsius de Pronunciatione Linguæ + Latinæ, c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.38" id="linknote-2.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Apuleius and Augustin + will answer for Africa; Strabo for Spain and Gaul; Tacitus, in the life of + Agricola, for Britain; and Velleius Paterculus, for Pannonia. To them we + may add the language of the Inscriptions. * Note: Mr. Hallam contests this + assertion as regards Britain. “Nor did the Romans ever establish their + language—I know not whether they wished to do so—in this + island, as we perceive by that stubborn British tongue which has survived + two conquests.” In his note, Mr. Hallam examines the passage from Tacitus + (Agric. xxi.) to which Gibbon refers. It merely asserts the progress of + Latin studies among the higher orders. (Midd. Ages, iii. 314.) Probably it + was a kind of court language, and that of public affairs and prevailed in + the Roman colonies.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.39" id="linknote-2.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.39">return</a>)<br/> [ The Celtic was preserved + in the mountains of Wales, Cornwall, and Armorica. We may observe, that + Apuleius reproaches an African youth, who lived among the populace, with + the use of the Punic; whilst he had almost forgot Greek, and neither could + nor would speak Latin, (Apolog. p. 596.) The greater part of St. Austin’s + congregations were strangers to the Punic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.40" id="linknote-2.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Spain alone produced + Columella, the Senecas, Lucan, Martial, and Quintilian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.41" id="linknote-2.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.41">return</a>)<br/> [ There is not, I believe, + from Dionysius to Libanus, a single Greek critic who mentions Virgil or + Horace. They seem ignorant that the Romans had any good writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.42" id="linknote-2.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.42">return</a>)<br/> [ The curious reader may + see in Dupin, (Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, tom. xix. p. 1, c. 8,) how + much the use of the Syriac and Egyptian languages was still preserved.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.43" id="linknote-2.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.43">return</a>)<br/> [ See Juvenal, Sat. iii. + and xv. Ammian. Marcellin. xxii. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.44" id="linknote-2.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvii. + p. 1275. The first instance happened under the reign of Septimius + Severus.] + </p> + <p> + It is a just though trite observation, that victorious Rome was herself + subdued by the arts of Greece. Those immortal writers who still command + the admiration of modern Europe, soon became the favorite object of study + and imitation in Italy and the western provinces. But the elegant + amusements of the Romans were not suffered to interfere with their sound + maxims of policy. Whilst they acknowledged the charms of the Greek, they + asserted the dignity of the Latin tongue, and the exclusive use of the + latter was inflexibly maintained in the administration of civil as well as + military government. <a href="#linknote-2.45" name="linknoteref-2.45" + id="linknoteref-2.45">45</a> The two languages exercised at the same time + their separate jurisdiction throughout the empire: the former, as the + natural idiom of science; the latter, as the legal dialect of public + transactions. Those who united letters with business were equally + conversant with both; and it was almost impossible, in any province, to + find a Roman subject, of a liberal education, who was at once a stranger + to the Greek and to the Latin language. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.45" id="linknote-2.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.45">return</a>)<br/> [ See Valerius Maximus, l. + ii. c. 2, n. 2. The emperor Claudius disfranchised an eminent Grecian for + not understanding Latin. He was probably in some public office. Suetonius + in Claud. c. 16. * Note: Causes seem to have been pleaded, even in the + senate, in both languages. Val. Max. <i>loc. cit</i>. Dion. l. lvii. c. 15.—M] + </p> + <p> + It was by such institutions that the nations of the empire insensibly + melted away into the Roman name and people. But there still remained, in + the centre of every province and of every family, an unhappy condition of + men who endured the weight, without sharing the benefits, of society. In + the free states of antiquity, the domestic slaves were exposed to the + wanton rigor of despotism. The perfect settlement of the Roman empire was + preceded by ages of violence and rapine. The slaves consisted, for the + most part, of barbarian captives, <a href="#linknote-2.451" + name="linknoteref-2.451" id="linknoteref-2.451">451</a> taken in thousands + by the chance of war, purchased at a vile price, <a href="#linknote-2.46" + name="linknoteref-2.46" id="linknoteref-2.46">46</a> accustomed to a life of + independence, and impatient to break and to revenge their fetters. Against + such internal enemies, whose desperate insurrections had more than once + reduced the republic to the brink of destruction, <a href="#linknote-2.47" + name="linknoteref-2.47" id="linknoteref-2.47">47</a> the most severe <a + href="#linknote-2.471" name="linknoteref-2.471" id="linknoteref-2.471">471</a> + regulations, <a href="#linknote-2.48" name="linknoteref-2.48" + id="linknoteref-2.48">48</a> and the most cruel treatment, seemed almost + justified by the great law of self-preservation. But when the principal + nations of Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the laws of one + sovereign, the source of foreign supplies flowed with much less abundance, + and the Romans were reduced to the milder but more tedious method of + propagation. <a href="#linknote-2.481" name="linknoteref-2.481" + id="linknoteref-2.481">481</a> In their numerous families, and particularly + in their country estates, they encouraged the marriage of their slaves. <a + href="#linknote-2.482" name="linknoteref-2.482" id="linknoteref-2.482">482</a> + The sentiments of nature, the habits of education, and the possession of a + dependent species of property, contributed to alleviate the hardships of + servitude. <a href="#linknote-2.49" name="linknoteref-2.49" + id="linknoteref-2.49">49</a> The existence of a slave became an object of + greater value, and though his happiness still depended on the temper and + circumstances of the master, the humanity of the latter, instead of being + restrained by fear, was encouraged by the sense of his own interest. The + progress of manners was accelerated by the virtue or policy of the + emperors; and by the edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines, the protection + of the laws was extended to the most abject part of mankind. The + jurisdiction of life and death over the slaves, a power long exercised and + often abused, was taken out of private hands, and reserved to the + magistrates alone. The subterraneous prisons were abolished; and, upon a + just complaint of intolerable treatment, the injured slave obtained either + his deliverance, or a less cruel master. <a href="#linknote-2.50" + name="linknoteref-2.50" id="linknoteref-2.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.451" id="linknote-2.451"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 451 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.451">return</a>)<br/> [ It was this which + rendered the wars so sanguinary, and the battles so obstinate. The + immortal Robertson, in an excellent discourse on the state of the world at + the period of the establishment of Christianity, has traced a picture of + the melancholy effects of slavery, in which we find all the depth of his + views and the strength of his mind. I shall oppose successively some + passages to the reflections of Gibbon. The reader will see, not without + interest, the truths which Gibbon appears to have mistaken or voluntarily + neglected, developed by one of the best of modern historians. It is + important to call them to mind here, in order to establish the facts and + their consequences with accuracy. I shall more than once have occasion to + employ, for this purpose, the discourse of Robertson. “Captives taken in + war were, in all probability, the first persons subjected to perpetual + servitude; and, when the necessities or luxury of mankind increased the + demand for slaves, every new war recruited their number, by reducing the + vanquished to that wretched condition. Hence proceeded the fierce and + desperate spirit with which wars were carried on among ancient nations. + While chains and slavery were the certain lot of the conquered, battles + were fought, and towns defended with a rage and obstinacy which nothing + but horror at such a fate could have inspired; but, putting an end to the + cruel institution of slavery, Christianity extended its mild influences to + the practice of war, and that barbarous art, softened by its humane + spirit, ceased to be so destructive. Secure, in every event, of personal + liberty, the resistance of the vanquished became less obstinate, and the + triumph of the victor less cruel. Thus humanity was introduced into the + exercise of war, with which it appears to be almost incompatible; and it + is to the merciful maxims of Christianity, much more than to any other + cause, that we must ascribe the little ferocity and bloodshed which + accompany modern victories.”—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.46" id="linknote-2.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.46">return</a>)<br/> [ In the camp of Lucullus, + an ox sold for a drachma, and a slave for four drachmæ, or about three + shillings. Plutarch. in Lucull. p. 580. * Note: Above 100,000 prisoners + were taken in the Jewish war.—G. Hist. of Jews, iii. 71. According + to a tradition preserved by S. Jerom, after the insurrection in the time + of Hadrian, they were sold as cheap as horse. Ibid. 124. Compare Blair on + Roman Slavery, p. 19.—M., and Dureau de la blalle, Economie + Politique des Romains, l. i. c. 15. But I cannot think that this writer + has made out his case as to the common price of an agricultural slave + being from 2000 to 2500 francs, (80l. to 100l.) He has overlooked the + passages which show the ordinary prices, (i. e. Hor. Sat. ii. vii. 45,) + and argued from extraordinary and exceptional cases.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.47" id="linknote-2.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodorus Siculus in + Eclog. Hist. l. xxxiv. and xxxvi. Florus, iii. 19, 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.471" id="linknote-2.471"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 471 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.471">return</a>)<br/> [ The following is the + example: we shall see whether the word “severe” is here in its place. “At + the time in which L. Domitius was prætor in Sicily, a slave killed a wild + boar of extraordinary size. The prætor, struck by the dexterity and + courage of the man, desired to see him. The poor wretch, highly gratified + with the distinction, came to present himself before the prætor, in + hopes, no doubt, of praise and reward; but Domitius, on learning that he + had only a javelin to attack and kill the boar, ordered him to be + instantly crucified, under the barbarous pretext that the law prohibited + the use of this weapon, as of all others, to slaves.” Perhaps the cruelty + of Domitius is less astonishing than the indifference with which the Roman + orator relates this circumstance, which affects him so little that he thus + expresses himself: “Durum hoc fortasse videatur, neque ego in ullam partem + disputo.” “This may appear harsh, nor do I give any opinion on the + subject.” And it is the same orator who exclaims in the same oration, + “Facinus est cruciare civem Romanum; scelus verberare; prope parricidium + necare: quid dicam in crucem tollere?” “It is a crime to imprison a Roman + citizen; wickedness to scourge; next to parricide to put to death, what + shall I call it to crucify?” + </p> + <p> + In general, this passage of Gibbon on slavery, is full, not only of + blamable indifference, but of an exaggeration of impartiality which + resembles dishonesty. He endeavors to extenuate all that is appalling in + the condition and treatment of the slaves; he would make us consider those + cruelties as possibly “justified by necessity.” He then describes, with + minute accuracy, the slightest mitigations of their deplorable condition; + he attributes to the virtue or the policy of the emperors the progressive + amelioration in the lot of the slaves; and he passes over in silence the + most influential cause, that which, after rendering the slaves less + miserable, has contributed at length entirely to enfranchise them from + their sufferings and their chains,—Christianity. It would be easy to + accumulate the most frightful, the most agonizing details, of the manner + in which the Romans treated their slaves; whole works have been devoted to + the description. I content myself with referring to them. Some reflections + of Robertson, taken from the discourse already quoted, will make us feel + that Gibbon, in tracing the mitigation of the condition of the slaves, up + to a period little later than that which witnessed the establishment of + Christianity in the world, could not have avoided the acknowledgment of + the influence of that beneficent cause, if he had not already determined + not to speak of it. + </p> + <p> + “Upon establishing despotic government in the Roman empire, domestic + tyranny rose, in a short time, to an astonishing height. In that rank + soil, every vice, which power nourishes in the great, or oppression + engenders in the mean, thrived and grew up apace. * * * It is not the + authority of any single detached precept in the gospel, but the spirit and + genius of the Christian religion, more powerful than any particular + command, which hath abolished the practice of slavery throughout the + world. The temper which Christianity inspired was mild and gentle; and the + doctrines it taught added such dignity and lustre to human nature, as + rescued it from the dishonorable servitude into which it was sunk.” + </p> + <p> + It is in vain, then, that Gibbon pretends to attribute solely to the + desire of keeping up the number of slaves, the milder conduct which the + Romans began to adopt in their favor at the time of the emperors. This + cause had hitherto acted in an opposite direction; how came it on a sudden + to have a different influence? “The masters,” he says, “encouraged the + marriage of their slaves; * * * the sentiments of nature, the habits of + education, contributed to alleviate the hardships of servitude.” The + children of slaves were the property of their master, who could dispose of + or alienate them like the rest of his property. Is it in such a situation, + with such notions, that the sentiments of nature unfold themselves, or + habits of education become mild and peaceful? We must not attribute to + causes inadequate or altogether without force, effects which require to + explain them a reference to more influential causes; and even if these + slighter causes had in effect a manifest influence, we must not forget + that they are themselves the effect of a primary, a higher, and more + extensive cause, which, in giving to the mind and to the character a more + disinterested and more humane bias, disposed men to second or themselves + to advance, by their conduct, and by the change of manners, the happy + results which it tended to produce.—G. + </p> + <p> + I have retained the whole of M. Guizot’s note, though, in his zeal for the + invaluable blessings of freedom and Christianity, he has done Gibbon + injustice. The condition of the slaves was undoubtedly improved under the + emperors. What a great authority has said, “The condition of a slave is + better under an arbitrary than under a free government,” (Smith’s Wealth + of Nations, iv. 7,) is, I believe, supported by the history of all ages + and nations. The protecting edicts of Hadrian and the Antonines are + historical facts, and can as little be attributed to the influence of + Christianity, as the milder language of heathen writers, of Seneca, + (particularly Ep. 47,) of Pliny, and of Plutarch. The latter influence of + Christianity is admitted by Gibbon himself. The subject of Roman slavery + has recently been investigated with great diligence in a very modest but + valuable volume, by Wm. Blair, Esq., Edin. 1833. May we be permitted, + while on the subject, to refer to the most splendid passage extant of Mr. + Pitt’s eloquence, the description of the Roman slave-dealer. on the shores + of Britain, condemning the island to irreclaimable barbarism, as a + perpetual and prolific nursery of slaves? Speeches, vol. ii. p. 80. + </p> + <p> + Gibbon, it should be added, was one of the first and most consistent + opponents of the African slave-trade. (See Hist. ch. xxv. and Letters to + Lor Sheffield, Misc. Works)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.48" id="linknote-2.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.48">return</a>)<br/> [ See a remarkable + instance of severity in Cicero in Verrem, v. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.481" id="linknote-2.481"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 481 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.481">return</a>)<br/> [ An active slave-trade, + which was carried on in many quarters, particularly the Euxine, the + eastern provinces, the coast of Africa, and British must be taken into the + account. Blair, 23—32.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.482" id="linknote-2.482"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 482 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.482">return</a>)<br/> [ The Romans, as well in + the first ages of the republic as later, allowed to their slaves a kind of + marriage, (contubernium: ) notwithstanding this, luxury made a greater + number of slaves in demand. The increase in their population was not + sufficient, and recourse was had to the purchase of slaves, which was made + even in the provinces of the East subject to the Romans. It is, moreover, + known that slavery is a state little favorable to population. (See Hume’s + Essay, and Malthus on population, i. 334.—G.) The testimony of + Appian (B.C. l. i. c. 7) is decisive in favor of the rapid multiplication + of the agricultural slaves; it is confirmed by the numbers engaged in the + servile wars. Compare also Blair, p. 119; likewise Columella l. viii.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.49" id="linknote-2.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.49">return</a>)<br/> [ See in Gruter, and the + other collectors, a great number of inscriptions addressed by slaves to + their wives, children, fellow-servants, masters, &c. They are all most + probably of the Imperial age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.50" id="linknote-2.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.50">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Augustan + History, and a Dissertation of M. de Burigny, in the xxxvth volume of the + Academy of Inscriptions, upon the Roman slaves.] + </p> + <p> + Hope, the best comfort of our imperfect condition, was not denied to the + Roman slave; and if he had any opportunity of rendering himself either + useful or agreeable, he might very naturally expect that the diligence and + fidelity of a few years would be rewarded with the inestimable gift of + freedom. The benevolence of the master was so frequently prompted by the + meaner suggestions of vanity and avarice, that the laws found it more + necessary to restrain than to encourage a profuse and undistinguishing + liberality, which might degenerate into a very dangerous abuse. <a + href="#linknote-2.51" name="linknoteref-2.51" id="linknoteref-2.51">51</a> It + was a maxim of ancient jurisprudence, that a slave had not any country of + his own; he acquired with his liberty an admission into the political + society of which his patron was a member. The consequences of this maxim + would have prostituted the privileges of the Roman city to a mean and + promiscuous multitude. Some seasonable exceptions were therefore provided; + and the honorable distinction was confined to such slaves only as, for + just causes, and with the approbation of the magistrate, should receive a + solemn and legal manumission. Even these chosen freedmen obtained no more + than the private rights of citizens, and were rigorously excluded from + civil or military honors. Whatever might be the merit or fortune of their + sons, <i>they</i> likewise were esteemed unworthy of a seat in the senate; nor + were the traces of a servile origin allowed to be completely obliterated + till the third or fourth generation. <a href="#linknote-2.52" + name="linknoteref-2.52" id="linknoteref-2.52">52</a> Without destroying the + distinction of ranks, a distant prospect of freedom and honors was + presented, even to those whom pride and prejudice almost disdained to + number among the human species. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.51" id="linknote-2.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.51">return</a>)<br/> [ See another Dissertation + of M. de Burigny, in the xxxviith volume, on the Roman freedmen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.52" id="linknote-2.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Spanheim, Orbis Roman. + l. i. c. 16, p. 124, &c.] It was once proposed to discriminate the + slaves by a peculiar habit; but it was justly apprehended that there might + be some danger in acquainting them with their own numbers. <a + href="#linknote-2.53" name="linknoteref-2.53" id="linknoteref-2.53">53</a> + Without interpreting, in their utmost strictness, the liberal appellations + of legions and myriads, <a href="#linknote-2.54" name="linknoteref-2.54" + id="linknoteref-2.54">54</a> we may venture to pronounce, that the + proportion of slaves, who were valued as property, was more considerable + than that of servants, who can be computed only as an expense. <a + href="#linknote-2.55" name="linknoteref-2.55" id="linknoteref-2.55">55</a> + The youths of a promising genius were instructed in the arts and sciences, + and their price was ascertained by the degree of their skill and talents. + <a href="#linknote-2.56" name="linknoteref-2.56" id="linknoteref-2.56">56</a> + Almost every profession, either liberal <a href="#linknote-2.57" + name="linknoteref-2.57" id="linknoteref-2.57">57</a> or mechanical, might be + found in the household of an opulent senator. The ministers of pomp and + sensuality were multiplied beyond the conception of modern luxury. <a + href="#linknote-2.58" name="linknoteref-2.58" id="linknoteref-2.58">58</a> It + was more for the interest of the merchant or manufacturer to purchase, + than to hire his workmen; and in the country, slaves were employed as the + cheapest and most laborious instruments of agriculture. To confirm the + general observation, and to display the multitude of slaves, we might + allege a variety of particular instances. It was discovered, on a very + melancholy occasion, that four hundred slaves were maintained in a single + palace of Rome. <a href="#linknote-2.59" name="linknoteref-2.59" + id="linknoteref-2.59">59</a> The same number of four hundred belonged to an + estate which an African widow, of a very private condition, resigned to + her son, whilst she reserved for herself a much larger share of her + property. <a href="#linknote-2.60" name="linknoteref-2.60" + id="linknoteref-2.60">60</a> A freedman, under the name of Augustus, though + his fortune had suffered great losses in the civil wars, left behind him + three thousand six hundred yoke of oxen, two hundred and fifty thousand + head of smaller cattle, and what was almost included in the description of + cattle, four thousand one hundred and sixteen slaves. <a + href="#linknote-2.61" name="linknoteref-2.61" id="linknoteref-2.61">61</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.53" id="linknote-2.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Seneca de Clementia, l. + i. c. 24. The original is much stronger, “Quantum periculum immineret si + servi nostri numerare nos cœpissent.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.54" id="linknote-2.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.54">return</a>)<br/> [ See Pliny (Hist. Natur. + l. xxxiii.) and Athenæus (Deipnosophist. l. vi. p. 272.) The latter + boldly asserts, that he knew very many Romans who possessed, not for use, + but ostentation, ten and even twenty thousand slaves.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.55" id="linknote-2.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.55">return</a>)<br/> [ In Paris there are not + more than 43,000 domestics of every sort, and not a twelfth part of the + inhabitants. Messange, Recherches sui la Population, p. 186.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.56" id="linknote-2.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.56">return</a>)<br/> [ A learned slave sold for + many hundred pounds sterling: Atticus always bred and taught them himself. + Cornel. Nepos in Vit. c. 13, [on the prices of slaves. Blair, 149.]—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.57" id="linknote-2.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Many of the Roman + physicians were slaves. See Dr. Middleton’s Dissertation and Defence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.58" id="linknote-2.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Their ranks and offices + are very copiously enumerated by Pignorius de Servis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.59" id="linknote-2.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xiv. 43. + They were all executed for not preventing their master’s murder. * Note: + The remarkable speech of Cassius shows the proud feelings of the Roman + aristocracy on this subject.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.60" id="linknote-2.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Apuleius in Apolog. p. + 548. edit. Delphin] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.61" id="linknote-2.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + xxxiii. 47.] + </p> + <p> + The number of subjects who acknowledged the laws of Rome, of citizens, of + provincials, and of slaves, cannot now be fixed with such a degree of + accuracy, as the importance of the object would deserve. We are informed, + that when the Emperor Claudius exercised the office of censor, he took an + account of six millions nine hundred and forty-five thousand Roman + citizens, who, with the proportion of women and children, must have + amounted to about twenty millions of souls. The multitude of subjects of + an inferior rank was uncertain and fluctuating. But, after weighing with + attention every circumstance which could influence the balance, it seems + probable that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many + provincials as there were citizens, of either sex, and of every age; and + that the slaves were at least equal in number to the free inhabitants of + the Roman world.<a href="#linknote-1.611" name="linknoteref-1.611" id="linknoteref-1.611">611</a> The total amount of this imperfect + calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of + persons; a degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern + Europe, <a href="#linknote-2.62" name="linknoteref-2.62" id="linknoteref-2.62">62</a> + and forms the most numerous society that has ever been united under the + same system of government. + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 611] (<a name="linknote-1.611" id="linknote-1.611"></a> <a href="#linknoteref-1.611">return</a>)<br/> + [ According to Robertson, there were twice as many slaves as free + citizens.—G. Mr. Blair (p. 15) estimates three slaves to one + freeman, between the conquest of Greece, B.C. 146, and the reign of + Alexander Severus, A. D. 222, 235. The proportion was probably larger in + Italy than in the provinces.—M. On the other hand, Zumpt, in his + Dissertation quoted below, (p. 86,) asserts it to be a gross error in + Gibbon to reckon the number of slaves equal to that of the free + population. The luxury and magnificence of the great, (he observes,) at + the commencement of the empire, must not be taken as the groundwork of + calculations for the whole Roman world. “The agricultural laborer, and + the artisan, in Spain, Gaul, Britain, Syria, and Egypt, maintained + himself, as in the present day, by his own labor and that of his + household, without possessing a single slave.” The latter part of my note + was intended to suggest this consideration. Yet so completely was slavery + rooted in the social system, both in the east and the west, that in the + great diffusion of wealth at this time, every one, I doubt not, who could + afford a domestic slave, kept one; and generally, the number of slaves + was in proportion to the wealth. I do not believe that the cultivation of + the soil by slaves was confined to Italy; the holders of large estates in + the provinces would probably, either from choice or necessity, adopt the + same mode of cultivation. The latifundia, says Pliny, had ruined Italy, + and had begun to ruin the provinces. Slaves were no doubt employed in + agricultural labor to a great extent in Sicily, and were the estates of + those six enormous landholders who were said to have possessed the whole + province of Africa, cultivated altogether by free coloni? Whatever may + have been the case in the rural districts, in the towns and cities the + household duties were almost entirely discharged by slaves, and vast + numbers belonged to the public establishments. I do not, however, differ + so far from Zumpt, and from M. Dureau de la Malle, as to adopt the higher + and bolder estimate of Robertson and Mr. Blair, rather than the more + cautious suggestions of Gibbon. I would reduce rather than increase the + proportion of the slave population. The very ingenious and elaborate + calculations of the French writer, by which he deduces the amount of the + population from the produce and consumption of corn in Italy, appear to + me neither precise nor satisfactory bases for such complicated political + arithmetic. I am least satisfied with his views as to the population of + the city of Rome; but this point will be more fitly reserved for a note + on the thirty-first chapter of Gibbon. The work, however, of M. Dureau de + la Malle is very curious and full on some of the minuter points of Roman + statistics.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.62" id="linknote-2.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Compute twenty millions + in France, twenty-two in Germany, four in Hungary, ten in Italy with its + islands, eight in Great Britain and Ireland, eight in Spain and Portugal, + ten or twelve in the European Russia, six in Poland, six in Greece and + Turkey, four in Sweden, three in Denmark and Norway, four in the Low + Countries. The whole would amount to one hundred and five, or one hundred + and seven millions. See Voltaire, de l’Histoire Generale. * Note: The + present population of Europe is estimated at 227,700,000. Malts Bran, + Geogr. Trans edit. 1832 See details in the different volumes Another + authority, (Almanach de Gotha,) quoted in a recent English publication, + gives the following details:— + </p> + <p class="foot"> + France, 32,897,521 Germany, (including Hungary, Prussian and Austrian + Poland,) 56,136,213 Italy, 20,548,616 Great Britain and Ireland, + 24,062,947 Spain and Portugal, 13,953,959. 3,144,000 Russia, including + Poland, 44,220,600 Cracow, 128,480 Turkey, (including Pachalic of + Dschesair,) 9,545,300 Greece, 637,700 Ionian Islands, 208,100 Sweden and + Norway, 3,914,963 Denmark, 2,012,998 Belgium, 3,533,538 Holland, 2,444,550 + Switzerland, 985,000. Total, 219,344,116 + </p> + <p class="foot"> + Since the publication of my first annotated edition of Gibbon, the subject + of the population of the Roman empire has been investigated by two writers + of great industry and learning; Mons. Dureau de la Malle, in his Economie + Politique des Romains, liv. ii. c. 1. to 8, and M. Zumpt, in a + dissertation printed in the Transactions of the Berlin Academy, 1840. M. + Dureau de la Malle confines his inquiry almost entirely to the city of + Rome, and Roman Italy. Zumpt examines at greater length the axiom, which + he supposes to have been assumed by Gibbon as unquestionable, “that Italy + and the Roman world was never so populous as in the time of the + Antonines.” Though this probably was Gibbon’s opinion, he has not stated + it so peremptorily as asserted by Mr. Zumpt. It had before been expressly + laid down by Hume, and his statement was controverted by Wallace and by + Malthus. Gibbon says (p. 84) that there is no reason to believe the + country (of Italy) less populous in the age of the Antonines, than in that + of Romulus; and Zumpt acknowledges that we have no satisfactory knowledge + of the state of Italy at that early age. Zumpt, in my opinion with some + reason, takes the period just before the first Punic war, as that in which + Roman Italy (all south of the Rubicon) was most populous. From that time, + the numbers began to diminish, at first from the enormous waste of life + out of the free population in the foreign, and afterwards in the civil + wars; from the cultivation of the soil by slaves; towards the close of the + republic, from the repugnance to marriage, which resisted alike the dread + of legal punishment and the offer of legal immunity and privilege; and + from the depravity of manners, which interfered with the procreation, the + birth, and the rearing of children. The arguments and the authorities of + Zumpt are equally conclusive as to the decline of population in Greece. + Still the details, which he himself adduces as to the prosperity and + populousness of Asia Minor, and the whole of the Roman East, with the + advancement of the European provinces, especially Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, in civilization, and therefore in populousness, (for I have no + confidence in the vast numbers sometimes assigned to the barbarous + inhabitants of these countries,) may, I think, fairly compensate for any + deduction to be made from Gibbon’s general estimate on account of Greece + and Italy. Gibbon himself acknowledges his own estimate to be vague and + conjectural; and I may venture to recommend the dissertation of Zumpt as + deserving respectful consideration.—M 1815.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap02.3"></a> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + Domestic peace and union were the natural consequences of the moderate and + comprehensive policy embraced by the Romans. If we turn our eyes towards + the monarchies of Asia, we shall behold despotism in the centre, and + weakness in the extremities; the collection of the revenue, or the + administration of justice, enforced by the presence of an army; hostile + barbarians established in the heart of the country, hereditary satraps + usurping the dominion of the provinces, and subjects inclined to + rebellion, though incapable of freedom. But the obedience of the Roman + world was uniform, voluntary, and permanent. The vanquished nations, + blended into one great people, resigned the hope, nay, even the wish, of + resuming their independence, and scarcely considered their own existence + as distinct from the existence of Rome. The established authority of the + emperors pervaded without an effort the wide extent of their dominions, + and was exercised with the same facility on the banks of the Thames, or of + the Nile, as on those of the Tyber. The legions were destined to serve + against the public enemy, and the civil magistrate seldom required the aid + of a military force. <a href="#linknote-2.63" name="linknoteref-2.63" + id="linknoteref-2.63">63</a> In this state of general security, the + leisure, as well as opulence, both of the prince and people, were devoted + to improve and to adorn the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.63" id="linknote-2.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. de Bell. + Judaico, l. ii. c. 16. The oration of Agrippa, or rather of the historian, + is a fine picture of the Roman empire.] + </p> + <p> + Among the innumerable monuments of architecture constructed by the Romans, + how many have escaped the notice of history, how few have resisted the + ravages of time and barbarism! And yet, even the majestic ruins that are + still scattered over Italy and the provinces, would be sufficient to prove + that those countries were once the seat of a polite and powerful empire. + Their greatness alone, or their beauty, might deserve our attention: but + they are rendered more interesting, by two important circumstances, which + connect the agreeable history of the arts with the more useful history of + human manners. Many of those works were erected at private expense, and + almost all were intended for public benefit. + </p> + <p> + It is natural to suppose that the greatest number, as well as the most + considerable of the Roman edifices, were raised by the emperors, who + possessed so unbounded a command both of men and money. Augustus was + accustomed to boast that he had found his capital of brick, and that he + had left it of marble. <a href="#linknote-2.64" name="linknoteref-2.64" + id="linknoteref-2.64">64</a> The strict economy of Vespasian was the source + of his magnificence. The works of Trajan bear the stamp of his genius. The + public monuments with which Hadrian adorned every province of the empire, + were executed not only by his orders, but under his immediate inspection. + He was himself an artist; and he loved the arts, as they conduced to the + glory of the monarch. They were encouraged by the Antonines, as they + contributed to the happiness of the people. But if the emperors were the + first, they were not the only architects of their dominions. Their example + was universally imitated by their principal subjects, who were not afraid + of declaring to the world that they had spirit to conceive, and wealth to + accomplish, the noblest undertakings. Scarcely had the proud structure of + the Coliseum been dedicated at Rome, before the edifices, of a smaller + scale indeed, but of the same design and materials, were erected for the + use, and at the expense, of the cities of Capua and Verona. <a + href="#linknote-2.65" name="linknoteref-2.65" id="linknoteref-2.65">65</a> + The inscription of the stupendous bridge of Alcantara attests that it was + thrown over the Tagus by the contribution of a few Lusitanian communities. + When Pliny was intrusted with the government of Bithynia and Pontus, + provinces by no means the richest or most considerable of the empire, he + found the cities within his jurisdiction striving with each other in every + useful and ornamental work, that might deserve the curiosity of strangers, + or the gratitude of their citizens. It was the duty of the proconsul to + supply their deficiencies, to direct their taste, and sometimes to + moderate their emulation. <a href="#linknote-2.66" name="linknoteref-2.66" + id="linknoteref-2.66">66</a> The opulent senators of Rome and the provinces + esteemed it an honor, and almost an obligation, to adorn the splendor of + their age and country; and the influence of fashion very frequently + supplied the want of taste or generosity. Among a crowd of these private + benefactors, we may select Herodes Atticus, an Athenian citizen, who lived + in the age of the Antonines. Whatever might be the motive of his conduct, + his magnificence would have been worthy of the greatest kings. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.64" id="linknote-2.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Sueton. in August. c. + 28. Augustus built in Rome the temple and forum of Mars the Avenger; the + temple of Jupiter Tonans in the Capitol; that of Apollo Palatine, with + public libraries; the portico and basilica of Caius and Lucius; the + porticos of Livia and Octavia; and the theatre of Marcellus. The example + of the sovereign was imitated by his ministers and generals; and his + friend Agrippa left behind him the immortal monument of the Pantheon.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.65" id="linknote-2.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.65">return</a>)<br/> [ See Maffei, Veroni + Illustrata, l. iv. p. 68.] <a name="linknote-2.66" id="linknote-2.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.66">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 66: See the xth + book of Pliny’s Epistles. He mentions the following works carried on at + the expense of the cities. At Nicomedia, a new forum, an aqueduct, and a + canal, left unfinished by a king; at Nice, a gymnasium, and a theatre, + which had already cost near ninety thousand pounds; baths at Prusa and + Claudiopolis, and an aqueduct of sixteen miles in length for the use of + Sinope.] + </p> + <p> + The family of Herod, at least after it had been favored by fortune, was + lineally descended from Cimon and Miltiades, Theseus and Cecrops, Æacus + and Jupiter. But the posterity of so many gods and heroes was fallen into + the most abject state. His grandfather had suffered by the hands of + justice, and Julius Atticus, his father, must have ended his life in + poverty and contempt, had he not discovered an immense treasure buried + under an old house, the last remains of his patrimony. According to the + rigor of the law, the emperor might have asserted his claim, and the + prudent Atticus prevented, by a frank confession, the officiousness of + informers. But the equitable Nerva, who then filled the throne, refused to + accept any part of it, and commanded him to use, without scruple, the + present of fortune. The cautious Athenian still insisted, that the + treasure was too considerable for a subject, and that he knew not how to + <i>use it. Abuse it then</i>, replied the monarch, with a good-natured + peevishness; for it is your own. <a href="#linknote-2.67" + name="linknoteref-2.67" id="linknoteref-2.67">67</a> Many will be of + opinion, that Atticus literally obeyed the emperor’s last instructions; + since he expended the greatest part of his fortune, which was much + increased by an advantageous marriage, in the service of the public. He + had obtained for his son Herod the prefecture of the free cities of Asia; + and the young magistrate, observing that the town of Troas was + indifferently supplied with water, obtained from the munificence of + Hadrian three hundred myriads of drachms, (about a hundred thousand + pounds,) for the construction of a new aqueduct. But in the execution of + the work, the charge amounted to more than double the estimate, and the + officers of the revenue began to murmur, till the generous Atticus + silenced their complaints, by requesting that he might be permitted to + take upon himself the whole additional expense. <a href="#linknote-2.68" + name="linknoteref-2.68" id="linknoteref-2.68">68</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.67" id="linknote-2.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Hadrian afterwards made + a very equitable regulation, which divided all treasure-trove between the + right of property and that of discovery. Hist. August. p. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.68" id="linknote-2.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Philostrat. in Vit. + Sophist. l. ii. p. 548.] + </p> + <p> + The ablest preceptors of Greece and Asia had been invited by liberal + rewards to direct the education of young Herod. Their pupil soon became a + celebrated orator, according to the useless rhetoric of that age, which, + confining itself to the schools, disdained to visit either the Forum or + the Senate. + </p> + <p> + He was honored with the consulship at Rome: but the greatest part of his + life was spent in a philosophic retirement at Athens, and his adjacent + villas; perpetually surrounded by sophists, who acknowledged, without + reluctance, the superiority of a rich and generous rival. <a + href="#linknote-2.69" name="linknoteref-2.69" id="linknoteref-2.69">69</a> + The monuments of his genius have perished; some considerable ruins still + preserve the fame of his taste and munificence: modern travellers have + measured the remains of the stadium which he constructed at Athens. It was + six hundred feet in length, built entirely of white marble, capable of + admitting the whole body of the people, and finished in four years, whilst + Herod was president of the Athenian games. To the memory of his wife + Regilla he dedicated a theatre, scarcely to be paralleled in the empire: + no wood except cedar, very curiously carved, was employed in any part of + the building. The Odeum, <a href="#linknote-2.691" name="linknoteref-2.691" + id="linknoteref-2.691">691</a> designed by Pericles for musical + performances, and the rehearsal of new tragedies, had been a trophy of the + victory of the arts over barbaric greatness; as the timbers employed in + the construction consisted chiefly of the masts of the Persian vessels. + Notwithstanding the repairs bestowed on that ancient edifice by a king of + Cappadocia, it was again fallen to decay. Herod restored its ancient + beauty and magnificence. Nor was the liberality of that illustrious + citizen confined to the walls of Athens. The most splendid ornaments + bestowed on the temple of Neptune in the Isthmus, a theatre at Corinth, a + stadium at Delphi, a bath at Thermopylæ, and an aqueduct at Canusium in + Italy, were insufficient to exhaust his treasures. The people of Epirus, + Thessaly, Eubœa, Bœotia, and Peloponnesus, experienced his favors; and + many inscriptions of the cities of Greece and Asia gratefully style + Herodes Atticus their patron and benefactor. <a href="#linknote-2.70" + name="linknoteref-2.70" id="linknoteref-2.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.69" id="linknote-2.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Aulus Gellius, in Noct. + Attic. i. 2, ix. 2, xviii. 10, xix. 12. Phil ostrat. p. 564.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.691" id="linknote-2.691"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 691 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.691">return</a>)<br/> [ The Odeum served for + the rehearsal of new comedies as well as tragedies; they were read or + repeated, before representation, without music or decorations, &c. No + piece could be represented in the theatre if it had not been previously + approved by judges for this purpose. The king of Cappadocia who restored + the Odeum, which had been burnt by Sylla, was Araobarzanes. See Martini, + Dissertation on the Odeons of the Ancients, Leipsic. 1767, p. 10—91.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.70" id="linknote-2.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.70">return</a>)<br/> [ See Philostrat. l. ii. + p. 548, 560. Pausanias, l. i. and vii. 10. The life of Herodes, in the + xxxth volume of the Memoirs of the Academy of Inscriptions.] + </p> + <p> + In the commonwealths of Athens and Rome, the modest simplicity of private + houses announced the equal condition of freedom; whilst the sovereignty of + the people was represented in the majestic edifices designed to the public + use; <a href="#linknote-2.71" name="linknoteref-2.71" id="linknoteref-2.71">71</a> + nor was this republican spirit totally extinguished by the introduction of + wealth and monarchy. It was in works of national honor and benefit, that + the most virtuous of the emperors affected to display their magnificence. + The golden palace of Nero excited a just indignation, but the vast extent + of ground which had been usurped by his selfish luxury was more nobly + filled under the succeeding reigns by the Coliseum, the baths of Titus, + the Claudian portico, and the temples dedicated to the goddess of Peace, + and to the genius of Rome. <a href="#linknote-2.72" name="linknoteref-2.72" + id="linknoteref-2.72">72</a> These monuments of architecture, the property + of the Roman people, were adorned with the most beautiful productions of + Grecian painting and sculpture; and in the temple of Peace, a very curious + library was open to the curiosity of the learned. <a href="#linknote-2.721" + name="linknoteref-2.721" id="linknoteref-2.721">721</a> At a small distance + from thence was situated the Forum of Trajan. It was surrounded by a lofty + portico, in the form of a quadrangle, into which four triumphal arches + opened a noble and spacious entrance: in the centre arose a column of + marble, whose height, of one hundred and ten feet, denoted the elevation + of the hill that had been cut away. This column, which still subsists in + its ancient beauty, exhibited an exact representation of the Dacian + victories of its founder. The veteran soldier contemplated the story of + his own campaigns, and by an easy illusion of national vanity, the + peaceful citizen associated himself to the honors of the triumph. All the + other quarters of the capital, and all the provinces of the empire, were + embellished by the same liberal spirit of public magnificence, and were + filled with amphitheatres, theatres, temples, porticoes, triumphal + arches, baths and aqueducts, all variously conducive to the health, the + devotion, and the pleasures of the meanest citizen. The last mentioned of + those edifices deserve our peculiar attention. The boldness of the + enterprise, the solidity of the execution, and the uses to which they were + subservient, rank the aqueducts among the noblest monuments of Roman + genius and power. The aqueducts of the capital claim a just preeminence; + but the curious traveller, who, without the light of history, should + examine those of Spoleto, of Metz, or of Segovia, would very naturally + conclude that those provincial towns had formerly been the residence of + some potent monarch. The solitudes of Asia and Africa were once covered + with flourishing cities, whose populousness, and even whose existence, was + derived from such artificial supplies of a perennial stream of fresh + water. <a href="#linknote-2.73" name="linknoteref-2.73" id="linknoteref-2.73">73</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.71" id="linknote-2.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.71">return</a>)<br/> [ It is particularly + remarked of Athens by Dicæarchus, de Statu Græciæ, p. 8, inter + Geographos Minores, edit. Hudson.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.72" id="linknote-2.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.72">return</a>)<br/> [ Donatus de Roma Vetere, + l. iii. c. 4, 5, 6. Nardini Roma Antica, l. iii. 11, 12, 13, and a Ms. + description of ancient Rome, by Bernardus Oricellarius, or Rucellai, of + which I obtained a copy from the library of the Canon Ricardi at Florence. + Two celebrated pictures of Timanthes and of Protogenes are mentioned by + Pliny, as in the Temple of Peace; and the Laocoon was found in the baths + of Titus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.721" id="linknote-2.721"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 721 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.721">return</a>)<br/> [ The Emperor Vespasian, + who had caused the Temple of Peace to be built, transported to it the + greatest part of the pictures, statues, and other works of art which had + escaped the civil tumults. It was there that every day the artists and the + learned of Rome assembled; and it is on the site of this temple that a + multitude of antiques have been dug up. See notes of Reimar on Dion + Cassius, lxvi. c. 15, p. 1083.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.73" id="linknote-2.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Montfaucon l’Antiquite + Expliquee, tom. iv. p. 2, l. i. c. 9. Fabretti has composed a very learned + treatise on the aqueducts of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + We have computed the inhabitants, and contemplated the public works, of + the Roman empire. The observation of the number and greatness of its + cities will serve to confirm the former, and to multiply the latter. It + may not be unpleasing to collect a few scattered instances relative to + that subject without forgetting, however, that from the vanity of nations + and the poverty of language, the vague appellation of city has been + indifferently bestowed on Rome and upon Laurentum. + </p> + <p> + I. <i>Ancient</i> Italy is said to have contained eleven hundred and ninety-seven + cities; and for whatsoever æra of antiquity the expression might be + intended, <a href="#linknote-2.74" name="linknoteref-2.74" + id="linknoteref-2.74">74</a> there is not any reason to believe the country + less populous in the age of the Antonines, than in that of Romulus. The + petty states of Latium were contained within the metropolis of the empire, + by whose superior influence they had been attracted. <a + href="#linknote-2.741" name="linknoteref-2.741" id="linknoteref-2.741">741</a> + Those parts of Italy which have so long languished under the lazy tyranny + of priests and viceroys, had been afflicted only by the more tolerable + calamities of war; and the first symptoms of decay which <i>they</i> experienced, + were amply compensated by the rapid improvements of the Cisalpine Gaul. + The splendor of Verona may be traced in its remains: yet Verona was less + celebrated than Aquileia or Padua, Milan or Ravenna. II. The spirit of + improvement had passed the Alps, and been felt even in the woods of + Britain, which were gradually cleared away to open a free space for + convenient and elegant habitations. York was the seat of government; + London was already enriched by commerce; and Bath was celebrated for the + salutary effects of its medicinal waters. Gaul could boast of her twelve + hundred cities; <a href="#linknote-2.75" name="linknoteref-2.75" + id="linknoteref-2.75">75</a> and though, in the northern parts, many of + them, without excepting Paris itself, were little more than the rude and + imperfect townships of a rising people, the southern provinces imitated + the wealth and elegance of Italy. <a href="#linknote-2.76" + name="linknoteref-2.76" id="linknoteref-2.76">76</a> Many were the cities of + Gaul, Marseilles, Arles, Nismes, Narbonne, Thoulouse, Bourdeaux, Autun, + Vienna, Lyons, Langres, and Treves, whose ancient condition might sustain + an equal, and perhaps advantageous comparison with their present state. + With regard to Spain, that country flourished as a province, and has + declined as a kingdom. Exhausted by the abuse of her strength, by America, + and by superstition, her pride might possibly be confounded, if we + required such a list of three hundred and sixty cities, as Pliny has + exhibited under the reign of Vespasian. <a href="#linknote-2.77" + name="linknoteref-2.77" id="linknoteref-2.77">77</a> III. Three hundred + African cities had once acknowledged the authority of Carthage, <a + href="#linknote-2.78" name="linknoteref-2.78" id="linknoteref-2.78">78</a> + nor is it likely that their numbers diminished under the administration of + the emperors: Carthage itself rose with new splendor from its ashes; and + that capital, as well as Capua and Corinth, soon recovered all the + advantages which can be separated from independent sovereignty. IV. The + provinces of the East present the contrast of Roman magnificence with + Turkish barbarism. The ruins of antiquity scattered over uncultivated + fields, and ascribed, by ignorance, to the power of magic, scarcely afford + a shelter to the oppressed peasant or wandering Arab. Under the reign of + the Cæsars, the proper Asia alone contained five hundred populous cities, + <a href="#linknote-2.79" name="linknoteref-2.79" id="linknoteref-2.79">79</a> + enriched with all the gifts of nature, and adorned with all the + refinements of art. Eleven cities of Asia had once disputed the honor of + dedicating a temple of Tiberius, and their respective merits were examined + by the senate. <a href="#linknote-2.80" name="linknoteref-2.80" + id="linknoteref-2.80">80</a> Four of them were immediately rejected as + unequal to the burden; and among these was Laodicea, whose splendor is + still displayed in its ruins. <a href="#linknote-2.81" + name="linknoteref-2.81" id="linknoteref-2.81">81</a> Laodicea collected a + very considerable revenue from its flocks of sheep, celebrated for the + fineness of their wool, and had received, a little before the contest, a + legacy of above four hundred thousand pounds by the testament of a + generous citizen. <a href="#linknote-2.82" name="linknoteref-2.82" + id="linknoteref-2.82">82</a> If such was the poverty of Laodicea, what must + have been the wealth of those cities, whose claim appeared preferable, and + particularly of Pergamus, of Smyrna, and of Ephesus, who so long disputed + with each other the titular primacy of Asia? <a href="#linknote-2.83" + name="linknoteref-2.83" id="linknoteref-2.83">83</a> The capitals of Syria + and Egypt held a still superior rank in the empire; Antioch and Alexandria + looked down with disdain on a crowd of dependent cities, <a + href="#linknote-2.84" name="linknoteref-2.84" id="linknoteref-2.84">84</a> + and yielded, with reluctance, to the majesty of Rome itself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.74" id="linknote-2.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Ælian. Hist. Var. lib. + ix. c. 16. He lived in the time of Alexander Severus. See Fabricius, + Biblioth. Græca, l. iv. c. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.741" id="linknote-2.741"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 741 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.741">return</a>)<br/> [ This may in some + degree account for the difficulty started by Livy, as to the incredibly + numerous armies raised by the small states around Rome where, in his time, + a scanty stock of free soldiers among a larger population of Roman slaves + broke the solitude. Vix seminario exiguo militum relicto servitia Romana + ab solitudine vindicant, Liv. vi. vii. Compare Appian Bel Civ. i. 7.—M. + subst. for G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.75" id="linknote-2.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. de Bell. Jud. + ii. 16. The number, however, is mentioned, and should be received with a + degree of latitude. Note: Without doubt no reliance can be placed on this + passage of Josephus. The historian makes Agrippa give advice to the Jews, + as to the power of the Romans; and the speech is full of declamation which + can furnish no conclusions to history. While enumerating the nations + subject to the Romans, he speaks of the Gauls as submitting to 1200 + soldiers, (which is false, as there were eight legions in Gaul, Tac. iv. + 5,) while there are nearly twelve hundred cities.—G. Josephus + (infra) places these eight legions on the Rhine, as Tacitus does.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.76" id="linknote-2.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.76">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. + 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.77" id="linknote-2.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. + 3, 4, iv. 35. The list seems authentic and accurate; the division of the + provinces, and the different condition of the cities, are minutely + distinguished.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.78" id="linknote-2.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabon. Geograph. l. + xvii. p. 1189.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.79" id="linknote-2.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. de Bell. Jud. + ii. 16. Philostrat. in Vit. Sophist. l. ii. p. 548, edit. Olear.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.80" id="linknote-2.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 55. I + have taken some pains in consulting and comparing modern travellers, with + regard to the fate of those eleven cities of Asia. Seven or eight are + totally destroyed: Hypæpe, Tralles, Laodicea, Hium, Halicarnassus, + Miletus, Ephesus, and we may add Sardes. Of the remaining three, Pergamus + is a straggling village of two or three thousand inhabitants; Magnesia, + under the name of Guzelhissar, a town of some consequence; and Smyrna, a + great city, peopled by a hundred thousand souls. But even at Smyrna, while + the Franks have maintained a commerce, the Turks have ruined the arts.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.81" id="linknote-2.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.81">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very exact and + pleasing description of the ruins of Laodicea, in Chandler’s Travels + through Asia Minor, p. 225, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.82" id="linknote-2.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xii. p. 866. + He had studied at Tralles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.83" id="linknote-2.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.83">return</a>)<br/> [ See a Dissertation of M. + de Boze, Mem. de l’Academie, tom. xviii. Aristides pronounced an oration, + which is still extant, to recommend concord to the rival cities.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.84" id="linknote-2.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.84">return</a>)<br/> [ The inhabitants of + Egypt, exclusive of Alexandria, amounted to seven millions and a half, + (Joseph. de Bell. Jud. ii. 16.) Under the military government of the + Mamelukes, Syria was supposed to contain sixty thousand villages, + (Histoire de Timur Bec, l. v. c. 20.)] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap02.4"></a> + Chapter II: The Internal Prosperity In The Age Of The Antonines. Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + All these cities were connected with each other, and with the capital, by + the public highways, which, issuing from the Forum of Rome, traversed + Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers + of the empire. If we carefully trace the distance from the wall of + Antoninus to Rome, and from thence to Jerusalem, it will be found that the + great chain of communication, from the north-west to the south-east point + of the empire, was drawn out to the length of four thousand and eighty + Roman miles. <a href="#linknote-2.85" name="linknoteref-2.85" + id="linknoteref-2.85">85</a> The public roads were accurately divided by + mile-stones, and ran in a direct line from one city to another, with very + little respect for the obstacles either of nature or private property. + Mountains were perforated, and bold arches thrown over the broadest and + most rapid streams. <a href="#linknote-2.86" name="linknoteref-2.86" + id="linknoteref-2.86">86</a> The middle part of the road was raised into a + terrace which commanded the adjacent country, consisted of several strata + of sand, gravel, and cement, and was paved with large stones, or, in some + places near the capital, with granite. <a href="#linknote-2.87" + name="linknoteref-2.87" id="linknoteref-2.87">87</a> Such was the solid + construction of the Roman highways, whose firmness has not entirely + yielded to the effort of fifteen centuries. They united the subjects of + the most distant provinces by an easy and familiar intercourse; but their + primary object had been to facilitate the marches of the legions; nor was + any country considered as completely subdued, till it had been rendered, + in all its parts, pervious to the arms and authority of the conqueror. The + advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, and of conveying their + orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their + extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. <a + href="#linknote-2.88" name="linknoteref-2.88" id="linknoteref-2.88">88</a> + Houses were everywhere erected at the distance only of five or six miles; + each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, and by the help of + these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the + Roman roads. <a href="#linknote-2.89" name="linknoteref-2.89" + id="linknoteref-2.89">89</a> <a href="#linknote-2.891" + name="linknoteref-2.891" id="linknoteref-2.891">891</a> The use of posts was + allowed to those who claimed it by an Imperial mandate; but though + originally intended for the public service, it was sometimes indulged to + the business or conveniency of private citizens. <a href="#linknote-2.90" + name="linknoteref-2.90" id="linknoteref-2.90">90</a> Nor was the + communication of the Roman empire less free and open by sea than it was by + land. The provinces surrounded and enclosed the Mediterranean: and Italy, + in the shape of an immense promontory, advanced into the midst of that + great lake. The coasts of Italy are, in general, destitute of safe + harbors; but human industry had corrected the deficiencies of nature; and + the artificial port of Ostia, in particular, situate at the mouth of the + Tyber, and formed by the emperor Claudius, was a useful monument of Roman + greatness. <a href="#linknote-2.91" name="linknoteref-2.91" + id="linknoteref-2.91">91</a> From this port, which was only sixteen miles + from the capital, a favorable breeze frequently carried vessels in seven + days to the columns of Hercules, and in nine or ten, to Alexandria in + Egypt. <a href="#linknote-2.92" name="linknoteref-2.92" id="linknoteref-2.92">92</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.85" id="linknote-2.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.85">return</a>)<br/> [ The following Itinerary + may serve to convey some idea of the direction of the road, and of the + distance between the principal towns. I. From the wall of Antoninus to + York, 222 Roman miles. II. London, 227. III. Rhutupiæ or Sandwich, 67. + IV. The navigation to Boulogne, 45. V. Rheims, 174. VI. Lyons, 330. VII. + Milan, 324. VIII. Rome, 426. IX. Brundusium, 360. X. The navigation to + Dyrrachium, 40. XI. Byzantium, 711. XII. Ancyra, 283. XIII. Tarsus, 301. + XIV. Antioch, 141. XV. Tyre, 252. XVI. Jerusalem, 168. In all 4080 Roman, + or 3740 English miles. See the Itineraries published by Wesseling, his + annotations; Gale and Stukeley for Britain, and M. d’Anville for Gaul and + Italy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.86" id="linknote-2.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.86">return</a>)<br/> [ Montfaucon, l’Antiquite + Expliquee, (tom. 4, p. 2, l. i. c. 5,) has described the bridges of Narni, + Alcantara, Nismes, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.87" id="linknote-2.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.87">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergier, Histoire des + grands Chemins de l’Empire Romain, l. ii. c. l. l—28.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.88" id="linknote-2.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Procopius in Hist. + Arcana, c. 30. Bergier, Hist. des grands Chemins, l. iv. Codex Theodosian. + l. viii. tit. v. vol. ii. p. 506—563 with Godefroy’s learned + commentary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.89" id="linknote-2.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.89">return</a>)<br/> [ In the time of + Theodosius, Cæsarius, a magistrate of high rank, went post from Antioch + to Constantinople. He began his journey at night, was in Cappadocia (165 + miles from Antioch) the ensuing evening, and arrived at Constantinople the + sixth day about noon. The whole distance was 725 Roman, or 665 English + miles. See Libanius, Orat. xxii., and the Itineria, p. 572—581. + Note: A courier is mentioned in Walpole’s Travels, ii. 335, who was to + travel from Aleppo to Constantinople, more than 700 miles, in eight days, + an unusually short journey.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.891" id="linknote-2.891"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 891 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.891">return</a>)<br/> [ Posts for the + conveyance of intelligence were established by Augustus. Suet. Aug. 49. + The couriers travelled with amazing speed. Blair on Roman Slavery, note, + p. 261. It is probable that the posts, from the time of Augustus, were + confined to the public service, and supplied by impressment Nerva, as it + appears from a coin of his reign, made an important change; “he + established posts upon all the public roads of Italy, and made the service + chargeable upon his own exchequer. Hadrian, perceiving the advantage of + this improvement, extended it to all the provinces of the empire.” + Cardwell on Coins, p. 220.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.90" id="linknote-2.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Pliny, though a favorite + and a minister, made an apology for granting post-horses to his wife on + the most urgent business. Epist. x. 121, 122.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.91" id="linknote-2.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Bergier, Hist. des + grands Chemins, l. iv. c. 49.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.92" id="linknote-2.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. xix. + i. [In Proœm.] * Note: Pliny says Puteoli, which seems to have been the + usual landing place from the East. See the voyages of St. Paul, Acts + xxviii. 13, and of Josephus, Vita, c. 3—M.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever evils either reason or declamation have imputed to extensive + empire, the power of Rome was attended with some beneficial consequences + to mankind; and the same freedom of intercourse which extended the vices, + diffused likewise the improvements, of social life. In the more remote + ages of antiquity, the world was unequally divided. The East was in the + immemorial possession of arts and luxury; whilst the West was inhabited by + rude and warlike barbarians, who either disdained agriculture, or to whom + it was totally unknown. Under the protection of an established government, + the productions of happier climates, and the industry of more civilized + nations, were gradually introduced into the western countries of Europe; + and the natives were encouraged, by an open and profitable commerce, to + multiply the former, as well as to improve the latter. It would be almost + impossible to enumerate all the articles, either of the animal or the + vegetable reign, which were successively imported into Europe from Asia + and Egypt: <a href="#linknote-2.93" name="linknoteref-2.93" + id="linknoteref-2.93">93</a> but it will not be unworthy of the dignity, + and much less of the utility, of an historical work, slightly to touch on + a few of the principal heads. 1. Almost all the flowers, the herbs, and + the fruits, that grow in our European gardens, are of foreign extraction, + which, in many cases, is betrayed even by their names: the apple was a + native of Italy, and when the Romans had tasted the richer flavor of the + apricot, the peach, the pomegranate, the citron, and the orange, they + contented themselves with applying to all these new fruits the common + denomination of apple, discriminating them from each other by the + additional epithet of their country. 2. In the time of Homer, the vine + grew wild in the island of Sicily, and most probably in the adjacent + continent; but it was not improved by the skill, nor did it afford a + liquor grateful to the taste, of the savage inhabitants. <a + href="#linknote-2.94" name="linknoteref-2.94" id="linknoteref-2.94">94</a> A + thousand years afterwards, Italy could boast, that of the fourscore most + generous and celebrated wines, more than two thirds were produced from her + soil. <a href="#linknote-2.95" name="linknoteref-2.95" id="linknoteref-2.95">95</a> + The blessing was soon communicated to the Narbonnese province of Gaul; but + so intense was the cold to the north of the Cevennes, that, in the time of + Strabo, it was thought impossible to ripen the grapes in those parts of + Gaul. <a href="#linknote-2.96" name="linknoteref-2.96" id="linknoteref-2.96">96</a> + This difficulty, however, was gradually vanquished; and there is some + reason to believe, that the vineyards of Burgundy are as old as the age of + the Antonines. <a href="#linknote-2.97" name="linknoteref-2.97" + id="linknoteref-2.97">97</a> 3. The olive, in the western world, followed + the progress of peace, of which it was considered as the symbol. Two + centuries after the foundation of Rome, both Italy and Africa were + strangers to that useful plant: it was naturalized in those countries; and + at length carried into the heart of Spain and Gaul. The timid errors of + the ancients, that it required a certain degree of heat, and could only + flourish in the neighborhood of the sea, were insensibly exploded by + industry and experience. 4. The cultivation of flax was transported from + Egypt to Gaul, and enriched the whole country, however it might impoverish + the particular lands on which it was sown. <a href="#linknote-2.99" + name="linknoteref-2.99" id="linknoteref-2.99">99</a> 5. The use of + artificial grasses became familiar to the farmers both of Italy and the + provinces, particularly the Lucerne, which derived its name and origin + from Media. <a href="#linknote-2.100" name="linknoteref-2.100" + id="linknoteref-2.100">100</a> The assured supply of wholesome and + plentiful food for the cattle during winter, multiplied the number of the + docks and herds, which in their turn contributed to the fertility of the + soil. To all these improvements may be added an assiduous attention to + mines and fisheries, which, by employing a multitude of laborious hands, + serve to increase the pleasures of the rich and the subsistence of the + poor. The elegant treatise of Columella describes the advanced state of + the Spanish husbandry under the reign of Tiberius; and it may be observed, + that those famines, which so frequently afflicted the infant republic, + were seldom or never experienced by the extensive empire of Rome. The + accidental scarcity, in any single province, was immediately relieved by + the plenty of its more fortunate neighbors. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.93" id="linknote-2.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.93">return</a>)<br/> [ It is not improbable + that the Greeks and Phœnicians introduced some new arts and productions + into the neighborhood of Marseilles and Gades.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.94" id="linknote-2.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.94">return</a>)<br/> [ See Homer, Odyss. l. ix. + v. 358.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.95" id="linknote-2.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.95">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + xiv.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.96" id="linknote-2.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.96">return</a>)<br/> [ Strab. Geograph. l. iv. + p. 269. The intense cold of a Gallic winter was almost proverbial among + the ancients. * Note: Strabo only says that the grape does not ripen. + Attempts had been made in the time of Augustus to naturalize the vine in + the north of Gaul; but the cold was too great. Diod. Sic. edit. Rhodom. p. + 304.—W. Diodorus (lib. v. 26) gives a curious picture of the Italian + traders bartering, with the savages of Gaul, a cask of wine for a slave.—M. + —It appears from the newly discovered treatise of Cicero de + Republica, that there was a law of the republic prohibiting the culture of + the vine and olive beyond the Alps, in order to keep up the value of those + in Italy. Nos justissimi homines, qui transalpinas gentes oleam et vitem + serere non sinimus, quo pluris sint nostra oliveta nostræque vineæ. Lib. + iii. 9. The restrictive law of Domitian was veiled under the decent + pretext of encouraging the cultivation of grain. Suet. Dom. vii. It was + repealed by Probus Vopis Strobus, 18.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.97" id="linknote-2.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.97">return</a>)<br/> [ In the beginning of the + fourth century, the orator Eumenius (Panegyr. Veter. viii. 6, edit. + Delphin.) speaks of the vines in the territory of Autun, which were + decayed through age, and the first plantation of which was totally + unknown. The Pagus Arebrignus is supposed by M. d’Anville to be the + district of Beaune, celebrated, even at present for one of the first + growths of Burgundy. * Note: This is proved by a passage of Pliny the + Elder, where he speaks of a certain kind of grape (vitis picata. vinum + picatum) which grows naturally to the district of Vienne, and had recently + been transplanted into the country of the Arverni, (Auvergne,) of the + Helvii, (the Vivarias.) and the Burgundy and Franche Compte. Pliny wrote + A.D. 77. Hist. Nat. xiv. 1.— W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.99" id="linknote-2.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.99">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + xix.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.100" id="linknote-2.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.100">return</a>)<br/> [ See the agreeable + Essays on Agriculture by Mr. Harte, in which he has collected all that the + ancients and moderns have said of Lucerne.] + </p> + <p> + Agriculture is the foundation of manufactures; since the productions of + nature are the materials of art. Under the Roman empire, the labor of an + industrious and ingenious people was variously, but incessantly, employed + in the service of the rich. In their dress, their table, their houses, and + their furniture, the favorites of fortune united every refinement of + conveniency, of elegance, and of splendor, whatever could soothe their + pride or gratify their sensuality. Such refinements, under the odious name + of luxury, have been severely arraigned by the moralists of every age; and + it might perhaps be more conducive to the virtue, as well as happiness, of + mankind, if all possessed the necessaries, and none the superfluities, of + life. But in the present imperfect condition of society, luxury, though it + may proceed from vice or folly, seems to be the only means that can + correct the unequal distribution of property. The diligent mechanic, and + the skilful artist, who have obtained no share in the division of the + earth, receive a voluntary tax from the possessors of land; and the latter + are prompted, by a sense of interest, to improve those estates, with whose + produce they may purchase additional pleasures. This operation, the + particular effects of which are felt in every society, acted with much + more diffusive energy in the Roman world. The provinces would soon have + been exhausted of their wealth, if the manufactures and commerce of luxury + had not insensibly restored to the industrious subjects the sums which + were exacted from them by the arms and authority of Rome. As long as the + circulation was confined within the bounds of the empire, it impressed the + political machine with a new degree of activity, and its consequences, + sometimes beneficial, could never become pernicious. + </p> + <p> + But it is no easy task to confine luxury within the limits of an empire. + The most remote countries of the ancient world were ransacked to supply + the pomp and delicacy of Rome. The forests of Scythia afforded some + valuable furs. Amber was brought over land from the shores of the Baltic + to the Danube; and the barbarians were astonished at the price which they + received in exchange for so useless a commodity. <a href="#linknote-2.101" + name="linknoteref-2.101" id="linknoteref-2.101">101</a> There was a + considerable demand for Babylonian carpets, and other manufactures of the + East; but the most important and unpopular branch of foreign trade was + carried on with Arabia and India. Every year, about the time of the summer + solstice, a fleet of a hundred and twenty vessels sailed from Myos-hormos, + a port of Egypt, on the Red Sea. By the periodical assistance of the + monsoons, they traversed the ocean in about forty days. The coast of + Malabar, or the island of Ceylon, <a href="#linknote-2.102" + name="linknoteref-2.102" id="linknoteref-2.102">102</a> was the usual term + of their navigation, and it was in those markets that the merchants from + the more remote countries of Asia expected their arrival. The return of + the fleet of Egypt was fixed to the months of December or January; and as + soon as their rich cargo had been transported on the backs of camels, from + the Red Sea to the Nile, and had descended that river as far as + Alexandria, it was poured, without delay, into the capital of the empire. + <a href="#linknote-2.103" name="linknoteref-2.103" id="linknoteref-2.103">103</a> + The objects of oriental traffic were splendid and trifling; silk, a pound + of which was esteemed not inferior in value to a pound of gold; <a + href="#linknote-2.104" name="linknoteref-2.104" id="linknoteref-2.104">104</a> + precious stones, among which the pearl claimed the first rank after the + diamond; <a href="#linknote-2.105" name="linknoteref-2.105" + id="linknoteref-2.105">105</a> and a variety of aromatics, that were + consumed in religious worship and the pomp of funerals. The labor and risk + of the voyage was rewarded with almost incredible profit; but the profit + was made upon Roman subjects, and a few individuals were enriched at the + expense of the public. As the natives of Arabia and India were contented + with the productions and manufactures of their own country, silver, on the + side of the Romans, was the principal, if not the only <a + href="#linknote-2.1051" name="linknoteref-2.1051" id="linknoteref-2.1051">1051</a> + instrument of commerce. It was a complaint worthy of the gravity of the + senate, that, in the purchase of female ornaments, the wealth of the state + was irrecoverably given away to foreign and hostile nations. <a + href="#linknote-2.106" name="linknoteref-2.106" id="linknoteref-2.106">106</a> + The annual loss is computed, by a writer of an inquisitive but censorious + temper, at upwards of eight hundred thousand pounds sterling. <a + href="#linknote-2.107" name="linknoteref-2.107" id="linknoteref-2.107">107</a> + Such was the style of discontent, brooding over the dark prospect of + approaching poverty. And yet, if we compare the proportion between gold + and silver, as it stood in the time of Pliny, and as it was fixed in the + reign of Constantine, we shall discover within that period a very + considerable increase. <a href="#linknote-2.108" name="linknoteref-2.108" + id="linknoteref-2.108">108</a> There is not the least reason to suppose + that gold was become more scarce; it is therefore evident that silver was + grown more common; that whatever might be the amount of the Indian and + Arabian exports, they were far from exhausting the wealth of the Roman + world; and that the produce of the mines abundantly supplied the demands + of commerce. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.101" id="linknote-2.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.101">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. + 45. Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvii. 13. The latter observed, with some humor, + that even fashion had not yet found out the use of amber. Nero sent a + Roman knight to purchase great quantities on the spot where it was + produced, the coast of modern Prussia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.102" id="linknote-2.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Called Taprobana by + the Romans, and Serindib by the Arabs. It was discovered under the reign + of Claudius, and gradually became the principal mart of the East.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.103" id="linknote-2.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.103">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + vi. Strabo, l. xvii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.104" id="linknote-2.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.104">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 224. + A silk garment was considered as an ornament to a woman, but as a disgrace + to a man.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.105" id="linknote-2.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.105">return</a>)<br/> [ The two great pearl + fisheries were the same as at present, Ormuz and Cape Comorin. As well as + we can compare ancient with modern geography, Rome was supplied with + diamonds from the mine of Jumelpur, in Bengal, which is described in the + Voyages de Tavernier, tom. ii. p. 281.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.1051" id="linknote-2.1051"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1051 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.1051">return</a>)<br/> [ Certainly not the + only one. The Indians were not so contented with regard to foreign + productions. Arrian has a long list of European wares, which they received + in exchange for their own; Italian and other wines, brass, tin, lead, + coral, chrysolith, storax, glass, dresses of one or many colors, zones, + &c. See Periplus Maris Erythræi in Hudson, Geogr. Min. i. p. 27.—W. + The German translator observes that Gibbon has confined the use of + aromatics to religious worship and funerals. His error seems the omission + of other spices, of which the Romans must have consumed great quantities + in their cookery. Wenck, however, admits that silver was the chief article + of exchange.—M. In 1787, a peasant (near Nellore in the Carnatic) + struck, in digging, on the remains of a Hindu temple; he found, also, a + pot which contained Roman coins and medals of the second century, mostly + Trajans, Adrians, and Faustinas, all of gold, many of them fresh and + beautiful, others defaced or perforated, as if they had been worn as + ornaments. (Asiatic Researches, ii. 19.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.106" id="linknote-2.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.106">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. iii. 53. + In a speech of Tiberius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.107" id="linknote-2.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.107">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. + xii. 18. In another place he computes half that sum; Quingenties H. S. for + India exclusive of Arabia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.108" id="linknote-2.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.108">return</a>)<br/> [ The proportion, which + was 1 to 10, and 12 1/2, rose to 14 2/5, the legal regulation of + Constantine. See Arbuthnot’s Tables of ancient Coins, c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the propensity of mankind to exalt the past, and to + depreciate the present, the tranquil and prosperous state of the empire + was warmly felt, and honestly confessed, by the provincials as well as + Romans. “They acknowledged that the true principles of social life, laws, + agriculture, and science, which had been first invented by the wisdom of + Athens, were now firmly established by the power of Rome, under whose + auspicious influence the fiercest barbarians were united by an equal + government and common language. They affirm, that with the improvement of + arts, the human species were visibly multiplied. They celebrate the + increasing splendor of the cities, the beautiful face of the country, + cultivated and adorned like an immense garden; and the long festival of + peace which was enjoyed by so many nations, forgetful of the ancient + animosities, and delivered from the apprehension of future danger.” <a + href="#linknote-2.109" name="linknoteref-2.109" id="linknoteref-2.109">109</a> + Whatever suspicions may be suggested by the air of rhetoric and + declamation, which seems to prevail in these passages, the substance of + them is perfectly agreeable to historic truth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.109" id="linknote-2.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.109">return</a>)<br/> [ Among many other + passages, see Pliny, (Hist. Natur. iii. 5.) Aristides, (de Urbe Roma,) and + Tertullian, (de Anima, c. 30.)] + </p> + <p> + It was scarcely possible that the eyes of contemporaries should discover + in the public felicity the latent causes of decay and corruption. This + long peace, and the uniform government of the Romans, introduced a slow + and secret poison into the vitals of the empire. The minds of men were + gradually reduced to the same level, the fire of genius was extinguished, + and even the military spirit evaporated. The natives of Europe were brave + and robust. Spain, Gaul, Britain, and Illyricum supplied the legions with + excellent soldiers, and constituted the real strength of the monarchy. + Their personal valor remained, but they no longer possessed that public + courage which is nourished by the love of independence, the sense of + national honor, the presence of danger, and the habit of command. They + received laws and governors from the will of their sovereign, and trusted + for their defence to a mercenary army. The posterity of their boldest + leaders was contented with the rank of citizens and subjects. The most + aspiring spirits resorted to the court or standard of the emperors; and + the deserted provinces, deprived of political strength or union, + insensibly sunk into the languid indifference of private life. + </p> + <p> + The love of letters, almost inseparable from peace and refinement, was + fashionable among the subjects of Hadrian and the Antonines, who were + themselves men of learning and curiosity. It was diffused over the whole + extent of their empire; the most northern tribes of Britons had acquired a + taste for rhetoric; Homer as well as Virgil were transcribed and studied + on the banks of the Rhine and Danube; and the most liberal rewards sought + out the faintest glimmerings of literary merit. <a href="#linknote-2.110" + name="linknoteref-2.110" id="linknoteref-2.110">110</a> The sciences of + physic and astronomy were successfully cultivated by the Greeks; the + observations of Ptolemy and the writings of Galen are studied by those who + have improved their discoveries and corrected their errors; but if we + except the inimitable Lucian, this age of indolence passed away without + having produced a single writer of original genius, or who excelled in the + arts of elegant composition.<a href="#linknote-2.1101" name="linknoteref-2.1101" + id="linknoteref-2.1101">1101</a> The authority of Plato and Aristotle, of Zeno + and Epicurus, still reigned in the schools; and their systems, transmitted + with blind deference from one generation of disciples to another, + precluded every generous attempt to exercise the powers, or enlarge the + limits, of the human mind. The beauties of the poets and orators, instead + of kindling a fire like their own, inspired only cold and servile + imitations: or if any ventured to deviate from those models, they deviated + at the same time from good sense and propriety. On the revival of letters, + the youthful vigor of the imagination, after a long repose, national + emulation, a new religion, new languages, and a new world, called forth + the genius of Europe. But the provincials of Rome, trained by a uniform + artificial foreign education, were engaged in a very unequal competition + with those bold ancients, who, by expressing their genuine feelings in + their native tongue, had already occupied every place of honor. The name + of Poet was almost forgotten; that of Orator was usurped by the sophists. + A cloud of critics, of compilers, of commentators, darkened the face of + learning, and the decline of genius was soon followed by the corruption of + taste. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.110" id="linknote-2.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.110">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodes Atticus gave + the sophist Polemo above eight thousand pounds for three declamations. See + Philostrat. l. i. p. 538. The Antonines founded a school at Athens, in + which professors of grammar, rhetoric, politics, and the four great sects + of philosophy were maintained at the public expense for the instruction of + youth. The salary of a philosopher was ten thousand drachmæ, between + three and four hundred pounds a year. Similar establishments were formed + in the other great cities of the empire. See Lucian in Eunuch. tom. ii. p. + 352, edit. Reitz. Philostrat. l. ii. p. 566. Hist. August. p. 21. Dion + Cassius, l. lxxi. p. 1195. Juvenal himself, in a morose satire, which in + every line betrays his own disappointment and envy, is obliged, however, + to say,—“—O Juvenes, circumspicit et stimulat vos. Materiamque + sibi Ducis indulgentia quærit.”—Satir. vii. 20. Note: Vespasian + first gave a salary to professors: he assigned to each professor of + rhetoric, Greek and Roman, centena sestertia. (Sueton. in Vesp. 18). + Hadrian and the Antonines, though still liberal, were less profuse.—G. + from W. Suetonius wrote annua centena L. 807, 5, 10.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.1101" id="linknote-2.1101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1101 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.1101">return</a>)<br/> [ This judgment is + rather severe: besides the physicians, astronomers, and grammarians, among + whom there were some very distinguished men, there were still, under + Hadrian, Suetonius, Florus, Plutarch; under the Antonines, Arrian, + Pausanias, Appian, Marcus Aurelius himself, Sextus Empiricus, &c. + Jurisprudence gained much by the labors of Salvius Julianus, Julius + Celsus, Sex. Pomponius, Caius, and others.—G. from W. Yet where, + among these, is the writer of original genius, unless, perhaps Plutarch? + or even of a style really elegant?— M.] + </p> + <p> + The sublime Longinus, who, in somewhat a later period, and in the court of + a Syrian queen, preserved the spirit of ancient Athens, observes and + laments this degeneracy of his contemporaries, which debased their + sentiments, enervated their courage, and depressed their talents. “In the + same manner,” says he, “as some children always remain pygmies, whose + infant limbs have been too closely confined, thus our tender minds, + fettered by the prejudices and habits of a just servitude, are unable to + expand themselves, or to attain that well-proportioned greatness which we + admire in the ancients; who, living under a popular government, wrote with + the same freedom as they acted.” <a href="#linknote-2.111" + name="linknoteref-2.111" id="linknoteref-2.111">111</a> This diminutive + stature of mankind, if we pursue the metaphor, was daily sinking below the + old standard, and the Roman world was indeed peopled by a race of pygmies; + when the fierce giants of the north broke in, and mended the puny breed. + They restored a manly spirit of freedom; and after the revolution of ten + centuries, freedom became the happy parent of taste and science. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-2.111" id="linknote-2.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-2.111">return</a>)<br/> [ Longin. de Sublim. c. + 44, p. 229, edit. Toll. Here, too, we may say of Longinus, “his own + example strengthens all his laws.” Instead of proposing his sentiments + with a manly boldness, he insinuates them with the most guarded caution; + puts them into the mouth of a friend, and as far as we can collect from a + corrupted text, makes a show of refuting them himself.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap03.1"></a> + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Of The Constitution Of The Roman Empire, In The Age Of The Antonines. +</p> + <p> + The obvious definition of a monarchy seems to be that of a state, in which + a single person, by whatsoever name he may be distinguished, is intrusted + with the execution of the laws, the management of the revenue, and the + command of the army. But, unless public liberty is protected by intrepid + and vigilant guardians, the authority of so formidable a magistrate will + soon degenerate into despotism. The influence of the clergy, in an age of + superstition, might be usefully employed to assert the rights of mankind; + but so intimate is the connection between the throne and the altar, that + the banner of the church has very seldom been seen on the side of the + people. <a href="#linknote-3.101" name="linknoteref-3.101" + id="linknoteref-3.101">101</a> A martial nobility and stubborn commons, + possessed of arms, tenacious of property, and collected into + constitutional assemblies, form the only balance capable of preserving a + free constitution against enterprises of an aspiring prince. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.101" id="linknote-3.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.101">return</a>)<br/> [ Often enough in the + ages of superstition, but not in the interest of the people or the state, + but in that of the church to which all others were subordinate. Yet the + power of the pope has often been of great service in repressing the + excesses of sovereigns, and in softening manners.—W. The history of + the Italian republics proves the error of Gibbon, and the justice of his + German translator’s comment.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Every barrier of the Roman constitution had been levelled by the vast + ambition of the dictator; every fence had been extirpated by the cruel + hand of the triumvir. After the victory of Actium, the fate of the Roman + world depended on the will of Octavianus, surnamed Cæsar, by his uncle’s + adoption, and afterwards Augustus, by the flattery of the senate. The + conqueror was at the head of forty-four veteran legions, <a + href="#linknote-3.1" name="linknoteref-3.1" id="linknoteref-3.1">1</a> + conscious of their own strength, and of the weakness of the constitution, + habituated, during twenty years’ civil war, to every act of blood and + violence, and passionately devoted to the house of Cæsar, from whence + alone they had received, and expected the most lavish rewards. The + provinces, long oppressed by the ministers of the republic, sighed for the + government of a single person, who would be the master, not the + accomplice, of those petty tyrants. The people of Rome, viewing, with a + secret pleasure, the humiliation of the aristocracy, demanded only bread + and public shows; and were supplied with both by the liberal hand of + Augustus. The rich and polite Italians, who had almost universally + embraced the philosophy of Epicurus, enjoyed the present blessings of ease + and tranquillity, and suffered not the pleasing dream to be interrupted by + the memory of their old tumultuous freedom. With its power, the senate had + lost its dignity; many of the most noble families were extinct. The + republicans of spirit and ability had perished in the field of battle, or + in the proscription. The door of the assembly had been designedly left + open, for a mixed multitude of more than a thousand persons, who reflected + disgrace upon their rank, instead of deriving honor from it. <a + href="#linknote-3.2" name="linknoteref-3.2" id="linknoteref-3.2">2</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.1" id="linknote-3.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Orosius, vi. 18. * Note: + Dion says twenty-five, (or three,) (lv. 23.) The united triumvirs had but + forty-three. (Appian. Bell. Civ. iv. 3.) The testimony of Orosius is of + little value when more certain may be had.—W. But all the legions, + doubtless, submitted to Augustus after the battle of Actium.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.2" id="linknote-3.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Julius Cæsar introduced + soldiers, strangers, and half-barbarians into the senate (Sueton. in + Cæsar. c. 77, 80.) The abuse became still more scandalous after his + death.] + </p> + <p> + The reformation of the senate was one of the first steps in which Augustus + laid aside the tyrant, and professed himself the father of his country. He + was elected censor; and, in concert with his faithful Agrippa, he examined + the list of the senators, expelled a few members, <a href="#linknote-3.201" + name="linknoteref-3.201" id="linknoteref-3.201">201</a> whose vices or whose + obstinacy required a public example, persuaded near two hundred to prevent + the shame of an expulsion by a voluntary retreat, raised the qualification + of a senator to about ten thousand pounds, created a sufficient number of + patrician families, and accepted for himself the honorable title of Prince + of the Senate, <a href="#linknote-3.202" name="linknoteref-3.202" + id="linknoteref-3.202">202</a> which had always been bestowed, by the + censors, on the citizen the most eminent for his honors and services. <a + href="#linknote-3.3" name="linknoteref-3.3" id="linknoteref-3.3">3</a> But + whilst he thus restored the dignity, he destroyed the independence, of the + senate. The principles of a free constitution are irrecoverably lost, when + the legislative power is nominated by the executive. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.201" id="linknote-3.201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.201">return</a>)<br/> [ Of these Dion and + Suetonius knew nothing.—W. Dion says the contrary.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.202" id="linknote-3.202"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 202 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.202">return</a>)<br/> [ But Augustus, then + Octavius, was censor, and in virtue of that office, even according to the + constitution of the free republic, could reform the senate, expel unworthy + members, name the Princeps Senatus, &c. That was called, as is well + known, Senatum legere. It was customary, during the free republic, for the + censor to be named Princeps Senatus, (S. Liv. l. xxvii. c. 11, l. xl. c. + 51;) and Dion expressly says, that this was done according to ancient + usage. He was empowered by a decree of the senate to admit a number of + families among the patricians. Finally, the senate was not the legislative + power.—W] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.3" id="linknote-3.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. liii. p. + 693. Suetonius in August. c. 35.] + </p> + <p> + Before an assembly thus modelled and prepared, Augustus pronounced a + studied oration, which displayed his patriotism, and disguised his + ambition. “He lamented, yet excused, his past conduct. Filial piety had + required at his hands the revenge of his father’s murder; the humanity of + his own nature had sometimes given way to the stern laws of necessity, and + to a forced connection with two unworthy colleagues: as long as Antony + lived, the republic forbade him to abandon her to a degenerate Roman, and + a barbarian queen. He was now at liberty to satisfy his duty and his + inclination. He solemnly restored the senate and people to all their + ancient rights; and wished only to mingle with the crowd of his + fellow-citizens, and to share the blessings which he had obtained for his + country.” <a href="#linknote-3.4" name="linknoteref-3.4" id="linknoteref-3.4">4</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.4" id="linknote-3.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion (l. liii. p. 698) + gives us a prolix and bombast speech on this great occasion. I have + borrowed from Suetonius and Tacitus the general language of Augustus.] + </p> + <p> + It would require the pen of Tacitus (if Tacitus had assisted at this + assembly) to describe the various emotions of the senate, those that were + suppressed, and those that were affected. It was dangerous to trust the + sincerity of Augustus; to seem to distrust it was still more dangerous. + The respective advantages of monarchy and a republic have often divided + speculative inquirers; the present greatness of the Roman state, the + corruption of manners, and the license of the soldiers, supplied new + arguments to the advocates of monarchy; and these general views of + government were again warped by the hopes and fears of each individual. + Amidst this confusion of sentiments, the answer of the senate was + unanimous and decisive. They refused to accept the resignation of + Augustus; they conjured him not to desert the republic, which he had + saved. After a decent resistance, the crafty tyrant submitted to the + orders of the senate; and consented to receive the government of the + provinces, and the general command of the Roman armies, under the + well-known names of P<small>ROCONSUL</small> and + I<small>MPERATOR</small>. <a href="#linknote-3.5" name="linknoteref-3.5" + id="linknoteref-3.5">5</a> But he would receive them only for ten years. + Even before the expiration of that period, he hope that the wounds of + civil discord would be completely healed, and that the republic, restored + to its pristine health and vigor, would no longer require the dangerous + interposition of so extraordinary a magistrate. The memory of this + comedy, repeated several times during the life of Augustus, was preserved + to the last ages of the empire, by the peculiar pomp with which the + perpetual monarchs of Rome always solemnized the tenth years of their + reign. <a href="#linknote-3.6" name="linknoteref-3.6" + id="linknoteref-3.6">6</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.5" id="linknote-3.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Imperator (from which we + have derived Emperor) signified under her republic no more than general, + and was emphatically bestowed by the soldiers, when on the field of battle + they proclaimed their victorious leader worthy of that title. When the + Roman emperors assumed it in that sense, they placed it after their name, + and marked how often they had taken it.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.6" id="linknote-3.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion. l. liii. p. 703, + &c.] + </p> + <p> + Without any violation of the principles of the constitution, the general + of the Roman armies might receive and exercise an authority almost + despotic over the soldiers, the enemies, and the subjects of the republic. + With regard to the soldiers, the jealousy of freedom had, even from the + earliest ages of Rome, given way to the hopes of conquest, and a just + sense of military discipline. The dictator, or consul, had a right to + command the service of the Roman youth; and to punish an obstinate or + cowardly disobedience by the most severe and ignominious penalties, by + striking the offender out of the list of citizens, by confiscating his + property, and by selling his person into slavery. <a href="#linknote-3.7" + name="linknoteref-3.7" id="linknoteref-3.7">7</a> The most sacred rights of + freedom, confirmed by the Porcian and Sempronian laws, were suspended by + the military engagement. In his camp the general exercised an absolute + power of life and death; his jurisdiction was not confined by any forms of + trial, or rules of proceeding, and the execution of the sentence was + immediate and without appeal. <a href="#linknote-3.8" name="linknoteref-3.8" + id="linknoteref-3.8">8</a> The choice of the enemies of Rome was regularly + decided by the legislative authority. The most important resolutions of + peace and war were seriously debated in the senate, and solemnly ratified + by the people. But when the arms of the legions were carried to a great + distance from Italy, the general assumed the liberty of directing them + against whatever people, and in whatever manner, they judged most + advantageous for the public service. It was from the success, not from the + justice, of their enterprises, that they expected the honors of a triumph. + In the use of victory, especially after they were no longer controlled by + the commissioners of the senate, they exercised the most unbounded + despotism. When Pompey commanded in the East, he rewarded his soldiers and + allies, dethroned princes, divided kingdoms, founded colonies, and + distributed the treasures of Mithridates. On his return to Rome, he + obtained, by a single act of the senate and people, the universal + ratification of all his proceedings. <a href="#linknote-3.9" + name="linknoteref-3.9" id="linknoteref-3.9">9</a> Such was the power over + the soldiers, and over the enemies of Rome, which was either granted to, + or assumed by, the generals of the republic. They were, at the same time, + the governors, or rather monarchs, of the conquered provinces, united the + civil with the military character, administered justice as well as the + finances, and exercised both the executive and legislative power of the + state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.7" id="linknote-3.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Livy Epitom. l. xiv. [c. + 27.] Valer. Maxim. vi. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.8" id="linknote-3.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.8">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in the viiith book of + Livy, the conduct of Manlius Torquatus and Papirius Cursor. They violated + the laws of nature and humanity, but they asserted those of military + discipline; and the people, who abhorred the action, was obliged to + respect the principle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.9" id="linknote-3.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.9">return</a>)<br/> [ By the lavish but + unconstrained suffrages of the people, Pompey had obtained a military + command scarcely inferior to that of Augustus. Among the extraordinary + acts of power executed by the former we may remark the foundation of + twenty-nine cities, and the distribution of three or four millions + sterling to his troops. The ratification of his acts met with some + opposition and delays in the senate See Plutarch, Appian, Dion Cassius, + and the first book of the epistles to Atticus.] + </p> + <p> + From what has already been observed in the first chapter of this work, + some notion may be formed of the armies and provinces thus intrusted to + the ruling hand of Augustus. But as it was impossible that he could + personally command the regions of so many distant frontiers, he was + indulged by the senate, as Pompey had already been, in the permission of + devolving the execution of his great office on a sufficient number of + lieutenants. In rank and authority these officers seemed not inferior to + the ancient proconsuls; but their station was dependent and precarious. + They received and held their commissions at the will of a superior, to + whose auspicious influence the merit of their action was legally + attributed. <a href="#linknote-3.10" name="linknoteref-3.10" + id="linknoteref-3.10">10</a> They were the representatives of the emperor. + The emperor alone was the general of the republic, and his jurisdiction, + civil as well as military, extended over all the conquests of Rome. It was + some satisfaction, however, to the senate, that he always delegated his + power to the members of their body. The imperial lieutenants were of + consular or prætorian dignity; the legions were commanded by senators, + and the præfecture of Egypt was the only important trust committed to a + Roman knight. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.10" id="linknote-3.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Under the commonwealth, + a triumph could only be claimed by the general, who was authorized to take + the Auspices in the name of the people. By an exact consequence, drawn + from this principle of policy and religion, the triumph was reserved to + the emperor; and his most successful lieutenants were satisfied with some + marks of distinction, which, under the name of triumphal honors, were + invented in their favor.] + </p> + <p> + Within six days after Augustus had been compelled to accept so very + liberal a grant, he resolved to gratify the pride of the senate by an easy + sacrifice. He represented to them, that they had enlarged his powers, even + beyond that degree which might be required by the melancholy condition of + the times. They had not permitted him to refuse the laborious command of + the armies and the frontiers; but he must insist on being allowed to + restore the more peaceful and secure provinces to the mild administration + of the civil magistrate. In the division of the provinces, Augustus + provided for his own power and for the dignity of the republic. The + proconsuls of the senate, particularly those of Asia, Greece, and Africa, + enjoyed a more honorable character than the lieutenants of the emperor, + who commanded in Gaul or Syria. The former were attended by lictors, the + latter by soldiers. <a href="#linknote-3.105" name="linknoteref-3.105" + id="linknoteref-3.105">105</a> A law was passed, that wherever the emperor + was present, his extraordinary commission should supersede the ordinary + jurisdiction of the governor; a custom was introduced, that the new + conquests belonged to the imperial portion; and it was soon discovered + that the authority of the <i>Prince</i>, the favorite epithet of Augustus, was + the same in every part of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.105" id="linknote-3.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.105">return</a>)<br/> [ This distinction is + without foundation. The lieutenants of the emperor, who were called + Proprætors, whether they had been prætors or consuls, were attended by + six lictors; those who had the right of the sword, (of life and death over + the soldiers.—M.) bore the military habit (paludamentum) and the + sword. The provincial governors commissioned by the senate, who, whether + they had been consuls or not, were called Pronconsuls, had twelve lictors + when they had been consuls, and six only when they had but been prætors. + The provinces of Africa and Asia were only given to ex-consuls. See, on + the Organization of the Provinces, Dion, liii. 12, 16 Strabo, xvii 840.—W] + </p> + <p> + In return for this imaginary concession, Augustus obtained an important + privilege, which rendered him master of Rome and Italy. By a dangerous + exception to the ancient maxims, he was authorized to preserve his + military command, supported by a numerous body of guards, even in time of + peace, and in the heart of the capital. His command, indeed, was confined + to those citizens who were engaged in the service by the military oath; + but such was the propensity of the Romans to servitude, that the oath was + voluntarily taken by the magistrates, the senators, and the equestrian + order, till the homage of flattery was insensibly converted into an annual + and solemn protestation of fidelity. + </p> + <p> + Although Augustus considered a military force as the firmest foundation, + he wisely rejected it, as a very odious instrument of government. It was + more agreeable to his temper, as well as to his policy, to reign under the + venerable names of ancient magistracy, and artfully to collect, in his own + person, all the scattered rays of civil jurisdiction. With this view, he + permitted the senate to confer upon him, for his life, the powers of the + consular <a href="#linknote-3.11" name="linknoteref-3.11" + id="linknoteref-3.11">11</a> and tribunitian offices, <a + href="#linknote-3.12" name="linknoteref-3.12" id="linknoteref-3.12">12</a> + which were, in the same manner, continued to all his successors. The + consuls had succeeded to the kings of Rome, and represented the dignity of + the state. They superintended the ceremonies of religion, levied and + commanded the legions, gave audience to foreign ambassadors, and presided + in the assemblies both of the senate and people. The general control of + the finances was intrusted to their care; and though they seldom had + leisure to administer justice in person, they were considered as the + supreme guardians of law, equity, and the public peace. Such was their + ordinary jurisdiction; but whenever the senate empowered the first + magistrate to consult the safety of the commonwealth, he was raised by + that decree above the laws, and exercised, in the defence of liberty, a + temporary despotism. <a href="#linknote-3.13" name="linknoteref-3.13" + id="linknoteref-3.13">13</a> The character of the tribunes was, in every + respect, different from that of the consuls. The appearance of the former + was modest and humble; but their persons were sacred and inviolable. Their + force was suited rather for opposition than for action. They were + instituted to defend the oppressed, to pardon offences, to arraign the + enemies of the people, and, when they judged it necessary, to stop, by a + single word, the whole machine of government. As long as the republic + subsisted, the dangerous influence, which either the consul or the tribune + might derive from their respective jurisdiction, was diminished by several + important restrictions. Their authority expired with the year in which + they were elected; the former office was divided between two, the latter + among ten persons; and, as both in their private and public interest they + were averse to each other, their mutual conflicts contributed, for the + most part, to strengthen rather than to destroy the balance of the + constitution. <a href="#linknote-3.131" name="linknoteref-3.131" + id="linknoteref-3.131">131</a> But when the consular and tribunitian powers + were united, when they were vested for life in a single person, when the + general of the army was, at the same time, the minister of the senate and + the representative of the Roman people, it was impossible to resist the + exercise, nor was it easy to define the limits, of his imperial + prerogative. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.11" id="linknote-3.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero (de Legibus, iii. + 3) gives the consular office the name of egia potestas; and Polybius (l. + vi. c. 3) observes three powers in the Roman constitution. The monarchical + was represented and exercised by the consuls.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.12" id="linknote-3.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.12">return</a>)<br/> [ As the tribunitian power + (distinct from the annual office) was first invented by the dictator + Cæsar, (Dion, l. xliv. p. 384,) we may easily conceive, that it was given + as a reward for having so nobly asserted, by arms, the sacred rights of + the tribunes and people. See his own Commentaries, de Bell. Civil. l. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.13" id="linknote-3.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Augustus exercised nine + annual consulships without interruption. He then most artfully refused the + magistracy, as well as the dictatorship, absented himself from Rome, and + waited till the fatal effects of tumult and faction forced the senate to + invest him with a perpetual consulship. Augustus, as well as his + successors, affected, however, to conceal so invidious a title.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.131" id="linknote-3.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.131">return</a>)<br/> [ The note of M. Guizot + on the tribunitian power applies to the French translation rather than to + the original. The former has, maintenir la balance toujours egale, which + implies much more than Gibbon’s general expression. The note belongs + rather to the history of the Republic than that of the Empire.—M] + </p> + <p> + To these accumulated honors, the policy of Augustus soon added the + splendid as well as important dignities of supreme pontiff, and of censor. + By the former he acquired the management of the religion, and by the + latter a legal inspection over the manners and fortunes, of the Roman + people. If so many distinct and independent powers did not exactly unite + with each other, the complaisance of the senate was prepared to supply + every deficiency by the most ample and extraordinary concessions. The + emperors, as the first ministers of the republic, were exempted from the + obligation and penalty of many inconvenient laws: they were authorized to + convoke the senate, to make several motions in the same day, to recommend + candidates for the honors of the state, to enlarge the bounds of the city, + to employ the revenue at their discretion, to declare peace and war, to + ratify treaties; and by a most comprehensive clause, they were empowered + to execute whatsoever they should judge advantageous to the empire, and + agreeable to the majesty of things private or public, human of divine. <a + href="#linknote-3.14" name="linknoteref-3.14" id="linknoteref-3.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.14" id="linknote-3.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.14">return</a>)<br/> [ See a fragment of a + Decree of the Senate, conferring on the emperor Vespasian all the powers + granted to his predecessors, Augustus, Tiberius, and Claudius. This + curious and important monument is published in Gruter’s Inscriptions, No. + ccxlii. * Note: It is also in the editions of Tacitus by Ryck, (Annal. p. + 420, 421,) and Ernesti, (Excurs. ad lib. iv. 6;) but this fragment + contains so many inconsistencies, both in matter and form, that its + authenticity may be doubted—W.] + </p> + <p> + When all the various powers of executive government were committed to the + <i>Imperial magistrate</i>, the ordinary magistrates of the commonwealth + languished in obscurity, without vigor, and almost without business. The + names and forms of the ancient administration were preserved by Augustus + with the most anxious care. The usual number of consuls, prætors, and + tribunes, <a href="#linknote-3.15" name="linknoteref-3.15" + id="linknoteref-3.15">15</a> were annually invested with their respective + ensigns of office, and continued to discharge some of their least + important functions. Those honors still attracted the vain ambition of the + Romans; and the emperors themselves, though invested for life with the + powers of the consulship, frequently aspired to the title of that annual + dignity, which they condescended to share with the most illustrious of + their fellow-citizens. <a href="#linknote-3.16" name="linknoteref-3.16" + id="linknoteref-3.16">16</a> In the election of these magistrates, the + people, during the reign of Augustus, were permitted to expose all the + inconveniences of a wild democracy. That artful prince, instead of + discovering the least symptom of impatience, humbly solicited their + suffrages for himself or his friends, and scrupulously practised all the + duties of an ordinary candidate. <a href="#linknote-3.17" + name="linknoteref-3.17" id="linknoteref-3.17">17</a> But we may venture to + ascribe to his councils the first measure of the succeeding reign, by + which the elections were transferred to the senate. <a href="#linknote-3.18" + name="linknoteref-3.18" id="linknoteref-3.18">18</a> The assemblies of the + people were forever abolished, and the emperors were delivered from a + dangerous multitude, who, without restoring liberty, might have disturbed, + and perhaps endangered, the established government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.15" id="linknote-3.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Two consuls were created + on the Calends of January; but in the course of the year others were + substituted in their places, till the annual number seems to have amounted + to no less than twelve. The prætors were usually sixteen or eighteen, + (Lipsius in Excurs. D. ad Tacit. Annal. l. i.) I have not mentioned the + Ædiles or Quæstors Officers of the police or revenue easily adapt + themselves to any form of government. In the time of Nero, the tribunes + legally possessed the right of intercession, though it might be dangerous + to exercise it (Tacit. Annal. xvi. 26.) In the time of Trajan, it was + doubtful whether the tribuneship was an office or a name, (Plin. Epist. i. + 23.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.16" id="linknote-3.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.16">return</a>)<br/> [ The tyrants themselves + were ambitious of the consulship. The virtuous princes were moderate in + the pursuit, and exact in the discharge of it. Trajan revived the ancient + oath, and swore before the consul’s tribunal that he would observe the + laws, (Plin. Panegyric c. 64.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.17" id="linknote-3.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Quoties Magistratuum + Comitiis interesset. Tribus cum candidatis suis circunbat: supplicabatque + more solemni. Ferebat et ipse suffragium in tribubus, ut unus e populo. + Suetonius in August c. 56.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.18" id="linknote-3.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Tum primum Comitia e + campo ad patres translata sunt. Tacit. Annal. i. 15. The word primum seems + to allude to some faint and unsuccessful efforts which were made towards + restoring them to the people. Note: The emperor Caligula made the attempt: + he rest red the Comitia to the people, but, in a short time, took them + away again. Suet. in Caio. c. 16. Dion. lix. 9, 20. Nevertheless, at the + time of Dion, they preserved still the form of the Comitia. Dion. lviii. + 20.—W.] + </p> + <p> + By declaring themselves the protectors of the people, Marius and Cæsar + had subverted the constitution of their country. But as soon as the senate + had been humbled and disarmed, such an assembly, consisting of five or six + hundred persons, was found a much more tractable and useful instrument of + dominion. It was on the dignity of the senate that Augustus and his + successors founded their new empire; and they affected, on every occasion, + to adopt the language and principles of Patricians. In the administration + of their own powers, they frequently consulted the great national council, + and <i>seemed</i> to refer to its decision the most important concerns of peace + and war. Rome, Italy, and the internal provinces, were subject to the + immediate jurisdiction of the senate. With regard to civil objects, it was + the supreme court of appeal; with regard to criminal matters, a tribunal, + constituted for the trial of all offences that were committed by men in + any public station, or that affected the peace and majesty of the Roman + people. The exercise of the judicial power became the most frequent and + serious occupation of the senate; and the important causes that were + pleaded before them afforded a last refuge to the spirit of ancient + eloquence. As a council of state, and as a court of justice, the senate + possessed very considerable prerogatives; but in its legislative capacity, + in which it was supposed virtually to represent the people, the rights of + sovereignty were acknowledged to reside in that assembly. Every power was + derived from their authority, every law was ratified by their sanction. + Their regular meetings were held on three stated days in every month, the + Calends, the Nones, and the Ides. The debates were conducted with decent + freedom; and the emperors themselves, who gloried in the name of senators, + sat, voted, and divided with their equals. To resume, in a few words, the + system of the Imperial government; as it was instituted by Augustus, and + maintained by those princes who understood their own interest and that of + the people, it may be defined an absolute monarchy disguised by the forms + of a commonwealth. The masters of the Roman world surrounded their throne + with darkness, concealed their irresistible strength, and humbly professed + themselves the accountable ministers of the senate, whose supreme decrees + they dictated and obeyed. <a href="#linknote-3.19" name="linknoteref-3.19" + id="linknoteref-3.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.19" id="linknote-3.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.19">return</a>)<br/> [Dion Cassius (l. liii. p. + 703—714) has given a very loose and partial sketch of the Imperial + system. To illustrate and often to correct him, I have meditated Tacitus, + examined Suetonius, and consulted the following moderns: the Abbé de la + Bleterie, in the Memoires de l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xix. xxi. + xxiv. xxv. xxvii. Beaufort Republique Romaine, tom. i. p. 255—275. + The Dissertations of Noodt and Gronovius de lege Regia, printed at Leyden, + in the year 1731 Gravina de Imperio Romano, p. 479—544 of his + Opuscula. Maffei, Verona Illustrata, p. i. p. 245, &c.] + </p> + <p> + The face of the court corresponded with the forms of the administration. + The emperors, if we except those tyrants whose capricious folly violated + every law of nature and decency, disdained that pomp and ceremony which + might offend their countrymen, but could add nothing to their real power. + In all the offices of life, they affected to confound themselves with + their subjects, and maintained with them an equal intercourse of visits + and entertainments. Their habit, their palace, their table, were suited + only to the rank of an opulent senator. Their family, however numerous or + splendid, was composed entirely of their domestic slaves and freedmen. <a + href="#linknote-3.20" name="linknoteref-3.20" id="linknoteref-3.20">20</a> + Augustus or Trajan would have blushed at employing the meanest of the + Romans in those menial offices, which, in the household and bedchamber of + a limited monarch, are so eagerly solicited by the proudest nobles of + Britain. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.20" id="linknote-3.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.20">return</a>)<br/> [ A weak prince will + always be governed by his domestics. The power of slaves aggravated the + shame of the Romans; and the senate paid court to a Pallas or a Narcissus. + There is a chance that a modern favorite may be a gentleman.] + </p> + <p> + The deification of the emperors <a href="#linknote-3.21" + name="linknoteref-3.21" id="linknoteref-3.21">21</a> is the only instance in + which they departed from their accustomed prudence and modesty. The + Asiatic Greeks were the first inventors, the successors of Alexander the + first objects, of this servile and impious mode of adulation. <a + href="#linknote-3.211" name="linknoteref-3.211" id="linknoteref-3.211">211</a> + It was easily transferred from the kings to the governors of Asia; and the + Roman magistrates very frequently were adored as provincial deities, with + the pomp of altars and temples, of festivals and sacrifices. <a + href="#linknote-3.22" name="linknoteref-3.22" id="linknoteref-3.22">22</a> It + was natural that the emperors should not refuse what the proconsuls had + accepted; and the divine honors which both the one and the other received + from the provinces, attested rather the despotism than the servitude of + Rome. But the conquerors soon imitated the vanquished nations in the arts + of flattery; and the imperious spirit of the first Cæsar too easily + consented to assume, during his lifetime, a place among the tutelar + deities of Rome. The milder temper of his successor declined so dangerous + an ambition, which was never afterwards revived, except by the madness of + Caligula and Domitian. Augustus permitted indeed some of the provincial + cities to erect temples to his honor, on condition that they should + associate the worship of Rome with that of the sovereign; he tolerated + private superstition, of which he might be the object; <a + href="#linknote-3.23" name="linknoteref-3.23" id="linknoteref-3.23">23</a> + but he contented himself with being revered by the senate and the people + in his human character, and wisely left to his successor the care of his + public deification. A regular custom was introduced, that on the decease + of every emperor who had neither lived nor died like a tyrant, the senate + by a solemn decree should place him in the number of the gods: and the + ceremonies of his apotheosis were blended with those of his funeral. <a + href="#linknote-3.231" name="linknoteref-3.231" id="linknoteref-3.231">231</a> + This legal, and, as it should seem, injudicious profanation, so abhorrent + to our stricter principles, was received with a very faint murmur, <a + href="#linknote-3.24" name="linknoteref-3.24" id="linknoteref-3.24">24</a> by + the easy nature of Polytheism; but it was received as an institution, not + of religion, but of policy. We should disgrace the virtues of the + Antonines by comparing them with the vices of Hercules or Jupiter. Even + the characters of Cæsar or Augustus were far superior to those of the + popular deities. But it was the misfortune of the former to live in an + enlightened age, and their actions were too faithfully recorded to admit + of such a mixture of fable and mystery, as the devotion of the vulgar + requires. As soon as their divinity was established by law, it sunk into + oblivion, without contributing either to their own fame, or to the dignity + of succeeding princes. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.21" id="linknote-3.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.21">return</a>)<br/> [ See a treatise of + Vandale de Consecratione Principium. It would be easier for me to copy, + than it has been to verify, the quotations of that learned Dutchman.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.211" id="linknote-3.211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 211 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.211">return</a>)<br/> [ This is inaccurate. + The successors of Alexander were not the first deified sovereigns; the + Egyptians had deified and worshipped many of their kings; the Olympus of + the Greeks was peopled with divinities who had reigned on earth; finally, + Romulus himself had received the honors of an apotheosis (Tit. Liv. i. 16) + a long time before Alexander and his successors. It is also an inaccuracy + to confound the honors offered in the provinces to the Roman governors, by + temples and altars, with the true apotheosis of the emperors; it was not a + religious worship, for it had neither priests nor sacrifices. Augustus was + severely blamed for having permitted himself to be worshipped as a god in + the provinces, (Tac. Ann. i. 10: ) he would not have incurred that blame + if he had only done what the governors were accustomed to do.—G. + from W. M. Guizot has been guilty of a still greater inaccuracy in + confounding the deification of the living with the apotheosis of the dead + emperors. The nature of the king-worship of Egypt is still very obscure; + the hero-worship of the Greeks very different from the adoration of the + “præsens numen” in the reigning sovereign.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.22" id="linknote-3.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.22">return</a>)<br/> [ See a dissertation of + the Abbé Mongault in the first volume of the Academy of Inscriptions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.23" id="linknote-3.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Jurandasque tuum per + nomen ponimus aras, says Horace to the emperor himself, and Horace was + well acquainted with the court of Augustus. Note: The good princes were + not those who alone obtained the honors of an apotheosis: it was conferred + on many tyrants. See an excellent treatise of Schæpflin, de Consecratione + Imperatorum Romanorum, in his Commentationes historicæ et criticæ. Bale, + 1741, p. 184.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.231" id="linknote-3.231"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 231 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.231">return</a>)<br/> [ The curious satire in + the works of Seneca, is the strongest remonstrance of profaned religion.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.24" id="linknote-3.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.24">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cicero in Philippic. + i. 6. Julian in Cæsaribus. Inque Deum templis jurabit Roma per umbras, is + the indignant expression of Lucan; but it is a patriotic rather than a + devout indignation.] + </p> + <p> + In the consideration of the Imperial government, we have frequently + mentioned the artful founder, under his well-known title of Augustus, + which was not, however, conferred upon him till the edifice was almost + completed. The obscure name of Octavianus he derived from a mean family, + in the little town of Aricia. <a href="#linknote-3.241" + name="linknoteref-3.241" id="linknoteref-3.241">241</a> It was stained with + the blood of the proscription; and he was desirous, had it been possible, + to erase all memory of his former life. The illustrious surname of Cæsar + he had assumed, as the adopted son of the dictator: but he had too much + good sense, either to hope to be confounded, or to wish to be compared + with that extraordinary man. It was proposed in the senate to dignify + their minister with a new appellation; and after a serious discussion, + that of Augustus was chosen, among several others, as being the most + expressive of the character of peace and sanctity, which he uniformly + affected. <a href="#linknote-3.25" name="linknoteref-3.25" + id="linknoteref-3.25">25</a> <i>Augustus</i> was therefore a personal, <i>Cæsar</i> a + family distinction. The former should naturally have expired with the + prince on whom it was bestowed; and however the latter was diffused by + adoption and female alliance, Nero was the last prince who could allege + any hereditary claim to the honors of the Julian line. But, at the time of + his death, the practice of a century had inseparably connected those + appellations with the Imperial dignity, and they have been preserved by a + long succession of emperors, Romans, Greeks, Franks, and Germans, from the + fall of the republic to the present time. A distinction was, however, soon + introduced. The sacred title of Augustus was always reserved for the + monarch, whilst the name of Cæsar was more freely communicated to his + relations; and, from the reign of Hadrian, at least, was appropriated to + the second person in the state, who was considered as the presumptive heir + of the empire. <a href="#linknote-3.251" name="linknoteref-3.251" + id="linknoteref-3.251">251</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.241" id="linknote-3.241"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 241 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.241">return</a>)<br/> [ Octavius was not of an + obscure family, but of a considerable one of the equestrian order. His + father, C. Octavius, who possessed great property, had been prætor, + governor of Macedonia, adorned with the title of Imperator, and was on the + point of becoming consul when he died. His mother Attia, was daughter of + M. Attius Balbus, who had also been prætor. M. Anthony reproached + Octavius with having been born in Aricia, which, nevertheless, was a + considerable municipal city: he was vigorously refuted by Cicero. Philip. + iii. c. 6.—W. Gibbon probably meant that the family had but recently + emerged into notice.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.25" id="linknote-3.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion. Cassius, l. liii. + p. 710, with the curious Annotations of Reimar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.251" id="linknote-3.251"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 251 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.251">return</a>)<br/> [ The princes who by + their birth or their adoption belonged to the family of the Cæsars, took + the name of Cæsar. After the death of Nero, this name designated the + Imperial dignity itself, and afterwards the appointed successor. The time + at which it was employed in the latter sense, cannot be fixed with + certainty. Bach (Hist. Jurisprud. Rom. 304) affirms from Tacitus, H. i. + 15, and Suetonius, Galba, 17, that Galba conferred on Piso Lucinianus the + title of Cæsar, and from that time the term had this meaning: but these + two historians simply say that he appointed Piso his successor, and do not + mention the word Cæsar. Aurelius Victor (in Traj. 348, ed. Artzen) says + that Hadrian first received this title on his adoption; but as the + adoption of Hadrian is still doubtful, and besides this, as Trajan, on his + death-bed, was not likely to have created a new title for his successor, + it is more probable that Ælius Verus was the first who was called Cæsar + when adopted by Hadrian. Spart. in Ælio Vero, 102.—W.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap03.2"></a> + Chapter III: The Constitution In The Age Of The Antonines.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The tender respect of Augustus for a free constitution which he had + destroyed, can only be explained by an attentive consideration of the + character of that subtle tyrant. A cool head, an unfeeling heart, and a + cowardly disposition, prompted him at the age of nineteen to assume the + mask of hypocrisy, which he never afterwards laid aside. With the same + hand, and probably with the same temper, he signed the proscription of + Cicero, and the pardon of Cinna. His virtues, and even his vices, were + artificial; and according to the various dictates of his interest, he was + at first the enemy, and at last the father, of the Roman world. <a + href="#linknote-3.26" name="linknoteref-3.26" id="linknoteref-3.26">26</a> + When he framed the artful system of the Imperial authority, his moderation + was inspired by his fears. He wished to deceive the people by an image of + civil liberty, and the armies by an image of civil government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.26" id="linknote-3.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.26">return</a>)<br/> [ As Octavianus advanced + to the banquet of the Cæsars, his color changed like that of the + chameleon; pale at first, then red, afterwards black, he at last assumed + the mild livery of Venus and the Graces, (Cæsars, p. 309.) This image, + employed by Julian in his ingenious fiction, is just and elegant; but when + he considers this change of character as real and ascribes it to the power + of philosophy, he does too much honor to philosophy and to Octavianus.] + </p> + <p> + I. The death of Cæsar was ever before his eyes. He had lavished wealth + and honors on his adherents; but the most favored friends of his uncle + were in the number of the conspirators. The fidelity of the legions might + defend his authority against open rebellion; but their vigilance could not + secure his person from the dagger of a determined republican; and the + Romans, who revered the memory of Brutus, <a href="#linknote-3.27" + name="linknoteref-3.27" id="linknoteref-3.27">27</a> would applaud the + imitation of his virtue. Cæsar had provoked his fate, as much as by the + ostentation of his power, as by his power itself. The consul or the + tribune might have reigned in peace. The title of king had armed the + Romans against his life. Augustus was sensible that mankind is governed by + names; nor was he deceived in his expectation, that the senate and people + would submit to slavery, provided they were respectfully assured that they + still enjoyed their ancient freedom. A feeble senate and enervated people + cheerfully acquiesced in the pleasing illusion, as long as it was + supported by the virtue, or even by the prudence, of the successors of + Augustus. It was a motive of self-preservation, not a principle of + liberty, that animated the conspirators against Caligula, Nero, and + Domitian. They attacked the person of the tyrant, without aiming their + blow at the authority of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.27" id="linknote-3.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Two centuries after the + establishment of monarchy, the emperor Marcus Antoninus recommends the + character of Brutus as a perfect model of Roman virtue. * Note: In a very + ingenious essay, Gibbon has ventured to call in question the preeminent + virtue of Brutus. Misc Works, iv. 95.—M.] + </p> + <p> + There appears, indeed, <i>one</i> memorable occasion, in which the senate, after + seventy years of patience, made an ineffectual attempt to re-assume its + long-forgotten rights. When the throne was vacant by the murder of + Caligula, the consuls convoked that assembly in the Capitol, condemned the + memory of the Cæsars, gave the watchword <i>liberty</i> to the few cohorts who + faintly adhered to their standard, and during eight-and-forty hours acted + as the independent chiefs of a free commonwealth. But while they + deliberated, the prætorian guards had resolved. The stupid Claudius, + brother of Germanicus, was already in their camp, invested with the + Imperial purple, and prepared to support his election by arms. The dream + of liberty was at an end; and the senate awoke to all the horrors of + inevitable servitude. Deserted by the people, and threatened by a military + force, that feeble assembly was compelled to ratify the choice of the + prætorians, and to embrace the benefit of an amnesty, which Claudius had + the prudence to offer, and the generosity to observe. <a + href="#linknote-3.28" name="linknoteref-3.28" id="linknoteref-3.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.28" id="linknote-3.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.28">return</a>)<br/> [ It is much to be + regretted that we have lost the part of Tacitus which treated of that + transaction. We are forced to content ourselves with the popular rumors of + Josephus, and the imperfect hints of Dion and Suetonius.] + </p> + <p> + II. The insolence of the armies inspired Augustus with fears of a still + more alarming nature. The despair of the citizens could only attempt, what + the power of the soldiers was, at any time, able to execute. How + precarious was his own authority over men whom he had taught to violate + every social duty! He had heard their seditious clamors; he dreaded their + calmer moments of reflection. One revolution had been purchased by immense + rewards; but a second revolution might double those rewards. The troops + professed the fondest attachment to the house of Cæsar; but the + attachments of the multitude are capricious and inconstant. Augustus + summoned to his aid whatever remained in those fierce minds of Roman + prejudices; enforced the rigor of discipline by the sanction of law; and, + interposing the majesty of the senate between the emperor and the army, + boldly claimed their allegiance, as the first magistrate of the republic. + </p> + <p> + During a long period of two hundred and twenty years from the + establishment of this artful system to the death of Commodus, the dangers + inherent to a military government were, in a great measure, suspended. The + soldiers were seldom roused to that fatal sense of their own strength, and + of the weakness of the civil authority, which was, before and afterwards, + productive of such dreadful calamities. Caligula and Domitian were + assassinated in their palace by their own domestics: <a + href="#linknote-3.281" name="linknoteref-3.281" id="linknoteref-3.281">281</a> + the convulsions which agitated Rome on the death of the former, were + confined to the walls of the city. But Nero involved the whole empire in + his ruin. In the space of eighteen months, four princes perished by the + sword; and the Roman world was shaken by the fury of the contending + armies. Excepting only this short, though violent eruption of military + license, the two centuries from Augustus <a href="#linknote-3.29" + name="linknoteref-3.29" id="linknoteref-3.29">29</a> to Commodus passed away + unstained with civil blood, and undisturbed by revolutions. The emperor + was elected by <i>the authority of the senate</i>, and <i>the consent of the + soldiers</i>. <a href="#linknote-3.30" name="linknoteref-3.30" + id="linknoteref-3.30">30</a> The legions respected their oath of fidelity; + and it requires a minute inspection of the Roman annals to discover three + inconsiderable rebellions, which were all suppressed in a few months, and + without even the hazard of a battle. <a href="#linknote-3.31" + name="linknoteref-3.31" id="linknoteref-3.31">31</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.281" id="linknote-3.281"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 281 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.281">return</a>)<br/> [ Caligula perished by a + conspiracy formed by the officers of the prætorian troops, and Domitian + would not, perhaps, have been assassinated without the participation of + the two chiefs of that guard in his death.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.29" id="linknote-3.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Augustus restored the + ancient severity of discipline. After the civil wars, he dropped the + endearing name of Fellow-Soldiers, and called them only Soldiers, (Sueton. + in August. c. 25.) See the use Tiberius made of the Senate in the mutiny + of the Pannonian legions, (Tacit. Annal. i.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.30" id="linknote-3.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.30">return</a>)<br/> [ These words seem to have + been the constitutional language. See Tacit. Annal. xiii. 4. * Note: This + panegyric on the soldiery is rather too liberal. Claudius was obliged to + purchase their consent to his coronation: the presents which he made, and + those which the prætorians received on other occasions, considerably + embarrassed the finances. Moreover, this formidable guard favored, in + general, the cruelties of the tyrants. The distant revolts were more + frequent than Gibbon thinks: already, under Tiberius, the legions of + Germany would have seditiously constrained Germanicus to assume the + Imperial purple. On the revolt of Claudius Civilis, under Vespasian, the + legions of Gaul murdered their general, and offered their assistance to + the Gauls who were in insurrection. Julius Sabinus made himself be + proclaimed emperor, &c. The wars, the merit, and the severe discipline + of Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines, established, for some time, a + greater degree of subordination.—W] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.31" id="linknote-3.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.31">return</a>)<br/> [ The first was Camillus + Scribonianus, who took up arms in Dalmatia against Claudius, and was + deserted by his own troops in five days, the second, L. Antonius, in + Germany, who rebelled against Domitian; and the third, Avidius Cassius, in + the reign of M. Antoninus. The two last reigned but a few months, and were + cut off by their own adherents. We may observe, that both Camillus and + Cassius colored their ambition with the design of restoring the republic; + a task, said Cassius peculiarly reserved for his name and family.] + </p> + <p> + In elective monarchies, the vacancy of the throne is a moment big with + danger and mischief. The Roman emperors, desirous to spare the legions + that interval of suspense, and the temptation of an irregular choice, + invested their designed successor with so large a share of present power, + as should enable him, after their decease, to assume the remainder, + without suffering the empire to perceive the change of masters. Thus + Augustus, after all his fairer prospects had been snatched from him by + untimely deaths, rested his last hopes on Tiberius, obtained for his + adopted son the censorial and tribunitian powers, and dictated a law, by + which the future prince was invested with an authority equal to his own, + over the provinces and the armies. <a href="#linknote-3.32" + name="linknoteref-3.32" id="linknoteref-3.32">32</a> Thus Vespasian subdued + the generous mind of his eldest son. Titus was adored by the eastern + legions, which, under his command, had recently achieved the conquest of + Judæa. His power was dreaded, and, as his virtues were clouded by the + intemperance of youth, his designs were suspected. Instead of listening to + such unworthy suspicions, the prudent monarch associated Titus to the full + powers of the Imperial dignity; and the grateful son ever approved himself + the humble and faithful minister of so indulgent a father. <a + href="#linknote-3.33" name="linknoteref-3.33" id="linknoteref-3.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.32" id="linknote-3.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Velleius Paterculus, l. + ii. c. 121. Sueton. in Tiber. c. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.33" id="linknote-3.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Sueton. in Tit. c. 6. + Plin. in Præfat. Hist. Natur.] + </p> + <p> + The good sense of Vespasian engaged him indeed to embrace every measure + that might confirm his recent and precarious elevation. The military oath, + and the fidelity of the troops, had been consecrated, by the habits of a + hundred years, to the name and family of the Cæsars; and although that + family had been continued only by the fictitious rite of adoption, the + Romans still revered, in the person of Nero, the grandson of Germanicus, + and the lineal successor of Augustus. It was not without reluctance and + remorse, that the prætorian guards had been persuaded to abandon the + cause of the tyrant. <a href="#linknote-3.34" name="linknoteref-3.34" + id="linknoteref-3.34">34</a> The rapid downfall of Galba, Otho, and + Vitellus, taught the armies to consider the emperors as the creatures of + <i>their</i> will, and the instruments of <i>their</i> license. The birth of Vespasian + was mean: his grandfather had been a private soldier, his father a petty + officer of the revenue; <a href="#linknote-3.35" name="linknoteref-3.35" + id="linknoteref-3.35">35</a> his own merit had raised him, in an advanced + age, to the empire; but his merit was rather useful than shining, and his + virtues were disgraced by a strict and even sordid parsimony. Such a + prince consulted his true interest by the association of a son, whose more + splendid and amiable character might turn the public attention from the + obscure origin, to the future glories, of the Flavian house. Under the + mild administration of Titus, the Roman world enjoyed a transient + felicity, and his beloved memory served to protect, above fifteen years, + the vices of his brother Domitian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.34" id="linknote-3.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.34">return</a>)<br/> [ This idea is frequently + and strongly inculcated by Tacitus. See Hist. i. 5, 16, ii. 76.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.35" id="linknote-3.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.35">return</a>)<br/> [ The emperor Vespasian, + with his usual good sense, laughed at the genealogists, who deduced his + family from Flavius, the founder of Reate, (his native country,) and one + of the companions of Hercules Suet in Vespasian, c. 12.] + </p> + <p> + Nerva had scarcely accepted the purple from the assassins of Domitian, + before he discovered that his feeble age was unable to stem the torrent of + public disorders, which had multiplied under the long tyranny of his + predecessor. His mild disposition was respected by the good; but the + degenerate Romans required a more vigorous character, whose justice should + strike terror into the guilty. Though he had several relations, he fixed + his choice on a stranger. He adopted Trajan, then about forty years of + age, and who commanded a powerful army in the Lower Germany; and + immediately, by a decree of the senate, declared him his colleague and + successor in the empire. <a href="#linknote-3.36" name="linknoteref-3.36" + id="linknoteref-3.36">36</a> It is sincerely to be lamented, that whilst we + are fatigued with the disgustful relation of Nero’s crimes and follies, we + are reduced to collect the actions of Trajan from the glimmerings of an + abridgment, or the doubtful light of a panegyric. There remains, however, + one panegyric far removed beyond the suspicion of flattery. Above two + hundred and fifty years after the death of Trajan, the senate, in pouring + out the customary acclamations on the accession of a new emperor, wished + that he might surpass the felicity of Augustus, and the virtue of Trajan. + <a href="#linknote-3.37" name="linknoteref-3.37" id="linknoteref-3.37">37</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.36" id="linknote-3.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxviii. p. + 1121. Plin. Secund. in Panegyric.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.37" id="linknote-3.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Felicior Augusto, Melior + Trajano. Eutrop. viii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + We may readily believe, that the father of his country hesitated whether + he ought to intrust the various and doubtful character of his kinsman + Hadrian with sovereign power. In his last moments the arts of the empress + Plotina either fixed the irresolution of Trajan, or boldly supposed a + fictitious adoption; <a href="#linknote-3.38" name="linknoteref-3.38" + id="linknoteref-3.38">38</a> the truth of which could not be safely + disputed, and Hadrian was peaceably acknowledged as his lawful successor. + Under his reign, as has been already mentioned, the empire flourished in + peace and prosperity. He encouraged the arts, reformed the laws, asserted + military discipline, and visited all his provinces in person. His vast and + active genius was equally suited to the most enlarged views, and the + minute details of civil policy. But the ruling passions of his soul were + curiosity and vanity. As they prevailed, and as they were attracted by + different objects, Hadrian was, by turns, an excellent prince, a + ridiculous sophist, and a jealous tyrant. The general tenor of his conduct + deserved praise for its equity and moderation. Yet in the first days of + his reign, he put to death four consular senators, his personal enemies, + and men who had been judged worthy of empire; and the tediousness of a + painful illness rendered him, at last, peevish and cruel. The senate + doubted whether they should pronounce him a god or a tyrant; and the + honors decreed to his memory were granted to the prayers of the pious + Antoninus. <a href="#linknote-3.39" name="linknoteref-3.39" + id="linknoteref-3.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.38" id="linknote-3.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion (l. lxix. p. 1249) + affirms the whole to have been a fiction, on the authority of his father, + who, being governor of the province where Trajan died, had very good + opportunities of sifting this mysterious transaction. Yet Dodwell + (Prælect. Camden. xvii.) has maintained that Hadrian was called to the + certain hope of the empire, during the lifetime of Trajan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.39" id="linknote-3.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, (l. lxx. p. 1171.) + Aurel. Victor.] + </p> + <p> + The caprice of Hadrian influenced his choice of a successor. + </p> + <p> + After revolving in his mind several men of distinguished merit, whom he + esteemed and hated, he adopted Ælius Verus a gay and voluptuous nobleman, + recommended by uncommon beauty to the lover of Antinous. <a + href="#linknote-3.40" name="linknoteref-3.40" id="linknoteref-3.40">40</a> + But whilst Hadrian was delighting himself with his own applause, and the + acclamations of the soldiers, whose consent had been secured by an immense + donative, the new Cæsar <a href="#linknote-3.41" name="linknoteref-3.41" + id="linknoteref-3.41">41</a> was ravished from his embraces by an untimely + death. He left only one son. Hadrian commended the boy to the gratitude of + the Antonines. He was adopted by Pius; and, on the accession of Marcus, + was invested with an equal share of sovereign power. Among the many vices + of this younger Verus, he possessed one virtue; a dutiful reverence for + his wiser colleague, to whom he willingly abandoned the ruder cares of + empire. The philosophic emperor dissembled his follies, lamented his early + death, and cast a decent veil over his memory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.40" id="linknote-3.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.40">return</a>)<br/> [ The deification of + Antinous, his medals, his statues, temples, city, oracles, and + constellation, are well known, and still dishonor the memory of Hadrian. + Yet we may remark, that of the first fifteen emperors, Claudius was the + only one whose taste in love was entirely correct. For the honors of + Antinous, see Spanheim, Commentaire sui les Cæsars de Julien, p. 80.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.41" id="linknote-3.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 13. + Aurelius Victor in Epitom.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as Hadrian’s passion was either gratified or disappointed, he + resolved to deserve the thanks of posterity, by placing the most exalted + merit on the Roman throne. His discerning eye easily discovered a senator + about fifty years of age, blameless in all the offices of life; and a + youth of about seventeen, whose riper years opened a fair prospect of + every virtue: the elder of these was declared the son and successor of + Hadrian, on condition, however, that he himself should immediately adopt + the younger. The two Antonines (for it is of them that we are now + speaking,) governed the Roman world forty-two years, with the same + invariable spirit of wisdom and virtue. Although Pius had two sons, <a + href="#linknote-3.42" name="linknoteref-3.42" id="linknoteref-3.42">42</a> he + preferred the welfare of Rome to the interest of his family, gave his + daughter Faustina, in marriage to young Marcus, obtained from the senate + the tribunitian and proconsular powers, and, with a noble disdain, or + rather ignorance of jealousy, associated him to all the labors of + government. Marcus, on the other hand, revered the character of his + benefactor, loved him as a parent, obeyed him as his sovereign, <a + href="#linknote-3.43" name="linknoteref-3.43" id="linknoteref-3.43">43</a> + and, after he was no more, regulated his own administration by the example + and maxims of his predecessor. Their united reigns are possibly the only + period of history in which the happiness of a great people was the sole + object of government. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.42" id="linknote-3.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Without the help of + medals and inscriptions, we should be ignorant of this fact, so honorable + to the memory of Pius. Note: Gibbon attributes to Antoninus Pius a merit + which he either did not possess, or was not in a situation to display. + </p> + <p> + 1. He was adopted only on the condition that he would adopt, in his turn, + Marcus Aurelius and L. Verus. + </p> + <p> + 2. His two sons died children, and one of them, M. Galerius, alone, + appears to have survived, for a few years, his father’s coronation. Gibbon + is also mistaken when he says (note 42) that “without the help of medals + and inscriptions, we should be ignorant that Antoninus had two sons.” + Capitolinus says expressly, (c. 1,) Filii mares duo, duæ-fœminæ; we + only owe their names to the medals. Pagi. Cont. Baron, i. 33, edit Paris.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.43" id="linknote-3.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.43">return</a>)<br/> [ During the twenty-three + years of Pius’s reign, Marcus was only two nights absent from the palace, + and even those were at different times. Hist. August. p. 25.] + </p> + <p> + Titus Antoninus Pius has been justly denominated a second Numa. The same + love of religion, justice, and peace, was the distinguishing + characteristic of both princes. But the situation of the latter opened a + much larger field for the exercise of those virtues. Numa could only + prevent a few neighboring villages from plundering each other’s harvests. + Antoninus diffused order and tranquillity over the greatest part of the + earth. His reign is marked by the rare advantage of furnishing very few + materials for history; which is, indeed, little more than the register of + the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind. In private life, he was + an amiable, as well as a good man. The native simplicity of his virtue was + a stranger to vanity or affectation. He enjoyed with moderation the + conveniences of his fortune, and the innocent pleasures of society; <a + href="#linknote-3.44" name="linknoteref-3.44" id="linknoteref-3.44">44</a> + and the benevolence of his soul displayed itself in a cheerful serenity of + temper. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.44" id="linknote-3.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.44">return</a>)<br/> [ He was fond of the + theatre, and not insensible to the charms of the fair sex. Marcus + Antoninus, i. 16. Hist. August. p. 20, 21. Julian in Cæsar.] + </p> + <p> + The virtue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus was of severer and more laborious + kind. <a href="#linknote-3.45" name="linknoteref-3.45" id="linknoteref-3.45">45</a> + It was the well-earned harvest of many a learned conference, of many a + patient lecture, and many a midnight lucubration. At the age of twelve + years he embraced the rigid system of the Stoics, which taught him to + submit his body to his mind, his passions to his reason; to consider + virtue as the only good, vice as the only evil, all things external as + things indifferent. <a href="#linknote-3.46" name="linknoteref-3.46" + id="linknoteref-3.46">46</a> His meditations, composed in the tumult of the + camp, are still extant; and he even condescended to give lessons of + philosophy, in a more public manner than was perhaps consistent with the + modesty of sage, or the dignity of an emperor. <a href="#linknote-3.47" + name="linknoteref-3.47" id="linknoteref-3.47">47</a> But his life was the + noblest commentary on the precepts of Zeno. He was severe to himself, + indulgent to the imperfections of others, just and beneficent to all + mankind. He regretted that Avidius Cassius, who excited a rebellion in + Syria, had disappointed him, by a voluntary death, <a href="#linknote-3.471" + name="linknoteref-3.471" id="linknoteref-3.471">471</a> of the pleasure of + converting an enemy into a friend;; and he justified the sincerity of that + sentiment, by moderating the zeal of the senate against the adherents of + the traitor. <a href="#linknote-3.48" name="linknoteref-3.48" + id="linknoteref-3.48">48</a> War he detested, as the disgrace and calamity + of human nature; <a href="#linknote-3.481" name="linknoteref-3.481" + id="linknoteref-3.481">481</a> but when the necessity of a just defence + called upon him to take up arms, he readily exposed his person to eight + winter campaigns, on the frozen banks of the Danube, the severity of which + was at last fatal to the weakness of his constitution. His memory was + revered by a grateful posterity, and above a century after his death, many + persons preserved the image of Marcus Antoninus among those of their + household gods. <a href="#linknote-3.49" name="linknoteref-3.49" + id="linknoteref-3.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.45" id="linknote-3.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.45">return</a>)<br/> [ The enemies of Marcus + charged him with hypocrisy, and with a want of that simplicity which + distinguished Pius and even Verus. (Hist. August. 6, 34.) This suspicions, + unjust as it was, may serve to account for the superior applause bestowed + upon personal qualifications, in preference to the social virtues. Even + Marcus Antoninus has been called a hypocrite; but the wildest scepticism + never insinuated that Cæsar might probably be a coward, or Tully a fool. + Wit and valor are qualifications more easily ascertained than humanity or + the love of justice.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.46" id="linknote-3.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacitus has + characterized, in a few words, the principles of the portico: Doctores + sapientiæ secutus est, qui sola bona quæ honesta, main tantum quæ + turpia; potentiam, nobilitatem, æteraque extra... bonis neque malis + adnumerant. Tacit. Hist. iv. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.47" id="linknote-3.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Before he went on the + second expedition against the Germans, he read lectures of philosophy to + the Roman people, during three days. He had already done the same in the + cities of Greece and Asia. Hist. August. in Cassio, c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.471" id="linknote-3.471"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 471 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.471">return</a>)<br/> [ Cassius was murdered + by his own partisans. Vulcat. Gallic. in Cassio, c. 7. Dion, lxxi. c. 27.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.48" id="linknote-3.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1190. + Hist. August. in Avid. Cassio. Note: See one of the newly discovered + passages of Dion Cassius. Marcus wrote to the senate, who urged the + execution of the partisans of Cassius, in these words: “I entreat and + beseech you to preserve my reign unstained by senatorial blood. None of + your order must perish either by your desire or mine.” Mai. Fragm. + Vatican. ii. p. 224.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.481" id="linknote-3.481"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 481 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.481">return</a>)<br/> [ Marcus would not + accept the services of any of the barbarian allies who crowded to his + standard in the war against Avidius Cassius. “Barbarians,” he said, with + wise but vain sagacity, “must not become acquainted with the dissensions + of the Roman people.” Mai. Fragm Vatican l. 224.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.49" id="linknote-3.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. in Marc. + Antonin. c. 18.] + </p> + <p> + If a man were called to fix the period in the history of the world, during + which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he + would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the death of + Domitian to the accession of Commodus. The vast extent of the Roman empire + was governed by absolute power, under the guidance of virtue and wisdom. + The armies were restrained by the firm but gentle hand of four successive + emperors, whose characters and authority commanded involuntary respect. + The forms of the civil administration were carefully preserved by Nerva, + Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, who delighted in the image of liberty, + and were pleased with considering themselves as the accountable ministers + of the laws. Such princes deserved the honor of restoring the republic, + had the Romans of their days been capable of enjoying a rational freedom. + </p> + <p> + The labors of these monarchs were overpaid by the immense reward that + inseparably waited on their success; by the honest pride of virtue, and by + the exquisite delight of beholding the general happiness of which they + were the authors. A just but melancholy reflection imbittered, however, + the noblest of human enjoyments. They must often have recollected the + instability of a happiness which depended on the character of single man. + The fatal moment was perhaps approaching, when some licentious youth, or + some jealous tyrant, would abuse, to the destruction, that absolute power, + which they had exerted for the benefit of their people. The ideal + restraints of the senate and the laws might serve to display the virtues, + but could never correct the vices, of the emperor. The military force was + a blind and irresistible instrument of oppression; and the corruption of + Roman manners would always supply flatterers eager to applaud, and + ministers prepared to serve, the fear or the avarice, the lust or the + cruelty, of their master. These gloomy apprehensions had been already + justified by the experience of the Romans. The annals of the emperors + exhibit a strong and various picture of human nature, which we should + vainly seek among the mixed and doubtful characters of modern history. In + the conduct of those monarchs we may trace the utmost lines of vice and + virtue; the most exalted perfection, and the meanest degeneracy of our own + species. The golden age of Trajan and the Antonines had been preceded by + an age of iron. It is almost superfluous to enumerate the unworthy + successors of Augustus. Their unparalleled vices, and the splendid theatre + on which they were acted, have saved them from oblivion. The dark, + unrelenting Tiberius, the furious Caligula, the feeble Claudius, the + profligate and cruel Nero, the beastly Vitellius, <a href="#linknote-3.50" + name="linknoteref-3.50" id="linknoteref-3.50">50</a> and the timid, inhuman + Domitian, are condemned to everlasting infamy. During fourscore years + (excepting only the short and doubtful respite of Vespasian’s reign) <a + href="#linknote-3.51" name="linknoteref-3.51" id="linknoteref-3.51">51</a> + Rome groaned beneath an unremitting tyranny, which exterminated the + ancient families of the republic, and was fatal to almost every virtue and + every talent that arose in that unhappy period. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.50" id="linknote-3.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Vitellius consumed in + mere eating at least six millions of our money in about seven months. It + is not easy to express his vices with dignity, or even decency. Tacitus + fairly calls him a hog, but it is by substituting for a coarse word a very + fine image. “At Vitellius, umbraculis hortorum abditus, ut ignava + animalia, quibus si cibum suggeras, jacent torpentque, præterita, + instantia, futura, pari oblivione dimiserat. Atque illum nemore Aricino + desidem et marcentum,” &c. Tacit. Hist. iii. 36, ii. 95. Sueton. in + Vitell. c. 13. Dion. Cassius, l xv. p. 1062.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.51" id="linknote-3.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.51">return</a>)<br/> [ The execution of + Helvidius Priscus, and of the virtuous Eponina, disgraced the reign of + Vespasian.] + </p> + <p> + Under the reign of these monsters, the slavery of the Romans was + accompanied with two peculiar circumstances, the one occasioned by their + former liberty, the other by their extensive conquests, which rendered + their condition more completely wretched than that of the victims of + tyranny in any other age or country. From these causes were derived, 1. + The exquisite sensibility of the sufferers; and, 2. The impossibility of + escaping from the hand of the oppressor. + </p> + <p> + I. When Persia was governed by the descendants of Sefi, a race of princes + whose wanton cruelty often stained their divan, their table, and their + bed, with the blood of their favorites, there is a saying recorded of a + young nobleman, that he never departed from the sultan’s presence, without + satisfying himself whether his head was still on his shoulders. The + experience of every day might almost justify the scepticism of Rustan. <a + href="#linknote-3.52" name="linknoteref-3.52" id="linknoteref-3.52">52</a> + Yet the fatal sword, suspended above him by a single thread, seems not to + have disturbed the slumbers, or interrupted the tranquillity, of the + Persian. The monarch’s frown, he well knew, could level him with the dust; + but the stroke of lightning or apoplexy might be equally fatal; and it was + the part of a wise man to forget the inevitable calamities of human life + in the enjoyment of the fleeting hour. He was dignified with the + appellation of the king’s slave; had, perhaps, been purchased from obscure + parents, in a country which he had never known; and was trained up from + his infancy in the severe discipline of the seraglio. <a + href="#linknote-3.53" name="linknoteref-3.53" id="linknoteref-3.53">53</a> + His name, his wealth, his honors, were the gift of a master, who might, + without injustice, resume what he had bestowed. Rustan’s knowledge, if he + possessed any, could only serve to confirm his habits by prejudices. His + language afforded not words for any form of government, except absolute + monarchy. The history of the East informed him, that such had ever been + the condition of mankind. <a href="#linknote-3.54" name="linknoteref-3.54" + id="linknoteref-3.54">54</a> The Koran, and the interpreters of that divine + book, inculcated to him, that the sultan was the descendant of the + prophet, and the vicegerent of heaven; that patience was the first virtue + of a Mussulman, and unlimited obedience the great duty of a subject. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.52" id="linknote-3.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Voyage de Chardin en + Perse, vol. iii. p. 293.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.53" id="linknote-3.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.53">return</a>)<br/> [ The practice of raising + slaves to the great offices of state is still more common among the Turks + than among the Persians. The miserable countries of Georgia and Circassia + supply rulers to the greatest part of the East.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.54" id="linknote-3.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.54">return</a>)<br/> [ Chardin says, that + European travellers have diffused among the Persians some ideas of the + freedom and mildness of our governments. They have done them a very ill + office.] + </p> + <p> + The minds of the Romans were very differently prepared for slavery. + Oppressed beneath the weight of their own corruption and of military + violence, they for a long while preserved the sentiments, or at least the + ideas, of their free-born ancestors. The education of Helvidius and + Thrasea, of Tacitus and Pliny, was the same as that of Cato and Cicero. + From Grecian philosophy, they had imbibed the justest and most liberal + notions of the dignity of human nature, and the origin of civil society. + The history of their own country had taught them to revere a free, a + virtuous, and a victorious commonwealth; to abhor the successful crimes of + Cæsar and Augustus; and inwardly to despise those tyrants whom they + adored with the most abject flattery. As magistrates and senators they + were admitted into the great council, which had once dictated laws to the + earth, whose authority was so often prostituted to the vilest purposes of + tyranny. Tiberius, and those emperors who adopted his maxims, attempted to + disguise their murders by the formalities of justice, and perhaps enjoyed + a secret pleasure in rendering the senate their accomplice as well as + their victim. By this assembly, the last of the Romans were condemned for + imaginary crimes and real virtues. Their infamous accusers assumed the + language of independent patriots, who arraigned a dangerous citizen before + the tribunal of his country; and the public service was rewarded by riches + and honors. <a href="#linknote-3.55" name="linknoteref-3.55" + id="linknoteref-3.55">55</a> The servile judges professed to assert the + majesty of the commonwealth, violated in the person of its first + magistrate, <a href="#linknote-3.56" name="linknoteref-3.56" + id="linknoteref-3.56">56</a> whose clemency they most applauded when they + trembled the most at his inexorable and impending cruelty. <a + href="#linknote-3.57" name="linknoteref-3.57" id="linknoteref-3.57">57</a> + The tyrant beheld their baseness with just contempt, and encountered their + secret sentiments of detestation with sincere and avowed hatred for the + whole body of the senate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.55" id="linknote-3.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.55">return</a>)<br/> [ They alleged the example + of Scipio and Cato, (Tacit. Annal. iii. 66.) Marcellus Epirus and Crispus + Vibius had acquired two millions and a half under Nero. Their wealth, + which aggravated their crimes, protected them under Vespasian. See Tacit. + Hist. iv. 43. Dialog. de Orator. c. 8. For one accusation, Regulus, the + just object of Pliny’s satire, received from the senate the consular + ornaments, and a present of sixty thousand pounds.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.56" id="linknote-3.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.56">return</a>)<br/> [ The crime of majesty was + formerly a treasonable offence against the Roman people. As tribunes of + the people, Augustus and Tiberius applied tit to their own persons, and + extended it to an infinite latitude. Note: It was Tiberius, not Augustus, + who first took in this sense the words crimen læsæ majestatis. Bachii + Trajanus, 27. —W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.57" id="linknote-3.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.57">return</a>)<br/> [ After the virtuous and + unfortunate widow of Germanicus had been put to death, Tiberius received + the thanks of the senate for his clemency. she had not been publicly + strangled; nor was the body drawn with a hook to the Gemoniæ, where those + of common male factors were exposed. See Tacit. Annal. vi. 25. Sueton. in + Tiberio c. 53.] + </p> + <p> + II. The division of Europe into a number of independent states, connected, + however, with each other by the general resemblance of religion, language, + and manners, is productive of the most beneficial consequences to the + liberty of mankind. A modern tyrant, who should find no resistance either + in his own breast, or in his people, would soon experience a gentle + restraint from the example of his equals, the dread of present censure, + the advice of his allies, and the apprehension of his enemies. The object + of his displeasure, escaping from the narrow limits of his dominions, + would easily obtain, in a happier climate, a secure refuge, a new fortune + adequate to his merit, the freedom of complaint, and perhaps the means of + revenge. But the empire of the Romans filled the world, and when the + empire fell into the hands of a single person, the world became a safe and + dreary prison for his enemies. The slave of Imperial despotism, whether he + was condemned to drag his gilded chain in rome and the senate, or to were + out a life of exile on the barren rock of Seriphus, or the frozen bank of + the Danube, expected his fate in silent despair. <a href="#linknote-3.58" + name="linknoteref-3.58" id="linknoteref-3.58">58</a> To resist was fatal, + and it was impossible to fly. On every side he was encompassed with a vast + extent of sea and land, which he could never hope to traverse without + being discovered, seized, and restored to his irritated master. Beyond the + frontiers, his anxious view could discover nothing, except the ocean, + inhospitable deserts, hostile tribes of barbarians, of fierce manners and + unknown language, or dependent kings, who would gladly purchase the + emperor’s protection by the sacrifice of an obnoxious fugitive. <a + href="#linknote-3.59" name="linknoteref-3.59" id="linknoteref-3.59">59</a> + “Wherever you are,” said Cicero to the exiled Marcellus, “remember that + you are equally within the power of the conqueror.” <a href="#linknote-3.60" + name="linknoteref-3.60" id="linknoteref-3.60">60</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.58" id="linknote-3.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Seriphus was a small + rocky island in the Ægean Sea, the inhabitants of which were despised for + their ignorance and obscurity. The place of Ovid’s exile is well known, by + his just, but unmanly lamentations. It should seem, that he only received + an order to leave rome in so many days, and to transport himself to Tomi. + Guards and jailers were unnecessary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.59" id="linknote-3.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Under Tiberius, a Roman + knight attempted to fly to the Parthians. He was stopped in the straits of + Sicily; but so little danger did there appear in the example, that the + most jealous of tyrants disdained to punish it. Tacit. Annal. vi. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-3.60" id="linknote-3.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-3.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero ad Familiares, + iv. 7.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap04.1"></a> + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Cruelty, Follies, And Murder Of Commodus—Election Of +Pertinax—His Attempts To Reform The State—His Assassination By The +Prætorian Guards. +</p> + <p> + The mildness of Marcus, which the rigid discipline of the Stoics was + unable to eradicate, formed, at the same time, the most amiable, and the + only defective part of his character. His excellent understanding was + often deceived by the unsuspecting goodness of his heart. Artful men, who + study the passions of princes, and conceal their own, approached his + person in the disguise of philosophic sanctity, and acquired riches and + honors by affecting to despise them. <a href="#linknote-4.1" + name="linknoteref-4.1" id="linknoteref-4.1">1</a> His excessive indulgence + to his brother, <a href="#linknote-4.105" name="linknoteref-4.105" + id="linknoteref-4.105">105</a> his wife, and his son, exceeded the bounds + of private virtue, and became a public injury, by the example and + consequences of their vices. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.1" id="linknote-4.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.1">return</a>)<br/> [ See the complaints of + Avidius Cassius, Hist. August. p. 45. These are, it is true, the + complaints of faction; but even faction exaggerates, rather than invents.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.105" id="linknote-4.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.105">return</a>)<br/> [ His brother by + adoption, and his colleague, L. Verus. Marcus Aurelius had no other + brother.—W.] + </p> + <p> + Faustina, the daughter of Pius and the wife of Marcus, has been as much + celebrated for her gallantries as for her beauty. The grave simplicity of + the philosopher was ill calculated to engage her wanton levity, or to fix + that unbounded passion for variety, which often discovered personal merit + in the meanest of mankind. <a href="#linknote-4.2" name="linknoteref-4.2" + id="linknoteref-4.2">2</a> The Cupid of the ancients was, in general, a + very sensual deity; and the amours of an empress, as they exact on her + side the plainest advances, are seldom susceptible of much sentimental + delicacy. Marcus was the only man in the empire who seemed ignorant or + insensible of the irregularities of Faustina; which, according to the + prejudices of every age, reflected some disgrace on the injured husband. + He promoted several of her lovers to posts of honor and profit, <a + href="#linknote-4.3" name="linknoteref-4.3" id="linknoteref-4.3">3</a> and + during a connection of thirty years, invariably gave her proofs of the + most tender confidence, and of a respect which ended not with her life. In + his Meditations, he thanks the gods, who had bestowed on him a wife so + faithful, so gentle, and of such a wonderful simplicity of manners. <a + href="#linknote-4.4" name="linknoteref-4.4" id="linknoteref-4.4">4</a> The + obsequious senate, at his earnest request, declared her a goddess. She was + represented in her temples, with the attributes of Juno, Venus, and Ceres; + and it was decreed, that, on the day of their nuptials, the youth of + either sex should pay their vows before the altar of their chaste + patroness. <a href="#linknote-4.5" name="linknoteref-4.5" id="linknoteref-4.5">5</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.2" id="linknote-4.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Faustinam satis constat + apud Cajetam conditiones sibi et nauticas et gladiatorias, elegisse. Hist. + August. p. 30. Lampridius explains the sort of merit which Faustina chose, + and the conditions which she exacted. Hist. August. p. 102.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.3" id="linknote-4.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 34.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.4" id="linknote-4.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Meditat. l. i. The world + has laughed at the credulity of Marcus but Madam Dacier assures us, (and + we may credit a lady,) that the husband will always be deceived, if the + wife condescends to dissemble.] <a name="linknote-4.5" id="linknote-4.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.5">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 5: Dion Cassius, + l. lxxi. [c. 31,] p. 1195. Hist. August. p. 33. Commentaire de Spanheim + sur les Cæsars de Julien, p. 289. The deification of Faustina is the only + defect which Julian’s criticism is able to discover in the + all-accomplished character of Marcus.] + </p> + <p> + The monstrous vices of the son have cast a shade on the purity of the + father’s virtues. It has been objected to Marcus, that he sacrificed the + happiness of millions to a fond partiality for a worthless boy; and that + he chose a successor in his own family, rather than in the republic. + Nothing however, was neglected by the anxious father, and by the men of + virtue and learning whom he summoned to his assistance, to expand the + narrow mind of young Commodus, to correct his growing vices, and to render + him worthy of the throne for which he was designed. But the power of + instruction is seldom of much efficacy, except in those happy dispositions + where it is almost superfluous. The distasteful lesson of a grave + philosopher was, in a moment, obliterated by the whisper of a profligate + favorite; and Marcus himself blasted the fruits of this labored education, + by admitting his son, at the age of fourteen or fifteen, to a full + participation of the Imperial power. He lived but four years afterwards: + but he lived long enough to repent a rash measure, which raised the + impetuous youth above the restraint of reason and authority. + </p> + <p> + Most of the crimes which disturb the internal peace of society, are + produced by the restraints which the necessary but unequal laws of + property have imposed on the appetites of mankind, by confining to a few + the possession of those objects that are coveted by many. Of all our + passions and appetites, the love of power is of the most imperious and + unsociable nature, since the pride of one man requires the submission of + the multitude. In the tumult of civil discord, the laws of society lose + their force, and their place is seldom supplied by those of humanity. The + ardor of contention, the pride of victory, the despair of success, the + memory of past injuries, and the fear of future dangers, all contribute to + inflame the mind, and to silence the voice of pity. From such motives + almost every page of history has been stained with civil blood; but these + motives will not account for the unprovoked cruelties of Commodus, who had + nothing to wish and every thing to enjoy. The beloved son of Marcus + succeeded to his father, amidst the acclamations of the senate and armies; + <a href="#linknote-4.6" name="linknoteref-4.6" id="linknoteref-4.6">6</a> and + when he ascended the throne, the happy youth saw round him neither + competitor to remove, nor enemies to punish. In this calm, elevated + station, it was surely natural that he should prefer the love of mankind + to their detestation, the mild glories of his five predecessors to the + ignominious fate of Nero and Domitian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.6" id="linknote-4.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Commodus was the first + <i>Porphyrogenitus</i>, (born since his father’s accession to the throne.) By a + new strain of flattery, the Egyptian medals date by the years of his life; + as if they were synonymous to those of his reign. Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. ii. p. 752.] + </p> + <p> + Yet Commodus was not, as he has been represented, a tiger born with an + insatiate thirst of human blood, and capable, from his infancy, of the + most inhuman actions. <a href="#linknote-4.7" name="linknoteref-4.7" + id="linknoteref-4.7">7</a> Nature had formed him of a weak rather than a + wicked disposition. His simplicity and timidity rendered him the slave of + his attendants, who gradually corrupted his mind. His cruelty, which at + first obeyed the dictates of others, degenerated into habit, and at length + became the ruling passion of his soul. <a href="#linknote-4.8" + name="linknoteref-4.8" id="linknoteref-4.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.7" id="linknote-4.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 46.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.8" id="linknote-4.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxii. p. + 1203.] + </p> + <p> + Upon the death of his father, Commodus found himself embarrassed with the + command of a great army, and the conduct of a difficult war against the + Quadi and Marcomanni. <a href="#linknote-4.9" name="linknoteref-4.9" + id="linknoteref-4.9">9</a> The servile and profligate youths whom Marcus + had banished, soon regained their station and influence about the new + emperor. They exaggerated the hardships and dangers of a campaign in the + wild countries beyond the Danube; and they assured the indolent prince + that the terror of his name, and the arms of his lieutenants, would be + sufficient to complete the conquest of the dismayed barbarians, or to + impose such conditions as were more advantageous than any conquest. By a + dexterous application to his sensual appetites, they compared the + tranquillity, the splendor, the refined pleasures of Rome, with the tumult + of a Pannonian camp, which afforded neither leisure nor materials for + luxury. <a href="#linknote-4.10" name="linknoteref-4.10" id="linknoteref-4.10">10</a> + Commodus listened to the pleasing advice; but whilst he hesitated between + his own inclination and the awe which he still retained for his father’s + counsellors, the summer insensibly elapsed, and his triumphal entry into + the capital was deferred till the autumn. His graceful person, <a + href="#linknote-4.11" name="linknoteref-4.11" id="linknoteref-4.11">11</a> + popular address, and imagined virtues, attracted the public favor; the + honorable peace which he had recently granted to the barbarians, diffused + a universal joy; <a href="#linknote-4.12" name="linknoteref-4.12" + id="linknoteref-4.12">12</a> his impatience to revisit Rome was fondly + ascribed to the love of his country; and his dissolute course of + amusements was faintly condemned in a prince of nineteen years of age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.9" id="linknote-4.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.9">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Tertullian, + (Apolog. c. 25,) he died at Sirmium. But the situation of Vindobona, or + Vienna, where both the Victors place his death, is better adapted to the + operations of the war against the Marcomanni and Quadi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.10" id="linknote-4.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.11" id="linknote-4.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.12" id="linknote-4.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.12">return</a>)<br/> [ This universal joy is + well described (from the medals as well as historians) by Mr. Wotton, + Hist. of Rome, p. 192, 193.] During the three first years of his reign, + the forms, and even the spirit, of the old administration, were maintained + by those faithful counsellors, to whom Marcus had recommended his son, and + for whose wisdom and integrity Commodus still entertained a reluctant + esteem. The young prince and his profligate favorites revelled in all the + license of sovereign power; but his hands were yet unstained with blood; + and he had even displayed a generosity of sentiment, which might perhaps + have ripened into solid virtue. <a href="#linknote-4.13" + name="linknoteref-4.13" id="linknoteref-4.13">13</a> A fatal incident + decided his fluctuating character. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.13" id="linknote-4.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Manilius, the + confidential secretary of Avidius Cassius, was discovered after he had + lain concealed several years. The emperor nobly relieved the public + anxiety by refusing to see him, and burning his papers without opening + them. Dion Cassius, l. lxxii. p. 1209.] + </p> + <p> + One evening, as the emperor was returning to the palace, through a dark + and narrow portico in the amphitheatre, <a href="#linknote-4.14" + name="linknoteref-4.14" id="linknoteref-4.14">14</a> an assassin, who waited + his passage, rushed upon him with a drawn sword, loudly exclaiming, “<i>The + senate sends you this</i>.” The menace prevented the deed; the assassin was + seized by the guards, and immediately revealed the authors of the + conspiracy. It had been formed, not in the state, but within the walls of + the palace. Lucilla, the emperor’s sister, and widow of Lucius Verus, + impatient of the second rank, and jealous of the reigning empress, had + armed the murderer against her brother’s life. She had not ventured to + communicate the black design to her second husband, Claudius Pompeiarus, a + senator of distinguished merit and unshaken loyalty; but among the crowd + of her lovers (for she imitated the manners of Faustina) she found men of + desperate fortunes and wild ambition, who were prepared to serve her more + violent, as well as her tender passions. The conspirators experienced the + rigor of justice, and the abandoned princess was punished, first with + exile, and afterwards with death. <a href="#linknote-4.15" + name="linknoteref-4.15" id="linknoteref-4.15">15</a> <a name="linknote-4.14" + id="linknote-4.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.14">return</a>)<br/> [See Maffei degli + Amphitheatri, p. 126.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.15" id="linknote-4.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1205 + Herodian, l. i. p. 16 Hist. August p. 46.] + </p> + <p> + But the words of the assassin sunk deep into the mind of Commodus, and + left an indelible impression of fear and hatred against the whole body of + the senate. <a href="#linknote-4.151" name="linknoteref-4.151" + id="linknoteref-4.151">151</a> Those whom he had dreaded as importunate + ministers, he now suspected as secret enemies. The Delators, a race of men + discouraged, and almost extinguished, under the former reigns, again + became formidable, as soon as they discovered that the emperor was + desirous of finding disaffection and treason in the senate. That assembly, + whom Marcus had ever considered as the great council of the nation, was + composed of the most distinguished of the Romans; and distinction of every + kind soon became criminal. The possession of wealth stimulated the + diligence of the informers; rigid virtue implied a tacit censure of the + irregularities of Commodus; important services implied a dangerous + superiority of merit; and the friendship of the father always insured the + aversion of the son. Suspicion was equivalent to proof; trial to + condemnation. The execution of a considerable senator was attended with + the death of all who might lament or revenge his fate; and when Commodus + had once tasted human blood, he became incapable of pity or remorse. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.151" id="linknote-4.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.151">return</a>)<br/> [ The conspirators were + senators, even the assassin himself. Herod. 81.—G.] + </p> + <p> + Of these innocent victims of tyranny, none died more lamented than the two + brothers of the Quintilian family, Maximus and Condianus; whose fraternal + love has saved their names from oblivion, and endeared their memory to + posterity. Their studies and their occupations, their pursuits and their + pleasures, were still the same. In the enjoyment of a great estate, they + never admitted the idea of a separate interest: some fragments are now + extant of a treatise which they composed in common; <a + href="#linknote-4.152" name="linknoteref-4.152" id="linknoteref-4.152">152</a> + and in every action of life it was observed that their two bodies were + animated by one soul. The Antonines, who valued their virtues, and + delighted in their union, raised them, in the same year, to the + consulship; and Marcus afterwards intrusted to their joint care the civil + administration of Greece, and a great military command, in which they + obtained a signal victory over the Germans. The kind cruelty of Commodus + united them in death. <a href="#linknote-4.16" name="linknoteref-4.16" + id="linknoteref-4.16">16</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.152" id="linknote-4.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.152">return</a>)<br/> [ This work was on + agriculture, and is often quoted by later writers. See P. Needham, Proleg. + ad Geoponic. Camb. 1704.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.16" id="linknote-4.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.16">return</a>)<br/> [ In a note upon the + Augustan History, Casaubon has collected a number of particulars + concerning these celebrated brothers. See p. 96 of his learned + commentary.] + </p> + <p> + The tyrant’s rage, after having shed the noblest blood of the senate, at + length recoiled on the principal instrument of his cruelty. Whilst + Commodus was immersed in blood and luxury, he devolved the detail of the + public business on Perennis, a servile and ambitious minister, who had + obtained his post by the murder of his predecessor, but who possessed a + considerable share of vigor and ability. By acts of extortion, and the + forfeited estates of the nobles sacrificed to his avarice, he had + accumulated an immense treasure. The Prætorian guards were under his + immediate command; and his son, who already discovered a military genius, + was at the head of the Illyrian legions. Perennis aspired to the empire; + or what, in the eyes of Commodus, amounted to the same crime, he was + capable of aspiring to it, had he not been prevented, surprised, and put + to death. The fall of a minister is a very trifling incident in the + general history of the empire; but it was hastened by an extraordinary + circumstance, which proved how much the nerves of discipline were already + relaxed. The legions of Britain, discontented with the administration of + Perennis, formed a deputation of fifteen hundred select men, with + instructions to march to Rome, and lay their complaints before the + emperor. These military petitioners, by their own determined behaviour, by + inflaming the divisions of the guards, by exaggerating the strength of the + British army, and by alarming the fears of Commodus, exacted and obtained + the minister’s death, as the only redress of their grievances. <a + href="#linknote-4.17" name="linknoteref-4.17" id="linknoteref-4.17">17</a> + This presumption of a distant army, and their discovery of the weakness of + government, was a sure presage of the most dreadful convulsions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.17" id="linknote-4.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1210. + Herodian, l. i. p. 22. Hist. August. p. 48. Dion gives a much less odious + character of Perennis, than the other historians. His moderation is almost + a pledge of his veracity. Note: Gibbon praises Dion for the moderation + with which he speaks of Perennis: he follows, nevertheless, in his own + narrative, Herodian and Lampridius. Dion speaks of Perennis not only with + moderation, but with admiration; he represents him as a great man, + virtuous in his life, and blameless in his death: perhaps he may be + suspected of partiality; but it is singular that Gibbon, having adopted, + from Herodian and Lampridius, their judgment on this minister, follows + Dion’s improbable account of his death. What likelihood, in fact, that + fifteen hundred men should have traversed Gaul and Italy, and have arrived + at Rome without any understanding with the Prætorians, or without + detection or opposition from Perennis, the Prætorian præfect? Gibbon, + foreseeing, perhaps, this difficulty, has added, that the military + deputation inflamed the divisions of the guards; but Dion says expressly + that they did not reach Rome, but that the emperor went out to meet them: + he even reproaches him for not having opposed them with the guards, who + were superior in number. Herodian relates that Commodus, having learned, + from a soldier, the ambitious designs of Perennis and his son, caused them + to be attacked and massacred by night.—G. from W. Dion’s narrative + is remarkably circumstantial, and his authority higher than either of the + other writers. He hints that Cleander, a new favorite, had already + undermined the influence of Perennis.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The negligence of the public administration was betrayed, soon afterwards, + by a new disorder, which arose from the smallest beginnings. A spirit of + desertion began to prevail among the troops: and the deserters, instead of + seeking their safety in flight or concealment, infested the highways. + Maternus, a private soldier, of a daring boldness above his station, + collected these bands of robbers into a little army, set open the prisons, + invited the slaves to assert their freedom, and plundered with impunity + the rich and defenceless cities of Gaul and Spain. The governors of the + provinces, who had long been the spectators, and perhaps the partners, of + his depredations, were, at length, roused from their supine indolence by + the threatening commands of the emperor. Maternus found that he was + encompassed, and foresaw that he must be overpowered. A great effort of + despair was his last resource. He ordered his followers to disperse, to + pass the Alps in small parties and various disguises, and to assemble at + Rome, during the licentious tumult of the festival of Cybele. <a + href="#linknote-4.18" name="linknoteref-4.18" id="linknoteref-4.18">18</a> To + murder Commodus, and to ascend the vacant throne, was the ambition of no + vulgar robber. His measures were so ably concerted that his concealed + troops already filled the streets of Rome. The envy of an accomplice + discovered and ruined this singular enterprise, in a moment when it was + ripe for execution. <a href="#linknote-4.19" name="linknoteref-4.19" + id="linknoteref-4.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.18" id="linknote-4.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.18">return</a>)<br/> [ During the second Punic + war, the Romans imported from Asia the worship of the mother of the gods. + Her festival, the Megalesia, began on the fourth of April, and lasted six + days. The streets were crowded with mad processions, the theatres with + spectators, and the public tables with unbidden guests. Order and police + were suspended, and pleasure was the only serious business of the city. + See Ovid. de Fastis, l. iv. 189, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.19" id="linknote-4.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 23, + 23.] + </p> + <p> + Suspicious princes often promote the last of mankind, from a vain + persuasion, that those who have no dependence, except on their favor, will + have no attachment, except to the person of their benefactor. Cleander, + the successor of Perennis, was a Phrygian by birth; of a nation over whose + stubborn, but servile temper, blows only could prevail. <a + href="#linknote-4.20" name="linknoteref-4.20" id="linknoteref-4.20">20</a> He + had been sent from his native country to Rome, in the capacity of a slave. + As a slave he entered the Imperial palace, rendered himself useful to his + master’s passions, and rapidly ascended to the most exalted station which + a subject could enjoy. His influence over the mind of Commodus was much + greater than that of his predecessor; for Cleander was devoid of any + ability or virtue which could inspire the emperor with envy or distrust. + Avarice was the reigning passion of his soul, and the great principle of + his administration. The rank of Consul, of Patrician, of Senator, was + exposed to public sale; and it would have been considered as disaffection, + if any one had refused to purchase these empty and disgraceful honors with + the greatest part of his fortune. <a href="#linknote-4.21" + name="linknoteref-4.21" id="linknoteref-4.21">21</a> In the lucrative + provincial employments, the minister shared with the governor the spoils + of the people. The execution of the laws was penal and arbitrary. A + wealthy criminal might obtain, not only the reversal of the sentence by + which he was justly condemned, but might likewise inflict whatever + punishment he pleased on the accuser, the witnesses, and the judge. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.20" id="linknote-4.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero pro Flacco, c. + 27.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.21" id="linknote-4.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.21">return</a>)<br/> [ One of these dear-bought + promotions occasioned a current... that Julius Solon was banished into the + senate.] + </p> + <p> + By these means, Cleander, in the space of three years, had accumulated + more wealth than had ever yet been possessed by any freedman. <a + href="#linknote-4.22" name="linknoteref-4.22" id="linknoteref-4.22">22</a> + Commodus was perfectly satisfied with the magnificent presents which the + artful courtier laid at his feet in the most seasonable moments. To divert + the public envy, Cleander, under the emperor’s name, erected baths, + porticos, and places of exercise, for the use of the people. <a + href="#linknote-4.23" name="linknoteref-4.23" id="linknoteref-4.23">23</a> He + flattered himself that the Romans, dazzled and amused by this apparent + liberality, would be less affected by the bloody scenes which were daily + exhibited; that they would forget the death of Byrrhus, a senator to whose + superior merit the late emperor had granted one of his daughters; and that + they would forgive the execution of Arrius Antoninus, the last + representative of the name and virtues of the Antonines. The former, with + more integrity than prudence, had attempted to disclose, to his + brother-in-law, the true character of Cleander. An equitable sentence + pronounced by the latter, when proconsul of Asia, against a worthless + creature of the favorite, proved fatal to him. <a href="#linknote-4.24" + name="linknoteref-4.24" id="linknoteref-4.24">24</a> After the fall of + Perennis, the terrors of Commodus had, for a short time, assumed the + appearance of a return to virtue. He repealed the most odious of his acts; + loaded his memory with the public execration, and ascribed to the + pernicious counsels of that wicked minister all the errors of his + inexperienced youth. But his repentance lasted only thirty days; and, + under Cleander’s tyranny, the administration of Perennis was often + regretted. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.22" id="linknote-4.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion (l. lxxii. p. 12, + 13) observes, that no freedman had possessed riches equal to those of + Cleander. The fortune of Pallas amounted, however, to upwards of five and + twenty hundred thousand pounds; Ter millies.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.23" id="linknote-4.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 12, + 13. Herodian, l. i. p. 29. Hist. August. p. 52. These baths were situated + near the Porta Capena. See Nardini Roma Antica, p. 79.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.24" id="linknote-4.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 79.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap04.2"></a> + Chapter IV: The Cruelty, Follies And Murder Of Commodus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Pestilence and famine contributed to fill up the measure of the calamities + of Rome. <a href="#linknote-4.25" name="linknoteref-4.25" + id="linknoteref-4.25">25</a> The first could be only imputed to the just + indignation of the gods; but a monopoly of corn, supported by the riches + and power of the minister, was considered as the immediate cause of the + second. The popular discontent, after it had long circulated in whispers, + broke out in the assembled circus. The people quitted their favorite + amusements for the more delicious pleasure of revenge, rushed in crowds + towards a palace in the suburbs, one of the emperor’s retirements, and + demanded, with angry clamors, the head of the public enemy. Cleander, who + commanded the Prætorian guards, <a href="#linknote-4.26" + name="linknoteref-4.26" id="linknoteref-4.26">26</a> ordered a body of + cavalry to sally forth, and disperse the seditious multitude. The + multitude fled with precipitation towards the city; several were slain, + and many more were trampled to death; but when the cavalry entered the + streets, their pursuit was checked by a shower of stones and darts from + the roofs and windows of the houses. The foot guards, <a + href="#linknote-4.27" name="linknoteref-4.27" id="linknoteref-4.27">27</a> + who had been long jealous of the prerogatives and insolence of the + Prætorian cavalry, embraced the party of the people. The tumult became a + regular engagement, and threatened a general massacre. The Prætorians, at + length, gave way, oppressed with numbers; and the tide of popular fury + returned with redoubled violence against the gates of the palace, where + Commodus lay, dissolved in luxury, and alone unconscious of the civil war. + It was death to approach his person with the unwelcome news. He would have + perished in this supine security, had not two women, his eldest sister + Fadilla, and Marcia, the most favored of his concubines, ventured to break + into his presence. Bathed in tears, and with dishevelled hair, they threw + themselves at his feet; and with all the pressing eloquence of fear, + discovered to the affrighted emperor the crimes of the minister, the rage + of the people, and the impending ruin, which, in a few minutes, would + burst over his palace and person. Commodus started from his dream of + pleasure, and commanded that the head of Cleander should be thrown out to + the people. The desired spectacle instantly appeased the tumult; and the + son of Marcus might even yet have regained the affection and confidence of + his subjects. <a href="#linknote-4.28" name="linknoteref-4.28" + id="linknoteref-4.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.25" id="linknote-4.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 28. + Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1215. The latter says that two thousand persons died + every day at Rome, during a considerable length of time.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.26" id="linknote-4.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Tuneque primum tres + præfecti prætorio fuere: inter quos libertinus. From some remains of + modesty, Cleander declined the title, whilst he assumed the powers, of + Prætorian præfect. As the other freedmen were styled, from their several + departments, a rationibus, ab epistolis, Cleander called himself a + pugione, as intrusted with the defence of his master’s person. Salmasius + and Casaubon seem to have talked very idly upon this passage. * Note: M. + Guizot denies that Lampridius means Cleander as præfect a pugione. The + Libertinus seems to me to mean him.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.27" id="linknote-4.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 31. + It is doubtful whether he means the Prætorian infantry, or the cohortes + urbanæ, a body of six thousand men, but whose rank and discipline were + not equal to their numbers. Neither Tillemont nor Wotton choose to decide + this question.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.28" id="linknote-4.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxii. + p. 1215. Herodian, l. i. p. 32. Hist. August. p. 48.] + </p> + <p> + But every sentiment of virtue and humanity was extinct in the mind of + Commodus. Whilst he thus abandoned the reins of empire to these unworthy + favorites, he valued nothing in sovereign power, except the unbounded + license of indulging his sensual appetites. His hours were spent in a + seraglio of three hundred beautiful women, and as many boys, of every + rank, and of every province; and, wherever the arts of seduction proved + ineffectual, the brutal lover had recourse to violence. The ancient + historians <a href="#linknote-4.29" name="linknoteref-4.29" + id="linknoteref-4.29">29</a> have expatiated on these abandoned scenes of + prostitution, which scorned every restraint of nature or modesty; but it + would not be easy to translate their too faithful descriptions into the + decency of modern language. The intervals of lust were filled up with the + basest amusements. The influence of a polite age, and the labor of an + attentive education, had never been able to infuse into his rude and + brutish mind the least tincture of learning; and he was the first of the + Roman emperors totally devoid of taste for the pleasures of the + understanding. Nero himself excelled, or affected to excel, in the elegant + arts of music and poetry: nor should we despise his pursuits, had he not + converted the pleasing relaxation of a leisure hour into the serious + business and ambition of his life. But Commodus, from his earliest + infancy, discovered an aversion to whatever was rational or liberal, and a + fond attachment to the amusements of the populace; the sports of the + circus and amphitheatre, the combats of gladiators, and the hunting of + wild beasts. The masters in every branch of learning, whom Marcus provided + for his son, were heard with inattention and disgust; whilst the Moors and + Parthians, who taught him to dart the javelin and to shoot with the bow, + found a disciple who delighted in his application, and soon equalled the + most skilful of his instructors in the steadiness of the eye and the + dexterity of the hand. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.29" id="linknote-4.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Sororibus suis + constupratis. Ipsas concubinas suas sub oculis...stuprari jubebat. Nec + irruentium in se juvenum carebat infamia, omni parte corporis atque ore in + sexum utrumque pollutus. Hist. Aug. p. 47.] + </p> + <p> + The servile crowd, whose fortune depended on their master’s vices, + applauded these ignoble pursuits. The perfidious voice of flattery + reminded him, that by exploits of the same nature, by the defeat of the + Nemæan lion, and the slaughter of the wild boar of Erymanthus, the + Grecian Hercules had acquired a place among the gods, and an immortal + memory among men. They only forgot to observe, that, in the first ages of + society, when the fiercer animals often dispute with man the possession of + an unsettled country, a successful war against those savages is one of the + most innocent and beneficial labors of heroism. In the civilized state of + the Roman empire, the wild beasts had long since retired from the face of + man, and the neighborhood of populous cities. To surprise them in their + solitary haunts, and to transport them to Rome, that they might be slain + in pomp by the hand of an emperor, was an enterprise equally ridiculous + for the prince and oppressive for the people. <a href="#linknote-4.30" + name="linknoteref-4.30" id="linknoteref-4.30">30</a> Ignorant of these + distinctions, Commodus eagerly embraced the glorious resemblance, and + styled himself (as we still read on his medals<a href="#linknote-4.31" + name="linknoteref-4.31" id="linknoteref-4.31">31</a>) the <i>Roman Hercules</i>. <a + href="#linknote-4.311" name="linknoteref-4.311" id="linknoteref-4.311">311</a> + The club and the lion’s hide were placed by the side of the throne, + amongst the ensigns of sovereignty; and statues were erected, in which + Commodus was represented in the character, and with the attributes, of the + god, whose valor and dexterity he endeavored to emulate in the daily + course of his ferocious amusements. <a href="#linknote-4.32" + name="linknoteref-4.32" id="linknoteref-4.32">32</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.30" id="linknote-4.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.30">return</a>)<br/> [ The African lions, when + pressed by hunger, infested the open villages and cultivated country; and + they infested them with impunity. The royal beast was reserved for the + pleasures of the emperor and the capital; and the unfortunate peasant who + killed one of them though in his own defence, incurred a very heavy + penalty. This extraordinary game-law was mitigated by Honorius, and + finally repealed by Justinian. Codex Theodos. tom. v. p. 92, et Comment + Gothofred.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.31" id="linknote-4.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Spanheim de Numismat. + Dissertat. xii. tom. ii. p. 493.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.311" id="linknote-4.311"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 311 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.311">return</a>)<br/> [ Commodus placed his + own head on the colossal statue of Hercules with the inscription, Lucius + Commodus Hercules. The wits of Rome, according to a new fragment of Dion, + published an epigram, of which, like many other ancient jests, the point + is not very clear. It seems to be a protest of the god against being + confounded with the emperor. Mai Fragm. Vatican. ii. 225.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.32" id="linknote-4.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1216. + Hist. August. p. 49.] + </p> + <p> + Elated with these praises, which gradually extinguished the innate sense + of shame, Commodus resolved to exhibit before the eyes of the Roman people + those exercises, which till then he had decently confined within the walls + of his palace, and to the presence of a few favorites. On the appointed + day, the various motives of flattery, fear, and curiosity, attracted to + the amphitheatre an innumerable multitude of spectators; and some degree + of applause was deservedly bestowed on the uncommon skill of the Imperial + performer. Whether he aimed at the head or heart of the animal, the wound + was alike certain and mortal. With arrows whose point was shaped into the + form of crescent, Commodus often intercepted the rapid career, and cut + asunder the long, bony neck of the ostrich. <a href="#linknote-4.33" + name="linknoteref-4.33" id="linknoteref-4.33">33</a> A panther was let + loose; and the archer waited till he had leaped upon a trembling + malefactor. In the same instant the shaft flew, the beast dropped dead, + and the man remained unhurt. The dens of the amphitheatre disgorged at + once a hundred lions: a hundred darts from the unerring hand of Commodus + laid them dead as they run raging round the <i>Arena</i>. Neither the huge bulk + of the elephant, nor the scaly hide of the rhinoceros, could defend them + from his stroke. Æthiopia and India yielded their most extraordinary + productions; and several animals were slain in the amphitheatre, which had + been seen only in the representations of art, or perhaps of fancy. <a + href="#linknote-4.34" name="linknoteref-4.34" id="linknoteref-4.34">34</a> In + all these exhibitions, the securest precautions were used to protect the + person of the Roman Hercules from the desperate spring of any savage, who + might possibly disregard the dignity of the emperor and the sanctity of + the god. <a href="#linknote-4.35" name="linknoteref-4.35" + id="linknoteref-4.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.33" id="linknote-4.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.33">return</a>)<br/> [ The ostrich’s neck is + three feet long, and composed of seventeen vertebræ. See Buffon, Hist. + Naturelle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.34" id="linknote-4.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Commodus killed a + camelopardalis or Giraffe, (Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1211,) the tallest, the + most gentle, and the most useless of the large quadrupeds. This singular + animal, a native only of the interior parts of Africa, has not been seen + in Europe since the revival of letters; and though M. de Buffon (Hist. + Naturelle, tom. xiii.) has endeavored to describe, he has not ventured to + delineate, the Giraffe. * Note: The naturalists of our days have been more + fortunate. London probably now contains more specimens of this animal than + have been seen in Europe since the fall of the Roman empire, unless in the + pleasure gardens of the emperor Frederic II., in Sicily, which possessed + several. Frederic’s collections of wild beasts were exhibited, for the + popular amusement, in many parts of Italy. Raumer, Geschichte der + Hohenstaufen, v. iii. p. 571. Gibbon, moreover, is mistaken; as a giraffe + was presented to Lorenzo de Medici, either by the sultan of Egypt or the + king of Tunis. Contemporary authorities are quoted in the old work, Gesner + de Quadrupedibum p. 162.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.35" id="linknote-4.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. i. p. 37. + Hist. August. p. 50.] + </p> + <p> + But the meanest of the populace were affected with shame and indignation + when they beheld their sovereign enter the lists as a gladiator, and glory + in a profession which the laws and manners of the Romans had branded with + the justest note of infamy. <a href="#linknote-4.36" name="linknoteref-4.36" + id="linknoteref-4.36">36</a> He chose the habit and arms of the <i>Secutor</i>, + whose combat with the <i>Retiarius</i> formed one of the most lively scenes in + the bloody sports of the amphitheatre. The <i>Secutor</i> was armed with a + helmet, sword, and buckler; his naked antagonist had only a large net and + a trident; with the one he endeavored to entangle, with the other to + despatch his enemy. If he missed the first throw, he was obliged to fly + from the pursuit of the <i>Secutor</i>, till he had prepared his net for a second + cast. <a href="#linknote-4.37" name="linknoteref-4.37" id="linknoteref-4.37">37</a> + The emperor fought in this character seven hundred and thirty-five several + times. These glorious achievements were carefully recorded in the public + acts of the empire; and that he might omit no circumstance of infamy, he + received from the common fund of gladiators a stipend so exorbitant that + it became a new and most ignominious tax upon the Roman people. <a + href="#linknote-4.38" name="linknoteref-4.38" id="linknoteref-4.38">38</a> It + may be easily supposed, that in these engagements the master of the world + was always successful; in the amphitheatre, his victories were not often + sanguinary; but when he exercised his skill in the school of gladiators, + or his own palace, his wretched antagonists were frequently honored with a + mortal wound from the hand of Commodus, and obliged to seal their flattery + with their blood. <a href="#linknote-4.39" name="linknoteref-4.39" + id="linknoteref-4.39">39</a> He now disdained the appellation of Hercules. + The name of Paulus, a celebrated Secutor, was the only one which delighted + his ear. It was inscribed on his colossal statues, and repeated in the + redoubled acclamations <a href="#linknote-4.40" name="linknoteref-4.40" + id="linknoteref-4.40">40</a> of the mournful and applauding senate. <a + href="#linknote-4.41" name="linknoteref-4.41" id="linknoteref-4.41">41</a> + Claudius Pompeianus, the virtuous husband of Lucilla, was the only senator + who asserted the honor of his rank. As a father, he permitted his sons to + consult their safety by attending the amphitheatre. As a Roman, he + declared, that his own life was in the emperor’s hands, but that he would + never behold the son of Marcus prostituting his person and dignity. + Notwithstanding his manly resolution Pompeianus escaped the resentment of + the tyrant, and, with his honor, had the good fortune to preserve his + life. <a href="#linknote-4.42" name="linknoteref-4.42" id="linknoteref-4.42">42</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.36" id="linknote-4.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.36">return</a>)<br/> [ The virtuous and even + the wise princes forbade the senators and knights to embrace this + scandalous profession, under pain of infamy, or, what was more dreaded by + those profligate wretches, of exile. The tyrants allured them to dishonor + by threats and rewards. Nero once produced in the arena forty senators and + sixty knights. See Lipsius, Saturnalia, l. ii. c. 2. He has happily + corrected a passage of Suetonius in Nerone, c. 12.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.37" id="linknote-4.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Lipsius, l. ii. c. 7, 8. + Juvenal, in the eighth satire, gives a picturesque description of this + combat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.38" id="linknote-4.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 50. + Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1220. He received, for each time, decies, about 8000l. + sterling.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.39" id="linknote-4.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor tells us, that + Commodus only allowed his antagonists a...weapon, dreading most probably + the consequences of their despair.] <a name="linknote-4.40" + id="linknote-4.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.40">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 40: They were + obliged to repeat, six hundred and twenty-six times, Paolus first of the + Secutors, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.41" id="linknote-4.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1221. + He speaks of his own baseness and danger.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.42" id="linknote-4.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.42">return</a>)<br/> [ He mixed, however, some + prudence with his courage, and passed the greatest part of his time in a + country retirement; alleging his advanced age, and the weakness of his + eyes. “I never saw him in the senate,” says Dion, “except during the short + reign of Pertinax.” All his infirmities had suddenly left him, and they + returned as suddenly upon the murder of that excellent prince. Dion, l. + lxxiii. p. 1227.] + </p> + <p> + Commodus had now attained the summit of vice and infamy. Amidst the + acclamations of a flattering court, he was unable to disguise from + himself, that he had deserved the contempt and hatred of every man of + sense and virtue in his empire. His ferocious spirit was irritated by the + consciousness of that hatred, by the envy of every kind of merit, by the + just apprehension of danger, and by the habit of slaughter, which he + contracted in his daily amusements. History has preserved a long list of + consular senators sacrificed to his wanton suspicion, which sought out, + with peculiar anxiety, those unfortunate persons connected, however + remotely, with the family of the Antonines, without sparing even the + ministers of his crimes or pleasures. <a href="#linknote-4.43" + name="linknoteref-4.43" id="linknoteref-4.43">43</a> His cruelty proved at + last fatal to himself. He had shed with impunity the noblest blood of + Rome: he perished as soon as he was dreaded by his own domestics. Marcia, + his favorite concubine, Eclectus, his chamberlain, and Lætus, his + Prætorian præfect, alarmed by the fate of their companions and + predecessors, resolved to prevent the destruction which every hour hung + over their heads, either from the mad caprice of the tyrant, <a + href="#linknote-4.431" name="linknoteref-4.431" id="linknoteref-4.431">431</a> + or the sudden indignation of the people. Marcia seized the occasion of + presenting a draught of wine to her lover, after he had fatigued himself + with hunting some wild beasts. Commodus retired to sleep; but whilst he + was laboring with the effects of poison and drunkenness, a robust youth, + by profession a wrestler, entered his chamber, and strangled him without + resistance. The body was secretly conveyed out of the palace, before the + least suspicion was entertained in the city, or even in the court, of the + emperor’s death. Such was the fate of the son of Marcus, and so easy was + it to destroy a hated tyrant, who, by the artificial powers of government, + had oppressed, during thirteen years, so many millions of subjects, each + of whom was equal to their master in personal strength and personal + abilities. <a href="#linknote-4.44" name="linknoteref-4.44" + id="linknoteref-4.44">44</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.43" id="linknote-4.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.43">return</a>)<br/> [ The prefects were + changed almost hourly or daily; and the caprice of Commodus was often + fatal to his most favored chamberlains. Hist. August. p. 46, 51.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.431" id="linknote-4.431"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 431 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.431">return</a>)<br/> [ Commodus had already + resolved to massacre them the following night they determined o anticipate + his design. Herod. i. 17.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.44" id="linknote-4.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxii. p. 1222. + Herodian, l. i. p. 43. Hist. August. p. 52.] + </p> + <p> + The measures of the conspirators were conducted with the deliberate + coolness and celerity which the greatness of the occasion required. They + resolved instantly to fill the vacant throne with an emperor whose + character would justify and maintain the action that had been committed. + They fixed on Pertinax, præfect of the city, an ancient senator of + consular rank, whose conspicuous merit had broke through the obscurity of + his birth, and raised him to the first honors of the state. He had + successively governed most of the provinces of the empire; and in all his + great employments, military as well as civil, he had uniformly + distinguished himself by the firmness, the prudence, and the integrity of + his conduct. <a href="#linknote-4.45" name="linknoteref-4.45" + id="linknoteref-4.45">45</a> He now remained almost alone of the friends + and ministers of Marcus; and when, at a late hour of the night, he was + awakened with the news, that the chamberlain and the præfect were at his + door, he received them with intrepid resignation, and desired they would + execute their master’s orders. Instead of death, they offered him the + throne of the Roman world. During some moments he distrusted their + intentions and assurances. Convinced at length of the death of Commodus, + he accepted the purple with a sincere reluctance, the natural effect of + his knowledge both of the duties and of the dangers of the supreme rank. + <a href="#linknote-4.46" name="linknoteref-4.46" id="linknoteref-4.46">46</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.45" id="linknote-4.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Pertinax was a native of + Alba Pompeia, in Piedmont, and son of a timber merchant. The order of his + employments (it is marked by Capitolinus) well deserves to be set down, as + expressive of the form of government and manners of the age. 1. He was a + centurion. 2. Præfect of a cohort in Syria, in the Parthian war, and in + Britain. 3. He obtained an Ala, or squadron of horse, in Mæsia. 4. He was + commissary of provisions on the Æmilian way. 5. He commanded the fleet + upon the Rhine. 6. He was procurator of Dacia, with a salary of about + 1600l. a year. 7. He commanded the veterans of a legion. 8. He obtained + the rank of senator. 9. Of prætor. 10. With the command of the first + legion in Rhætia and Noricum. 11. He was consul about the year 175. 12. + He attended Marcus into the East. 13. He commanded an army on the Danube. + 14. He was consular legate of Mæsia. 15. Of Dacia. 16. Of Syria. 17. Of + Britain. 18. He had the care of the public provisions at Rome. 19. He was + proconsul of Africa. 20. Præfect of the city. Herodian (l. i. p. 48) does + justice to his disinterested spirit; but Capitolinus, who collected every + popular rumor, charges him with a great fortune acquired by bribery and + corruption.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.46" id="linknote-4.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian, in the Cæsars, + taxes him with being accessory to the death of Commodus.] + </p> + <p> + Lætus conducted without delay his new emperor to the camp of the + Prætorians, diffusing at the same time through the city a seasonable + report that Commodus died suddenly of an apoplexy; and that the virtuous + Pertinax had <i>already</i> succeeded to the throne. The guards were rather + surprised than pleased with the suspicious death of a prince, whose + indulgence and liberality they alone had experienced; but the emergency of + the occasion, the authority of their præfect, the reputation of Pertinax, + and the clamors of the people, obliged them to stifle their secret + discontents, to accept the donative promised by the new emperor, to swear + allegiance to him, and with joyful acclamations and laurels in their hands + to conduct him to the senate house, that the military consent might be + ratified by the civil authority. This important night was now far spent; + with the dawn of day, and the commencement of the new year, the senators + expected a summons to attend an ignominious ceremony. <a + href="#linknote-4.461" name="linknoteref-4.461" id="linknoteref-4.461">461</a> + In spite of all remonstrances, even of those of his creatures who yet + preserved any regard for prudence or decency, Commodus had resolved to + pass the night in the gladiators’ school, and from thence to take + possession of the consulship, in the habit and with the attendance of that + infamous crew. On a sudden, before the break of day, the senate was called + together in the temple of Concord, to meet the guards, and to ratify the + election of a new emperor. For a few minutes they sat in silent suspense, + doubtful of their unexpected deliverance, and suspicious of the cruel + artifices of Commodus: but when at length they were assured that the + tyrant was no more, they resigned themselves to all the transports of joy + and indignation. Pertinax, who modestly represented the meanness of his + extraction, and pointed out several noble senators more deserving than + himself of the empire, was constrained by their dutiful violence to ascend + the throne, and received all the titles of Imperial power, confirmed by + the most sincere vows of fidelity. The memory of Commodus was branded with + eternal infamy. The names of tyrant, of gladiator, of public enemy + resounded in every corner of the house. They decreed in tumultuous votes, + <a href="#linknote-4.462" name="linknoteref-4.462" id="linknoteref-4.462">462</a> + that his honors should be reversed, his titles erased from the public + monuments, his statues thrown down, his body dragged with a hook into the + stripping room of the gladiators, to satiate the public fury; and they + expressed some indignation against those officious servants who had + already presumed to screen his remains from the justice of the senate. But + Pertinax could not refuse those last rites to the memory of Marcus, and + the tears of his first protector Claudius Pompeianus, who lamented the + cruel fate of his brother-in-law, and lamented still more that he had + deserved it. <a href="#linknote-4.47" name="linknoteref-4.47" + id="linknoteref-4.47">47</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.461" id="linknote-4.461"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 461 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.461">return</a>)<br/> [ The senate always + assembled at the beginning of the year, on the night of the 1st January, + (see Savaron on Sid. Apoll. viii. 6,) and this happened the present year, + as usual, without any particular order.—G from W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.462" id="linknote-4.462"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 462 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.462">return</a>)<br/> [ What Gibbon improperly + calls, both here and in the note, tumultuous decrees, were no more than + the applauses and acclamations which recur so often in the history of the + emperors. The custom passed from the theatre to the forum, from the forum + to the senate. Applauses on the adoption of the Imperial decrees were + first introduced under Trajan. (Plin. jun. Panegyr. 75.) One senator read + the form of the decree, and all the rest answered by acclamations, + accompanied with a kind of chant or rhythm. These were some of the + acclamations addressed to Pertinax, and against the memory of Commodus. + Hosti patriæ honores detrahantur. Parricidæ honores detrahantur. Ut + salvi simus, Jupiter, optime, maxime, serva nobis Pertinacem. This custom + prevailed not only in the councils of state, but in all the meetings of + the senate. However inconsistent it may appear with the solemnity of a + religious assembly, the early Christians adopted and introduced it into + their synods, notwithstanding the opposition of some of the Fathers, + particularly of St. Chrysostom. See the Coll. of Franc. Bern. Ferrarius de + veterum acclamatione in Grævii Thesaur. Antiq. Rom. i. 6.—W. This + note is rather hypercritical, as regards Gibbon, but appears to be worthy + of preservation.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.47" id="linknote-4.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Capitolinus gives us the + particulars of these tumultuary votes, which were moved by one senator, + and repeated, or rather chanted by the whole body. Hist. August. p. 52.] + </p> + <p> + These effusions of impotent rage against a dead emperor, whom the senate + had flattered when alive with the most abject servility, betrayed a just + but ungenerous spirit of revenge. + </p> + <p> + The legality of these decrees was, however, supported by the principles of + the Imperial constitution. To censure, to depose, or to punish with death, + the first magistrate of the republic, who had abused his delegated trust, + was the ancient and undoubted prerogative of the Roman senate; <a + href="#linknote-4.48" name="linknoteref-4.48" id="linknoteref-4.48">48</a> + but the feeble assembly was obliged to content itself with inflicting on a + fallen tyrant that public justice, from which, during his life and reign, + he had been shielded by the strong arm of military despotism. <a + href="#linknote-4.481" name="linknoteref-4.481" id="linknoteref-4.481">481</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.48" id="linknote-4.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.48">return</a>)<br/> [ The senate condemned + Nero to be put to death more majorum. Sueton. c. 49.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.481" id="linknote-4.481"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 481 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.481">return</a>)<br/> [ No particular law + assigned this right to the senate: it was deduced from the ancient + principles of the republic. Gibbon appears to infer, from the passage of + Suetonius, that the senate, according to its ancient right, punished Nero + with death. The words, however, more majerum refer not to the decree of + the senate, but to the kind of death, which was taken from an old law of + Romulus. (See Victor. Epit. Ed. Artzen p. 484, n. 7.)—W.] + </p> + <p> + Pertinax found a nobler way of condemning his predecessor’s memory; by the + contrast of his own virtues with the vices of Commodus. On the day of his + accession, he resigned over to his wife and son his whole private fortune; + that they might have no pretence to solicit favors at the expense of the + state. He refused to flatter the vanity of the former with the title of + Augusta; or to corrupt the inexperienced youth of the latter by the rank + of Cæsar. Accurately distinguishing between the duties of a parent and + those of a sovereign, he educated his son with a severe simplicity, which, + while it gave him no assured prospect of the throne, might in time have + rendered him worthy of it. In public, the behavior of Pertinax was grave + and affable. He lived with the virtuous part of the senate, (and, in a + private station, he had been acquainted with the true character of each + individual,) without either pride or jealousy; considered them as friends + and companions, with whom he had shared the danger of the tyranny, and + with whom he wished to enjoy the security of the present time. He very + frequently invited them to familiar entertainments, the frugality of which + was ridiculed by those who remembered and regretted the luxurious + prodigality of Commodus. <a href="#linknote-4.49" name="linknoteref-4.49" + id="linknoteref-4.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.49" id="linknote-4.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion (l. lxxiii. p. + 1223) speaks of these entertainments, as a senator who had supped with the + emperor; Capitolinus, (Hist. August. p. 58,) like a slave, who had + received his intelligence from one the scullions.] + </p> + <p> + To heal, as far as it was possible, the wounds inflicted by the hand of + tyranny, was the pleasing, but melancholy, task of Pertinax. The innocent + victims, who yet survived, were recalled from exile, released from prison, + and restored to the full possession of their honors and fortunes. The + unburied bodies of murdered senators (for the cruelty of Commodus + endeavored to extend itself beyond death) were deposited in the sepulchres + of their ancestors; their memory was justified and every consolation was + bestowed on their ruined and afflicted families. Among these consolations, + one of the most grateful was the punishment of the Delators; the common + enemies of their master, of virtue, and of their country. Yet even in the + inquisition of these legal assassins, Pertinax proceeded with a steady + temper, which gave every thing to justice, and nothing to popular + prejudice and resentment. + </p> + <p> + The finances of the state demanded the most vigilant care of the emperor. + Though every measure of injustice and extortion had been adopted, which + could collect the property of the subject into the coffers of the prince, + the rapaciousness of Commodus had been so very inadequate to his + extravagance, that, upon his death, no more than eight thousand pounds + were found in the exhausted treasury, <a href="#linknote-4.50" + name="linknoteref-4.50" id="linknoteref-4.50">50</a> to defray the current + expenses of government, and to discharge the pressing demand of a liberal + donative, which the new emperor had been obliged to promise to the + Prætorian guards. Yet under these distressed circumstances, Pertinax had + the generous firmness to remit all the oppressive taxes invented by + Commodus, and to cancel all the unjust claims of the treasury; declaring, + in a decree of the senate, “that he was better satisfied to administer a + poor republic with innocence, than to acquire riches by the ways of + tyranny and dishonor.” Economy and industry he considered as the pure and + genuine sources of wealth; and from them he soon derived a copious supply + for the public necessities. The expense of the household was immediately + reduced to one half. All the instruments of luxury Pertinax exposed to + public auction, <a href="#linknote-4.51" name="linknoteref-4.51" + id="linknoteref-4.51">51</a> gold and silver plate, chariots of a singular + construction, a superfluous wardrobe of silk and embroidery, and a great + number of beautiful slaves of both sexes; excepting only, with attentive + humanity, those who were born in a state of freedom, and had been + ravished from the arms of their weeping parents. At the same time that he + obliged the worthless favorites of the tyrant to resign a part of their + ill-gotten wealth, he satisfied the just creditors of the state, and + unexpectedly discharged the long arrears of honest services. He removed + the oppressive restrictions which had been laid upon commerce, and + granted all the uncultivated lands in Italy and the provinces to those + who would improve them; with an exemption from tribute during the term of + ten years. <a href="#linknote-4.52" name="linknoteref-4.52" + id="linknoteref-4.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.50" id="linknote-4.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Decies. The blameless + economy of Pius left his successors a treasure of vicies septies millies, + above two and twenty millions sterling. Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1231.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.51" id="linknote-4.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Besides the design of + converting these useless ornaments into money, Dion (l. lxxiii. p. 1229) + assigns two secret motives of Pertinax. He wished to expose the vices of + Commodus, and to discover by the purchasers those who most resembled him.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.52" id="linknote-4.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Though Capitolinus has + picked up many idle tales of the private life of Pertinax, he joins with + Dion and Herodian in admiring his public conduct.] + </p> + <p> + Such a uniform conduct had already secured to Pertinax the noblest reward + of a sovereign, the love and esteem of his people. + </p> + <p> + Those who remembered the virtues of Marcus were happy to contemplate in + their new emperor the features of that bright original; and flattered + themselves, that they should long enjoy the benign influence of his + administration. A hasty zeal to reform the corrupted state, accompanied + with less prudence than might have been expected from the years and + experience of Pertinax, proved fatal to himself and to his country. His + honest indiscretion united against him the servile crowd, who found their + private benefit in the public disorders, and who preferred the favor of a + tyrant to the inexorable equality of the laws. <a href="#linknote-4.53" + name="linknoteref-4.53" id="linknoteref-4.53">53</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.53" id="linknote-4.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Leges, rem surdam, + inexorabilem esse. T. Liv. ii. 3.] + </p> + <p> + Amidst the general joy, the sullen and angry countenance of the Prætorian + guards betrayed their inward dissatisfaction. They had reluctantly + submitted to Pertinax; they dreaded the strictness of the ancient + discipline, which he was preparing to restore; and they regretted the + license of the former reign. Their discontents were secretly fomented by + Lætus, their præfect, who found, when it was too late, that his new + emperor would reward a servant, but would not be ruled by a favorite. On + the third day of his reign, the soldiers seized on a noble senator, with a + design to carry him to the camp, and to invest him with the Imperial + purple. Instead of being dazzled by the dangerous honor, the affrighted + victim escaped from their violence, and took refuge at the feet of + Pertinax. A short time afterwards, Sosius Falco, one of the consuls of the + year, a rash youth, <a href="#linknote-4.54" name="linknoteref-4.54" + id="linknoteref-4.54">54</a> but of an ancient and opulent family, listened + to the voice of ambition; and a conspiracy was formed during a short + absence of Pertinax, which was crushed by his sudden return to Rome, and + his resolute behavior. Falco was on the point of being justly condemned to + death as a public enemy had he not been saved by the earnest and sincere + entreaties of the injured emperor, who conjured the senate, that the + purity of his reign might not be stained by the blood even of a guilty + senator. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.54" id="linknote-4.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.54">return</a>)<br/> [ If we credit + Capitolinus, (which is rather difficult,) Falco behaved with the most + petulant indecency to Pertinax, on the day of his accession. The wise + emperor only admonished him of his youth and in experience. Hist. August. + p. 55.] + </p> + <p> + These disappointments served only to irritate the rage of the Prætorian + guards. On the twenty-eighth of March, eighty-six days only after the + death of Commodus, a general sedition broke out in the camp, which the + officers wanted either power or inclination to suppress. Two or three + hundred of the most desperate soldiers marched at noonday, with arms in + their hands and fury in their looks, towards the Imperial palace. The + gates were thrown open by their companions upon guard, and by the + domestics of the old court, who had already formed a secret conspiracy + against the life of the too virtuous emperor. On the news of their + approach, Pertinax, disdaining either flight or concealment, advanced to + meet his assassins; and recalled to their minds his own innocence, and the + sanctity of their recent oath. For a few moments they stood in silent + suspense, ashamed of their atrocious design, and awed by the venerable + aspect and majestic firmness of their sovereign, till at length, the + despair of pardon reviving their fury, a barbarian of the country of + Tongress <a href="#linknote-4.55" name="linknoteref-4.55" + id="linknoteref-4.55">55</a> levelled the first blow against Pertinax, who + was instantly despatched with a multitude of wounds. His head, separated + from his body, and placed on a lance, was carried in triumph to the + Prætorian camp, in the sight of a mournful and indignant people, who + lamented the unworthy fate of that excellent prince, and the transient + blessings of a reign, the memory of which could serve only to aggravate + their approaching misfortunes. <a href="#linknote-4.56" + name="linknoteref-4.56" id="linknoteref-4.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.55" id="linknote-4.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.55">return</a>)<br/> [ The modern bishopric of + Liege. This soldier probably belonged to the Batavian horse-guards, who + were mostly raised in the duchy of Gueldres and the neighborhood, and were + distinguished by their valor, and by the boldness with which they swam + their horses across the broadest and most rapid rivers. Tacit. Hist. iv. + 12 Dion, l. lv p. 797 Lipsius de magnitudine Romana, l. i. c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-4.56" id="linknote-4.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-4.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1232. Herodian, l. ii. p. 60. Hist. August. p. 58. Victor in Epitom. et in + Cæsarib. Eutropius, viii. 16.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap05.1"></a> + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Public Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus By The Prætorian +Guards—Clodius Albinus In Britain, Pescennius Niger In Syria, And +Septimius Severus In Pannonia, Declare Against The Murderers Of +Pertinax—Civil Wars And Victory Of Severus Over His Three +Rivals—Relaxation Of Discipline—New Maxims Of Government. +</p> + <p> + The power of the sword is more sensibly felt in an extensive monarchy, + than in a small community. It has been calculated by the ablest + politicians, that no state, without being soon exhausted, can maintain + above the hundredth part of its members in arms and idleness. But although + this relative proportion may be uniform, the influence of the army over + the rest of the society will vary according to the degree of its positive + strength. The advantages of military science and discipline cannot be + exerted, unless a proper number of soldiers are united into one body, and + actuated by one soul. With a handful of men, such a union would be + ineffectual; with an unwieldy host, it would be impracticable; and the + powers of the machine would be alike destroyed by the extreme minuteness + or the excessive weight of its springs. To illustrate this observation, we + need only reflect, that there is no superiority of natural strength, + artificial weapons, or acquired skill, which could enable one man to keep + in constant subjection one hundred of his fellow-creatures: the tyrant of + a single town, or a small district, would soon discover that a hundred + armed followers were a weak defence against ten thousand peasants or + citizens; but a hundred thousand well-disciplined soldiers will command, + with despotic sway, ten millions of subjects; and a body of ten or fifteen + thousand guards will strike terror into the most numerous populace that + ever crowded the streets of an immense capital. + </p> + <p> + The Prætorian bands, whose licentious fury was the first symptom and + cause of the decline of the Roman empire, scarcely amounted to the + last-mentioned number. <a href="#linknote-5.1" name="linknoteref-5.1" + id="linknoteref-5.1">1</a> They derived their institution from Augustus. + That crafty tyrant, sensible that laws might color, but that arms alone + could maintain, his usurped dominion, had gradually formed this powerful + body of guards, in constant readiness to protect his person, to awe the + senate, and either to prevent or to crush the first motions of rebellion. + He distinguished these favored troops by a double pay and superior + privileges; but, as their formidable aspect would at once have alarmed + and irritated the Roman people, three cohorts only were stationed in the + capital, whilst the remainder was dispersed in the adjacent towns of + Italy. <a href="#linknote-5.2" name="linknoteref-5.2" + id="linknoteref-5.2">2</a> But after fifty years of peace and servitude, + Tiberius ventured on a decisive measure, which forever rivetted the + fetters of his country. Under the fair pretences of relieving Italy from + the heavy burden of military quarters, and of introducing a stricter + discipline among the guards, he assembled them at Rome, in a permanent + camp, <a href="#linknote-5.3" name="linknoteref-5.3" + id="linknoteref-5.3">3</a> which was fortified with skilful care, <a + href="#linknote-5.4" name="linknoteref-5.4" id="linknoteref-5.4">4</a> and + placed on a commanding situation. <a href="#linknote-5.5" + name="linknoteref-5.5" id="linknoteref-5.5">5</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.1" id="linknote-5.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.1">return</a>)<br/> [ They were originally nine + or ten thousand men, (for Tacitus and son are not agreed upon the + subject,) divided into as many cohorts. Vitellius increased them to + sixteen thousand, and as far as we can learn from inscriptions, they never + afterwards sunk much below that number. See Lipsius de magnitudine Romana, + i. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.2" id="linknote-5.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Sueton. in August. c. 49.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.3" id="linknote-5.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. iv. 2. + Sueton. in Tiber. c. 37. Dion Cassius, l. lvii. p. 867.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.4" id="linknote-5.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.4">return</a>)<br/> [ In the civil war between + Vitellius and Vespasian, the Prætorian camp was attacked and defended + with all the machines used in the siege of the best fortified cities. + Tacit. Hist. iii. 84.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.5" id="linknote-5.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Close to the walls of the + city, on the broad summit of the Quirinal and Viminal hills. See Nardini + Roma Antica, p. 174. Donatus de Roma Antiqua, p. 46. * Note: Not on both + these hills: neither Donatus nor Nardini justify this position. + (Whitaker’s Review. p. 13.) At the northern extremity of this hill (the + Viminal) are some considerable remains of a walled enclosure which bears + all the appearance of a Roman camp, and therefore is generally thought to + correspond with the Castra Prætoria. Cramer’s Italy 390.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such formidable servants are always necessary, but often fatal to the + throne of despotism. By thus introducing the Prætorian guards as it were + into the palace and the senate, the emperors taught them to perceive their + own strength, and the weakness of the civil government; to view the vices + of their masters with familiar contempt, and to lay aside that reverential + awe, which distance only, and mystery, can preserve towards an imaginary + power. In the luxurious idleness of an opulent city, their pride was + nourished by the sense of their irresistible weight; nor was it possible + to conceal from them, that the person of the sovereign, the authority of + the senate, the public treasure, and the seat of empire, were all in their + hands. To divert the Prætorian bands from these dangerous reflections, + the firmest and best established princes were obliged to mix blandishments + with commands, rewards with punishments, to flatter their pride, indulge + their pleasures, connive at their irregularities, and to purchase their + precarious faith by a liberal donative; which, since the elevation of + Claudius, was enacted as a legal claim, on the accession of every new + emperor. <a href="#linknote-5.6" name="linknoteref-5.6" id="linknoteref-5.6">6</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.6" id="linknote-5.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Claudius, raised by the + soldiers to the empire, was the first who gave a donative. He gave quina + dena, 120l. (Sueton. in Claud. c. 10: ) when Marcus, with his colleague + Lucius Versus, took quiet possession of the throne, he gave vicena, 160l. + to each of the guards. Hist. August. p. 25, (Dion, l. lxxiii. p. 1231.) We + may form some idea of the amount of these sums, by Hadrian’s complaint + that the promotion of a Cæsar had cost him ter millies, two millions and + a half sterling.] + </p> + <p> + The advocate of the guards endeavored to justify by arguments the power + which they asserted by arms; and to maintain that, according to the purest + principles of the constitution, <i>their</i> consent was essentially necessary in + the appointment of an emperor. The election of consuls, of generals, and + of magistrates, however it had been recently usurped by the senate, was + the ancient and undoubted right of the Roman people. <a href="#linknote-5.7" + name="linknoteref-5.7" id="linknoteref-5.7">7</a> But where was the Roman + people to be found? Not surely amongst the mixed multitude of slaves and + strangers that filled the streets of Rome; a servile populace, as devoid + of spirit as destitute of property. The defenders of the state, selected + from the flower of the Italian youth, <a href="#linknote-5.8" + name="linknoteref-5.8" id="linknoteref-5.8">8</a> and trained in the + exercise of arms and virtue, were the genuine representatives of the + people, and the best entitled to elect the military chief of the republic. + These assertions, however defective in reason, became unanswerable when + the fierce Prætorians increased their weight, by throwing, like the + barbarian conqueror of Rome, their swords into the scale. <a + href="#linknote-5.9" name="linknoteref-5.9" id="linknoteref-5.9">9</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.7" id="linknote-5.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero de Legibus, iii. 3. + The first book of Livy, and the second of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, show + the authority of the people, even in the election of the kings.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.8" id="linknote-5.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.8">return</a>)<br/> [ They were originally + recruited in Latium, Etruria, and the old colonies, (Tacit. Annal. iv. 5.) + The emperor Otho compliments their vanity with the flattering titles of + Italiæ, Alumni, Romana were juventus. Tacit. Hist. i. 84.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.9" id="linknote-5.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.9">return</a>)<br/> [ In the siege of Rome by + the Gauls. See Livy, v. 48. Plutarch. in Camill. p. 143.] + </p> + <p> + The Prætorians had violated the sanctity of the throne by the atrocious + murder of Pertinax; they dishonored the majesty of it by their subsequent + conduct. The camp was without a leader, for even the præfect Lætus, who + had excited the tempest, prudently declined the public indignation. Amidst + the wild disorder, Sulpicianus, the emperor’s father-in-law, and governor + of the city, who had been sent to the camp on the first alarm of mutiny, + was endeavoring to calm the fury of the multitude, when he was silenced by + the clamorous return of the murderers, bearing on a lance the head of + Pertinax. Though history has accustomed us to observe every principle and + every passion yielding to the imperious dictates of ambition, it is + scarcely credible that, in these moments of horror, Sulpicianus should + have aspired to ascend a throne polluted with the recent blood of so near + a relation and so excellent a prince. He had already begun to use the only + effectual argument, and to treat for the Imperial dignity; but the more + prudent of the Prætorians, apprehensive that, in this private contract, + they should not obtain a just price for so valuable a commodity, ran out + upon the ramparts; and, with a loud voice, proclaimed that the Roman world + was to be disposed of to the best bidder by public auction. <a + href="#linknote-5.10" name="linknoteref-5.10" id="linknoteref-5.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.10" id="linknote-5.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, L. lxxiii. p. + 1234. Herodian, l. ii. p. 63. Hist. August p. 60. Though the three + historians agree that it was in fact an auction, Herodian alone affirms + that it was proclaimed as such by the soldiers.] + </p> + <p> + This infamous offer, the most insolent excess of military license, + diffused a universal grief, shame, and indignation throughout the city. It + reached at length the ears of Didius Julianus, a wealthy senator, who, + regardless of the public calamities, was indulging himself in the luxury + of the table. <a href="#linknote-5.11" name="linknoteref-5.11" + id="linknoteref-5.11">11</a> His wife and his daughter, his freedmen and + his parasites, easily convinced him that he deserved the throne, and + earnestly conjured him to embrace so fortunate an opportunity. The vain + old man hastened to the Prætorian camp, where Sulpicianus was still in + treaty with the guards, and began to bid against him from the foot of the + rampart. The unworthy negotiation was transacted by faithful emissaries, + who passed alternately from one candidate to the other, and acquainted + each of them with the offers of his rival. Sulpicianus had already + promised a donative of five thousand drachms (above one hundred and sixty + pounds) to each soldier; when Julian, eager for the prize, rose at once to + the sum of six thousand two hundred and fifty drachms, or upwards of two + hundred pounds sterling. The gates of the camp were instantly thrown open + to the purchaser; he was declared emperor, and received an oath of + allegiance from the soldiers, who retained humanity enough to stipulate + that he should pardon and forget the competition of Sulpicianus. <a + href="#linknote-5.111" name="linknoteref-5.111" id="linknoteref-5.111">111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.11" id="linknote-5.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Spartianus softens the + most odious parts of the character and elevation of Julian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.111" id="linknote-5.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.111">return</a>)<br/> [ One of the principal + causes of the preference of Julianus by the soldiers, was the dexterty + dexterity with which he reminded them that Sulpicianus would not fail to + revenge on them the death of his son-in-law. (See Dion, p. 1234, 1234. c. + 11. Herod. ii. 6.)—W.] + </p> + <p> + It was now incumbent on the Prætorians to fulfil the conditions of the + sale. They placed their new sovereign, whom they served and despised, in + the centre of their ranks, surrounded him on every side with their + shields, and conducted him in close order of battle through the deserted + streets of the city. The senate was commanded to assemble; and those who + had been the distinguished friends of Pertinax, or the personal enemies of + Julian, found it necessary to affect a more than common share of + satisfaction at this happy revolution. <a href="#linknote-5.12" + name="linknoteref-5.12" id="linknoteref-5.12">12</a> After Julian had filled + the senate house with armed soldiers, he expatiated on the freedom of his + election, his own eminent virtues, and his full assurance of the + affections of the senate. The obsequious assembly congratulated their own + and the public felicity; engaged their allegiance, and conferred on him + all the several branches of the Imperial power. <a href="#linknote-5.13" + name="linknoteref-5.13" id="linknoteref-5.13">13</a> From the senate Julian + was conducted, by the same military procession, to take possession of the + palace. The first objects that struck his eyes, were the abandoned trunk + of Pertinax, and the frugal entertainment prepared for his supper. The one + he viewed with indifference, the other with contempt. A magnificent feast + was prepared by his order, and he amused himself, till a very late hour, + with dice, and the performances of Pylades, a celebrated dancer. Yet it + was observed, that after the crowd of flatterers dispersed, and left him + to darkness, solitude, and terrible reflection, he passed a sleepless + night; revolving most probably in his mind his own rash folly, the fate of + his virtuous predecessor, and the doubtful and dangerous tenure of an + empire which had not been acquired by merit, but purchased by money. <a + href="#linknote-5.14" name="linknoteref-5.14" id="linknoteref-5.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.12" id="linknote-5.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, at that + time prætor, had been a personal enemy to Julian, i. lxxiii. p. 1235.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.13" id="linknote-5.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 61. We + learn from thence one curious circumstance, that the new emperor, whatever + had been his birth, was immediately aggregated to the number of patrician + families. Note: A new fragment of Dion shows some shrewdness in the + character of Julian. When the senate voted him a golden statue, he + preferred one of brass, as more lasting. He “had always observed,” he + said, “that the statues of former emperors were soon destroyed. Those of + brass alone remained.” The indignant historian adds that he was wrong. The + virtue of sovereigns alone preserves their images: the brazen statue of + Julian was broken to pieces at his death. Mai. Fragm. Vatican. p. 226.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.14" id="linknote-5.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1235. Hist. August. p. 61. I have endeavored to blend into one consistent + story the seeming contradictions of the two writers. * Note: The + contradiction as M. Guizot observed, is irreconcilable. He quotes both + passages: in one Julianus is represented as a miser, in the other as a + voluptuary. In the one he refuses to eat till the body of Pertinax has + been buried; in the other he gluts himself with every luxury almost in the + sight of his headless remains.—M.] + </p> + <p> + He had reason to tremble. On the throne of the world he found himself + without a friend, and even without an adherent. The guards themselves were + ashamed of the prince whom their avarice had persuaded them to accept; nor + was there a citizen who did not consider his elevation with horror, as the + last insult on the Roman name. The nobility, whose conspicuous station, + and ample possessions, exacted the strictest caution, dissembled their + sentiments, and met the affected civility of the emperor with smiles of + complacency and professions of duty. But the people, secure in their + numbers and obscurity, gave a free vent to their passions. The streets and + public places of Rome resounded with clamors and imprecations. The enraged + multitude affronted the person of Julian, rejected his liberality, and, + conscious of the impotence of their own resentment, they called aloud on + the legions of the frontiers to assert the violated majesty of the Roman + empire. The public discontent was soon diffused from the centre to the + frontiers of the empire. The armies of Britain, of Syria, and of + Illyricum, lamented the death of Pertinax, in whose company, or under + whose command, they had so often fought and conquered. They received with + surprise, with indignation, and perhaps with envy, the extraordinary + intelligence, that the Prætorians had disposed of the empire by public + auction; and they sternly refused to ratify the ignominious bargain. Their + immediate and unanimous revolt was fatal to Julian, but it was fatal at + the same time to the public peace, as the generals of the respective + armies, Clodius Albinus, Pescennius Niger, and Septimius Severus, were + still more anxious to succeed than to revenge the murdered Pertinax. Their + forces were exactly balanced. Each of them was at the head of three + legions, <a href="#linknote-5.15" name="linknoteref-5.15" + id="linknoteref-5.15">15</a> with a numerous train of auxiliaries; and + however different in their characters, they were all soldiers of + experience and capacity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.15" id="linknote-5.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1235.] + </p> + <p> + Clodius Albinus, governor of Britain, surpassed both his competitors in + the nobility of his extraction, which he derived from some of the most + illustrious names of the old republic. <a href="#linknote-5.16" + name="linknoteref-5.16" id="linknoteref-5.16">16</a> But the branch from + which he claimed his descent was sunk into mean circumstances, and + transplanted into a remote province. It is difficult to form a just idea + of his true character. Under the philosophic cloak of austerity, he stands + accused of concealing most of the vices which degrade human nature. <a + href="#linknote-5.17" name="linknoteref-5.17" id="linknoteref-5.17">17</a> + But his accusers are those venal writers who adored the fortune of + Severus, and trampled on the ashes of an unsuccessful rival. Virtue, or + the appearances of virtue, recommended Albinus to the confidence and good + opinion of Marcus; and his preserving with the son the same interest which + he had acquired with the father, is a proof at least that he was possessed + of a very flexible disposition. The favor of a tyrant does not always + suppose a want of merit in the object of it; he may, without intending it, + reward a man of worth and ability, or he may find such a man useful to his + own service. It does not appear that Albinus served the son of Marcus, + either as the minister of his cruelties, or even as the associate of his + pleasures. He was employed in a distant honorable command, when he + received a confidential letter from the emperor, acquainting him of the + treasonable designs of some discontented generals, and authorizing him to + declare himself the guardian and successor of the throne, by assuming the + title and ensigns of Cæsar. <a href="#linknote-5.18" name="linknoteref-5.18" + id="linknoteref-5.18">18</a> The governor of Britain wisely declined the + dangerous honor, which would have marked him for the jealousy, or involved + him in the approaching ruin, of Commodus. He courted power by nobler, or, + at least, by more specious arts. On a premature report of the death of the + emperor, he assembled his troops; and, in an eloquent discourse, deplored + the inevitable mischiefs of despotism, described the happiness and glory + which their ancestors had enjoyed under the consular government, and + declared his firm resolution to reinstate the senate and people in their + legal authority. This popular harangue was answered by the loud + acclamations of the British legions, and received at Rome with a secret + murmur of applause. Safe in the possession of his little world, and in the + command of an army less distinguished indeed for discipline than for + numbers and valor, <a href="#linknote-5.19" name="linknoteref-5.19" + id="linknoteref-5.19">19</a> Albinus braved the menaces of Commodus, + maintained towards Pertinax a stately ambiguous reserve, and instantly + declared against the usurpation of Julian. The convulsions of the capital + added new weight to his sentiments, or rather to his professions of + patriotism. A regard to decency induced him to decline the lofty titles of + Augustus and Emperor; and he imitated perhaps the example of Galba, who, + on a similar occasion, had styled himself the Lieutenant of the senate and + people. <a href="#linknote-5.20" name="linknoteref-5.20" id="linknoteref-5.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.16" id="linknote-5.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.16">return</a>)<br/> [ The Posthumian and the + Ce’onian; the former of whom was raised to the consulship in the fifth + year after its institution.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.17" id="linknote-5.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Spartianus, in his + undigested collections, mixes up all the virtues and all the vices that + enter into the human composition, and bestows them on the same object. + Such, indeed are many of the characters in the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.18" id="linknote-5.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 80, + 84.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.19" id="linknote-5.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Pertinax, who governed + Britain a few years before, had been left for dead, in a mutiny of the + soldiers. Hist. August. p 54. Yet they loved and regretted him; + admirantibus eam virtutem cui irascebantur.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.20" id="linknote-5.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Sueton. in Galb. c. 10.] + </p> + <p> + Personal merit alone had raised Pescennius Niger, from an obscure birth + and station, to the government of Syria; a lucrative and important + command, which in times of civil confusion gave him a near prospect of the + throne. Yet his parts seem to have been better suited to the second than + to the first rank; he was an unequal rival, though he might have approved + himself an excellent lieutenant, to Severus, who afterwards displayed the + greatness of his mind by adopting several useful institutions from a + vanquished enemy. <a href="#linknote-5.21" name="linknoteref-5.21" + id="linknoteref-5.21">21</a> In his government Niger acquired the esteem of + the soldiers and the love of the provincials. His rigid discipline + fortified the valor and confirmed the obedience of the former, whilst the + voluptuous Syrians were less delighted with the mild firmness of his + administration, than with the affability of his manners, and the apparent + pleasure with which he attended their frequent and pompous festivals. <a + href="#linknote-5.22" name="linknoteref-5.22" id="linknoteref-5.22">22</a> As + soon as the intelligence of the atrocious murder of Pertinax had reached + Antioch, the wishes of Asia invited Niger to assume the Imperial purple + and revenge his death. The legions of the eastern frontier embraced his + cause; the opulent but unarmed provinces, from the frontiers of Æthiopia + <a href="#linknote-5.23" name="linknoteref-5.23" id="linknoteref-5.23">23</a> + to the Hadriatic, cheerfully submitted to his power; and the kings beyond + the Tigris and the Euphrates congratulated his election, and offered him + their homage and services. The mind of Niger was not capable of receiving + this sudden tide of fortune: he flattered himself that his accession would + be undisturbed by competition and unstained by civil blood; and whilst he + enjoyed the vain pomp of triumph, he neglected to secure the means of + victory. Instead of entering into an effectual negotiation with the + powerful armies of the West, whose resolution might decide, or at least + must balance, the mighty contest; instead of advancing without delay + towards Rome and Italy, where his presence was impatiently expected, <a + href="#linknote-5.24" name="linknoteref-5.24" id="linknoteref-5.24">24</a> + Niger trifled away in the luxury of Antioch those irretrievable moments + which were diligently improved by the decisive activity of Severus. <a + href="#linknote-5.25" name="linknoteref-5.25" id="linknoteref-5.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.21" id="linknote-5.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 76.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.22" id="linknote-5.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Herod. l. ii. p. 68. The + Chronicle of John Malala, of Antioch, shows the zealous attachment of his + countrymen to these festivals, which at once gratified their superstition, + and their love of pleasure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.23" id="linknote-5.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.23">return</a>)<br/> [ A king of Thebes, in + Egypt, is mentioned, in the Augustan History, as an ally, and, indeed, as + a personal friend of Niger. If Spartianus is not, as I strongly suspect, + mistaken, he has brought to light a dynasty of tributary princes totally + unknown to history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.24" id="linknote-5.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1238. Herod. l. ii. p. 67. A verse in every one’s mouth at that time, + seems to express the general opinion of the three rivals; Optimus est + <i>Niger</i>, [<i>Fuscus</i>, which preserves the quantity.—M.] bonus <i>Afer</i>, + pessimus <i>Albus</i>. Hist. August. p. 75.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.25" id="linknote-5.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 71.] + </p> + <p> + The country of Pannonia and Dalmatia, which occupied the space between the + Danube and the Hadriatic, was one of the last and most difficult conquests + of the Romans. In the defence of national freedom, two hundred thousand of + these barbarians had once appeared in the field, alarmed the declining age + of Augustus, and exercised the vigilant prudence of Tiberius at the head + of the collected force of the empire. <a href="#linknote-5.26" + name="linknoteref-5.26" id="linknoteref-5.26">26</a> The Pannonians yielded + at length to the arms and institutions of Rome. Their recent subjection, + however, the neighborhood, and even the mixture, of the unconquered + tribes, and perhaps the climate, adapted, as it has been observed, to the + production of great bodies and slow minds, <a href="#linknote-5.27" + name="linknoteref-5.27" id="linknoteref-5.27">27</a> all contributed to + preserve some remains of their original ferocity, and under the tame and + uniform countenance of Roman provincials, the hardy features of the + natives were still to be discerned. Their warlike youth afforded an + inexhaustible supply of recruits to the legions stationed on the banks of + the Danube, and which, from a perpetual warfare against the Germans and + Sarmazans, were deservedly esteemed the best troops in the service. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.26" id="linknote-5.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.26">return</a>)<br/> [ See an account of that + memorable war in Velleius Paterculus, is 110, &c., who served in the + army of Tiberius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.27" id="linknote-5.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Such is the reflection + of Herodian, l. ii. p. 74. Will the modern Austrians allow the influence?] + </p> + <p> + The Pannonian army was at this time commanded by Septimius Severus, a + native of Africa, who, in the gradual ascent of private honors, had + concealed his daring ambition, which was never diverted from its steady + course by the allurements of pleasure, the apprehension of danger, or the + feelings of humanity. <a href="#linknote-5.28" name="linknoteref-5.28" + id="linknoteref-5.28">28</a> On the first news of the murder of Pertinax, + he assembled his troops, painted in the most lively colors the crime, the + insolence, and the weakness of the Prætorian guards, and animated the + legions to arms and to revenge. He concluded (and the peroration was + thought extremely eloquent) with promising every soldier about four + hundred pounds; an honorable donative, double in value to the infamous + bribe with which Julian had purchased the empire. <a href="#linknote-5.29" + name="linknoteref-5.29" id="linknoteref-5.29">29</a> The acclamations of the + army immediately saluted Severus with the names of Augustus, Pertinax, and + Emperor; and he thus attained the lofty station to which he was invited, + by conscious merit and a long train of dreams and omens, the fruitful + offsprings either of his superstition or policy. <a href="#linknote-5.30" + name="linknoteref-5.30" id="linknoteref-5.30">30</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.28" id="linknote-5.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.28">return</a>)<br/> [ In the letter to + Albinus, already mentioned, Commodus accuses Severus, as one of the + ambitious generals who censured his conduct, and wished to occupy his + place. Hist. August. p. 80.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.29" id="linknote-5.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Pannonia was too poor to + supply such a sum. It was probably promised in the camp, and paid at Rome, + after the victory. In fixing the sum, I have adopted the conjecture of + Casaubon. See Hist. August. p. 66. Comment. p. 115.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.30" id="linknote-5.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 78. + Severus was declared emperor on the banks of the Danube, either at + Carnuntum, according to Spartianus, (Hist. August. p. 65,) or else at + Sabaria, according to Victor. Mr. Hume, in supposing that the birth and + dignity of Severus were too much inferior to the Imperial crown, and that + he marched into Italy as general only, has not considered this transaction + with his usual accuracy, (Essay on the original contract.) * Note: + Carnuntum, opposite to the mouth of the Morava: its position is doubtful, + either Petronel or Haimburg. A little intermediate village seems to + indicate by its name (Altenburg) the site of an old town. D’Anville Geogr. + Anc. Sabaria, now Sarvar.—G. Compare note 37.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The new candidate for empire saw and improved the peculiar advantage of + his situation. His province extended to the Julian Alps, which gave an + easy access into Italy; and he remembered the saying of Augustus, that a + Pannonian army might in ten days appear in sight of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-5.31" name="linknoteref-5.31" id="linknoteref-5.31">31</a> By + a celerity proportioned to the greatness of the occasion, he might + reasonably hope to revenge Pertinax, punish Julian, and receive the homage + of the senate and people, as their lawful emperor, before his competitors, + separated from Italy by an immense tract of sea and land, were apprised of + his success, or even of his election. During the whole expedition, he + scarcely allowed himself any moments for sleep or food; marching on foot, + and in complete armor, at the head of his columns, he insinuated himself + into the confidence and affection of his troops, pressed their diligence, + revived their spirits, animated their hopes, and was well satisfied to + share the hardships of the meanest soldier, whilst he kept in view the + infinite superiority of his reward. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.31" id="linknote-5.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Velleius Paterculus, l. + ii. c. 3. We must reckon the march from the nearest verge of Pannonia, and + extend the sight of the city as far as two hundred miles.] + </p> + <p> + The wretched Julian had expected, and thought himself prepared, to dispute + the empire with the governor of Syria; but in the invincible and rapid + approach of the Pannonian legions, he saw his inevitable ruin. The hasty + arrival of every messenger increased his just apprehensions. He was + successively informed, that Severus had passed the Alps; that the Italian + cities, unwilling or unable to oppose his progress, had received him with + the warmest professions of joy and duty; that the important place of + Ravenna had surrendered without resistance, and that the Hadriatic fleet + was in the hands of the conqueror. The enemy was now within two hundred + and fifty miles of Rome; and every moment diminished the narrow span of + life and empire allotted to Julian. + </p> + <p> + He attempted, however, to prevent, or at least to protract, his ruin. He + implored the venal faith of the Prætorians, filled the city with + unavailing preparations for war, drew lines round the suburbs, and even + strengthened the fortifications of the palace; as if those last + intrenchments could be defended, without hope of relief, against a + victorious invader. Fear and shame prevented the guards from deserting his + standard; but they trembled at the name of the Pannonian legions, + commanded by an experienced general, and accustomed to vanquish the + barbarians on the frozen Danube. <a href="#linknote-5.32" + name="linknoteref-5.32" id="linknoteref-5.32">32</a> They quitted, with a + sigh, the pleasures of the baths and theatres, to put on arms, whose use + they had almost forgotten, and beneath the weight of which they were + oppressed. The unpractised elephants, whose uncouth appearance, it was + hoped, would strike terror into the army of the north, threw their + unskilful riders; and the awkward evolutions of the marines, drawn from + the fleet of Misenum, were an object of ridicule to the populace; whilst + the senate enjoyed, with secret pleasure, the distress and weakness of the + usurper. <a href="#linknote-5.33" name="linknoteref-5.33" + id="linknoteref-5.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.32" id="linknote-5.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.32">return</a>)<br/> [ This is not a puerile + figure of rhetoric, but an allusion to a real fact recorded by Dion, l. + lxxi. p. 1181. It probably happened more than once.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.33" id="linknote-5.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1233. Herodian, l. ii. p. 81. There is no surer proof of the military + skill of the Romans, than their first surmounting the idle terror, and + afterwards disdaining the dangerous use, of elephants in war. Note: These + elephants were kept for processions, perhaps for the games. Se Herod. in + loc.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Every motion of Julian betrayed his trembling perplexity. He insisted that + Severus should be declared a public enemy by the senate. He entreated that + the Pannonian general might be associated to the empire. He sent public + ambassadors of consular rank to negotiate with his rival; he despatched + private assassins to take away his life. He designed that the Vestal + virgins, and all the colleges of priests, in their sacerdotal habits, and + bearing before them the sacred pledges of the Roman religion, should + advance in solemn procession to meet the Pannonian legions; and, at the + same time, he vainly tried to interrogate, or to appease, the fates, by + magic ceremonies and unlawful sacrifices. <a href="#linknote-5.34" + name="linknoteref-5.34" id="linknoteref-5.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.34" id="linknote-5.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 62, 63. + * Note: Quæ ad speculum dicunt fieri in quo pueri præligatis oculis, + incantate..., respicere dicuntur. * * * Tuncque puer vidisse dicitur et + adventun Severi et Juliani decessionem. This seems to have been a practice + somewhat similar to that of which our recent Egyptian travellers relate + such extraordinary circumstances. See also Apulius, Orat. de Magia.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap05.2"></a> + Chapter V: Sale Of The Empire To Didius Julianus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + Severus, who dreaded neither his arms nor his enchantments, guarded + himself from the only danger of secret conspiracy, by the faithful + attendance of six hundred chosen men, who never quitted his person or + their cuirasses, either by night or by day, during the whole march. + Advancing with a steady and rapid course, he passed, without difficulty, + the defiles of the Apennine, received into his party the troops and + ambassadors sent to retard his progress, and made a short halt at + Interamnia, about seventy miles from Rome. His victory was already secure, + but the despair of the Prætorians might have rendered it bloody; and + Severus had the laudable ambition of ascending the throne without drawing + the sword. <a href="#linknote-5.35" name="linknoteref-5.35" + id="linknoteref-5.35">35</a> His emissaries, dispersed in the capital, + assured the guards, that provided they would abandon their worthless + prince, and the perpetrators of the murder of Pertinax, to the justice of + the conqueror, he would no longer consider that melancholy event as the + act of the whole body. The faithless Prætorians, whose resistance was + supported only by sullen obstinacy, gladly complied with the easy + conditions, seized the greatest part of the assassins, and signified to + the senate, that they no longer defended the cause of Julian. That + assembly, convoked by the consul, unanimously acknowledged Severus as + lawful emperor, decreed divine honors to Pertinax, and pronounced a + sentence of deposition and death against his unfortunate successor. Julian + was conducted into a private apartment of the baths of the palace, and + beheaded as a common criminal, after having purchased, with an immense + treasure, an anxious and precarious reign of only sixty-six days. <a + href="#linknote-5.36" name="linknoteref-5.36" id="linknoteref-5.36">36</a> + The almost incredible expedition of Severus, who, in so short a space of + time, conducted a numerous army from the banks of the Danube to those of + the Tyber, proves at once the plenty of provisions produced by agriculture + and commerce, the goodness of the roads, the discipline of the legions, + and the indolent, subdued temper of the provinces. <a href="#linknote-5.37" + name="linknoteref-5.37" id="linknoteref-5.37">37</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.35" id="linknote-5.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor and Eutropius, + viii. 17, mention a combat near the Milvian bridge, the Ponte Molle, + unknown to the better and more ancient writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.36" id="linknote-5.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiii. p. + 1240. Herodian, l. ii. p. 83. Hist. August. p. 63.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.37" id="linknote-5.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.37">return</a>)<br/> [ From these sixty-six + days, we must first deduct sixteen, as Pertinax was murdered on the 28th + of March, and Severus most probably elected on the 13th of April, (see + Hist. August. p. 65, and Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 393, + note 7.) We cannot allow less than ten days after his election, to put a + numerous army in motion. Forty days remain for this rapid march; and as we + may compute about eight hundred miles from Rome to the neighborhood of + Vienna, the army of Severus marched twenty miles every day, without halt + or intermission.] + </p> + <p> + The first cares of Severus were bestowed on two measures, the one dictated + by policy, the other by decency; the revenge, and the honors, due to the + memory of Pertinax. Before the new emperor entered Rome, he issued his + commands to the Prætorian guards, directing them to wait his arrival on a + large plain near the city, without arms, but in the habits of ceremony, in + which they were accustomed to attend their sovereign. He was obeyed by + those haughty troops, whose contrition was the effect of their just + terrors. A chosen part of the Illyrian army encompassed them with levelled + spears. Incapable of flight or resistance, they expected their fate in + silent consternation. Severus mounted the tribunal, sternly reproached + them with perfidy and cowardice, dismissed them with ignominy from the + trust which they had betrayed, despoiled them of their splendid ornaments, + and banished them, on pain of death, to the distance of a hundred miles + from the capital. During the transaction, another detachment had been sent + to seize their arms, occupy their camp, and prevent the hasty consequences + of their despair. <a href="#linknote-5.38" name="linknoteref-5.38" + id="linknoteref-5.38">38</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.38" id="linknote-5.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. 1241. + Herodian, l. ii. p. 84.] The funeral and consecration of Pertinax was next + solemnized with every circumstance of sad magnificence. <a + href="#linknote-5.39" name="linknoteref-5.39" id="linknoteref-5.39">39</a> + The senate, with a melancholy pleasure, performed the last rites to that + excellent prince, whom they had loved, and still regretted. The concern of + his successor was probably less sincere; he esteemed the virtues of + Pertinax, but those virtues would forever have confined his ambition to a + private station. Severus pronounced his funeral oration with studied + eloquence, inward satisfaction, and well-acted sorrow; and by this pious + regard to his memory, convinced the credulous multitude, that <i>he alone</i> was + worthy to supply his place. Sensible, however, that arms, not ceremonies, + must assert his claim to the empire, he left Rome at the end of thirty + days, and without suffering himself to be elated by this easy victory, + prepared to encounter his more formidable rivals. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.39" id="linknote-5.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, (l. lxxiv. p. + 1244,) who assisted at the ceremony as a senator, gives a most pompous + description of it.] + </p> + <p> + The uncommon abilities and fortune of Severus have induced an elegant + historian to compare him with the first and greatest of the Cæsars. <a + href="#linknote-5.40" name="linknoteref-5.40" id="linknoteref-5.40">40</a> + The parallel is, at least, imperfect. Where shall we find, in the + character of Severus, the commanding superiority of soul, the generous + clemency, and the various genius, which could reconcile and unite the love + of pleasure, the thirst of knowledge, and the fire of ambition? <a + href="#linknote-5.41" name="linknoteref-5.41" id="linknoteref-5.41">41</a> In + one instance only, they may be compared, with some degree of propriety, in + the celerity of their motions, and their civil victories. In less than + four years, <a href="#linknote-5.42" name="linknoteref-5.42" + id="linknoteref-5.42">42</a> Severus subdued the riches of the East, and + the valor of the West. He vanquished two competitors of reputation and + ability, and defeated numerous armies, provided with weapons and + discipline equal to his own. In that age, the art of fortification, and + the principles of tactics, were well understood by all the Roman generals; + and the constant superiority of Severus was that of an artist, who uses + the same instruments with more skill and industry than his rivals. I shall + not, however, enter into a minute narrative of these military operations; + but as the two civil wars against Niger and against Albinus were almost + the same in their conduct, event, and consequences, I shall collect into + one point of view the most striking circumstances, tending to develop the + character of the conqueror and the state of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.40" id="linknote-5.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iii. p. + 112] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.41" id="linknote-5.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Though it is not, most + assuredly, the intention of Lucan to exalt the character of Cæsar, yet + the idea he gives of that hero, in the tenth book of the Pharsalia, where + he describes him, at the same time, making love to Cleopatra, sustaining a + siege against the power of Egypt, and conversing with the sages of the + country, is, in reality, the noblest panegyric. * Note: Lord Byron wrote, + no doubt, from a reminiscence of that passage—“It is possible to be + a very great man, and to be still very inferior to Julius Cæsar, the most + complete character, so Lord Bacon thought, of all antiquity. Nature seems + incapable of such extraordinary combinations as composed his versatile + capacity, which was the wonder even of the Romans themselves. The first + general; the only triumphant politician; inferior to none in point of + eloquence; comparable to any in the attainments of wisdom, in an age made + up of the greatest commanders, statesmen, orators, and philosophers, that + ever appeared in the world; an author who composed a perfect specimen of + military annals in his travelling carriage; at one time in a controversy + with Cato, at another writing a treatise on punuing, and collecting a set + of good sayings; fighting and making love at the same moment, and willing + to abandon both his empire and his mistress for a sight of the fountains + of the Nile. Such did Julius Cæsar appear to his contemporaries, and to + those of the subsequent ages who were the most inclined to deplore and + execrate his fatal genius.” Note 47 to Canto iv. of Childe Harold.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.42" id="linknote-5.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Reckoning from his + election, April 13, 193, to the death of Albinus, February 19, 197. See + Tillemont’s Chronology.] + </p> + <p> + Falsehood and insincerity, unsuitable as they seem to the dignity of + public transactions, offend us with a less degrading idea of meanness, + than when they are found in the intercourse of private life. In the + latter, they discover a want of courage; in the other, only a defect of + power: and, as it is impossible for the most able statesmen to subdue + millions of followers and enemies by their own personal strength, the + world, under the name of policy, seems to have granted them a very liberal + indulgence of craft and dissimulation. Yet the arts of Severus cannot be + justified by the most ample privileges of state reason. He promised only + to betray, he flattered only to ruin; and however he might occasionally + bind himself by oaths and treaties, his conscience, obsequious to his + interest, always released him from the inconvenient obligation. <a + href="#linknote-5.43" name="linknoteref-5.43" id="linknoteref-5.43">43</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.43" id="linknote-5.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. ii. p. 85.] + </p> + <p> + If his two competitors, reconciled by their common danger, had advanced + upon him without delay, perhaps Severus would have sunk under their united + effort. Had they even attacked him, at the same time, with separate views + and separate armies, the contest might have been long and doubtful. But + they fell, singly and successively, an easy prey to the arts as well as + arms of their subtle enemy, lulled into security by the moderation of his + professions, and overwhelmed by the rapidity of his action. He first + marched against Niger, whose reputation and power he the most dreaded: but + he declined any hostile declarations, suppressed the name of his + antagonist, and only signified to the senate and people his intention of + regulating the eastern provinces. In private, he spoke of Niger, his old + friend and intended successor, <a href="#linknote-5.44" + name="linknoteref-5.44" id="linknoteref-5.44">44</a> with the most + affectionate regard, and highly applauded his generous design of revenging + the murder of Pertinax. To punish the vile usurper of the throne, was the + duty of every Roman general. To persevere in arms, and to resist a lawful + emperor, acknowledged by the senate, would alone render him criminal. <a + href="#linknote-5.45" name="linknoteref-5.45" id="linknoteref-5.45">45</a> + The sons of Niger had fallen into his hands among the children of the + provincial governors, detained at Rome as pledges for the loyalty of their + parents. <a href="#linknote-5.46" name="linknoteref-5.46" + id="linknoteref-5.46">46</a> As long as the power of Niger inspired terror, + or even respect, they were educated with the most tender care, with the + children of Severus himself; but they were soon involved in their father’s + ruin, and removed first by exile, and afterwards by death, from the eye of + public compassion. <a href="#linknote-5.47" name="linknoteref-5.47" + id="linknoteref-5.47">47</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.44" id="linknote-5.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Whilst Severus was very + dangerously ill, it was industriously given out, that he intended to + appoint Niger and Albinus his successors. As he could not be sincere with + respect to both, he might not be so with regard to either. Yet Severus + carried his hypocrisy so far, as to profess that intention in the memoirs + of his own life.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.45" id="linknote-5.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 65.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.46" id="linknote-5.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.46">return</a>)<br/> [ This practice, invented + by Commodus, proved very useful to Severus. He found at Rome the children + of many of the principal adherents of his rivals; and he employed them + more than once to intimidate, or seduce, the parents.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.47" id="linknote-5.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iii. p. 95. + Hist. August. p. 67, 68.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst Severus was engaged in his eastern war, he had reason to apprehend + that the governor of Britain might pass the sea and the Alps, occupy the + vacant seat of empire, and oppose his return with the authority of the + senate and the forces of the West. The ambiguous conduct of Albinus, in + not assuming the Imperial title, left room for negotiation. Forgetting, at + once, his professions of patriotism, and the jealousy of sovereign power, + he accepted the precarious rank of Cæsar, as a reward for his fatal + neutrality. Till the first contest was decided, Severus treated the man, + whom he had doomed to destruction, with every mark of esteem and regard. + Even in the letter, in which he announced his victory over Niger, he + styles Albinus the brother of his soul and empire, sends him the + affectionate salutations of his wife Julia, and his young family, and + entreats him to preserve the armies and the republic faithful to their + common interest. The messengers charged with this letter were instructed + to accost the Cæsar with respect, to desire a private audience, and to + plunge their daggers into his heart. <a href="#linknote-5.48" + name="linknoteref-5.48" id="linknoteref-5.48">48</a> The conspiracy was + discovered, and the too credulous Albinus, at length, passed over to the + continent, and prepared for an unequal contest with his rival, who rushed + upon him at the head of a veteran and victorious army. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.48" id="linknote-5.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 84. + Spartianus has inserted this curious letter at full length.] + </p> + <p> + The military labors of Severus seem inadequate to the importance of his + conquests. Two engagements, <a href="#linknote-5.481" + name="linknoteref-5.481" id="linknoteref-5.481">481</a> the one near the + Hellespont, the other in the narrow defiles of Cilicia, decided the fate + of his Syrian competitor; and the troops of Europe asserted their usual + ascendant over the effeminate natives of Asia. <a href="#linknote-5.49" + name="linknoteref-5.49" id="linknoteref-5.49">49</a> The battle of Lyons, + where one hundred and fifty thousand Romans <a href="#linknote-5.50" + name="linknoteref-5.50" id="linknoteref-5.50">50</a> were engaged, was + equally fatal to Albinus. The valor of the British army maintained, + indeed, a sharp and doubtful contest, with the hardy discipline of the + Illyrian legions. The fame and person of Severus appeared, during a few + moments, irrecoverably lost, till that warlike prince rallied his fainting + troops, and led them on to a decisive victory. <a href="#linknote-5.51" + name="linknoteref-5.51" id="linknoteref-5.51">51</a> The war was finished by + that memorable day. <a href="#linknote-5.511" name="linknoteref-5.511" + id="linknoteref-5.511">511</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.481" id="linknote-5.481"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 481 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.481">return</a>)<br/> [ There were three + actions; one near Cyzicus, on the Hellespont, one near Nice, in Bithynia, + the third near the Issus, in Cilicia, where Alexander conquered Darius. + (Dion, lxiv. c. 6. Herodian, iii. 2, 4.)—W Herodian represents the + second battle as of less importance than Dion—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.49" id="linknote-5.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Consult the third book + of Herodian, and the seventy-fourth book of Dion Cassius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.50" id="linknote-5.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1260.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.51" id="linknote-5.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1261. + Herodian, l. iii. p. 110. Hist. August. p. 68. The battle was fought in + the plain of Trevoux, three or four leagues from Lyons. See Tillemont, + tom. iii. p. 406, note 18.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.511" id="linknote-5.511"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 511 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.511">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Herodian, + it was his lieutenant Lætus who led back the troops to the battle, and + gained the day, which Severus had almost lost. Dion also attributes to + Lætus a great share in the victory. Severus afterwards put him to death, + either from fear or jealousy.—W. and G. Wenck and M. Guizot have not + given the real statement of Herodian or of Dion. According to the former, + Lætus appeared with his own army entire, which he was suspected of having + designedly kept disengaged when the battle was still doudtful, or rather + after the rout of severus. Dion says that he did not move till Severus had + won the victory.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The civil wars of modern Europe have been distinguished, not only by the + fierce animosity, but likewise by the obstinate perseverance, of the + contending factions. They have generally been justified by some principle, + or, at least, colored by some pretext, of religion, freedom, or loyalty. + The leaders were nobles of independent property and hereditary influence. + The troops fought like men interested in the decision of the quarrel; and + as military spirit and party zeal were strongly diffused throughout the + whole community, a vanquished chief was immediately supplied with new + adherents, eager to shed their blood in the same cause. But the Romans, + after the fall of the republic, combated only for the choice of masters. + Under the standard of a popular candidate for empire, a few enlisted from + affection, some from fear, many from interest, none from principle. The + legions, uninflamed by party zeal, were allured into civil war by liberal + donatives, and still more liberal promises. A defeat, by disabling the + chief from the performance of his engagements, dissolved the mercenary + allegiance of his followers, and left them to consult their own safety by + a timely desertion of an unsuccessful cause. It was of little moment to + the provinces, under whose name they were oppressed or governed; they were + driven by the impulsion of the present power, and as soon as that power + yielded to a superior force, they hastened to implore the clemency of the + conqueror, who, as he had an immense debt to discharge, was obliged to + sacrifice the most guilty countries to the avarice of his soldiers. In the + vast extent of the Roman empire, there were few fortified cities capable + of protecting a routed army; nor was there any person, or family, or order + of men, whose natural interest, unsupported by the powers of government, + was capable of restoring the cause of a sinking party. <a + href="#linknote-5.52" name="linknoteref-5.52" id="linknoteref-5.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.52" id="linknote-5.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Montesquieu, + Considerations sur la Grandeur et la Decadence des Romains, c. xiii.] + </p> + <p> + Yet, in the contest between Niger and Severus, a single city deserves an + honorable exception. As Byzantium was one of the greatest passages from + Europe into Asia, it had been provided with a strong garrison, and a fleet + of five hundred vessels was anchored in the harbor. <a href="#linknote-5.53" + name="linknoteref-5.53" id="linknoteref-5.53">53</a> The impetuosity of + Severus disappointed this prudent scheme of defence; he left to his + generals the siege of Byzantium, forced the less guarded passage of the + Hellespont, and, impatient of a meaner enemy, pressed forward to encounter + his rival. Byzantium, attacked by a numerous and increasing army, and + afterwards by the whole naval power of the empire, sustained a siege of + three years, and remained faithful to the name and memory of Niger. The + citizens and soldiers (we know not from what cause) were animated with + equal fury; several of the principal officers of Niger, who despaired of, + or who disdained, a pardon, had thrown themselves into this last refuge: + the fortifications were esteemed impregnable, and, in the defence of the + place, a celebrated engineer displayed all the mechanic powers known to + the ancients. <a href="#linknote-5.54" name="linknoteref-5.54" + id="linknoteref-5.54">54</a> Byzantium, at length, surrendered to famine. + The magistrates and soldiers were put to the sword, the walls demolished, + the privileges suppressed, and the destined capital of the East subsisted + only as an open village, subject to the insulting jurisdiction of + Perinthus. The historian Dion, who had admired the flourishing, and + lamented the desolate, state of Byzantium, accused the revenge of Severus, + for depriving the Roman people of the strongest bulwark against the + barbarians of Pontus and Asia <a href="#linknote-5.55" + name="linknoteref-5.55" id="linknoteref-5.55">55</a> The truth of this + observation was but too well justified in the succeeding age, when the + Gothic fleets covered the Euxine, and passed through the undefined + Bosphorus into the centre of the Mediterranean. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.53" id="linknote-5.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Most of these, as may be + supposed, were small open vessels; some, however, were galleys of two, and + a few of three ranks of oars.] <a name="linknote-5.54" id="linknote-5.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.54">return</a>)<br/> [The engineer’s name was + Priscus. His skill saved his life, and he was taken into the service of + the conqueror. For the particular facts of the siege, consult Dion Cassius + (l. lxxv. p. 1251) and Herodian, (l. iii. p. 95;) for the theory of it, + the fanciful chevalier de Folard may be looked into. See Polybe, tom. i. + p. 76.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.55" id="linknote-5.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Notwithstanding the + authority of Spartianus, and some modern Greeks, we may be assured, from + Dion and Herodian, that Byzantium, many years after the death of Severus, + lay in ruins. There is no contradiction between the relation of Dion and + that of Spartianus and the modern Greeks. Dion does not say that Severus + destroyed Byzantium, but that he deprived it of its franchises and + privileges, stripped the inhabitants of their property, razed the + fortifications, and subjected the city to the jurisdiction of Perinthus. + Therefore, when Spartian, Suidas, Cedrenus, say that Severus and his son + Antoninus restored to Byzantium its rights and franchises, ordered temples + to be built, &c., this is easily reconciled with the relation of Dion. + Perhaps the latter mentioned it in some of the fragments of his history + which have been lost. As to Herodian, his expressions are evidently + exaggerated, and he has been guilty of so many inaccuracies in the history + of Severus, that we have a right to suppose one in this passage.—G. + from W Wenck and M. Guizot have omitted to cite Zosimus, who mentions a + particular portico built by Severus, and called, apparently, by his name. + Zosim. Hist. ii. c. xxx. p. 151, 153, edit Heyne.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Both Niger and Albinus were discovered and put to death in their flight + from the field of battle. Their fate excited neither surprise nor + compassion. They had staked their lives against the chance of empire, and + suffered what they would have inflicted; nor did Severus claim the + arrogant superiority of suffering his rivals to live in a private station. + But his unforgiving temper, stimulated by avarice, indulged a spirit of + revenge, where there was no room for apprehension. The most considerable + of the provincials, who, without any dislike to the fortunate candidate, + had obeyed the governor under whose authority they were accidentally + placed, were punished by death, exile, and especially by the confiscation + of their estates. Many cities of the East were stripped of their ancient + honors, and obliged to pay, into the treasury of Severus, four times the + amount of the sums contributed by them for the service of Niger. <a + href="#linknote-5.56" name="linknoteref-5.56" id="linknoteref-5.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.56" id="linknote-5.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. + 1250.] + </p> + <p> + Till the final decision of the war, the cruelty of Severus was, in some + measure, restrained by the uncertainty of the event, and his pretended + reverence for the senate. The head of Albinus, accompanied with a menacing + letter, announced to the Romans that he was resolved to spare none of the + adherents of his unfortunate competitors. He was irritated by the just + auspicion that he had never possessed the affections of the senate, and he + concealed his old malevolence under the recent discovery of some + treasonable correspondences. Thirty-five senators, however, accused of + having favored the party of Albinus, he freely pardoned, and, by his + subsequent behavior, endeavored to convince them, that he had forgotten, + as well as forgiven, their supposed offences. But, at the same time, he + condemned forty-one <a href="#linknote-5.57" name="linknoteref-5.57" + id="linknoteref-5.57">57</a> other senators, whose names history has + recorded; their wives, children, and clients attended them in death, <a + href="#linknote-5.571" name="linknoteref-5.571" id="linknoteref-5.571">571</a> + and the noblest provincials of Spain and Gaul were involved in the same + ruin. <a href="#linknote-5.572" name="linknoteref-5.572" + id="linknoteref-5.572">572</a> Such rigid justice—for so he termed it—was, + in the opinion of Severus, the only conduct capable of insuring peace to + the people or stability to the prince; and he condescended slightly to + lament, that to be mild, it was necessary that he should first be cruel. + <a href="#linknote-5.58" name="linknoteref-5.58" id="linknoteref-5.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.57" id="linknote-5.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, (l. lxxv. p. + 1264;) only twenty-nine senators are mentioned by him, but forty-one are + named in the Augustan History, p. 69, among whom were six of the name of + Pescennius. Herodian (l. iii. p. 115) speaks in general of the cruelties + of Severus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.571" id="linknote-5.571"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 571 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.571">return</a>)<br/> [ Wenck denies that + there is any authority for this massacre of the wives of the senators. He + adds, that only the children and relatives of Niger and Albinus were put + to death. This is true of the family of Albinus, whose bodies were thrown + into the Rhone; those of Niger, according to Lampridius, were sent into + exile, but afterwards put to death. Among the partisans of Albinus who + were put to death were many women of rank, multæ fœminæ illustres. + Lamprid. in Sever.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.572" id="linknote-5.572"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 572 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.572">return</a>)<br/> [ A new fragment of Dion + describes the state of Rome during this contest. All pretended to be on + the side of Severus; but their secret sentiments were often betrayed by a + change of countenance on the arrival of some sudden report. Some were + detected by overacting their loyalty, Mai. Fragm. Vatican. p. 227 Severus + told the senate he would rather have their hearts than their votes.—Ibid.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.58" id="linknote-5.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + The true interest of an absolute monarch generally coincides with that of + his people. Their numbers, their wealth, their order, and their security, + are the best and only foundations of his real greatness; and were he + totally devoid of virtue, prudence might supply its place, and would + dictate the same rule of conduct. Severus considered the Roman empire as + his property, and had no sooner secured the possession, than he bestowed + his care on the cultivation and improvement of so valuable an acquisition. + Salutary laws, executed with inflexible firmness, soon corrected most of + the abuses with which, since the death of Marcus, every part of the + government had been infected. In the administration of justice, the + judgments of the emperor were characterized by attention, discernment, and + impartiality; and whenever he deviated from the strict line of equity, it + was generally in favor of the poor and oppressed; not so much indeed from + any sense of humanity, as from the natural propensity of a despot to + humble the pride of greatness, and to sink all his subjects to the same + common level of absolute dependence. His expensive taste for building, + magnificent shows, and above all a constant and liberal distribution of + corn and provisions, were the surest means of captivating the affection of + the Roman people. <a href="#linknote-5.59" name="linknoteref-5.59" + id="linknoteref-5.59">59</a> The misfortunes of civil discord were + obliterated. The calm of peace and prosperity was once more experienced in + the provinces; and many cities, restored by the munificence of Severus, + assumed the title of his colonies, and attested by public monuments their + gratitude and felicity. <a href="#linknote-5.60" name="linknoteref-5.60" + id="linknoteref-5.60">60</a> The fame of the Roman arms was revived by that + warlike and successful emperor, <a href="#linknote-5.61" + name="linknoteref-5.61" id="linknoteref-5.61">61</a> and he boasted, with a + just pride, that, having received the empire oppressed with foreign and + domestic wars, he left it established in profound, universal, and + honorable peace. <a href="#linknote-5.62" name="linknoteref-5.62" + id="linknoteref-5.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.59" id="linknote-5.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1272. + Hist. August. p. 67. Severus celebrated the secular games with + extraordinary magnificence, and he left in the public granaries a + provision of corn for seven years, at the rate of 75,000 modii, or about + 2500 quarters per day. I am persuaded that the granaries of Severus were + supplied for a long term, but I am not less persuaded, that policy on one + hand, and admiration on the other, magnified the hoard far beyond its true + contents.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.60" id="linknote-5.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.60">return</a>)<br/> [ See Spanheim’s treatise + of ancient medals, the inscriptions, and our learned travellers Spon and + Wheeler, Shaw, Pocock, &c, who, in Africa, Greece, and Asia, have + found more monuments of Severus than of any other Roman emperor + whatsoever.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.61" id="linknote-5.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.61">return</a>)<br/> [ He carried his + victorious arms to Seleucia and Ctesiphon, the capitals of the Parthian + monarchy. I shall have occasion to mention this war in its proper place.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.62" id="linknote-5.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Etiam in Britannis, was + his own just and emphatic expression Hist. August. 73.] + </p> + <p> + Although the wounds of civil war appeared completely healed, its mortal + poison still lurked in the vitals of the constitution. Severus possessed + a considerable share of vigor and ability; but the daring soul of the + first Cæsar, or the deep policy of Augustus, were scarcely equal to the + task of curbing the insolence of the victorious legions. By gratitude, by + misguided policy, by seeming necessity, Severus was reduced to relax the + nerves of discipline. <a href="#linknote-5.63" name="linknoteref-5.63" + id="linknoteref-5.63">63</a> The vanity of his soldiers was flattered with + the honor of wearing gold rings; their ease was indulged in the permission + of living with their wives in the idleness of quarters. He increased + their pay beyond the example of former times, and taught them to expect, + and soon to claim, extraordinary donatives on every public occasion of + danger or festivity. Elated by success, enervated by luxury, and raised + above the level of subjects by their dangerous privileges, <a + href="#linknote-5.64" name="linknoteref-5.64" id="linknoteref-5.64">64</a> + they soon became incapable of military fatigue, oppressive to the + country, and impatient of a just subordination. Their officers asserted + the superiority of rank by a more profuse and elegant luxury. There is + still extant a letter of Severus, lamenting the licentious stage of the + army, <a href="#linknote-5.641" name="linknoteref-5.641" + id="linknoteref-5.641">641</a> and exhorting one of his generals to begin + the necessary reformation from the tribunes themselves; since, as he + justly observes, the officer who has forfeited the esteem, will never + command the obedience, of his soldiers. <a href="#linknote-5.65" + name="linknoteref-5.65" id="linknoteref-5.65">65</a> Had the emperor + pursued the train of reflection, he would have discovered, that the + primary cause of this general corruption might be ascribed, not indeed to + the example, but to the pernicious indulgence, however, of the + commander-in-chief. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.63" id="linknote-5.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iii. p. + 115. Hist. August. p. 68.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.64" id="linknote-5.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Upon the insolence and + privileges of the soldier, the 16th satire, falsely ascribed to Juvenal, + may be consulted; the style and circumstances of it would induce me to + believe, that it was composed under the reign of Severus, or that of his + son.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.641" id="linknote-5.641"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 641 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.641">return</a>)<br/> [ Not of the army, but + of the troops in Gaul. The contents of this letter seem to prove that + Severus was really anxious to restore discipline Herodian is the only + historian who accuses him of being the first cause of its relaxation.—G. + from W Spartian mentions his increase of the pays.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.65" id="linknote-5.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 73.] + </p> + <p> + The Prætorians, who murdered their emperor and sold the empire, had + received the just punishment of their treason; but the necessary, though + dangerous, institution of guards was soon restored on a new model by + Severus, and increased to four times the ancient number. <a + href="#linknote-5.66" name="linknoteref-5.66" id="linknoteref-5.66">66</a> + Formerly these troops had been recruited in Italy; and as the adjacent + provinces gradually imbibed the softer manners of Rome, the levies were + extended to Macedonia, Noricum, and Spain. In the room of these elegant + troops, better adapted to the pomp of courts than to the uses of war, it + was established by Severus, that from all the legions of the frontiers, + the soldiers most distinguished for strength, valor, and fidelity, should + be occasionally draughted; and promoted, as an honor and reward, into the + more eligible service of the guards. <a href="#linknote-5.67" + name="linknoteref-5.67" id="linknoteref-5.67">67</a> By this new + institution, the Italian youth were diverted from the exercise of arms, + and the capital was terrified by the strange aspect and manners of a + multitude of barbarians. But Severus flattered himself, that the legions + would consider these chosen Prætorians as the representatives of the + whole military order; and that the present aid of fifty thousand men, + superior in arms and appointments to any force that could be brought into + the field against them, would forever crush the hopes of rebellion, and + secure the empire to himself and his posterity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.66" id="linknote-5.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iii. p. + 131.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.67" id="linknote-5.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxiv. p. + 1243.] + </p> + <p> + The command of these favored and formidable troops soon became the first + office of the empire. As the government degenerated into military + despotism, the Prætorian Præfect, who in his origin had been a simple + captain of the guards, <a href="#linknote-5.671" name="linknoteref-5.671" + id="linknoteref-5.671">671</a> was placed not only at the head of the army, + but of the finances, and even of the law. In every department of + administration, he represented the person, and exercised the authority, of + the emperor. The first præfect who enjoyed and abused this immense power + was Plautianus, the favorite minister of Severus. His reign lasted above + ten years, till the marriage of his daughter with the eldest son of the + emperor, which seemed to assure his fortune, proved the occasion of his + ruin. <a href="#linknote-5.68" name="linknoteref-5.68" id="linknoteref-5.68">68</a> + The animosities of the palace, by irritating the ambition and alarming the + fears of Plautianus, <a href="#linknote-5.681" name="linknoteref-5.681" + id="linknoteref-5.681">681</a> threatened to produce a revolution, and + obliged the emperor, who still loved him, to consent with reluctance to + his death. <a href="#linknote-5.69" name="linknoteref-5.69" + id="linknoteref-5.69">69</a> After the fall of Plautianus, an eminent + lawyer, the celebrated Papinian, was appointed to execute the motley + office of Prætorian Præfect. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.671" id="linknote-5.671"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 671 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.671">return</a>)<br/> [ The Prætorian + Præfect had never been a simple captain of the guards; from the first + creation of this office, under Augustus, it possessed great power. That + emperor, therefore, decreed that there should be always two Prætorian + Præfects, who could only be taken from the equestrian order Tiberius + first departed from the former clause of this edict; Alexander Severus + violated the second by naming senators præfects. It appears that it was + under Commodus that the Prætorian Præfects obtained the province of + civil jurisdiction. It extended only to Italy, with the exception of Rome + and its district, which was governed by the Præfectus urbi. As to the + control of the finances, and the levying of taxes, it was not intrusted to + them till after the great change that Constantine I. made in the + organization of the empire at least, I know no passage which assigns it to + them before that time; and Drakenborch, who has treated this question in + his Dissertation de official præfectorum prætorio, vi., does not quote + one.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.68" id="linknote-5.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.68">return</a>)<br/> [ One of his most daring + and wanton acts of power, was the castration of a hundred free Romans, + some of them married men, and even fathers of families; merely that his + daughter, on her marriage with the young emperor, might be attended by a + train of eunuchs worthy of an eastern queen. Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1271.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.681" id="linknote-5.681"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 681 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.681">return</a>)<br/> [ Plautianus was + compatriot, relative, and the old friend, of Severus; he had so completely + shut up all access to the emperor, that the latter was ignorant how far he + abused his powers: at length, being informed of it, he began to limit his + authority. The marriage of Plautilla with Caracalla was unfortunate; and + the prince who had been forced to consent to it, menaced the father and + the daughter with death when he should come to the throne. It was feared, + after that, that Plautianus would avail himself of the power which he + still possessed, against the Imperial family; and Severus caused him to be + assassinated in his presence, upon the pretext of a conspiracy, which Dion + considers fictitious.—W. This note is not, perhaps, very necessary + and does not contain the whole facts. Dion considers the conspiracy the + invention of Caracalla, by whose command, almost by whose hand, Plautianus + was slain in the presence of Severus.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.69" id="linknote-5.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1274. + Herodian, l. iii. p. 122, 129. The grammarian of Alexander seems, as is + not unusual, much better acquainted with this mysterious transaction, and + more assured of the guilt of Plautianus than the Roman senator ventures to + be.] + </p> + <p> + Till the reign of Severus, the virtue and even the good sense of the + emperors had been distinguished by their zeal or affected reverence for + the senate, and by a tender regard to the nice frame of civil policy + instituted by Augustus. But the youth of Severus had been trained in the + implicit obedience of camps, and his riper years spent in the despotism of + military command. His haughty and inflexible spirit could not discover, or + would not acknowledge, the advantage of preserving an intermediate power, + however imaginary, between the emperor and the army. He disdained to + profess himself the servant of an assembly that detested his person and + trembled at his frown; he issued his commands, where his requests would + have proved as effectual; assumed the conduct and style of a sovereign and + a conqueror, and exercised, without disguise, the whole legislative, as + well as the executive power. + </p> + <p> + The victory over the senate was easy and inglorious. Every eye and every + passion were directed to the supreme magistrate, who possessed the arms + and treasure of the state; whilst the senate, neither elected by the + people, nor guarded by military force, nor animated by public spirit, + rested its declining authority on the frail and crumbling basis of ancient + opinion. The fine theory of a republic insensibly vanished, and made way + for the more natural and substantial feelings of monarchy. As the freedom + and honors of Rome were successively communicated to the provinces, in + which the old government had been either unknown, or was remembered with + abhorrence, the tradition of republican maxims was gradually obliterated. + The Greek historians of the age of the Antonines <a href="#linknote-5.70" + name="linknoteref-5.70" id="linknoteref-5.70">70</a> observe, with a + malicious pleasure, that although the sovereign of Rome, in compliance + with an obsolete prejudice, abstained from the name of king, he possessed + the full measure of regal power. In the reign of Severus, the senate was + filled with polished and eloquent slaves from the eastern provinces, who + justified personal flattery by speculative principles of servitude. These + new advocates of prerogative were heard with pleasure by the court, and + with patience by the people, when they inculcated the duty of passive + obedience, and descanted on the inevitable mischiefs of freedom. The + lawyers and historians concurred in teaching, that the Imperial authority + was held, not by the delegated commission, but by the irrevocable + resignation of the senate; that the emperor was freed from the restraint + of civil laws, could command by his arbitrary will the lives and fortunes + of his subjects, and might dispose of the empire as of his private + patrimony. <a href="#linknote-5.71" name="linknoteref-5.71" + id="linknoteref-5.71">71</a> The most eminent of the civil lawyers, and + particularly Papinian, Paulus, and Ulpian, flourished under the house of + Severus; and the Roman jurisprudence, having closely united itself with + the system of monarchy, was supposed to have attained its full majority + and perfection. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.70" id="linknote-5.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Appian in Proœm.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-5.71" id="linknote-5.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-5.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius seems to + have written with no other view than to form these opinions into an + historical system. The Pandea’s will how how assiduously the lawyers, on + their side, laboree in the cause of prerogative.] + </p> + <p> + The contemporaries of Severus in the enjoyment of the peace and glory of + his reign, forgave the cruelties by which it had been introduced. + Posterity, who experienced the fatal effects of his maxims and example, + justly considered him as the principal author of the decline of the Roman + empire. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap06.1"></a> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Death Of Severus.—Tyranny Of Caracalla.—Usurpation Of +Macrinus.—Follies Of Elagabalus.—Virtues Of Alexander +Severus.—Licentiousness Of The Army.—General State Of The Roman +Finances. +</p> + <p> + The ascent to greatness, however steep and dangerous, may entertain an + active spirit with the consciousness and exercise of its own powers: but + the possession of a throne could never yet afford a lasting satisfaction + to an ambitious mind. This melancholy truth was felt and acknowledged by + Severus. Fortune and merit had, from an humble station, elevated him to + the first place among mankind. “He had been all things,” as he said + himself, “and all was of little value.” <a href="#linknote-6.1" + name="linknoteref-6.1" id="linknoteref-6.1">1</a> Distracted with the care, + not of acquiring, but of preserving an empire, oppressed with age and + infirmities, careless of fame, <a href="#linknote-6.2" name="linknoteref-6.2" + id="linknoteref-6.2">2</a> and satiated with power, all his prospects of + life were closed. The desire of perpetuating the greatness of his family + was the only remaining wish of his ambition and paternal tenderness. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.1" id="linknote-6.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 71. + “Omnia fui, et nihil expedit.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.2" id="linknote-6.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvi. p. + 1284.] + </p> + <p> + Like most of the Africans, Severus was passionately addicted to the vain + studies of magic and divination, deeply versed in the interpretation of + dreams and omens, and perfectly acquainted with the science of judicial + astrology; which, in almost every age except the present, has maintained + its dominion over the mind of man. He had lost his first wife, while he + was governor of the Lionnese Gaul. <a href="#linknote-6.3" + name="linknoteref-6.3" id="linknoteref-6.3">3</a> In the choice of a second, + he sought only to connect himself with some favorite of fortune; and as + soon as he had discovered that the young lady of Emesa in Syria had <i>a + royal nativity</i>, he solicited and obtained her hand. <a href="#linknote-6.4" + name="linknoteref-6.4" id="linknoteref-6.4">4</a> Julia Domna (for that was + her name) deserved all that the stars could promise her. + </p> + <p> + She possessed, even in advanced age, the attractions of beauty, <a + href="#linknote-6.5" name="linknoteref-6.5" id="linknoteref-6.5">5</a> and + united to a lively imagination a firmness of mind, and strength of + judgment, seldom bestowed on her sex. Her amiable qualities never made any + deep impression on the dark and jealous temper of her husband; but in her + son’s reign, she administered the principal affairs of the empire, with a + prudence that supported his authority, and with a moderation that + sometimes corrected his wild extravagancies. <a href="#linknote-6.6" + name="linknoteref-6.6" id="linknoteref-6.6">6</a> Julia applied herself to + letters and philosophy, with some success, and with the most splendid + reputation. She was the patroness of every art, and the friend of every + man of genius. <a href="#linknote-6.7" name="linknoteref-6.7" + id="linknoteref-6.7">7</a> The grateful flattery of the learned has + celebrated her virtues; but, if we may credit the scandal of ancient + history, chastity was very far from being the most conspicuous virtue of + the empress Julia. <a href="#linknote-6.8" name="linknoteref-6.8" + id="linknoteref-6.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.3" id="linknote-6.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.3">return</a>)<br/> [ About the year 186. M. de + Tillemont is miserably embarrassed with a passage of Dion, in which the + empress Faustina, who died in the year 175, is introduced as having + contributed to the marriage of Severus and Julia, (l. lxxiv. p. 1243.) The + learned compiler forgot that Dion is relating not a real fact, but a dream + of Severus; and dreams are circumscribed to no limits of time or space. + Did M. de Tillemont imagine that marriages were consummated in the temple + of Venus at Rome? Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 389. Note 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.4" id="linknote-6.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 65.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.5" id="linknote-6.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.6" id="linknote-6.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxvii. + p. 1304, 1314.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.7" id="linknote-6.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.7">return</a>)<br/> [ See a dissertation of + Menage, at the end of his edition of Diogenes Lærtius, de Fœminis + Philosophis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.8" id="linknote-6.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1285. + Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + Two sons, Caracalla <a href="#linknote-6.9" name="linknoteref-6.9" + id="linknoteref-6.9">9</a> and Geta, were the fruit of this marriage, and + the destined heirs of the empire. The fond hopes of the father, and of the + Roman world, were soon disappointed by these vain youths, who displayed + the indolent security of hereditary princes; and a presumption that + fortune would supply the place of merit and application. Without any + emulation of virtue or talents, they discovered, almost from their + infancy, a fixed and implacable antipathy for each other. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.9" id="linknote-6.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Bassianus was his first + name, as it had been that of his maternal grandfather. During his reign, + he assumed the appellation of Antoninus, which is employed by lawyers and + ancient historians. After his death, the public indignation loaded him + with the nicknames of Tarantus and Caracalla. The first was borrowed from + a celebrated Gladiator, the second from a long Gallic gown which he + distributed to the people of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + Their aversion, confirmed by years, and fomented by the arts of their + interested favorites, broke out in childish, and gradually in more serious + competitions; and, at length, divided the theatre, the circus, and the + court, into two factions, actuated by the hopes and fears of their + respective leaders. The prudent emperor endeavored, by every expedient of + advice and authority, to allay this growing animosity. The unhappy discord + of his sons clouded all his prospects, and threatened to overturn a throne + raised with so much labor, cemented with so much blood, and guarded with + every defence of arms and treasure. With an impartial hand he maintained + between them an exact balance of favor, conferred on both the rank of + Augustus, with the revered name of Antoninus; and for the first time the + Roman world beheld three emperors. <a href="#linknote-6.10" + name="linknoteref-6.10" id="linknoteref-6.10">10</a> Yet even this equal + conduct served only to inflame the contest, whilst the fierce Caracalla + asserted the right of primogeniture, and the milder Geta courted the + affections of the people and the soldiers. In the anguish of a + disappointed father, Severus foretold that the weaker of his sons would + fall a sacrifice to the stronger; who, in his turn, would be ruined by his + own vices. <a href="#linknote-6.11" name="linknoteref-6.11" + id="linknoteref-6.11">11</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.10" id="linknote-6.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.10">return</a>)<br/> [ The elevation of + Caracalla is fixed by the accurate M. de Tillemont to the year 198; the + association of Geta to the year 208.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.11" id="linknote-6.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iii. p. + 130. The lives of Caracalla and Geta, in the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + In these circumstances the intelligence of a war in Britain, and of an + invasion of the province by the barbarians of the North, was received with + pleasure by Severus. Though the vigilance of his lieutenants might have + been sufficient to repel the distant enemy, he resolved to embrace the + honorable pretext of withdrawing his sons from the luxury of Rome, which + enervated their minds and irritated their passions; and of inuring their + youth to the toils of war and government. Notwithstanding his advanced + age, (for he was above threescore,) and his gout, which obliged him to be + carried in a litter, he transported himself in person into that remote + island, attended by his two sons, his whole court, and a formidable army. + He immediately passed the walls of Hadrian and Antoninus, and entered the + enemy’s country, with a design of completing the long attempted conquest + of Britain. He penetrated to the northern extremity of the island, without + meeting an enemy. But the concealed ambuscades of the Caledonians, who + hung unseen on the rear and flanks of his army, the coldness of the + climate and the severity of a winter march across the hills and morasses + of Scotland, are reported to have cost the Romans above fifty thousand + men. The Caledonians at length yielded to the powerful and obstinate + attack, sued for peace, and surrendered a part of their arms, and a large + tract of territory. But their apparent submission lasted no longer than + the present terror. As soon as the Roman legions had retired, they resumed + their hostile independence. Their restless spirit provoked Severus to send + a new army into Caledonia, with the most bloody orders, not to subdue, but + to extirpate the natives. They were saved by the death of their haughty + enemy. <a href="#linknote-6.12" name="linknoteref-6.12" id="linknoteref-6.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.12" id="linknote-6.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1280, + &c. Herodian, l. iii. p. 132, &c.] + </p> + <p> + This Caledonian war, neither marked by decisive events, nor attended with + any important consequences, would ill deserve our attention; but it is + supposed, not without a considerable degree of probability, that the + invasion of Severus is connected with the most shining period of the + British history or fable. Fingal, whose fame, with that of his heroes and + bards, has been revived in our language by a recent publication, is said + to have commanded the Caledonians in that memorable juncture, to have + eluded the power of Severus, and to have obtained a signal victory on the + banks of the Carun, in which the son of <i>the King of the World</i>, Caracul, + fled from his arms along the fields of his pride. <a href="#linknote-6.13" + name="linknoteref-6.13" id="linknoteref-6.13">13</a> Something of a doubtful + mist still hangs over these Highland traditions; nor can it be entirely + dispelled by the most ingenious researches of modern criticism; <a + href="#linknote-6.14" name="linknoteref-6.14" id="linknoteref-6.14">14</a> + but if we could, with safety, indulge the pleasing supposition, that + Fingal lived, and that Ossian sung, the striking contrast of the situation + and manners of the contending nations might amuse a philosophic mind. + </p> + <p> + The parallel would be little to the advantage of the more civilized + people, if we compared the unrelenting revenge of Severus with the + generous clemency of Fingal; the timid and brutal cruelty of Caracalla + with the bravery, the tenderness, the elegant genius of Ossian; the + mercenary chiefs, who, from motives of fear or interest, served under the + imperial standard, with the free-born warriors who started to arms at the + voice of the king of Morven; if, in a word, we contemplated the untutored + Caledonians, glowing with the warm virtues of nature, and the degenerate + Romans, polluted with the mean vices of wealth and slavery. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.13" id="linknote-6.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Ossian’s Poems, vol. i. + p. 175.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.14" id="linknote-6.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.14">return</a>)<br/> [ That the Caracul of + Ossian is the Caracalla of the Roman History, is, perhaps, the only point + of British antiquity in which Mr. Macpherson and Mr. Whitaker are of the + same opinion; and yet the opinion is not without difficulty. In the + Caledonian war, the son of Severus was known only by the appellation of + Antoninus, and it may seem strange that the Highland bard should describe + him by a nickname, invented four years afterwards, scarcely used by the + Romans till after the death of that emperor, and seldom employed by the + most ancient historians. See Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1317. Hist. August. p. 89 + Aurel. Victor. Euseb. in Chron. ad ann. 214. Note: The historical + authority of Macpherson’s Ossian has not increased since Gibbon wrote. We + may, indeed, consider it exploded. Mr. Whitaker, in a letter to Gibbon + (Misc. Works, vol. ii. p. 100,) attempts, not very successfully, to weaken + this objection of the historian.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The declining health and last illness of Severus inflamed the wild + ambition and black passions of Caracalla’s soul. Impatient of any delay or + division of empire, he attempted, more than once, to shorten the small + remainder of his father’s days, and endeavored, but without success, to + excite a mutiny among the troops. <a href="#linknote-6.15" + name="linknoteref-6.15" id="linknoteref-6.15">15</a> The old emperor had + often censured the misguided lenity of Marcus, who, by a single act of + justice, might have saved the Romans from the tyranny of his worthless + son. Placed in the same situation, he experienced how easily the rigor of + a judge dissolves away in the tenderness of a parent. He deliberated, he + threatened, but he could not punish; and this last and only instance of + mercy was more fatal to the empire than a long series of cruelty. <a + href="#linknote-6.16" name="linknoteref-6.16" id="linknoteref-6.16">16</a> + The disorder of his mind irritated the pains of his body; he wished + impatiently for death, and hastened the instant of it by his impatience. + He expired at York in the sixty-fifth year of his life, and in the + eighteenth of a glorious and successful reign. In his last moments he + recommended concord to his sons, and his sons to the army. The salutary + advice never reached the heart, or even the understanding, of the + impetuous youths; but the more obedient troops, mindful of their oath of + allegiance, and of the authority of their deceased master, resisted the + solicitations of Caracalla, and proclaimed both brothers emperors of Rome. + The new princes soon left the Caledonians in peace, returned to the + capital, celebrated their father’s funeral with divine honors, and were + cheerfully acknowledged as lawful sovereigns, by the senate, the people, + and the provinces. Some preeminence of rank seems to have been allowed to + the elder brother; but they both administered the empire with equal and + independent power. <a href="#linknote-6.17" name="linknoteref-6.17" + id="linknoteref-6.17">17</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.15" id="linknote-6.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1282. + Hist. August. p. 71. Aurel. Victor.] <a name="linknote-6.16" + id="linknote-6.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.16">return</a>)<br/> [Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1283. + Hist. August. p. 89] <a name="linknote-6.17" id="linknote-6.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.17">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 17: Dion, l. + lxxvi. p. 1284. Herodian, l. iii. p. 135.] + </p> + <p> + Such a divided form of government would have proved a source of discord + between the most affectionate brothers. It was impossible that it could + long subsist between two implacable enemies, who neither desired nor could + trust a reconciliation. It was visible that one only could reign, and that + the other must fall; and each of them, judging of his rival’s designs by + his own, guarded his life with the most jealous vigilance from the + repeated attacks of poison or the sword. Their rapid journey through Gaul + and Italy, during which they never ate at the same table, or slept in the + same house, displayed to the provinces the odious spectacle of fraternal + discord. On their arrival at Rome, they immediately divided the vast + extent of the imperial palace. <a href="#linknote-6.18" + name="linknoteref-6.18" id="linknoteref-6.18">18</a> No communication was + allowed between their apartments; the doors and passages were diligently + fortified, and guards posted and relieved with the same strictness as in a + besieged place. The emperors met only in public, in the presence of their + afflicted mother; and each surrounded by a numerous train of armed + followers. Even on these occasions of ceremony, the dissimulation of + courts could ill disguise the rancor of their hearts. <a + href="#linknote-6.19" name="linknoteref-6.19" id="linknoteref-6.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.18" id="linknote-6.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Hume is justly + surprised at a passage of Herodian, (l. iv. p. 139,) who, on this + occasion, represents the Imperial palace as equal in extent to the rest of + Rome. The whole region of the Palatine Mount, on which it was built, + occupied, at most, a circumference of eleven or twelve thousand feet, (see + the Notitia and Victor, in Nardini’s Roma Antica.) But we should recollect + that the opulent senators had almost surrounded the city with their + extensive gardens and suburb palaces, the greatest part of which had been + gradually confiscated by the emperors. If Geta resided in the gardens that + bore his name on the Janiculum, and if Caracalla inhabited the gardens of + Mæcenas on the Esquiline, the rival brothers were separated from each + other by the distance of several miles; and yet the intermediate space was + filled by the Imperial gardens of Sallust, of Lucullus, of Agrippa, of + Domitian, of Caius, &c., all skirting round the city, and all + connected with each other, and with the palace, by bridges thrown over the + Tiber and the streets. But this explanation of Herodian would require, + though it ill deserves, a particular dissertation, illustrated by a map of + ancient Rome. (Hume, Essay on Populousness of Ancient Nations.—M.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.19" id="linknote-6.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 139] + </p> + <p> + This latent civil war already distracted the whole government, when a + scheme was suggested that seemed of mutual benefit to the hostile + brothers. It was proposed, that since it was impossible to reconcile their + minds, they should separate their interest, and divide the empire between + them. The conditions of the treaty were already drawn with some accuracy. + It was agreed that Caracalla, as the elder brother should remain in + possession of Europe and the western Africa; and that he should relinquish + the sovereignty of Asia and Egypt to Geta, who might fix his residence at + Alexandria or Antioch, cities little inferior to Rome itself in wealth and + greatness; that numerous armies should be constantly encamped on either + side of the Thracian Bosphorus, to guard the frontiers of the rival + monarchies; and that the senators of European extraction should + acknowledge the sovereign of Rome, whilst the natives of Asia followed the + emperor of the East. The tears of the empress Julia interrupted the + negotiation, the first idea of which had filled every Roman breast with + surprise and indignation. The mighty mass of conquest was so intimately + united by the hand of time and policy, that it required the most forcible + violence to rend it asunder. The Romans had reason to dread, that the + disjointed members would soon be reduced by a civil war under the dominion + of one master; but if the separation was permanent, the division of the + provinces must terminate in the dissolution of an empire whose unity had + hitherto remained inviolate. <a href="#linknote-6.20" name="linknoteref-6.20" + id="linknoteref-6.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.20" id="linknote-6.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iv. p. + 144.] + </p> + <p> + Had the treaty been carried into execution, the sovereign of Europe might + soon have been the conqueror of Asia; but Caracalla obtained an easier, + though a more guilty, victory. He artfully listened to his mother’s + entreaties, and consented to meet his brother in her apartment, on terms + of peace and reconciliation. In the midst of their conversation, some + centurions, who had contrived to conceal themselves, rushed with drawn + swords upon the unfortunate Geta. His distracted mother strove to protect + him in her arms; but, in the unavailing struggle, she was wounded in the + hand, and covered with the blood of her younger son, while she saw the + elder animating and assisting <a href="#linknote-6.21" + name="linknoteref-6.21" id="linknoteref-6.21">21</a> the fury of the + assassins. As soon as the deed was perpetrated, Caracalla, with hasty + steps, and horror in his countenance, ran towards the Prætorian camp, as + his only refuge, and threw himself on the ground before the statues of the + tutelar deities. <a href="#linknote-6.22" name="linknoteref-6.22" + id="linknoteref-6.22">22</a> The soldiers attempted to raise and comfort + him. In broken and disordered words he informed them of his imminent + danger, and fortunate escape; insinuating that he had prevented the + designs of his enemy, and declared his resolution to live and die with his + faithful troops. Geta had been the favorite of the soldiers; but complaint + was useless, revenge was dangerous, and they still reverenced the son of + Severus. Their discontent died away in idle murmurs, and Caracalla soon + convinced them of the justice of his cause, by distributing in one lavish + donative the accumulated treasures of his father’s reign. <a + href="#linknote-6.23" name="linknoteref-6.23" id="linknoteref-6.23">23</a> + The real <i>sentiments</i> of the soldiers alone were of importance to his power + or safety. Their declaration in his favor commanded the dutiful + <i>professions</i> of the senate. The obsequious assembly was always prepared to + ratify the decision of fortune; <a href="#linknote-6.231" + name="linknoteref-6.231" id="linknoteref-6.231">231</a> but as Caracalla + wished to assuage the first emotions of public indignation, the name of + Geta was mentioned with decency, and he received the funeral honors of a + Roman emperor. <a href="#linknote-6.24" name="linknoteref-6.24" + id="linknoteref-6.24">24</a> Posterity, in pity to his misfortune, has cast + a veil over his vices. We consider that young prince as the innocent + victim of his brother’s ambition, without recollecting that he himself + wanted power, rather than inclination, to consummate the same attempts of + revenge and murder. <a href="#linknote-6.241" name="linknoteref-6.241" + id="linknoteref-6.241">241</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.21" id="linknote-6.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Caracalla consecrated, + in the temple of Serapis, the sword with which, as he boasted, he had + slain his brother Geta. Dion, l. lxxvii p. 1307.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.22" id="linknote-6.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 147. + In every Roman camp there was a small chapel near the head-quarters, in + which the statues of the tutelar deities were preserved and adored; and we + may remark that the eagles, and other military ensigns, were in the first + rank of these deities; an excellent institution, which confirmed + discipline by the sanction of religion. See Lipsius de Militia Romana, iv. + 5, v. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.23" id="linknote-6.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 148. + Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1289.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.231" id="linknote-6.231"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 231 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.231">return</a>)<br/> [ The account of this + transaction, in a new passage of Dion, varies in some degree from this + statement. It adds that the next morning, in the senate, Antoninus + requested their indulgence, not because he had killed his brother, but + because he was hoarse, and could not address them. Mai. Fragm. p. 228.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.24" id="linknote-6.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Geta was placed among + the gods. Sit divus, dum non sit vivus said his brother. Hist. August. p. + 91. Some marks of Geta’s consecration are still found upon medals.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.241" id="linknote-6.241"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 241 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.241">return</a>)<br/> [ The favorable judgment + which history has given of Geta is not founded solely on a feeling of + pity; it is supported by the testimony of contemporary historians: he was + too fond of the pleasures of the table, and showed great mistrust of his + brother; but he was humane, well instructed; he often endeavored to + mitigate the rigorous decrees of Severus and Caracalla. Herod iv. 3. + Spartian in Geta.—W.] + </p> + <p> + The crime went not unpunished. Neither business, nor pleasure, nor + flattery, could defend Caracalla from the stings of a guilty conscience; + and he confessed, in the anguish of a tortured mind, that his disordered + fancy often beheld the angry forms of his father and his brother rising + into life, to threaten and upbraid him. <a href="#linknote-6.25" + name="linknoteref-6.25" id="linknoteref-6.25">25</a> The consciousness of + his crime should have induced him to convince mankind, by the virtues of + his reign, that the bloody deed had been the involuntary effect of fatal + necessity. But the repentance of Caracalla only prompted him to remove + from the world whatever could remind him of his guilt, or recall the + memory of his murdered brother. On his return from the senate to the + palace, he found his mother in the company of several noble matrons, + weeping over the untimely fate of her younger son. The jealous emperor + threatened them with instant death; the sentence was executed against + Fadilla, the last remaining daughter of the emperor Marcus; <a + href="#linknote-6.251" name="linknoteref-6.251" id="linknoteref-6.251">251</a> + and even the afflicted Julia was obliged to silence her lamentations, to + suppress her sighs, and to receive the assassin with smiles of joy and + approbation. It was computed that, under the vague appellation of the + friends of Geta, above twenty thousand persons of both sexes suffered + death. His guards and freedmen, the ministers of his serious business, and + the companions of his looser hours, those who by his interest had been + promoted to any commands in the army or provinces, with the long connected + chain of their dependants, were included in the proscription; which + endeavored to reach every one who had maintained the smallest + correspondence with Geta, who lamented his death, or who even mentioned + his name. <a href="#linknote-6.26" name="linknoteref-6.26" + id="linknoteref-6.26">26</a> Helvius Pertinax, son to the prince of that + name, lost his life by an unseasonable witticism. <a href="#linknote-6.27" + name="linknoteref-6.27" id="linknoteref-6.27">27</a> It was a sufficient + crime of Thrasea Priscus to be descended from a family in which the love + of liberty seemed an hereditary quality. <a href="#linknote-6.28" + name="linknoteref-6.28" id="linknoteref-6.28">28</a> The particular causes + of calumny and suspicion were at length exhausted; and when a senator was + accused of being a secret enemy to the government, the emperor was + satisfied with the general proof that he was a man of property and virtue. + From this well-grounded principle he frequently drew the most bloody + inferences. <a href="#linknote-6.281" name="linknoteref-6.281" + id="linknoteref-6.281">281</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.25" id="linknote-6.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1307] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.251" id="linknote-6.251"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 251 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.251">return</a>)<br/> [ The most valuable + paragraph of dion, which the industry of M. Manas recovered, relates to + this daughter of Marcus, executed by Caracalla. Her name, as appears from + Fronto, as well as from Dion, was Cornificia. When commanded to choose the + kind of death she was to suffer, she burst into womanish tears; but + remembering her father Marcus, she thus spoke:—“O my hapless soul, + (... animula,) now imprisoned in the body, burst forth! be free! show + them, however reluctant to believe it, that thou art the daughter of + Marcus.” She then laid aside all her ornaments, and preparing herself for + death, ordered her veins to be opened. Mai. Fragm. Vatican ii p. 220.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.26" id="linknote-6.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1290. Herodian, l. iv. p. 150. Dion (p. 2298) says, that the comic poets + no longer durst employ the name of Geta in their plays, and that the + estates of those who mentioned it in their testaments were confiscated.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.27" id="linknote-6.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Caracalla had assumed + the names of several conquered nations; Pertinax observed, that the name + of Geticus (he had obtained some advantage over the Goths, or Getæ) would + be a proper addition to Parthieus, Alemannicus, &c. Hist. August. p. + 89.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.28" id="linknote-6.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1291. He was probably descended from Helvidius Priscus, and Thrasea + Pætus, those patriots, whose firm, but useless and unseasonable, virtue + has been immortalized by Tacitus. Note: M. Guizot is indignant at this + “cold” observation of Gibbon on the noble character of Thrasea; but he + admits that his virtue was useless to the public, and unseasonable amidst + the vices of his age.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.281" id="linknote-6.281"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 281 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.281">return</a>)<br/> [ Caracalla reproached + all those who demanded no favors of him. “It is clear that if you make me + no requests, you do not trust me; if you do not trust me, you suspect me; + if you suspect me, you fear me; if you fear me, you hate me.” And + forthwith he condemned them as conspirators, a good specimen of the + sorites in a tyrant’s logic. See Fragm. Vatican p.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap06.2"></a> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The execution of so many innocent citizens was bewailed by the secret + tears of their friends and families. The death of Papinian, the Prætorian + Præfect, was lamented as a public calamity. <a href="#linknote-6.282" + name="linknoteref-6.282" id="linknoteref-6.282">282</a> During the last + seven years of Severus, he had exercised the most important offices of the + state, and, by his salutary influence, guided the emperor’s steps in the + paths of justice and moderation. In full assurance of his virtue and + abilities, Severus, on his death-bed, had conjured him to watch over the + prosperity and union of the Imperial family. <a href="#linknote-6.29" + name="linknoteref-6.29" id="linknoteref-6.29">29</a> The honest labors of + Papinian served only to inflame the hatred which Caracalla had already + conceived against his father’s minister. After the murder of Geta, the + Præfect was commanded to exert the powers of his skill and eloquence in a + studied apology for that atrocious deed. The philosophic Seneca had + condescended to compose a similar epistle to the senate, in the name of + the son and assassin of Agrippina. <a href="#linknote-6.30" + name="linknoteref-6.30" id="linknoteref-6.30">30</a> “That it was easier to + commit than to justify a parricide,” was the glorious reply of Papinian; + <a href="#linknote-6.31" name="linknoteref-6.31" id="linknoteref-6.31">31</a> + who did not hesitate between the loss of life and that of honor. Such + intrepid virtue, which had escaped pure and unsullied from the intrigues of + courts, the habits of business, and the arts of his profession, reflects + more lustre on the memory of Papinian, than all his great employments, his + numerous writings, and the superior reputation as a lawyer, which he has + preserved through every age of the Roman jurisprudence. <a + href="#linknote-6.32" name="linknoteref-6.32" id="linknoteref-6.32">32</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.282" id="linknote-6.282"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 282 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.282">return</a>)<br/> [ Papinian was no longer + Prætorian Præfect. Caracalla had deprived him of that office immediately + after the death of Severus. Such is the statement of Dion; and the + testimony of Spartian, who gives Papinian the Prætorian præfecture till + his death, is of little weight opposed to that of a senator then living at + Rome.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.29" id="linknote-6.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.29">return</a>)<br/> [ It is said that Papinian + was himself a relation of the empress Julia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.30" id="linknote-6.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xiv. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.31" id="linknote-6.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 88.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.32" id="linknote-6.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.32">return</a>)<br/> [ With regard to Papinian, + see Heineccius’s Historia Juris Roma ni, l. 330, &c.] + </p> + <p> + It had hitherto been the peculiar felicity of the Romans, and in the worst + of times the consolation, that the virtue of the emperors was active, and + their vice indolent. Augustus, Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus visited their + extensive dominions in person, and their progress was marked by acts of + wisdom and beneficence. The tyranny of Tiberius, Nero, and Domitian, who + resided almost constantly at Rome, or in the adjacent was confined to the + senatorial and equestrian orders. <a href="#linknote-6.33" + name="linknoteref-6.33" id="linknoteref-6.33">33</a> But Caracalla was the + common enemy of mankind. He left the capital (and he never returned to it) + about a year after the murder of Geta. The rest of his reign was spent in + the several provinces of the empire, particularly those of the East, and + every province was by turns the scene of his rapine and cruelty. The senators, + compelled by fear to attend his capricious motions, were obliged to provide + daily entertainments at an immense expense, which he abandoned with + contempt to his guards; and to erect, in every city, magnificent palaces + and theatres, which he either disdained to visit, or ordered immediately + thrown down. The most wealthy families were ruined by partial fines and + confiscations, and the great body of his subjects oppressed by ingenious + and aggravated taxes. <a href="#linknote-6.34" name="linknoteref-6.34" + id="linknoteref-6.34">34</a> In the midst of peace, and upon the slightest + provocation, he issued his commands, at Alexandria, in Egypt for a general + massacre. From a secure post in the temple of Serapis, he viewed and + directed the slaughter of many thousand citizens, as well as strangers, + without distinguishing the number or the crime of the sufferers; since as + he coolly informed the senate, <i>all</i> the Alexandrians, those who had perished, + and those who had escaped, were alike guilty. <a href="#linknote-6.35" + name="linknoteref-6.35" id="linknoteref-6.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.33" id="linknote-6.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Tiberius and Domitian + never moved from the neighborhood of Rome. Nero made a short journey into + Greece. “Et laudatorum Principum usus ex æquo, quamvis procul agentibus. + Sævi proximis ingruunt.” Tacit. Hist. iv. 74.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.34" id="linknote-6.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1294.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.35" id="linknote-6.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1307. Herodian, l. iv. p. 158. The former represents it as a cruel + massacre, the latter as a perfidious one too. It seems probable that the + Alexandrians has irritated the tyrant by their railleries, and perhaps by + their tumults. * Note: After these massacres, Caracalla also deprived the + Alexandrians of their spectacles and public feasts; he divided the city + into two parts by a wall with towers at intervals, to prevent the peaceful + communications of the citizens. Thus was treated the unhappy Alexandria, + says Dion, by the savage beast of Ausonia. This, in fact, was the epithet + which the oracle had applied to him; it is said, indeed, that he was much + pleased with the name and often boasted of it. Dion, lxxvii. p. 1307.—G.] + </p> + <p> + The wise instructions of Severus never made any lasting impression on the + mind of his son, who, although not destitute of imagination and eloquence, + was equally devoid of judgment and humanity. <a href="#linknote-6.36" + name="linknoteref-6.36" id="linknoteref-6.36">36</a> One dangerous maxim, + worthy of a tyrant, was remembered and abused by Caracalla. “To secure the + affections of the army, and to esteem the rest of his subjects as of + little moment.” <a href="#linknote-6.37" name="linknoteref-6.37" + id="linknoteref-6.37">37</a> But the liberality of the father had been + restrained by prudence, and his indulgence to the troops was tempered by + firmness and authority. The careless profusion of the son was the policy + of one reign, and the inevitable ruin both of the army and of the empire. + The vigor of the soldiers, instead of being confirmed by the severe + discipline of camps, melted away in the luxury of cities. The excessive + increase of their pay and donatives <a href="#linknote-6.38" + name="linknoteref-6.38" id="linknoteref-6.38">38</a> exhausted the state to + enrich the military order, whose modesty in peace, and service in war, is + best secured by an honorable poverty. The demeanor of Caracalla was + haughty and full of pride; but with the troops he forgot even the proper + dignity of his rank, encouraged their insolent familiarity, and, + neglecting the essential duties of a general, affected to imitate the + dress and manners of a common soldier. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.36" id="linknote-6.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1296.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.37" id="linknote-6.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvi. p. 1284. + Mr. Wotton (Hist. of Rome, p. 330) suspects that this maxim was invented + by Caracalla himself, and attributed to his father.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.38" id="linknote-6.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion (l. lxxviii. p. + 1343) informs us that the extraordinary gifts of Caracalla to the army + amounted annually to seventy millions of drachmæ (about two millions + three hundred and fifty thousand pounds.) There is another passage in + Dion, concerning the military pay, infinitely curious, were it not + obscure, imperfect, and probably corrupt. The best sense seems to be, that + the Prætorian guards received twelve hundred and fifty drachmæ, (forty + pounds a year,) (Dion, l. lxxvii. p. 1307.) Under the reign of Augustus, + they were paid at the rate of two drachmæ, or denarii, per day, 720 a + year, (Tacit. Annal. i. 17.) Domitian, who increased the soldiers’ pay one + fourth, must have raised the Prætorians to 960 drachmæ, (Gronoviue de + Pecunia Veteri, l. iii. c. 2.) These successive augmentations ruined the + empire; for, with the soldiers’ pay, their numbers too were increased. We + have seen the Prætorians alone increased from 10,000 to 50,000 men. Note: + Valois and Reimar have explained in a very simple and probable manner this + passage of Dion, which Gibbon seems to me not to have understood. He + ordered that the soldiers should receive, as the reward of their services + the Prætorians 1250 drachms, the other 5000 drachms. Valois thinks that + the numbers have been transposed, and that Caracalla added 5000 drachms to + the donations made to the Prætorians, 1250 to those of the legionaries. + The Prætorians, in fact, always received more than the others. The error + of Gibbon arose from his considering that this referred to the annual pay + of the soldiers, while it relates to the sum they received as a reward for + their services on their discharge: donatives means recompense for service. + Augustus had settled that the Prætorians, after sixteen campaigns, should + receive 5000 drachms: the legionaries received only 3000 after twenty + years. Caracalla added 5000 drachms to the donative of the Prætorians, + 1250 to that of the legionaries. Gibbon appears to have been mistaken both + in confounding this donative on discharge with the annual pay, and in not + paying attention to the remark of Valois on the transposition of the + numbers in the text.—G] + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that such a character, and such conduct as that of + Caracalla, could inspire either love or esteem; but as long as his vices + were beneficial to the armies, he was secure from the danger of rebellion. + A secret conspiracy, provoked by his own jealousy, was fatal to the + tyrant. The Prætorian præfecture was divided between two ministers. The + military department was intrusted to Adventus, an experienced rather than + able soldier; and the civil affairs were transacted by Opilius Macrinus, + who, by his dexterity in business, had raised himself, with a fair + character, to that high office. But his favor varied with the caprice of + the emperor, and his life might depend on the slightest suspicion, or the + most casual circumstance. Malice or fanaticism had suggested to an + African, deeply skilled in the knowledge of futurity, a very dangerous + prediction, that Macrinus and his son were destined to reign over the + empire. The report was soon diffused through the province; and when the + man was sent in chains to Rome, he still asserted, in the presence of the + præfect of the city, the faith of his prophecy. That magistrate, who had + received the most pressing instructions to inform himself of the + <i>successors</i> of Caracalla, immediately communicated the examination of the + African to the Imperial court, which at that time resided in Syria. But, + notwithstanding the diligence of the public messengers, a friend of + Macrinus found means to apprise him of the approaching danger. The emperor + received the letters from Rome; and as he was then engaged in the conduct + of a chariot race, he delivered them unopened to the Prætorian Præfect, + directing him to despatch the ordinary affairs, and to report the more + important business that might be contained in them. Macrinus read his + fate, and resolved to prevent it. He inflamed the discontents of some + inferior officers, and employed the hand of Martialis, a desperate + soldier, who had been refused the rank of centurion. The devotion of + Caracalla prompted him to make a pilgrimage from Edessa to the celebrated + temple of the Moon at Carrhæ. <a href="#linknote-6.381" + name="linknoteref-6.381" id="linknoteref-6.381">381</a> He was attended by a + body of cavalry: but having stopped on the road for some necessary + occasion, his guards preserved a respectful distance, and Martialis, + approaching his person under a presence of duty, stabbed him with a + dagger. The bold assassin was instantly killed by a Scythian archer of the + Imperial guard. Such was the end of a monster whose life disgraced human + nature, and whose reign accused the patience of the Romans. <a + href="#linknote-6.39" name="linknoteref-6.39" id="linknoteref-6.39">39</a> + The grateful soldiers forgot his vices, remembered only his partial + liberality, and obliged the senate to prostitute their own dignity and + that of religion, by granting him a place among the gods. Whilst he was + upon earth, Alexander the Great was the only hero whom this god deemed + worthy his admiration. He assumed the name and ensigns of Alexander, + formed a Macedonian phalanx of guards, persecuted the disciples of + Aristotle, and displayed, with a puerile enthusiasm, the only sentiment by + which he discovered any regard for virtue or glory. We can easily + conceive, that after the battle of Narva, and the conquest of Poland, + Charles XII. (though he still wanted the more elegant accomplishments of + the son of Philip) might boast of having rivalled his valor and + magnanimity; but in no one action of his life did Caracalla express the + faintest resemblance of the Macedonian hero, except in the murder of a + great number of his own and of his father’s friends. <a + href="#linknote-6.40" name="linknoteref-6.40" id="linknoteref-6.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.381" id="linknote-6.381"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 381 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.381">return</a>)<br/> [ Carrhæ, now Harran, + between Edessan and Nisibis, famous for the defeat of Crassus—the + Haran from whence Abraham set out for the land of Canaan. This city has + always been remarkable for its attachment to Sabaism—G] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.39" id="linknote-6.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. + 1312. Herodian, l. iv. p. 168.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.40" id="linknote-6.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.40">return</a>)<br/> [ The fondness of + Caracalla for the name and ensigns of Alexander is still preserved on the + medals of that emperor. See Spanheim, de Usu Numismatum, Dissertat. xii. + Herodian (l. iv. p. 154) had seen very ridiculous pictures, in which a + figure was drawn with one side of the face like Alexander, and the other + like Caracalla.] + </p> + <p> + After the extinction of the house of Severus, the Roman world remained + three days without a master. The choice of the army (for the authority of + a distant and feeble senate was little regarded) hung in anxious suspense, + as no candidate presented himself whose distinguished birth and merit + could engage their attachment and unite their suffrages. The decisive + weight of the Prætorian guards elevated the hopes of their præfects, and + these powerful ministers began to assert their <i>legal</i> claim to fill the + vacancy of the Imperial throne. Adventus, however, the senior præfect, + conscious of his age and infirmities, of his small reputation, and his + smaller abilities, resigned the dangerous honor to the crafty ambition of + his colleague Macrinus, whose well-dissembled grief removed all suspicion + of his being accessary to his master’s death. <a href="#linknote-6.41" + name="linknoteref-6.41" id="linknoteref-6.41">41</a> The troops neither + loved nor esteemed his character. They cast their eyes around in search of + a competitor, and at last yielded with reluctance to his promises of + unbounded liberality and indulgence. A short time after his accession, he + conferred on his son Diadumenianus, at the age of only ten years, the + Imperial title, and the popular name of Antoninus. The beautiful figure of + the youth, assisted by an additional donative, for which the ceremony + furnished a pretext, might attract, it was hoped, the favor of the army, + and secure the doubtful throne of Macrinus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.41" id="linknote-6.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. iv. p. 169. + Hist. August. p. 94.] + </p> + <p> + The authority of the new sovereign had been ratified by the cheerful + submission of the senate and provinces. They exulted in their unexpected + deliverance from a hated tyrant, and it seemed of little consequence to + examine into the virtues of the successor of Caracalla. But as soon as the + first transports of joy and surprise had subsided, they began to + scrutinize the merits of Macrinus with a critical severity, and to arraign + the nasty choice of the army. It had hitherto been considered as a + fundamental maxim of the constitution, that the emperor must be always + chosen in the senate, and the sovereign power, no longer exercised by the + whole body, was always delegated to one of its members. But Macrinus was + not a senator. <a href="#linknote-6.42" name="linknoteref-6.42" + id="linknoteref-6.42">42</a> The sudden elevation of the Prætorian + præfects betrayed the meanness of their origin; and the equestrian order + was still in possession of that great office, which commanded with + arbitrary sway the lives and fortunes of the senate. A murmur of + indignation was heard, that a man, whose obscure <a href="#linknote-6.43" + name="linknoteref-6.43" id="linknoteref-6.43">43</a> extraction had never + been illustrated by any signal service, should dare to invest himself with + the purple, instead of bestowing it on some distinguished senator, equal + in birth and dignity to the splendor of the Imperial station. As soon as + the character of Macrinus was surveyed by the sharp eye of discontent, + some vices, and many defects, were easily discovered. The choice of his + ministers was in many instances justly censured, and the + dissatisfied people, with their usual candor, accused at once his indolent + tameness and his excessive severity. <a href="#linknote-6.44" + name="linknoteref-6.44" id="linknoteref-6.44">44</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.42" id="linknote-6.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxxviii. p. + 1350. Elagabalus reproached his predecessor with daring to seat himself on + the throne; though, as Prætorian præfect, he could not have been + admitted into the senate after the voice of the crier had cleared the + house. The personal favor of Plautianus and Sejanus had broke through the + established rule. They rose, indeed, from the equestrian order; but they + preserved the præfecture, with the rank of senator and even with the + annulship.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.43" id="linknote-6.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.43">return</a>)<br/> [ He was a native of + Cæsarea, in Numidia, and began his fortune by serving in the household of + Plautian, from whose ruin he narrowly escaped. His enemies asserted that + he was born a slave, and had exercised, among other infamous professions, + that of Gladiator. The fashion of aspersing the birth and condition of an + adversary seems to have lasted from the time of the Greek orators to the + learned grammarians of the last age.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.44" id="linknote-6.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Both Dion and Herodian + speak of the virtues and vices of Macrinus with candor and impartiality; + but the author of his life, in the Augustan History, seems to have + implicitly copied some of the venal writers, employed by Elagabalus, to + blacken the memory of his predecessor.] + </p> + <p> + His rash ambition had climbed a height where it was difficult to stand + with firmness, and impossible to fall without instant destruction. Trained + in the arts of courts and the forms of civil business, he trembled in the + presence of the fierce and undisciplined multitude, over whom he had + assumed the command; his military talents were despised, and his personal + courage suspected; a whisper that circulated in the camp, disclosed the + fatal secret of the conspiracy against the late emperor, aggravated the + guilt of murder by the baseness of hypocrisy, and heightened contempt by + detestation. To alienate the soldiers, and to provoke inevitable ruin, the + character of a reformer was only wanting; and such was the peculiar + hardship of his fate, that Macrinus was compelled to exercise that + invidious office. The prodigality of Caracalla had left behind it a long + train of ruin and disorder; and if that worthless tyrant had been capable + of reflecting on the sure consequences of his own conduct, he would + perhaps have enjoyed the dark prospect of the distress and calamities + which he bequeathed to his successors. + </p> + <p> + In the management of this necessary reformation, Macrinus proceeded with a + cautious prudence, which would have restored health and vigor to the Roman + army in an easy and almost imperceptible manner. To the soldiers already + engaged in the service, he was constrained to leave the dangerous + privileges and extravagant pay given by Caracalla; but the new recruits + were received on the more moderate though liberal establishment of + Severus, and gradually formed to modesty and obedience. <a + href="#linknote-6.45" name="linknoteref-6.45" id="linknoteref-6.45">45</a> + One fatal error destroyed the salutary effects of this judicious plan. The + numerous army, assembled in the East by the late emperor, instead of being + immediately dispersed by Macrinus through the several provinces, was + suffered to remain united in Syria, during the winter that followed his + elevation. In the luxurious idleness of their quarters, the troops viewed + their strength and numbers, communicated their complaints, and revolved in + their minds the advantages of another revolution. The veterans, instead of + being flattered by the advantageous distinction, were alarmed by the first + steps of the emperor, which they considered as the presage of his future + intentions. The recruits, with sullen reluctance, entered on a service, + whose labors were increased while its rewards were diminished by a + covetous and unwarlike sovereign. The murmurs of the army swelled with + impunity into seditious clamors; and the partial mutinies betrayed a + spirit of discontent and disaffection that waited only for the slightest + occasion to break out on every side into a general rebellion. To minds + thus disposed, the occasion soon presented itself. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.45" id="linknote-6.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxxiii. p. + 1336. The sense of the author is as the intention of the emperor; but Mr. + Wotton has mistaken both, by understanding the distinction, not of + veterans and recruits, but of old and new legions. History of Rome, p. + 347.] + </p> + <p> + The empress Julia had experienced all the vicissitudes of fortune. From an + humble station she had been raised to greatness, only to taste the + superior bitterness of an exalted rank. She was doomed to weep over the + death of one of her sons, and over the life of the other. The cruel fate + of Caracalla, though her good sense must have long taught her to expect + it, awakened the feelings of a mother and of an empress. Notwithstanding + the respectful civility expressed by the usurper towards the widow of + Severus, she descended with a painful struggle into the condition of a + subject, and soon withdrew herself, by a voluntary death, from the anxious + and humiliating dependence. <a href="#linknote-6.46" name="linknoteref-6.46" + id="linknoteref-6.46">46</a> <a href="#linknote-6.461" + name="linknoteref-6.461" id="linknoteref-6.461">461</a> Julia Mæsa, her + sister, was ordered to leave the court and Antioch. She retired to Emesa + with an immense fortune, the fruit of twenty years’ favor accompanied by + her two daughters, Soæmias and Mamæ, each of whom was a widow, and each + had an only son. Bassianus, <a href="#linknote-6.462" + name="linknoteref-6.462" id="linknoteref-6.462">462</a> for that was the + name of the son of Soæmias, was consecrated to the honorable ministry of + high priest of the Sun; and this holy vocation, embraced either from + prudence or superstition, contributed to raise the Syrian youth to the + empire of Rome. A numerous body of troops was stationed at Emesa; and as + the severe discipline of Macrinus had constrained them to pass the winter + encamped, they were eager to revenge the cruelty of such unaccustomed + hardships. The soldiers, who resorted in crowds to the temple of the Sun, + beheld with veneration and delight the elegant dress and figure of the + young pontiff; they recognized, or they thought that they recognized, the + features of Caracalla, whose memory they now adored. The artful Mæsa saw + and cherished their rising partiality, and readily sacrificing her + daughter’s reputation to the fortune of her grandson, she insinuated that + Bassianus was the natural son of their murdered sovereign. The sums + distributed by her emissaries with a lavish hand silenced every objection, + and the profusion sufficiently proved the affinity, or at least the + resemblance, of Bassianus with the great original. The young Antoninus + (for he had assumed and polluted that respectable name) was declared + emperor by the troops of Emesa, asserted his hereditary right, and called + aloud on the armies to follow the standard of a young and liberal prince, + who had taken up arms to revenge his father’s death and the oppression of + the military order. <a href="#linknote-6.47" name="linknoteref-6.47" + id="linknoteref-6.47">47</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.46" id="linknote-6.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. + 1330. The abridgment of Xiphilin, though less particular, is in this place + clearer than the original.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.461" id="linknote-6.461"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 461 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.461">return</a>)<br/> [ As soon as this + princess heard of the death of Caracalla, she wished to starve herself to + death: the respect shown to her by Macrinus, in making no change in her + attendants or her court, induced her to prolong her life. But it appears, + as far as the mutilated text of Dion and the imperfect epitome of Xiphilin + permit us to judge, that she conceived projects of ambition, and + endeavored to raise herself to the empire. She wished to tread in the + steps of Semiramis and Nitocris, whose country bordered on her own. + Macrinus sent her an order immediately to leave Antioch, and to retire + wherever she chose. She returned to her former purpose, and starved + herself to death.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.462" id="linknote-6.462"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 462 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.462">return</a>)<br/> [ He inherited this name + from his great-grandfather of the mother’s side, Bassianus, father of + Julia Mæsa, his grandmother, and of Julia Domna, wife of Severus. Victor + (in his epitome) is perhaps the only historian who has given the key to + this genealogy, when speaking of Caracalla. His Bassianus ex avi materni + nomine dictus. Caracalla, Elagabalus, and Alexander Seyerus, bore + successively this name.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.47" id="linknote-6.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.47">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Lampridius, + (Hist. August. p. 135,) Alexander Severus lived twenty-nine years three + months and seven days. As he was killed March 19, 235, he was born + December 12, 205 and was consequently about this time thirteen years old, + as his elder cousin might be about seventeen. This computation suits much + better the history of the young princes than that of Herodian, (l. v. p. + 181,) who represents them as three years younger; whilst, by an opposite + error of chronology, he lengthens the reign of Elagabalus two years beyond + its real duration. For the particulars of the conspiracy, see Dion, l. + lxxviii. p. 1339. Herodian, l. v. p. 184.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst a conspiracy of women and eunuchs was concerted with prudence, and + conducted with rapid vigor, Macrinus, who, by a decisive motion, might + have crushed his infant enemy, floated between the opposite extremes of + terror and security, which alike fixed him inactive at Antioch. A spirit + of rebellion diffused itself through all the camps and garrisons of Syria, + successive detachments murdered their officers, <a href="#linknote-6.48" + name="linknoteref-6.48" id="linknoteref-6.48">48</a> and joined the party of + the rebels; and the tardy restitution of military pay and privileges was + imputed to the acknowledged weakness of Macrinus. At length he marched out + of Antioch, to meet the increasing and zealous army of the young + pretender. His own troops seemed to take the field with faintness and + reluctance; but, in the heat of the battle, <a href="#linknote-6.49" + name="linknoteref-6.49" id="linknoteref-6.49">49</a> the Prætorian guards, + almost by an involuntary impulse, asserted the superiority of their valor + and discipline. The rebel ranks were broken; when the mother and + grandmother of the Syrian prince, who, according to their eastern custom, + had attended the army, threw themselves from their covered chariots, and, + by exciting the compassion of the soldiers, endeavored to animate their + drooping courage. Antoninus himself, who, in the rest of his life, never + acted like a man, in this important crisis of his fate, approved himself a + hero, mounted his horse, and, at the head of his rallied troops, charged + sword in hand among the thickest of the enemy; whilst the eunuch Gannys, + <a href="#linknote-6.491" name="linknoteref-6.491" id="linknoteref-6.491">491</a> + whose occupations had been confined to female cares and the soft luxury of + Asia, displayed the talents of an able and experienced general. The battle + still raged with doubtful violence, and Macrinus might have obtained the + victory, had he not betrayed his own cause by a shameful and precipitate + flight. His cowardice served only to protract his life a few days, and to + stamp deserved ignominy on his misfortunes. It is scarcely necessary to + add, that his son Diadumenianus was involved in the same fate. + </p> + <p> + As soon as the stubborn Prætorians could be convinced that they fought + for a prince who had basely deserted them, they surrendered to the + conqueror: the contending parties of the Roman army, mingling tears of joy + and tenderness, united under the banners of the imagined son of Caracalla, + and the East acknowledged with pleasure the first emperor of Asiatic + extraction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.48" id="linknote-6.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.48">return</a>)<br/> [ By a most dangerous + proclamation of the pretended Antoninus, every soldier who brought in his + officer’s head became entitled to his private estate, as well as to his + military commission.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.49" id="linknote-6.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxviii. p. + 1345. Herodian, l. v. p. 186. The battle was fought near the village of + Immæ, about two-and-twenty miles from Antioch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.491" id="linknote-6.491"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 491 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.491">return</a>)<br/> [ Gannys was not a + eunuch. Dion, p. 1355.—W] + </p> + <p> + The letters of Macrinus had condescended to inform the senate of the + slight disturbance occasioned by an impostor in Syria, and a decree + immediately passed, declaring the rebel and his family public enemies; + with a promise of pardon, however, to such of his deluded adherents as + should merit it by an immediate return to their duty. During the twenty + days that elapsed from the declaration of the victory of Antoninus (for + in so short an interval was the fate of the Roman world decided,) the + capital and the provinces, more especially those of the East, were + distracted with hopes and fears, agitated with tumult, and stained with a + useless effusion of civil blood, since whosoever of the rivals prevailed + in Syria must reign over the empire. The specious letters in which the + young conqueror announced his victory to the obedient senate were filled + with professions of virtue and moderation; the shining examples of Marcus + and Augustus, he should ever consider as the great rule of his + administration; and he affected to dwell with pride on the striking + resemblance of his own age and fortunes with those of Augustus, who in the + earliest youth had revenged, by a successful war, the murder of his + father. By adopting the style of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, son of + Antoninus and grandson of Severus, he tacitly asserted his hereditary + claim to the empire; but, by assuming the tribunitian and proconsular + powers before they had been conferred on him by a decree of the senate, he + offended the delicacy of Roman prejudice. This new and injudicious + violation of the constitution was probably dictated either by the + ignorance of his Syrian courtiers, or the fierce disdain of his military + followers. <a href="#linknote-6.50" name="linknoteref-6.50" + id="linknoteref-6.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.50" id="linknote-6.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. + 1353.] + </p> + <p> + As the attention of the new emperor was diverted by the most trifling + amusements, he wasted many months in his luxurious progress from Syria to + Italy, passed at Nicomedia his first winter after his victory, and + deferred till the ensuing summer his triumphal entry into the capital. A + faithful picture, however, which preceded his arrival, and was placed by + his immediate order over the altar of Victory in the senate house, + conveyed to the Romans the just but unworthy resemblance of his person and + manners. He was drawn in his sacerdotal robes of silk and gold, after the + loose flowing fashion of the Medes and Phœnicians; his head was covered + with a lofty tiara, his numerous collars and bracelets were adorned with + gems of an inestimable value. His eyebrows were tinged with black, and his + cheeks painted with an artificial red and white. <a href="#linknote-6.51" + name="linknoteref-6.51" id="linknoteref-6.51">51</a> The grave senators + confessed with a sigh, that, after having long experienced the stern + tyranny of their own countrymen, Rome was at length humbled beneath the + effeminate luxury of Oriental despotism. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.51" id="linknote-6.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1363. + Herodian, l. v. p. 189.] + </p> + <p> + The Sun was worshipped at Emesa, under the name of Elagabalus, <a + href="#linknote-6.52" name="linknoteref-6.52" id="linknoteref-6.52">52</a> + and under the form of a black conical stone, which, as it was universally + believed, had fallen from heaven on that sacred place. To this protecting + deity, Antoninus, not without some reason, ascribed his elevation to the + throne. The display of superstitious gratitude was the only serious + business of his reign. The triumph of the god of Emesa over all the + religions of the earth, was the great object of his zeal and vanity; and + the appellation of Elagabalus (for he presumed as pontiff and favorite to + adopt that sacred name) was dearer to him than all the titles of Imperial + greatness. In a solemn procession through the streets of Rome, the way was + strewed with gold dust; the black stone, set in precious gems, was placed + on a chariot drawn by six milk-white horses richly caparisoned. The pious + emperor held the reins, and, supported by his ministers, moved slowly + backwards, that he might perpetually enjoy the felicity of the divine + presence. In a magnificent temple raised on the Palatine Mount, the + sacrifices of the god Elagabalus were celebrated with every circumstance + of cost and solemnity. The richest wines, the most extraordinary victims, + and the rarest aromatics, were profusely consumed on his altar. Around the + altar, a chorus of Syrian damsels performed their lascivious dances to the + sound of barbarian music, whilst the gravest personages of the state and + army, clothed in long Phœnician tunics, officiated in the meanest + functions, with affected zeal and secret indignation. <a + href="#linknote-6.53" name="linknoteref-6.53" id="linknoteref-6.53">53</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.52" id="linknote-6.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.52">return</a>)<br/> [ This name is derived by + the learned from two Syrian words, Ela a God, and Gabal, to form, the + forming or plastic god, a proper, and even happy epithet for the sun. + Wotton’s History of Rome, p. 378 Note: The name of Elagabalus has been + disfigured in various ways. Herodian calls him; Lampridius, and the more + modern writers, make him Heliogabalus. Dion calls him Elegabalus; but + Elegabalus was the true name, as it appears on the medals. (Eckhel. de + Doct. num. vet. t. vii. p. 250.) As to its etymology, that which Gibbon + adduces is given by Bochart, Chan. ii. 5; but Salmasius, on better + grounds. (not. in Lamprid. in Elagab.,) derives the name of Elagabalus + from the idol of that god, represented by Herodian and the medals in the + form of a mountain, (gibel in Hebrew,) or great stone cut to a point, with + marks which represent the sun. As it was not permitted, at Hierapolis, in + Syria, to make statues of the sun and moon, because, it was said, they are + themselves sufficiently visible, the sun was represented at Emesa in the + form of a great stone, which, as it appeared, had fallen from heaven. + Spanheim, Cæsar. notes, p. 46.—G. The name of Elagabalus, in + “nummis rarius legetur.” Rasche, Lex. Univ. Ref. Numm. Rasche quotes two.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.53" id="linknote-6.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. v. p. 190.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap06.3"></a> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + To this temple, as to the common centre of religious worship, the Imperial + fanatic attempted to remove the Ancilia, the Palladium, <a + href="#linknote-6.54" name="linknoteref-6.54" id="linknoteref-6.54">54</a> + and all the sacred pledges of the faith of Numa. A crowd of inferior + deities attended in various stations the majesty of the god of Emesa; but + his court was still imperfect, till a female of distinguished rank was + admitted to his bed. Pallas had been first chosen for his consort; but as + it was dreaded lest her warlike terrors might affright the soft delicacy + of a Syrian deity, the Moon, adored by the Africans under the name of + Astarte, was deemed a more suitable companion for the Sun. Her image, with + the rich offerings of her temple as a marriage portion, was transported + with solemn pomp from Carthage to Rome, and the day of these mystic + nuptials was a general festival in the capital and throughout the empire. + <a href="#linknote-6.55" name="linknoteref-6.55" id="linknoteref-6.55">55</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.54" id="linknote-6.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.54">return</a>)<br/> [ He broke into the + sanctuary of Vesta, and carried away a statue, which he supposed to be the + palladium; but the vestals boasted that, by a pious fraud, they had + imposed a counterfeit image on the profane intruder. Hist. August., p. + 103.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.55" id="linknote-6.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1360. + Herodian, l. v. p. 193. The subjects of the empire were obliged to make + liberal presents to the new married couple; and whatever they had promised + during the life of Elagabalus was carefully exacted under the + administration of Mamæa.] + </p> + <p> + A rational voluptuary adheres with invariable respect to the temperate + dictates of nature, and improves the gratifications of sense by social + intercourse, endearing connections, and the soft coloring of taste and the + imagination. But Elagabalus, (I speak of the emperor of that name,) + corrupted by his youth, his country, and his fortune, abandoned himself to + the grossest pleasures with ungoverned fury, and soon found disgust and + satiety in the midst of his enjoyments. The inflammatory powers of art + were summoned to his aid: the confused multitude of women, of wines, and + of dishes, and the studied variety of attitude and sauces, served to + revive his languid appetites. New terms and new inventions in these + sciences, the only ones cultivated and patronized by the monarch, <a + href="#linknote-6.56" name="linknoteref-6.56" id="linknoteref-6.56">56</a> + signalized his reign, and transmitted his infamy to succeeding times. A + capricious prodigality supplied the want of taste and elegance; and whilst + Elagabalus lavished away the treasures of his people in the wildest + extravagance, his own voice and that of his flatterers applauded a spirit + of magnificence unknown to the tameness of his predecessors. To confound + the order of seasons and climates, <a href="#linknote-6.57" + name="linknoteref-6.57" id="linknoteref-6.57">57</a> to sport with the + passions and prejudices of his subjects, and to subvert every law of + nature and decency, were in the number of his most delicious amusements. A + long train of concubines, and a rapid succession of wives, among whom was + a vestal virgin, ravished by force from her sacred asylum, <a + href="#linknote-6.58" name="linknoteref-6.58" id="linknoteref-6.58">58</a> + were insufficient to satisfy the impotence of his passions. The master of + the Roman world affected to copy the dress and manners of the female sex, + preferred the distaff to the sceptre, and dishonored the principal + dignities of the empire by distributing them among his numerous lovers; + one of whom was publicly invested with the title and authority of the + emperor’s, or, as he more properly styled himself, of the empress’s + husband. <a href="#linknote-6.59" name="linknoteref-6.59" + id="linknoteref-6.59">59</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.56" id="linknote-6.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.56">return</a>)<br/> [ The invention of a new + sauce was liberally rewarded; but if it was not relished, the inventor was + confined to eat of nothing else till he had discovered another more + agreeable to the Imperial palate Hist. August. p. 111.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.57" id="linknote-6.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.57">return</a>)<br/> [ He never would eat + sea-fish except at a great distance from the sea; he then would distribute + vast quantities of the rarest sorts, brought at an immense expense, to the + peasants of the inland country. Hist. August. p. 109.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.58" id="linknote-6.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1358. + Herodian, l. v. p. 192.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.59" id="linknote-6.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Hierocles enjoyed that + honor; but he would have been supplanted by one Zoticus, had he not + contrived, by a potion, to enervate the powers of his rival, who, being + found on trial unequal to his reputation, was driven with ignominy from + the palace. Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1363, 1364. A dancer was made præfect of + the city, a charioteer præfect of the watch, a barber præfect of the + provisions. These three ministers, with many inferior officers, were all + recommended enormitate membrorum. Hist. August. p. 105.] + </p> + <p> + It may seem probable, the vices and follies of Elagabalus have been + adorned by fancy, and blackened by prejudice. <a href="#linknote-6.60" + name="linknoteref-6.60" id="linknoteref-6.60">60</a> Yet, confining + ourselves to the public scenes displayed before the Roman people, and + attested by grave and contemporary historians, their inexpressible infamy + surpasses that of any other age or country. The license of an eastern + monarch is secluded from the eye of curiosity by the inaccessible walls of + his seraglio. The sentiments of honor and gallantry have introduced a + refinement of pleasure, a regard for decency, and a respect for the public + opinion, into the modern courts of Europe; <a href="#linknote-6.601" + name="linknoteref-6.601" id="linknoteref-6.601">601</a> but the corrupt and + opulent nobles of Rome gratified every vice that could be collected from + the mighty conflux of nations and manners. Secure of impunity, careless of + censure, they lived without restraint in the patient and humble society of + their slaves and parasites. The emperor, in his turn, viewing every rank + of his subjects with the same contemptuous indifference, asserted without + control his sovereign privilege of lust and luxury. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.60" id="linknote-6.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Even the credulous + compiler of his life, in the Augustan History (p. 111) is inclined to + suspect that his vices may have been exaggerated.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.601" id="linknote-6.601"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 601 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.601">return</a>)<br/> [ Wenck has justly + observed that Gibbon should have reckoned the influence of Christianity in + this great change. In the most savage times, and the most corrupt courts, + since the introduction of Christianity there have been no Neros or + Domitians, no Commodus or Elagabalus.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The most worthless of mankind are not afraid to condemn in others the same + disorders which they allow in themselves; and can readily discover some + nice difference of age, character, or station, to justify the partial + distinction. The licentious soldiers, who had raised to the throne the + dissolute son of Caracalla, blushed at their ignominious choice, and + turned with disgust from that monster, to contemplate with pleasure the + opening virtues of his cousin Alexander, the son of Mamæa. The crafty + Mæsa, sensible that her grandson Elagabalus must inevitably destroy + himself by his own vices, had provided another and surer support of her + family. Embracing a favorable moment of fondness and devotion, she had + persuaded the young emperor to adopt Alexander, and to invest him with the + title of Cæsar, that his own divine occupations might be no longer + interrupted by the care of the earth. In the second rank that amiable + prince soon acquired the affections of the public, and excited the + tyrant’s jealousy, who resolved to terminate the dangerous competition, + either by corrupting the manners, or by taking away the life, of his + rival. His arts proved unsuccessful; his vain designs were constantly + discovered by his own loquacious folly, and disappointed by those virtuous + and faithful servants whom the prudence of Mamæa had placed about the + person of her son. In a hasty sally of passion, Elagabalus resolved to + execute by force what he had been unable to compass by fraud, and by a + despotic sentence degraded his cousin from the rank and honors of Cæsar. + The message was received in the senate with silence, and in the camp with + fury. The Prætorian guards swore to protect Alexander, and to revenge the + dishonored majesty of the throne. The tears and promises of the trembling + Elagabalus, who only begged them to spare his life, and to leave him in + the possession of his beloved Hierocles, diverted their just indignation; + and they contented themselves with empowering their præfects to watch + over the safety of Alexander, and the conduct of the emperor. <a + href="#linknote-6.61" name="linknoteref-6.61" id="linknoteref-6.61">61</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.61" id="linknote-6.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxix. p. 1365. + Herodian, l. v. p. 195—201. Hist. August. p. 105. The last of the + three historians seems to have followed the best authors in his account of + the revolution.] + </p> + <p> + It was impossible that such a reconciliation should last, or that even the + mean soul of Elagabalus could hold an empire on such humiliating terms of + dependence. He soon attempted, by a dangerous experiment, to try the + temper of the soldiers. The report of the death of Alexander, and the + natural suspicion that he had been murdered, inflamed their passions into + fury, and the tempest of the camp could only be appeased by the presence + and authority of the popular youth. Provoked at this new instance of their + affection for his cousin, and their contempt for his person, the emperor + ventured to punish some of the leaders of the mutiny. His unseasonable + severity proved instantly fatal to his minions, his mother, and himself. + Elagabalus was massacred by the indignant Prætorians, his mutilated + corpse dragged through the streets of the city, and thrown into the Tiber. + His memory was branded with eternal infamy by the senate; the justice of + whose decree has been ratified by posterity. <a href="#linknote-6.62" + name="linknoteref-6.62" id="linknoteref-6.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.62" id="linknote-6.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.62">return</a>)<br/> [ The æra of the death of + Elagabalus, and of the accession of Alexander, has employed the learning + and ingenuity of Pagi, Tillemont, Valsecchi, Vignoli, and Torre, bishop of + Adria. The question is most assuredly intricate; but I still adhere to the + authority of Dion, the truth of whose calculations is undeniable, and the + purity of whose text is justified by the agreement of Xiphilin, Zonaras, + and Cedrenus. Elagabalus reigned three years nine months and four days, + from his victory over Macrinus, and was killed March 10, 222. But what + shall we reply to the medals, undoubtedly genuine, which reckon the fifth + year of his tribunitian power? We shall reply, with the learned Valsecchi, + that the usurpation of Macrinus was annihilated, and that the son of + Caracalla dated his reign from his father’s death? After resolving this + great difficulty, the smaller knots of this question may be easily untied, + or cut asunder. Note: This opinion of Valsecchi has been triumphantly + contested by Eckhel, who has shown the impossibility of reconciling it + with the medals of Elagabalus, and has given the most satisfactory + explanation of the five tribunates of that emperor. He ascended the throne + and received the tribunitian power the 16th of May, in the year of Rome + 971; and on the 1st January of the next year, 972, he began a new + tribunate, according to the custom established by preceding emperors. + During the years 972, 973, 974, he enjoyed the tribunate, and commenced + his fifth in the year 975, during which he was killed on the 10th March. + Eckhel de Doct. Num. viii. 430 &c.—G.] + </p> + <p> + In the room of Elagabalus, his cousin Alexander was raised to the throne + by the Prætorian guards. His relation to the family of Severus, whose + name he assumed, was the same as that of his predecessor; his virtue and + his danger had already endeared him to the Romans, and the eager + liberality of the senate conferred upon him, in one day, the various + titles and powers of the Imperial dignity. <a href="#linknote-6.63" + name="linknoteref-6.63" id="linknoteref-6.63">63</a> But as Alexander was a + modest and dutiful youth, of only seventeen years of age, the reins of + government were in the hands of two women, of his mother, Mamæa, and of + Mæsa, his grandmother. After the death of the latter, who survived but a + short time the elevation of Alexander, Mamæa remained the sole regent of + her son and of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.63" id="linknote-6.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 114. By + this unusual precipitation, the senate meant to confound the hopes of + pretenders, and prevent the factions of the armies.] + </p> + <p> + In every age and country, the wiser, or at least the stronger, of the two + sexes, has usurped the powers of the state, and confined the other to the + cares and pleasures of domestic life. In hereditary monarchies, however, + and especially in those of modern Europe, the gallant spirit of chivalry, + and the law of succession, have accustomed us to allow a singular + exception; and a woman is often acknowledged the absolute sovereign of a + great kingdom, in which she would be deemed incapable of exercising the + smallest employment, civil or military. But as the Roman emperors were + still considered as the generals and magistrates of the republic, their + wives and mothers, although distinguished by the name of Augusta, were + never associated to their personal honors; and a female reign would have + appeared an inexpiable prodigy in the eyes of those primitive Romans, who + married without love, or loved without delicacy and respect. <a + href="#linknote-6.64" name="linknoteref-6.64" id="linknoteref-6.64">64</a> + The haughty Agrippina aspired, indeed, to share the honors of the empire + which she had conferred on her son; but her mad ambition, detested by + every citizen who felt for the dignity of Rome, was disappointed by the + artful firmness of Seneca and Burrhus. <a href="#linknote-6.65" + name="linknoteref-6.65" id="linknoteref-6.65">65</a> The good sense, or the + indifference, of succeeding princes, restrained them from offending the + prejudices of their subjects; and it was reserved for the profligate + Elagabalus to discharge the acts of the senate with the name of his mother + Soæmias, who was placed by the side of the consuls, and subscribed, as a + regular member, the decrees of the legislative assembly. Her more prudent + sister, Mamæa, declined the useless and odious prerogative, and a solemn + law was enacted, excluding women forever from the senate, and devoting to + the infernal gods the head of the wretch by whom this sanction should be + violated. <a href="#linknote-6.66" name="linknoteref-6.66" + id="linknoteref-6.66">66</a> The substance, not the pageantry, of power + was the object of Mamæa’s manly ambition. She maintained an absolute and + lasting empire over the mind of her son, and in his affection the mother + could not brook a rival. Alexander, with her consent, married the daughter + of a patrician; but his respect for his father-in-law, and love for the + empress, were inconsistent with the tenderness of interest of Mamæa. The + patrician was executed on the ready accusation of treason, and the wife of + Alexander driven with ignominy from the palace, and banished into Africa. + <a href="#linknote-6.67" name="linknoteref-6.67" id="linknoteref-6.67">67</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.64" id="linknote-6.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Metellus Numidicus, the + censor, acknowledged to the Roman people, in a public oration, that had + kind nature allowed us to exist without the help of women, we should be + delivered from a very troublesome companion; and he could recommend + matrimony only as the sacrifice of private pleasure to public duty. Aulus + Gellius, i. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.65" id="linknote-6.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.66" id="linknote-6.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 102, + 107.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.67" id="linknote-6.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxx. p. 1369. + Herodian, l. vi. p. 206. Hist. August. p. 131. Herodian represents the + patrician as innocent. The Augustian History, on the authority of + Dexippus, condemns him, as guilty of a conspiracy against the life of + Alexander. It is impossible to pronounce between them; but Dion is an + irreproachable witness of the jealousy and cruelty of Mamæa towards the + young empress, whose hard fate Alexander lamented, but durst not oppose.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding this act of jealous cruelty, as well as some instances of + avarice, with which Mamæa is charged, the general tenor of her + administration was equally for the benefit of her son and of the empire. + With the approbation of the senate, she chose sixteen of the wisest and + most virtuous senators as a perpetual council of state, before whom every + public business of moment was debated and determined. The celebrated + Ulpian, equally distinguished by his knowledge of, and his respect for, + the laws of Rome, was at their head; and the prudent firmness of this + aristocracy restored order and authority to the government. As soon as + they had purged the city from foreign superstition and luxury, the remains + of the capricious tyranny of Elagabalus, they applied themselves to remove + his worthless creatures from every department of the public + administration, and to supply their places with men of virtue and ability. + Learning, and the love of justice, became the only recommendations for + civil offices; valor, and the love of discipline, the only qualifications + for military employments. <a href="#linknote-6.68" name="linknoteref-6.68" + id="linknoteref-6.68">68</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.68" id="linknote-6.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vi. p. 203. + Hist. August. p. 119. The latter insinuates, that when any law was to be + passed, the council was assisted by a number of able lawyers and + experienced senators, whose opinions were separately given, and taken down + in writing.] + </p> + <p> + But the most important care of Mamæa and her wise counsellors, was to + form the character of the young emperor, on whose personal qualities the + happiness or misery of the Roman world must ultimately depend. The + fortunate soil assisted, and even prevented, the hand of cultivation. An + excellent understanding soon convinced Alexander of the advantages of + virtue, the pleasure of knowledge, and the necessity of labor. A natural + mildness and moderation of temper preserved him from the assaults of + passion, and the allurements of vice. His unalterable regard for his + mother, and his esteem for the wise Ulpian, guarded his unexperienced + youth from the poison of flattery. <a href="#linknote-6.581" + name="linknoteref-6.581" id="linknoteref-6.581">581</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.581" id="linknote-6.581"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 581 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.581">return</a>)<br/> [ Alexander received + into his chapel all the religions which prevailed in the empire; he + admitted Jesus Christ, Abraham, Orpheus, Apollonius of Tyana, &c. It + was almost certain that his mother Mamæa had instructed him in the + morality of Christianity. Historians in general agree in calling her a + Christian; there is reason to believe that she had begun to have a taste + for the principles of Christianity. (See Tillemont, Alexander Severus) + Gibbon has not noticed this circumstance; he appears to have wished to + lower the character of this empress; he has throughout followed the + narrative of Herodian, who, by the acknowledgment of Capitolinus himself, + detested Alexander. Without believing the exaggerated praises of + Lampridius, he ought not to have followed the unjust severity of Herodian, + and, above all, not to have forgotten to say that the virtuous Alexander + Severus had insured to the Jews the preservation of their privileges, and + permitted the exercise of Christianity. Hist. Aug. p. 121. The Christians + had established their worship in a public place, of which the victuallers + (cauponarii) claimed, not the property, but possession by custom. + Alexander answered, that it was better that the place should be used for + the service of God, in any form, than for victuallers.—G. I have + scrupled to omit this note, as it contains some points worthy of notice; + but it is very unjust to Gibbon, who mentions almost all the + circumstances, which he is accused of omitting, in another, and, according + to his plan, a better place, and, perhaps, in stronger terms than M. + Guizot. See Chap. xvi.— M.] + </p> + <p> + The simple journal of his ordinary occupations exhibits a pleasing picture + of an accomplished emperor, <a href="#linknote-6.69" name="linknoteref-6.69" + id="linknoteref-6.69">69</a> and, with some allowance for the difference of + manners, might well deserve the imitation of modern princes. Alexander + rose early: the first moments of the day were consecrated to private + devotion, and his domestic chapel was filled with the images of those + heroes, who, by improving or reforming human life, had deserved the + grateful reverence of posterity. But as he deemed the service of mankind + the most acceptable worship of the gods, the greatest part of his morning + hours was employed in his council, where he discussed public affairs, and + determined private causes, with a patience and discretion above his years. + The dryness of business was relieved by the charms of literature; and a + portion of time was always set apart for his favorite studies of poetry, + history, and philosophy. The works of Virgil and Horace, the republics of + Plato and Cicero, formed his taste, enlarged his understanding, and gave + him the noblest ideas of man and government. The exercises of the body + succeeded to those of the mind; and Alexander, who was tall, active, and + robust, surpassed most of his equals in the gymnastic arts. Refreshed by + the use of the bath and a slight dinner, he resumed, with new vigor, the + business of the day; and, till the hour of supper, the principal meal of + the Romans, he was attended by his secretaries, with whom he read and + answered the multitude of letters, memorials, and petitions, that must + have been addressed to the master of the greatest part of the world. His + table was served with the most frugal simplicity, and whenever he was at + liberty to consult his own inclination, the company consisted of a few + select friends, men of learning and virtue, amongst whom Ulpian was + constantly invited. Their conversation was familiar and instructive; and + the pauses were occasionally enlivened by the recital of some pleasing + composition, which supplied the place of the dancers, comedians, and even + gladiators, so frequently summoned to the tables of the rich and luxurious + Romans. <a href="#linknote-6.70" name="linknoteref-6.70" id="linknoteref-6.70">70</a> + The dress of Alexander was plain and modest, his demeanor courteous and + affable: at the proper hours his palace was open to all his subjects, but + the voice of a crier was heard, as in the Eleusinian mysteries, + pronouncing the same salutary admonition: “Let none enter these holy + walls, unless he is conscious of a pure and innocent mind.” <a + href="#linknote-6.71" name="linknoteref-6.71" id="linknoteref-6.71">71</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.69" id="linknote-6.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.69">return</a>)<br/> [ See his life in the + Augustan History. The undistinguishing compiler has buried these + interesting anecdotes under a load of trivial unmeaning circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.70" id="linknote-6.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.70">return</a>)<br/> [ See the 13th Satire of + Juvenal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.71" id="linknote-6.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 119.] + </p> + <p> + Such a uniform tenor of life, which left not a moment for vice or folly, + is a better proof of the wisdom and justice of Alexander’s government, + than all the trifling details preserved in the compilation of Lampridius. + Since the accession of Commodus, the Roman world had experienced, during + the term of forty years, the successive and various vices of four tyrants. + From the death of Elagabalus, it enjoyed an auspicious calm of thirteen + years. <a href="#linknote-6.711" name="linknoteref-6.711" + id="linknoteref-6.711">711</a> The provinces, relieved from the oppressive + taxes invented by Caracalla and his pretended son, flourished in peace and + prosperity, under the administration of magistrates who were convinced by + experience that to deserve the love of the subjects was their best and + only method of obtaining the favor of their sovereign. While some gentle + restraints were imposed on the innocent luxury of the Roman people, the + price of provisions and the interest of money, were reduced by the + paternal care of Alexander, whose prudent liberality, without distressing + the industrious, supplied the wants and amusements of the populace. The + dignity, the freedom, the authority of the senate was restored; and every + virtuous senator might approach the person of the emperor without a fear + and without a blush. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.711" id="linknote-6.711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 711 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.711">return</a>)<br/> [ Wenck observes that + Gibbon, enchanted with the virtue of Alexander has heightened, + particularly in this sentence, its effect on the state of the world. His + own account, which follows, of the insurrections and foreign wars, is not + in harmony with this beautiful picture.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The name of Antoninus, ennobled by the virtues of Pius and Marcus, had + been communicated by adoption to the dissolute Verus, and by descent to + the cruel Commodus. It became the honorable appellation of the sons of + Severus, was bestowed on young Diadumenianus, and at length prostituted to + the infamy of the high priest of Emesa. Alexander, though pressed by the + studied, and, perhaps, sincere importunity of the senate, nobly refused + the borrowed lustre of a name; whilst in his whole conduct he labored to + restore the glories and felicity of the age of the genuine Antonines. <a + href="#linknote-6.72" name="linknoteref-6.72" id="linknoteref-6.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.72" id="linknote-6.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.72">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in the Hist. + August. p. 116, 117, the whole contest between Alexander and the senate, + extracted from the journals of that assembly. It happened on the sixth of + March, probably of the year 223, when the Romans had enjoyed, almost a + twelvemonth, the blessings of his reign. Before the appellation of + Antoninus was offered him as a title of honor, the senate waited to see + whether Alexander would not assume it as a family name.] + </p> + <p> + In the civil administration of Alexander, wisdom was enforced by power, + and the people, sensible of the public felicity, repaid their benefactor + with their love and gratitude. There still remained a greater, a more + necessary, but a more difficult enterprise; the reformation of the + military order, whose interest and temper, confirmed by long impunity, + rendered them impatient of the restraints of discipline, and careless of + the blessings of public tranquillity. In the execution of his design, the + emperor affected to display his love, and to conceal his fear of the army. + The most rigid economy in every other branch of the administration + supplied a fund of gold and silver for the ordinary pay and the + extraordinary rewards of the troops. In their marches he relaxed the + severe obligation of carrying seventeen days’ provision on their + shoulders. Ample magazines were formed along the public roads, and as soon + as they entered the enemy’s country, a numerous train of mules and camels + waited on their haughty laziness. As Alexander despaired of correcting the + luxury of his soldiers, he attempted, at least, to direct it to objects of + martial pomp and ornament, fine horses, splendid armor, and shields + enriched with silver and gold. He shared whatever fatigues he was obliged + to impose, visited, in person, the sick and wounded, preserved an exact + register of their services and his own gratitude, and expressed on every + occasion, the warmest regard for a body of men, whose welfare, as he + affected to declare, was so closely connected with that of the state. <a + href="#linknote-6.73" name="linknoteref-6.73" id="linknoteref-6.73">73</a> By + the most gentle arts he labored to inspire the fierce multitude with a + sense of duty, and to restore at least a faint image of that discipline to + which the Romans owed their empire over so many other nations, as warlike + and more powerful than themselves. But his prudence was vain, his courage + fatal, and the attempt towards a reformation served only to inflame the + ills it was meant to cure. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.73" id="linknote-6.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.73">return</a>)<br/> [ It was a favorite saying + of the emperor’s Se milites magis servare, quam seipsum, quod salus + publica in his esset. Hist. Aug. p. 130.] + </p> + <p> + The Prætorian guards were attached to the youth of Alexander. They loved + him as a tender pupil, whom they had saved from a tyrant’s fury, and + placed on the Imperial throne. That amiable prince was sensible of the + obligation; but as his gratitude was restrained within the limits of + reason and justice, they soon were more dissatisfied with the virtues of + Alexander, than they had ever been with the vices of Elagabalus. Their + præfect, the wise Ulpian, was the friend of the laws and of the people; + he was considered as the enemy of the soldiers, and to his pernicious + counsels every scheme of reformation was imputed. Some trifling accident + blew up their discontent into a furious mutiny; and the civil war raged, + during three days, in Rome, whilst the life of that excellent minister was + defended by the grateful people. Terrified, at length, by the sight of + some houses in flames, and by the threats of a general conflagration, the + people yielded with a sigh, and left the virtuous but unfortunate Ulpian + to his fate. He was pursued into the Imperial palace, and massacred at the + feet of his master, who vainly strove to cover him with the purple, and to + obtain his pardon from the inexorable soldiers. <a href="#linknote-6.731" + name="linknoteref-6.731" id="linknoteref-6.731">731</a> Such was the + deplorable weakness of government, that the emperor was unable to revenge + his murdered friend and his insulted dignity, without stooping to the arts + of patience and dissimulation. Epagathus, the principal leader of the + mutiny, was removed from Rome, by the honorable employment of præfect of + Egypt: from that high rank he was gently degraded to the government of + Crete; and when at length, his popularity among the guards was effaced by + time and absence, Alexander ventured to inflict the tardy but deserved + punishment of his crimes. <a href="#linknote-6.74" name="linknoteref-6.74" + id="linknoteref-6.74">74</a> Under the reign of a just and virtuous prince, + the tyranny of the army threatened with instant death his most faithful + ministers, who were suspected of an intention to correct their intolerable + disorders. The historian Dion Cassius had commanded the Pannonian legions + with the spirit of ancient discipline. Their brethren of Rome, embracing + the common cause of military license, demanded the head of the reformer. + Alexander, however, instead of yielding to their seditious clamors, showed + a just sense of his merit and services, by appointing him his colleague in + the consulship, and defraying from his own treasury the expense of that + vain dignity: but as was justly apprehended, that if the soldiers beheld + him with the ensigns of his office, they would revenge the insult in his + blood, the nominal first magistrate of the state retired, by the emperor’s + advice, from the city, and spent the greatest part of his consulship at + his villas in Campania. <a href="#linknote-6.75" name="linknoteref-6.75" + id="linknoteref-6.75">75</a> <a href="#linknote-6.751" + name="linknoteref-6.751" id="linknoteref-6.751">751</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.731" id="linknote-6.731"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 731 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.731">return</a>)<br/> [ Gibbon has confounded + two events altogether different— the quarrel of the people with the + Prætorians, which lasted three days, and the assassination of Ulpian by + the latter. Dion relates first the death of Ulpian, afterwards, reverting + back according to a manner which is usual with him, he says that during + the life of Ulpian, there had been a war of three days between the + Prætorians and the people. But Ulpian was not the cause. Dion says, on + the contrary, that it was occasioned by some unimportant circumstance; + whilst he assigns a weighty reason for the murder of Ulpian, the judgment + by which that Prætorian præfect had condemned his predecessors, Chrestus + and Flavian, to death, whom the soldiers wished to revenge. Zosimus (l. 1, + c. xi.) attributes this sentence to Mamæra; but, even then, the troops + might have imputed it to Ulpian, who had reaped all the advantage and was + otherwise odious to them.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.74" id="linknote-6.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Though the author of the + life of Alexander (Hist. August. p. 182) mentions the sedition raised + against Ulpian by the soldiers, he conceals the catastrophe, as it might + discover a weakness in the administration of his hero. From this designed + omission, we may judge of the weight and candor of that author.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.75" id="linknote-6.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.75">return</a>)<br/> [ For an account of + Ulpian’s fate and his own danger, see the mutilated conclusion of Dion’s + History, l. lxxx. p. 1371.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.751" id="linknote-6.751"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 751 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.751">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion possessed no + estates in Campania, and was not rich. He only says that the emperor + advised him to reside, during his consulate, in some place out of Rome; + that he returned to Rome after the end of his consulate, and had an + interview with the emperor in Campania. He asked and obtained leave to + pass the rest of his life in his native city, (Nice, in Bithynia: ) it was + there that he finished his history, which closes with his second + consulship.—W.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap06.4"></a> + Chapter VI: Death Of Severus, Tyranny Of Caracalla, Usurpation Of + Marcinus.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The lenity of the emperor confirmed the insolence of the troops; the + legions imitated the example of the guards, and defended their prerogative + of licentiousness with the same furious obstinacy. The administration of + Alexander was an unavailing struggle against the corruption of his age. In + llyricum, in Mauritania, in Armenia, in Mesopotamia, in Germany, fresh + mutinies perpetually broke out; his officers were murdered, his authority + was insulted, and his life at last sacrificed to the fierce discontents of + the army. <a href="#linknote-6.76" name="linknoteref-6.76" + id="linknoteref-6.76">76</a> One particular fact well deserves to be + recorded, as it illustrates the manners of the troops, and exhibits a + singular instance of their return to a sense of duty and obedience. Whilst + the emperor lay at Antioch, in his Persian expedition, the particulars of + which we shall hereafter relate, the punishment of some soldiers, who had + been discovered in the baths of women, excited a sedition in the legion to + which they belonged. Alexander ascended his tribunal, and with a modest + firmness represented to the armed multitude the absolute necessity, as + well as his inflexible resolution, of correcting the vices introduced by + his impure predecessor, and of maintaining the discipline, which could not + be relaxed without the ruin of the Roman name and empire. Their clamors + interrupted his mild expostulation. “Reserve your shout,” said the + undaunted emperor, “till you take the field against the Persians, the + Germans, and the Sarmatians. Be silent in the presence of your sovereign + and benefactor, who bestows upon you the corn, the clothing, and the money + of the provinces. Be silent, or I shall no longer style you solders, but + <i>citizens</i>, <a href="#linknote-6.77" name="linknoteref-6.77" + id="linknoteref-6.77">77</a> if those indeed who disclaim the laws of Rome + deserve to be ranked among the meanest of the people.” His menaces + inflamed the fury of the legion, and their brandished arms already + threatened his person. “Your courage,” resumed the intrepid Alexander, + “would be more nobly displayed in the field of battle; <i>me</i> you may destroy, + you cannot intimidate; and the severe justice of the republic would punish + your crime and revenge my death.” The legion still persisted in clamorous + sedition, when the emperor pronounced, with a loud voice, the decisive + sentence, “<i>Citizens!</i> lay down your arms, and depart in peace to your + respective habitations.” The tempest was instantly appeased: the soldiers, + filled with grief and shame, silently confessed the justice of their + punishment, and the power of discipline, yielded up their arms and + military ensigns, and retired in confusion, not to their camp, but to the + several inns of the city. Alexander enjoyed, during thirty days, the + edifying spectacle of their repentance; nor did he restore them to their + former rank in the army, till he had punished with death those tribunes + whose connivance had occasioned the mutiny. The grateful legion served the + emperor whilst living, and revenged him when dead. <a href="#linknote-6.78" + name="linknoteref-6.78" id="linknoteref-6.78">78</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.76" id="linknote-6.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.76">return</a>)<br/> [ Annot. Reimar. ad Dion + Cassius, l. lxxx. p. 1369.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.77" id="linknote-6.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Julius Cæsar had + appeased a sedition with the same word, Quirites; which, thus opposed to + soldiers, was used in a sense of contempt, and reduced the offenders to + the less honorable condition of mere citizens. Tacit. Annal. i. 43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.78" id="linknote-6.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 132.] + </p> + <p> + The resolutions of the multitude generally depend on a moment; and the + caprice of passion might equally determine the seditious legion to lay + down their arms at the emperor’s feet, or to plunge them into his breast. + Perhaps, if this singular transaction had been investigated by the + penetration of a philosopher, we should discover the secret causes which + on that occasion authorized the boldness of the prince, and commanded the + obedience of the troops; and perhaps, if it had been related by a + judicious historian, we should find this action, worthy of Cæsar himself, + reduced nearer to the level of probability and the common standard of the + character of Alexander Severus. The abilities of that amiable prince seem + to have been inadequate to the difficulties of his situation, the firmness + of his conduct inferior to the purity of his intentions. His virtues, as + well as the vices of Elagabalus, contracted a tincture of weakness and + effeminacy from the soft climate of Syria, of which he was a native; + though he blushed at his foreign origin, and listened with a vain + complacency to the flattering genealogists, who derived his race from the + ancient stock of Roman nobility. <a href="#linknote-6.79" + name="linknoteref-6.79" id="linknoteref-6.79">79</a> The pride and avarice + of his mother cast a shade on the glories of his reign; and by exacting + from his riper years the same dutiful obedience which she had justly + claimed from his unexperienced youth, Mamæa exposed to public ridicule + both her son’s character and her own. <a href="#linknote-6.80" + name="linknoteref-6.80" id="linknoteref-6.80">80</a> The fatigues of the + Persian war irritated the military discontent; the unsuccessful event <a + href="#linknote-6.801" name="linknoteref-6.801" id="linknoteref-6.801">801</a> + degraded the reputation of the emperor as a general, and even as a + soldier. Every cause prepared, and every circumstance hastened, a + revolution, which distracted the Roman empire with a long series of + intestine calamities. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.79" id="linknote-6.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.79">return</a>)<br/> [ From the Metelli. Hist. + August. p. 119. The choice was judicious. In one short period of twelve + years, the Metelli could reckon seven consulships and five triumphs. See + Velleius Paterculus, ii. 11, and the Fasti.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.80" id="linknote-6.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.80">return</a>)<br/> [ The life of Alexander, + in the Augustan History, is the mere idea of a perfect prince, an awkward + imitation of the Cyropædia. The account of his reign, as given by + Herodian, is rational and moderate, consistent with the general history of + the age; and, in some of the most invidious particulars, confirmed by the + decisive fragments of Dion. Yet from a very paltry prejudice, the greater + number of our modern writers abuse Herodian, and copy the Augustan + History. See Mess de Tillemont and Wotton. From the opposite prejudice, + the emperor Julian (in Cæsarib. p. 315) dwells with a visible + satisfaction on the effeminate weakness of the Syrian, and the ridiculous + avarice of his mother.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.801" id="linknote-6.801"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 801 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.801">return</a>)<br/> [ Historians are divided + as to the success of the campaign against the Persians; Herodian alone + speaks of defeat. Lampridius, Eutropius, Victor, and others, say that it + was very glorious to Alexander; that he beat Artaxerxes in a great battle, + and repelled him from the frontiers of the empire. This much is certain, + that Alexander, on his return to Rome, (Lamp. Hist. Aug. c. 56, 133, 134,) + received the honors of a triumph, and that he said, in his oration to the + people. Quirites, vicimus Persas, milites divites reduximus, vobis + congiarium pollicemur, cras ludos circenses Persicos donabimus. Alexander, + says Eckhel, had too much modesty and wisdom to permit himself to receive + honors which ought only to be the reward of victory, if he had not + deserved them; he would have contented himself with dissembling his + losses. Eckhel, Doct. Num. vet. vii. 276. The medals represent him as in + triumph; one, among others, displays him crowned by Victory between two + rivers, the Euphrates and the Tigris. P. M. TR. P. xii. Cos. iii. PP. + Imperator paludatus D. hastam. S. parazonium, stat inter duos fluvios humi + jacentes, et ab accedente retro Victoria coronatur. Æ. max. mod. (Mus. + Reg. Gall.) Although Gibbon treats this question more in detail when he + speaks of the Persian monarchy, I have thought fit to place here what + contradicts his opinion.—G] + </p> + <p> + The dissolute tyranny of Commodus, the civil wars occasioned by his death, + and the new maxims of policy introduced by the house of Severus, had all + contributed to increase the dangerous power of the army, and to obliterate + the faint image of laws and liberty that was still impressed on the minds + of the Romans. The internal change, which undermined the foundations of + the empire, we have endeavored to explain with some degree of order and + perspicuity. The personal characters of the emperors, their victories, + laws, follies, and fortunes, can interest us no farther than as they are + connected with the general history of the Decline and Fall of the + monarchy. Our constant attention to that great object will not suffer us + to overlook a most important edict of Antoninus Caracalla, which + communicated to all the free inhabitants of the empire the name and + privileges of Roman citizens. His unbounded liberality flowed not, + however, from the sentiments of a generous mind; it was the sordid result + of avarice, and will naturally be illustrated by some observations on the + finances of that state, from the victorious ages of the commonwealth to + the reign of Alexander Severus. + </p> + <p> + The siege of Veii in Tuscany, the first considerable enterprise of the + Romans, was protracted to the tenth year, much less by the strength of + the place than by the unskilfulness of the besiegers. The unaccustomed + hardships of so many winter campaigns, at the distance of near twenty + miles from home, <a href="#linknote-6.81" name="linknoteref-6.81" + id="linknoteref-6.81">81</a> required more than common encouragements; and + the senate wisely prevented the clamors of the people, by the institution + of a regular pay for the soldiers, which was levied by a general tribute, + assessed according to an equitable proportion on the property of the + citizens. <a href="#linknote-6.82" name="linknoteref-6.82" + id="linknoteref-6.82">82</a> During more than two hundred years after the + conquest of Veii, the victories of the republic added less to the wealth + than to the power of Rome. The states of Italy paid their tribute in + military service only, and the vast force, both by sea and land, which + was exerted in the Punic wars, was maintained at the expense of the + Romans themselves. That high-spirited people (such is often the generous + enthusiasm of freedom) cheerfully submitted to the most excessive but + voluntary burdens, in the just confidence that they should speedily enjoy + the rich harvest of their labors. Their expectations were not + disappointed. In the course of a few years, the riches of Syracuse, of + Carthage, of Macedonia, and of Asia, were brought in triumph to Rome. The + treasures of Perseus alone amounted to near two millions sterling, and + the Roman people, the sovereign of so many nations, was forever delivered + from the weight of taxes. <a href="#linknote-6.83" name="linknoteref-6.83" + id="linknoteref-6.83">83</a> The increasing revenue of the provinces was + found sufficient to defray the ordinary establishment of war and + government, and the superfluous mass of gold and silver was deposited in + the temple of Saturn, and reserved for any unforeseen emergency of the + state. <a href="#linknote-6.84" name="linknoteref-6.84" + id="linknoteref-6.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.81" id="linknote-6.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.81">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the more + accurate Dionysius, the city itself was only a hundred stadia, or twelve + miles and a half, from Rome, though some out-posts might be advanced + farther on the side of Etruria. Nardini, in a professed treatise, has + combated the popular opinion and the authority of two popes, and has + removed Veii from Civita Castellana, to a little spot called Isola, in the + midway between Rome and the Lake Bracianno. * Note: See the interesting + account of the site and ruins of Veii in Sir W Gell’s topography of Rome + and its Vicinity. v. ii. p. 303.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.82" id="linknote-6.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.82">return</a>)<br/> [ See the 4th and 5th + books of Livy. In the Roman census, property, power, and taxation were + commensurate with each other.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.83" id="linknote-6.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + xxxiii. c. 3. Cicero de Offic. ii. 22. Plutarch, P. Æmil. p. 275.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.84" id="linknote-6.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.84">return</a>)<br/> [ See a fine description + of this accumulated wealth of ages in Phars. l. iii. v. 155, &c.] + </p> + <p> + History has never, perhaps, suffered a greater or more irreparable injury + than in the loss of the curious register <a href="#linknote-6.841" + name="linknoteref-6.841" id="linknoteref-6.841">841</a> bequeathed by + Augustus to the senate, in which that experienced prince so accurately + balanced the revenues and expenses of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-6.85" name="linknoteref-6.85" id="linknoteref-6.85">85</a> + Deprived of this clear and comprehensive estimate, we are reduced to + collect a few imperfect hints from such of the ancients as have + accidentally turned aside from the splendid to the more useful parts of + history. We are informed that, by the conquests of Pompey, the tributes of + Asia were raised from fifty to one hundred and thirty-five millions of + drachms; or about four millions and a half sterling. <a + href="#linknote-6.86" name="linknoteref-6.86" id="linknoteref-6.86">86</a> <a + href="#linknote-6.861" name="linknoteref-6.861" id="linknoteref-6.861">861</a> + Under the last and most indolent of the Ptolemies, the revenue of Egypt is + said to have amounted to twelve thousand five hundred talents; a sum + equivalent to more than two millions and a half of our money, but which + was afterwards considerably improved by the more exact economy of the + Romans, and the increase of the trade of Æthiopia and India. <a + href="#linknote-6.87" name="linknoteref-6.87" id="linknoteref-6.87">87</a> + Gaul was enriched by rapine, as Egypt was by commerce, and the tributes of + those two great provinces have been compared as nearly equal to each other + in value. <a href="#linknote-6.88" name="linknoteref-6.88" + id="linknoteref-6.88">88</a> The ten thousand Euboic or Phœnician talents, + about four millions sterling, <a href="#linknote-6.89" + name="linknoteref-6.89" id="linknoteref-6.89">89</a> which vanquished + Carthage was condemned to pay within the term of fifty years, were a + slight acknowledgment of the superiority of Rome, <a href="#linknote-6.90" + name="linknoteref-6.90" id="linknoteref-6.90">90</a> and cannot bear the + least proportion with the taxes afterwards raised both on the lands and on + the persons of the inhabitants, when the fertile coast of Africa was + reduced into a province. <a href="#linknote-6.91" name="linknoteref-6.91" + id="linknoteref-6.91">91</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.841" id="linknote-6.841"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 841 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.841">return</a>)<br/> [ See Rationarium + imperii. Compare besides Tacitus, Suet. Aug. c. ult. Dion, p. 832. Other + emperors kept and published similar registers. See a dissertation of Dr. + Wolle, de Rationario imperii Rom. Leipsig, 1773. The last book of Appian + also contained the statistics of the Roman empire, but it is lost.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.85" id="linknote-6.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. in Annal. i. ll. + It seems to have existed in the time of Appian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.86" id="linknote-6.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.86">return</a>)<br/> [ Plutarch, in Pompeio, p. + 642.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.861" id="linknote-6.861"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 861 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.861">return</a>)<br/> [ Wenck contests the + accuracy of Gibbon’s version of Plutarch, and supposes that Pompey only + raised the revenue from 50,000,000 to 85,000,000 of drachms; but the text + of Plutarch seems clearly to mean that his conquests added 85,000,000 to + the ordinary revenue. Wenck adds, “Plutarch says in another part, that + Antony made Asia pay, at one time, 200,000 talents, that is to say, + 38,875,000 L. sterling.” But Appian explains this by saying that it was + the revenue of ten years, which brings the annual revenue, at the time of + Antony, to 3,875,000 L. sterling.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.87" id="linknote-6.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.87">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xvii. p. + 798.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.88" id="linknote-6.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Velleius Paterculus, l. + ii. c. 39. He seems to give the preference to the revenue of Gaul.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.89" id="linknote-6.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.89">return</a>)<br/> [ The Euboic, the + Phœnician, and the Alexandrian talents were double in weight to the + Attic. See Hooper on ancient weights and measures, p. iv. c. 5. It is very + probable that the same talent was carried from Tyre to Carthage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.90" id="linknote-6.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Polyb. l. xv. c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.91" id="linknote-6.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Appian in Punicis, p. + 84.] + </p> + <p> + Spain, by a very singular fatality, was the Peru and Mexico of the old + world. The discovery of the rich western continent by the Phœnicians, and + the oppression of the simple natives, who were compelled to labor in their + own mines for the benefit of strangers, form an exact type of the more + recent history of Spanish America. <a href="#linknote-6.92" + name="linknoteref-6.92" id="linknoteref-6.92">92</a> The Phœnicians were + acquainted only with the sea-coast of Spain; avarice, as well as ambition, + carried the arms of Rome and Carthage into the heart of the country, and + almost every part of the soil was found pregnant with copper, silver, and + gold. <a href="#linknote-6.921" name="linknoteref-6.921" + id="linknoteref-6.921">921</a> Mention is made of a mine near Carthagena + which yielded every day twenty-five thousand drachmns of silver, or about + three hundred thousand pounds a year. <a href="#linknote-6.93" + name="linknoteref-6.93" id="linknoteref-6.93">93</a> Twenty thousand pound + weight of gold was annually received from the provinces of Asturia, + Gallicia, and Lusitania. <a href="#linknote-6.94" name="linknoteref-6.94" + id="linknoteref-6.94">94</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.92" id="linknote-6.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodorus Siculus, l. 5. + Oadiz was built by the Phœnicians a little more than a thousand years + before Christ. See Vell. Pa ter. i.2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.921" id="linknote-6.921"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 921 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.921">return</a>)<br/> [ Compare Heeren’s + Researches vol. i. part ii. p.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.93" id="linknote-6.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.93">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. iii. p. 148.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.94" id="linknote-6.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.94">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. l. + xxxiii. c. 3. He mentions likewise a silver mine in Dalmatia, that yielded + every day fifty pounds to the state.] We want both leisure and materials + to pursue this curious inquiry through the many potent states that were + annihilated in the Roman empire. Some notion, however, may be formed of + the revenue of the provinces where considerable wealth had been deposited + by nature, or collected by man, if we observe the severe attention that + was directed to the abodes of solitude and sterility. Augustus once + received a petition from the inhabitants of Gyarus, humbly praying that + they might be relieved from one third of their excessive impositions. + Their whole tax amounted indeed to no more than one hundred and fifty + drachms, or about five pounds: but Gyarus was a little island, or rather a + rock, of the Ægean Sea, destitute of fresh water and every necessary of + life, and inhabited only by a few wretched fishermen. <a + href="#linknote-6.95" name="linknoteref-6.95" id="linknoteref-6.95">95</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.95" id="linknote-6.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.95">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. x. p. 485. + Tacit. Annal. iu. 69, and iv. 30. See Tournefort (Voyages au Levant, + Lettre viii.) a very lively picture of the actual misery of Gyarus.] + </p> + <p> + From the faint glimmerings of such doubtful and scattered lights, we + should be inclined to believe, 1st, That (with every fair allowance for + the differences of times and circumstances) the general income of the + Roman provinces could seldom amount to less than fifteen or twenty + millions of our money; <a href="#linknote-6.96" name="linknoteref-6.96" + id="linknoteref-6.96">96</a> and, 2dly, That so ample a revenue must have + been fully adequate to all the expenses of the moderate government + instituted by Augustus, whose court was the modest family of a private + senator, and whose military establishment was calculated for the defence + of the frontiers, without any aspiring views of conquest, or any serious + apprehension of a foreign invasion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.96" id="linknote-6.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.96">return</a>)<br/> [ Lipsius de magnitudine + Romana (l. ii. c. 3) computes the revenue at one hundred and fifty + millions of gold crowns; but his whole book, though learned and ingenious, + betrays a very heated imagination. Note: If Justus Lipsius has exaggerated + the revenue of the Roman empire Gibbon, on the other hand, has underrated + it. He fixes it at fifteen or twenty millions of our money. But if we take + only, on a moderate calculation, the taxes in the provinces which he has + already cited, they will amount, considering the augmentations made by + Augustus, to nearly that sum. There remain also the provinces of Italy, of + Rhætia, of Noricum, Pannonia, and Greece, &c., &c. Let us pay + attention, besides, to the prodigious expenditure of some emperors, (Suet. + Vesp. 16;) we shall see that such a revenue could not be sufficient. The + authors of the Universal History, part xii., assign forty millions + sterling as the sum to about which the public revenue might amount.—G. + from W.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the seeming probability of both these conclusions, the + latter of them at least is positively disowned by the language and conduct + of Augustus. It is not easy to determine whether, on this occasion, he + acted as the common father of the Roman world, or as the oppressor of + liberty; whether he wished to relieve the provinces, or to impoverish the + senate and the equestrian order. But no sooner had he assumed the reins of + government, than he frequently intimated the insufficiency of the + tributes, and the necessity of throwing an equitable proportion of the + public burden upon Rome and Italy. <a href="#linknote-6.961" + name="linknoteref-6.961" id="linknoteref-6.961">961</a> In the prosecution + of this unpopular design, he advanced, however, by cautious and + well-weighed steps. The introduction of customs was followed by the + establishment of an excise, and the scheme of taxation was completed by an + artful assessment on the real and personal property of the Roman citizens, + who had been exempted from any kind of contribution above a century and a + half. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.961" id="linknote-6.961"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 961 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.961">return</a>)<br/> [ It is not astonishing + that Augustus held this language. The senate declared also under Nero, + that the state could not exist without the imposts as well augmented as + founded by Augustus. Tac. Ann. xiii. 50. After the abolition of the + different tributes paid by Italy, an abolition which took place A. U. 646, + 694, and 695, the state derived no revenues from that great country, but + the twentieth part of the manumissions, (vicesima manumissionum,) and + Ciero laments this in many places, particularly in his epistles to ii. 15.—G. + from W.] + </p> + <p> + I. In a great empire like that of Rome, a natural balance of money must + have gradually established itself. It has been already observed, that as + the wealth of the provinces was attracted to the capital by the strong + hand of conquest and power, so a considerable part of it was restored to + the industrious provinces by the gentle influence of commerce and arts. In + the reign of Augustus and his successors, duties were imposed on every + kind of merchandise, which through a thousand channels flowed to the great + centre of opulence and luxury; and in whatsoever manner the law was + expressed, it was the Roman purchaser, and not the provincial merchant, + who paid the tax. <a href="#linknote-6.97" name="linknoteref-6.97" + id="linknoteref-6.97">97</a> The rate of the customs varied from the eighth + to the fortieth part of the value of the commodity; and we have a right to + suppose that the variation was directed by the unalterable maxims of + policy; that a higher duty was fixed on the articles of luxury than on + those of necessity, and that the productions raised or manufactured by the + labor of the subjects of the empire were treated with more indulgence than + was shown to the pernicious, or at least the unpopular, commerce of Arabia + and India. <a href="#linknote-6.98" name="linknoteref-6.98" + id="linknoteref-6.98">98</a> There is still extant a long but imperfect + catalogue of eastern commodities, which about the time of Alexander + Severus were subject to the payment of duties; cinnamon, myrrh, pepper, + ginger, and the whole tribe of aromatics; a great variety of precious + stones, among which the diamond was the most remarkable for its price, and + the emerald for its beauty; <a href="#linknote-6.99" name="linknoteref-6.99" + id="linknoteref-6.99">99</a> Parthian and Babylonian leather, cottons, + silks, both raw and manufactured, ebony ivory, and eunuchs. <a + href="#linknote-6.100" name="linknoteref-6.100" id="linknoteref-6.100">100</a> + We may observe that the use and value of those effeminate slaves gradually + rose with the decline of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.97" id="linknote-6.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. 31. + * Note: The customs (portoria) existed in the times of the ancient kings + of Rome. They were suppressed in Italy, A. U. 694, by the Prætor, + Cecilius Matellus Nepos. Augustus only reestablished them. See note above.—W.] + <a name="linknote-6.98" id="linknote-6.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.98">return</a>)<br/> [See Pliny, (Hist. Natur. + l. vi. c. 23, lxii. c. 18.) His observation that the Indian commodities + were sold at Rome at a hundred times their original price, may give us + some notion of the produce of the customs, since that original price + amounted to more than eight hundred thousand pounds.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.99" id="linknote-6.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.99">return</a>)<br/> [ The ancients were + unacquainted with the art of cutting diamonds.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.100" id="linknote-6.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.100">return</a>)<br/> [ M. Bouchaud, in his + treatise de l’Impot chez les Romains, has transcribed this catalogue from + the Digest, and attempts to illustrate it by a very prolix commentary. * + Note: In the Pandects, l. 39, t. 14, de Publican. Compare Cicero in + Verrem. c. 72—74.—W.] + </p> + <p> + II. The excise, introduced by Augustus after the civil wars, was extremely + moderate, but it was general. It seldom exceeded one <i>per cent</i>.; but it + comprehended whatever was sold in the markets or by public auction, from + the most considerable purchases of lands and houses, to those minute + objects which can only derive a value from their infinite multitude and + daily consumption. Such a tax, as it affects the body of the people, has + ever been the occasion of clamor and discontent. An emperor well + acquainted with the wants and resources of the state was obliged to + declare, by a public edict, that the support of the army depended in a + great measure on the produce of the excise. <a href="#linknote-6.101" + name="linknoteref-6.101" id="linknoteref-6.101">101</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.101" id="linknote-6.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.101">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. i. 78. + Two years afterwards, the reduction of the poor kingdom of Cappadocia gave + Tiberius a pretence for diminishing the excise of one half, but the relief + was of very short duration.] + </p> + <p> + III. When Augustus resolved to establish a permanent military force for + the defence of his government against foreign and domestic enemies, he + instituted a peculiar treasury for the pay of the soldiers, the rewards of + the veterans, and the extra-ordinary expenses of war. The ample revenue of + the excise, though peculiarly appropriated to those uses, was found + inadequate. To supply the deficiency, the emperor suggested a new tax of + five per cent. on all legacies and inheritances. But the nobles of Rome + were more tenacious of property than of freedom. Their indignant murmurs + were received by Augustus with his usual temper. He candidly referred the + whole business to the senate, and exhorted them to provide for the public + service by some other expedient of a less odious nature. They were divided + and perplexed. He insinuated to them, that their obstinacy would oblige + him to <i>propose</i> a general land tax and capitation. They acquiesced in + silence. <a href="#linknote-6.102" name="linknoteref-6.102" + id="linknoteref-6.102">102</a> The new imposition on legacies and + inheritances was, however, mitigated by some restrictions. It did not take + place unless the object was of a certain value, most probably of fifty or + a hundred pieces of gold; <a href="#linknote-6.103" name="linknoteref-6.103" + id="linknoteref-6.103">103</a> nor could it be exacted from the nearest of + kin on the father’s side. <a href="#linknote-6.104" name="linknoteref-6.104" + id="linknoteref-6.104">104</a> When the rights of nature and poverty were + thus secured, it seemed reasonable, that a stranger, or a distant + relation, who acquired an unexpected accession of fortune, should + cheerfully resign a twentieth part of it, for the benefit of the state. <a + href="#linknote-6.105" name="linknoteref-6.105" id="linknoteref-6.105">105</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.102" id="linknote-6.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lv. + p. 794, l. lvi. p. 825. Note: Dion neither mentions this proposition nor + the capitation. He only says that the emperor imposed a tax upon landed + property, and sent every where men employed to make a survey, without + fixing how much, and for how much each was to pay. The senators then + preferred giving the tax on legacies and inheritances.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.103" id="linknote-6.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.103">return</a>)<br/> [ The sum is only fixed + by conjecture.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.104" id="linknote-6.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.104">return</a>)<br/> [ As the Roman law + subsisted for many ages, the Cognati, or relations on the mother’s side, + were not called to the succession. This harsh institution was gradually + undermined by humanity, and finally abolished by Justinian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.105" id="linknote-6.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.105">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Panegyric. c. + 37.] + </p> + <p> + Such a tax, plentiful as it must prove in every wealthy community, was + most happily suited to the situation of the Romans, who could frame their + arbitrary wills, according to the dictates of reason or caprice, without + any restraint from the modern fetters of entails and settlements. From + various causes, the partiality of paternal affection often lost its + influence over the stern patriots of the commonwealth, and the dissolute + nobles of the empire; and if the father bequeathed to his son the fourth + part of his estate, he removed all ground of legal complaint. <a + href="#linknote-6.106" name="linknoteref-6.106" id="linknoteref-6.106">106</a> + But a rich childish old man was a domestic tyrant, and his power increased + with his years and infirmities. A servile crowd, in which he frequently + reckoned prætors and consuls, courted his smiles, pampered his avarice, + applauded his follies, served his passions, and waited with impatience for + his death. The arts of attendance and flattery were formed into a most + lucrative science; those who professed it acquired a peculiar appellation; + and the whole city, according to the lively descriptions of satire, was + divided between two parties, the hunters and their game. <a + href="#linknote-6.107" name="linknoteref-6.107" id="linknoteref-6.107">107</a> + Yet, while so many unjust and extravagant wills were every day dictated by + cunning and subscribed by folly, a few were the result of rational esteem + and virtuous gratitude. Cicero, who had so often defended the lives and + fortunes of his fellow-citizens, was rewarded with legacies to the amount + of a hundred and seventy thousand pounds; <a href="#linknote-6.108" + name="linknoteref-6.108" id="linknoteref-6.108">108</a> nor do the friends + of the younger Pliny seem to have been less generous to that amiable + orator. <a href="#linknote-6.109" name="linknoteref-6.109" + id="linknoteref-6.109">109</a> Whatever was the motive of the testator, the + treasury claimed, without distinction, the twentieth part of his estate: + and in the course of two or three generations, the whole property of the + subject must have gradually passed through the coffers of the state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.106" id="linknote-6.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.106">return</a>)<br/> [ See Heineccius in the + Antiquit. Juris Romani, l. ii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.107" id="linknote-6.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.107">return</a>)<br/> [ Horat. l. ii. Sat. v. + Potron. c. 116, &c. Plin. l. ii. Epist. 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.108" id="linknote-6.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero in Philip. ii. + c. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.109" id="linknote-6.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.109">return</a>)<br/> [ See his epistles. + Every such will gave him an occasion of displaying his reverence to the + dead, and his justice to the living. He reconciled both in his behavior to + a son who had been disinherited by his mother, (v.l.)] + </p> + <p> + In the first and golden years of the reign of Nero, that prince, from a + desire of popularity, and perhaps from a blind impulse of benevolence, + conceived a wish of abolishing the oppression of the customs and excise. + The wisest senators applauded his magnanimity: but they diverted him from + the execution of a design which would have dissolved the strength and + resources of the republic. <a href="#linknote-6.110" name="linknoteref-6.110" + id="linknoteref-6.110">110</a> Had it indeed been possible to realize this + dream of fancy, such princes as Trajan and the Antonines would surely have + embraced with ardor the glorious opportunity of conferring so signal an + obligation on mankind. Satisfied, however, with alleviating the public + burden, they attempted not to remove it. The mildness and precision of + their laws ascertained the rule and measure of taxation, and protected the + subject of every rank against arbitrary interpretations, antiquated + claims, and the insolent vexation of the farmers of the revenue. <a + href="#linknote-6.111" name="linknoteref-6.111" id="linknoteref-6.111">111</a> + For it is somewhat singular, that, in every age, the best and wisest of + the Roman governors persevered in this pernicious method of collecting the + principal branches at least of the excise and customs. <a + href="#linknote-6.112" name="linknoteref-6.112" id="linknoteref-6.112">112</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.110" id="linknote-6.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.110">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xiii. + 50. Esprit des Loix, l. xii. c. 19.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.111" id="linknote-6.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.111">return</a>)<br/> [ See Pliny’s Panegyric, + the Augustan History, and Burman de Vectigal. passim.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.112" id="linknote-6.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.112">return</a>)<br/> [ The tributes (properly + so called) were not farmed; since the good princes often remitted many + millions of arrears.] + </p> + <p> + The sentiments, and, indeed, the situation, of Caracalla were very + different from those of the Antonines. Inattentive, or rather averse, to + the welfare of his people, he found himself under the necessity of + gratifying the insatiate avarice which he had excited in the army. Of the + several impositions introduced by Augustus, the twentieth on inheritances + and legacies was the most fruitful, as well as the most comprehensive. As + its influence was not confined to Rome or Italy, the produce continually + increased with the gradual extension of the Roman City. The new citizens, + though charged, on equal terms, <a href="#linknote-6.113" + name="linknoteref-6.113" id="linknoteref-6.113">113</a> with the payment of + new taxes, which had not affected them as subjects, derived an ample + compensation from the rank they obtained, the privileges they acquired, + and the fair prospect of honors and fortune that was thrown open to their + ambition. But the favor which implied a distinction was lost in the + prodigality of Caracalla, and the reluctant provincials were compelled to + assume the vain title, and the real obligations, of Roman citizens. <a + href="#linknote-6.1131" name="linknoteref-6.1131" id="linknoteref-6.1131">1131</a> + Nor was the rapacious son of Severus contented with such a measure of + taxation as had appeared sufficient to his moderate predecessors. Instead + of a twentieth, he exacted a tenth of all legacies and inheritances; and + during his reign (for the ancient proportion was restored after his death) + he crushed alike every part of the empire under the weight of his iron + sceptre. <a href="#linknote-6.114" name="linknoteref-6.114" + id="linknoteref-6.114">114</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.113" id="linknote-6.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.113">return</a>)<br/> [ The situation of the + new citizens is minutely described by Pliny, (Panegyric, c. 37, 38, 39). + Trajan published a law very much in their favor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.1131" id="linknote-6.1131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1131 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.1131">return</a>)<br/> [ Gibbon has adopted + the opinion of Spanheim and of Burman, which attributes to Caracalla this + edict, which gave the right of the city to all the inhabitants of the + provinces. This opinion may be disputed. Several passages of Spartianus, + of Aurelius Victor, and of Aristides, attribute this edict to Marc. + Aurelius. See a learned essay, entitled Joh. P. Mahneri Comm. de Marc. + Aur. Antonino Constitutionis de Civitate Universo Orbi Romano data + auctore. Halæ, 1772, 8vo. It appears that Marc. Aurelius made some + modifications of this edict, which released the provincials from some of + the charges imposed by the right of the city, and deprived them of some of + the advantages which it conferred. Caracalla annulled these modifications.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.114" id="linknote-6.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.114">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxvii. p. + 1295.] + </p> + <p> + When all the provincials became liable to the peculiar impositions of + Roman citizens, they seemed to acquire a legal exemption from the tributes + which they had paid in their former condition of subjects. Such were not + the maxims of government adopted by Caracalla and his pretended son. The + old as well as the new taxes were, at the same time, levied in the + provinces. It was reserved for the virtue of Alexander to relieve them in + a great measure from this intolerable grievance, by reducing the tributes + to a thirteenth part of the sum exacted at the time of his accession. <a + href="#linknote-6.115" name="linknoteref-6.115" id="linknoteref-6.115">115</a> + It is impossible to conjecture the motive that engaged him to spare so + trifling a remnant of the public evil; but the noxious weed, which had not + been totally eradicated, again sprang up with the most luxuriant growth, + and in the succeeding age darkened the Roman world with its deadly shade. + In the course of this history, we shall be too often summoned to explain + the land tax, the capitation, and the heavy contributions of corn, wine, + oil, and meat, which were exacted from the provinces for the use of the + court, the army, and the capital. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.115" id="linknote-6.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.115">return</a>)<br/> [ He who paid ten aurei, + the usual tribute, was charged with no more than the third part of an + aureus, and proportional pieces of gold were coined by Alexander’s order. + Hist. August. p. 127, with the commentary of Salmasius.] + </p> + <p> + As long as Rome and Italy were respected as the centre of government, a + national spirit was preserved by the ancient, and insensibly imbibed by + the adopted, citizens. The principal commands of the army were filled by + men who had received a liberal education, were well instructed in the + advantages of laws and letters, and who had risen, by equal steps, through + the regular succession of civil and military honors. <a + href="#linknote-6.116" name="linknoteref-6.116" id="linknoteref-6.116">116</a> + To their influence and example we may partly ascribe the modest obedience + of the legions during the two first centuries of the Imperial history. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-6.116" id="linknote-6.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-6.116">return</a>)<br/> [ See the lives of + Agricola, Vespasian, Trajan, Severus, and his three competitors; and + indeed of all the eminent men of those times.] + </p> + <p> + But when the last enclosure of the Roman constitution was trampled down + by Caracalla, the separation of professions gradually succeeded to the + distinction of ranks. The more polished citizens of the internal + provinces were alone qualified to act as lawyers and magistrates. The + rougher trade of arms was abandoned to the peasants and barbarians of the + frontiers, who knew no country but their camp, no science but that of + war, no civil laws, and scarcely those of military discipline. With + bloody hands, savage manners, and desperate resolutions, they sometimes + guarded, but much oftener subverted, the throne of the emperors. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap07.1"></a> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Elevation And Tyranny Of Maximin.—Rebellion In Africa And Italy, +Under The Authority Of The Senate.—Civil Wars And +Seditions.—Violent Deaths Of Maximin And His Son, Of Maximus And +Balbinus, And Of The Three Gordians.— Usurpation And Secular Games Of +Philip. +</p> + <p> + Of the various forms of government which have prevailed in the world, an + hereditary monarchy seems to present the fairest scope for ridicule. Is it + possible to relate without an indignant smile, that, on the father’s + decease, the property of a nation, like that of a drove of oxen, descends + to his infant son, as yet unknown to mankind and to himself; and that the + bravest warriors and the wisest statesmen, relinquishing their natural + right to empire, approach the royal cradle with bended knees and + protestations of inviolable fidelity? Satire and declamation may paint + these obvious topics in the most dazzling colors, but our more serious + thoughts will respect a useful prejudice, that establishes a rule of + succession, independent of the passions of mankind; and we shall + cheerfully acquiesce in any expedient which deprives the multitude of the + dangerous, and indeed the ideal, power of giving themselves a master. + </p> + <p> + In the cool shade of retirement, we may easily devise imaginary forms of + government, in which the sceptre shall be constantly bestowed on the most + worthy, by the free and incorrupt suffrage of the whole community. + Experience overturns these airy fabrics, and teaches us, that in a large + society, the election of a monarch can never devolve to the wisest, or to + the most numerous part of the people. The army is the only order of men + sufficiently united to concur in the same sentiments, and powerful enough + to impose them on the rest of their fellow-citizens; but the temper of + soldiers, habituated at once to violence and to slavery, renders them very + unfit guardians of a legal, or even a civil constitution. Justice, + humanity, or political wisdom, are qualities they are too little + acquainted with in themselves, to appreciate them in others. Valor will + acquire their esteem, and liberality will purchase their suffrage; but the + first of these merits is often lodged in the most savage breasts; the + latter can only exert itself at the expense of the public; and both may be + turned against the possessor of the throne, by the ambition of a daring + rival. + </p> + <p> + The superior prerogative of birth, when it has obtained the sanction of + time and popular opinion, is the plainest and least invidious of all + distinctions among mankind. The acknowledged right extinguishes the hopes + of faction, and the conscious security disarms the cruelty of the monarch. + To the firm establishment of this idea we owe the peaceful succession and + mild administration of European monarchies. To the defect of it we must + attribute the frequent civil wars, through which an Asiatic despot is + obliged to cut his way to the throne of his fathers. Yet, even in the + East, the sphere of contention is usually limited to the princes of the + reigning house, and as soon as the more fortunate competitor has removed + his brethren by the sword and the bowstring, he no longer entertains any + jealousy of his meaner subjects. But the Roman empire, after the authority + of the senate had sunk into contempt, was a vast scene of confusion. The + royal, and even noble, families of the provinces had long since been led + in triumph before the car of the haughty republicans. The ancient families + of Rome had successively fallen beneath the tyranny of the Cæsars; and + whilst those princes were shackled by the forms of a commonwealth, and + disappointed by the repeated failure of their posterity, <a + href="#linknote-7.1" name="linknoteref-7.1" id="linknoteref-7.1">1</a> it was + impossible that any idea of hereditary succession should have taken root + in the minds of their subjects. The right to the throne, which none could + claim from birth, every one assumed from merit. The daring hopes of + ambition were set loose from the salutary restraints of law and prejudice; + and the meanest of mankind might, without folly, entertain a hope of being + raised by valor and fortune to a rank in the army, in which a single crime + would enable him to wrest the sceptre of the world from his feeble and + unpopular master. After the murder of Alexander Severus, and the elevation + of Maximin, no emperor could think himself safe upon the throne, and every + barbarian peasant of the frontier might aspire to that august, but + dangerous station. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.1" id="linknote-7.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.1">return</a>)<br/> [ There had been no example + of three successive generations on the throne; only three instances of + sons who succeeded their fathers. The marriages of the Cæsars + (notwithstanding the permission, and the frequent practice of divorces) + were generally unfruitful.] + </p> + <p> + About thirty-two years before that event, the emperor Severus, returning + from an eastern expedition, halted in Thrace, to celebrate, with military + games, the birthday of his younger son, Geta. The country flocked in + crowds to behold their sovereign, and a young barbarian of gigantic + stature earnestly solicited, in his rude dialect, that he might be allowed + to contend for the prize of wrestling. As the pride of discipline would + have been disgraced in the overthrow of a Roman soldier by a Thracian + peasant, he was matched with the stoutest followers of the camp, sixteen + of whom he successively laid on the ground. His victory was rewarded by + some trifling gifts, and a permission to enlist in the troops. The next + day, the happy barbarian was distinguished above a crowd of recruits, + dancing and exulting after the fashion of his country. As soon as he + perceived that he had attracted the emperor’s notice, he instantly ran up + to his horse, and followed him on foot, without the least appearance of + fatigue, in a long and rapid career. “Thracian,” said Severus with + astonishment, “art thou disposed to wrestle after thy race?” “Most + willingly, sir,” replied the unwearied youth; and, almost in a breath, + overthrew seven of the strongest soldiers in the army. A gold collar was + the prize of his matchless vigor and activity, and he was immediately + appointed to serve in the horseguards who always attended on the person of + the sovereign. <a href="#linknote-7.2" name="linknoteref-7.2" + id="linknoteref-7.2">2</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.2" id="linknote-7.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August p. 138.] + </p> + <p> + Maximin, for that was his name, though born on the territories of the + empire, descended from a mixed race of barbarians. His father was a Goth, + and his mother of the nation of the Alani. He displayed on every occasion + a valor equal to his strength; and his native fierceness was soon tempered + or disguised by the knowledge of the world. Under the reign of Severus and + his son, he obtained the rank of centurion, with the favor and esteem of + both those princes, the former of whom was an excellent judge of merit. + Gratitude forbade Maximin to serve under the assassin of Caracalla. Honor + taught him to decline the effeminate insults of Elagabalus. On the + accession of Alexander he returned to court, and was placed by that prince + in a station useful to the service, and honorable to himself. The fourth + legion, to which he was appointed tribune, soon became, under his care, + the best disciplined of the whole army. With the general applause of the + soldiers, who bestowed on their favorite hero the names of Ajax and + Hercules, he was successively promoted to the first military command; <a + href="#linknote-7.3" name="linknoteref-7.3" id="linknoteref-7.3">3</a> and + had not he still retained too much of his savage origin, the emperor might + perhaps have given his own sister in marriage to the son of Maximin. <a + href="#linknote-7.4" name="linknoteref-7.4" id="linknoteref-7.4">4</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.3" id="linknote-7.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 140. + Herodian, l. vi. p. 223. Aurelius Victor. By comparing these authors, it + should seem that Maximin had the particular command of the Tribellian + horse, with the general commission of disciplining the recruits of the + whole army. His biographer ought to have marked, with more care, his + exploits, and the successive steps of his military promotions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.4" id="linknote-7.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.4">return</a>)<br/> [ See the original letter of + Alexander Severus, Hist. August. p. 149.] + </p> + <p> + Instead of securing his fidelity, these favors served only to inflame the + ambition of the Thracian peasant, who deemed his fortune inadequate to his + merit, as long as he was constrained to acknowledge a superior. Though a + stranger to real wisdom, he was not devoid of a selfish cunning, which + showed him that the emperor had lost the affection of the army, and taught + him to improve their discontent to his own advantage. It is easy for + faction and calumny to shed their poison on the administration of the best + of princes, and to accuse even their virtues by artfully confounding them + with those vices to which they bear the nearest affinity. The troops + listened with pleasure to the emissaries of Maximin. They blushed at their + own ignominious patience, which, during thirteen years, had supported the + vexatious discipline imposed by an effeminate Syrian, the timid slave of + his mother and of the senate. It was time, they cried, to cast away that + useless phantom of the civil power, and to elect for their prince and + general a real soldier, educated in camps, exercised in war, who would + assert the glory, and distribute among his companions the treasures, of + the empire. A great army was at that time assembled on the banks of the + Rhine, under the command of the emperor himself, who, almost immediately + after his return from the Persian war, had been obliged to march against + the barbarians of Germany. The important care of training and reviewing + the new levies was intrusted to Maximin. One day, as he entered the field + of exercise, the troops, either from a sudden impulse, or a formed + conspiracy, saluted him emperor, silenced by their loud acclamations his + obstinate refusal, and hastened to consummate their rebellion by the + murder of Alexander Severus. + </p> + <p> + The circumstances of his death are variously related. The writers, who + suppose that he died in ignorance of the ingratitude and ambition of + Maximin affirm that, after taking a frugal repast in the sight of the + army, he retired to sleep, and that, about the seventh hour of the day, a + part of his own guards broke into the imperial tent, and, with many + wounds, assassinated their virtuous and unsuspecting prince. <a + href="#linknote-7.5" name="linknoteref-7.5" id="linknoteref-7.5">5</a> If we + credit another, and indeed a more probable account, Maximin was invested + with the purple by a numerous detachment, at the distance of several miles + from the head-quarters; and he trusted for success rather to the secret + wishes than to the public declarations of the great army. Alexander had + sufficient time to awaken a faint sense of loyalty among the troops; but + their reluctant professions of fidelity quickly vanished on the appearance + of Maximin, who declared himself the friend and advocate of the military + order, and was unanimously acknowledged emperor of the Romans by the + applauding legions. The son of Mamæa, betrayed and deserted, withdrew + into his tent, desirous at least to conceal his approaching fate from the + insults of the multitude. He was soon followed by a tribune and some + centurions, the ministers of death; but instead of receiving with manly + resolution the inevitable stroke, his unavailing cries and entreaties + disgraced the last moments of his life, and converted into contempt some + portion of the just pity which his innocence and misfortunes must inspire. + His mother, Mamæa, whose pride and avarice he loudly accused as the cause + of his ruin, perished with her son. The most faithful of his friends were + sacrificed to the first fury of the soldiers. Others were reserved for the + more deliberate cruelty of the usurper; and those who experienced the + mildest treatment, were stripped of their employments, and ignominiously + driven from the court and army. <a href="#linknote-7.6" + name="linknoteref-7.6" id="linknoteref-7.6">6</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.5" id="linknote-7.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 135. I + have softened some of the most improbable circumstances of this wretched + biographer. From his ill-worded narration, it should seem that the + prince’s buffoon having accidentally entered the tent, and awakened the + slumbering monarch, the fear of punishment urged him to persuade the + disaffected soldiers to commit the murder.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.6" id="linknote-7.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vi. 223-227.] + </p> + <p> + The former tyrants, Caligula and Nero, Commodus, and Caracalla, were all + dissolute and unexperienced youths, <a href="#linknote-7.7" + name="linknoteref-7.7" id="linknoteref-7.7">7</a> educated in the purple, + and corrupted by the pride of empire, the luxury of Rome, and the + perfidious voice of flattery. The cruelty of Maximin was derived from a + different source, the fear of contempt. Though he depended on the + attachment of the soldiers, who loved him for virtues like their own, he + was conscious that his mean and barbarian origin, his savage appearance, + and his total ignorance of the arts and institutions of civil life, <a + href="#linknote-7.8" name="linknoteref-7.8" id="linknoteref-7.8">8</a> formed + a very unfavorable contrast with the amiable manners of the unhappy + Alexander. He remembered, that, in his humbler fortune, he had often + waited before the door of the haughty nobles of Rome, and had been denied + admittance by the insolence of their slaves. He recollected too the + friendship of a few who had relieved his poverty, and assisted his rising + hopes. But those who had spurned, and those who had protected, the + Thracian, were guilty of the same crime, the knowledge of his original + obscurity. For this crime many were put to death; and by the execution of + several of his benefactors, Maximin published, in characters of blood, the + indelible history of his baseness and ingratitude. <a href="#linknote-7.9" + name="linknoteref-7.9" id="linknoteref-7.9">9</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.7" id="linknote-7.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Caligula, the eldest of + the four, was only twenty-five years of age when he ascended the throne; + Caracalla was twenty-three, Commodus nineteen, and Nero no more than + seventeen.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.8" id="linknote-7.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.8">return</a>)<br/> [ It appears that he was + totally ignorant of the Greek language; which, from its universal use in + conversation and letters, was an essential part of every liberal + education.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.9" id="linknote-7.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 141. + Herodian, l. vii. p. 237. The latter of these historians has been most + unjustly censured for sparing the vices of Maximin.] + </p> + <p> + The dark and sanguinary soul of the tyrant was open to every suspicion + against those among his subjects who were the most distinguished by their + birth or merit. Whenever he was alarmed with the sound of treason, his + cruelty was unbounded and unrelenting. A conspiracy against his life was + either discovered or imagined, and Magnus, a consular senator, was named + as the principal author of it. Without a witness, without a trial, and + without an opportunity of defence, Magnus, with four thousand of his + supposed accomplices, was put to death. Italy and the whole empire were + infested with innumerable spies and informers. On the slightest + accusation, the first of the Roman nobles, who had governed provinces, + commanded armies, and been adorned with the consular and triumphal + ornaments, were chained on the public carriages, and hurried away to the + emperor’s presence. Confiscation, exile, or simple death, were esteemed + uncommon instances of his lenity. Some of the unfortunate sufferers he + ordered to be sewed up in the hides of slaughtered animals, others to be + exposed to wild beasts, others again to be beaten to death with clubs. + During the three years of his reign, he disdained to visit either Rome or + Italy. His camp, occasionally removed from the banks of the Rhine to those + of the Danube, was the seat of his stern despotism, which trampled on + every principle of law and justice, and was supported by the avowed power + of the sword. <a href="#linknote-7.10" name="linknoteref-7.10" + id="linknoteref-7.10">10</a> No man of noble birth, elegant + accomplishments, or knowledge of civil business, was suffered near his + person; and the court of a Roman emperor revived the idea of those ancient + chiefs of slaves and gladiators, whose savage power had left a deep + impression of terror and detestation. <a href="#linknote-7.11" + name="linknoteref-7.11" id="linknoteref-7.11">11</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.10" id="linknote-7.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.10">return</a>)<br/> [ The wife of Maximin, by + insinuating wise counsels with female gentleness, sometimes brought back + the tyrant to the way of truth and humanity. See Ammianus Marcellinus, l. + xiv. c. l, where he alludes to the fact which he had more fully related + under the reign of the Gordians. We may collect from the medals, that + Paullina was the name of this benevolent empress; and from the title of + Diva, that she died before Maximin. (Valesius ad loc. cit. Ammian.) + Spanheim de U. et P. N. tom. ii. p. 300. Note: If we may believe Syrcellus + and Zonaras, in was Maximin himself who ordered her death—G] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.11" id="linknote-7.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.11">return</a>)<br/> [ He was compared to + Spartacus and Athenio. Hist. August p. 141.] + </p> + <p> + As long as the cruelty of Maximin was confined to the illustrious + senators, or even to the bold adventurers, who in the court or army expose + themselves to the caprice of fortune, the body of the people viewed their + sufferings with indifference, or perhaps with pleasure. But the tyrant’s + avarice, stimulated by the insatiate desires of the soldiers, at length + attacked the public property. Every city of the empire was possessed of an + independent revenue, destined to purchase corn for the multitude, and to + supply the expenses of the games and entertainments. By a single act of + authority, the whole mass of wealth was at once confiscated for the use of + the Imperial treasury. The temples were stripped of their most valuable + offerings of gold and silver, and the statues of gods, heroes, and + emperors, were melted down and coined into money. These impious orders + could not be executed without tumults and massacres, as in many places the + people chose rather to die in the defence of their altars, than to behold + in the midst of peace their cities exposed to the rapine and cruelty of + war. The soldiers themselves, among whom this sacrilegious plunder was + distributed, received it with a blush; and hardened as they were in acts + of violence, they dreaded the just reproaches of their friends and + relations. Throughout the Roman world a general cry of indignation was + heard, imploring vengeance on the common enemy of human kind; and at + length, by an act of private oppression, a peaceful and unarmed province + was driven into rebellion against him. <a href="#linknote-7.12" + name="linknoteref-7.12" id="linknoteref-7.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.12" id="linknote-7.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 238. Zosim. l. i. p. 15.] + </p> + <p> + The procurator of Africa was a servant worthy of such a master, who + considered the fines and confiscations of the rich as one of the most + fruitful branches of the Imperial revenue. An iniquitous sentence had been + pronounced against some opulent youths of that country, the execution of + which would have stripped them of far the greater part of their patrimony. + In this extremity, a resolution that must either complete or prevent their + ruin, was dictated by despair. A respite of three days, obtained with + difficulty from the rapacious treasurer, was employed in collecting from + their estates a great number of slaves and peasants blindly devoted to the + commands of their lords, and armed with the rustic weapons of clubs and + axes. The leaders of the conspiracy, as they were admitted to the audience + of the procurator, stabbed him with the daggers concealed under their + garments, and, by the assistance of their tumultuary train, seized on the + little town of Thysdrus, <a href="#linknote-7.13" name="linknoteref-7.13" + id="linknoteref-7.13">13</a> and erected the standard of rebellion against + the sovereign of the Roman empire. They rested their hopes on the hatred + of mankind against Maximin, and they judiciously resolved to oppose to + that detested tyrant an emperor whose mild virtues had already acquired + the love and esteem of the Romans, and whose authority over the province + would give weight and stability to the enterprise. Gordianus, their + proconsul, and the object of their choice, refused, with unfeigned + reluctance, the dangerous honor, and begged with tears, that they would + suffer him to terminate in peace a long and innocent life, without + staining his feeble age with civil blood. Their menaces compelled him to + accept the Imperial purple, his only refuge, indeed, against the jealous + cruelty of Maximin; since, according to the reasoning of tyrants, those + who have been esteemed worthy of the throne deserve death, and those who + deliberate have already rebelled. <a href="#linknote-7.14" + name="linknoteref-7.14" id="linknoteref-7.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.13" id="linknote-7.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.13">return</a>)<br/> [ In the fertile territory + of Byzacium, one hundred and fifty miles to the south of Carthage. This + city was decorated, probably by the Gordians, with the title of colony, + and with a fine amphitheatre, which is still in a very perfect state. See + Intinerar. Wesseling, p. 59; and Shaw’s Travels, p. 117.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.14" id="linknote-7.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 239. Hist. August. p. 153.] + </p> + <p> + The family of Gordianus was one of the most illustrious of the Roman + senate. On the father’s side he was descended from the Gracchi; on his + mother’s, from the emperor Trajan. A great estate enabled him to support + the dignity of his birth, and in the enjoyment of it, he displayed an + elegant taste and beneficent disposition. The palace in Rome, formerly + inhabited by the great Pompey, had been, during several generations, in + the possession of Gordian’s family. <a href="#linknote-7.15" + name="linknoteref-7.15" id="linknoteref-7.15">15</a> It was distinguished by + ancient trophies of naval victories, and decorated with the works of + modern painting. His villa on the road to Præneste was celebrated for + baths of singular beauty and extent, for three stately rooms of a hundred + feet in length, and for a magnificent portico, supported by two hundred + columns of the four most curious and costly sorts of marble. <a + href="#linknote-7.16" name="linknoteref-7.16" id="linknoteref-7.16">16</a> + The public shows exhibited at his expense, and in which the people were + entertained with many hundreds of wild beasts and gladiators, <a + href="#linknote-7.17" name="linknoteref-7.17" id="linknoteref-7.17">17</a> + seem to surpass the fortune of a subject; and whilst the liberality of + other magistrates was confined to a few solemn festivals at Rome, the + magnificence of Gordian was repeated, when he was ædile, every month in + the year, and extended, during his consulship, to the principal cities of + Italy. He was twice elevated to the last-mentioned dignity, by Caracalla + and by Alexander; for he possessed the uncommon talent of acquiring the + esteem of virtuous princes, without alarming the jealousy of tyrants. His + long life was innocently spent in the study of letters and the peaceful + honors of Rome; and, till he was named proconsul of Africa by the voice of + the senate and the approbation of Alexander, <a href="#linknote-7.18" + name="linknoteref-7.18" id="linknoteref-7.18">18</a> he appears prudently to + have declined the command of armies and the government of provinces. <a + href="#linknote-7.181" name="linknoteref-7.181" id="linknoteref-7.181">181</a> + As long as that emperor lived, Africa was happy under the administration + of his worthy representative: after the barbarous Maximin had usurped the + throne, Gordianus alleviated the miseries which he was unable to prevent. + When he reluctantly accepted the purple, he was above fourscore years old; + a last and valuable remains of the happy age of the Antonines, whose + virtues he revived in his own conduct, and celebrated in an elegant poem + of thirty books. With the venerable proconsul, his son, who had + accompanied him into Africa as his lieutenant, was likewise declared + emperor. His manners were less pure, but his character was equally amiable + with that of his father. Twenty-two acknowledged concubines, and a library + of sixty-two thousand volumes, attested the variety of his inclinations; + and from the productions which he left behind him, it appears that the + former as well as the latter were designed for use rather than for + ostentation. <a href="#linknote-7.19" name="linknoteref-7.19" + id="linknoteref-7.19">19</a> The Roman people acknowledged in the features + of the younger Gordian the resemblance of Scipio Africanus, <a + href="#linknote-7.191" name="linknoteref-7.191" id="linknoteref-7.191">191</a> + recollected with pleasure that his mother was the granddaughter of + Antoninus Pius, and rested the public hope on those latent virtues which + had hitherto, as they fondly imagined, lain concealed in the luxurious + indolence of private life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.15" id="linknote-7.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Aug. p. 152. The + celebrated house of Pompey in carinis was usurped by Marc Antony, and + consequently became, after the Triumvir’s death, a part of the Imperial + domain. The emperor Trajan allowed, and even encouraged, the rich senators + to purchase those magnificent and useless places, (Plin. Panegyric. c. + 50;) and it may seem probable, that, on this occasion, Pompey’s house came + into the possession of Gordian’s great-grandfather.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.16" id="linknote-7.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.16">return</a>)<br/> [ The Claudian, the + Numidian, the Carystian, and the Synnadian. The colors of Roman marbles + have been faintly described and imperfectly distinguished. It appears, + however, that the Carystian was a sea-green, and that the marble of + Synnada was white mixed with oval spots of purple. See Salmasius ad Hist. + August. p. 164.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.17" id="linknote-7.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 151, + 152. He sometimes gave five hundred pair of gladiators, never less than + one hundred and fifty. He once gave for the use of the circus one hundred + Sicilian, and as many Cappæcian Cappadecian horses. The animals designed + for hunting were chiefly bears, boars, bulls, stags, elks, wild asses, + &c. Elephants and lions seem to have been appropriated to Imperial + magnificence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.18" id="linknote-7.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.18">return</a>)<br/> [ See the original letter, + in the Augustan History, p. 152, which at once shows Alexander’s respect + for the authority of the senate, and his esteem for the proconsul + appointed by that assembly.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.181" id="linknote-7.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.181">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian expressly + says that he had administered many provinces, lib. vii. 10.—W.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.19" id="linknote-7.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.19">return</a>)<br/> [ By each of his + concubines, the younger Gordian left three or four children. His literary + productions, though less numerous, were by no means contemptible.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.191" id="linknote-7.191"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 191 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.191">return</a>)<br/> [ Not the personal + likeness, but the family descent from the Scipiod.—W.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the Gordians had appeased the first tumult of a popular + election, they removed their court to Carthage. They were received with + the acclamations of the Africans, who honored their virtues, and who, + since the visit of Hadrian, had never beheld the majesty of a Roman + emperor. But these vain acclamations neither strengthened nor confirmed + the title of the Gordians. They were induced by principle, as well as + interest, to solicit the approbation of the senate; and a deputation of + the noblest provincials was sent, without delay, to Rome, to relate and + justify the conduct of their countrymen, who, having long suffered with + patience, were at length resolved to act with vigor. The letters of the + new princes were modest and respectful, excusing the necessity which had + obliged them to accept the Imperial title; but submitting their election + and their fate to the supreme judgment of the senate. <a + href="#linknote-7.20" name="linknoteref-7.20" id="linknoteref-7.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.20" id="linknote-7.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 243. Hist. August. p. 144.] + </p> + <p> + The inclinations of the senate were neither doubtful nor divided. The + birth and noble alliances of the Gordians had intimately connected them + with the most illustrious houses of Rome. Their fortune had created many + dependants in that assembly, their merit had acquired many friends. Their + mild administration opened the flattering prospect of the restoration, not + only of the civil but even of the republican government. The terror of + military violence, which had first obliged the senate to forget the murder + of Alexander, and to ratify the election of a barbarian peasant, <a + href="#linknote-7.21" name="linknoteref-7.21" id="linknoteref-7.21">21</a> + now produced a contrary effect, and provoked them to assert the injured + rights of freedom and humanity. The hatred of Maximin towards the senate + was declared and implacable; the tamest submission had not appeased his + fury, the most cautious innocence would not remove his suspicions; and + even the care of their own safety urged them to share the fortune of an + enterprise, of which (if unsuccessful) they were sure to be the first + victims. These considerations, and perhaps others of a more private + nature, were debated in a previous conference of the consuls and the + magistrates. As soon as their resolution was decided, they convoked in the + temple of Castor the whole body of the senate, according to an ancient + form of secrecy, <a href="#linknote-7.22" name="linknoteref-7.22" + id="linknoteref-7.22">22</a> calculated to awaken their attention, and to + conceal their decrees. “Conscript fathers,” said the consul Syllanus, “the + two Gordians, both of consular dignity, the one your proconsul, the other + your lieutenant, have been declared emperors by the general consent of + Africa. Let us return thanks,” he boldly continued, “to the youth of + Thysdrus; let us return thanks to the faithful people of Carthage, our + generous deliverers from a horrid monster—Why do you hear me thus + coolly, thus timidly? Why do you cast those anxious looks on each other? + Why hesitate? Maximin is a public enemy! may his enmity soon expire with + him, and may we long enjoy the prudence and felicity of Gordian the + father, the valor and constancy of Gordian the son!” <a + href="#linknote-7.23" name="linknoteref-7.23" id="linknoteref-7.23">23</a> + The noble ardor of the consul revived the languid spirit of the senate. By + a unanimous decree, the election of the Gordians was ratified, Maximin, + his son, and his adherents, were pronounced enemies of their country, and + liberal rewards were offered to whomsoever had the courage and good + fortune to destroy them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.21" id="linknote-7.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Quod. tamen patres dum + periculosum existimant; inermes armato esistere approbaverunt.—Aurelius + Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.22" id="linknote-7.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Even the servants of the + house, the scribes, &c., were excluded, and their office was filled by + the senators themselves. We are obliged to the Augustan History. p. 159, + for preserving this curious example of the old discipline of the + commonwealth.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.23" id="linknote-7.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.23">return</a>)<br/> [ This spirited speech, + translated from the Augustan historian, p. 156, seems transcribed by him + from the origina registers of the senate] + </p> + <p> + During the emperor’s absence, a detachment of the Prætorian guards + remained at Rome, to protect, or rather to command, the capital. The + præfect Vitalianus had signalized his fidelity to Maximin, by the + alacrity with which he had obeyed, and even prevented the cruel mandates + of the tyrant. His death alone could rescue the authority of the senate, + and the lives of the senators from a state of danger and suspense. Before + their resolves had transpired, a quæstor and some tribunes were + commissioned to take his devoted life. They executed the order with equal + boldness and success; and, with their bloody daggers in their hands, ran + through the streets, proclaiming to the people and the soldiers the news + of the happy revolution. The enthusiasm of liberty was seconded by the + promise of a large donative, in lands and money; the statues of Maximin + were thrown down; the capital of the empire acknowledged, with transport, + the authority of the two Gordians and the senate; <a href="#linknote-7.24" + name="linknoteref-7.24" id="linknoteref-7.24">24</a> and the example of Rome + was followed by the rest of Italy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.24" id="linknote-7.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 244] + </p> + <p> + A new spirit had arisen in that assembly, whose long patience had been + insulted by wanton despotism and military license. The senate assumed the + reins of government, and, with a calm intrepidity, prepared to vindicate + by arms the cause of freedom. Among the consular senators recommended by + their merit and services to the favor of the emperor Alexander, it was + easy to select twenty, not unequal to the command of an army, and the + conduct of a war. To these was the defence of Italy intrusted. Each was + appointed to act in his respective department, authorized to enroll and + discipline the Italian youth; and instructed to fortify the ports and + highways, against the impending invasion of Maximin. A number of deputies, + chosen from the most illustrious of the senatorian and equestrian orders, + were despatched at the same time to the governors of the several + provinces, earnestly conjuring them to fly to the assistance of their + country, and to remind the nations of their ancient ties of friendship + with the Roman senate and people. The general respect with which these + deputies were received, and the zeal of Italy and the provinces in favor + of the senate, sufficiently prove that the subjects of Maximin were + reduced to that uncommon distress, in which the body of the people has + more to fear from oppression than from resistance. The consciousness of + that melancholy truth, inspires a degree of persevering fury, seldom to be + found in those civil wars which are artificially supported for the benefit + of a few factious and designing leaders. <a href="#linknote-7.25" + name="linknoteref-7.25" id="linknoteref-7.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.25" id="linknote-7.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 247, l. viii. p. 277. Hist. August. p 156-158.] + </p> + <p> + For while the cause of the Gordians was embraced with such diffusive + ardor, the Gordians themselves were no more. The feeble court of Carthage + was alarmed by the rapid approach of Capelianus, governor of Mauritania, + who, with a small band of veterans, and a fierce host of barbarians, + attacked a faithful, but unwarlike province. The younger Gordian sallied + out to meet the enemy at the head of a few guards, and a numerous + undisciplined multitude, educated in the peaceful luxury of Carthage. His + useless valor served only to procure him an honorable death on the field + of battle. His aged father, whose reign had not exceeded thirty-six days, + put an end to his life on the first news of the defeat. Carthage, + destitute of defence, opened her gates to the conqueror, and Africa was + exposed to the rapacious cruelty of a slave, obliged to satisfy his + unrelenting master with a large account of blood and treasure. <a + href="#linknote-7.26" name="linknoteref-7.26" id="linknoteref-7.26">26</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.26" id="linknote-7.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 254. Hist. August. p. 150-160. We may observe, that one month and six + days, for the reign of Gordian, is a just correction of Casaubon and + Panvinius, instead of the absurd reading of one year and six months. See + Commentar. p. 193. Zosimus relates, l. i. p. 17, that the two Gordians + perished by a tempest in the midst of their navigation. A strange + ignorance of history, or a strange abuse of metaphors!] + </p> + <p> + The fate of the Gordians filled Rome with just but unexpected terror. The + senate, convoked in the temple of Concord, affected to transact the common + business of the day; and seemed to decline, with trembling anxiety, the + consideration of their own and the public danger. A silent consternation + prevailed in the assembly, till a senator, of the name and family of + Trajan, awakened his brethren from their fatal lethargy. He represented to + them that the choice of cautious, dilatory measures had been long since + out of their power; that Maximin, implacable by nature, and exasperated by + injuries, was advancing towards Italy, at the head of the military force + of the empire; and that their only remaining alternative was either to + meet him bravely in the field, or tamely to expect the tortures and + ignominious death reserved for unsuccessful rebellion. “We have lost,” + continued he, “two excellent princes; but unless we desert ourselves, the + hopes of the republic have not perished with the Gordians. Many are the + senators whose virtues have deserved, and whose abilities would sustain, + the Imperial dignity. Let us elect two emperors, one of whom may conduct + the war against the public enemy, whilst his colleague remains at Rome to + direct the civil administration. I cheerfully expose myself to the danger + and envy of the nomination, and give my vote in favor of Maximus and + Balbinus. Ratify my choice, conscript fathers, or appoint in their place, + others more worthy of the empire.” The general apprehension silenced the + whispers of jealousy; the merit of the candidates was universally + acknowledged; and the house resounded with the sincere acclamations of + “Long life and victory to the emperors Maximus and Balbinus. You are happy + in the judgment of the senate; may the republic be happy under your + administration!” <a href="#linknote-7.27" name="linknoteref-7.27" + id="linknoteref-7.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.27" id="linknote-7.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.27">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Augustan + History, p. 166, from the registers of the senate; the date is confessedly + faulty but the coincidence of the Apollinatian games enables us to correct + it.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap07.2"></a> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + The virtues and the reputation of the new emperors justified the most + sanguine hopes of the Romans. The various nature of their talents seemed + to appropriate to each his peculiar department of peace and war, without + leaving room for jealous emulation. Balbinus was an admired orator, a poet + of distinguished fame, and a wise magistrate, who had exercised with + innocence and applause the civil jurisdiction in almost all the interior + provinces of the empire. His birth was noble, <a href="#linknote-7.28" + name="linknoteref-7.28" id="linknoteref-7.28">28</a> his fortune affluent, + his manners liberal and affable. In him the love of pleasure was corrected + by a sense of dignity, nor had the habits of ease deprived him of a + capacity for business. The mind of Maximus was formed in a rougher mould. + By his valor and abilities he had raised himself from the meanest origin + to the first employments of the state and army. His victories over the + Sarmatians and the Germans, the austerity of his life, and the rigid + impartiality of his justice, while he was a Præfect of the city, + commanded the esteem of a people whose affections were engaged in favor of + the more amiable Balbinus. The two colleagues had both been consuls, + (Balbinus had twice enjoyed that honorable office,) both had been named + among the twenty lieutenants of the senate; and since the one was sixty + and the other seventy-four years old, <a href="#linknote-7.29" + name="linknoteref-7.29" id="linknoteref-7.29">29</a> they had both attained + the full maturity of age and experience. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.28" id="linknote-7.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.28">return</a>)<br/> [ He was descended from + Cornelius Balbus, a noble Spaniard, and the adopted son of Theophanes, the + Greek historian. Balbus obtained the freedom of Rome by the favor of + Pompey, and preserved it by the eloquence of Cicero. (See Orat. pro + Cornel. Balbo.) The friendship of Cæsar, (to whom he rendered the most + important secret services in the civil war) raised him to the consulship + and the pontificate, honors never yet possessed by a stranger. The nephew + of this Balbus triumphed over the Garamantes. See Dictionnaire de Bayle, + au mot Balbus, where he distinguishes the several persons of that name, + and rectifies, with his usual accuracy, the mistakes of former writers + concerning them.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.29" id="linknote-7.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 622. + But little dependence is to be had on the authority of a modern Greek, so + grossly ignorant of the history of the third century, that he creates + several imaginary emperors, and confounds those who really existed.] + </p> + <p> + After the senate had conferred on Maximus and Balbinus an equal portion of + the consular and tribunitian powers, the title of Fathers of their + country, and the joint office of Supreme Pontiff, they ascended to the + Capitol to return thanks to the gods, protectors of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-7.30" name="linknoteref-7.30" id="linknoteref-7.30">30</a> + The solemn rites of sacrifice were disturbed by a sedition of the people. + The licentious multitude neither loved the rigid Maximus, nor did they + sufficiently fear the mild and humane Balbinus. Their increasing numbers + surrounded the temple of Jupiter; with obstinate clamors they asserted + their inherent right of consenting to the election of their sovereign; and + demanded, with an apparent moderation, that, besides the two emperors, + chosen by the senate, a third should be added of the family of the + Gordians, as a just return of gratitude to those princes who had + sacrificed their lives for the republic. At the head of the city-guards, + and the youth of the equestrian order, Maximus and Balbinus attempted to + cut their way through the seditious multitude. The multitude, armed with + sticks and stones, drove them back into the Capitol. It is prudent to + yield when the contest, whatever may be the issue of it, must be fatal to + both parties. A boy, only thirteen years of age, the grandson of the + elder, and nephew <a href="#linknote-7.301" name="linknoteref-7.301" + id="linknoteref-7.301">301</a> of the younger Gordian, was produced to the + people, invested with the ornaments and title of Cæsar. The tumult was + appeased by this easy condescension; and the two emperors, as soon as they + had been peaceably acknowledged in Rome, prepared to defend Italy against + the common enemy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.30" id="linknote-7.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vii. p. + 256, supposes that the senate was at first convoked in the Capitol, and is + very eloquent on the occasion. The Augustar History p. 116, seems much + more authentic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.301" id="linknote-7.301"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 301 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.301">return</a>)<br/> [ According to some, the + son.—G.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst in Rome and Africa, revolutions succeeded each other with such + amazing rapidity, that the mind of Maximin was agitated by the most + furious passions. He is said to have received the news of the rebellion of + the Gordians, and of the decree of the senate against him, not with the + temper of a man, but the rage of a wild beast; which, as it could not + discharge itself on the distant senate, threatened the life of his son, of + his friends, and of all who ventured to approach his person. The grateful + intelligence of the death of the Gordians was quickly followed by the + assurance that the senate, laying aside all hopes of pardon or + accommodation, had substituted in their room two emperors, with whose + merit he could not be unacquainted. Revenge was the only consolation left + to Maximin, and revenge could only be obtained by arms. The strength of + the legions had been assembled by Alexander from all parts of the empire. + Three successful campaigns against the Germans and the Sarmatians, had + raised their fame, confirmed their discipline, and even increased their + numbers, by filling the ranks with the flower of the barbarian youth. The + life of Maximin had been spent in war, and the candid severity of history + cannot refuse him the valor of a soldier, or even the abilities of an + experienced general. <a href="#linknote-7.31" name="linknoteref-7.31" + id="linknoteref-7.31">31</a> It might naturally be expected, that a prince + of such a character, instead of suffering the rebellion to gain stability + by delay, should immediately have marched from the banks of the Danube to + those of the Tyber, and that his victorious army, instigated by contempt + for the senate, and eager to gather the spoils of Italy, should have + burned with impatience to finish the easy and lucrative conquest. Yet as + far as we can trust to the obscure chronology of that period, <a + href="#linknote-7.32" name="linknoteref-7.32" id="linknoteref-7.32">32</a> it + appears that the operations of some foreign war deferred the Italian + expedition till the ensuing spring. From the prudent conduct of Maximin, + we may learn that the savage features of his character have been + exaggerated by the pencil of party, that his passions, however impetuous, + submitted to the force of reason, and that the barbarian possessed + something of the generous spirit of Sylla, who subdued the enemies of Rome + before he suffered himself to revenge his private injuries. <a + href="#linknote-7.33" name="linknoteref-7.33" id="linknoteref-7.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.31" id="linknote-7.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.31">return</a>)<br/> [ In Herodian, l. vii. p. + 249, and in the Augustan History, we have three several orations of + Maximin to his army, on the rebellion of Africa and Rome: M. de Tillemont + has very justly observed that they neither agree with each other nor with + truth. Histoire des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 799.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.32" id="linknote-7.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.32">return</a>)<br/> [ The carelessness of the + writers of that age, leaves us in a singular perplexity. 1. We know that + Maximus and Balbinus were killed during the Capitoline games. Herodian, l. + viii. p. 285. The authority of Censorinus (de Die Natali, c. 18) enables + us to fix those games with certainty to the year 238, but leaves us in + ignorance of the month or day. 2. The election of Gordian by the senate is + fixed with equal certainty to the 27th of May; but we are at a loss to + discover whether it was in the same or the preceding year. Tillemont and + Muratori, who maintain the two opposite opinions, bring into the field a + desultory troop of authorities, conjectures and probabilities. The one + seems to draw out, the other to contract the series of events between + those periods, more than can be well reconciled to reason and history. Yet + it is necessary to choose between them. Note: Eckhel has more recently + treated these chronological questions with a perspicuity which gives great + probability to his conclusions. Setting aside all the historians, whose + contradictions are irreconcilable, he has only consulted the medals, and + has arranged the events before us in the following order:— Maximin, + A. U. 990, after having conquered the Germans, reenters Pannonia, + establishes his winter quarters at Sirmium, and prepares himself to make + war against the people of the North. In the year 991, in the cal ends of + January, commences his fourth tribunate. The Gordians are chosen emperors + in Africa, probably at the beginning of the month of March. The senate + confirms this election with joy, and declares Maximin the enemy of Rome. + Five days after he had heard of this revolt, Maximin sets out from Sirmium + on his march to Italy. These events took place about the beginning of + April; a little after, the Gordians are slain in Africa by Capellianus, + procurator of Mauritania. The senate, in its alarm, names as emperors + Balbus and Maximus Pupianus, and intrusts the latter with the war against + Maximin. Maximin is stopped on his road near Aquileia, by the want of + provisions, and by the melting of the snows: he begins the siege of + Aquileia at the end of April. Pupianus assembles his army at Ravenna. + Maximin and his son are assassinated by the soldiers enraged at the + resistance of Aquileia: and this was probably in the middle of May. + Pupianus returns to Rome, and assumes the government with Balbinus; they + are assassinated towards the end of July Gordian the younger ascends the + throne. Eckhel de Doct. Vol vii 295.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.33" id="linknote-7.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Velleius Paterculus, l. + ii. c. 24. The president de Montesquieu (in his dialogue between Sylla and + Eucrates) expresses the sentiments of the dictator in a spirited, and even + a sublime manner.] + </p> + <p> + When the troops of Maximin, advancing in excellent order, arrived at the + foot of the Julian Alps, they were terrified by the silence and desolation + that reigned on the frontiers of Italy. The villages and open towns had + been abandoned on their approach by the inhabitants, the cattle was driven + away, the provisions removed or destroyed, the bridges broken down, nor + was any thing left which could afford either shelter or subsistence to an + invader. Such had been the wise orders of the generals of the senate: + whose design was to protract the war, to ruin the army of Maximin by the + slow operation of famine, and to consume his strength in the sieges of the + principal cities of Italy, which they had plentifully stored with men and + provisions from the deserted country. Aquileia received and withstood the + first shock of the invasion. The streams that issue from the head of the + Hadriatic Gulf, swelled by the melting of the winter snows, <a + href="#linknote-7.34" name="linknoteref-7.34" id="linknoteref-7.34">34</a> + opposed an unexpected obstacle to the arms of Maximin. At length, on a + singular bridge, constructed with art and difficulty, of large hogsheads, + he transported his army to the opposite bank, rooted up the beautiful + vineyards in the neighborhood of Aquileia, demolished the suburbs, and + employed the timber of the buildings in the engines and towers, with which + on every side he attacked the city. The walls, fallen to decay during the + security of a long peace, had been hastily repaired on this sudden + emergency: but the firmest defence of Aquileia consisted in the constancy + of the citizens; all ranks of whom, instead of being dismayed, were + animated by the extreme danger, and their knowledge of the tyrant’s + unrelenting temper. Their courage was supported and directed by Crispinus + and Menophilus, two of the twenty lieutenants of the senate, who, with a + small body of regular troops, had thrown themselves into the besieged + place. The army of Maximin was repulsed in repeated attacks, his machines + destroyed by showers of artificial fire; and the generous enthusiasm of + the Aquileians was exalted into a confidence of success, by the opinion + that Belenus, their tutelar deity, combated in person in the defence of + his distressed worshippers. <a href="#linknote-7.35" name="linknoteref-7.35" + id="linknoteref-7.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.34" id="linknote-7.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Muratori (Annali d’ + Italia, tom. ii. p. 294) thinks the melting of the snows suits better with + the months of June or July, than with those of February. The opinion of a + man who passed his life between the Alps and the Apennines, is undoubtedly + of great weight; yet I observe, 1. That the long winter, of which Muratori + takes advantage, is to be found only in the Latin version, and not in the + Greek text of Herodian. 2. That the vicissitudes of suns and rains, to + which the soldiers of Maximin were exposed, (Herodian, l. viii. p. 277,) + denote the spring rather than the summer. We may observe, likewise, that + these several streams, as they melted into one, composed the Timavus, so + poetically (in every sense of the word) described by Virgil. They are + about twelve miles to the east of Aquileia. See Cluver. Italia Antiqua, + tom. i. p. 189, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.35" id="linknote-7.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. viii. p. + 272. The Celtic deity was supposed to be Apollo, and received under that + name the thanks of the senate. A temple was likewise built to Venus the + Bald, in honor of the women of Aquileia, who had given up their hair to + make ropes for the military engines.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor Maximus, who had advanced as far as Ravenna, to secure that + important place, and to hasten the military preparations, beheld the event + of the war in the more faithful mirror of reason and policy. He was too + sensible, that a single town could not resist the persevering efforts of a + great army; and he dreaded, lest the enemy, tired with the obstinate + resistance of Aquileia, should on a sudden relinquish the fruitless siege, + and march directly towards Rome. The fate of the empire and the cause of + freedom must then be committed to the chance of a battle; and what arms + could he oppose to the veteran legions of the Rhine and Danube? Some + troops newly levied among the generous but enervated youth of Italy; and a + body of German auxiliaries, on whose firmness, in the hour of trial, it + was dangerous to depend. In the midst of these just alarms, the stroke of + domestic conspiracy punished the crimes of Maximin, and delivered Rome and + the senate from the calamities that would surely have attended the victory + of an enraged barbarian. + </p> + <p> + The people of Aquileia had scarcely experienced any of the common + miseries of a siege; their magazines were plentifully supplied, and + several fountains within the walls assured them of an inexhaustible + resource of fresh water. The soldiers of Maximin were, on the contrary, + exposed to the inclemency of the season, the contagion of disease, and + the horrors of famine. The open country was ruined, the rivers filled + with the slain, and polluted with blood. A spirit of despair and + disaffection began to diffuse itself among the troops; and as they were + cut off from all intelligence, they easily believed that the whole empire + had embraced the cause of the senate, and that they were left as devoted + victims to perish under the impregnable walls of Aquileia. The fierce + temper of the tyrant was exasperated by disappointments, which he imputed + to the cowardice of his army; and his wanton and ill-timed cruelty, + instead of striking terror, inspired hatred, and a just desire of + revenge. A party of Prætorian guards, who trembled for their wives and + children in the camp of Alba, near Rome, executed the sentence of the + senate. Maximin, abandoned by his guards, was slain in his tent, with his + son (whom he had associated to the honors of the purple), Anulinus the + præfect, and the principal ministers of his tyranny. <a + href="#linknote-7.36" name="linknoteref-7.36" id="linknoteref-7.36">36</a> + The sight of their heads, borne on the point of spears, convinced the + citizens of Aquileia that the siege was at an end; the gates of the city + were thrown open, a liberal market was provided for the hungry troops of + Maximin, and the whole army joined in solemn protestations of fidelity to + the senate and the people of Rome, and to their lawful emperors Maximus + and Balbinus. Such was the deserved fate of a brutal savage, destitute, + as he has generally been represented, of every sentiment that + distinguishes a civilized, or even a human being. The body was suited to + the soul. The stature of Maximin exceeded the measure of eight feet, and + circumstances almost incredible are related of his matchless strength and + appetite. <a href="#linknote-7.37" name="linknoteref-7.37" + id="linknoteref-7.37">37</a> Had he lived in a less enlightened age, + tradition and poetry might well have described him as one of those + monstrous giants, whose supernatural power was constantly exerted for the + destruction of mankind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.36" id="linknote-7.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. viii. p. + 279. Hist. August. p. 146. The duration of Maximin’s reign has not been + defined with much accuracy, except by Eutropius, who allows him three + years and a few days, (l. ix. 1;) we may depend on the integrity of the + text, as the Latin original is checked by the Greek version of Pæanius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.37" id="linknote-7.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Eight Roman feet and one + third, which are equal to above eight English feet, as the two measures + are to each other in the proportion of 967 to 1000. See Graves’s discourse + on the Roman foot. We are told that Maximin could drink in a day an + amphora (or about seven gallons) of wine, and eat thirty or forty pounds + of meat. He could move a loaded wagon, break a horse’s leg with his fist, + crumble stones in his hand, and tear up small trees by the roots. See his + life in the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + It is easier to conceive than to describe the universal joy of the Roman + world on the fall of the tyrant, the news of which is said to have been + carried in four days from Aquileia to Rome. The return of Maximus was a + triumphal procession; his colleague and young Gordian went out to meet + him, and the three princes made their entry into the capital, attended by + the ambassadors of almost all the cities of Italy, saluted with the + splendid offerings of gratitude and superstition, and received with the + unfeigned acclamations of the senate and people, who persuaded themselves + that a golden age would succeed to an age of iron. <a href="#linknote-7.38" + name="linknoteref-7.38" id="linknoteref-7.38">38</a> The conduct of the two + emperors corresponded with these expectations. They administered justice + in person; and the rigor of the one was tempered by the other’s clemency. + The oppressive taxes with which Maximin had loaded the rights of + inheritance and succession, were repealed, or at least moderated. + Discipline was revived, and with the advice of the senate many wise laws + were enacted by their imperial ministers, who endeavored to restore a + civil constitution on the ruins of military tyranny. “What reward may we + expect for delivering Rome from a monster?” was the question asked by + Maximus, in a moment of freedom and confidence. + </p> + <p> + Balbinus answered it without hesitation—“The love of the senate, of + the people, and of all mankind.” “Alas!” replied his more penetrating + colleague—“alas! I dread the hatred of the soldiers, and the fatal + effects of their resentment.” <a href="#linknote-7.39" + name="linknoteref-7.39" id="linknoteref-7.39">39</a> His apprehensions were + but too well justified by the event. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.38" id="linknote-7.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.38">return</a>)<br/> [ See the congratulatory + letter of Claudius Julianus, the consul to the two emperors, in the + Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.39" id="linknote-7.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 171.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst Maximus was preparing to defend Italy against the common foe, + Balbinus, who remained at Rome, had been engaged in scenes of blood and + intestine discord. Distrust and jealousy reigned in the senate; and even + in the temples where they assembled, every senator carried either open or + concealed arms. In the midst of their deliberations, two veterans of the + guards, actuated either by curiosity or a sinister motive, audaciously + thrust themselves into the house, and advanced by degrees beyond the altar + of Victory. Gallicanus, a consular, and Mæcenas, a Prætorian senator, + viewed with indignation their insolent intrusion: drawing their daggers, + they laid the spies (for such they deemed them) dead at the foot of the + altar, and then, advancing to the door of the senate, imprudently exhorted + the multitude to massacre the Prætorians, as the secret adherents of the + tyrant. Those who escaped the first fury of the tumult took refuge in the + camp, which they defended with superior advantage against the reiterated + attacks of the people, assisted by the numerous bands of gladiators, the + property of opulent nobles. The civil war lasted many days, with infinite + loss and confusion on both sides. When the pipes were broken that supplied + the camp with water, the Prætorians were reduced to intolerable distress; + but in their turn they made desperate sallies into the city, set fire to a + great number of houses, and filled the streets with the blood of the + inhabitants. The emperor Balbinus attempted, by ineffectual edicts and + precarious truces, to reconcile the factions at Rome. But their animosity, + though smothered for a while, burnt with redoubled violence. The soldiers, + detesting the senate and the people, despised the weakness of a prince, + who wanted either the spirit or the power to command the obedience of his + subjects. <a href="#linknote-7.40" name="linknoteref-7.40" + id="linknoteref-7.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.40" id="linknote-7.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. viii. p. + 258.] + </p> + <p> + After the tyrant’s death, his formidable army had acknowledged, from + necessity rather than from choice, the authority of Maximus, who + transported himself without delay to the camp before Aquileia. As soon as + he had received their oath of fidelity, he addressed them in terms full of + mildness and moderation; lamented, rather than arraigned the wild + disorders of the times, and assured the soldiers, that of all their past + conduct the senate would remember only their generous desertion of the + tyrant, and their voluntary return to their duty. Maximus enforced his + exhortations by a liberal donative, purified the camp by a solemn + sacrifice of expiation, and then dismissed the legions to their several + provinces, impressed, as he hoped, with a lively sense of gratitude and + obedience. <a href="#linknote-7.41" name="linknoteref-7.41" + id="linknoteref-7.41">41</a> But nothing could reconcile the haughty spirit + of the Prætorians. They attended the emperors on the memorable day of + their public entry into Rome; but amidst the general acclamations, the + sullen, dejected countenance of the guards sufficiently declared that they + considered themselves as the object, rather than the partners, of the + triumph. When the whole body was united in their camp, those who had + served under Maximin, and those who had remained at Rome, insensibly + communicated to each other their complaints and apprehensions. The + emperors chosen by the army had perished with ignominy; those elected by + the senate were seated on the throne. <a href="#linknote-7.42" + name="linknoteref-7.42" id="linknoteref-7.42">42</a> The long discord + between the civil and military powers was decided by a war, in which the + former had obtained a complete victory. The soldiers must now learn a new + doctrine of submission to the senate; and whatever clemency was affected + by that politic assembly, they dreaded a slow revenge, colored by the name + of discipline, and justified by fair pretences of the public good. But + their fate was still in their own hands; and if they had courage to + despise the vain terrors of an impotent republic, it was easy to convince + the world, that those who were masters of the arms, were masters of the + authority, of the state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.41" id="linknote-7.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. viii. p. + 213.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.42" id="linknote-7.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.42">return</a>)<br/> [ The observation had been + made imprudently enough in the acclamations of the senate, and with regard + to the soldiers it carried the appearance of a wanton insult. Hist. + August. p. 170.] + </p> + <p> + When the senate elected two princes, it is probable that, besides the + declared reason of providing for the various emergencies of peace and war, + they were actuated by the secret desire of weakening by division the + despotism of the supreme magistrate. Their policy was effectual, but it + proved fatal both to their emperors and to themselves. The jealousy of + power was soon exasperated by the difference of character. Maximus + despised Balbinus as a luxurious noble, and was in his turn disdained by + his colleague as an obscure soldier. Their silent discord was understood + rather than seen; <a href="#linknote-7.43" name="linknoteref-7.43" + id="linknoteref-7.43">43</a> but the mutual consciousness prevented them + from uniting in any vigorous measures of defence against their common + enemies of the Prætorian camp. The whole city was employed in the + Capitoline games, and the emperors were left almost alone in the palace. + On a sudden, they were alarmed by the approach of a troop of desperate + assassins. Ignorant of each other’s situation or designs (for they + already occupied very distant apartments), afraid to give or to receive + assistance, they wasted the important moments in idle debates and + fruitless recriminations. The arrival of the guards put an end to the vain + strife. They seized on these emperors of the senate, for such they called + them with malicious contempt, stripped them of their garments, and dragged + them in insolent triumph through the streets of Rome, with the design of + inflicting a slow and cruel death on these unfortunate princes. The fear + of a rescue from the faithful Germans of the Imperial guards shortened + their tortures; and their bodies, mangled with a thousand wounds, were + left exposed to the insults or to the pity of the populace. <a + href="#linknote-7.44" name="linknoteref-7.44" id="linknoteref-7.44">44</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.43" id="linknote-7.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Discordiæ tacitæ, et + quæ intelligerentur potius quam viderentur. <i>Hist. August</i>. p. 170. This + well-chosen expression is probably stolen from some better writer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.44" id="linknote-7.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. viii. p. + 287, 288.] + </p> + <p> + In the space of a few months, six princes had been cut off by the sword. + Gordian, who had already received the title of Cæsar, was the only person + that occurred to the soldiers as proper to fill the vacant throne. <a + href="#linknote-7.45" name="linknoteref-7.45" id="linknoteref-7.45">45</a> + They carried him to the camp, and unanimously saluted him Augustus and + Emperor. His name was dear to the senate and people; his tender age + promised a long impunity of military license; and the submission of Rome + and the provinces to the choice of the Prætorian guards saved the + republic, at the expense indeed of its freedom and dignity, from the + horrors of a new civil war in the heart of the capital. <a + href="#linknote-7.46" name="linknoteref-7.46" id="linknoteref-7.46">46</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.45" id="linknote-7.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Quia non alius erat in + præsenti, is the expression of the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.46" id="linknote-7.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Quintus Curtius (l. x. + c. 9,) pays an elegant compliment to the emperor of the day, for having, + by his happy accession, extinguished so many firebrands, sheathed so many + swords, and put an end to the evils of a divided government. After + weighing with attention every word of the passage, I am of opinion, that + it suits better with the elevation of Gordian, than with any other period + of the Roman history. In that case, it may serve to decide the age of + Quintus Curtius. Those who place him under the first Cæsars, argue from + the purity of his style but are embarrassed by the silence of Quintilian, + in his accurate list of Roman historians. * Note: This conjecture of + Gibbon is without foundation. Many passages in the work of Quintus Curtius + clearly place him at an earlier period. Thus, in speaking of the + Parthians, he says, Hinc in Parthicum perventum est, tunc ignobilem + gentem: nunc caput omnium qui post Euphratem et Tigrim amnes siti Rubro + mari terminantur. The Parthian empire had this extent only in the first + age of the vulgar æra: to that age, therefore, must be assigned the date + of Quintus Curtius. Although the critics (says M. de Sainte Croix) have + multiplied conjectures on this subject, most of them have ended by + adopting the opinion which places Quintus Curtius under the reign of + Claudius. See Just. Lips. ad Ann. Tac. ii. 20. Michel le Tellier Præf. in + Curt. Tillemont Hist. des Emp. i. p. 251. Du Bos Reflections sur la + Poesie, 2d Partie. Tiraboschi Storia della, Lett. Ital. ii. 149. Examen. + crit. des Historiens d’Alexandre, 2d ed. p. 104, 849, 850.—G. + ——This interminable question seems as much perplexed as ever. + The first argument of M. Guizot is a strong one, except that Parthian is + often used by later writers for Persian. Cunzius, in his preface to an + edition published at Helmstadt, (1802,) maintains the opinion of Bagnolo, + which assigns Q. Curtius to the time of Constantine the Great. Schmieder, + in his edit. Gotting. 1803, sums up in this sentence, ætatem Curtii + ignorari pala mest.—M.] + </p> + <p> + As the third Gordian was only nineteen years of age at the time of his + death, the history of his life, were it known to us with greater accuracy + than it really is, would contain little more than the account of his + education, and the conduct of the ministers, who by turns abused or guided + the simplicity of his unexperienced youth. Immediately after his + accession, he fell into the hands of his mother’s eunuchs, that pernicious + vermin of the East, who, since the days of Elagabalus, had infested the + Roman palace. By the artful conspiracy of these wretches, an impenetrable + veil was drawn between an innocent prince and his oppressed subjects, the + virtuous disposition of Gordian was deceived, and the honors of the empire + sold without his knowledge, though in a very public manner, to the most + worthless of mankind. We are ignorant by what fortunate accident the + emperor escaped from this ignominious slavery, and devolved his confidence + on a minister, whose wise counsels had no object except the glory of his + sovereign and the happiness of the people. It should seem that love and + learning introduced Misitheus to the favor of Gordian. The young prince + married the daughter of his master of rhetoric, and promoted his + father-in-law to the first offices of the empire. Two admirable letters + that passed between them are still extant. The minister, with the + conscious dignity of virtue, congratulates Gordian that he is delivered + from the tyranny of the eunuchs, <a href="#linknote-7.47" + name="linknoteref-7.47" id="linknoteref-7.47">47</a> and still more that he + is sensible of his deliverance. The emperor acknowledges, with an amiable + confusion, the errors of his past conduct; and laments, with singular + propriety, the misfortune of a monarch from whom a venal tribe of + courtiers perpetually labor to conceal the truth. <a href="#linknote-7.48" + name="linknoteref-7.48" id="linknoteref-7.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.47" id="linknote-7.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 161. + From some hints in the two letters, I should expect that the eunuchs were + not expelled the palace without some degree of gentle violence, and that + the young Gordian rather approved of, than consented to, their disgrace.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.48" id="linknote-7.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Duxit uxorem filiam + Misithei, quem causa eloquentiæ dignum parentela sua putavit; et + præfectum statim fecit; post quod, non puerile jam et contemptibile + videbatur imperium.] + </p> + <p> + The life of Misitheus had been spent in the profession of letters, not of + arms; yet such was the versatile genius of that great man, that, when he + was appointed Prætorian Præfect, he discharged the military duties of + his place with vigor and ability. The Persians had invaded Mesopotamia, + and threatened Antioch. By the persuasion of his father-in-law, the young + emperor quitted the luxury of Rome, opened, for the last time recorded in + history, the temple of Janus, and marched in person into the East. On his + approach, with a great army, the Persians withdrew their garrisons from + the cities which they had already taken, and retired from the Euphrates to + the Tigris. Gordian enjoyed the pleasure of announcing to the senate the + first success of his arms, which he ascribed, with a becoming modesty and + gratitude, to the wisdom of his father and Præfect. During the whole + expedition, Misitheus watched over the safety and discipline of the army; + whilst he prevented their dangerous murmurs by maintaining a regular + plenty in the camp, and by establishing ample magazines of vinegar, bacon, + straw, barley, and wheat in all the cities of the frontier. <a + href="#linknote-7.49" name="linknoteref-7.49" id="linknoteref-7.49">49</a> + But the prosperity of Gordian expired with Misitheus, who died of a flux, + not without very strong suspicions of poison. Philip, his successor in + the præfecture, was an Arab by birth, and consequently, in the earlier + part of his life, a robber by profession. His rise from so obscure a + station to the first dignities of the empire, seems to prove that he was a + bold and able leader. But his boldness prompted him to aspire to the + throne, and his abilities were employed to supplant, not to serve, his + indulgent master. The minds of the soldiers were irritated by an + artificial scarcity, created by his contrivance in the camp; and the + distress of the army was attributed to the youth and incapacity of the + prince. It is not in our power to trace the successive steps of the secret + conspiracy and open sedition, which were at length fatal to Gordian. A + sepulchral monument was erected to his memory on the spot <a + href="#linknote-7.50" name="linknoteref-7.50" id="linknoteref-7.50">50</a> + where he was killed, near the conflux of the Euphrates with the little + river Aboras. <a href="#linknote-7.51" name="linknoteref-7.51" + id="linknoteref-7.51">51</a> The fortunate Philip, raised to the empire by + the votes of the soldiers, found a ready obedience from the senate and the + provinces. <a href="#linknote-7.52" name="linknoteref-7.52" + id="linknoteref-7.52">52</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.49" id="linknote-7.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 162. + Aurelius Victor. Porphyrius in Vit Plotin. ap. Fabricium, Biblioth. Græc. + l. iv. c. 36. The philosopher Plotinus accompanied the army, prompted by + the love of knowledge, and by the hope of penetrating as far as India.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.50" id="linknote-7.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.50">return</a>)<br/> [ About twenty miles from + the little town of Circesium, on the frontier of the two empires. * Note: + Now Kerkesia; placed in the angle formed by the juncture of the Chaboras, + or al Khabour, with the Euphrates. This situation appeared advantageous to + Diocletian, that he raised fortifications to make it the but wark of the + empire on the side of Mesopotamia. D’Anville. Geog. Anc. ii. 196.—G. + It is the Carchemish of the Old Testament, 2 Chron. xxxv. 20. ler. xlvi. + 2.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.51" id="linknote-7.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.51">return</a>)<br/> [ The inscription (which + contained a very singular pun) was erased by the order of Licinius, who + claimed some degree of relationship to Philip, (Hist. August. p. 166;) but + the tumulus, or mound of earth which formed the sepulchre, still subsisted + in the time of Julian. See Ammian Marcellin. xxiii. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.52" id="linknote-7.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor. Eutrop. + ix. 2. Orosius, vii. 20. Ammianus Marcellinus, xxiii. 5. Zosimus, l. i. p. + 19. Philip, who was a native of Bostra, was about forty years of age. * + Note: Now Bosra. It was once the metropolis of a province named Arabia, + and the chief city of Auranitis, of which the name is preserved in Beled + Hauran, the limits of which meet the desert. D’Anville. Geog. Anc. ii. + 188. According to Victor, (in Cæsar.,) Philip was a native of Tracbonitis + another province of Arabia.—G.] + </p> + <p> + We cannot forbear transcribing the ingenious, though somewhat fanciful + description, which a celebrated writer of our own times has traced of the + military government of the Roman empire. What in that age was called the + Roman empire, was only an irregular republic, not unlike the aristocracy + <a href="#linknote-7.53" name="linknoteref-7.53" id="linknoteref-7.53">53</a> + of Algiers, <a href="#linknote-7.54" name="linknoteref-7.54" + id="linknoteref-7.54">54</a> where the militia, possessed of the + sovereignty, creates and deposes a magistrate, who is styled a Dey. + Perhaps, indeed, it may be laid down as a general rule, that a military + government is, in some respects, more republican than monarchical. Nor can + it be said that the soldiers only partook of the government by their + disobedience and rebellions. The speeches made to them by the emperors, + were they not at length of the same nature as those formerly pronounced to + the people by the consuls and the tribunes? And although the armies had no + regular place or forms of assembly; though their debates were short, their + action sudden, and their resolves seldom the result of cool reflection, + did they not dispose, with absolute sway, of the public fortune? What was + the emperor, except the minister of a violent government, elected for the + private benefit of the soldiers? + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.53" id="linknote-7.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Can the epithet of + Aristocracy be applied, with any propriety, to the government of Algiers? + Every military government floats between two extremes of absolute monarchy + and wild democracy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.54" id="linknote-7.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.54">return</a>)<br/> [ The military republic of + the Mamelukes in Egypt would have afforded M. de Montesquieu (see + Considerations sur la Grandeur et la Decadence des Romains, c. 16) a + juster and more noble parallel.] + </p> + <p> + “When the army had elected Philip, who was Prætorian præfect to the + third Gordian, the latter demanded that he might remain sole emperor; he + was unable to obtain it. He requested that the power might be equally + divided between them; the army would not listen to his speech. He + consented to be degraded to the rank of Cæsar; the favor was refused him. + He desired, at least, he might be appointed Prætorian præfect; his + prayer was rejected. Finally, he pleaded for his life. The army, in these + several judgments, exercised the supreme magistracy.” According to the + historian, whose doubtful narrative the President De Montesquieu has + adopted, Philip, who, during the whole transaction, had preserved a sullen + silence, was inclined to spare the innocent life of his benefactor; till, + recollecting that his innocence might excite a dangerous compassion in the + Roman world, he commanded, without regard to his suppliant cries, that he + should be seized, stripped, and led away to instant death. After a + moment’s pause, the inhuman sentence was executed. <a href="#linknote-7.55" + name="linknoteref-7.55" id="linknoteref-7.55">55</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.55" id="linknote-7.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.55">return</a>)<br/> [ The Augustan History (p. + 163, 164) cannot, in this instance, be reconciled with itself or with + probability. How could Philip condemn his predecessor, and yet consecrate + his memory? How could he order his public execution, and yet, in his + letters to the senate, exculpate himself from the guilt of his death? + Philip, though an ambitious usurper, was by no means a mad tyrant. Some + chronological difficulties have likewise been discovered by the nice eyes + of Tillemont and Muratori, in this supposed association of Philip to the + empire. * Note: Wenck endeavors to reconcile these discrepancies. He + supposes that Gordian was led away, and died a natural death in prison. + This is directly contrary to the statement of Capitolinus and of Zosimus, + whom he adduces in support of his theory. He is more successful in his + precedents of usurpers deifying the victims of their ambition. Sit divus, + dummodo non sit vivus.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap07.3"></a> + Chapter VII: Tyranny Of Maximin, Rebellion, Civil Wars, Death Of Maximin.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + On his return from the East to Rome, Philip, desirous of obliterating the + memory of his crimes, and of captivating the affections of the people, + solemnized the secular games with infinite pomp and magnificence. Since + their institution or revival by Augustus, <a href="#linknote-7.56" + name="linknoteref-7.56" id="linknoteref-7.56">56</a> they had been + celebrated by Claudius, by Domitian, and by Severus, and were now renewed + the fifth time, on the accomplishment of the full period of a thousand + years from the foundation of Rome. Every circumstance of the secular games + was skillfully adapted to inspire the superstitious mind with deep and + solemn reverence. The long interval between them <a href="#linknote-7.57" + name="linknoteref-7.57" id="linknoteref-7.57">57</a> exceeded the term of + human life; and as none of the spectators had already seen them, none + could flatter themselves with the expectation of beholding them a second + time. The mystic sacrifices were performed, during three nights, on the + banks of the Tyber; and the Campus Martius resounded with music and + dances, and was illuminated with innumerable lamps and torches. Slaves and + strangers were excluded from any participation in these national + ceremonies. A chorus of twenty-seven youths, and as many virgins, of noble + families, and whose parents were both alive, implored the propitious gods + in favor of the present, and for the hope of the rising generation; + requesting, in religious hymns, that according to the faith of their + ancient oracles, they would still maintain the virtue, the felicity, and + the empire of the Roman people. The magnificence of Philip’s shows and + entertainments dazzled the eyes of the multitude. The devout were employed + in the rites of superstition, whilst the reflecting few revolved in their + anxious minds the past history and the future fate of the empire.<a + href="#linknote-7.58" name="linknoteref-7.58" id="linknoteref-7.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.56" id="linknote-7.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.56">return</a>)<br/> [ The account of the last + supposed celebration, though in an enlightened period of history, was so + very doubtful and obscure, that the alternative seems not doubtful. When + the popish jubilees, the copy of the secular games, were invented by + Boniface VII., the crafty pope pretended that he only revived an ancient + institution. See M. le Chais, Lettres sur les Jubiles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.57" id="linknote-7.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Either of a hundred or a + hundred and ten years. Varro and Livy adopted the former opinion, but the + infallible authority of the Sybil consecrated the latter, (Censorinus de + Die Natal. c. 17.) The emperors Claudius and Philip, however, did not + treat the oracle with implicit respect.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-7.58" id="linknote-7.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.58">return</a>)<br/> [ The idea of the secular + games is best understood from the poem of Horace, and the description of + Zosimus, 1. l. ii. p. 167, &c.] Since Romulus, with a small band of + shepherds and outlaws, fortified himself on the hills near the Tyber, ten + centuries had already elapsed. <a href="#linknote-7.59" + name="linknoteref-7.59" id="linknoteref-7.59">59</a> During the four first + ages, the Romans, in the laborious school of poverty, had acquired the + virtues of war and government: by the vigorous exertion of those virtues, + and by the assistance of fortune, they had obtained, in the course of the + three succeeding centuries, an absolute empire over many countries of + Europe, Asia, and Africa. The last three hundred years had been consumed + in apparent prosperity and internal decline. The nation of soldiers, + magistrates, and legislators, who composed the thirty-five tribes of the + Roman people, were dissolved into the common mass of mankind, and + confounded with the millions of servile provincials, who had received the + name, without adopting the spirit, of Romans. A mercenary army, levied + among the subjects and barbarians of the frontier, was the only order of + men who preserved and abused their independence. By their tumultuary + election, a Syrian, a Goth, or an Arab, was exalted to the throne of Rome, + and invested with despotic power over the conquests and over the country + of the Scipios. <a name="linknote-7.59" id="linknote-7.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-7.59">return</a>)<br/> [The received calculation + of Varro assigns to the foundation of Rome an æra that corresponds with + the 754th year before Christ. But so little is the chronology of Rome to + be depended on, in the more early ages, that Sir Isaac Newton has brought + the same event as low as the year 627 (Compare Niebuhr vol. i. p. 271.—M.)] + </p> + <p> + The limits of the Roman empire still extended from the Western Ocean to + the Tigris, and from Mount Atlas to the Rhine and the Danube. To the + undiscerning eye of the vulgar, Philip appeared a monarch no less powerful + than Hadrian or Augustus had formerly been. The form was still the same, + but the animating health and vigor were fled. The industry of the people + was discouraged and exhausted by a long series of oppression. The + discipline of the legions, which alone, after the extinction of every + other virtue, had propped the greatness of the state, was corrupted by the + ambition, or relaxed by the weakness, of the emperors. The strength of the + frontiers, which had always consisted in arms rather than in + fortifications, was insensibly undermined; and the fairest provinces were + left exposed to the rapaciousness or ambition of the barbarians, who soon + discovered the decline of the Roman empire. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap08.1"></a> + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part + I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Of The State Of Persia After The Restoration Of The Monarchy By Artaxerxes. +</p> + <p> + Whenever Tacitus indulges himself in those beautiful episodes, in which he + relates some domestic transaction of the Germans or of the Parthians, his + principal object is to relieve the attention of the reader from a uniform + scene of vice and misery. From the reign of Augustus to the time of + Alexander Severus, the enemies of Rome were in her bosom—the tyrants + and the soldiers; and her prosperity had a very distant and feeble + interest in the revolutions that might happen beyond the Rhine and the + Euphrates. But when the military order had levelled, in wild anarchy, the + power of the prince, the laws of the senate, and even the discipline of + the camp, the barbarians of the North and of the East, who had long + hovered on the frontier, boldly attacked the provinces of a declining + monarchy. Their vexatious inroads were changed into formidable irruptions, + and, after a long vicissitude of mutual calamities, many tribes of the + victorious invaders established themselves in the provinces of the Roman + Empire. To obtain a clearer knowledge of these great events, we shall + endeavor to form a previous idea of the character, forces, and designs of + those nations who avenged the cause of Hannibal and Mithridates. + </p> + <p> + In the more early ages of the world, whilst the forest that covered Europe + afforded a retreat to a few wandering savages, the inhabitants of Asia + were already collected into populous cities, and reduced under extensive + empires the seat of the arts, of luxury, and of despotism. The Assyrians + reigned over the East, <a href="#linknote-8.1" name="linknoteref-8.1" + id="linknoteref-8.1">1</a> till the sceptre of Ninus and Semiramis dropped + from the hands of their enervated successors. The Medes and the + Babylonians divided their power, and were themselves swallowed up in the + monarchy of the Persians, whose arms could not be confined within the + narrow limits of Asia. Followed, as it is said, by two millions of <i>men</i>, + Xerxes, the descendant of Cyrus, invaded Greece. + </p> + <p> + Thirty thousand <i>soldiers</i>, under the command of Alexander, the son of Philip, + who was intrusted by the Greeks with their glory and revenge, were + sufficient to subdue Persia. The princes of the house of Seleucus usurped + and lost the Macedonian command over the East. About the same time, that, + by an ignominious treaty, they resigned to the Romans the country on this + side Mount Tarus, they were driven by the Parthians, <a + href="#linknote-8.1001" name="linknoteref-8.1001" id="linknoteref-8.1001">1001</a> + an obscure horde of Scythian origin, from all the provinces of Upper Asia. + The formidable power of the Parthians, which spread from India to the + frontiers of Syria, was in its turn subverted by Ardshir, or Artaxerxes; + the founder of a new dynasty, which, under the name of Sassanides, + governed Persia till the invasion of the Arabs. This great revolution, + whose fatal influence was soon experienced by the Romans, happened in the + fourth year of Alexander Severus, two hundred and twenty-six years after + the Christian era. <a href="#linknote-8.2" name="linknoteref-8.2" + id="linknoteref-8.2">2</a> <a href="#linknote-8.201" name="linknoteref-8.201" + id="linknoteref-8.201">201</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1" id="linknote-8.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1">return</a>)<br/> [ An ancient chronologist, + quoted by Valleius Paterculus, (l. i. c. 6,) observes, that the Assyrians, + the Medes, the Persians, and the Macedonians, reigned over Asia one + thousand nine hundred and ninety-five years, from the accession of Ninus + to the defeat of Antiochus by the Romans. As the latter of these great + events happened 289 years before Christ, the former may be placed 2184 + years before the same æra. The Astronomical Observations, found at + Babylon, by Alexander, went fifty years higher.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1001" id="linknote-8.1001"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1001 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1001">return</a>)<br/> [ The Parthians were a + tribe of the Indo-Germanic branch which dwelt on the south-east of the + Caspian, and belonged to the same race as the Getæ, the Massagetæ, and + other nations, confounded by the ancients under the vague denomination of + Scythians. Klaproth, Tableaux Hist. d l’Asie, p. 40. Strabo (p. 747) calls + the Parthians Carduchi, i.e., the inhabitants of Curdistan.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.2" id="linknote-8.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.2">return</a>)<br/> [ In the five hundred and + thirty-eighth year of the æra of Seleucus. See Agathias, l. ii. p. 63. + This great event (such is the carelessness of the Orientals) is placed by + Eutychius as high as the tenth year of Commodus, and by Moses of Chorene + as low as the reign of Philip. Ammianus Marcellinus has so servilely + copied (xxiii. 6) his ancient materials, which are indeed very good, that + he describes the family of the Arsacides as still seated on the Persian + throne in the middle of the fourth century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.201" id="linknote-8.201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.201">return</a>)<br/> [ The Persian History, + if the poetry of the Shah Nameh, the Book of Kings, may deserve that name + mentions four dynasties from the earliest ages to the invasion of the + Saracens. The Shah Nameh was composed with the view of perpetuating the + remains of the original Persian records or traditions which had survived + the Saracenic invasion. The task was undertaken by the poet Dukiki, and + afterwards, under the patronage of Mahmood of Ghazni, completed by + Ferdusi. The first of these dynasties is that of Kaiomors, as Sir W. Jones + observes, the dark and fabulous period; the second, that of the Kaianian, + the heroic and poetical, in which the earned have discovered some curious, + and imagined some fanciful, analogies with the Jewish, the Greek, and the + Roman accounts of the eastern world. See, on the Shah Nameh, Translation + by Goerres, with Von Hammer’s Review, Vienna Jahrbuch von Lit. 17, 75, 77. + Malcolm’s Persia, 8vo. ed. i. 503. Macan’s Preface to his Critical Edition + of the Shah Nameh. On the early Persian History, a very sensible abstract + of various opinions in Malcolm’s Hist. of Persian.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Artaxerxes had served with great reputation in the armies of Artaban, the + last king of the Parthians, and it appears that he was driven into exile + and rebellion by royal ingratitude, the customary reward for superior + merit. His birth was obscure, and the obscurity equally gave room to the + aspersions of his enemies, and the flattery of his adherents. If we credit + the scandal of the former, Artaxerxes sprang from the illegitimate + commerce of a tanner’s wife with a common soldier. <a href="#linknote-8.3" + name="linknoteref-8.3" id="linknoteref-8.3">3</a> The latter represent him + as descended from a branch of the ancient kings of Persian, though time + and misfortune had gradually reduced his ancestors to the humble station + of private citizens. <a href="#linknote-8.4" name="linknoteref-8.4" + id="linknoteref-8.4">4</a> As the lineal heir of the monarchy, he asserted + his right to the throne, and challenged the noble task of delivering the + Persians from the oppression under which they groaned above five centuries + since the death of Darius. The Parthians were defeated in three great + battles. <a href="#linknote-8.401" name="linknoteref-8.401" + id="linknoteref-8.401">401</a> In the last of these their king Artaban was + slain, and the spirit of the nation was forever broken. <a + href="#linknote-8.5" name="linknoteref-8.5" id="linknoteref-8.5">5</a> The + authority of Artaxerxes was solemnly acknowledged in a great assembly held + at Balch in Khorasan. <a href="#linknote-8.501" name="linknoteref-8.501" + id="linknoteref-8.501">501</a> Two younger branches of the royal house of + Arsaces were confounded among the prostrate satraps. A third, more mindful + of ancient grandeur than of present necessity, attempted to retire, with a + numerous train of vessels, towards their kinsman, the king of Armenia; but + this little army of deserters was intercepted, and cut off, by the + vigilance of the conqueror, <a href="#linknote-8.6" name="linknoteref-8.6" + id="linknoteref-8.6">6</a> who boldly assumed the double diadem, and the + title of King of Kings, which had been enjoyed by his predecessor. But + these pompous titles, instead of gratifying the vanity of the Persian, + served only to admonish him of his duty, and to inflame in his soul + the ambition of restoring in their full splendor, the religion and + empire of Cyrus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.3" id="linknote-8.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.3">return</a>)<br/> [ The tanner’s name was + Babec; the soldier’s, Sassan: from the former Artaxerxes obtained the + surname of Babegan, from the latter all his descendants have been styled + Sassanides.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.4" id="linknote-8.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.4">return</a>)<br/> [ D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque + Orientale, Ardshir.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.401" id="linknote-8.401"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 401 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.401">return</a>)<br/> [ In the plain of + Hoormuz, the son of Babek was hailed in the field with the proud title of + Shahan Shah, king of kings—a name ever since assumed by the + sovereigns of Persia. Malcolm, i. 71.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.5" id="linknote-8.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxxx. + Herodian, l. vi. p. 207. Abulpharagins Dynast. p. 80.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.501" id="linknote-8.501"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 501 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.501">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Persian + account of the rise of Ardeschir Babegan in Malcolm l 69.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.6" id="linknote-8.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.6">return</a>)<br/> [ See Moses Chorenensis, l. + ii. c. 65—71.] + </p> + <p> + I. During the long servitude of Persia under the Macedonian and the + Parthian yoke, the nations of Europe and Asia had mutually adopted and + corrupted each other’s superstitions. The Arsacides, indeed, practised the + worship of the Magi; but they disgraced and polluted it with a various + mixture of foreign idolatry. <a href="#linknote-8.601" + name="linknoteref-8.601" id="linknoteref-8.601">601</a> The memory of + Zoroaster, the ancient prophet and philosopher of the Persians, <a + href="#linknote-8.7" name="linknoteref-8.7" id="linknoteref-8.7">7</a> was + still revered in the East; but the obsolete and mysterious language, in + which the Zendavesta was composed, <a href="#linknote-8.8" + name="linknoteref-8.8" id="linknoteref-8.8">8</a> opened a field of dispute + to seventy sects, who variously explained the fundamental doctrines of + their religion, and were all indifferently devided by a crowd of infidels, + who rejected the divine mission and miracles of the prophet. To suppress + the idolaters, reunite the schismatics, and confute the unbelievers, by + the infallible decision of a general council, the pious Artaxerxes + summoned the Magi from all parts of his dominions. These priests, who had + so long sighed in contempt and obscurity obeyed the welcome summons; and, + on the appointed day, appeared, to the number of about eighty thousand. + But as the debates of so tumultuous an assembly could not have been + directed by the authority of reason, or influenced by the art of policy, + the Persian synod was reduced, by successive operations, to forty + thousand, to four thousand, to four hundred, to forty, and at last to + seven Magi, the most respected for their learning and piety. One of these, + Erdaviraph, a young but holy prelate, received from the hands of his + brethren three cups of soporiferous wine. He drank them off, and instantly + fell into a long and profound sleep. As soon as he waked, he related to + the king and to the believing multitude, his journey to heaven, and his + intimate conferences with the Deity. Every doubt was silenced by this + supernatural evidence; and the articles of the faith of Zoroaster were + fixed with equal authority and precision. <a href="#linknote-8.9" + name="linknoteref-8.9" id="linknoteref-8.9">9</a> A short delineation of + that celebrated system will be found useful, not only to display the + character of the Persian nation, but to illustrate many of their most + important transactions, both in peace and war, with the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-8.10" name="linknoteref-8.10" id="linknoteref-8.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.601" id="linknote-8.601"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 601 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.601">return</a>)<br/> [ Silvestre de Sacy + (Antiquites de la Perse) had proved the neglect of the Zoroastrian + religion under the Parthian kings.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.7" id="linknote-8.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde and Prideaux, working + up the Persian legends and their own conjectures into a very agreeable + story, represent Zoroaster as a contemporary of Darius Hystaspes. But it + is sufficient to observe, that the Greek writers, who lived almost in the + age of Darius, agree in placing the æra of Zoroaster many hundred, or + even thousand, years before their own time. The judicious criticisms of + Mr. Moyle perceived, and maintained against his uncle, Dr. Prideaux, the + antiquity of the Persian prophet. See his work, vol. ii. * Note: There are + three leading theories concerning the age of Zoroaster: 1. That which + assigns him to an age of great and almost indefinite antiquity—it is + that of Moyle, adopted by Gibbon, Volney, Recherches sur l’Histoire, ii. + 2. Rhode, also, (die Heilige Sage, &c.,) in a very ingenious and + ably-developed theory, throws the Bactrian prophet far back into antiquity + 2. Foucher, (Mem. de l’Acad. xxvii. 253,) Tychsen, (in Com. Soc. Gott. ii. + 112), Heeren, (ldeen. i. 459,) and recently Holty, identify the Gushtasp + of the Persian mythological history with Cyaxares the First, the king of + the Medes, and consider the religion to be Median in its origin. M. Guizot + considers this opinion most probable, note in loc. 3. Hyde, Prideaux, + Anquetil du Perron, Kleuker, Herder, Goerres, (Mythen-Geschichte,) Von + Hammer. (Wien. Jahrbuch, vol. ix.,) Malcolm, (i. 528,) De Guigniaut, + (Relig. de l’Antiq. 2d part, vol. iii.,) Klaproth, (Tableaux de l’Asie, p. + 21,) make Gushtasp Darius Hystaspes, and Zoroaster his contemporary. The + silence of Herodotus appears the great objection to this theory. Some + writers, as M. Foucher (resting, as M. Guizot observes, on the doubtful + authority of Pliny,) make more than one Zoroaster, and so attempt to + reconcile the conflicting theories.— M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.8" id="linknote-8.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.8">return</a>)<br/> [ That ancient idiom was + called the Zend. The language of the commentary, the Pehlvi, though much + more modern, has ceased many ages ago to be a living tongue. This fact + alone (if it is allowed as authentic) sufficiently warrants the antiquity + of those writings which M d’Anquetil has brought into Europe, and + translated into French. * Note: Zend signifies life, living. The word + means, either the collection of the canonical books of the followers of + Zoroaster, or the language itself in which they are written. They are the + books that contain the word of life whether the language was originally + called Zend, or whether it was so called from the contents of the books. + Avesta means word, oracle, revelation: this term is not the title of a + particular work, but of the collection of the books of Zoroaster, as the + revelation of Ormuzd. This collection is sometimes called Zendavesta, + sometimes briefly Zend. The Zend was the ancient language of Media, as is + proved by its affinity with the dialects of Armenia and Georgia; it was + already a dead language under the Arsacides in the country which was the + scene of the events recorded in the Zendavesta. Some critics, among others + Richardson and Sir W. Jones, have called in question the antiquity of + these books. The former pretended that Zend had never been a written or + spoken language, but had been invented in the later times by the Magi, for + the purposes of their art; but Kleuker, in the dissertations which he + added to those of Anquetil and the Abbé Foucher, has proved that the Zend + was a living and spoken language.—G. Sir W. Jones appears to have + abandoned his doubts, on discovering the affinity between the Zend and the + Sanskrit. Since the time of Kleuker, this question has been investigated + by many learned scholars. Sir W. Jones, Leyden, (Asiat. Research. x. 283,) + and Mr. Erskine, (Bombay Trans. ii. 299,) consider it a derivative from + the Sanskrit. The antiquity of the Zendavesta has likewise been asserted + by Rask, the great Danish linguist, who, according to Malcolm, brought + back from the East fresh transcripts and additions to those published by + Anquetil. According to Rask, the Zend and Sanskrit are sister dialects; + the one the parent of the Persian, the other of the Indian family of + languages.—G. and M.——But the subject is more + satisfactorily illustrated in Bopp’s comparative Grammar of the Sanscrit, + Zend, Greek, Latin, Lithuanian, Gothic, and German languages. Berlin. + 1833-5. According to Bopp, the Zend is, in some respects, of a more + remarkable structure than the Sanskrit. Parts of the Zendavesta have been + published in the original, by M. Bournouf, at Paris, and M. Ol. shausen, + in Hamburg.—M.——The Pehlvi was the language of the + countries bordering on Assyria, and probably of Assyria itself. Pehlvi + signifies valor, heroism; the Pehlvi, therefore, was the language of the + ancient heroes and kings of Persia, the valiant. (Mr. Erskine prefers the + derivation from Pehla, a border.—M.) It contains a number of Aramaic + roots. Anquetil considered it formed from the Zend. Kleuker does not adopt + this opinion. The Pehlvi, he says, is much more flowing, and less + overcharged with vowels, than the Zend. The books of Zoroaster, first + written in Zend, were afterwards translated into Pehlvi and Parsi. The + Pehlvi had fallen into disuse under the dynasty of the Sassanides, but the + learned still wrote it. The Parsi, the dialect of Pars or Farristan, was + then prevailing dialect. Kleuker, Anhang zum Zend Avesta, 2, ii. part i. + p. 158, part ii. 31.—G.——Mr. Erskine (Bombay + Transactions) considers the existing Zendavesta to have been compiled in + the time of Ardeschir Babegan.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.9" id="linknote-8.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Religione veterum + Pers. c. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.10" id="linknote-8.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.10">return</a>)<br/> [ I have principally drawn + this account from the Zendavesta of M. d’Anquetil, and the Sadder, + subjoined to Dr. Hyde’s treatise. It must, however, be confessed, that the + studied obscurity of a prophet, the figurative style of the East, and the + deceitful medium of a French or Latin version may have betrayed us into + error and heresy, in this abridgment of Persian theology. * Note: It is to + be regretted that Gibbon followed the post-Mahometan Sadder of Hyde.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The great and fundamental article of the system was the celebrated + doctrine of the two principles; a bold and injudicious attempt of Eastern + philosophy to reconcile the existence of moral and physical evil with the + attributes of a beneficent Creator and Governor of the world. The first + and original Being, in whom, or by whom, the universe exists, is + denominated in the writings of Zoroaster, <i>Time without bounds</i>; <a + href="#linknote-8.1001a" name="linknoteref-8.1001a" id="linknoteref-8.1001a">1001a</a> + but it must be confessed, that this infinite substance seems rather a + metaphysical abstraction of the mind than a real object endowed with + self-consciousness, or possessed of moral perfections. From either the + blind or the intelligent operation of this infinite Time, which bears but + too near an affinity with the chaos of the Greeks, the two secondary but + active principles of the universe were from all eternity produced, Ormusd + and Ahriman, each of them possessed of the powers of creation, but each + disposed, by his invariable nature, to exercise them with different + designs. <a href="#linknote-8.1002" name="linknoteref-8.1002" + id="linknoteref-8.1002">1002</a> The principle of good is eternally aborbed + in light; the principle of evil eternally buried in darkness. The wise + benevolence of Ormusd formed man capable of virtue, and abundantly + provided his fair habitation with the materials of happiness. By his + vigilant providence, the motion of the planets, the order of the seasons, + and the temperate mixture of the elements, are preserved. But the malice + of Ahriman has long since pierced <i>Ormusd’s egg;</i> or, in other words, has + violated the harmony of his works. Since that fatal eruption, the most + minute articles of good and evil are intimately intermingled and agitated + together; the rankest poisons spring up amidst the most salutary plants; + deluges, earthquakes, and conflagrations attest the conflict of Nature, + and the little world of man is perpetually shaken by vice and misfortune. + Whilst the rest of human kind are led away captives in the chains of their + infernal enemy, the faithful Persian alone reserves his religious + adoration for his friend and protector Ormusd, and fights under his banner + of light, in the full confidence that he shall, in the last day, share the + glory of his triumph. At that decisive period, the enlightened wisdom of + goodness will render the power of Ormusd superior to the furious malice of + his rival. Ahriman and his followers, disarmed and subdued, will sink into + their native darkness; and virtue will maintain the eternal peace and + harmony of the universe. <a href="#linknote-8.11" name="linknoteref-8.11" + id="linknoteref-8.11">11</a> <a href="#linknote-8.1101" + name="linknoteref-8.1101" id="linknoteref-8.1101">1101</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1001a" id="linknote-8.1001a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1001a (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1001a">return</a>)<br/> [ Zeruane Akerene, + so translated by Anquetil and Kleuker. There is a dissertation of Foucher + on this subject, Mem. de l’Acad. des Inscr. t. xxix. According to Bohlen + (das alte Indien) it is the Sanskrit Sarvan Akaranam, the Uncreated Whole; + or, according to Fred. Schlegel, Sarvan Akharyam the Uncreate Indivisible.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1002" id="linknote-8.1002"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1002 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1002">return</a>)<br/> [ This is an error. + Ahriman was not forced by his invariable nature to do evil; the Zendavesta + expressly recognizes (see the Izeschne) that he was born good, that in his + origin he was light; envy rendered him evil; he became jealous of the + power and attributes of Ormuzd; then light was changed into darkness, and + Ahriman was precipitated into the abyss. See the Abridgment of the + Doctrine of the Ancient Persians, by Anquetil, c. ii Section 2.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.11" id="linknote-8.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.11">return</a>)<br/> [ The modern Parsees (and + in some degree the Sadder) exalt Ormusd into the first and omnipotent + cause, whilst they degrade Ahriman into an inferior but rebellious spirit. + Their desire of pleasing the Mahometans may have contributed to refine + their theological systems.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1101" id="linknote-8.1101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1101 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1101">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the + Zendavesta, Ahriman will not be annihilated or precipitated forever into + darkness: at the resurrection of the dead he will be entirely defeated by + Ormuzd, his power will be destroyed, his kingdom overthrown to its + foundations, he will himself be purified in torrents of melting metal; he + will change his heart and his will, become holy, heavenly establish in his + dominions the law and word of Ormuzd, unite himself with him in + everlasting friendship, and both will sing hymns in honor of the Great + Eternal. See Anquetil’s Abridgment. Kleuker, Anhang part iii. p 85, 36; + and the Izeschne, one of the books of the Zendavesta. According to the + Sadder Bun-Dehesch, a more modern work, Ahriman is to be annihilated: but + this is contrary to the text itself of the Zendavesta, and to the idea its + author gives of the kingdom of Eternity, after the twelve thousand years + assigned to the contest between Good and Evil.—G.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap08.2"></a> + Chapter VIII: State Of Persia And Restoration Of The Monarchy.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + The theology of Zoroaster was darkly comprehended by foreigners, and even + by the far greater number of his disciples; but the most careless + observers were struck with the philosophic simplicity of the Persian + worship. “That people,” said Herodotus, <a href="#linknote-8.12" + name="linknoteref-8.12" id="linknoteref-8.12">12</a> “rejects the use of + temples, of altars, and of statues, and smiles at the folly of those + nations who imagine that the gods are sprung from, or bear any affinity + with, the human nature. The tops of the highest mountains are the places + chosen for sacrifices. Hymns and prayers are the principal worship; the + Supreme God, who fills the wide circle of heaven, is the object to whom + they are addressed.” Yet, at the same time, in the true spirit of a + polytheist, he accuseth them of adoring Earth, Water, Fire, the Winds, and + the Sun and Moon. But the Persians of every age have denied the charge, + and explained the equivocal conduct, which might appear to give a color to + it. The elements, and more particularly Fire, Light, and the Sun, whom + they called Mithra, <a href="#linknote-8.1201" name="linknoteref-8.1201" + id="linknoteref-8.1201">1201</a> were the objects of their religious + reverence because they considered them as the purest symbols, the noblest + productions, and the most powerful agents of the Divine Power and Nature. + <a href="#linknote-8.13" name="linknoteref-8.13" id="linknoteref-8.13">13</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.12" id="linknote-8.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodotus, l. i. c. 131. + But Dr. Prideaux thinks, with reason, that the use of temples was + afterwards permitted in the Magian religion. Note: The Pyræa, or fire + temples of the Zoroastrians, (observes Kleuker, Persica, p. 16,) were only + to be found in Media or Aderbidjan, provinces into which Herodotus did not + penetrate.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1201" id="linknote-8.1201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1201 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1201">return</a>)<br/> [ Among the Persians + Mithra is not the Sun: Anquetil has contested and triumphantly refuted the + opinion of those who confound them, and it is evidently contrary to the + text of the Zendavesta. Mithra is the first of the genii, or jzeds, + created by Ormuzd; it is he who watches over all nature. Hence arose the + misapprehension of some of the Greeks, who have said that Mithra was the + summus deus of the Persians: he has a thousand ears and ten thousand eyes. + The Chaldeans appear to have assigned him a higher rank than the Persians. + It is he who bestows upon the earth the light of the sun. The sun. named + Khor, (brightness,) is thus an inferior genius, who, with many other + genii, bears a part in the functions of Mithra. These assistant genii to + another genius are called his kamkars; but in the Zendavesta they are + never confounded. On the days sacred to a particular genius, the Persian + ought to recite, not only the prayers addressed to him, but those also + which are addressed to his kamkars; thus the hymn or iescht of Mithra is + recited on the day of the sun, (Khor,) and vice versa. It is probably this + which has sometimes caused them to be confounded; but Anquetil had himself + exposed this error, which Kleuker, and all who have studied the + Zendavesta, have noticed. See viii. Diss. of Anquetil. Kleuker’s Anhang, + part iii. p. 132.—G. M. Guizot is unquestionably right, according to + the pure and original doctrine of the Zend. The Mithriac worship, which + was so extensively propagated in the West, and in which Mithra and the sun + were perpetually confounded, seems to have been formed from a fusion of + Zoroastrianism and Chaldaism, or the Syrian worship of the sun. An + excellent abstract of the question, with references to the works of the + chief modern writers on his curious subject, De Sacy, Kleuker, Von Hammer, + &c., may be found in De Guigniaut’s translation of Kreuzer. Relig. + d’Antiquite, notes viii. ix. to book ii. vol. i. 2d part, page 728.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.13" id="linknote-8.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Relig. Pers. c. + 8. Notwithstanding all their distinctions and protestations, which seem + sincere enough, their tyrants, the Mahometans, have constantly stigmatized + them as idolatrous worshippers of the fire.] + </p> + <p> + Every mode of religion, to make a deep and lasting impression on the human + mind, must exercise our obedience, by enjoining practices of devotion, for + which we can assign no reason; and must acquire our esteem, by inculcating + moral duties analogous to the dictates of our own hearts. The religion of + Zoroaster was abundantly provided with the former and possessed a + sufficient portion of the latter. At the age of puberty, the faithful + Persian was invested with a mysterious girdle, the badge of the divine + protection; and from that moment all the actions of his life, even the + most indifferent, or the most necessary, were sanctified by their peculiar + prayers, ejaculations, or genuflections; the omission of which, under any + circumstances, was a grievous sin, not inferior in guilt to the violation + of the moral duties. The moral duties, however, of justice, mercy, + liberality, &c., were in their turn required of the disciple of + Zoroaster, who wished to escape the persecution of Ahriman, and to live + with Ormusd in a blissful eternity, where the degree of felicity will be + exactly proportioned to the degree of virtue and piety. <a + href="#linknote-8.14" name="linknoteref-8.14" id="linknoteref-8.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.14" id="linknote-8.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.14">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Sadder, the + smallest part of which consists of moral precepts. The ceremonies enjoined + are infinite and trifling. Fifteen genuflections, prayers, &c., were + required whenever the devout Persian cut his nails or made water; or as + often as he put on the sacred girdle Sadder, Art. 14, 50, 60. * Note: + Zoroaster exacted much less ceremonial observance, than at a later period, + the priests of his doctrines. This is the progress of all religions the + worship, simple in its origin, is gradually overloaded with minute + superstitions. The maxim of the Zendavesta, on the relative merit of + sowing the earth and of prayers, quoted below by Gibbon, proves that + Zoroaster did not attach too much importance to these observances. Thus it + is not from the Zendavesta that Gibbon derives the proof of his + allegation, but from the Sadder, a much later work.—G] + </p> + <p> + But there are some remarkable instances in which Zoroaster lays aside the + prophet, assumes the legislator, and discovers a liberal concern for + private and public happiness, seldom to be found among the grovelling or + visionary schemes of superstition. Fasting and celibacy, the common means + of purchasing the divine favor, he condemns with abhorrence as a criminal + rejection of the best gifts of Providence. The saint, in the Magian + religion, is obliged to beget children, to plant useful trees, to destroy + noxious animals, to convey water to the dry lands of Persia, and to work + out his salvation by pursuing all the labors of agriculture. <a + href="#linknote-8.1401" name="linknoteref-8.1401" id="linknoteref-8.1401">1401</a> + We may quote from the Zendavesta a wise and benevolent maxim, which + compensates for many an absurdity. “He who sows the ground with care and + diligence acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he could gain + by the repetition of ten thousand prayers.” <a href="#linknote-8.15" + name="linknoteref-8.15" id="linknoteref-8.15">15</a> In the spring of every + year a festival was celebrated, destined to represent the primitive + equality, and the present connection, of mankind. The stately kings of + Persia, exchanging their vain pomp for more genuine greatness, freely + mingled with the humblest but most useful of their subjects. On that day + the husbandmen were admitted, without distinction, to the table of the + king and his satraps. The monarch accepted their petitions, inquired into + their grievances, and conversed with them on the most equal terms. “From + your labors,” was he accustomed to say, (and to say with truth, if not + with sincerity,) “from your labors we receive our subsistence; you derive + your tranquillity from our vigilance: since, therefore, we are mutually + necessary to each other, let us live together like brothers in concord and + love.” <a href="#linknote-8.16" name="linknoteref-8.16" id="linknoteref-8.16">16</a> + Such a festival must indeed have degenerated, in a wealthy and despotic + empire, into a theatrical representation; but it was at least a comedy + well worthy of a royal audience, and which might sometimes imprint a + salutary lesson on the mind of a young prince. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.1401" id="linknote-8.1401"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1401 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.1401">return</a>)<br/> [ See, on Zoroaster’s + encouragement of agriculture, the ingenious remarks of Heeren, Ideen, vol. + i. p. 449, &c., and Rhode, Heilige Sage, p. 517—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.15" id="linknote-8.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Zendavesta, tom. i. p. + 224, and Precis du Systeme de Zoroastre, tom. iii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.16" id="linknote-8.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Religione + Persarum, c. 19.] + </p> + <p> + Had Zoroaster, in all his institutions, invariably supported this exalted + character, his name would deserve a place with those of Numa and + Confucius, and his system would be justly entitled to all the applause, + which it has pleased some of our divines, and even some of our + philosophers, to bestow on it. But in that motley composition, dictated by + reason and passion, by enthusiasm and by selfish motives, some useful and + sublime truths were disgraced by a mixture of the most abject and + dangerous superstition. The Magi, or sacerdotal order, were extremely + numerous, since, as we have already seen, fourscore thousand of them were + convened in a general council. Their forces were multiplied by discipline. + A regular hierarchy was diffused through all the provinces of Persia; and + the Archimagus, who resided at Balch, was respected as the visible head of + the church, and the lawful successor of Zoroaster. <a href="#linknote-8.17" + name="linknoteref-8.17" id="linknoteref-8.17">17</a> The property of the + Magi was very considerable. Besides the less invidious possession of a + large tract of the most fertile lands of Media, <a href="#linknote-8.18" + name="linknoteref-8.18" id="linknoteref-8.18">18</a> they levied a general + tax on the fortunes and the industry of the Persians. <a + href="#linknote-8.19" name="linknoteref-8.19" id="linknoteref-8.19">19</a> + “Though your good works,” says the interested prophet, “exceed in number + the leaves of the trees, the drops of rain, the stars in the heaven, or + the sands on the sea-shore, they will all be unprofitable to you, unless + they are accepted by the <i>destour</i>, or priest. To obtain the acceptation of + this guide to salvation, you must faithfully pay him <i>tithes</i> of all you + possess, of your goods, of your lands, and of your money. If the destour + be satisfied, your soul will escape hell tortures; you will secure praise + in this world and happiness in the next. For the destours are the teachers + of religion; they know all things, and they deliver all men.” <a + href="#linknote-8.20" name="linknoteref-8.20" id="linknoteref-8.20">20</a> <a + href="#linknote-8.201a" name="linknoteref-8.201a" id="linknoteref-8.201a">201a</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.17" id="linknote-8.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Religione + Persarum, c. 28. Both Hyde and Prideaux affect to apply to the Magian the + terms consecrated to the Christian hierarchy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.18" id="linknote-8.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Ammian. Marcellin. + xxiii. 6. He informs us (as far as we may credit him) of two curious + particulars: 1. That the Magi derived some of their most secret doctrines + from the Indian Brachmans; and 2. That they were a tribe, or family, as + well as order.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.19" id="linknote-8.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.19">return</a>)<br/> [ The divine institution + of tithes exhibits a singular instance of conformity between the law of + Zoroaster and that of Moses. Those who cannot otherwise account for it, + may suppose, if they please that the Magi of the latter times inserted so + useful an interpolation into the writings of their prophet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.20" id="linknote-8.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Sadder, Art. viii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.201a" id="linknote-8.201a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201a (<a href="#linknoteref-8.201a">return</a>)<br/> [ The passage quoted + by Gibbon is not taken from the writings of Zoroaster, but from the + Sadder, a work, as has been before said, much later than the books which + form the Zendavesta. and written by a Magus for popular use; what it + contains, therefore, cannot be attributed to Zoroaster. It is remarkable + that Gibbon should fall into this error, for Hyde himself does not ascribe + the Sadder to Zoroaster; he remarks that it is written inverse, while + Zoroaster always wrote in prose. Hyde, i. p. 27. Whatever may be the case + as to the latter assertion, for which there appears little foundation, it + is unquestionable that the Sadder is of much later date. The Abbé Foucher + does not even believe it to be an extract from the works of Zoroaster. See + his Diss. before quoted. Mem. de l’Acad. des Ins. t. xxvii.—G. + Perhaps it is rash to speak of any part of the Zendavesta as the writing + of Zoroaster, though it may be a genuine representation of his. As to the + Sadder, Hyde (in Præf.) considered it not above 200 years old. It is + manifestly post-Mahometan. See Art. xxv. on fasting.—M.] + </p> + <p> + These convenient maxims of reverence and implicit faith were doubtless imprinted + with care on the tender minds of youth; since the Magi were the masters of + education in Persia, and to their hands the children even of the royal + family were intrusted. <a href="#linknote-8.21" name="linknoteref-8.21" + id="linknoteref-8.21">21</a> The Persian priests, who were of a speculative + genius, preserved and investigated the secrets of Oriental philosophy; and + acquired, either by superior knowledge, or superior art, the reputation of + being well versed in some occult sciences, which have derived their + appellation from the Magi. <a href="#linknote-8.22" name="linknoteref-8.22" + id="linknoteref-8.22">22</a> Those of more active dispositions mixed with + the world in courts and cities; and it is observed, that the + administration of Artaxerxes was in a great measure directed by the + counsels of the sacerdotal order, whose dignity, either from policy or + devotion, that prince restored to its ancient splendor. <a + href="#linknote-8.23" name="linknoteref-8.23" id="linknoteref-8.23">23</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.21" id="linknote-8.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Plato in Alcibiad.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.22" id="linknote-8.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. l. + xxx. c. 1) observes, that magic held mankind by the triple chain of + religion, of physic, and of astronomy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.23" id="linknote-8.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Agathias, l. iv. p. + 134.] + </p> + <p> + The first counsel of the Magi was agreeable to the unsociable genius of + their faith, <a href="#linknote-8.24" name="linknoteref-8.24" + id="linknoteref-8.24">24</a> to the practice of ancient kings, <a + href="#linknote-8.25" name="linknoteref-8.25" id="linknoteref-8.25">25</a> + and even to the example of their legislator, who had fallen a victim to a + religious war, excited by his own intolerant zeal. <a href="#linknote-8.26" + name="linknoteref-8.26" id="linknoteref-8.26">26</a> By an edict of + Artaxerxes, the exercise of every worship, except that of Zoroaster, was + severely prohibited. The temples of the Parthians, and the statues of + their deified monarchs, were thrown down with ignominy. <a + href="#linknote-8.27" name="linknoteref-8.27" id="linknoteref-8.27">27</a> + The sword of Aristotle (such was the name given by the Orientals to the + polytheism and philosophy of the Greeks) was easily broken; <a + href="#linknote-8.28" name="linknoteref-8.28" id="linknoteref-8.28">28</a> + the flames of persecution soon reached the more stubborn Jews and + Christians; <a href="#linknote-8.29" name="linknoteref-8.29" + id="linknoteref-8.29">29</a> nor did they spare the heretics of their own + nation and religion. The majesty of Ormusd, who was jealous of a rival, + was seconded by the despotism of Artaxerxes, who could not suffer a rebel; + and the schismatics within his vast empire were soon reduced to the + inconsiderable number of eighty thousand. <a href="#linknote-8.30" + name="linknoteref-8.30" id="linknoteref-8.30">30</a> <a href="#linknote-8.301" + name="linknoteref-8.301" id="linknoteref-8.301">301</a> This spirit of + persecution reflects dishonor on the religion of Zoroaster; but as it was + not productive of any civil commotion, it served to strengthen the new + monarchy, by uniting all the various inhabitants of Persia in the bands of + religious zeal. <a href="#linknote-8.302" name="linknoteref-8.302" + id="linknoteref-8.302">302</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.24" id="linknote-8.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Hume, in the Natural + History of Religion, sagaciously remarks, that the most refined and + philosophic sects are constantly the most intolerant. * Note: Hume’s + comparison is rather between theism and polytheism. In India, in Greece, + and in modern Europe, philosophic religion has looked down with + contemptuous toleration on the superstitions of the vulgar.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.25" id="linknote-8.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero de Legibus, ii. + 10. Xerxes, by the advice of the Magi, destroyed the temples of Greece.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.26" id="linknote-8.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Relig. Persar. + c. 23, 24. D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale, Zurdusht. Life of Zoroaster + in tom. ii. of the Zendavesta.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.27" id="linknote-8.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Compare Moses of + Chorene, l. ii. c. 74, with Ammian. Marcel lin. xxiii. 6. Hereafter I + shall make use of these passages.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.28" id="linknote-8.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Rabbi Abraham, in the + Tarikh Schickard, p. 108, 109.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.29" id="linknote-8.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.29">return</a>)<br/> [ Basnage, Histoire des + Juifs, l. viii. c. 3. Sozomen, l. ii. c. 1 Manes, who suffered an + ignominious death, may be deemed a Magian as well as a Christian heretic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.30" id="linknote-8.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Hyde de Religione + Persar. c. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.301" id="linknote-8.301"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 301 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.301">return</a>)<br/> [ It is incorrect to + attribute these persecutions to Artaxerxes. The Jews were held in honor by + him, and their schools flourished during his reign. Compare Jost, + Geschichte der Isræliter, b. xv. 5, with Basnage. Sapor was forced by the + people to temporary severities; but their real persecution did not begin + till the reigns of Yezdigerd and Kobad. Hist. of Jews, iii. 236. According + to Sozomen, i. viii., Sapor first persecuted the Christians. Manes was put + to death by Varanes the First, A. D. 277. Beausobre, Hist. de Man. i. 209.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.302" id="linknote-8.302"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 302 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.302">return</a>)<br/> [ In the testament of + Ardischer in Ferdusi, the poet assigns these sentiments to the dying king, + as he addresses his son: Never forget that as a king, you are at once the + protector of religion and of your country. Consider the altar and the + throne as inseparable; they must always sustain each other. Malcolm’s + Persia. i. 74—M] + </p> + <p> + II. Artaxerxes, by his valor and conduct, had wrested the sceptre of the + East from the ancient royal family of Parthia. There still remained the + more difficult task of establishing, throughout the vast extent of Persia, + a uniform and vigorous administration. The weak indulgence of the + Arsacides had resigned to their sons and brothers the principal provinces, + and the greatest offices of the kingdom in the nature of hereditary + possessions. The <i>vitaxæ</i>, or eighteen most powerful satraps, were + permitted to assume the regal title; and the vain pride of the monarch was + delighted with a nominal dominion over so many vassal kings. Even tribes + of barbarians in their mountains, and the Greek cities of Upper Asia, <a + href="#linknote-8.31" name="linknoteref-8.31" id="linknoteref-8.31">31</a> + within their walls, scarcely acknowledged, or seldom obeyed. any superior; + and the Parthian empire exhibited, under other names, a lively image of + the feudal system <a href="#linknote-8.32" name="linknoteref-8.32" + id="linknoteref-8.32">32</a> which has since prevailed in Europe. But the + active victor, at the head of a numerous and disciplined army, visited in + person every province of Persia. The defeat of the boldest rebels, and the + reduction of the strongest fortifications, <a href="#linknote-8.33" + name="linknoteref-8.33" id="linknoteref-8.33">33</a> diffused the terror of + his arms, and prepared the way for the peaceful reception of his + authority. An obstinate resistance was fatal to the chiefs; but their + followers were treated with lenity. <a href="#linknote-8.34" + name="linknoteref-8.34" id="linknoteref-8.34">34</a> A cheerful submission + was rewarded with honors and riches, but the prudent Artaxerxes, suffering + no person except himself to assume the title of king, abolished every + intermediate power between the throne and the people. His kingdom, nearly + equal in extent to modern Persia, was, on every side, bounded by the sea, + or by great rivers; by the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Araxes, the Oxus, + and the Indus, by the Caspian Sea, and the Gulf of Persia. <a + href="#linknote-8.35" name="linknoteref-8.35" id="linknoteref-8.35">35</a> + That country was computed to contain, in the last century, five hundred + and fifty-four cities, sixty thousand villages, and about forty millions + of souls. <a href="#linknote-8.36" name="linknoteref-8.36" + id="linknoteref-8.36">36</a> If we compare the administration of the house + of Sassan with that of the house of Sefi, the political influence of the + Magian with that of the Mahometan religion, we shall probably infer, that + the kingdom of Artaxerxes contained at least as great a number of cities, + villages, and inhabitants. But it must likewise be confessed, that in + every age the want of harbors on the sea-coast, and the scarcity of fresh + water in the inland provinces, have been very unfavorable to the commerce + and agriculture of the Persians; who, in the calculation of their numbers, + seem to have indulged one of the meanest, though most common, artifices of + national vanity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.31" id="linknote-8.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.31">return</a>)<br/> [ These colonies were + extremely numerous. Seleucus Nicator founded thirty-nine cities, all named + from himself, or some of his relations, (see Appian in Syriac. p. 124.) + The æra of Seleucus (still in use among the eastern Christians) appears + as late as the year 508, of Christ 196, on the medals of the Greek cities + within the Parthian empire. See Moyle’s works, vol. i. p. 273, &c., + and M. Freret, Mem. de l’Academie, tom. xix.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.32" id="linknote-8.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.32">return</a>)<br/> [ The modern Persians + distinguish that period as the dynasty of the kings of the nations. See + Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 25.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.33" id="linknote-8.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutychius (tom. i. p. + 367, 371, 375) relates the siege of the island of Mesene in the Tigris, + with some circumstances not unlike the story of Nysus and Scylla.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.34" id="linknote-8.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Agathias, ii. 64, [and + iv. p. 260.] The princes of Segestan de fended their independence during + many years. As romances generally transport to an ancient period the + events of their own time, it is not impossible that the fabulous exploits + of Rustan, Prince of Segestan, many have been grafted on this real + history.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.35" id="linknote-8.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.35">return</a>)<br/> [ We can scarcely + attribute to the Persian monarchy the sea-coast of Gedrosia or Macran, + which extends along the Indian Ocean from Cape Jask (the promontory + Capella) to Cape Goadel. In the time of Alexander, and probably many ages + afterwards, it was thinly inhabited by a savage people of Icthyophagi, or + Fishermen, who knew no arts, who acknowledged no master, and who were + divided by in-hospitable deserts from the rest of the world. (See Arrian + de Reb. Indicis.) In the twelfth century, the little town of Taiz + (supposed by M. d’Anville to be the Teza of Ptolemy) was peopled and + enriched by the resort of the Arabian merchants. (See Geographia Nubiens, + p. 58, and d’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. ii. p. 283.) In the last + age, the whole country was divided between three princes, one Mahometan + and two Idolaters, who maintained their independence against the + successors of Shah Abbas. (Voyages de Tavernier, part i. l. v. p. 635.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.36" id="linknote-8.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Chardin, tom. iii c 1 2, + 3.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as the ambitious mind of Artaxerxes had triumphed ever the + resistance of his vassals, he began to threaten the neighboring states, + who, during the long slumber of his predecessors, had insulted Persia with + impunity. He obtained some easy victories over the wild Scythians and the + effeminate Indians; but the Romans were an enemy, who, by their past + injuries and present power, deserved the utmost efforts of his arms. A + forty years’ tranquillity, the fruit of valor and moderation, had + succeeded the victories of Trajan. During the period that elapsed from the + accession of Marcus to the reign of Alexander, the Roman and the Parthian + empires were twice engaged in war; and although the whole strength of the + Arsacides contended with a part only of the forces of Rome, the event was + most commonly in favor of the latter. Macrinus, indeed, prompted by his + precarious situation and pusillanimous temper, purchased a peace at the + expense of near two millions of our money; <a href="#linknote-8.37" + name="linknoteref-8.37" id="linknoteref-8.37">37</a> but the generals of + Marcus, the emperor Severus, and his son, erected many trophies in + Armenia, Mesopotamia, and Assyria. Among their exploits, the imperfect + relation of which would have unseasonably interrupted the more important + series of domestic revolutions, we shall only mention the repeated + calamities of the two great cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.37" id="linknote-8.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. xxviii. p. + 1335.] + </p> + <p> + Seleucia, on the western bank of the Tigris, about forty-five miles to the + north of ancient Babylon, was the capital of the Macedonian conquests in + Upper Asia. <a href="#linknote-8.38" name="linknoteref-8.38" + id="linknoteref-8.38">38</a> Many ages after the fall of their empire, + Seleucia retained the genuine characters of a Grecian colony, arts, + military virtue, and the love of freedom. The independent republic was + governed by a senate of three hundred nobles; the people consisted of six + hundred thousand citizens; the walls were strong, and as long as concord + prevailed among the several orders of the state, they viewed with contempt + the power of the Parthian: but the madness of faction was sometimes + provoked to implore the dangerous aid of the common enemy, who was posted + almost at the gates of the colony. <a href="#linknote-8.39" + name="linknoteref-8.39" id="linknoteref-8.39">39</a> The Parthian monarchs, + like the Mogul sovereigns of Hindostan, delighted in the pastoral life of + their Scythian ancestors; and the Imperial camp was frequently pitched in + the plain of Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, at the distance + of only three miles from Seleucia. <a href="#linknote-8.40" + name="linknoteref-8.40" id="linknoteref-8.40">40</a> The innumerable + attendants on luxury and despotism resorted to the court, and the little + village of Ctesiphon insensibly swelled into a great city. <a + href="#linknote-8.41" name="linknoteref-8.41" id="linknoteref-8.41">41</a> + Under the reign of Marcus, the Roman generals penetrated as far as + Ctesiphon and Seleucia. They were received as friends by the Greek colony; + they attacked as enemies the seat of the Parthian kings; yet both cities + experienced the same treatment. The sack and conflagration of Seleucia, + with the massacre of three hundred thousand of the inhabitants, tarnished + the glory of the Roman triumph. <a href="#linknote-8.42" + name="linknoteref-8.42" id="linknoteref-8.42">42</a> Seleucia, already + exhausted by the neighborhood of a too powerful rival, sunk under the + fatal blow; but Ctesiphon, in about thirty-three years, had sufficiently + recovered its strength to maintain an obstinate siege against the emperor + Severus. The city was, however, taken by assault; the king, who defended + it in person, escaped with precipitation; a hundred thousand captives, and + a rich booty, rewarded the fatigues of the Roman soldiers. <a + href="#linknote-8.43" name="linknoteref-8.43" id="linknoteref-8.43">43</a> + Notwithstanding these misfortunes, Ctesiphon succeeded to Babylon and to + Seleucia, as one of the great capitals of the East. In summer, the monarch + of Persia enjoyed at Ecbatana the cool breezes of the mountains of Media; + but the mildness of the climate engaged him to prefer Ctesiphon for his + winter residence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.38" id="linknote-8.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.38">return</a>)<br/> [ For the precise + situation of Babylon, Seleucia, Ctesiphon, Moiain, and Bagdad, cities + often confounded with each other, see an excellent Geographical Tract of + M. d’Anville, in Mem. de l’Academie, tom. xxx.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.39" id="linknote-8.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xi. 42. + Plin. Hist. Nat. vi. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.40" id="linknote-8.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.40">return</a>)<br/> [ This may be inferred + from Strabo, l. xvi. p. 743.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.41" id="linknote-8.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.41">return</a>)<br/> [ That most curious + traveller, Bernier, who followed the camp of Aurengzebe from Delhi to + Cashmir, describes with great accuracy the immense moving city. The guard + of cavalry consisted of 35,000 men, that of infantry of 10,000. It was + computed that the camp contained 150,000 horses, mules, and elephants; + 50,000 camels, 50,000 oxen, and between 300,000 and 400,000 persons. + Almost all Delhi followed the court, whose magnificence supported its + industry.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.42" id="linknote-8.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxi. p. 1178. + Hist. August. p. 38. Eutrop. viii. 10 Euseb. in Chronic. Quadratus (quoted + in the Augustan History) attempted to vindicate the Romans by alleging + that the citizens of Seleucia had first violated their faith.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.43" id="linknote-8.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1263. + Herodian, l. iii. p. 120. Hist. August. p. 70.] + </p> + <p> + From these successful inroads the Romans derived no real or lasting + benefit; nor did they attempt to preserve such distant conquests, + separated from the provinces of the empire by a large tract of + intermediate desert. The reduction of the kingdom of Osrhoene was an + acquisition of less splendor indeed, but of a far more solid advantage. + That little state occupied the northern and most fertile part of + Mesopotamia, between the Euphrates and the Tigris. Edessa, its capital, + was situated about twenty miles beyond the former of those rivers; and the + inhabitants, since the time of Alexander, were a mixed race of Greeks, + Arabs, Syrians, and Armenians. <a href="#linknote-8.44" + name="linknoteref-8.44" id="linknoteref-8.44">44</a> The feeble sovereigns + of Osrhoene, placed on the dangerous verge of two contending empires, were + attached from inclination to the Parthian cause; but the superior power of + Rome exacted from them a reluctant homage, which is still attested by + their medals. After the conclusion of the Parthian war under Marcus, it + was judged prudent to secure some substantial pledges of their doubtful + fidelity. Forts were constructed in several parts of the country, and a + Roman garrison was fixed in the strong town of Nisibis. During the + troubles that followed the death of Commodus, the princes of Osrhoene + attempted to shake off the yoke; but the stern policy of Severus confirmed + their dependence, <a href="#linknote-8.45" name="linknoteref-8.45" + id="linknoteref-8.45">45</a> and the perfidy of Caracalla completed the + easy conquest. Abgarus, the last king of Edessa, was sent in chains to + Rome, his dominions reduced into a province, and his capital dignified + with the rank of colony; and thus the Romans, about ten years before the + fall of the Parthian monarchy, obtained a firm and permanent establishment + beyond the Euphrates. <a href="#linknote-8.46" name="linknoteref-8.46" + id="linknoteref-8.46">46</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.44" id="linknote-8.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.44">return</a>)<br/> [ The polished citizens of + Antioch called those of Edessa mixed barbarians. It was, however, some + praise, that of the three dialects of the Syriac, the purest and most + elegant (the Aramæan) was spoken at Edessa. This remark M. Bayer (Hist. + Edess. p 5) has borrowed from George of Malatia, a Syrian writer.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.45" id="linknote-8.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxv. p. 1248, + 1249, 1250. M. Bayer has neglected to use this most important passage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.46" id="linknote-8.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.46">return</a>)<br/> [ This kingdom, from + Osrhoes, who gave a new name to the country, to the last Abgarus, had + lasted 353 years. See the learned work of M. Bayer, Historia Osrhoena et + Edessena.] + </p> + <p> + Prudence as well as glory might have justified a war on the side of + Artaxerxes, had his views been confined to the defence or acquisition of a + useful frontier. but the ambitious Persian openly avowed a far more + extensive design of conquest; and he thought himself able to support his + lofty pretensions by the arms of reason as well as by those of power. + Cyrus, he alleged, had first subdued, and his successors had for a long + time possessed, the whole extent of Asia, as far as the Propontis and the + Ægean Sea; the provinces of Caria and Ionia, under their empire, had been + governed by Persian satraps, and all Egypt, to the confines of Æthiopia, + had acknowledged their sovereignty. <a href="#linknote-8.47" + name="linknoteref-8.47" id="linknoteref-8.47">47</a> Their rights had been + suspended, but not destroyed, by a long usurpation; and as soon as he + received the Persian diadem, which birth and successful valor had placed + upon his head, the first great duty of his station called upon him to + restore the ancient limits and splendor of the monarchy. The Great King, + therefore, (such was the haughty style of his embassies to the emperor + Alexander,) commanded the Romans instantly to depart from all the + provinces of his ancestors, and, yielding to the Persians the empire of + Asia, to content themselves with the undisturbed possession of Europe. + This haughty mandate was delivered by four hundred of the tallest and most + beautiful of the Persians; who, by their fine horses, splendid arms, and + rich apparel, displayed the pride and greatness of their master. <a + href="#linknote-8.48" name="linknoteref-8.48" id="linknoteref-8.48">48</a> + Such an embassy was much less an offer of negotiation than a declaration + of war. Both Alexander Severus and Artaxerxes, collecting the military + force of the Roman and Persian monarchies, resolved in this important + contest to lead their armies in person. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.47" id="linknote-8.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Xenophon, in the preface + to the Cyropædia, gives a clear and magnificent idea of the extent of the + empire of Cyrus. Herodotus (l. iii. c. 79, &c.) enters into a curious + and particular description of the twenty great Satrapies into which the + Persian empire was divided by Darius Hystaspes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.48" id="linknote-8.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, vi. 209, 212.] + </p> + <p> + If we credit what should seem the most authentic of all records, an + oration, still extant, and delivered by the emperor himself to the senate, + we must allow that the victory of Alexander Severus was not inferior to + any of those formerly obtained over the Persians by the son of Philip. The + army of the Great King consisted of one hundred and twenty thousand horse, + clothed in complete armor of steel; of seven hundred elephants, with + towers filled with archers on their backs, and of eighteen hundred + chariots armed with scythes. This formidable host, the like of which is + not to be found in eastern history, and has scarcely been imagined in + eastern romance, <a href="#linknote-8.49" name="linknoteref-8.49" + id="linknoteref-8.49">49</a> was discomfited in a great battle, in which + the Roman Alexander proved himself an intrepid soldier and a skilful + general. The Great King fled before his valor; an immense booty, and the + conquest of Mesopotamia, were the immediate fruits of this signal victory. + Such are the circumstances of this ostentatious and improbable relation, + dictated, as it too plainly appears, by the vanity of the monarch, adorned + by the unblushing servility of his flatterers, and received without + contradiction by a distant and obsequious senate. <a href="#linknote-8.50" + name="linknoteref-8.50" id="linknoteref-8.50">50</a> Far from being inclined + to believe that the arms of Alexander obtained any memorable advantage + over the Persians, we are induced to suspect that all this blaze of + imaginary glory was designed to conceal some real disgrace. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.49" id="linknote-8.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.49">return</a>)<br/> [ There were two hundred + scythed chariots at the battle of Arbela, in the host of Darius. In the + vast army of Tigranes, which was vanquished by Lucullus, seventeen + thousand horse only were completely armed. Antiochus brought fifty-four + elephants into the field against the Romans: by his frequent wars and + negotiations with the princes of India, he had once collected a hundred + and fifty of those great animals; but it may be questioned whether the + most powerful monarch of Hindostan evci formed a line of battle of seven + hundred elephants. Instead of three or four thousand elephants, which the + Great Mogul was supposed to possess, Tavernier (Voyages, part ii. l. i. p. + 198) discovered, by a more accurate inquiry, that he had only five hundred + for his baggage, and eighty or ninety for the service of war. The Greeks + have varied with regard to the number which Porus brought into the field; + but Quintus Curtius, (viii. 13,) in this instance judicious and moderate, + is contented with eighty-five elephants, distinguished by their size and + strength. In Siam, where these animals are the most numerous and the most + esteemed, eighteen elephants are allowed as a sufficient proportion for + each of the nine brigades into which a just army is divided. The whole + number, of one hundred and sixty-two elephants of war, may sometimes be + doubled. Hist. des Voyages, tom. ix. p. 260. * Note: Compare Gibbon’s note + 10 to ch. lvii—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.50" id="linknote-8.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 133. * + Note: See M. Guizot’s note, p. 267. According to the Persian authorities + Ardeschir extended his conquests to the Euphrates. Malcolm i. 71.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Our suspicions are confirmed by the authority of a contemporary historian, + who mentions the virtues of Alexander with respect, and his faults with + candor. He describes the judicious plan which had been formed for the + conduct of the war. Three Roman armies were destined to invade Persia at + the same time, and by different roads. But the operations of the campaign, + though wisely concerted, were not executed either with ability or success. + The first of these armies, as soon as it had entered the marshy plains of + Babylon, towards the artificial conflux of the Euphrates and the Tigris, + <a href="#linknote-8.51" name="linknoteref-8.51" id="linknoteref-8.51">51</a> + was encompassed by the superior numbers, and destroyed by the arrows of + the enemy. The alliance of Chosroes, king of Armenia, <a + href="#linknote-8.52" name="linknoteref-8.52" id="linknoteref-8.52">52</a> + and the long tract of mountainous country, in which the Persian cavalry + was of little service, opened a secure entrance into the heart of Media, + to the second of the Roman armies. These brave troops laid waste the + adjacent provinces, and by several successful actions against Artaxerxes, + gave a faint color to the emperor’s vanity. But the retreat of this + victorious army was imprudent, or at least unfortunate. In repassing the + mountains, great numbers of soldiers perished by the badness of the roads, + and the severity of the winter season. It had been resolved, that whilst + these two great detachments penetrated into the opposite extremes of the + Persian dominions, the main body, under the command of Alexander himself, + should support their attack, by invading the centre of the kingdom. But + the unexperienced youth, influenced by his mother’s counsels, and perhaps + by his own fears, deserted the bravest troops, and the fairest prospect of + victory; and after consuming in Mesopotamia an inactive and inglorious + summer, he led back to Antioch an army diminished by sickness, and + provoked by disappointment. The behavior of Artaxerxes had been very + different. Flying with rapidity from the hills of Media to the marshes of + the Euphrates, he had everywhere opposed the invaders in person; and in + either fortune had united with the ablest conduct the most undaunted + resolution. But in several obstinate engagements against the veteran + legions of Rome, the Persian monarch had lost the flower of his troops. + Even his victories had weakened his power. The favorable opportunities of + the absence of Alexander, and of the confusions that followed that + emperor’s death, presented themselves in vain to his ambition. Instead of + expelling the Romans, as he pretended, from the continent of Asia, he + found himself unable to wrest from their hands the little province of + Mesopotamia. <a href="#linknote-8.53" name="linknoteref-8.53" + id="linknoteref-8.53">53</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.51" id="linknote-8.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.51">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Tillemont has + already observed, that Herodian’s geography is somewhat confused.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.52" id="linknote-8.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Moses of Chorene (Hist. + Armen. l. ii. c. 71) illustrates this invasion of Media, by asserting that + Chosroes, king of Armenia, defeated Artaxerxes, and pursued him to the + confines of India. The exploits of Chosroes have been magnified; and he + acted as a dependent ally to the Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.53" id="linknote-8.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.53">return</a>)<br/> [ For the account of this + war, see Herodian, l. vi. p. 209, 212. The old abbreviators and modern + compilers have blindly followed the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + The reign of Artaxerxes, which, from the last defeat of the Parthians, + lasted only fourteen years, forms a memorable æra in the history of the + East, and even in that of Rome. His character seems to have been marked by + those bold and commanding features, that generally distinguish the princes + who conquer, from those who inherit, an empire. Till the last period of the + Persian monarchy, his code of laws was respected as the groundwork of + their civil and religious policy. <a href="#linknote-8.54" + name="linknoteref-8.54" id="linknoteref-8.54">54</a> Several of his sayings + are preserved. One of them in particular discovers a deep insight into the + constitution of government. “The authority of the prince,” said + Artaxerxes, “must be defended by a military force; that force can only be + maintained by taxes; all taxes must, at last, fall upon agriculture; and + agriculture can never flourish except under the protection of justice and + moderation.” <a href="#linknote-8.55" name="linknoteref-8.55" + id="linknoteref-8.55">55</a> Artaxerxes bequeathed his new empire, and his + ambitious designs against the Romans, to Sapor, a son not unworthy of his + great father; but those designs were too extensive for the power of + Persia, and served only to involve both nations in a long series of + destructive wars and reciprocal calamities. <a name="linknote-8.54" + id="linknote-8.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.54">return</a>)<br/> [Eutychius, tom. ii. p. + 180, vers. Pocock. The great Chosroes Noushirwan sent the code of + Artaxerxes to all his satraps, as the invariable rule of their conduct.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.55" id="linknote-8.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.55">return</a>)<br/> [ D’Herbelot, Bibliotheque + Orientale, au mot Ardshir. We may observe, that after an ancient period of + fables, and a long interval of darkness, the modern histories of Persia + begin to assume an air of truth with the dynasty of Sassanides. Compare + Malcolm, i. 79.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The Persians, long since civilized and corrupted, were very far from + possessing the martial independence, and the intrepid hardiness, both of + mind and body, which have rendered the northern barbarians masters of the + world. The science of war, that constituted the more rational force of + Greece and Rome, as it now does of Europe, never made any considerable + progress in the East. Those disciplined evolutions which harmonize and + animate a confused multitude, were unknown to the Persians. They were + equally unskilled in the arts of constructing, besieging, or defending + regular fortifications. They trusted more to their numbers than to their + courage; more to their courage than to their discipline. The infantry was + a half-armed, spiritless crowd of peasants, levied in haste by the + allurements of plunder, and as easily dispersed by a victory as by a + defeat. The monarch and his nobles transported into the camp the pride and + luxury of the seraglio. Their military operations were impeded by a + useless train of women, eunuchs, horses, and camels; and in the midst of a + successful campaign, the Persian host was often separated or destroyed by + an unexpected famine. <a href="#linknote-8.56" name="linknoteref-8.56" + id="linknoteref-8.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.56" id="linknote-8.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Herodian, l. vi. p. 214. + Ammianus Marcellinus, l. xxiii. c. 6. Some differences may be observed + between the two historians, the natural effects of the changes produced by + a century and a half.] + </p> + <p> + But the nobles of Persia, in the bosom of luxury and despotism, preserved + a strong sense of personal gallantry and national honor. From the age of + seven years they were taught to speak truth, to shoot with the bow, and to + ride; and it was universally confessed that in the two last of these + arts they had made a more than common proficiency. <a href="#linknote-8.57" + name="linknoteref-8.57" id="linknoteref-8.57">57</a> The most distinguished + youth were educated under the monarch’s eye, practised their exercises in + the gate of his palace, and were severely trained up to the habits of + temperance and obedience, in their long and laborious parties of hunting. + In every province, the satrap maintained a like school of military virtue. + The Persian nobles (so natural is the idea of feudal tenures) received + from the king’s bounty lands and houses, on the condition of their service + in war. They were ready on the first summons to mount on horseback, with a + martial and splendid train of followers, and to join the numerous bodies + of guards, who were carefully selected from among the most robust slaves, + and the bravest adventurers of Asia. These armies, both of light and of + heavy cavalry, equally formidable by the impetuosity of their charge and + the rapidity of their motions, threatened, as an impending cloud, the + eastern provinces of the declining empire of Rome. <a href="#linknote-8.58" + name="linknoteref-8.58" id="linknoteref-8.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.57" id="linknote-8.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.57">return</a>)<br/> [ The Persians are still + the most skilful horsemen, and their horses the finest in the East.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-8.58" id="linknote-8.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-8.58">return</a>)<br/> [ From Herodotus, + Xenophon, Herodian, Ammianus, Chardin, &c., I have extracted such + probable accounts of the Persian nobility, as seem either common to every + age, or particular to that of the Sassanides.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap09.1"></a> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The State Of Germany Till The Invasion Of The Barbarians In The Time Of The +Emperor Decius. +</p> + <p> + The government and religion of Persia have deserved some notice, from + their connection with the decline and fall of the Roman empire. We shall + occasionally mention the Scythian or Sarmatian tribes, <a + href="#linknote-9.1001" name="linknoteref-9.1001" id="linknoteref-9.1001">1001</a> + which, with their arms and horses, their flocks and herds, their wives and + families, wandered over the immense plains which spread themselves from + the Caspian Sea to the Vistula, from the confines of Persia to those of + Germany. But the warlike Germans, who first resisted, then invaded, and at + length overturned the Western monarchy of Rome, will occupy a much more + important place in this history, and possess a stronger, and, if we may + use the expression, a more domestic, claim to our attention and regard. + The most civilized nations of modern Europe issued from the woods of + Germany; and in the rude institutions of those barbarians we may still + distinguish the original principles of our present laws and manners. In + their primitive state of simplicity and independence, the Germans were + surveyed by the discerning eye, and delineated by the masterly pencil, of + Tacitus, <a href="#linknote-9.1002" name="linknoteref-9.1002" + id="linknoteref-9.1002">1002</a> the first of historians who applied the + science of philosophy to the study of facts. The expressive conciseness of + his descriptions has served to exercise the diligence of innumerable + antiquarians, and to excite the genius and penetration of the philosophic + historians of our own times. The subject, however various and important, + has already been so frequently, so ably, and so successfully discussed, + that it is now grown familiar to the reader, and difficult to the writer. + We shall therefore content ourselves with observing, and indeed with + repeating, some of the most important circumstances of climate, of + manners, and of institutions, which rendered the wild barbarians of + Germany such formidable enemies to the Roman power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.1001" id="linknote-9.1001"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1001 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.1001">return</a>)<br/> [ The Scythians, even + according to the ancients, are not Sarmatians. It may be doubted whether + Gibbon intended to confound them.—M. ——The Greeks, after + having divided the world into Greeks and barbarians. divided the + barbarians into four great classes, the Celts, the Scythians, the Indians, + and the Ethiopians. They called Celts all the inhabitants of Gaul. Scythia + extended from the Baltic Sea to the Lake Aral: the people enclosed in the + angle to the north-east, between Celtica and Scythia, were called + Celto-Scythians, and the Sarmatians were placed in the southern part of + that angle. But these names of Celts, of Scythians, of Celto-Scythians, + and Sarmatians, were invented, says Schlozer, by the profound + cosmographical ignorance of the Greeks, and have no real ground; they are + purely geographical divisions, without any relation to the true + affiliation of the different races. Thus all the inhabitants of Gaul are + called Celts by most of the ancient writers; yet Gaul contained three + totally distinct nations, the Belgæ, the Aquitani, and the Gauls, + properly so called. Hi omnes lingua institutis, legibusque inter se + differunt. Cæsar. Com. c. i. It is thus the Turks call all Europeans + Franks. Schlozer, Allgemeine Nordische Geschichte, p. 289. 1771. Bayer (de + Origine et priscis Sedibus Scytharum, in Opusc. p. 64) says, Primus eorum, + de quibus constat, Ephorus, in quarto historiarum libro, orbem terrarum + inter Scythas, Indos, Æthiopas et Celtas divisit. Fragmentum ejus loci + Cosmas Indicopleustes in topographia Christiana, f. 148, conservavit. + Video igitur Ephorum, cum locorum positus per certa capita distribuere et + explicare constitueret, insigniorum nomina gentium vastioribus spatiis + adhibuisse, nulla mala fraude et successu infelici. Nam Ephoro quoquomodo + dicta pro exploratis habebant Græci plerique et Romani: ita gliscebat + error posteritate. Igitur tot tamque diversæ stirpis gentes non modo + intra communem quandam regionem definitæ, unum omnes Scytharum nomen his + auctoribus subierunt, sed etiam ab illa regionis adpellatione in eandem + nationem sunt conflatæ. Sic Cimmeriorum res cum Scythicis, Scytharum cum + Sarmaticis, Russicis, Hunnicis, Tataricis commiscentur.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.1002" id="linknote-9.1002"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1002 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.1002">return</a>)<br/> [ The Germania of + Tacitus has been a fruitful source of hypothesis to the ingenuity of + modern writers, who have endeavored to account for the form of the work + and the views of the author. According to Luden, (Geschichte des T. V. i. + 432, and note,) it contains the unfinished and disarranged for a larger + work. An anonymous writer, supposed by Luden to be M. Becker, conceives + that it was intended as an episode in his larger history. According to M. + Guizot, “Tacite a peint les Germains comme Montaigne et Rousseau les + sauvages, dans un acces d’humeur contre sa patrie: son livre est une + satire des mœurs Romaines, l’eloquente boutade d’un patriote philosophe + qui veut voir la vertu la, ou il ne rencontre pas la mollesse honteuse et + la depravation savante d’une vielle societe.” Hist. de la Civilisation + Moderne, i. 258.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Ancient Germany, excluding from its independent limits the province + westward of the Rhine, which had submitted to the Roman yoke, extended + itself over a third part of Europe. <a href="#linknote-9.1" + name="linknoteref-9.1" id="linknoteref-9.1">1</a> Almost the whole of modern + Germany, Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Livonia, Prussia, and the + greater part of Poland, were peopled by the various tribes of one great + nation, whose complexion, manners, and language denoted a common origin, + and preserved a striking resemblance. On the west, ancient Germany was + divided by the Rhine from the Gallic, and on the south, by the Danube, + from the Illyrian, provinces of the empire. A ridge of hills, rising from + the Danube, and called the Carpathian Mountains, covered Germany on the + side of Dacia or Hungary. The eastern frontier was faintly marked by the + mutual fears of the Germans and the Sarmatians, and was often confounded + by the mixture of warring and confederating tribes of the two nations. In + the remote darkness of the north, the ancients imperfectly descried a + frozen ocean that lay beyond the Baltic Sea, and beyond the Peninsula, or + islands <a href="#linknote-9.1001a" name="linknoteref-9.1001a" + id="linknoteref-9.1001a">1001a</a> of Scandinavia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.1" id="linknote-9.1"> + <!-- Not --> + <!-- e --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Germany was not of such + vast extent. It is from Cæsar, and more particularly from Ptolemy, (says + Gatterer,) that we can know what was the state of ancient Germany before + the wars with the Romans had changed the positions of the tribes. Germany, + as changed by these wars, has been described by Strabo, Pliny, and + Tacitus. Germany, properly so called, was bounded on the west by the + Rhine, on the east by the Vistula, on the north by the southern point of + Norway, by Sweden, and Esthonia. On the south, the Maine and the mountains + to the north of Bohemia formed the limits. Before the time of Cæsar, the + country between the Maine and the Danube was partly occupied by the + Helvetians and other Gauls, partly by the Hercynian forest but, from the + time of Cæsar to the great migration, these boundaries were advanced as + far as the Danube, or, what is the same thing, to the Suabian Alps, + although the Hercynian forest still occupied, from north to south, a space + of nine days’ journey on both banks of the Danube. “Gatterer, Versuch + einer all-gemeinen Welt-Geschichte,” p. 424, edit. de 1792. This vast + country was far from being inhabited by a single nation divided into + different tribes of the same origin. We may reckon three principal races, + very distinct in their language, their origin, and their customs. 1. To + the east, the Slaves or Vandals. 2. To the west, the Cimmerians or Cimbri. + 3. Between the Slaves and Cimbrians, the Germans, properly so called, the + Suevi of Tacitus. The South was inhabited, before Julius Cæsar, by + nations of Gaulish origin, afterwards by the Suevi.—G. On the + position of these nations, the German antiquaries differ. I. The Slaves, + or Sclavonians, or Wendish tribes, according to Schlozer, were originally + settled in parts of Germany unknown to the Romans, Mecklenburgh, + Pomerania, Brandenburgh, Upper Saxony; and Lusatia. According to Gatterer, + they remained to the east of the Theiss, the Niemen, and the Vistula, till + the third century. The Slaves, according to Procopius and Jornandes, + formed three great divisions. 1. The Venedi or Vandals, who took the + latter name, (the Wenden,) having expelled the Vandals, properly so + called, (a Suevian race, the conquerors of Africa,) from the country + between the Memel and the Vistula. 2. The Antes, who inhabited between the + Dneister and the Dnieper. 3. The Sclavonians, properly so called, in the + north of Dacia. During the great migration, these races advanced into + Germany as far as the Saal and the Elbe. The Sclavonian language is the + stem from which have issued the Russian, the Polish, the Bohemian, and the + dialects of Lusatia, of some parts of the duchy of Luneburgh, of Carniola, + Carinthia, and Styria, &c.; those of Croatia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria. + Schlozer, Nordische Geschichte, p. 323, 335. II. The Cimbric race. Adelung + calls by this name all who were not Suevi. This race had passed the Rhine, + before the time of Cæsar, occupied Belgium, and are the Belgæ of Cæsar + and Pliny. The Cimbrians also occupied the Isle of Jutland. The Cymri of + Wales and of Britain are of this race. Many tribes on the right bank of + the Rhine, the Guthini in Jutland, the Usipeti in Westphalia, the Sigambri + in the duchy of Berg, were German Cimbrians. III. The Suevi, known in very + early times by the Romans, for they are mentioned by L. Corn. Sisenna, who + lived 123 years before Christ, (Nonius v. Lancea.) This race, the real + Germans, extended to the Vistula, and from the Baltic to the Hercynian + forest. The name of Suevi was sometimes confined to a single tribe, as by + Cæsar to the Catti. The name of the Suevi has been preserved in Suabia. + These three were the principal races which inhabited Germany; they moved + from east to west, and are the parent stem of the modern natives. But + northern Europe, according to Schlozer, was not peopled by them alone; + other races, of different origin, and speaking different languages, have + inhabited and left descendants in these countries. The German tribes + called themselves, from very remote times, by the generic name of Teutons, + (Teuten, Deutschen,) which Tacitus derives from that of one of their gods, + Tuisco. It appears more probable that it means merely men, people. Many + savage nations have given themselves no other name. Thus the Laplanders + call themselves Almag, people; the Samoiedes Nilletz, Nissetsch, men, + &c. As to the name of Germans, (Germani,) Cæsar found it in use in + Gaul, and adopted it as a word already known to the Romans. Many of the + learned (from a passage of Tacitus, de Mor Germ. c. 2) have supposed that + it was only applied to the Teutons after Cæsar’s time; but Adelung has + triumphantly refuted this opinion. The name of Germans is found in the + Fasti Capitolini. See Gruter, Iscrip. 2899, in which the consul Marcellus, + in the year of Rome 531, is said to have defeated the Gauls, the + Insubrians, and the Germans, commanded by Virdomar. See Adelung, Ælt. + Geschichte der Deutsch, p. 102.—Compressed from G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.1001a" id="linknote-9.1001a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1001a (<a href="#linknoteref-9.1001a">return</a>)<br/> [ The modern + philosophers of Sweden seem agreed that the waters of the Baltic gradually + sink in a regular proportion, which they have ventured to estimate at half + an inch every year. Twenty centuries ago the flat country of Scandinavia + must have been covered by the sea; while the high lands rose above the + waters, as so many islands of various forms and dimensions. Such, indeed, + is the notion given us by Mela, Pliny, and Tacitus, of the vast countries + round the Baltic. See in the Bibliotheque Raisonnee, tom. xl. and xlv. a + large abstract of Dalin’s History of Sweden, composed in the Swedish + language. * Note: Modern geologists have rejected this theory of the + depression of the Baltic, as inconsistent with recent observation. The + considerable changes which have taken place on its shores, Mr. Lyell, from + actual observation now decidedly attributes to the regular and uniform + elevation of the land.—Lyell’s Geology, b. ii. c. 17—M.] + </p> + <p> + Some ingenious writers <a href="#linknote-9.2" name="linknoteref-9.2" + id="linknoteref-9.2">2</a> have suspected that Europe was much colder + formerly than it is at present; and the most ancient descriptions of the + climate of Germany tend exceedingly to confirm their theory. The general + complaints of intense frost and eternal winter are perhaps little to be + regarded, since we have no method of reducing to the accurate standard of + the thermometer, the feelings, or the expressions, of an orator born in + the happier regions of Greece or Asia. But I shall select two remarkable + circumstances of a less equivocal nature. 1. The great rivers which + covered the Roman provinces, the Rhine and the Danube, were frequently + frozen over, and capable of supporting the most enormous weights. The + barbarians, who often chose that severe season for their inroads, + transported, without apprehension or danger, their numerous armies, their + cavalry, and their heavy wagons, over a vast and solid bridge of ice. <a + href="#linknote-9.3" name="linknoteref-9.3" id="linknoteref-9.3">3</a> Modern + ages have not presented an instance of a like phenomenon. 2. The reindeer, + that useful animal, from whom the savage of the North derives the best + comforts of his dreary life, is of a constitution that supports, and even + requires, the most intense cold. He is found on the rock of Spitzberg, + within ten degrees of the Pole; he seems to delight in the snows of + Lapland and Siberia: but at present he cannot subsist, much less multiply, + in any country to the south of the Baltic. <a href="#linknote-9.4" + name="linknoteref-9.4" id="linknoteref-9.4">4</a> In the time of Cæsar the + reindeer, as well as the elk and the wild bull, was a native of the + Hercynian forest, which then overshadowed a great part of Germany and + Poland. <a href="#linknote-9.5" name="linknoteref-9.5" id="linknoteref-9.5">5</a> + The modern improvements sufficiently explain the causes of the diminution + of the cold. These immense woods have been gradually cleared, which + intercepted from the earth the rays of the sun. <a href="#linknote-9.6" + name="linknoteref-9.6" id="linknoteref-9.6">6</a> The morasses have been + drained, and, in proportion as the soil has been cultivated, the air has + become more temperate. Canada, at this day, is an exact picture of ancient + Germany. Although situated in the same parallel with the finest provinces + of France and England, that country experiences the most rigorous cold. + The reindeer are very numerous, the ground is covered with deep and + lasting snow, and the great river of St. Lawrence is regularly frozen, in + a season when the waters of the Seine and the Thames are usually free from + ice. <a href="#linknote-9.7" name="linknoteref-9.7" id="linknoteref-9.7">7</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.2" id="linknote-9.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.2">return</a>)<br/> [ In particular, Mr. Hume, + the Abbé du Bos, and M. Pelloutier. Hist. des Celtes, tom. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.3" id="linknote-9.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodorus Siculus, l. v. p. + 340, edit. Wessel. Herodian, l. vi. p. 221. Jornandes, c. 55. On the banks + of the Danube, the wine, when brought to table, was frequently frozen into + great lumps, frusta vini. Ovid. Epist. ex Ponto, l. iv. 7, 9, 10. Virgil. + Georgic. l. iii. 355. The fact is confirmed by a soldier and a + philosopher, who had experienced the intense cold of Thrace. See Xenophon, + Anabasis, l. vii. p. 560, edit. Hutchinson. Note: The Danube is constantly + frozen over. At Pesth the bridge is usually taken up, and the traffic and + communication between the two banks carried on over the ice. The Rhine is + likewise in many parts passable at least two years out of five. Winter + campaigns are so unusual, in modern warfare, that I recollect but one + instance of an army crossing either river on the ice. In the thirty years’ + war, (1635,) Jan van Werth, an Imperialist partisan, crossed the Rhine + from Heidelberg on the ice with 5000 men, and surprised Spiers. Pichegru’s + memorable campaign, (1794-5,) when the freezing of the Meuse and Waal + opened Holland to his conquests, and his cavalry and artillery attacked + the ships frozen in, on the Zuyder Zee, was in a winter of unprecedented + severity.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.4" id="linknote-9.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Buffon, Histoire + Naturelle, tom. xii. p. 79, 116.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.5" id="linknote-9.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar de Bell. Gallic. + vi. 23, &c. The most inquisitive of the Germans were ignorant of its + utmost limits, although some of them had travelled in it more than sixty + days’ journey. * Note: The passage of Cæsar, “parvis renonum tegumentis + utuntur,” is obscure, observes Luden, (Geschichte des Teutschen Volkes,) + and insufficient to prove the reindeer to have existed in Germany. It is + supported however, by a fragment of Sallust. Germani intectum rhenonibus + corpus tegunt.—M. It has been suggested to me that Cæsar (as old + Gesner supposed) meant the reindeer in the following description. Est bos + cervi figura cujus a media fronte inter aures unum cornu existit, + excelsius magisque directum (divaricatum, qu?) his quæ nobis nota sunt + cornibus. At ejus summo, sicut palmæ, rami quam late diffunduntur. Bell. + vi.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.6" id="linknote-9.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Cluverius (Germania + Antiqua, l. iii. c. 47) investigates the small and scattered remains of + the Hercynian wood.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.7" id="linknote-9.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Charlevoix, Histoire du + Canada.] + </p> + <p> + It is difficult to ascertain, and easy to exaggerate, the influence of the + climate of ancient Germany over the minds and bodies of the natives. Many + writers have supposed, and most have allowed, though, as it should seem, + without any adequate proof, that the rigorous cold of the North was + favorable to long life and generative vigor, that the women were more + fruitful, and the human species more prolific, than in warmer or more + temperate climates. <a href="#linknote-9.8" name="linknoteref-9.8" + id="linknoteref-9.8">8</a> We may assert, with greater confidence, that the + keen air of Germany formed the large and masculine limbs of the natives, + who were, in general, of a more lofty stature than the people of the + South, <a href="#linknote-9.9" name="linknoteref-9.9" id="linknoteref-9.9">9</a> + gave them a kind of strength better adapted to violent exertions than to + patient labor, and inspired them with constitutional bravery, which is the + result of nerves and spirits. The severity of a winter campaign, that + chilled the courage of the Roman troops, was scarcely felt by these hardy + children of the North, <a href="#linknote-9.10" name="linknoteref-9.10" + id="linknoteref-9.10">10</a> who, in their turn, were unable to resist the + summer heats, and dissolved away in languor and sickness under the beams + of an Italian sun. <a href="#linknote-9.11" name="linknoteref-9.11" + id="linknoteref-9.11">11</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.8" id="linknote-9.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Olaus Rudbeck asserts that + the Swedish women often bear ten or twelve children, and not uncommonly + twenty or thirty; but the authority of Rudbeck is much to be suspected.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.9" id="linknote-9.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.9">return</a>)<br/> [ In hos artus, in hæc + corpora, quæ miramur, excrescunt. Tæit Germania, 3, 20. Cluver. l. i. c. + 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.10" id="linknote-9.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Plutarch. in Mario. The + Cimbri, by way of amusement, often did down mountains of snow on their + broad shields.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.11" id="linknote-9.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.11">return</a>)<br/> [ The Romans made war in + all climates, and by their excellent discipline were in a great measure + preserved in health and vigor. It may be remarked, that man is the only + animal which can live and multiply in every country from the equator to + the poles. The hog seems to approach the nearest to our species in that + privilege.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap09.2"></a> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + There is not anywhere upon the globe a large tract of country, which we + have discovered destitute of inhabitants, or whose first population can be + fixed with any degree of historical certainty. And yet, as the most + philosophic minds can seldom refrain from investigating the infancy of + great nations, our curiosity consumes itself in toilsome and disappointed + efforts. When Tacitus considered the purity of the German blood, and the + forbidding aspect of the country, he was disposed to pronounce those + barbarians <i>Indigenæ</i>, or natives of the soil. We may allow with safety, + and perhaps with truth, that ancient Germany was not originally peopled by + any foreign colonies already formed into a political society; <a + href="#linknote-9.12" name="linknoteref-9.12" id="linknoteref-9.12">12</a> + but that the name and nation received their existence from the gradual + union of some wandering savages of the Hercynian woods. To assert those + savages to have been the spontaneous production of the earth which they + inhabited would be a rash inference, condemned by religion, and + unwarranted by reason. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.12" id="linknote-9.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Facit. Germ. c. 3. The + emigration of the Gauls followed the course of the Danube, and discharged + itself on Greece and Asia. Tacitus could discover only one inconsiderable + tribe that retained any traces of a Gallic origin. * Note: The Gothini, + who must not be confounded with the Gothi, a Suevian tribe. In the time of + Cæsar many other tribes of Gaulish origin dwelt along the course of the + Danube, who could not long resist the attacks of the Suevi. The + Helvetians, who dwelt on the borders of the Black Forest, between the + Maine and the Danube, had been expelled long before the time of Cæsar. He + mentions also the Volci Tectosagi, who came from Languedoc and settled + round the Black Forest. The Boii, who had penetrated into that forest, and + also have left traces of their name in Bohemia, were subdued in the first + century by the Marcomanni. The Boii settled in Noricum, were mingled + afterwards with the Lombards, and received the name of Boio Arii (Bavaria) + or Boiovarii: var, in some German dialects, appearing to mean remains, + descendants. Compare Malte B-m, Geography, vol. i. p. 410, edit 1832—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such rational doubt is but ill suited with the genius of popular vanity. + Among the nations who have adopted the Mosaic history of the world, the + ark of Noah has been of the same use, as was formerly to the Greeks and + Romans the siege of Troy. On a narrow basis of acknowledged truth, an + immense but rude superstructure of fable has been erected; and the wild + Irishman, <a href="#linknote-9.13" name="linknoteref-9.13" + id="linknoteref-9.13">13</a> as well as the wild Tartar, <a + href="#linknote-9.14" name="linknoteref-9.14" id="linknoteref-9.14">14</a> + could point out the individual son of Japhet, from whose loins his + ancestors were lineally descended. The last century abounded with + antiquarians of profound learning and easy faith, who, by the dim light of + legends and traditions, of conjectures and etymologies, conducted the + great grandchildren of Noah from the Tower of Babel to the extremities of + the globe. Of these judicious critics, one of the most entertaining was + Olaus Rudbeck, professor in the university of Upsal. <a href="#linknote-9.15" + name="linknoteref-9.15" id="linknoteref-9.15">15</a> Whatever is celebrated + either in history or fable this zealous patriot ascribes to his country. + From Sweden (which formed so considerable a part of ancient Germany) the + Greeks themselves derived their alphabetical characters, their astronomy, + and their religion. Of that delightful region (for such it appeared to the + eyes of a native) the Atlantis of Plato, the country of the Hyperboreans, + the gardens of the Hesperides, the Fortunate Islands, and even the Elysian + Fields, were all but faint and imperfect transcripts. A clime so profusely + favored by Nature could not long remain desert after the flood. The + learned Rudbeck allows the family of Noah a few years to multiply from + eight to about twenty thousand persons. He then disperses them into small + colonies to replenish the earth, and to propagate the human species. The + German or Swedish detachment (which marched, if I am not mistaken, under + the command of Askenaz, the son of Gomer, the son of Japhet) distinguished + itself by a more than common diligence in the prosecution of this great + work. The northern hive cast its swarms over the greatest part of Europe, + Africa, and Asia; and (to use the author’s metaphor) the blood circulated + from the extremities to the heart. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.13" id="linknote-9.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.13">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Dr. + Keating, (History of Ireland, p. 13, 14,) the giant Portholanus, who was + the son of Seara, the son of Esra, the son of Sru, the son of Framant, the + son of Fathaclan, the son of Magog, the son of Japhet, the son of Noah, + landed on the coast of Munster the 14th day of May, in the year of the + world one thousand nine hundred and seventy-eight. Though he succeeded in + his great enterprise, the loose behavior of his wife rendered his domestic + life very unhappy, and provoked him to such a degree, that he killed—her + favorite greyhound. This, as the learned historian very properly observes, + was the first instance of female falsehood and infidelity ever known in + Ireland.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.14" id="linknote-9.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Genealogical History of + the Tartars, by Abulghazi Bahadur Khan.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.15" id="linknote-9.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.15">return</a>)<br/> [ His work, entitled + Atlantica, is uncommonly scarce. Bayle has given two most curious extracts + from it. Republique des Lettres Janvier et Fevrier, 1685.] + </p> + <p> + But all this well-labored system of German antiquities is annihilated by a + single fact, too well attested to admit of any doubt, and of too decisive + a nature to leave room for any reply. The Germans, in the age of Tacitus, + were unacquainted with the use of letters; <a href="#linknote-9.16" + name="linknoteref-9.16" id="linknoteref-9.16">16</a> and the use of letters + is the principal circumstance that distinguishes a civilized people from a + herd of savages incapable of knowledge or reflection. Without that + artificial help, the human memory soon dissipates or corrupts the ideas + intrusted to her charge; and the nobler faculties of the mind, no longer + supplied with models or with materials, gradually forget their powers; the + judgment becomes feeble and lethargic, the imagination languid or + irregular. Fully to apprehend this important truth, let us attempt, in an + improved society, to calculate the immense distance between the man of + learning and the <i>illiterate</i> peasant. The former, by reading and + reflection, multiplies his own experience, and lives in distant ages and + remote countries; whilst the latter, rooted to a single spot, and confined + to a few years of existence, surpasses but very little his fellow-laborer, + the ox, in the exercise of his mental faculties. The same, and even a + greater, difference will be found between nations than between + individuals; and we may safely pronounce, that without some species of + writing, no people has ever preserved the faithful annals of their + history, ever made any considerable progress in the abstract sciences, or + ever possessed, in any tolerable degree of perfection, the useful and + agreeable arts of life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.16" id="linknote-9.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. ii. 19. + Literarum secreta viri pariter ac fœminæ ignorant. We may rest contented + with this decisive authority, without entering into the obscure disputes + concerning the antiquity of the Runic characters. The learned Celsius, a + Swede, a scholar, and a philosopher, was of opinion, that they were + nothing more than the Roman letters, with the curves changed into straight + lines for the ease of engraving. See Pelloutier, Histoire des Celtes, l. + ii. c. 11. Dictionnaire Diplomatique, tom. i. p. 223. We may add, that the + oldest Runic inscriptions are supposed to be of the third century, and the + most ancient writer who mentions the Runic characters is Venan tius + Frotunatus, (Carm. vii. 18,) who lived towards the end of the sixth + century. Barbara fraxineis pingatur Runa tabellis. * Note: The obscure + subject of the Runic characters has exercised the industry and ingenuity + of the modern scholars of the north. There are three distinct theories; + one, maintained by Schlozer, (Nordische Geschichte, p. 481, &c.,) who + considers their sixteen letters to be a corruption of the Roman alphabet, + post-Christian in their date, and Schlozer would attribute their + introduction into the north to the Alemanni. The second, that of Frederick + Schlegel, (Vorlesungen uber alte und neue Literatur,) supposes that these + characters were left on the coasts of the Mediterranean and Northern Seas + by the Phœnicians, preserved by the priestly castes, and employed for + purposes of magic. Their common origin from the Phœnician would account + for heir similarity to the Roman letters. The last, to which we incline, + claims much higher and more venerable antiquity for the Runic, and + supposes them to have been the original characters of the Indo-Teutonic + tribes, brought from the East, and preserved among the different races of + that stock. See Ueber Deutsche Runen von W. C. Grimm, 1821. A Memoir by + Dr. Legis. Fundgruben des alten Nordens. Foreign Quarterly Review vol. ix. + p. 438.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Of these arts, the ancient Germans were wretchedly destitute. <a + href="#linknote-9.1601" name="linknoteref-9.1601" id="linknoteref-9.1601">1601</a> + They passed their lives in a state of ignorance and poverty, which it has + pleased some declaimers to dignify with the appellation of virtuous + simplicity. Modern Germany is said to contain about two thousand three + hundred walled towns. <a href="#linknote-9.17" name="linknoteref-9.17" + id="linknoteref-9.17">17</a> In a much wider extent of country, the + geographer Ptolemy could discover no more than ninety places which he + decorates with the name of cities; <a href="#linknote-9.18" + name="linknoteref-9.18" id="linknoteref-9.18">18</a> though, according to + our ideas, they would but ill deserve that splendid title. We can only + suppose them to have been rude fortifications, constructed in the centre + of the woods, and designed to secure the women, children, and cattle, + whilst the warriors of the tribe marched out to repel a sudden invasion. + <a href="#linknote-9.19" name="linknoteref-9.19" id="linknoteref-9.19">19</a> + But Tacitus asserts, as a well-known fact, that the Germans, in his time, + had <i>no</i> cities; <a href="#linknote-9.20" name="linknoteref-9.20" + id="linknoteref-9.20">20</a> and that they affected to despise the works of + Roman industry, as places of confinement rather than of security. <a + href="#linknote-9.21" name="linknoteref-9.21" id="linknoteref-9.21">21</a> + Their edifices were not even contiguous, or formed into regular villas; <a + href="#linknote-9.22" name="linknoteref-9.22" id="linknoteref-9.22">22</a> + each barbarian fixed his independent dwelling on the spot to which a + plain, a wood, or a stream of fresh water, had induced him to give the + preference. Neither stone, nor brick, nor tiles, were employed in these + slight habitations. <a href="#linknote-9.23" name="linknoteref-9.23" + id="linknoteref-9.23">23</a> They were indeed no more than low huts, of a + circular figure, built of rough timber, thatched with straw, and pierced + at the top to leave a free passage for the smoke. In the most inclement + winter, the hardy German was satisfied with a scanty garment made of the + skin of some animal. The nations who dwelt towards the North clothed + themselves in furs; and the women manufactured for their own use a coarse + kind of linen. <a href="#linknote-9.24" name="linknoteref-9.24" + id="linknoteref-9.24">24</a> The game of various sorts, with which the + forests of Germany were plentifully stocked, supplied its inhabitants with + food and exercise. <a href="#linknote-9.25" name="linknoteref-9.25" + id="linknoteref-9.25">25</a> Their monstrous herds of cattle, less + remarkable indeed for their beauty than for their utility, <a + href="#linknote-9.26" name="linknoteref-9.26" id="linknoteref-9.26">26</a> + formed the principal object of their wealth. A small quantity of corn was + the only produce exacted from the earth; the use of orchards or artificial + meadows was unknown to the Germans; nor can we expect any improvements in + agriculture from a people, whose prosperity every year experienced a + general change by a new division of the arable lands, and who, in that + strange operation, avoided disputes, by suffering a great part of their + territory to lie waste and without tillage. <a href="#linknote-9.27" + name="linknoteref-9.27" id="linknoteref-9.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.1601" id="linknote-9.1601"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1601 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.1601">return</a>)<br/> [ Luden (the author of + the Geschichte des Teutschen Volkes) has surpassed most writers in his + patriotic enthusiasm for the virtues and noble manners of his ancestors. + Even the cold of the climate, and the want of vines and fruit trees, as + well as the barbarism of the inhabitants, are calumnies of the luxurious + Italians. M. Guizot, on the other side, (in his Histoire de la + Civilisation, vol. i. p. 272, &c.,) has drawn a curious parallel + between the Germans of Tacitus and the North American Indians.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.17" id="linknote-9.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Recherches + Philosophiques sur les Americains, tom. iii. p. 228. The author of that + very curious work is, if I am not misinformed, a German by birth. (De + Pauw.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.18" id="linknote-9.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.18">return</a>)<br/> [ The Alexandrian + Geographer is often criticized by the accurate Cluverius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.19" id="linknote-9.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.19">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cæsar, and the + learned Mr. Whitaker in his History of Manchester, vol. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.20" id="linknote-9.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.21" id="linknote-9.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.21">return</a>)<br/> [ When the Germans + commanded the Ubii of Cologne to cast off the Roman yoke, and with their + new freedom to resume their ancient manners, they insisted on the + immediate demolition of the walls of the colony. “Postulamus a vobis, + muros coloniæ, munimenta servitii, detrahatis; etiam fera animalia, si + clausa teneas, virtutis obliviscuntur.” Tacit. Hist. iv. 64.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.22" id="linknote-9.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.22">return</a>)<br/> [ The straggling villages + of Silesia are several miles in length. See Cluver. l. i. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.23" id="linknote-9.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.23">return</a>)<br/> [ One hundred and forty + years after Tacitus, a few more regular structures were erected near the + Rhine and Danube. Herodian, l. vii. p. 234.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.24" id="linknote-9.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.25" id="linknote-9.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.26" id="linknote-9.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar de Bell. Gall. + vi. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.27" id="linknote-9.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 26. Cæsar, + vi. 22.] + </p> + <p> + Gold, silver, and iron, were extremely scarce in Germany. Its barbarous + inhabitants wanted both skill and patience to investigate those rich veins + of silver, which have so liberally rewarded the attention of the princes + of Brunswick and Saxony. Sweden, which now supplies Europe with iron, was + equally ignorant of its own riches; and the appearance of the arms of the + Germans furnished a sufficient proof how little iron they were able to + bestow on what they must have deemed the noblest use of that metal. The + various transactions of peace and war had introduced some Roman coins + (chiefly silver) among the borderers of the Rhine and Danube; but the more + distant tribes were absolutely unacquainted with the use of money, carried + on their confined traffic by the exchange of commodities, and prized their + rude earthen vessels as of equal value with the silver vases, the presents + of Rome to their princes and ambassadors. <a href="#linknote-9.28" + name="linknoteref-9.28" id="linknoteref-9.28">28</a> To a mind capable of + reflection, such leading facts convey more instruction, than a tedious + detail of subordinate circumstances. The value of money has been settled + by general consent to express our wants and our property, as letters were + invented to express our ideas; and both these institutions, by giving a + more active energy to the powers and passions of human nature, have + contributed to multiply the objects they were designed to represent. The + use of gold and silver is in a great measure factitious; but it would be + impossible to enumerate the important and various services which + agriculture, and all the arts, have received from iron, when tempered and + fashioned by the operation of fire and the dexterous hand of man. Money, + in a word, is the most universal incitement, iron the most powerful + instrument, of human industry; and it is very difficult to conceive by + what means a people, neither actuated by the one, nor seconded by the + other, could emerge from the grossest barbarism. <a href="#linknote-9.29" + name="linknoteref-9.29" id="linknoteref-9.29">29</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.28" id="linknote-9.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.29" id="linknote-9.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.29">return</a>)<br/> [ It is said that the + Mexicans and Peruvians, without the use of either money or iron, had made + a very great progress in the arts. Those arts, and the monuments they + produced, have been strangely magnified. See Recherches sur les + Americains, tom. ii. p. 153, &c] + </p> + <p> + If we contemplate a savage nation in any part of the globe, a supine + indolence and a carelessness of futurity will be found to constitute their + general character. In a civilized state every faculty of man is expanded + and exercised; and the great chain of mutual dependence connects and + embraces the several members of society. The most numerous portion of it + is employed in constant and useful labor. The select few, placed by + fortune above that necessity, can, however, fill up their time by the + pursuits of interest or glory, by the improvement of their estate or of + their understanding, by the duties, the pleasures, and even the follies of + social life. The Germans were not possessed of these varied resources. The + care of the house and family, the management of the land and cattle, were + delegated to the old and the infirm, to women and slaves. The lazy + warrior, destitute of every art that might employ his leisure hours, + consumed his days and nights in the animal gratifications of sleep and + food. And yet, by a wonderful diversity of nature, (according to the + remark of a writer who had pierced into its darkest recesses,) the same + barbarians are by turns the most indolent and the most restless of + mankind. They delight in sloth, they detest tranquility. <a + href="#linknote-9.30" name="linknoteref-9.30" id="linknoteref-9.30">30</a> + The languid soul, oppressed with its own weight, anxiously required some + new and powerful sensation; and war and danger were the only amusements + adequate to its fierce temper. The sound that summoned the German to arms + was grateful to his ear. It roused him from his uncomfortable lethargy, + gave him an active pursuit, and, by strong exercise of the body, and + violent emotions of the mind, restored him to a more lively sense of his + existence. In the dull intervals of peace, these barbarians were + immoderately addicted to deep gaming and excessive drinking; both of + which, by different means, the one by inflaming their passions, the other + by extinguishing their reason, alike relieved them from the pain of + thinking. They gloried in passing whole days and nights at table; and the + blood of friends and relations often stained their numerous and drunken + assemblies. <a href="#linknote-9.31" name="linknoteref-9.31" + id="linknoteref-9.31">31</a> Their debts of honor (for in that light they + have transmitted to us those of play) they discharged with the most + romantic fidelity. The desperate gamester, who had staked his person and + liberty on a last throw of the dice, patiently submitted to the decision + of fortune, and suffered himself to be bound, chastised, and sold into + remote slavery, by his weaker but more lucky antagonist. <a + href="#linknote-9.32" name="linknoteref-9.32" id="linknoteref-9.32">32</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.30" id="linknote-9.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.31" id="linknote-9.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 22, 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.32" id="linknote-9.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Id. 24. The Germans + might borrow the arts of play from the Romans, but the passion is + wonderfully inherent in the human species.] + </p> + <p> + Strong beer, a liquor extracted with very little art from wheat or barley, + and <i>corrupted</i> (as it is strongly expressed by Tacitus) into a certain + semblance of wine, was sufficient for the gross purposes of German + debauchery. But those who had tasted the rich wines of Italy, and + afterwards of Gaul, sighed for that more delicious species of + intoxication. They attempted not, however, (as has since been executed + with so much success,) to naturalize the vine on the banks of the Rhine + and Danube; nor did they endeavor to procure by industry the materials of + an advantageous commerce. To solicit by labor what might be ravished by + arms, was esteemed unworthy of the German spirit. <a href="#linknote-9.33" + name="linknoteref-9.33" id="linknoteref-9.33">33</a> The intemperate thirst + of strong liquors often urged the barbarians to invade the provinces on + which art or nature had bestowed those much envied presents. The Tuscan + who betrayed his country to the Celtic nations, attracted them into Italy + by the prospect of the rich fruits and delicious wines, the productions of + a happier climate. <a href="#linknote-9.34" name="linknoteref-9.34" + id="linknoteref-9.34">34</a> And in the same manner the German auxiliaries, + invited into France during the civil wars of the sixteenth century, were + allured by the promise of plenteous quarters in the provinces of + Champaigne and Burgundy. <a href="#linknote-9.35" name="linknoteref-9.35" + id="linknoteref-9.35">35</a> Drunkenness, the most illiberal, but not the + most dangerous of <i>our</i> vices, was sometimes capable, in a less civilized + state of mankind, of occasioning a battle, a war, or a revolution. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.33" id="linknote-9.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.34" id="linknote-9.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Plutarch. in Camillo. T. + Liv. v. 33.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.35" id="linknote-9.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Dubos. Hist. de la + Monarchie Francoise, tom. i. p. 193.] + </p> + <p> + The climate of ancient Germany has been modified, and the soil fertilized, + by the labor of ten centuries from the time of Charlemagne. The same + extent of ground which at present maintains, in ease and plenty, a million + of husbandmen and artificers, was unable to supply a hundred thousand lazy + warriors with the simple necessaries of life. <a href="#linknote-9.36" + name="linknoteref-9.36" id="linknoteref-9.36">36</a> The Germans abandoned + their immense forests to the exercise of hunting, employed in pasturage + the most considerable part of their lands, bestowed on the small remainder + a rude and careless cultivation, and then accused the scantiness and + sterility of a country that refused to maintain the multitude of its + inhabitants. When the return of famine severely admonished them of the + importance of the arts, the national distress was sometimes alleviated by + the emigration of a third, perhaps, or a fourth part of their youth. <a + href="#linknote-9.37" name="linknoteref-9.37" id="linknoteref-9.37">37</a> + The possession and the enjoyment of property are the pledges which bind a + civilized people to an improved country. But the Germans, who carried with + them what they most valued, their arms, their cattle, and their women, + cheerfully abandoned the vast silence of their woods for the unbounded + hopes of plunder and conquest. The innumerable swarms that issued, or + seemed to issue, from the great storehouse of nations, were multiplied by + the fears of the vanquished, and by the credulity of succeeding ages. And + from facts thus exaggerated, an opinion was gradually established, and has + been supported by writers of distinguished reputation, that, in the age of + Cæsar and Tacitus, the inhabitants of the North were far more numerous + than they are in our days. <a href="#linknote-9.38" name="linknoteref-9.38" + id="linknoteref-9.38">38</a> A more serious inquiry into the causes of + population seems to have convinced modern philosophers of the falsehood, + and indeed the impossibility, of the supposition. To the names of Mariana + and of Machiavel, <a href="#linknote-9.39" name="linknoteref-9.39" + id="linknoteref-9.39">39</a> we can oppose the equal names of Robertson and + Hume. <a href="#linknote-9.40" name="linknoteref-9.40" id="linknoteref-9.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.36" id="linknote-9.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.36">return</a>)<br/> [ The Helvetian nation, + which issued from a country called Switzerland, contained, of every age + and sex, 368,000 persons, (Cæsar de Bell. Gal. i. 29.) At present, the + number of people in the Pays de Vaud (a small district on the banks of the + Leman Lake, much more distinguished for politeness than for industry) + amounts to 112,591. See an excellent tract of M. Muret, in the Memoires de + la Societe de Born.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.37" id="linknote-9.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Paul Diaconus, c. 1, 2, + 3. Machiavel, Davila, and the rest of Paul’s followers, represent these + emigrations too much as regular and concerted measures.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.38" id="linknote-9.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Sir William Temple and + Montesquieu have indulged, on this subject, the usual liveliness of their + fancy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.39" id="linknote-9.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Machiavel, Hist. di + Firenze, l. i. Mariana, Hist. Hispan. l. v. c. 1] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.40" id="linknote-9.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Robertson’s Charles V. + Hume’s Political Essays. Note: It is a wise observation of Malthus, that + these nations “were not populous in proportion to the land they occupied, + but to the food they produced.” They were prolific from their pure morals + and constitutions, but their institutions were not calculated to produce + food for those whom they brought into being.—M—1845.] + </p> + <p> + A warlike nation like the Germans, without either cities, letters, arts, + or money, found some compensation for this savage state in the enjoyment + of liberty. Their poverty secured their freedom, since our desires and our + possessions are the strongest fetters of despotism. “Among the Suiones + (says Tacitus) riches are held in honor. They are <i>therefore</i> subject to an + absolute monarch, who, instead of intrusting his people with the free use + of arms, as is practised in the rest of Germany, commits them to the safe + custody, not of a citizen, or even of a freedman, but of a slave. The + neighbors of the Suiones, the Sitones, are sunk even below servitude; they + obey a woman.” <a href="#linknote-9.41" name="linknoteref-9.41" + id="linknoteref-9.41">41</a> In the mention of these exceptions, the great + historian sufficiently acknowledges the general theory of government. We + are only at a loss to conceive by what means riches and despotism could + penetrate into a remote corner of the North, and extinguish the generous + flame that blazed with such fierceness on the frontier of the Roman + provinces, or how the ancestors of those Danes and Norwegians, so + distinguished in latter ages by their unconquered spirit, could thus + tamely resign the great character of German liberty. <a + href="#linknote-9.42" name="linknoteref-9.42" id="linknoteref-9.42">42</a> + Some tribes, however, on the coast of the Baltic, acknowledged the + authority of kings, though without relinquishing the rights of men, <a + href="#linknote-9.43" name="linknoteref-9.43" id="linknoteref-9.43">43</a> + but in the far greater part of Germany, the form of government was a + democracy, tempered, indeed, and controlled, not so much by general and + positive laws, as by the occasional ascendant of birth or valor, of + eloquence or superstition. <a href="#linknote-9.44" name="linknoteref-9.44" + id="linknoteref-9.44">44</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.41" id="linknote-9.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. German. 44, 45. + Freinshemius (who dedicated his supplement to Livy to Christina of Sweden) + thinks proper to be very angry with the Roman who expressed so very little + reverence for Northern queens. Note: The Suiones and the Sitones are the + ancient inhabitants of Scandinavia, their name may be traced in that of + Sweden; they did not belong to the race of the Suevi, but that of the + non-Suevi or Cimbri, whom the Suevi, in very remote times, drove back part + to the west, part to the north; they were afterwards mingled with Suevian + tribes, among others the Goths, who have traces of their name and power in + the isle of Gothland.—G] <a name="linknote-9.42" id="linknote-9.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.42">return</a>)<br/> [May we not suspect that + superstition was the parent of despotism? The descendants of Odin, (whose + race was not extinct till the year 1060) are said to have reigned in + Sweden above a thousand years. The temple of Upsal was the ancient seat of + religion and empire. In the year 1153 I find a singular law, prohibiting + the use and profession of arms to any except the king’s guards. Is it not + probable that it was colored by the pretence of reviving an old + institution? See Dalin’s History of Sweden in the Bibliotheque Raisonneo + tom. xl. and xlv.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.43" id="linknote-9.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. c. 43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.44" id="linknote-9.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Id. c. 11, 12, 13, & + c.] + </p> + <p> + Civil governments, in their first institution, are voluntary associations + for mutual defence. To obtain the desired end, it is absolutely necessary + that each individual should conceive himself obliged to submit his private + opinions and actions to the judgment of the greater number of his + associates. The German tribes were contented with this rude but liberal + outline of political society. As soon as a youth, born of free parents, + had attained the age of manhood, he was introduced into the general + council of his countrymen, solemnly invested with a shield and spear, and + adopted as an equal and worthy member of the military commonwealth. The + assembly of the warriors of the tribe was convened at stated seasons, or + on sudden emergencies. The trial of public offences, the election of + magistrates, and the great business of peace and war, were determined by + its independent voice. Sometimes indeed, these important questions were + previously considered and prepared in a more select council of the + principal chieftains. <a href="#linknote-9.45" name="linknoteref-9.45" + id="linknoteref-9.45">45</a> The magistrates might deliberate and persuade, + the people only could resolve and execute; and the resolutions of the + Germans were for the most part hasty and violent. Barbarians accustomed to + place their freedom in gratifying the present passion, and their courage + in overlooking all future consequences, turned away with indignant + contempt from the remonstrances of justice and policy, and it was the + practice to signify by a hollow murmur their dislike of such timid + counsels. But whenever a more popular orator proposed to vindicate the + meanest citizen from either foreign or domestic injury, whenever he called + upon his fellow-countrymen to assert the national honor, or to pursue some + enterprise full of danger and glory, a loud clashing of shields and spears + expressed the eager applause of the assembly. For the Germans always met + in arms, and it was constantly to be dreaded, lest an irregular multitude, + inflamed with faction and strong liquors, should use those arms to + enforce, as well as to declare, their furious resolves. We may recollect + how often the diets of Poland have been polluted with blood, and the more + numerous party has been compelled to yield to the more violent and + seditious. <a href="#linknote-9.46" name="linknoteref-9.46" + id="linknoteref-9.46">46</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.45" id="linknote-9.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Grotius changes an + expression of Tacitus, pertractantur into Prætractantur. The correction + is equally just and ingenious.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.46" id="linknote-9.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Even in our ancient + parliament, the barons often carried a question, not so much by the number + of votes, as by that of their armed followers.] + </p> + <p> + A general of the tribe was elected on occasions of danger; and, if the + danger was pressing and extensive, several tribes concurred in the choice + of the same general. The bravest warrior was named to lead his countrymen + into the field, by his example rather than by his commands. But this + power, however limited, was still invidious. It expired with the war, and + in time of peace the German tribes acknowledged not any supreme chief. <a + href="#linknote-9.47" name="linknoteref-9.47" id="linknoteref-9.47">47</a> + <i>Princes</i> were, however, appointed, in the general assembly, to administer + justice, or rather to compose differences, <a href="#linknote-9.48" + name="linknoteref-9.48" id="linknoteref-9.48">48</a> in their respective + districts. In the choice of these magistrates, as much regard was shown to + birth as to merit. <a href="#linknote-9.49" name="linknoteref-9.49" + id="linknoteref-9.49">49</a> To each was assigned, by the public, a guard, + and a council of a hundred persons, and the first of the princes appears + to have enjoyed a preeminence of rank and honor which sometimes tempted + the Romans to compliment him with the regal title. <a href="#linknote-9.50" + name="linknoteref-9.50" id="linknoteref-9.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.47" id="linknote-9.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar de Bell. Gal. vi. + 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.48" id="linknote-9.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Minuunt controversias, + is a very happy expression of Cæsar’s.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.49" id="linknote-9.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Reges ex nobilitate, + duces ex virtute sumunt. Tacit Germ. 7] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.50" id="linknote-9.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Cluver. Germ. Ant. l. i. + c. 38.] + </p> + <p> + The comparative view of the powers of the magistrates, in two remarkable + instances, is alone sufficient to represent the whole system of German + manners. The disposal of the landed property within their district was + absolutely vested in their hands, and they distributed it every year + according to a new division. <a href="#linknote-9.51" name="linknoteref-9.51" + id="linknoteref-9.51">51</a> At the same time they were not authorized to + punish with death, to imprison, or even to strike a private citizen. <a + href="#linknote-9.52" name="linknoteref-9.52" id="linknoteref-9.52">52</a> A + people thus jealous of their persons, and careless of their possessions, + must have been totally destitute of industry and the arts, but animated + with a high sense of honor and independence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.51" id="linknote-9.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar, vi. 22. Tacit + Germ. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.52" id="linknote-9.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 7.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap09.3"></a> + Chapter IX: State Of Germany Until The Barbarians.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + The Germans respected only those duties which they imposed on themselves. + The most obscure soldier resisted with disdain the authority of the + magistrates. “The noblest youths blushed not to be numbered among the + faithful companions of some renowned chief, to whom they devoted their + arms and service. A noble emulation prevailed among the companions to + obtain the first place in the esteem of their chief; amongst the chiefs, + to acquire the greatest number of valiant companions. To be ever + surrounded by a band of select youths was the pride and strength of the + chiefs, their ornament in peace, their defence in war. The glory of such + distinguished heroes diffused itself beyond the narrow limits of their own + tribe. Presents and embassies solicited their friendship, and the fame of + their arms often insured victory to the party which they espoused. In the + hour of danger it was shameful for the chief to be surpassed in valor by + his companions; shameful for the companions not to equal the valor of + their chief. To survive his fall in battle was indelible infamy. To + protect his person, and to adorn his glory with the trophies of their own + exploits, were the most sacred of their duties. The chiefs combated for + victory, the companions for the chief. The noblest warriors, whenever + their native country was sunk into the laziness of peace, maintained their + numerous bands in some distant scene of action, to exercise their restless + spirit, and to acquire renown by voluntary dangers. Gifts worthy of + soldiers—the warlike steed, the bloody and ever victorious lance—were + the rewards which the companions claimed from the liberality of their + chief. The rude plenty of his hospitable board was the only pay that <i>he</i> + could bestow, or <i>they</i> would accept. War, rapine, and the free-will + offerings of his friends, supplied the materials of this munificence.” <a + href="#linknote-9.53" name="linknoteref-9.53" id="linknoteref-9.53">53</a> + This institution, however it might accidentally weaken the several + republics, invigorated the general character of the Germans, and even + ripened amongst them all the virtues of which barbarians are susceptible; + the faith and valor, the hospitality and the courtesy, so conspicuous long + afterwards in the ages of chivalry. + </p> + <p> + The honorable gifts, bestowed by the chief on his brave companions, have + been supposed, by an ingenious writer, to contain the first rudiments of + the fiefs, distributed after the conquest of the Roman provinces, by the + barbarian lords among their vassals, with a similar duty of homage and + military service. <a href="#linknote-9.54" name="linknoteref-9.54" + id="linknoteref-9.54">54</a> These conditions are, however, very repugnant + to the maxims of the ancient Germans, who delighted in mutual presents, + but without either imposing, or accepting, the weight of obligations. <a + href="#linknote-9.55" name="linknoteref-9.55" id="linknoteref-9.55">55</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.53" id="linknote-9.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. 13, 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.54" id="linknote-9.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.54">return</a>)<br/> [ Esprit des Loix, l. xxx. + c. 3. The brilliant imagination of Montesquieu is corrected, however, by + the dry, cold reason of the Abbé de Mably. Observations sur l’Histoire de + France, tom. i. p. 356.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.55" id="linknote-9.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Gaudent muneribus, sed + nec data imputant, nec acceptis obligautur. Tacit. Germ. c. 21.] + </p> + <p> + “In the days of chivalry, or more properly of romance, all the men were + brave and all the women were chaste;” and notwithstanding the latter of + these virtues is acquired and preserved with much more difficulty than the + former, it is ascribed, almost without exception, to the wives of the + ancient Germans. Polygamy was not in use, except among the princes, and + among them only for the sake of multiplying their alliances. Divorces were + prohibited by manners rather than by laws. Adulteries were punished as + rare and inexpiable crimes; nor was seduction justified by example and + fashion. <a href="#linknote-9.56" name="linknoteref-9.56" + id="linknoteref-9.56">56</a> We may easily discover that Tacitus indulges + an honest pleasure in the contrast of barbarian virtue with the dissolute + conduct of the Roman ladies; yet there are some striking circumstances + that give an air of truth, or at least probability, to the conjugal faith + and chastity of the Germans. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.56" id="linknote-9.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.56">return</a>)<br/> [ The adulteress was + whipped through the village. Neither wealth nor beauty could inspire + compassion, or procure her a second husband. 18, 19.] + </p> + <p> + Although the progress of civilization has undoubtedly contributed to + assuage the fiercer passions of human nature, it seems to have been less + favorable to the virtue of chastity, whose most dangerous enemy is the + softness of the mind. The refinements of life corrupt while they polish + the intercourse of the sexes. The gross appetite of love becomes most + dangerous when it is elevated, or rather, indeed, disguised by sentimental + passion. The elegance of dress, of motion, and of manners, gives a lustre + to beauty, and inflames the senses through the imagination. Luxurious + entertainments, midnight dances, and licentious spectacles, present at + once temptation and opportunity to female frailty. <a href="#linknote-9.57" + name="linknoteref-9.57" id="linknoteref-9.57">57</a> From such dangers the + unpolished wives of the barbarians were secured by poverty, solitude, and + the painful cares of a domestic life. The German huts, open, on every + side, to the eye of indiscretion or jealousy, were a better safeguard of + conjugal fidelity than the walls, the bolts, and the eunuchs of a Persian + harem. To this reason another may be added of a more honorable nature. + The Germans treated their women with esteem and confidence, consulted them + on every occasion of importance, and fondly believed, that in their + breasts resided a sanctity and wisdom more than human. Some of the + interpreters of fate, such as Velleda, in the Batavian war, governed, in + the name of the deity, the fiercest nations of Germany. <a + href="#linknote-9.58" name="linknoteref-9.58" id="linknoteref-9.58">58</a> + The rest of the sex, without being adored as goddesses, were respected as + the free and equal companions of soldiers; associated even by the marriage + ceremony to a life of toil, of danger, and of glory. <a + href="#linknote-9.59" name="linknoteref-9.59" id="linknoteref-9.59">59</a> In + their great invasions, the camps of the barbarians were filled with a + multitude of women, who remained firm and undaunted amidst the sound of + arms, the various forms of destruction, and the honorable wounds of their + sons and husbands. <a href="#linknote-9.60" name="linknoteref-9.60" + id="linknoteref-9.60">60</a> Fainting armies of Germans have, more than + once, been driven back upon the enemy by the generous despair of the + women, who dreaded death much less than servitude. If the day was + irrecoverably lost, they well knew how to deliver themselves and their + children, with their own hands, from an insulting victor. <a + href="#linknote-9.61" name="linknoteref-9.61" id="linknoteref-9.61">61</a> + Heroines of such a cast may claim our admiration; but they were most + assuredly neither lovely nor very susceptible of love. Whilst they + affected to emulate the stern virtues of <i>man</i>, they must have resigned that + attractive softness in which principally consist the charm and weakness + of <i>woman</i>. Conscious pride taught the German females to suppress every + tender emotion that stood in competition with honor, and the first honor + of the sex has ever been that of chastity. The sentiments and conduct of + these high-spirited matrons may, at once, be considered as a cause, as an + effect, and as a proof of the general character of the nation. Female + courage, however it may be raised by fanaticism, or confirmed by habit, + can be only a faint and imperfect imitation of the manly valor that + distinguishes the age or country in which it may be found. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.57" id="linknote-9.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Ovid employs two hundred + lines in the research of places the most favorable to love. Above all, he + considers the theatre as the best adapted to collect the beauties of Rome, + and to melt them into tenderness and sensuality,] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.58" id="linknote-9.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. iv. 61, + 65.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.59" id="linknote-9.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.59">return</a>)<br/> [ The marriage present was + a yoke of oxen, horses, and arms. See Germ. c. 18. Tacitus is somewhat too + florid on the subject.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.60" id="linknote-9.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.60">return</a>)<br/> [ The change of exigere + into exugere is a most excellent correction.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.61" id="linknote-9.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germ. c. 7. + Plutarch in Mario. Before the wives of the Teutones destroyed themselves + and their children, they had offered to surrender, on condition that they + should be received as the slaves of the vestal virgins.] + </p> + <p> + The religious system of the Germans (if the wild opinions of savages can + deserve that name) was dictated by their wants, their fears, and their + ignorance. <a href="#linknote-9.62" name="linknoteref-9.62" + id="linknoteref-9.62">62</a> They adored the great visible objects and + agents of nature, the Sun and the Moon, the Fire and the Earth; together + with those imaginary deities, who were supposed to preside over the most + important occupations of human life. They were persuaded, that, by some + ridiculous arts of divination, they could discover the will of the + superior beings, and that human sacrifices were the most precious and + acceptable offering to their altars. Some applause has been hastily + bestowed on the sublime notion, entertained by that people, of the Deity, + whom they neither confined within the walls of the temple, nor represented + by any human figure; but when we recollect, that the Germans were + unskilled in architecture, and totally unacquainted with the art of + sculpture, we shall readily assign the true reason of a scruple, which + arose not so much from a superiority of reason, as from a want of + ingenuity. The only temples in Germany were dark and ancient groves, + consecrated by the reverence of succeeding generations. Their secret + gloom, the imagined residence of an invisible power, by presenting no + distinct object of fear or worship, impressed the mind with a still deeper + sense of religious horror; <a href="#linknote-9.63" name="linknoteref-9.63" + id="linknoteref-9.63">63</a> and the priests, rude and illiterate as they + were, had been taught by experience the use of every artifice that could + preserve and fortify impressions so well suited to their own interest. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.62" id="linknote-9.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacitus has employed a + few lines, and Cluverius one hundred and twenty-four pages, on this + obscure subject. The former discovers in Germany the gods of Greece and + Rome. The latter is positive, that, under the emblems of the sun, the + moon, and the fire, his pious ancestors worshipped the Trinity in unity] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.63" id="linknote-9.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.63">return</a>)<br/> [ The sacred wood, + described with such sublime horror by Lucan, was in the neighborhood of + Marseilles; but there were many of the same kind in Germany. * Note: The + ancient Germans had shapeless idols, and, when they began to build more + settled habitations, they raised also temples, such as that to the goddess + Teufana, who presided over divination. See Adelung, Hist. of Ane Germans, + p 296—G] + </p> + <p> + The same ignorance, which renders barbarians incapable of conceiving or + embracing the useful restraints of laws, exposes them naked and unarmed to + the blind terrors of superstition. The German priests, improving this + favorable temper of their countrymen, had assumed a jurisdiction even in + temporal concerns, which the magistrate could not venture to exercise; and + the haughty warrior patiently submitted to the lash of correction, when it + was inflicted, not by any human power, but by the immediate order of the + god of war. <a href="#linknote-9.64" name="linknoteref-9.64" + id="linknoteref-9.64">64</a> The defects of civil policy were sometimes + supplied by the interposition of ecclesiastical authority. The latter was + constantly exerted to maintain silence and decency in the popular + assemblies; and was sometimes extended to a more enlarged concern for the + national welfare. A solemn procession was occasionally celebrated in the + present countries of Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The unknown symbol of the + <i>Earth</i>, covered with a thick veil, was placed on a carriage drawn by cows; + and in this manner the goddess, whose common residence was in the Isles of + Rugen, visited several adjacent tribes of her worshippers. During her + progress the sound of war was hushed, quarrels were suspended, arms laid + aside, and the restless Germans had an opportunity of tasting the + blessings of peace and harmony. <a href="#linknote-9.65" + name="linknoteref-9.65" id="linknoteref-9.65">65</a> The <i>truce of God</i>, so + often and so ineffectually proclaimed by the clergy of the eleventh + century, was an obvious imitation of this ancient custom. <a + href="#linknote-9.66" name="linknoteref-9.66" id="linknoteref-9.66">66</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.64" id="linknote-9.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.65" id="linknote-9.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. 40.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.66" id="linknote-9.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.66">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dr. Robertson’s + History of Charles V. vol. i. note 10.] + </p> + <p> + But the influence of religion was far more powerful to inflame, than to + moderate, the fierce passions of the Germans. Interest and fanaticism + often prompted its ministers to sanctify the most daring and the most + unjust enterprises, by the approbation of Heaven, and full assurances of + success. The consecrated standards, long revered in the groves of + superstition, were placed in the front of the battle; <a + href="#linknote-9.67" name="linknoteref-9.67" id="linknoteref-9.67">67</a> + and the hostile army was devoted with dire execrations to the gods of war + and of thunder. <a href="#linknote-9.68" name="linknoteref-9.68" + id="linknoteref-9.68">68</a> In the faith of soldiers (and such were the + Germans) cowardice is the most unpardonable of sins. A brave man was the + worthy favorite of their martial deities; the wretch who had lost his + shield was alike banished from the religious and civil assemblies of his + countrymen. Some tribes of the north seem to have embraced the doctrine of + transmigration, <a href="#linknote-9.69" name="linknoteref-9.69" + id="linknoteref-9.69">69</a> others imagined a gross paradise of immortal + drunkenness. <a href="#linknote-9.70" name="linknoteref-9.70" + id="linknoteref-9.70">70</a> All agreed that a life spent in arms, and a + glorious death in battle, were the best preparations for a happy futurity, + either in this or in another world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.67" id="linknote-9.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. 7. + These standards were only the heads of wild beasts.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.68" id="linknote-9.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.68">return</a>)<br/> [ See an instance of this + custom, Tacit. Annal. xiii. 57.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.69" id="linknote-9.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar Diodorus, and + Lucan, seem to ascribe this doctrine to the Gauls, but M. Pelloutier + (Histoire des Celtes, l. iii. c. 18) labors to reduce their expressions to + a more orthodox sense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.70" id="linknote-9.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Concerning this gross + but alluring doctrine of the Edda, see Fable xx. in the curious version of + that book, published by M. Mallet, in his Introduction to the History of + Denmark.] + </p> + <p> + The immortality so vainly promised by the priests, was, in some degree, + conferred by the bards. That singular order of men has most deservedly + attracted the notice of all who have attempted to investigate the + antiquities of the Celts, the Scandinavians, and the Germans. Their genius + and character, as well as the reverence paid to that important office, + have been sufficiently illustrated. But we cannot so easily express, or + even conceive, the enthusiasm of arms and glory which they kindled in the + breast of their audience. Among a polished people a taste for poetry is + rather an amusement of the fancy than a passion of the soul. And yet, + when in calm retirement we peruse the combats described by Homer or Tasso, + we are insensibly seduced by the fiction, and feel a momentary glow of + martial ardor. But how faint, how cold is the sensation which a peaceful + mind can receive from solitary study! It was in the hour of battle, or in + the feast of victory, that the bards celebrated the glory of the heroes of + ancient days, the ancestors of those warlike chieftains, who listened with + transport to their artless but animated strains. The view of arms and of + danger heightened the effect of the military song; and the passions which + it tended to excite, the desire of fame, and the contempt of death, were + the habitual sentiments of a German mind. <a href="#linknote-9.71" + name="linknoteref-9.71" id="linknoteref-9.71">71</a> <a href="#linknote-9.711" + name="linknoteref-9.711" id="linknoteref-9.711">711</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.71" id="linknote-9.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.71">return</a>)<br/> [ See Tacit. Germ. c. 3. + Diod. Sicul. l. v. Strabo, l. iv. p. 197. The classical reader may + remember the rank of Demodocus in the Phæacian court, and the ardor + infused by Tyrtæus into the fainting Spartans. Yet there is little + probability that the Greeks and the Germans were the same people. Much + learned trifling might be spared, if our antiquarians would condescend to + reflect, that similar manners will naturally be produced by similar + situations.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.711" id="linknote-9.711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 711 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.711">return</a>)<br/> [ Besides these battle + songs, the Germans sang at their festival banquets, (Tac. Ann. i. 65,) and + around the bodies of their slain heroes. King Theodoric, of the tribe of + the Goths, killed in a battle against Attila, was honored by songs while + he was borne from the field of battle. Jornandes, c. 41. The same honor + was paid to the remains of Attila. Ibid. c. 49. According to some + historians, the Germans had songs also at their weddings; but this appears + to me inconsistent with their customs, in which marriage was no more than + the purchase of a wife. Besides, there is but one instance of this, that + of the Gothic king, Ataulph, who sang himself the nuptial hymn when he + espoused Placidia, sister of the emperors Arcadius and Honorius, + (Olympiodor. p. 8.) But this marriage was celebrated according to the + Roman rites, of which the nuptial songs formed a part. Adelung, p. 382.—G. + Charlemagne is said to have collected the national songs of the ancient + Germans. Eginhard, Vit. Car. Mag.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such was the situation, and such were the manners of the ancient Germans. + Their climate, their want of learning, of arts, and of laws, their notions + of honor, of gallantry, and of religion, their sense of freedom, + impatience of peace, and thirst of enterprise, all contributed to form a + people of military heroes. And yet we find, that during more than two + hundred and fifty years that elapsed from the defeat of Varus to the reign + of Decius, these formidable barbarians made few considerable attempts, and + not any material impression on the luxurious, and enslaved provinces of the + empire. Their progress was checked by their want of arms and discipline, + and their fury was diverted by the intestine divisions of ancient Germany. + I. It has been observed, with ingenuity, and not without truth, that the + command of iron soon gives a nation the command of gold. But the rude + tribes of Germany, alike destitute of both those valuable metals, were + reduced slowly to acquire, by their unassisted strength, the possession of + the one as well as the other. The face of a German army displayed their + poverty of iron. Swords, and the longer kind of lances, they could seldom + use. Their <i>frameæ</i> (as they called them in their own language) were long + spears headed with a sharp but narrow iron point, and which, as occasion + required, they either darted from a distance, or pushed in close onset. + With this spear, and with a shield, their cavalry was contented. A + multitude of darts, scattered <a href="#linknote-9.72" + name="linknoteref-9.72" id="linknoteref-9.72">72</a> with incredible force, + were an additional resource of the infantry. Their military dress, when + they wore any, was nothing more than a loose mantle. A variety of colors + was the only ornament of their wooden or osier shields. Few of the chiefs + were distinguished by cuirasses, scarcely any by helmets. Though the + horses of Germany were neither beautiful, swift, nor practised in the + skilful evolutions of the Roman manege, several of the nations obtained + renown by their cavalry; but, in general, the principal strength of the + Germans consisted in their infantry, <a href="#linknote-9.73" + name="linknoteref-9.73" id="linknoteref-9.73">73</a> which was drawn up in + several deep columns, according to the distinction of tribes and families. + Impatient of fatigue and delay, these half-armed warriors rushed to battle + with dissonant shouts and disordered ranks; and sometimes, by the effort + of native valor, prevailed over the constrained and more artificial + bravery of the Roman mercenaries. But as the barbarians poured forth their + whole souls on the first onset, they knew not how to rally or to retire. A + repulse was a sure defeat; and a defeat was most commonly total + destruction. When we recollect the complete armor of the Roman soldiers, + their discipline, exercises, evolutions, fortified camps, and military + engines, it appears a just matter of surprise, how the naked and + unassisted valor of the barbarians could dare to encounter, in the field, + the strength of the legions, and the various troops of the auxiliaries, + which seconded their operations. The contest was too unequal, till the + introduction of luxury had enervated the vigor, and a spirit of + disobedience and sedition had relaxed the discipline, of the Roman armies. + The introduction of barbarian auxiliaries into those armies, was a measure + attended with very obvious dangers, as it might gradually instruct the + Germans in the arts of war and of policy. Although they were admitted in + small numbers and with the strictest precaution, the example of Civilis + was proper to convince the Romans, that the danger was not imaginary, and + that their precautions were not always sufficient. <a href="#linknote-9.74" + name="linknoteref-9.74" id="linknoteref-9.74">74</a> During the civil wars + that followed the death of Nero, that artful and intrepid Batavian, whom + his enemies condescended to compare with Hannibal and Sertorius, <a + href="#linknote-9.75" name="linknoteref-9.75" id="linknoteref-9.75">75</a> + formed a great design of freedom and ambition. Eight Batavian cohorts + renowned in the wars of Britain and Italy, repaired to his standard. He + introduced an army of Germans into Gaul, prevailed on the powerful cities + of Treves and Langres to embrace his cause, defeated the legions, + destroyed their fortified camps, and employed against the Romans the + military knowledge which he had acquired in their service. When at length, + after an obstinate struggle, he yielded to the power of the empire, + Civilis secured himself and his country by an honorable treaty. The + Batavians still continued to occupy the islands of the Rhine, <a + href="#linknote-9.76" name="linknoteref-9.76" id="linknoteref-9.76">76</a> + the allies, not the servants, of the Roman monarchy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.72" id="linknote-9.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.72">return</a>)<br/> [ Missilia spargunt, + Tacit. Germ. c. 6. Either that historian used a vague expression, or he + meant that they were thrown at random.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.73" id="linknote-9.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.73">return</a>)<br/> [ It was their principal + distinction from the Sarmatians, who generally fought on horseback.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.74" id="linknote-9.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.74">return</a>)<br/> [ The relation of this + enterprise occupies a great part of the fourth and fifth books of the + History of Tacitus, and is more remarkable for its eloquence than + perspicuity. Sir Henry Saville has observed several inaccuracies.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.75" id="linknote-9.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Hist. iv. 13. + Like them he had lost an eye.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.76" id="linknote-9.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.76">return</a>)<br/> [ It was contained between + the two branches of the old Rhine, as they subsisted before the face of + the country was changed by art and nature. See Cluver German. Antiq. l. + iii. c. 30, 37.] + </p> + <p> + II. The strength of ancient Germany appears formidable, when we consider + the effects that might have been produced by its united effort. The wide + extent of country might very possibly contain a million of warriors, as + all who were of age to bear arms were of a temper to use them. But this + fierce multitude, incapable of concerting or executing any plan of + national greatness, was agitated by various and often hostile intentions. + Germany was divided into more than forty independent states; and, even in + each state, the union of the several tribes was extremely loose and + precarious. The barbarians were easily provoked; they knew not how to + forgive an injury, much less an insult; their resentments were bloody and + implacable. The casual disputes that so frequently happened in their + tumultuous parties of hunting or drinking were sufficient to inflame the + minds of whole nations; the private feuds of any considerable chieftains + diffused itself among their followers and allies. To chastise the + insolent, or to plunder the defenceless, were alike causes of war. The + most formidable states of Germany affected to encompass their territories + with a wide frontier of solitude and devastation. The awful distance + preserved by their neighbors attested the terror of their arms, and in + some measure defended them from the danger of unexpected incursions. <a + href="#linknote-9.77" name="linknoteref-9.77" id="linknoteref-9.77">77</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.77" id="linknote-9.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar de Bell. Gal. l. + vi. 23.] + </p> + <p> + “The Bructeri <a href="#linknote-9.771" name="linknoteref-9.771" + id="linknoteref-9.771">771</a> (it is Tacitus who now speaks) were totally + exterminated by the neighboring tribes, <a href="#linknote-9.78" + name="linknoteref-9.78" id="linknoteref-9.78">78</a> provoked by their + insolence, allured by the hopes of spoil, and perhaps inspired by the + tutelar deities of the empire. Above sixty thousand barbarians were + destroyed; not by the Roman arms, but in our sight, and for our + entertainment. May the nations, enemies of Rome, ever preserve this enmity + to each other! We have now attained the utmost verge of prosperity, <a + href="#linknote-9.79" name="linknoteref-9.79" id="linknoteref-9.79">79</a> + and have nothing left to demand of fortune, except the discord of the + barbarians.” <a href="#linknote-9.80" name="linknoteref-9.80" + id="linknoteref-9.80">80</a>—These sentiments, less worthy of the + humanity than of the patriotism of Tacitus, express the invariable maxims + of the policy of his countrymen. They deemed it a much safer expedient to + divide than to combat the barbarians, from whose defeat they could derive + neither honor nor advantage. The money and negotiations of Rome insinuated + themselves into the heart of Germany; and every art of seduction was used + with dignity, to conciliate those nations whom their proximity to the + Rhine or Danube might render the most useful friends as well as the most + troublesome enemies. Chiefs of renown and power were flattered by the most + trifling presents, which they received either as marks of distinction, or + as the instruments of luxury. In civil dissensions the weaker faction + endeavored to strengthen its interest by entering into secret connections + with the governors of the frontier provinces. Every quarrel among the + Germans was fomented by the intrigues of Rome; and every plan of union and + public good was defeated by the stronger bias of private jealousy and + interest. <a href="#linknote-9.81" name="linknoteref-9.81" + id="linknoteref-9.81">81</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.771" id="linknote-9.771"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 771 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.771">return</a>)<br/> [ The Bructeri were a + non-Suevian tribe, who dwelt below the duchies of Oldenburgh, and + Lauenburgh, on the borders of the Lippe, and in the Hartz Mountains. It + was among them that the priestess Velleda obtained her renown.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.78" id="linknote-9.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.78">return</a>)<br/> [ They are mentioned, + however, in the ivth and vth centuries by Nazarius, Ammianus, Claudian, + &c., as a tribe of Franks. See Cluver. Germ. Antiq. l. iii. c. 13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.79" id="linknote-9.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Urgentibus is the common + reading; but good sense, Lipsius, and some Mss. declare for Vergentibus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.80" id="linknote-9.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit Germania, c. 33. + The pious Abbé de la Bleterie is very angry with Tacitus, talks of the + devil, who was a murderer from the beginning, &c., &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.81" id="linknote-9.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.81">return</a>)<br/> [ Many traces of this + policy may be discovered in Tacitus and Dion: and many more may be + inferred from the principles of human nature.] + </p> + <p> + The general conspiracy which terrified the Romans under the reign of + Marcus Antoninus, comprehended almost all the nations of Germany, and even + Sarmatia, from the mouth of the Rhine to that of the Danube. <a + href="#linknote-9.82" name="linknoteref-9.82" id="linknoteref-9.82">82</a> It + is impossible for us to determine whether this hasty confederation was + formed by necessity, by reason, or by passion; but we may rest assured, + that the barbarians were neither allured by the indolence, nor provoked by + the ambition, of the Roman monarch. This dangerous invasion required all + the firmness and vigilance of Marcus. He fixed generals of ability in the + several stations of attack, and assumed in person the conduct of the most + important province on the Upper Danube. After a long and doubtful + conflict, the spirit of the barbarians was subdued. The Quadi and the + Marcomanni, <a href="#linknote-9.83" name="linknoteref-9.83" + id="linknoteref-9.83">83</a> who had taken the lead in the war, were the + most severely punished in its catastrophe. They were commanded to retire + five miles <a href="#linknote-9.84" name="linknoteref-9.84" + id="linknoteref-9.84">84</a> from their own banks of the Danube, and to + deliver up the flower of the youth, who were immediately sent into + Britain, a remote island, where they might be secure as hostages, and + useful as soldiers. <a href="#linknote-9.85" name="linknoteref-9.85" + id="linknoteref-9.85">85</a> On the frequent rebellions of the Quadi and + Marcomanni, the irritated emperor resolved to reduce their country into + the form of a province. His designs were disappointed by death. This + formidable league, however, the only one that appears in the two first + centuries of the Imperial history, was entirely dissipated, without + leaving any traces behind in Germany. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.82" id="linknote-9.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Aug. p. 31. + Ammian. Marcellin. l. xxxi. c. 5. Aurel. Victor. The emperor Marcus was + reduced to sell the rich furniture of the palace, and to enlist slaves and + robbers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.83" id="linknote-9.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.83">return</a>)<br/> [ The Marcomanni, a + colony, who, from the banks of the Rhine occupied Bohemia and Moravia, had + once erected a great and formidable monarchy under their king Maroboduus. + See Strabo, l. vii. [p. 290.] Vell. Pat. ii. 108. Tacit. Annal. ii. 63. * + Note: The Mark-manæn, the March-men or borderers. There seems little + doubt that this was an appellation, rather than a proper name of a part of + the great Suevian or Teutonic race.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.84" id="linknote-9.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Mr. Wotton (History of + Rome, p. 166) increases the prohibition to ten times the distance. His + reasoning is specious, but not conclusive. Five miles were sufficient for + a fortified barrier.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.85" id="linknote-9.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion, l. lxxi. and + lxxii.] + </p> + <p> + In the course of this introductory chapter, we have confined ourselves to + the general outlines of the manners of Germany, without attempting to + describe or to distinguish the various tribes which filled that great + country in the time of Cæsar, of Tacitus, or of Ptolemy. As the ancient, + or as new tribes successively present themselves in the series of this + history, we shall concisely mention their origin, their situation, and + their particular character. Modern nations are fixed and permanent + societies, connected among themselves by laws and government, bound to + their native soil by art and agriculture. The German tribes were + voluntary and fluctuating associations of soldiers, almost of savages. The + same territory often changed its inhabitants in the tide of conquest and + emigration. The same communities, uniting in a plan of defence or + invasion, bestowed a new title on their new confederacy. The dissolution + of an ancient confederacy restored to the independent tribes their + peculiar but long-forgotten appellation. A victorious state often + communicated its own name to a vanquished people. Sometimes crowds of + volunteers flocked from all parts to the standard of a favorite leader; + his camp became their country, and some circumstance of the enterprise + soon gave a common denomination to the mixed multitude. The distinctions + of the ferocious invaders were perpetually varied by themselves, and + confounded by the astonished subjects of the Roman empire. <a + href="#linknote-9.86" name="linknoteref-9.86" id="linknoteref-9.86">86</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.86" id="linknote-9.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.86">return</a>)<br/> [ See an excellent + dissertation on the origin and migrations of nations, in the Memoires de + l’Academie des Inscriptions, tom. xviii. p. 48—71. It is seldom that + the antiquarian and the philosopher are so happily blended.] + </p> + <p> + Wars, and the administration of public affairs, are the principal subjects + of history; but the number of persons interested in these busy scenes is + very different, according to the different condition of mankind. In great + monarchies, millions of obedient subjects pursue their useful occupations + in peace and obscurity. The attention of the writer, as well as of the + reader, is solely confined to a court, a capital, a regular army, and the + districts which happen to be the occasional scene of military operations. + But a state of freedom and barbarism, the season of civil commotions, or + the situation of petty republics, <a href="#linknote-9.87" + name="linknoteref-9.87" id="linknoteref-9.87">87</a> raises almost every + member of the community into action, and consequently into notice. The + irregular divisions, and the restless motions, of the people of Germany, + dazzle our imagination, and seem to multiply their numbers. The profuse + enumeration of kings, of warriors, of armies and nations, inclines us to + forget that the same objects are continually repeated under a variety of + appellations, and that the most splendid appellations have been frequently + lavished on the most inconsiderable objects. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-9.87" id="linknote-9.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-9.87">return</a>)<br/> [ Should we suspect that + Athens contained only 21,000 citizens, and Sparta no more than 39,000? See + Hume and Wallace on the number of mankind in ancient and modern times. * + Note: This number, though too positively stated, is probably not far + wrong, as an average estimate. On the subject of Athenian population, see + St. Croix, Acad. des Inscrip. xlviii. Bœckh, Public Economy of Athens, i. + 47. Eng Trans, Fynes Clinton, Fasti Hellenici, vol. i. p. 381. The latter + author estimates the citizens of Sparta at 33,000—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap10.1"></a> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus—Part + I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian, And Gallienus.—The +General Irruption Of The Barbari Ans.—The Thirty Tyrants. +</p> + <p> + From the great secular games celebrated by Philip, to the death of the + emperor Gallienus, there elapsed twenty years of shame and misfortune. + During that calamitous period, every instant of time was marked, every + province of the Roman world was afflicted, by barbarous invaders, and + military tyrants, and the ruined empire seemed to approach the last and + fatal moment of its dissolution. The confusion of the times, and the + scarcity of authentic memorials, oppose equal difficulties to the + historian, who attempts to preserve a clear and unbroken thread of + narration. Surrounded with imperfect fragments, always concise, often + obscure, and sometimes contradictory, he is reduced to collect, to + compare, and to conjecture: and though he ought never to place his + conjectures in the rank of facts, yet the knowledge of human nature, and + of the sure operation of its fierce and unrestrained passions, might, on + some occasions, supply the want of historical materials. + </p> + <p> + There is not, for instance, any difficulty in conceiving, that the + successive murders of so many emperors had loosened all the ties of + allegiance between the prince and people; that all the generals of Philip + were disposed to imitate the example of their master; and that the caprice + of armies, long since habituated to frequent and violent revolutions, + might every day raise to the throne the most obscure of their + fellow-soldiers. History can only add, that the rebellion against the + emperor Philip broke out in the summer of the year two hundred and + forty-nine, among the legions of Mæsia; and that a subaltern officer, <a + href="#linknote-10.1" name="linknoteref-10.1" id="linknoteref-10.1">1</a> + named Marinus, was the object of their seditious choice. Philip was + alarmed. He dreaded lest the treason of the Mæsian army should prove the + first spark of a general conflagration. Distracted with the consciousness + of his guilt and of his danger, he communicated the intelligence to the + senate. A gloomy silence prevailed, the effect of fear, and perhaps of + disaffection; till at length Decius, one of the assembly, assuming a + spirit worthy of his noble extraction, ventured to discover more + intrepidity than the emperor seemed to possess. He treated the whole + business with contempt, as a hasty and inconsiderate tumult, and Philip’s + rival as a phantom of royalty, who in a very few days would be destroyed + by the same inconstancy that had created him. The speedy completion of the + prophecy inspired Philip with a just esteem for so able a counsellor; and + Decius appeared to him the only person capable of restoring peace and + discipline to an army whose tumultuous spirit did not immediately subside + after the murder of Marinus. Decius, <a href="#linknote-10.2" + name="linknoteref-10.2" id="linknoteref-10.2">2</a> who long resisted his + own nomination, seems to have insinuated the danger of presenting a leader + of merit to the angry and apprehensive minds of the soldiers; and his + prediction was again confirmed by the event. The legions of Mæsia forced + their judge to become their accomplice. They left him only the alternative + of death or the purple. His subsequent conduct, after that decisive + measure, was unavoidable. He conducted, or followed, his army to the + confines of Italy, whither Philip, collecting all his force to repel the + formidable competitor whom he had raised up, advanced to meet him. The + Imperial troops were superior in number; but the rebels formed an army of + veterans, commanded by an able and experienced leader. Philip was either + killed in the battle, or put to death a few days afterwards at Verona. His + son and associate in the empire was massacred at Rome by the Prætorian + guards; and the victorious Decius, with more favorable circumstances than + the ambition of that age can usually plead, was universally acknowledged + by the senate and provinces. It is reported, that, immediately after his + reluctant acceptance of the title of Augustus, he had assured Philip, by a + private message, of his innocence and loyalty, solemnly protesting, that, + on his arrival on Italy, he would resign the Imperial ornaments, and + return to the condition of an obedient subject. His professions might be + sincere; but in the situation where fortune had placed him, it was + scarcely possible that he could either forgive or be forgiven. <a + href="#linknote-10.3" name="linknoteref-10.3" id="linknoteref-10.3">3</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1" id="linknote-10.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1">return</a>)<br/> [ The expression used by + Zosimus and Zonaras may signify that Marinus commanded a century, a + cohort, or a legion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.2" id="linknote-10.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.2">return</a>)<br/> [ His birth at Bubalia, a + little village in Pannonia, (Eutrop. ix. Victor. in Cæsarib. et Epitom.,) + seems to contradict, unless it was merely accidental, his supposed descent + from the Decii. Six hundred years had bestowed nobility on the Decii: but + at the commencement of that period, they were only plebeians of merit, and + among the first who shared the consulship with the haughty patricians. + Plebeine Deciorum animæ, &c. Juvenal, Sat. viii. 254. See the + spirited speech of Decius, in Livy. x. 9, 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.3" id="linknote-10.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 20, c. + 22. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 624, edit. Louvre.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor Decius had employed a few months in the works of peace and the + administration of justice, when he was summoned to the banks of the Danube + by the invasion of the Goths. This is the first considerable occasion in + which history mentions that great people, who afterwards broke the Roman + power, sacked the Capitol, and reigned in Gaul, Spain, and Italy. So + memorable was the part which they acted in the subversion of the Western + empire, that the name of Goths is frequently but improperly used as a + general appellation of rude and warlike barbarism. + </p> + <p> + In the beginning of the sixth century, and after the conquest of Italy, + the Goths, in possession of present greatness, very naturally indulged + themselves in the prospect of past and of future glory. They wished to + preserve the memory of their ancestors, and to transmit to posterity their + own achievements. The principal minister of the court of Ravenna, the + learned Cassiodorus, gratified the inclination of the conquerors in a + Gothic history, which consisted of twelve books, now reduced to the + imperfect abridgment of Jornandes. <a href="#linknote-10.4" + name="linknoteref-10.4" id="linknoteref-10.4">4</a> These writers passed + with the most artful conciseness over the misfortunes of the nation, + celebrated its successful valor, and adorned the triumph with many Asiatic + trophies, that more properly belonged to the people of Scythia. On the + faith of ancient songs, the uncertain, but the only memorials of + barbarians, they deduced the first origin of the Goths from the vast + island, or peninsula, of Scandinavia. <a href="#linknote-10.5" + name="linknoteref-10.5" id="linknoteref-10.5">5</a> <a href="#linknote-10.501" + name="linknoteref-10.501" id="linknoteref-10.501">501</a> That extreme + country of the North was not unknown to the conquerors of Italy: the ties + of ancient consanguinity had been strengthened by recent offices of + friendship; and a Scandinavian king had cheerfully abdicated his savage + greatness, that he might pass the remainder of his days in the peaceful + and polished court of Ravenna. <a href="#linknote-10.6" + name="linknoteref-10.6" id="linknoteref-10.6">6</a> Many vestiges, which + cannot be ascribed to the arts of popular vanity, attest the ancient + residence of the Goths in the countries beyond the Rhine. From the time of + the geographer Ptolemy, the southern part of Sweden seems to have + continued in the possession of the less enterprising remnant of the + nation, and a large territory is even at present divided into east and + west Gothland. During the middle ages, (from the ninth to the twelfth + century,) whilst Christianity was advancing with a slow progress into the + North, the Goths and the Swedes composed two distinct and sometimes + hostile members of the same monarchy. <a href="#linknote-10.7" + name="linknoteref-10.7" id="linknoteref-10.7">7</a> The latter of these two + names has prevailed without extinguishing the former. The Swedes, who + might well be satisfied with their own fame in arms, have, in every age, + claimed the kindred glory of the Goths. In a moment of discontent against + the court of Rome, Charles the Twelfth insinuated, that his victorious + troops were not degenerated from their brave ancestors, who had already + subdued the mistress of the world. <a href="#linknote-10.8" + name="linknoteref-10.8" id="linknoteref-10.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.4" id="linknote-10.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.4">return</a>)<br/> [ See the prefaces of + Cassiodorus and Jornandes; it is surprising that the latter should be + omitted in the excellent edition, published by Grotius, of the Gothic + writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.5" id="linknote-10.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.5">return</a>)<br/> [ On the authority of + Ablavius, Jornandes quotes some old Gothic chronicles in verse. De Reb. + Geticis, c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.501" id="linknote-10.501"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 501 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.501">return</a>)<br/> [ The Goths have + inhabited Scandinavia, but it was not their original habitation. This + great nation was anciently of the Suevian race; it occupied, in the time + of Tacitus, and long before, Mecklenburgh, Pomerania Southern Prussia and + the north-west of Poland. A little before the birth of J. C., and in the + first years of that century, they belonged to the kingdom of Marbod, king + of the Marcomanni: but Cotwalda, a young Gothic prince, delivered them + from that tyranny, and established his own power over the kingdom of the + Marcomanni, already much weakened by the victories of Tiberius. The power + of the Goths at that time must have been great: it was probably from them + that the Sinus Codanus (the Baltic) took this name, as it was afterwards + called Mare Suevicum, and Mare Venedicum, during the superiority of the + proper Suevi and the Venedi. The epoch in which the Goths passed into + Scandinavia is unknown. See Adelung, Hist. of Anc. Germany, p. 200. + Gatterer, Hist. Univ. 458.—G. ——M. St. Martin observes, + that the Scandinavian descent of the Goths rests on the authority of + Jornandes, who professed to derive it from the traditions of the Goths. He + is supported by Procopius and Paulus Diaconus. Yet the Goths are + unquestionably the same with the Getæ of the earlier historians. St. + Martin, note on Le Beau, Hist. du bas Empire, iii. 324. The identity of + the Getæ and Goths is by no means generally admitted. On the whole, they + seem to be one vast branch of the Indo-Teutonic race, who spread + irregularly towards the north of Europe, and at different periods, and in + different regions, came in contact with the more civilized nations of the + south. At this period, there seems to have been a reflux of these Gothic + tribes from the North. Malte Brun considers that there are strong grounds + for receiving the Islandic traditions commented by the Danish Varro, M. + Suhm. From these, and the voyage of Pytheas, which Malte Brun considers + genuine, the Goths were in possession of Scandinavia, Ey-Gothland, 250 + years before J. C., and of a tract on the continent (Reid-Gothland) + between the mouths of the Vistula and the Oder. In their southern + migration, they followed the course of the Vistula; afterwards, of the + Dnieper. Malte Brun, Geogr. i. p. 387, edit. 1832. Geijer, the historian + of Sweden, ably maintains the Scandinavian origin of the Goths. The Gothic + language, according to Bopp, is the link between the Sanscrit and the + modern Teutonic dialects: “I think that I am reading Sanscrit when I am + reading Olphilas.” Bopp, Conjugations System der Sanscrit Sprache, + preface, p. x—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.6" id="linknote-10.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.7" id="linknote-10.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.7">return</a>)<br/> [ See in the Prolegomena of + Grotius some large extracts from Adam of Bremen, and Saxo-Grammaticus. The + former wrote in the year 1077, the latter flourished about the year 1200.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.8" id="linknote-10.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Voltaire, Histoire de + Charles XII. l. iii. When the Austrians desired the aid of the court of + Rome against Gustavus Adolphus, they always represented that conqueror as + the lineal successor of Alaric. Harte’s History of Gustavus, vol. ii. p. + 123.] + </p> + <p> + Till the end of the eleventh century, a celebrated temple subsisted at + Upsal, the most considerable town of the Swedes and Goths. It was enriched + with the gold which the Scandinavians had acquired in their piratical + adventures, and sanctified by the uncouth representations of the three + principal deities, the god of war, the goddess of generation, and the god + of thunder. In the general festival, that was solemnized every ninth year, + nine animals of every species (without excepting the human) were + sacrificed, and their bleeding bodies suspended in the sacred grove + adjacent to the temple. <a href="#linknote-10.9" name="linknoteref-10.9" + id="linknoteref-10.9">9</a> The only traces that now subsist of this + barbaric superstition are contained in the Edda, <a href="#linknote-10.901" + name="linknoteref-10.901" id="linknoteref-10.901">901</a> a system of + mythology, compiled in Iceland about the thirteenth century, and studied + by the learned of Denmark and Sweden, as the most valuable remains of + their ancient traditions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.9" id="linknote-10.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.9">return</a>)<br/> [ See Adam of Bremen in + Grotii Prolegomenis, p. 105. The temple of Upsal was destroyed by Ingo, + king of Sweden, who began his reign in the year 1075, and about fourscore + years afterwards, a Christian cathedral was erected on its ruins. See + Dalin’s History of Sweden, in the Bibliotheque Raisonee.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.901" id="linknote-10.901"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 901 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.901">return</a>)<br/> [ The Eddas have at + length been made accessible to European scholars by the completion of the + publication of the Sæmundine Edda by the Arna Magnæan Commission, in 3 + vols. 4to., with a copious lexicon of northern mythology.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the mysterious obscurity of the Edda, we can easily + distinguish two persons confounded under the name of Odin; the god of war, + and the great legislator of Scandinavia. The latter, the Mahomet of the + North, instituted a religion adapted to the climate and to the people. + Numerous tribes on either side of the Baltic were subdued by the + invincible valor of Odin, by his persuasive eloquence, and by the fame + which he acquired of a most skilful magician. The faith that he had + propagated, during a long and prosperous life, he confirmed by a voluntary + death. Apprehensive of the ignominious approach of disease and infirmity, + he resolved to expire as became a warrior. In a solemn assembly of the + Swedes and Goths, he wounded himself in nine mortal places, hastening away + (as he asserted with his dying voice) to prepare the feast of heroes in + the palace of the God of war. <a href="#linknote-10.10" + name="linknoteref-10.10" id="linknoteref-10.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.10" id="linknote-10.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Mallet, Introduction a + l’Histoire du Dannemarc.] + </p> + <p> + The native and proper habitation of Odin is distinguished by the + appellation of As-gard. The happy resemblance of that name with As-burg, + or As-of, <a href="#linknote-10.11" name="linknoteref-10.11" + id="linknoteref-10.11">11</a> words of a similar signification, has given + rise to an historical system of so pleasing a contexture, that we could + almost wish to persuade ourselves of its truth. It is supposed that Odin + was the chief of a tribe of barbarians which dwelt on the banks of the + Lake Mæotis, till the fall of Mithridates and the arms of Pompey menaced + the North with servitude. That Odin, yielding with indignant fury to a + power he was unable to resist, conducted his tribe from the + frontiers of the Asiatic Sarmatia into Sweden, with the great design of + forming, in that inaccessible retreat of freedom, a religion and a people + which, in some remote age, might be subservient to his immortal revenge; + when his invincible Goths, armed with martial fanaticism, should issue in + numerous swarms from the neighborhood of the Polar circle, to chastise the + oppressors of mankind. <a href="#linknote-10.12" name="linknoteref-10.12" + id="linknoteref-10.12">12</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.11" id="linknote-10.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Mallet, c. iv. p. 55, + has collected from Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, and Stephanus Byzantinus, the + vestiges of such a city and people.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.12" id="linknote-10.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.12">return</a>)<br/> [ This wonderful + expedition of Odin, which, by deducting the enmity of the Goths and Romans + from so memorable a cause, might supply the noble groundwork of an epic + poem, cannot safely be received as authentic history. According to the + obvious sense of the Edda, and the interpretation of the most skilful + critics, As-gard, instead of denoting a real city of the Asiatic Sarmatia, + is the fictitious appellation of the mystic abode of the gods, the Olympus + of Scandinavia; from whence the prophet was supposed to descend, when he + announced his new religion to the Gothic nations, who were already seated + in the southern parts of Sweden. * Note: A curious letter may be consulted + on this subject from the Swede, Ihre counsellor in the Chancery of Upsal, + printed at Upsal by Edman, in 1772 and translated into German by M. + Schlozer. Gottingen, printed for Dietericht, 1779.—G. ——Gibbon, + at a later period of his work, recanted his opinion of the truth of this + expedition of Odin. The Asiatic origin of the Goths is almost certain from + the affinity of their language to the Sanscrit and Persian; but their + northern writers, when all mythology was reduced to hero worship.—M.] + </p> + <p> + If so many successive generations of Goths were capable of preserving a + faint tradition of their Scandinavian origin, we must not expect, from + such unlettered barbarians, any distinct account of the time and + circumstances of their emigration. To cross the Baltic was an easy and + natural attempt. The inhabitants of Sweden were masters of a sufficient + number of large vessels, with oars, <a href="#linknote-10.13" + name="linknoteref-10.13" id="linknoteref-10.13">13</a> and the distance is + little more than one hundred miles from Carlscroon to the nearest ports of + Pomerania and Prussia. Here, at length, we land on firm and historic + ground. At least as early as the Christian æra, <a href="#linknote-10.14" + name="linknoteref-10.14" id="linknoteref-10.14">14</a> and as late as the + age of the Antonines, <a href="#linknote-10.15" name="linknoteref-10.15" + id="linknoteref-10.15">15</a> the Goths were established towards the mouth + of the Vistula, and in that fertile province where the commercial cities + of Thorn, Elbing, Köningsberg, and Dantzick, were long afterwards founded. + <a href="#linknote-10.16" name="linknoteref-10.16" id="linknoteref-10.16">16</a> + Westward of the Goths, the numerous tribes of the Vandals were spread + along the banks of the Oder, and the sea-coast of Pomerania and + Mecklenburgh. A striking resemblance of manners, complexion, religion, and + language, seemed to indicate that the Vandals and the Goths were + originally one great people. <a href="#linknote-10.17" + name="linknoteref-10.17" id="linknoteref-10.17">17</a> The latter appear to + have been subdivided into Ostrogoths, Visigoths, and Gepidæ. <a + href="#linknote-10.18" name="linknoteref-10.18" id="linknoteref-10.18">18</a> + The distinction among the Vandals was more strongly marked by the + independent names of Heruli, Burgundians, Lombards, and a variety of other + petty states, many of which, in a future age, expanded themselves into + powerful monarchies. <a href="#linknote-10.181" name="linknoteref-10.181" + id="linknoteref-10.181">181</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.13" id="linknote-10.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. + 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.14" id="linknote-10.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. ii. 62. + If we could yield a firm assent to the navigations of Pytheas of + Marseilles, we must allow that the Goths had passed the Baltic at least + three hundred years before Christ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.15" id="linknote-10.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Ptolemy, l. ii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.16" id="linknote-10.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.16">return</a>)<br/> [ By the German colonies + who followed the arms of the Teutonic knights. The conquest and conversion + of Prussia were completed by those adventurers in the thirteenth century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.17" id="linknote-10.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Pliny (Hist. Natur. iv. + 14) and Procopius (in Bell. Vandal. l. i. c. l) agree in this opinion. + They lived in distant ages, and possessed different means of investigating + the truth.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.18" id="linknote-10.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.18">return</a>)<br/> [ The Ostro and Visi, the + eastern and western Goths, obtained those denominations from their + original seats in Scandinavia. In all their future marches and settlements + they preserved, with their names, the same relative situation. When they + first departed from Sweden, the infant colony was contained in three + vessels. The third, being a heavy sailer, lagged behind, and the crew, + which afterwards swelled into a nation, received from that circumstance + the appellation of Gepidæ or Loiterers. Jornandes, c. 17. * Note: It was + not in Scandinavia that the Goths were divided into Ostrogoths and + Visigoths; that division took place after their irruption into Dacia in + the third century: those who came from Mecklenburgh and Pomerania were + called Visigoths; those who came from the south of Prussia, and the + northwest of Poland, called themselves Ostrogoths. Adelung, Hist. All. p. + 202 Gatterer, Hist. Univ. 431.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.181" id="linknote-10.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.181">return</a>)<br/> [ This opinion is by no + means probable. The Vandals and the Goths equally belonged to the great + division of the Suevi, but the two tribes were very different. Those who + have treated on this part of history, appear to me to have neglected to + remark that the ancients almost always gave the name of the dominant and + conquering people to all the weaker and conquered races. So Pliny calls + Vindeli, Vandals, all the people of the north-east of Europe, because at + that epoch the Vandals were doubtless the conquering tribe. Cæsar, on the + contrary, ranges under the name of Suevi, many of the tribes whom Pliny + reckons as Vandals, because the Suevi, properly so called, were then the + most powerful tribe in Germany. When the Goths, become in their turn + conquerors, had subjugated the nations whom they encountered on their way, + these nations lost their name with their liberty, and became of Gothic + origin. The Vandals themselves were then considered as Goths; the Heruli, + the Gepidæ, &c., suffered the same fate. A common origin was thus + attributed to tribes who had only been united by the conquests of some + dominant nation, and this confusion has given rise to a number of + historical errors.—G. ——M. St. Martin has a learned note + (to Le Beau, v. 261) on the origin of the Vandals. The difficulty appears + to be in rejecting the close analogy of the name with the Vend or Wendish + race, who were of Sclavonian, not of Suevian or German, origin. M. St. + Martin supposes that the different races spread from the head of the + Adriatic to the Baltic, and even the Veneti, on the shores of the + Adriatic, the Vindelici, the tribes which gave their name to Vindobena, + Vindoduna, Vindonissa, were branches of the same stock with the Sclavonian + Venedi, who at one time gave their name to the Baltic; that they all spoke + dialects of the Wendish language, which still prevails in Carinthia, + Carniola, part of Bohemia, and Lusatia, and is hardly extinct in + Mecklenburgh and Pomerania. The Vandal race, once so fearfully celebrated + in the annals of mankind, has so utterly perished from the face of the + earth, that we are not aware that any vestiges of their language can be + traced, so as to throw light on the disputed question of their German, + their Sclavonian, or independent origin. The weight of ancient authority + seems against M. St. Martin’s opinion. Compare, on the Vandals, Malte + Brun. 394. Also Gibbon’s note, c. xli. n. 38.—M.] + </p> + <p> + In the age of the Antonines, the Goths were still seated in Prussia. About + the reign of Alexander Severus, the Roman province of Dacia had already + experienced their proximity by frequent and destructive inroads. <a + href="#linknote-10.19" name="linknoteref-10.19" id="linknoteref-10.19">19</a> + In this interval, therefore, of about seventy years we must place the + second migration of the Goths from the Baltic to the Euxine; but the cause that + produced it lies concealed among the various motives which actuate the + conduct of unsettled barbarians. Either a pestilence or a famine, a + victory or a defeat, an oracle of the gods or the eloquence of a daring + leader, were sufficient to impel the Gothic arms on the milder climates of + the south. Besides the influence of a martial religion, the numbers and + spirit of the Goths were equal to the most dangerous adventures. The use + of round bucklers and short swords rendered them formidable in a close + engagement; the manly obedience which they yielded to hereditary kings, + gave uncommon union and stability to their councils; <a + href="#linknote-10.20" name="linknoteref-10.20" id="linknoteref-10.20">20</a> + and the renowned Amala, the hero of that age, and the tenth ancestor of + Theodoric, king of Italy, enforced, by the ascendant of personal merit, + the prerogative of his birth, which he derived from the <i>Anses</i>, or + demigods of the Gothic nation. <a href="#linknote-10.21" + name="linknoteref-10.21" id="linknoteref-10.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.19" id="linknote-10.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.19">return</a>)<br/> [ See a fragment of Peter + Patricius in the Excerpta Legationum and with regard to its probable date, + see Tillemont, Hist, des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 346.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.20" id="linknote-10.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Omnium harum gentium + insigne, rotunda scuta, breves gladii, et erga rages obsequium. Tacit. + Germania, c. 43. The Goths probably acquired their iron by the commerce of + amber.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.21" id="linknote-10.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 13, 14.] + </p> + <p> + The fame of a great enterprise excited the bravest warriors from all the + Vandalic states of Germany, many of whom are seen a few years afterwards + combating under the common standard of the Goths. <a href="#linknote-10.22" + name="linknoteref-10.22" id="linknoteref-10.22">22</a> The first motions of + the emigrants carried them to the banks of the Prypec, a river universally + conceived by the ancients to be the southern branch of the Borysthenes. <a + href="#linknote-10.23" name="linknoteref-10.23" id="linknoteref-10.23">23</a> + The windings of that great stream through the plains of Poland and Russia + gave a direction to their line of march, and a constant supply of fresh + water and pasturage to their numerous herds of cattle. They followed the + unknown course of the river, confident in their valor, and careless of + whatever power might oppose their progress. The Bastarnæ and the Venedi + were the first who presented themselves; and the flower of their youth, + either from choice or compulsion, increased the Gothic army. The Bastarnæ + dwelt on the northern side of the Carpathian Mountains: the immense tract + of land that separated the Bastarnæ from the savages of Finland was + possessed, or rather wasted, by the Venedi; <a href="#linknote-10.24" + name="linknoteref-10.24" id="linknoteref-10.24">24</a> we have some reason + to believe that the first of these nations, which distinguished itself in + the Macedonian war, <a href="#linknote-10.25" name="linknoteref-10.25" + id="linknoteref-10.25">25</a> and was afterwards divided into the + formidable tribes of the Peucini, the Borani, the Carpi, &c., derived + its origin from the Germans. <a href="#linknote-10.251" + name="linknoteref-10.251" id="linknoteref-10.251">251</a> With better + authority, a Sarmatian extraction may be assigned to the Venedi, who + rendered themselves so famous in the middle ages. <a href="#linknote-10.26" + name="linknoteref-10.26" id="linknoteref-10.26">26</a> But the confusion of + blood and manners on that doubtful frontier often perplexed the most + accurate observers. <a href="#linknote-10.27" name="linknoteref-10.27" + id="linknoteref-10.27">27</a> As the Goths advanced near the Euxine Sea, + they encountered a purer race of Sarmatians, the Jazyges, the Alani, <a + href="#linknote-10.271" name="linknoteref-10.271" id="linknoteref-10.271">271</a> + and the Roxolani; and they were probably the first Germans who saw the + mouths of the Borysthenes, and of the Tanais. If we inquire into the + characteristic marks of the people of Germany and of Sarmatia, we shall + discover that those two great portions of human kind were principally + distinguished by fixed huts or movable tents, by a close dress or flowing + garments, by the marriage of one or of several wives, by a military force, + consisting, for the most part, either of infantry or cavalry; and above + all, by the use of the Teutonic, or of the Sclavonian language; the last + of which has been diffused by conquest, from the confines of Italy to the + neighborhood of Japan. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.22" id="linknote-10.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.22">return</a>)<br/> [ The Heruli, and the + Uregundi or Burgundi, are particularly mentioned. See Mascou’s History of + the Germans, l. v. A passage in the Augustan History, p. 28, seems to + allude to this great emigration. The Marcomannic war was partly occasioned + by the pressure of barbarous tribes, who fled before the arms of more + northern barbarians.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.23" id="linknote-10.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.23">return</a>)<br/> [ D’Anville, Geographie + Ancienne, and the third part of his incomparable map of Europe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.24" id="linknote-10.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. + 46.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.25" id="linknote-10.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Cluver. Germ. Antiqua, + l. iii. c. 43.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.251" id="linknote-10.251"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 251 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.251">return</a>)<br/> [ The Bastarnæ cannot + be considered original inhabitants of Germany Strabo and Tacitus appear to + doubt it; Pliny alone calls them Germans: Ptolemy and Dion treat them as + Scythians, a vague appellation at this period of history; Livy, Plutarch, + and Diodorus Siculus, call them Gauls, and this is the most probable + opinion. They descended from the Gauls who entered Germany under + Signoesus. They are always found associated with other Gaulish tribes, + such as the Boll, the Taurisci, &c., and not to the German tribes. The + names of their chiefs or princes, Chlonix, Chlondicus. Deldon, are not + German names. Those who were settled in the island of Peuce in the Danube, + took the name of Peucini. The Carpi appear in 237 as a Suevian tribe who + had made an irruption into Mæsia. Afterwards they reappear under the + Ostrogoths, with whom they were probably blended. Adelung, p. 236, 278.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.26" id="linknote-10.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.26">return</a>)<br/> [ The Venedi, the Slavi, + and the Antes, were the three great tribes of the same people. Jornandes, + 24. * Note Dagger: They formed the great Sclavonian nation.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.27" id="linknote-10.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacitus most assuredly + deserves that title, and even his cautious suspense is a proof of his + diligent inquiries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.271" id="linknote-10.271"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 271 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.271">return</a>)<br/> [ Jac. Reineggs + supposed that he had found, in the mountains of Caucasus, some descendants + of the Alani. The Tartars call them Edeki-Alan: they speak a peculiar + dialect of the ancient language of the Tartars of Caucasus. See J. + Reineggs’ Descr. of Caucasus, p. 11, 13.—G. According to Klaproth, + they are the Ossetes of the present day in Mount Caucasus and were the + same with the Albanians of antiquity. Klaproth, Hist. de l’Asie, p. 180.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap10.2"></a> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + The Goths were now in possession of the Ukraine, a country of considerable + extent and uncommon fertility, intersected with navigable rivers, which, + from either side, discharge themselves into the Borysthenes; and + interspersed with large and lofty forests of oaks. The plenty of game and + fish, the innumerable bee-hives deposited in the hollow of old trees, and + in the cavities of rocks, and forming, even in that rude age, a valuable + branch of commerce, the size of the cattle, the temperature of the air, + the aptness of the soil for every species of grain, and the luxuriancy of + the vegetation, all displayed the liberality of Nature, and tempted the + industry of man. <a href="#linknote-10.28" name="linknoteref-10.28" + id="linknoteref-10.28">28</a> But the Goths withstood all these + temptations, and still adhered to a life of idleness, of poverty, and of + rapine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.28" id="linknote-10.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Genealogical History of + the Tartars, p. 593. Mr. Bell (vol. ii. p 379) traversed the Ukraine, in + his journey from Petersburgh to Constantinople. The modern face of the + country is a just representation of the ancient, since, in the hands of + the Cossacks, it still remains in a state of nature.] + </p> + <p> + The Scythian hordes, which, towards the east, bordered on the new + settlements of the Goths, presented nothing to their arms, except the + doubtful chance of an unprofitable victory. But the prospect of the Roman + territories was far more alluring; and the fields of Dacia were covered + with rich harvests, sown by the hands of an industrious, and exposed to be + gathered by those of a warlike, people. It is probable that the conquests + of Trajan, maintained by his successors, less for any real advantage than + for ideal dignity, had contributed to weaken the empire on that side. The + new and unsettled province of Dacia was neither strong enough to resist, + nor rich enough to satiate, the rapaciousness of the barbarians. As long + as the remote banks of the Niester were considered as the boundary of the + Roman power, the fortifications of the Lower Danube were more carelessly + guarded, and the inhabitants of Mæsia lived in supine security, fondly + conceiving themselves at an inaccessible distance from any barbarian + invaders. The irruptions of the Goths, under the reign of Philip, fatally + convinced them of their mistake. The king, or leader, of that fierce + nation, traversed with contempt the province of Dacia, and passed both the + Niester and the Danube without encountering any opposition capable of + retarding his progress. The relaxed discipline of the Roman troops + betrayed the most important posts, where they were stationed, and the fear + of deserved punishment induced great numbers of them to enlist under the + Gothic standard. The various multitude of barbarians appeared, at length, + under the walls of Marcianopolis, a city built by Trajan in honor of his + sister, and at that time the capital of the second Mæsia. <a + href="#linknote-10.29" name="linknoteref-10.29" id="linknoteref-10.29">29</a> + The inhabitants consented to ransom their lives and property by the + payment of a large sum of money, and the invaders retreated back into + their deserts, animated, rather than satisfied, with the first success of + their arms against an opulent but feeble country. Intelligence was soon + transmitted to the emperor Decius, that Cniva, king of the Goths, had + passed the Danube a second time, with more considerable forces; that his + numerous detachments scattered devastation over the province of Mæsia, + whilst the main body of the army, consisting of seventy thousand Germans + and Sarmatians, a force equal to the most daring achievements, required + the presence of the Roman monarch, and the exertion of his military power. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.29" id="linknote-10.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.29">return</a>)<br/> [ In the sixteenth + chapter of Jornandes, instead of secundo Mæsiam we may venture to + substitute secundam, the second Mæsia, of which Marcianopolis was + certainly the capital. (See Hierocles de Provinciis, and Wesseling ad + locum, p. 636. Itinerar.) It is surprising how this palpable error of the + scribe should escape the judicious correction of Grotius. Note: Luden has + observed that Jornandes mentions two passages over the Danube; this + relates to the second irruption into Mæsia. Geschichte des T V. ii. p. + 448.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Decius found the Goths engaged before Nicopolis, one of the many monuments + of Trajan’s victories. <a href="#linknote-10.30" name="linknoteref-10.30" + id="linknoteref-10.30">30</a> On his approach they raised the siege, but + with a design only of marching away to a conquest of greater importance, + the siege of Philippopolis, a city of Thrace, founded by the father of + Alexander, near the foot of Mount Hæmus. <a href="#linknote-10.31" + name="linknoteref-10.31" id="linknoteref-10.31">31</a> Decius followed them + through a difficult country, and by forced marches; but when he imagined + himself at a considerable distance from the rear of the Goths, Cniva + turned with rapid fury on his pursuers. The camp of the Romans was + surprised and pillaged, and, for the first time, their emperor fled in + disorder before a troop of half-armed barbarians. After a long resistance, + Philoppopolis, destitute of succor, was taken by storm. A hundred thousand + persons are reported to have been massacred in the sack of that great + city. <a href="#linknote-10.32" name="linknoteref-10.32" + id="linknoteref-10.32">32</a> Many prisoners of consequence became a + valuable accession to the spoil; and Priscus, a brother of the late + emperor Philip, blushed not to assume the purple, under the protection of + the barbarous enemies of Rome. <a href="#linknote-10.33" + name="linknoteref-10.33" id="linknoteref-10.33">33</a> The time, however, + consumed in that tedious siege, enabled Decius to revive the courage, + restore the discipline, and recruit the numbers of his troops. He + intercepted several parties of Carpi, and other Germans, who were + hastening to share the victory of their countrymen, <a + href="#linknote-10.34" name="linknoteref-10.34" id="linknoteref-10.34">34</a> + intrusted the passes of the mountains to officers of approved valor and + fidelity, <a href="#linknote-10.35" name="linknoteref-10.35" + id="linknoteref-10.35">35</a> repaired and strengthened the fortifications + of the Danube, and exerted his utmost vigilance to oppose either the + progress or the retreat of the Goths. Encouraged by the return of fortune, + he anxiously waited for an opportunity to retrieve, by a great and + decisive blow, his own glory, and that of the Roman arms. <a + href="#linknote-10.36" name="linknoteref-10.36" id="linknoteref-10.36">36</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.30" id="linknote-10.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.30">return</a>)<br/> [ The place is still + called Nicop. D’Anville, Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 307. The little + stream, on whose banks it stood, falls into the Danube.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.31" id="linknote-10.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Stephan. Byzant. de + Urbibus, p. 740. Wesseling, Itinerar. p. 136. Zonaras, by an odd mistake, + ascribes the foundation of Philippopolis to the immediate predecessor of + Decius. * Note: Now Philippopolis or Philiba; its situation among the + hills caused it to be also called Trimontium. D’Anville, Geog. Anc. i. + 295.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.32" id="linknote-10.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Ammian. xxxi. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.33" id="linknote-10.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor. c. 29.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.34" id="linknote-10.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Victoriæ Carpicæ, on + some medals of Decius, insinuate these advantages.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.35" id="linknote-10.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Claudius (who + afterwards reigned with so much glory) was posted in the pass of + Thermopylæ with 200 Dardanians, 100 heavy and 160 light horse, 60 Cretan + archers, and 1000 well-armed recruits. See an original letter from the + emperor to his officer, in the Augustan History, p. 200.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.36" id="linknote-10.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 16—18. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 22. In the general account of this war, it is easy to + discover the opposite prejudices of the Gothic and the Grecian writer. In + carelessness alone they are alike.] + </p> + <p> + At the same time when Decius was struggling with the violence of the + tempest, his mind, calm and deliberate amidst the tumult of war, + investigated the more general causes that, since the age of the + Antonines, had so impetuously urged the decline of the Roman greatness. He + soon discovered that it was impossible to replace that greatness on a + permanent basis without restoring public virtue, ancient principles and + manners, and the oppressed majesty of the laws. To execute this noble but + arduous design, he first resolved to revive the obsolete office of censor; + an office which, as long as it had subsisted in its pristine integrity, + had so much contributed to the perpetuity of the state, <a + href="#linknote-10.37" name="linknoteref-10.37" id="linknoteref-10.37">37</a> + till it was usurped and gradually neglected by the Cæsars. <a + href="#linknote-10.38" name="linknoteref-10.38" id="linknoteref-10.38">38</a> + Conscious that the favor of the sovereign may confer power, but that the + esteem of the people can alone bestow authority, he submitted the choice + of the censor to the unbiased voice of the senate. By their unanimous + votes, or rather acclamations, Valerian, who was afterwards emperor, and + who then served with distinction in the army of Decius, was declared the + most worthy of that exalted honor. As soon as the decree of the senate was + transmitted to the emperor, he assembled a great council in his camp, and + before the investiture of the censor elect, he apprised him of the + difficulty and importance of his great office. “Happy Valerian,” said the + prince to his distinguished subject, “happy in the general approbation of + the senate and of the Roman republic! Accept the censorship of mankind; + and judge of our manners. You will select those who deserve to continue + members of the senate; you will restore the equestrian order to its + ancient splendor; you will improve the revenue, yet moderate the public + burdens. You will distinguish into regular classes the various and + infinite multitude of citizens, and accurately view the military strength, + the wealth, the virtue, and the resources of Rome. Your decisions shall + obtain the force of laws. The army, the palace, the ministers of justice, + and the great officers of the empire, are all subject to your tribunal. + None are exempted, excepting only the ordinary consuls, <a + href="#linknote-10.39" name="linknoteref-10.39" id="linknoteref-10.39">39</a> + the præfect of the city, the king of the sacrifices, and (as long as she + preserves her chastity inviolate) the eldest of the vestal virgins. Even + these few, who may not dread the severity, will anxiously solicit the + esteem, of the Roman censor.” <a href="#linknote-10.40" + name="linknoteref-10.40" id="linknoteref-10.40">40</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.37" id="linknote-10.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Montesquieu, Grandeur + et Decadence des Romains, c. viii. He illustrates the nature and use of + the censorship with his usual ingenuity, and with uncommon precision.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.38" id="linknote-10.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Vespasian and Titus + were the last censors, (Pliny, Hist. Natur vii. 49. Censorinus de Die + Natali.) The modesty of Trajan refused an honor which he deserved, and his + example became a law to the Antonines. See Pliny’s Panegyric, c. 45 and + 60.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.39" id="linknote-10.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Yet in spite of his + exemption, Pompey appeared before that tribunal during his consulship. The + occasion, indeed, was equally singular and honorable. Plutarch in Pomp. p. + 630.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.40" id="linknote-10.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.40">return</a>)<br/> [ See the original speech + in the Augustan Hist. p. 173-174.] + </p> + <p> + A magistrate, invested with such extensive powers, would have appeared not + so much the minister, as the colleague of his sovereign. <a + href="#linknote-10.41" name="linknoteref-10.41" id="linknoteref-10.41">41</a> + Valerian justly dreaded an elevation so full of envy and of suspicion. He + modestly argued the alarming greatness of the trust, his own + insufficiency, and the incurable corruption of the times. He artfully + insinuated, that the office of censor was inseparable from the Imperial + dignity, and that the feeble hands of a subject were unequal to the + support of such an immense weight of cares and of power. <a + href="#linknote-10.42" name="linknoteref-10.42" id="linknoteref-10.42">42</a> + The approaching event of war soon put an end to the prosecution of a + project so specious, but so impracticable; and whilst it preserved + Valerian from the danger, saved the emperor Decius from the + disappointment, which would most probably have attended it. A censor may + maintain, he can never restore, the morals of a state. It is impossible + for such a magistrate to exert his authority with benefit, or even with + effect, unless he is supported by a quick sense of honor and virtue in the + minds of the people, by a decent reverence for the public opinion, and by + a train of useful prejudices combating on the side of national manners. In + a period when these principles are annihilated, the censorial jurisdiction + must either sink into empty pageantry, or be converted into a partial + instrument of vexatious oppression. <a href="#linknote-10.43" + name="linknoteref-10.43" id="linknoteref-10.43">43</a> It was easier to + vanquish the Goths than to eradicate the public vices; yet even in the + first of these enterprises, Decius lost his army and his life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.41" id="linknote-10.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.41">return</a>)<br/> [ This transaction might + deceive Zonaras, who supposes that Valerian was actually declared the + colleague of Decius, l. xii. p. 625.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.42" id="linknote-10.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 174. + The emperor’s reply is omitted.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.43" id="linknote-10.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Such as the attempts of + Augustus towards a reformation of manness. Tacit. Annal. iii. 24.] + </p> + <p> + The Goths were now, on every side, surrounded and pursued by the Roman + arms. The flower of their troops had perished in the long siege of + Philippopolis, and the exhausted country could no longer afford + subsistence for the remaining multitude of licentious barbarians. Reduced + to this extremity, the Goths would gladly have purchased, by the surrender + of all their booty and prisoners, the permission of an undisturbed + retreat. But the emperor, confident of victory, and resolving, by the + chastisement of these invaders, to strike a salutary terror into the + nations of the North, refused to listen to any terms of accommodation. The + high-spirited barbarians preferred death to slavery. An obscure town of + Mæsia, called Forum Terebronii, <a href="#linknote-10.44" + name="linknoteref-10.44" id="linknoteref-10.44">44</a> was the scene of the + battle. The Gothic army was drawn up in three lines, and either from + choice or accident, the front of the third line was covered by a morass. + In the beginning of the action, the son of Decius, a youth of the fairest + hopes, and already associated to the honors of the purple, was slain by an + arrow, in the sight of his afflicted father; who, summoning all his + fortitude, admonished the dismayed troops, that the loss of a single + soldier was of little importance to the republic. <a href="#linknote-10.45" + name="linknoteref-10.45" id="linknoteref-10.45">45</a> The conflict was + terrible; it was the combat of despair against grief and rage. The first + line of the Goths at length gave way in disorder; the second, advancing to + sustain it, shared its fate; and the third only remained entire, prepared + to dispute the passage of the morass, which was imprudently attempted by + the presumption of the enemy. “Here the fortune of the day turned, and all + things became adverse to the Romans; the place deep with ooze, sinking + under those who stood, slippery to such as advanced; their armor heavy, + the waters deep; nor could they wield, in that uneasy situation, their + weighty javelins. The barbarians, on the contrary, were inured to + encounter in the bogs, their persons tall, their spears long, such as + could wound at a distance.” <a href="#linknote-10.46" + name="linknoteref-10.46" id="linknoteref-10.46">46</a> In this morass the + Roman army, after an ineffectual struggle, was irrecoverably lost; nor + could the body of the emperor ever be found. <a href="#linknote-10.47" + name="linknoteref-10.47" id="linknoteref-10.47">47</a> Such was the fate of + Decius, in the fiftieth year of his age; an accomplished prince, active in + war and affable in peace; <a href="#linknote-10.48" name="linknoteref-10.48" + id="linknoteref-10.48">48</a> who, together with his son, has deserved to + be compared, both in life and death, with the brightest examples of + ancient virtue. <a href="#linknote-10.49" name="linknoteref-10.49" + id="linknoteref-10.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.44" id="linknote-10.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Tillemont, Histoire des + Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 598. As Zosimus and some of his followers mistake + the Danube for the Tanais, they place the field of battle in the plains of + Scythia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.45" id="linknote-10.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor allows + two distinct actions for the deaths of the two Decii; but I have preferred + the account of Jornandes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.46" id="linknote-10.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.46">return</a>)<br/> [ I have ventured to copy + from Tacitus (Annal. i. 64) the picture of a similar engagement between a + Roman army and a German tribe.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.47" id="linknote-10.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 18. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 22, [c. 23.] Zonaras, l. xii. p. 627. Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.48" id="linknote-10.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.48">return</a>)<br/> [ The Decii were killed + before the end of the year two hundred and fifty-one, since the new + princes took possession of the consulship on the ensuing calends of + January.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.49" id="linknote-10.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 223, + gives them a very honorable place among the small number of good emperors + who reigned between Augustus and Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + This fatal blow humbled, for a very little time, the insolence of the + legions. They appeared to have patiently expected, and submissively + obeyed, the decree of the senate which regulated the succession to the + throne. From a just regard for the memory of Decius, the Imperial title + was conferred on Hostilianus, his only surviving son; but an equal rank, + with more effectual power, was granted to Gallus, whose experience and + ability seemed equal to the great trust of guardian to the young prince + and the distressed empire. <a href="#linknote-10.50" name="linknoteref-10.50" + id="linknoteref-10.50">50</a> The first care of the new emperor was to + deliver the Illyrian provinces from the intolerable weight of the + victorious Goths. He consented to leave in their hands the rich fruits of + their invasion, an immense booty, and what was still more disgraceful, a + great number of prisoners of the highest merit and quality. He plentifully + supplied their camp with every conveniency that could assuage their angry + spirits or facilitate their so much wished-for departure; and he even + promised to pay them annually a large sum of gold, on condition they + should never afterwards infest the Roman territories by their incursions. + <a href="#linknote-10.51" name="linknoteref-10.51" id="linknoteref-10.51">51</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.50" id="linknote-10.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Hæc ubi Patres + comperere.. .. decernunt. Victor in Cæsaribus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.51" id="linknote-10.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 628.] + </p> + <p> + In the age of the Scipios, the most opulent kings of the earth, who + courted the protection of the victorious commonwealth, were gratified with + such trifling presents as could only derive a value from the hand that + bestowed them; an ivory chair, a coarse garment of purple, an + inconsiderable piece of plate, or a quantity of copper coin. <a + href="#linknote-10.52" name="linknoteref-10.52" id="linknoteref-10.52">52</a> + After the wealth of nations had centred in Rome, the emperors displayed + their greatness, and even their policy, by the regular exercise of a + steady and moderate liberality towards the allies of the state. They + relieved the poverty of the barbarians, honored their merit, and + recompensed their fidelity. These voluntary marks of bounty were + understood to flow, not from the fears, but merely from the generosity or + the gratitude of the Romans; and whilst presents and subsidies were + liberally distributed among friends and suppliants, they were sternly + refused to such as claimed them as a debt. <a href="#linknote-10.53" + name="linknoteref-10.53" id="linknoteref-10.53">53</a> But this stipulation, + of an annual payment to a victorious enemy, appeared without disguise in + the light of an ignominious tribute; the minds of the Romans were not yet + accustomed to accept such unequal laws from a tribe of barbarians; and the + prince, who by a necessary concession had probably saved his country, + became the object of the general contempt and aversion. The death of + Hostiliamus, though it happened in the midst of a raging pestilence, was + interpreted as the personal crime of Gallus; <a href="#linknote-10.54" + name="linknoteref-10.54" id="linknoteref-10.54">54</a> and even the defeat + of the later emperor was ascribed by the voice of suspicion to the + perfidious counsels of his hated successor. <a href="#linknote-10.55" + name="linknoteref-10.55" id="linknoteref-10.55">55</a> The tranquillity + which the empire enjoyed during the first year of his administration, <a + href="#linknote-10.56" name="linknoteref-10.56" id="linknoteref-10.56">56</a> + served rather to inflame than to appease the public discontent; and as + soon as the apprehensions of war were removed, the infamy of the peace was + more deeply and more sensibly felt. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.52" id="linknote-10.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.52">return</a>)<br/> [ A <i>Sella</i>, a <i>Toga</i>, and a + golden <i>Patera</i> of five pounds weight, were accepted with joy and gratitude + by the wealthy king of Egypt. (Livy, xxvii. 4.) <i>Quina millia Æris</i>, a + weight of copper, in value about eighteen pounds sterling, was the usual + present made to foreign are ambassadors. (Livy, xxxi. 9.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.53" id="linknote-10.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.53">return</a>)<br/> [ See the firmness of a + Roman general so late as the time of Alexander Severus, in the Excerpta + Legationum, p. 25, edit. Louvre.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.54" id="linknote-10.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.54">return</a>)<br/> [ For the plague, see + Jornandes, c. 19, and Victor in Cæsaribus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.55" id="linknote-10.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.55">return</a>)<br/> [ These improbable + accusations are alleged by Zosimus, l. i. p. 28, 24.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.56" id="linknote-10.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 19. The + Gothic writer at least observed the peace which his victorious countrymen + had sworn to Gallus.] + </p> + <p> + But the Romans were irritated to a still higher degree, when they + discovered that they had not even secured their repose, though at the + expense of their honor. The dangerous secret of the wealth and weakness of + the empire had been revealed to the world. New swarms of barbarians, + encouraged by the success, and not conceiving themselves bound by the + obligation of their brethren, spread devastation though the Illyrian + provinces, and terror as far as the gates of Rome. The defence of the + monarchy, which seemed abandoned by the pusillanimous emperor, was assumed + by Æmilianus, governor of Pannonia and Mæsia; who rallied the scattered + forces, and revived the fainting spirits of the troops. The barbarians + were unexpectedly attacked, routed, chased, and pursued beyond the Danube. + The victorious leader distributed as a donative the money collected for + the tribute, and the acclamations of the soldiers proclaimed him emperor + on the field of battle. <a href="#linknote-10.57" name="linknoteref-10.57" + id="linknoteref-10.57">57</a> Gallus, who, careless of the general welfare, + indulged himself in the pleasures of Italy, was almost in the same instant + informed of the success, of the revolt, and of the rapid approach of his + aspiring lieutenant. He advanced to meet him as far as the plains of + Spoleto. When the armies came in sight of each other, the soldiers of + Gallus compared the ignominious conduct of their sovereign with the glory + of his rival. They admired the valor of Æmilianus; they were attracted by + his liberality, for he offered a considerable increase of pay to all + deserters. <a href="#linknote-10.58" name="linknoteref-10.58" + id="linknoteref-10.58">58</a> The murder of Gallus, and of his son + Volusianus, put an end to the civil war; and the senate gave a legal + sanction to the rights of conquest. The letters of Æmilianus to that + assembly displayed a mixture of moderation and vanity. He assured them, + that he should resign to their wisdom the civil administration; and, + contenting himself with the quality of their general, would in a short + time assert the glory of Rome, and deliver the empire from all the + barbarians both of the North and of the East. <a href="#linknote-10.59" + name="linknoteref-10.59" id="linknoteref-10.59">59</a> His pride was + flattered by the applause of the senate; and medals are still extant, + representing him with the name and attributes of Hercules the Victor, and + Mars the Avenger. <a href="#linknote-10.60" name="linknoteref-10.60" + id="linknoteref-10.60">60</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.57" id="linknote-10.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 25, + 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.58" id="linknote-10.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor in Cæsaribus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.59" id="linknote-10.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 628.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.60" id="linknote-10.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Banduri Numismata, p. + 94.] + </p> + <p> + If the new monarch possessed the abilities, he wanted the time, necessary + to fulfil these splendid promises. Less than four months intervened + between his victory and his fall. <a href="#linknote-10.61" + name="linknoteref-10.61" id="linknoteref-10.61">61</a> He had vanquished + Gallus: he sunk under the weight of a competitor more formidable than + Gallus. That unfortunate prince had sent Valerian, already distinguished + by the honorable title of censor, to bring the legions of Gaul and Germany + <a href="#linknote-10.62" name="linknoteref-10.62" id="linknoteref-10.62">62</a> + to his aid. Valerian executed that commission with zeal and fidelity; and + as he arrived too late to save his sovereign, he resolved to revenge him. + The troops of Æmilianus, who still lay encamped in the plains of Spoleto, + were awed by the sanctity of his character, but much more by the superior + strength of his army; and as they were now become as incapable of personal + attachment as they had always been of constitutional principle, they + readily imbrued their hands in the blood of a prince who so lately had + been the object of their partial choice. The guilt was theirs, <a + href="#linknote-10.621" name="linknoteref-10.621" id="linknoteref-10.621">621</a> + but the advantage of it was Valerian’s; who obtained the possession of the + throne by the means indeed of a civil war, but with a degree of innocence + singular in that age of revolutions; since he owed neither gratitude nor + allegiance to his predecessor, whom he dethroned. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.61" id="linknote-10.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius, l. ix. c. 6, + says tertio mense. Eusebio this emperor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.62" id="linknote-10.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 28. + Eutropius and Victor station Valerian’s army in Rhætia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.621" id="linknote-10.621"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 621 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.621">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor says + that Æmilianus died of a natural disorder. Tropius, in speaking of his + death, does not say that he was assassinated—G.] + </p> + <p> + Valerian was about sixty years of age <a href="#linknote-10.63" + name="linknoteref-10.63" id="linknoteref-10.63">63</a> when he was invested + with the purple, not by the caprice of the populace, or the clamors of the + army, but by the unanimous voice of the Roman world. In his gradual ascent + through the honors of the state, he had deserved the favor of virtuous + princes, and had declared himself the enemy of tyrants. <a + href="#linknote-10.64" name="linknoteref-10.64" id="linknoteref-10.64">64</a> + His noble birth, his mild but unblemished manners, his learning, prudence, + and experience, were revered by the senate and people; and if mankind + (according to the observation of an ancient writer) had been left at + liberty to choose a master, their choice would most assuredly have fallen + on Valerian. <a href="#linknote-10.65" name="linknoteref-10.65" + id="linknoteref-10.65">65</a> Perhaps the merit of this emperor was + inadequate to his reputation; perhaps his abilities, or at least his + spirit, were affected by the languor and coldness of old age. The + consciousness of his decline engaged him to share the throne with a + younger and more active associate; <a href="#linknote-10.66" + name="linknoteref-10.66" id="linknoteref-10.66">66</a> the emergency of the + times demanded a general no less than a prince; and the experience of the + Roman censor might have directed him where to bestow the Imperial purple, + as the reward of military merit. But instead of making a judicious choice, + which would have confirmed his reign and endeared his memory, Valerian, + consulting only the dictates of affection or vanity, immediately invested + with the supreme honors his son Gallienus, a youth whose effeminate vices + had been hitherto concealed by the obscurity of a private station. The + joint government of the father and the son subsisted about seven, and the + sole administration of Gallienus continued about eight, years. But the whole + period was one uninterrupted series of confusion and calamity. As the + Roman empire was at the same time, and on every side, attacked by the + blind fury of foreign invaders, and the wild ambition of domestic + usurpers, we shall consult order and perspicuity, by pursuing, not so much + the doubtful arrangement of dates, as the more natural distribution of + subjects. The most dangerous enemies of Rome, during the reigns of + Valerian and Gallienus, were, 1. The Franks; 2. The Alemanni; 3. The + Goths; and, 4. The Persians. Under these general appellations, we may + comprehend the adventures of less considerable tribes, whose obscure and + uncouth names would only serve to oppress the memory and perplex the + attention of the reader. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.63" id="linknote-10.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.63">return</a>)<br/> [ He was about seventy at + the time of his accession, or, as it is more probable, of his death. Hist. + August. p. 173. Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 893, note 1.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.64" id="linknote-10.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Inimicus tyrannorum. + Hist. August. p. 173. In the glorious struggle of the senate against + Maximin, Valerian acted a very spirited part. Hist. August. p. 156.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.65" id="linknote-10.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.65">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the + distinction of Victor, he seems to have received the title of Imperator + from the army, and that of Augustus from the senate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.66" id="linknote-10.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.66">return</a>)<br/> [ From Victor and from + the medals, Tillemont (tom. iii. p. 710) very justly infers, that + Gallienus was associated to the empire about the month of August of the + year 253.] + </p> + <p> + I. As the posterity of the Franks compose one of the greatest and most + enlightened nations of Europe, the powers of learning and ingenuity have + been exhausted in the discovery of their unlettered ancestors. To the + tales of credulity have succeeded the systems of fancy. Every passage has + been sifted, every spot has been surveyed, that might possibly reveal some + faint traces of their origin. It has been supposed that Pannonia, <a + href="#linknote-10.67" name="linknoteref-10.67" id="linknoteref-10.67">67</a> + that Gaul, that the northern parts of Germany, <a href="#linknote-10.68" + name="linknoteref-10.68" id="linknoteref-10.68">68</a> gave birth to that + celebrated colony of warriors. At length the most rational critics, + rejecting the fictitious emigrations of ideal conquerors, have acquiesced + in a sentiment whose simplicity persuades us of its truth. <a + href="#linknote-10.69" name="linknoteref-10.69" id="linknoteref-10.69">69</a> + They suppose, that about the year two hundred and forty, <a + href="#linknote-10.70" name="linknoteref-10.70" id="linknoteref-10.70">70</a> + a new confederacy was formed under the name of Franks, by the old + inhabitants of the Lower Rhine and the Weser. <a href="#linknote-10.701" + name="linknoteref-10.701" id="linknoteref-10.701">701</a> The present circle + of Westphalia, the Landgraviate of Hesse, and the duchies of Brunswick and + Luneburg, were the ancient seat of the Chauci who, in their inaccessible + morasses, defied the Roman arms; <a href="#linknote-10.71" + name="linknoteref-10.71" id="linknoteref-10.71">71</a> of the Cherusci, + proud of the fame of Arminius; of the Catti, formidable by their firm and + intrepid infantry; and of several other tribes of inferior power and + renown. <a href="#linknote-10.72" name="linknoteref-10.72" + id="linknoteref-10.72">72</a> The love of liberty was the ruling passion of + these Germans; the enjoyment of it their best treasure; the word that + expressed that enjoyment the most pleasing to their ear. They deserved, + they assumed, they maintained the honorable epithet of Franks, or + Freemen; which concealed, though it did not extinguish, the peculiar names + of the several states of the confederacy. <a href="#linknote-10.73" + name="linknoteref-10.73" id="linknoteref-10.73">73</a> Tacit consent, and + mutual advantage, dictated the first laws of the union; it was gradually + cemented by habit and experience. The league of the Franks may admit of + some comparison with the Helvetic body; in which every canton, retaining + its independent sovereignty, consults with its brethren in the common + cause, without acknowledging the authority of any supreme head or + representative assembly. <a href="#linknote-10.74" name="linknoteref-10.74" + id="linknoteref-10.74">74</a> But the principle of the two confederacies + was extremely different. A peace of two hundred years has rewarded the + wise and honest policy of the Swiss. An inconstant spirit, the thirst of + rapine, and a disregard to the most solemn treaties, disgraced the + character of the Franks. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.67" id="linknote-10.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Various systems have + been formed to explain a difficult passage in Gregory of Tours, l. ii. c. + 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.68" id="linknote-10.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.68">return</a>)<br/> [ The Geographer of + Ravenna, i. 11, by mentioning Mauringania, on the confines of Denmark, as + the ancient seat of the Franks, gave birth to an ingenious system of + Leibritz.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.69" id="linknote-10.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.69">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cluver. Germania + Antiqua, l. iii. c. 20. M. Freret, in the Memoires de l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xviii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.70" id="linknote-10.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Most probably under the + reign of Gordian, from an accidental circumstance fully canvassed by + Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 710, 1181.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.701" id="linknote-10.701"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 701 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.701">return</a>)<br/> [ The confederation of + the Franks appears to have been formed, 1. Of the Chauci. 2. Of the + Sicambri, the inhabitants of the duchy of Berg. 3. Of the Attuarii, to the + north of the Sicambri, in the principality of Waldeck, between the Dimel + and the Eder. 4. Of the Bructeri, on the banks of the Lippe, and in the + Hartz. 5. Of the Chamavii, the Gambrivii of Tacitua, who were established, + at the time of the Frankish confederation, in the country of the Bructeri. + 6. Of the Catti, in Hessia.—G. The Salii and Cherasci are added. + Greenwood’s Hist. of Germans, i 193.—M.] <a name="linknote-10.71" + id="linknote-10.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.71">return</a>)<br/> [Plin. Hist. Natur. xvi. + l. The Panegyrists frequently allude to the morasses of the Franks.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.72" id="linknote-10.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.72">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, c. 30, + 37.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.73" id="linknote-10.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.73">return</a>)<br/> [ In a subsequent period, + most of those old names are occasionally mentioned. See some vestiges of + them in Cluver. Germ. Antiq. l. iii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.74" id="linknote-10.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Simler de Republica + Helvet. cum notis Fuselin.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap10.3"></a> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The Romans had long experienced the daring valor of the people of Lower + Germany. The union of their strength threatened Gaul with a more + formidable invasion, and required the presence of Gallienus, the heir and + colleague of Imperial power. <a href="#linknote-10.75" + name="linknoteref-10.75" id="linknoteref-10.75">75</a> Whilst that prince, + and his infant son Salonius, displayed, in the court of Treves, the + majesty of the empire, its armies were ably conducted by their general, + Posthumus, who, though he afterwards betrayed the family of Valerian, was + ever faithful to the great interests of the monarchy. The treacherous + language of panegyrics and medals darkly announces a long series of + victories. Trophies and titles attest (if such evidence can attest) the + fame of Posthumus, who is repeatedly styled the Conqueror of the Germans, + and the Savior of Gaul. <a href="#linknote-10.76" name="linknoteref-10.76" + id="linknoteref-10.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.75" id="linknote-10.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 27.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.76" id="linknote-10.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.76">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Brequigny (in the + Memoires de l’Academie, tom. xxx.) has given us a very curious life of + Posthumus. A series of the Augustan History from Medals and Inscriptions + has been more than once planned, and is still much wanted. * Note: M. + Eckhel, Keeper of the Cabinet of Medals, and Professor of Antiquities at + Vienna, lately deceased, has supplied this want by his excellent work, + Doctrina veterum Nummorum, conscripta a Jos. Eckhel, 8 vol. in 4to + Vindobona, 1797.—G. Captain Smyth has likewise printed (privately) a + valuable Descriptive Catologue of a series of Large Brass Medals of this + period Bedford, 1834.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + But a single fact, the only one indeed of which we have any distinct + knowledge, erases, in a great measure, these monuments of vanity and + adulation. The Rhine, though dignified with the title of Safeguard of the + provinces, was an imperfect barrier against the daring spirit of + enterprise with which the Franks were actuated. Their rapid devastations + stretched from the river to the foot of the Pyrenees; nor were they + stopped by those mountains. Spain, which had never dreaded, was unable to + resist, the inroads of the Germans. During twelve years, the greatest part + of the reign of Gallienus, that opulent country was the theatre of + unequal and destructive hostilities. Tarragona, the flourishing capital of + a peaceful province, was sacked and almost destroyed; <a + href="#linknote-10.77" name="linknoteref-10.77" id="linknoteref-10.77">77</a> + and so late as the days of Orosius, who wrote in the fifth century, + wretched cottages, scattered amidst the ruins of magnificent cities, still + recorded the rage of the barbarians. <a href="#linknote-10.78" + name="linknoteref-10.78" id="linknoteref-10.78">78</a> When the exhausted + country no longer supplied a variety of plunder, the Franks seized on some + vessels in the ports of Spain, <a href="#linknote-10.79" + name="linknoteref-10.79" id="linknoteref-10.79">79</a> and transported + themselves into Mauritania. The distant province was astonished with the + fury of these barbarians, who seemed to fall from a new world, as their + name, manners, and complexion, were equally unknown on the coast of + Africa. <a href="#linknote-10.80" name="linknoteref-10.80" + id="linknoteref-10.80">80</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.77" id="linknote-10.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor, c. 33. + Instead of Pœne direpto, both the sense and the expression require + deleto; though indeed, for different reasons, it is alike difficult to + correct the text of the best, and of the worst, writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.78" id="linknote-10.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.78">return</a>)<br/> [ In the time of Ausonius + (the end of the fourth century) Ilerda or Lerida was in a very ruinous + state, (Auson. Epist. xxv. 58,) which probably was the consequence of this + invasion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.79" id="linknote-10.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Valesius is therefore + mistaken in supposing that the Franks had invaded Spain by sea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.80" id="linknote-10.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor. Eutrop. + ix. 6.] + </p> + <p> + II. In that part of Upper Saxony, beyond the Elbe, which is at present + called the Marquisate of Lusace, there existed, in ancient times, a sacred + wood, the awful seat of the superstition of the Suevi. None were permitted + to enter the holy precincts, without confessing, by their servile bonds + and suppliant posture, the immediate presence of the sovereign Deity. <a + href="#linknote-10.81" name="linknoteref-10.81" id="linknoteref-10.81">81</a> + Patriotism contributed, as well as devotion, to consecrate the Sonnenwald, + or wood of the Semnones. <a href="#linknote-10.82" name="linknoteref-10.82" + id="linknoteref-10.82">82</a> It was universally believed, that the nation + had received its first existence on that sacred spot. At stated periods, + the numerous tribes who gloried in the Suevic blood, resorted thither by + their ambassadors; and the memory of their common extraction was + perpetrated by barbaric rites and human sacrifices. The wide-extended name + of Suevi filled the interior countries of Germany, from the banks of the + Oder to those of the Danube. They were distinguished from the other + Germans by their peculiar mode of dressing their long hair, which they + gathered into a rude knot on the crown of the head; and they delighted in + an ornament that showed their ranks more lofty and terrible in the eyes of + the enemy. <a href="#linknote-10.83" name="linknoteref-10.83" + id="linknoteref-10.83">83</a> Jealous as the Germans were of military + renown, they all confessed the superior valor of the Suevi; and the tribes + of the Usipetes and Tencteri, who, with a vast army, encountered the + dictator Cæsar, declared that they esteemed it not a disgrace to have + fled before a people to whose arms the immortal gods themselves were + unequal. <a href="#linknote-10.84" name="linknoteref-10.84" + id="linknoteref-10.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.81" id="linknote-10.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.81">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit.Germania, 38.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.82" id="linknote-10.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Cluver. Germ. Antiq. + iii. 25.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.83" id="linknote-10.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Sic Suevi a ceteris + Germanis, sic Suerorum ingenui a servis separantur. A proud separation!] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.84" id="linknote-10.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar in Bello + Gallico, iv. 7.] + </p> + <p> + In the reign of the emperor Caracalla, an innumerable swarm of Suevi + appeared on the banks of the Main, and in the neighborhood of the Roman + provinces, in quest either of food, of plunder, or of glory. <a + href="#linknote-10.85" name="linknoteref-10.85" id="linknoteref-10.85">85</a> + The hasty army of volunteers gradually coalesced into a great and + permanent nation, and, as it was composed from so many different tribes, + assumed the name of Alemanni, <a href="#linknote-10.851" + name="linknoteref-10.851" id="linknoteref-10.851">851</a> or <i>Allmen</i>, to + denote at once their various lineage and their common bravery. <a + href="#linknote-10.86" name="linknoteref-10.86" id="linknoteref-10.86">86</a> + The latter was soon felt by the Romans in many a hostile inroad. The + Alemanni fought chiefly on horseback; but their cavalry was rendered still + more formidable by a mixture of light infantry, selected from the bravest + and most active of the youth, whom frequent exercise had inured to + accompany the horsemen in the longest march, the most rapid charge, or the + most precipitate retreat. <a href="#linknote-10.87" name="linknoteref-10.87" + id="linknoteref-10.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.85" id="linknote-10.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor in Caracal. Dion + Cassius, lxvii. p. 1350.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.851" id="linknote-10.851"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 851 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.851">return</a>)<br/> [ The nation of the + Alemanni was not originally formed by the Suavi properly so called; these + have always preserved their own name. Shortly afterwards they made (A. D. + 357) an irruption into Rhætia, and it was not long after that they were + reunited with the Alemanni. Still they have always been a distinct people; + at the present day, the people who inhabit the north-west of the Black + Forest call themselves Schwaben, Suabians, Sueves, while those who inhabit + near the Rhine, in Ortenau, the Brisgaw, the Margraviate of Baden, do not + consider themselves Suabians, and are by origin Alemanni. The Teucteri and + the Usipetæ, inhabitants of the interior and of the north of Westphalia, + formed, says Gatterer, the nucleus of the Alemannic nation; they occupied + the country where the name of the Alemanni first appears, as conquered in + 213, by Caracalla. They were well trained to fight on horseback, + (according to Tacitus, Germ. c. 32;) and Aurelius Victor gives the same + praise to the Alemanni: finally, they never made part of the Frankish + league. The Alemanni became subsequently a centre round which gathered a + multitude of German tribes, See Eumen. Panegyr. c. 2. Amm. Marc. xviii. 2, + xxix. 4.—G. ——The question whether the Suevi was a + generic name comprehending the clans which peopled central Germany, is + rather hastily decided by M. Guizot Mr. Greenwood, who has studied the + modern German writers on their own origin, supposes the Suevi, Alemanni, + and Marcomanni, one people, under different appellations. History of + Germany, vol i.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.86" id="linknote-10.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.86">return</a>)<br/> [ This etymology (far + different from those which amuse the fancy of the learned) is preserved by + Asinius Quadratus, an original historian, quoted by Agathias, i. c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.87" id="linknote-10.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.87">return</a>)<br/> [ The Suevi engaged + Cæsar in this manner, and the manœuvre deserved the approbation of the + conqueror, (in Bello Gallico, i. 48.)] + </p> + <p> + This warlike people of Germans had been astonished by the immense + preparations of Alexander Severus; they were dismayed by the arms of his + successor, a barbarian equal in valor and fierceness to themselves. But + still hovering on the frontiers of the empire, they increased the general + disorder that ensued after the death of Decius. They inflicted severe + wounds on the rich provinces of Gaul; they were the first who removed the + veil that covered the feeble majesty of Italy. A numerous body of the + Alemanni penetrated across the Danube and through the Rhætian Alps into + the plains of Lombardy, advanced as far as Ravenna, and displayed the + victorious banners of barbarians almost in sight of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-10.88" name="linknoteref-10.88" id="linknoteref-10.88">88</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.88" id="linknote-10.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 215, + 216. Dexippus in the Excerpts. Legationam, p. 8. Hieronym. Chron. Orosius, + vii. 22.] + </p> + <p> + The insult and the danger rekindled in the senate some sparks of their + ancient virtue. Both the emperors were engaged in far distant wars, + Valerian in the East, and Gallienus on the Rhine. All the hopes and + resources of the Romans were in themselves. In this emergency, the + senators resumed the defence of the republic, drew out the Prætorian + guards, who had been left to garrison the capital, and filled up their + numbers, by enlisting into the public service the stoutest and most + willing of the Plebeians. The Alemanni, astonished with the sudden + appearance of an army more numerous than their own, retired into Germany, + laden with spoil; and their retreat was esteemed as a victory by the + unwarlike Romans. <a href="#linknote-10.89" name="linknoteref-10.89" + id="linknoteref-10.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.89" id="linknote-10.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 34.] + </p> + <p> + When Gallienus received the intelligence that his capital was delivered + from the barbarians, he was much less delighted than alarmed with the + courage of the senate, since it might one day prompt them to rescue the + public from domestic tyranny as well as from foreign invasion. His timid + ingratitude was published to his subjects, in an edict which prohibited + the senators from exercising any military employment, and even from + approaching the camps of the legions. But his fears were groundless. The + rich and luxurious nobles, sinking into their natural character, accepted, + as a favor, this disgraceful exemption from military service; and as long + as they were indulged in the enjoyment of their baths, their theatres, and + their villas, they cheerfully resigned the more dangerous cares of empire + to the rough hands of peasants and soldiers. <a href="#linknote-10.90" + name="linknoteref-10.90" id="linknoteref-10.90">90</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.90" id="linknote-10.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor, in + Gallieno et Probo. His complaints breathe as uncommon spirit of freedom.] + </p> + <p> + Another invasion of the Alemanni, of a more formidable aspect, but more + glorious event, is mentioned by a writer of the lower empire. Three + hundred thousand are said to have been vanquished, in a battle near Milan, + by Gallienus in person, at the head of only ten thousand Romans. <a + href="#linknote-10.91" name="linknoteref-10.91" id="linknoteref-10.91">91</a> + We may, however, with great probability, ascribe this incredible victory + either to the credulity of the historian, or to some exaggerated exploits + of one of the emperor’s lieutenants. It was by arms of a very different + nature, that Gallienus endeavored to protect Italy from the fury of the + Germans. He espoused Pipa, the daughter of a king of the Marcomanni, a + Suevic tribe, which was often confounded with the Alemanni in their wars + and conquests. <a href="#linknote-10.92" name="linknoteref-10.92" + id="linknoteref-10.92">92</a> To the father, as the price of his alliance, + he granted an ample settlement in Pannonia. The native charms of + unpolished beauty seem to have fixed the daughter in the affections of the + inconstant emperor, and the bands of policy were more firmly connected by + those of love. But the haughty prejudice of Rome still refused the name of + marriage to the profane mixture of a citizen and a barbarian; and has + stigmatized the German princess with the opprobrious title of concubine of + Gallienus. <a href="#linknote-10.93" name="linknoteref-10.93" + id="linknoteref-10.93">93</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.91" id="linknote-10.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 631.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.92" id="linknote-10.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.92">return</a>)<br/> [ One of the Victors + calls him king of the Marcomanni; the other of the Germans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.93" id="linknote-10.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.93">return</a>)<br/> [ See Tillemont, Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iii. p. 398, &c.] + </p> + <p> + III. We have already traced the emigration of the Goths from Scandinavia, + or at least from Prussia, to the mouth of the Borysthenes, and have + followed their victorious arms from the Borysthenes to the Danube. Under + the reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the frontier of the last-mentioned + river was perpetually infested by the inroads of Germans and Sarmatians; + but it was defended by the Romans with more than usual firmness and + success. The provinces that were the seat of war, recruited the armies of + Rome with an inexhaustible supply of hardy soldiers; and more than one of + these Illyrian peasants attained the station, and displayed the abilities, + of a general. Though flying parties of the barbarians, who incessantly + hovered on the banks of the Danube, penetrated sometimes to the confines + of Italy and Macedonia, their progress was commonly checked, or their + return intercepted, by the Imperial lieutenants. <a href="#linknote-10.94" + name="linknoteref-10.94" id="linknoteref-10.94">94</a> But the great stream + of the Gothic hostilities was diverted into a very different channel. The + Goths, in their new settlement of the Ukraine, soon became masters of the + northern coast of the Euxine: to the south of that inland sea were + situated the soft and wealthy provinces of Asia Minor, which possessed all + that could attract, and nothing that could resist, a barbarian conqueror. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.94" id="linknote-10.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.94">return</a>)<br/> [ See the lives of + Claudius, Aurelian, and Probus, in the Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + The banks of the Borysthenes are only sixty miles distant from the narrow + entrance <a href="#linknote-10.95" name="linknoteref-10.95" + id="linknoteref-10.95">95</a> of the peninsula of Crim Tartary, known to + the ancients under the name of Chersonesus Taurica. <a + href="#linknote-10.96" name="linknoteref-10.96" id="linknoteref-10.96">96</a> + On that inhospitable shore, Euripides, embellishing with exquisite art the + tales of antiquity, has placed the scene of one of his most affecting + tragedies. <a href="#linknote-10.97" name="linknoteref-10.97" + id="linknoteref-10.97">97</a> The bloody sacrifices of Diana, the arrival + of Orestes and Pylades, and the triumph of virtue and religion over savage + fierceness, serve to represent an historical truth, that the Tauri, the + original inhabitants of the peninsula, were, in some degree, reclaimed + from their brutal manners by a gradual intercourse with the Grecian + colonies, which settled along the maritime coast. The little kingdom of + Bosphorus, whose capital was situated on the Straits, through which the + Mæotis communicates itself to the Euxine, was composed of degenerate + Greeks and half-civilized barbarians. It subsisted, as an independent + state, from the time of the Peloponnesian war, <a href="#linknote-10.98" + name="linknoteref-10.98" id="linknoteref-10.98">98</a> was at last swallowed + up by the ambition of Mithridates, <a href="#linknote-10.99" + name="linknoteref-10.99" id="linknoteref-10.99">99</a> and, with the rest of + his dominions, sunk under the weight of the Roman arms. From the reign of + Augustus, <a href="#linknote-10.100" name="linknoteref-10.100" + id="linknoteref-10.100">100</a> the kings of Bosphorus were the humble, but + not useless, allies of the empire. By presents, by arms, and by a slight + fortification drawn across the Isthmus, they effectually guarded, against + the roving plunderers of Sarmatia, the access of a country which, from + its peculiar situation and convenient harbors, commanded the Euxine Sea + and Asia Minor. <a href="#linknote-10.101" name="linknoteref-10.101" + id="linknoteref-10.101">101</a> As long as the sceptre was possessed by a + lineal succession of kings, they acquitted themselves of their important + charge with vigilance and success. Domestic factions, and the fears, or + private interest, of obscure usurpers, who seized on the vacant throne, + admitted the Goths into the heart of Bosphorus. With the acquisition of a + superfluous waste of fertile soil, the conquerors obtained the command of + a naval force, sufficient to transport their armies to the coast of Asia. + <a href="#linknote-10.102" name="linknoteref-10.102" id="linknoteref-10.102">102</a> + These ships used in the navigation of the Euxine were of a very singular + construction. They were slight flat-bottomed barks framed of timber only, + without the least mixture of iron, and occasionally covered with a + shelving roof, on the appearance of a tempest. <a href="#linknote-10.103" + name="linknoteref-10.103" id="linknoteref-10.103">103</a> In these floating + houses, the Goths carelessly trusted themselves to the mercy of an unknown + sea, under the conduct of sailors pressed into the service, and whose + skill and fidelity were equally suspicious. But the hopes of plunder had + banished every idea of danger, and a natural fearlessness of temper + supplied in their minds the more rational confidence, which is the just + result of knowledge and experience. Warriors of such a daring spirit must + have often murmured against the cowardice of their guides, who required + the strongest assurances of a settled calm before they would venture to + embark; and would scarcely ever be tempted to lose sight of the land. + Such, at least, is the practice of the modern Turks; <a + href="#linknote-10.104" name="linknoteref-10.104" id="linknoteref-10.104">104</a> + and they are probably not inferior, in the art of navigation, to the + ancient inhabitants of Bosphorus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.95" id="linknote-10.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.95">return</a>)<br/> [ It is about half a + league in breadth. Genealogical History of the Tartars, p 598.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.96" id="linknote-10.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.96">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Peyssonel, who + had been French Consul at Caffa, in his Observations sur les Peuples + Barbares, que ont habite les bords du Danube] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.97" id="linknote-10.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Eeripides in Iphigenia + in Taurid.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.98" id="linknote-10.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. vii. p. 309. + The first kings of Bosphorus were the allies of Athens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.99" id="linknote-10.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.99">return</a>)<br/> [ Appian in Mithridat.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.100" id="linknote-10.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.100">return</a>)<br/> [ It was reduced by the + arms of Agrippa. Orosius, vi. 21. Eu tropius, vii. 9. The Romans once + advanced within three days’ march of the Tanais. Tacit. Annal. xii. 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.101" id="linknote-10.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.101">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Toxaris of + Lucian, if we credit the sincerity and the virtues of the Scythian, who + relates a great war of his nation against the kings of Bosphorus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.102" id="linknote-10.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. + 28.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.103" id="linknote-10.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.103">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xi. Tacit. + Hist. iii. 47. They were called Camarœ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.104" id="linknote-10.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.104">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very natural + picture of the Euxine navigation, in the xvith letter of Tournefort.] + </p> + <p> + The fleet of the Goths, leaving the coast of Circassia on the left hand, + first appeared before Pityus, <a href="#linknote-10.105" + name="linknoteref-10.105" id="linknoteref-10.105">105</a> the utmost limits + of the Roman provinces; a city provided with a convenient port, and + fortified with a strong wall. Here they met with a resistance more + obstinate than they had reason to expect from the feeble garrison of a + distant fortress. They were repulsed; and their disappointment seemed to + diminish the terror of the Gothic name. As long as Successianus, an + officer of superior rank and merit, defended that frontier, all their + efforts were ineffectual; but as soon as he was removed by Valerian to a + more honorable but less important station, they resumed the attack of + Pityus; and by the destruction of that city, obliterated the memory of + their former disgrace. <a href="#linknote-10.106" name="linknoteref-10.106" + id="linknoteref-10.106">106</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.105" id="linknote-10.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.105">return</a>)<br/> [ Arrian places the + frontier garrison at Dioscurias, or Sebastopolis, forty-four miles to the + east of Pityus. The garrison of Phasis consisted in his time of only four + hundred foot. See the Periplus of the Euxine. * Note: Pityus is Pitchinda, + according to D’Anville, ii. 115.—G. Rather Boukoun.—M. + Dioscurias is Iskuriah.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.106" id="linknote-10.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.106">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. + 30.] + </p> + <p> + Circling round the eastern extremity of the Euxine Sea, the navigation + from Pityus to Trebizond is about three hundred miles. <a + href="#linknote-10.107" name="linknoteref-10.107" id="linknoteref-10.107">107</a> + The course of the Goths carried them in sight of the country of Colchis, + so famous by the expedition of the Argonauts; and they even attempted, + though without success, to pillage a rich temple at the mouth of the River + Phasis. Trebizond, celebrated in the retreat of the ten thousand as an + ancient colony of Greeks, <a href="#linknote-10.108" + name="linknoteref-10.108" id="linknoteref-10.108">108</a> derived its wealth + and splendor from the magnificence of the emperor Hadrian, who had + constructed an artificial port on a coast left destitute by nature of + secure harbors. <a href="#linknote-10.109" name="linknoteref-10.109" + id="linknoteref-10.109">109</a> The city was large and populous; a double + enclosure of walls seemed to defy the fury of the Goths, and the usual + garrison had been strengthened by a reënforcement of ten thousand men. But + there are not any advantages capable of supplying the absence of + discipline and vigilance. The numerous garrison of Trebizond, dissolved in + riot and luxury, disdained to guard their impregnable fortifications. The + Goths soon discovered the supine negligence of the besieged, erected a + lofty pile of fascines, ascended the walls in the silence of the night, + and entered the defenceless city sword in hand. A general massacre of the + people ensued, whilst the affrighted soldiers escaped through the opposite + gates of the town. The most holy temples, and the most splendid edifices, + were involved in a common destruction. The booty that fell into the hands + of the Goths was immense: the wealth of the adjacent countries had been + deposited in Trebizond, as in a secure place of refuge. The number of + captives was incredible, as the victorious barbarians ranged without + opposition through the extensive province of Pontus. <a + href="#linknote-10.110" name="linknoteref-10.110" id="linknoteref-10.110">110</a> + The rich spoils of Trebizond filled a great fleet of ships that had been + found in the port. The robust youth of the sea-coast were chained to the + oar; and the Goths, satisfied with the success of their first naval + expedition, returned in triumph to their new establishment in the kingdom + of Bosphorus. <a href="#linknote-10.111" name="linknoteref-10.111" + id="linknoteref-10.111">111</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.107" id="linknote-10.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.107">return</a>)<br/> [ Arrian (in Periplo + Maris Euxine, p. 130) calls the distance 2610 stadia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.108" id="linknote-10.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Xenophon, Anabasis, + l. iv. p. 348, edit. Hutchinson. Note: Fallmerayer (Geschichte des + Kaiserthums von Trapezunt, p. 6, &c) assigns a very ancient date to + the first (Pelasgic) foundation of Trapezun (Trebizond)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.109" id="linknote-10.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.109">return</a>)<br/> [ Arrian, p. 129. The + general observation is Tournefort’s.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.110" id="linknote-10.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.110">return</a>)<br/> [ See an epistle of + Gregory Thaumaturgus, bishop of Neo-Cæoarea, quoted by Mascou, v. 37.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.111" id="linknote-10.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.111">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 32, + 33.] + </p> + <p> + The second expedition of the Goths was undertaken with greater powers of + men and ships; but they steered a different course, and, disdaining the + exhausted provinces of Pontus, followed the western coast of the Euxine, + passed before the wide mouths of the Borysthenes, the Niester, and the + Danube, and increasing their fleet by the capture of a great number of + fishing barks, they approached the narrow outlet through which the Euxine + Sea pours its waters into the Mediterranean, and divides the continents of + Europe and Asia. The garrison of Chalcedon was encamped near the temple of + Jupiter Urius, on a promontory that commanded the entrance of the Strait; + and so inconsiderable were the dreaded invasions of the barbarians that + this body of troops surpassed in number the Gothic army. But it was in + numbers alone that they surpassed it. They deserted with precipitation + their advantageous post, and abandoned the town of Chalcedon, most + plentifully stored with arms and money, to the discretion of the + conquerors. Whilst they hesitated whether they should prefer the sea or + land, Europe or Asia, for the scene of their hostilities, a perfidious + fugitive pointed out Nicomedia, <a href="#linknote-10.1111" + name="linknoteref-10.1111" id="linknoteref-10.1111">1111</a> once the + capital of the kings of Bithynia, as a rich and easy conquest. He guided + the march, which was only sixty miles from the camp of Chalcedon, <a + href="#linknote-10.112" name="linknoteref-10.112" id="linknoteref-10.112">112</a> + directed the resistless attack, and partook of the booty; for the Goths + had learned sufficient policy to reward the traitor whom they detested. + Nice, Prusa, Apamæa, Cius, <a href="#linknote-10.1121" + name="linknoteref-10.1121" id="linknoteref-10.1121">1121</a> cities that had + sometimes rivalled, or imitated, the splendor of Nicomedia, were involved + in the same calamity, which, in a few weeks, raged without control through + the whole province of Bithynia. Three hundred years of peace, enjoyed by + the soft inhabitants of Asia, had abolished the exercise of arms, and + removed the apprehension of danger. The ancient walls were suffered to + moulder away, and all the revenue of the most opulent cities was reserved + for the construction of baths, temples, and theatres. <a + href="#linknote-10.113" name="linknoteref-10.113" id="linknoteref-10.113">113</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1111" id="linknote-10.1111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1111 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1111">return</a>)<br/> [ It has preserved + its name, joined to the preposition of place in that of Nikmid. D’Anv. + Geog. Anc. ii. 28.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.112" id="linknote-10.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.112">return</a>)<br/> [ Itiner. Hierosolym. + p. 572. Wesseling.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1121" id="linknote-10.1121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1121 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1121">return</a>)<br/> [ Now Isnik, Bursa, + Mondania Ghio or Kemlik D’Anv. ii. 23.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.113" id="linknote-10.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.113">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l.. p. 32, + 33.] + </p> + <p> + When the city of Cyzicus withstood the utmost effort of Mithridates, <a + href="#linknote-10.114" name="linknoteref-10.114" id="linknoteref-10.114">114</a> + it was distinguished by wise laws, a naval power of two hundred galleys, + and three arsenals, of arms, of military engines, and of corn. <a + href="#linknote-10.115" name="linknoteref-10.115" id="linknoteref-10.115">115</a> + It was still the seat of wealth and luxury; but of its ancient strength, + nothing remained except the situation, in a little island of the + Propontis, connected with the continent of Asia only by two bridges. From + the recent sack of Prusa, the Goths advanced within eighteen miles <a + href="#linknote-10.116" name="linknoteref-10.116" id="linknoteref-10.116">116</a> + of the city, which they had devoted to destruction; but the ruin of + Cyzicus was delayed by a fortunate accident. The season was rainy, and the + Lake Apolloniates, the reservoir of all the springs of Mount Olympus, rose + to an uncommon height. The little river of Rhyndacus, which issues from + the lake, swelled into a broad and rapid stream, and stopped the progress + of the Goths. Their retreat to the maritime city of Heraclea, where the + fleet had probably been stationed, was attended by a long train of wagons, + laden with the spoils of Bithynia, and was marked by the flames of Nico + and Nicomedia, which they wantonly burnt. <a href="#linknote-10.117" + name="linknoteref-10.117" id="linknoteref-10.117">117</a> Some obscure hints + are mentioned of a doubtful combat that secured their retreat. <a + href="#linknote-10.118" name="linknoteref-10.118" id="linknoteref-10.118">118</a> + But even a complete victory would have been of little moment, as the + approach of the autumnal equinox summoned them to hasten their return. To + navigate the Euxine before the month of May, or after that of September, + is esteemed by the modern Turks the most unquestionable instance of + rashness and folly. <a href="#linknote-10.119" name="linknoteref-10.119" + id="linknoteref-10.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.114" id="linknote-10.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.114">return</a>)<br/> [ He besieged the place + with 400 galleys, 150,000 foot, and a numerous cavalry. See Plutarch in + Lucul. Appian in Mithridat Cicero pro Lege Manilia, c. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.115" id="linknote-10.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.115">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xii. p. + 573.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.116" id="linknote-10.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.116">return</a>)<br/> [ Pocock’s Description + of the East, l. ii. c. 23, 24.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.117" id="linknote-10.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.117">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. + 33.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.118" id="linknote-10.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.118">return</a>)<br/> [ Syncellus tells an + unintelligible story of Prince Odenathus, who defeated the Goths, and who + was killed by Prince Odenathus.] <a name="linknote-10.119" + id="linknote-10.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.119">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 119: Voyages + de Chardin, tom. i. p. 45. He sailed with the Turks from Constantinople to + Caffa.] + </p> + <p> + When we are informed that the third fleet, equipped by the Goths in the + ports of Bosphorus, consisted of five hundred sails of ships, <a + href="#linknote-10.120" name="linknoteref-10.120" id="linknoteref-10.120">120</a> + our ready imagination instantly computes and multiplies the formidable + armament; but, as we are assured by the judicious Strabo, <a + href="#linknote-10.121" name="linknoteref-10.121" id="linknoteref-10.121">121</a> + that the piratical vessels used by the barbarians of Pontus and the Lesser + Scythia, were not capable of containing more than twenty-five or thirty + men we may safely affirm, that fifteen thousand warriors, at the most, + embarked in this great expedition. Impatient of the limits of the Euxine, + they steered their destructive course from the Cimmerian to the Thracian + Bosphorus. When they had almost gained the middle of the Straits, they + were suddenly driven back to the entrance of them; till a favorable wind, + springing up the next day, carried them in a few hours into the placid + sea, or rather lake, of the Propontis. Their landing on the little island + of Cyzicus was attended with the ruin of that ancient and noble city. From + thence issuing again through the narrow passage of the Hellespont, they + pursued their winding navigation amidst the numerous islands scattered + over the Archipelago, or the Ægean Sea. The assistance of captives and + deserters must have been very necessary to pilot their vessels, and to + direct their various incursions, as well on the coast of Greece as on that + of Asia. At length the Gothic fleet anchored in the port of Piræus, five + miles distant from Athens, <a href="#linknote-10.122" + name="linknoteref-10.122" id="linknoteref-10.122">122</a> which had + attempted to make some preparations for a vigorous defence. Cleodamus, one + of the engineers employed by the emperor’s orders to fortify the maritime + cities against the Goths, had already begun to repair the ancient walls, + fallen to decay since the time of Scylla. The efforts of his skill were + ineffectual, and the barbarians became masters of the native seat of the + muses and the arts. But while the conquerors abandoned themselves to the + license of plunder and intemperance, their fleet, that lay with a slender + guard in the harbor of Piræus, was unexpectedly attacked by the brave + Dexippus, who, flying with the engineer Cleodamus from the sack of Athens, + collected a hasty band of volunteers, peasants as well as soldiers, and in + some measure avenged the calamities of his country. <a + href="#linknote-10.123" name="linknoteref-10.123" id="linknoteref-10.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.120" id="linknote-10.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.120">return</a>)<br/> [ Syncellus (p. 382) + speaks of this expedition, as undertaken by the Heruli.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.121" id="linknote-10.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.121">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xi. p. + 495.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.122" id="linknote-10.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.122">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. + iii. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.123" id="linknote-10.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.123">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 181. + Victor, c. 33. Orosius, vii. 42. Zosimus, l. i. p. 35. Zonaras, l. xii. + 635. Syncellus, p. 382. It is not without some attention, that we can + explain and conciliate their imperfect hints. We can still discover some + traces of the partiality of Dexippus, in the relation of his own and his + countrymen’s exploits. * Note: According to a new fragment of Dexippus, + published by Mai, the 2000 men took up a strong position in a mountainous + and woods district, and kept up a harassing warfare. He expresses a hope + of being speedily joined by the Imperial fleet. Dexippus in rov. + Byzantinorum Collect a Niebuhr, p. 26, 8—M.] + </p> + <p> + But this exploit, whatever lustre it might shed on the declining age of + Athens, served rather to irritate than to subdue the undaunted spirit of + the northern invaders. A general conflagration blazed out at the same time + in every district of Greece. Thebes and Argos, Corinth and Sparta, which + had formerly waged such memorable wars against each other, were now unable + to bring an army into the field, or even to defend their ruined + fortifications. The rage of war, both by land and by sea, spread from the + eastern point of Sunium to the western coast of Epirus. The Goths had + already advanced within sight of Italy, when the approach of such imminent + danger awakened the indolent Gallienus from his dream of pleasure. The + emperor appeared in arms; and his presence seems to have checked the + ardor, and to have divided the strength, of the enemy. Naulobatus, a chief + of the Heruli, accepted an honorable capitulation, entered with a large + body of his countrymen into the service of Rome, and was invested with the + ornaments of the consular dignity, which had never before been profaned by + the hands of a barbarian. <a href="#linknote-10.124" + name="linknoteref-10.124" id="linknoteref-10.124">124</a> Great numbers of + the Goths, disgusted with the perils and hardships of a tedious voyage, + broke into Mæsia, with a design of forcing their way over the Danube to + their settlements in the Ukraine. The wild attempt would have proved + inevitable destruction, if the discord of the Roman generals had not + opened to the barbarians the means of an escape. <a href="#linknote-10.125" + name="linknoteref-10.125" id="linknoteref-10.125">125</a> The small + remainder of this destroying host returned on board their vessels; and + measuring back their way through the Hellespont and the Bosphorus, ravaged + in their passage the shores of Troy, whose fame, immortalized by Homer, + will probably survive the memory of the Gothic conquests. As soon as they + found themselves in safety within the basin of the Euxine, they landed at + Anchialus in Thrace, near the foot of Mount Hæmus; and, after all their + toils, indulged themselves in the use of those pleasant and salutary hot + baths. What remained of the voyage was a short and easy navigation. <a + href="#linknote-10.126" name="linknoteref-10.126" id="linknoteref-10.126">126</a> + Such was the various fate of this third and greatest of their naval + enterprises. It may seem difficult to conceive how the original body of + fifteen thousand warriors could sustain the losses and divisions of so + bold an adventure. But as their numbers were gradually wasted by the + sword, by shipwrecks, and by the influence of a warm climate, they were + perpetually renewed by troops of banditti and deserters, who flocked to + the standard of plunder, and by a crowd of fugitive slaves, often of + German or Sarmatian extraction, who eagerly seized the glorious + opportunity of freedom and revenge. In these expeditions, the Gothic + nation claimed a superior share of honor and danger; but the tribes that + fought under the Gothic banners are sometimes distinguished and sometimes + confounded in the imperfect histories of that age; and as the barbarian + fleets seemed to issue from the mouth of the Tanais, the vague but + familiar appellation of Scythians was frequently bestowed on the mixed + multitude. <a href="#linknote-10.127" name="linknoteref-10.127" + id="linknoteref-10.127">127</a> <a name="linknote-10.124" id="linknote-10.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.124">return</a>)<br/> [Syncellus, p. 382. + This body of Heruli was for a long time faithful and famous.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.125" id="linknote-10.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.125">return</a>)<br/> [ Claudius, who + commanded on the Danube, thought with propriety and acted with spirit. His + colleague was jealous of his fame Hist. August. p. 181.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.126" id="linknote-10.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.126">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes, c. 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.127" id="linknote-10.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.127">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus and the + Greeks (as the author of the Philopatris) give the name of Scythians to + those whom Jornandes, and the Latin writers, constantly represent as + Goths.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap10.4"></a> + Chapter X: Emperors Decius, Gallus, Æmilianus, Valerian And Gallienus.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + In the general calamities of mankind, the death of an individual, however + exalted, the ruin of an edifice, however famous, are passed over with + careless inattention. Yet we cannot forget that the temple of Diana at + Ephesus, after having risen with increasing splendor from seven repeated + misfortunes, <a href="#linknote-10.128" name="linknoteref-10.128" + id="linknoteref-10.128">128</a> was finally burnt by the Goths in their + third naval invasion. The arts of Greece, and the wealth of Asia, had + conspired to erect that sacred and magnificent structure. It was supported + by a hundred and twenty-seven marble columns of the Ionic order. They were + the gifts of devout monarchs, and each was sixty feet high. The altar was + adorned with the masterly sculptures of Praxiteles, who had, perhaps, + selected from the favorite legends of the place the birth of the divine + children of Latona, the concealment of Apollo after the slaughter of the + Cyclops, and the clemency of Bacchus to the vanquished Amazons. <a + href="#linknote-10.129" name="linknoteref-10.129" id="linknoteref-10.129">129</a> + Yet the length of the temple of Ephesus was only four hundred and + twenty-five feet, about two thirds of the measure of the church of St. + Peter’s at Rome. <a href="#linknote-10.130" name="linknoteref-10.130" + id="linknoteref-10.130">130</a> In the other dimensions, it was still more + inferior to that sublime production of modern architecture. The spreading + arms of a Christian cross require a much greater breadth than the oblong + temples of the Pagans; and the boldest artists of antiquity would have + been startled at the proposal of raising in the air a dome of the size and + proportions of the Pantheon. The temple of Diana was, however, admired as + one of the wonders of the world. Successive empires, the Persian, the + Macedonian, and the Roman, had revered its sanctity and enriched its + splendor. <a href="#linknote-10.131" name="linknoteref-10.131" + id="linknoteref-10.131">131</a> But the rude savages of the Baltic were + destitute of a taste for the elegant arts, and they despised the ideal + terrors of a foreign superstition. <a href="#linknote-10.132" + name="linknoteref-10.132" id="linknoteref-10.132">132</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.128" id="linknote-10.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.128">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Aug. p. 178. + Jornandes, c. 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.129" id="linknote-10.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.129">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xiv. p. + 640. Vitruvius, l. i. c. i. præfat l vii. Tacit Annal. iii. 61. Plin. + Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.130" id="linknote-10.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.130">return</a>)<br/> [ The length of St. + Peter’s is 840 Roman palms; each palm is very little short of nine English + inches. See Greaves’s Miscellanies vol. i. p. 233; on the Roman Foot. * + Note: St. Paul’s Cathedral is 500 feet. Dallaway on Architecture—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.131" id="linknote-10.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.131">return</a>)<br/> [ The policy, however, + of the Romans induced them to abridge the extent of the sanctuary or + asylum, which by successive privileges had spread itself two stadia round + the temple. Strabo, l. xiv. p. 641. Tacit. Annal. iii. 60, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.132" id="linknote-10.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.132">return</a>)<br/> [ They offered no + sacrifices to the Grecian gods. See Epistol Gregor. Thaumat.] + </p> + <p> + Another circumstance is related of these invasions, which might deserve + our notice, were it not justly to be suspected as the fanciful conceit of + a recent sophist. We are told that in the sack of Athens the Goths had + collected all the libraries, and were on the point of setting fire to this + funeral pile of Grecian learning, had not one of their chiefs, of more + refined policy than his brethren, dissuaded them from the design; by the + profound observation, that as long as the Greeks were addicted to the + study of books, they would never apply themselves to the exercise of arms. + <a href="#linknote-10.133" name="linknoteref-10.133" id="linknoteref-10.133">133</a> + The sagacious counsellor (should the truth of the fact be admitted) + reasoned like an ignorant barbarian. In the most polite and powerful + nations, genius of every kind has displayed itself about the same period; + and the age of science has generally been the age of military virtue and + success. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.133" id="linknote-10.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.133">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 635. Such an anecdote was perfectly suited to the taste of Montaigne. He + makes use of it in his agreeable Essay on Pedantry, l. i. c. 24.] + </p> + <p> + IV. The new sovereign of Persia, Artaxerxes and his son Sapor, had + triumphed (as we have already seen) over the house of Arsaces. Of the many + princes of that ancient race. Chosroes, king of Armenia, had alone + preserved both his life and his independence. He defended himself by the + natural strength of his country; by the perpetual resort of fugitives and + malecontents; by the alliance of the Romans, and above all, by his own + courage. + </p> + <p> + Invincible in arms, during a thirty years’ war, he was at length + assassinated by the emissaries of Sapor, king of Persia. The patriotic + satraps of Armenia, who asserted the freedom and dignity of the crown, + implored the protection of Rome in favor of Tiridates, the lawful heir. + But the son of Chosroes was an infant, the allies were at a distance, and + the Persian monarch advanced towards the frontier at the head of an + irresistible force. Young Tiridates, the future hope of his country, was + saved by the fidelity of a servant, and Armenia continued above + twenty-seven years a reluctant province of the great monarchy of Persia. + <a href="#linknote-10.134" name="linknoteref-10.134" id="linknoteref-10.134">134</a> + Elated with this easy conquest, and presuming on the distresses or the + degeneracy of the Romans, Sapor obliged the strong garrisons of Carrhæ + and Nisibis <a href="#linknote-10.1341" name="linknoteref-10.1341" + id="linknoteref-10.1341">1341</a> to surrender, and spread devastation and + terror on either side of the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.134" id="linknote-10.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.134">return</a>)<br/> [ Moses Chorenensis, l. + ii. c. 71, 73, 74. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 628. The anthentic relation of the + Armenian historian serves to rectify the confused account of the Greek. + The latter talks of the children of Tiridates, who at that time was + himself an infant. (Compare St Martin Memoires sur l’Armenie, i. p. 301.—M.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1341" id="linknote-10.1341"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1341 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1341">return</a>)<br/> [ Nisibis, according + to Persian authors, was taken by a miracle, the wall fell, in compliance + with the prayers of the army. Malcolm’s Persia, l. 76.—M] + </p> + <p> + The loss of an important frontier, the ruin of a faithful and natural + ally, and the rapid success of Sapor’s ambition, affected Rome with a deep + sense of the insult as well as of the danger. Valerian flattered himself, + that the vigilance of his lieutenants would sufficiently provide for the + safety of the Rhine and of the Danube; but he resolved, notwithstanding + his advanced age, to march in person to the defence of the Euphrates. + </p> + <p> + During his progress through Asia Minor, the naval enterprises of the Goths + were suspended, and the afflicted province enjoyed a transient and + fallacious calm. He passed the Euphrates, encountered the Persian monarch + near the walls of Edessa, was vanquished, and taken prisoner by Sapor. The + particulars of this great event are darkly and imperfectly represented; + yet, by the glimmering light which is afforded us, we may discover a long + series of imprudence, of error, and of deserved misfortunes on the side of + the Roman emperor. He reposed an implicit confidence in Macrianus, his + Prætorian præfect. <a href="#linknote-10.135" name="linknoteref-10.135" + id="linknoteref-10.135">135</a> That worthless minister rendered his master + formidable only to the oppressed subjects, and contemptible to the enemies + of Rome. <a href="#linknote-10.136" name="linknoteref-10.136" + id="linknoteref-10.136">136</a> By his weak or wicked counsels, the + Imperial army was betrayed into a situation where valor and military skill + were equally unavailing. <a href="#linknote-10.137" name="linknoteref-10.137" + id="linknoteref-10.137">137</a> The vigorous attempt of the Romans to cut + their way through the Persian host was repulsed with great slaughter; <a + href="#linknote-10.138" name="linknoteref-10.138" id="linknoteref-10.138">138</a> + and Sapor, who encompassed the camp with superior numbers, patiently + waited till the increasing rage of famine and pestilence had insured his + victory. The licentious murmurs of the legions soon accused Valerian as + the cause of their calamities; their seditious clamors demanded an instant + capitulation. An immense sum of gold was offered to purchase the + permission of a disgraceful retreat. But the Persian, conscious of his + superiority, refused the money with disdain; and detaining the deputies, + advanced in order of battle to the foot of the Roman rampart, and insisted + on a personal conference with the emperor. Valerian was reduced to the + necessity of intrusting his life and dignity to the faith of an enemy. The + interview ended as it was natural to expect. The emperor was made a + prisoner, and his astonished troops laid down their arms. <a + href="#linknote-10.139" name="linknoteref-10.139" id="linknoteref-10.139">139</a> + In such a moment of triumph, the pride and policy of Sapor prompted him to + fill the vacant throne with a successor entirely dependent on his + pleasure. Cyriades, an obscure fugitive of Antioch, stained with every + vice, was chosen to dishonor the Roman purple; and the will of the Persian + victor could not fail of being ratified by the acclamations, however + reluctant, of the captive army. <a href="#linknote-10.140" + name="linknoteref-10.140" id="linknoteref-10.140">140</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.135" id="linknote-10.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.135">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Aug. p. 191. As + Macrianus was an enemy to the Christians, they charged him with being a + magician.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.136" id="linknote-10.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.136">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. + 33.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.137" id="linknote-10.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.137">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Aug. p. 174.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.138" id="linknote-10.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.138">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor in Cæsar. + Eutropius, ix. 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.139" id="linknote-10.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.139">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 33. + Zonaras, l. xii. p. 630. Peter Patricius, in the Excerpta Legat. p. 29.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.140" id="linknote-10.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.140">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 185. + The reign of Cyriades appears in that collection prior to the death of + Valerian; but I have preferred a probable series of events to the doubtful + chronology of a most inaccurate writer] + </p> + <p> + The Imperial slave was eager to secure the favor of his master by an act + of treason to his native country. He conducted Sapor over the Euphrates, + and, by the way of Chalcis, to the metropolis of the East. So rapid were + the motions of the Persian cavalry, that, if we may credit a very + judicious historian, <a href="#linknote-10.141" name="linknoteref-10.141" + id="linknoteref-10.141">141</a> the city of Antioch was surprised when the + idle multitude was fondly gazing on the amusements of the theatre. The + splendid buildings of Antioch, private as well as public, were either + pillaged or destroyed; and the numerous inhabitants were put to the sword, + or led away into captivity. <a href="#linknote-10.142" + name="linknoteref-10.142" id="linknoteref-10.142">142</a> The tide of + devastation was stopped for a moment by the resolution of the high priest + of Emesa. Arrayed in his sacerdotal robes, he appeared at the head of a + great body of fanatic peasants, armed only with slings, and defended his + god and his property from the sacrilegious hands of the followers of + Zoroaster. <a href="#linknote-10.143" name="linknoteref-10.143" + id="linknoteref-10.143">143</a> But the ruin of Tarsus, and of many other + cities, furnishes a melancholy proof that, except in this singular + instance, the conquest of Syria and Cilicia scarcely interrupted the + progress of the Persian arms. The advantages of the narrow passes of Mount + Taurus were abandoned, in which an invader, whose principal force + consisted in his cavalry, would have been engaged in a very unequal + combat: and Sapor was permitted to form the siege of Cæsarea, the capital + of Cappadocia; a city, though of the second rank, which was supposed to + contain four hundred thousand inhabitants. Demosthenes commanded in the + place, not so much by the commission of the emperor, as in the voluntary + defence of his country. For a long time he deferred its fate; and when at + last Cæsarea was betrayed by the perfidy of a physician, he cut his way + through the Persians, who had been ordered to exert their utmost diligence + to take him alive. This heroic chief escaped the power of a foe who might + either have honored or punished his obstinate valor; but many thousands of + his fellow-citizens were involved in a general massacre, and Sapor is + accused of treating his prisoners with wanton and unrelenting cruelty. <a + href="#linknote-10.144" name="linknoteref-10.144" id="linknoteref-10.144">144</a> + Much should undoubtedly be allowed for national animosity, much for + humbled pride and impotent revenge; yet, upon the whole, it is certain, + that the same prince, who, in Armenia, had displayed the mild aspect of a + legislator, showed himself to the Romans under the stern features of a + conqueror. He despaired of making any permanent establishment in the + empire, and sought only to leave behind him a wasted desert, whilst he + transported into Persia the people and the treasures of the provinces. <a + href="#linknote-10.145" name="linknoteref-10.145" id="linknoteref-10.145">145</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.141" id="linknote-10.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.141">return</a>)<br/> [ The sack of Antioch, + anticipated by some historians, is assigned, by the decisive testimony of + Ammianus Marcellinus, to the reign of Gallienus, xxiii. 5. * Note: Heyne, + in his note on Zosimus, contests this opinion of Gibbon and observes, that + the testimony of Ammianus is in fact by no means clear, decisive. + Gallienus and Valerian reigned together. Zosimus, in a passage, l. iiii. + 32, 8, distinctly places this event before the capture of Valerian.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.142" id="linknote-10.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.142">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. + 35.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.143" id="linknote-10.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.143">return</a>)<br/> [ John Malala, tom. i. + p. 391. He corrupts this probable event by some fabulous circumstances.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.144" id="linknote-10.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.144">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 630. Deep valleys were filled up with the slain. Crowds of prisoners were + driven to water like beasts, and many perished for want of food.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.145" id="linknote-10.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.145">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 25 + asserts, that Sapor, had he not preferred spoil to conquest, might have + remained master of Asia.] + </p> + <p> + At the time when the East trembled at the name of Sapor, he received a + present not unworthy of the greatest kings; a long train of camels, laden + with the most rare and valuable merchandises. The rich offering was + accompanied with an epistle, respectful, but not servile, from Odenathus, + one of the noblest and most opulent senators of Palmyra. “Who is this + Odenathus,” (said the haughty victor, and he commanded that the present + should be cast into the Euphrates,) “that he thus insolently presumes to + write to his lord? If he entertains a hope of mitigating his punishment, + let him fall prostrate before the foot of our throne, with his hands bound + behind his back. Should he hesitate, swift destruction shall be poured on + his head, on his whole race, and on his country.” <a href="#linknote-10.146" + name="linknoteref-10.146" id="linknoteref-10.146">146</a> The desperate + extremity to which the Palmyrenian was reduced, called into action all the + latent powers of his soul. He met Sapor; but he met him in arms. + </p> + <p> + Infusing his own spirit into a little army collected from the villages of + Syria <a href="#linknote-10.147" name="linknoteref-10.147" + id="linknoteref-10.147">147</a> and the tents of the desert, <a + href="#linknote-10.148" name="linknoteref-10.148" id="linknoteref-10.148">148</a> + he hovered round the Persian host, harassed their retreat, carried off + part of the treasure, and, what was dearer than any treasure, several of + the women of the great king; who was at last obliged to repass the + Euphrates with some marks of haste and confusion. <a href="#linknote-10.149" + name="linknoteref-10.149" id="linknoteref-10.149">149</a> By this exploit, + Odenathus laid the foundations of his future fame and fortunes. The + majesty of Rome, oppressed by a Persian, was protected by a Syrian or Arab + of Palmyra. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.146" id="linknote-10.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.146">return</a>)<br/> [ Peter Patricius in + Excerpt. Leg. p. 29.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.147" id="linknote-10.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.147">return</a>)<br/> [ Syrorum agrestium + manu. Sextus Rufus, c. 23. Rufus Victor the Augustan History, (p. 192,) + and several inscriptions, agree in making Odenathus a citizen of Palmyra.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.148" id="linknote-10.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.148">return</a>)<br/> [ He possessed so + powerful an interest among the wandering tribes, that Procopius (Bell. + Persic. l. ii. c. 5) and John Malala, (tom. i. p. 391) style him Prince of + the Saracens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.149" id="linknote-10.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.149">return</a>)<br/> [ Peter Patricius, p. + 25.] + </p> + <p> + The voice of history, which is often little more than the organ of hatred + or flattery, reproaches Sapor with a proud abuse of the rights of + conquest. We are told that Valerian, in chains, but invested with the + Imperial purple, was exposed to the multitude, a constant spectacle of + fallen greatness; and that whenever the Persian monarch mounted on + horseback, he placed his foot on the neck of a Roman emperor. + Notwithstanding all the remonstrances of his allies, who repeatedly + advised him to remember the vicissitudes of fortune, to dread the + returning power of Rome, and to make his illustrious captive the pledge of + peace, not the object of insult, Sapor still remained inflexible. When + Valerian sunk under the weight of shame and grief, his skin, stuffed with + straw, and formed into the likeness of a human figure, was preserved for + ages in the most celebrated temple of Persia; a more real monument of + triumph, than the fancied trophies of brass and marble so often erected by + Roman vanity. <a href="#linknote-10.150" name="linknoteref-10.150" + id="linknoteref-10.150">150</a> The tale is moral and pathetic, but the + truth <a href="#linknote-10.1501" name="linknoteref-10.1501" + id="linknoteref-10.1501">1501</a> of it may very fairly be called in + question. The letters still extant from the princes of the East to Sapor + are manifest forgeries; <a href="#linknote-10.151" name="linknoteref-10.151" + id="linknoteref-10.151">151</a> nor is it natural to suppose that a jealous + monarch should, even in the person of a rival, thus publicly degrade the + majesty of kings. Whatever treatment the unfortunate Valerian might + experience in Persia, it is at least certain that the only emperor of Rome + who had ever fallen into the hands of the enemy, languished away his life + in hopeless captivity. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.150" id="linknote-10.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.150">return</a>)<br/> [ The Pagan writers + lament, the Christian insult, the misfortunes of Valerian. Their various + testimonies are accurately collected by Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 739, &c. + So little has been preserved of eastern history before Mahomet, that the + modern Persians are totally ignorant of the victory Sapor, an event so + glorious to their nation. See Bibliotheque Orientale. * Note: Malcolm + appears to write from Persian authorities, i. 76.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1501" id="linknote-10.1501"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1501 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1501">return</a>)<br/> [ Yet Gibbon himself + records a speech of the emperor Galerius, which alludes to the cruelties + exercised against the living, and the indignities to which they exposed + the dead Valerian, vol. ii. ch. 13. Respect for the kingly character would + by no means prevent an eastern monarch from ratifying his pride and his + vengeance on a fallen foe.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.151" id="linknote-10.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.151">return</a>)<br/> [ One of these epistles + is from Artavasdes, king of Armenia; since Armenia was then a province of + Persia, the king, the kingdom, and the epistle must be fictitious.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor Gallienus, who had long supported with impatience the + censorial severity of his father and colleague, received the intelligence + of his misfortunes with secret pleasure and avowed indifference. “I knew + that my father was a mortal,” said he; “and since he has acted as it + becomes a brave man, I am satisfied.” Whilst Rome lamented the fate of her + sovereign, the savage coldness of his son was extolled by the servile + courtiers as the perfect firmness of a hero and a stoic. <a + href="#linknote-10.152" name="linknoteref-10.152" id="linknoteref-10.152">152</a> + It is difficult to paint the light, the various, the inconstant character + of Gallienus, which he displayed without constraint, as soon as he became + sole possessor of the empire. In every art that he attempted, his lively + genius enabled him to succeed; and as his genius was destitute of + judgment, he attempted every art, except the important ones of war and + government. He was a master of several curious, but useless sciences, a + ready orator, an elegant poet, <a href="#linknote-10.153" + name="linknoteref-10.153" id="linknoteref-10.153">153</a> a skilful + gardener, an excellent cook, and most contemptible prince. When the great + emergencies of the state required his presence and attention, he was + engaged in conversation with the philosopher Plotinus, <a + href="#linknote-10.154" name="linknoteref-10.154" id="linknoteref-10.154">154</a> + wasting his time in trifling or licentious pleasures, preparing his + initiation to the Grecian mysteries, or soliciting a place in the + Areopagus of Athens. His profuse magnificence insulted the general + poverty; the solemn ridicule of his triumphs impressed a deeper sense of + the public disgrace. <a href="#linknote-10.155" name="linknoteref-10.155" + id="linknoteref-10.155">155</a> The repeated intelligence of invasions, + defeats, and rebellions, he received with a careless smile; and singling + out, with affected contempt, some particular production of the lost + province, he carelessly asked, whether Rome must be ruined, unless it was + supplied with linen from Egypt, and arras cloth from Gaul. There were, + however, a few short moments in the life of Gallienus, when, exasperated + by some recent injury, he suddenly appeared the intrepid soldier and the + cruel tyrant; till, satiated with blood, or fatigued by resistance, he + insensibly sunk into the natural mildness and indolence of his character. + <a href="#linknote-10.156" name="linknoteref-10.156" id="linknoteref-10.156">156</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.152" id="linknote-10.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.152">return</a>)<br/> [ See his life in the + Augustan History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.153" id="linknote-10.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.153">return</a>)<br/> [ There is still extant + a very pretty Epithalamium, composed by Gallienus for the nuptials of his + nephews:—“Ite ait, O juvenes, pariter sudate medullis Omnibus, inter + vos: non murmura vestra columbæ, Brachia non hederæ, non vincant oscula + conchæ.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.154" id="linknote-10.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.154">return</a>)<br/> [ He was on the point + of giving Plotinus a ruined city of Campania to try the experiment of + realizing Plato’s Republic. See the Life of Plotinus, by Porphyry, in + Fabricius’s Biblioth. Græc. l. iv.] <a name="linknote-10.155" + id="linknote-10.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.155">return</a>)<br/> [A medal which bears + the head of Gallienus has perplexed the antiquarians by its legend and + reverse; the former Gallienæ Augustæ, the latter Ubique Pax. M. Spanheim + supposes that the coin was struck by some of the enemies of Gallienus, and + was designed as a severe satire on that effeminate prince. But as the use + of irony may seem unworthy of the gravity of the Roman mint, M. de + Vallemont has deduced from a passage of Trebellius Pollio (Hist. Aug. p. + 198) an ingenious and natural solution. Galliena was first cousin to the + emperor. By delivering Africa from the usurper Celsus, she deserved the + title of Augusta. On a medal in the French king’s collection, we read a + similar inscription of Faustina Augusta round the head of Marcus Aurelius. + With regard to the Ubique Pax, it is easily explained by the vanity of + Gallienus, who seized, perhaps, the occasion of some momentary calm. See + Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, Janvier, 1700, p. 21—34.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.156" id="linknote-10.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.156">return</a>)<br/> [ This singular + character has, I believe, been fairly transmitted to us. The reign of his + immediate successor was short and busy; and the historians who wrote + before the elevation of the family of Constantine could not have the most + remote interest to misrepresent the character of Gallienus.] + </p> + <p> + At the time when the reins of government were held with so loose a hand, + it is not surprising that a crowd of usurpers should start up in every + province of the empire against the son of Valerian. It was probably some + ingenious fancy, of comparing the thirty tyrants of Rome with the thirty + tyrants of Athens, that induced the writers of the Augustan History to + select that celebrated number, which has been gradually received into a + popular appellation. <a href="#linknote-10.157" name="linknoteref-10.157" + id="linknoteref-10.157">157</a> But in every light the parallel is idle and + defective. What resemblance can we discover between a council of thirty + persons, the united oppressors of a single city, and an uncertain list of + independent rivals, who rose and fell in irregular succession through the + extent of a vast empire? Nor can the number of thirty be completed, unless + we include in the account the women and children who were honored with the + Imperial title. The reign of Gallienus, distracted as it was, produced + only nineteen pretenders to the throne: Cyriades, Macrianus, Balista, + Odenathus, and Zenobia, in the East; in Gaul, and the western provinces, + Posthumus, Lollianus, Victorinus, and his mother Victoria, Marius, and + Tetricus; in Illyricum and the confines of the Danube, Ingenuus, + Regillianus, and Aureolus; in Pontus, <a href="#linknote-10.158" + name="linknoteref-10.158" id="linknoteref-10.158">158</a> Saturninus; in + Isauria, Trebellianus; Piso in Thessaly; Valens in Achaia; Æmilianus in + Egypt; and Celsus in Africa. <a href="#linknote-10.1581" + name="linknoteref-10.1581" id="linknoteref-10.1581">1581</a> To illustrate + the obscure monuments of the life and death of each individual, would + prove a laborious task, alike barren of instruction and of amusement. We + may content ourselves with investigating some general characters, that + most strongly mark the condition of the times, and the manners of the men, + their pretensions, their motives, their fate, and the destructive + consequences of their usurpation. <a href="#linknote-10.159" + name="linknoteref-10.159" id="linknoteref-10.159">159</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.157" id="linknote-10.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.157">return</a>)<br/> [ Pollio expresses the + most minute anxiety to complete the number. * Note: Compare a dissertation + of Manso on the thirty tyrants at the end of his Leben Constantius des + Grossen. Breslau, 1817.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.158" id="linknote-10.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.158">return</a>)<br/> [ The place of his + reign is somewhat doubtful; but there was a tyrant in Pontus, and we are + acquainted with the seat of all the others.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1581" id="linknote-10.1581"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1581 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1581">return</a>)<br/> [ Captain Smyth, in + his “Catalogue of Medals,” p. 307, substitutes two new names to make up + the number of nineteen, for those of Odenathus and Zenobia. He subjoins + this list:—1. 2. 3. Of those whose coins Those whose coins Those of + whom no are undoubtedly true. are suspected. coins are known. Posthumus. + Cyriades. Valens. Lælianus, (Lollianus, G.) Ingenuus. Balista Victorinus + Celsus. Saturninus. Marius. Piso Frugi. Trebellianus. Tetricus. —M. + 1815 Macrianus. Quietus. Regalianus (Regillianus, G.) Alex. Æmilianus. + Aureolus. Sulpicius Antoninus] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.159" id="linknote-10.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.159">return</a>)<br/> [ Tillemont, tom. iii. + p. 1163, reckons them somewhat differently.] + </p> + <p> + It is sufficiently known, that the odious appellation of <i>Tyrant</i> was often + employed by the ancients to express the illegal seizure of supreme power, + without any reference to the abuse of it. Several of the pretenders, who + raised the standard of rebellion against the emperor Gallienus, were + shining models of virtue, and almost all possessed a considerable share of + vigor and ability. Their merit had recommended them to the favor of + Valerian, and gradually promoted them to the most important commands of + the empire. The generals, who assumed the title of Augustus, were either + respected by their troops for their able conduct and severe discipline, or + admired for valor and success in war, or beloved for frankness and + generosity. The field of victory was often the scene of their election; + and even the armorer Marius, the most contemptible of all the candidates + for the purple, was distinguished, however, by intrepid courage, matchless + strength, and blunt honesty. <a href="#linknote-10.160" + name="linknoteref-10.160" id="linknoteref-10.160">160</a> His mean and + recent trade cast, indeed, an air of ridicule on his elevation; <a + href="#linknote-10.1601" name="linknoteref-10.1601" id="linknoteref-10.1601">1601</a> + but his birth could not be more obscure than was that of the greater part + of his rivals, who were born of peasants, and enlisted in the army as + private soldiers. In times of confusion every active genius finds the + place assigned him by nature: in a general state of war military merit is + the road to glory and to greatness. Of the nineteen tyrants Tetricus only + was a senator; Piso alone was a noble. The blood of Numa, through + twenty-eight successive generations, ran in the veins of Calphurnius Piso, + <a href="#linknote-10.161" name="linknoteref-10.161" id="linknoteref-10.161">161</a> + who, by female alliances, claimed a right of exhibiting, in his house, the + images of Crassus and of the great Pompey. <a href="#linknote-10.162" + name="linknoteref-10.162" id="linknoteref-10.162">162</a> His ancestors had + been repeatedly dignified with all the honors which the commonwealth could + bestow; and of all the ancient families of Rome, the Calphurnian alone had + survived the tyranny of the Cæsars. The personal qualities of Piso added + new lustre to his race. The usurper Valens, by whose order he was killed, + confessed, with deep remorse, that even an enemy ought to have respected + the sanctity of Piso; and although he died in arms against Gallienus, the + senate, with the emperor’s generous permission, decreed the triumphal + ornaments to the memory of so virtuous a rebel. <a href="#linknote-10.163" + name="linknoteref-10.163" id="linknoteref-10.163">163</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.160" id="linknote-10.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.160">return</a>)<br/> [ See the speech of + Marius in the Augustan History, p. 197. The accidental identity of names + was the only circumstance that could tempt Pollio to imitate Sallust.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1601" id="linknote-10.1601"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1601 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1601">return</a>)<br/> [ Marius was killed + by a soldier, who had formerly served as a workman in his shop, and who + exclaimed, as he struck, “Behold the sword which thyself hast forged.” + Trob vita.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.161" id="linknote-10.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.161">return</a>)<br/> [ “Vos, O Pompilius + sanguis!” is Horace’s address to the Pisos See Art. Poet. v. 292, with + Dacier’s and Sanadon’s notes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.162" id="linknote-10.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.162">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Annal. xv. 48. + Hist. i. 15. In the former of these passages we may venture to change + paterna into materna. In every generation from Augustus to Alexander + Severus, one or more Pisos appear as consuls. A Piso was deemed worthy of + the throne by Augustus, (Tacit. Annal. i. 13;) a second headed a + formidable conspiracy against Nero; and a third was adopted, and declared + Cæsar, by Galba.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.163" id="linknote-10.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.163">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 195. + The senate, in a moment of enthusiasm, seems to have presumed on the + approbation of Gallienus.] + </p> + <p> + The lieutenants of Valerian were grateful to the father, whom they + esteemed. They disdained to serve the luxurious indolence of his unworthy + son. The throne of the Roman world was unsupported by any principle of + loyalty; and treason against such a prince might easily be considered as + patriotism to the state. Yet if we examine with candor the conduct of + these usurpers, it will appear, that they were much oftener driven into + rebellion by their fears, than urged to it by their ambition. They dreaded + the cruel suspicions of Gallienus; they equally dreaded the capricious + violence of their troops. If the dangerous favor of the army had + imprudently declared them deserving of the purple, they were marked for + sure destruction; and even prudence would counsel them to secure a short + enjoyment of empire, and rather to try the fortune of war than to expect + the hand of an executioner. + </p> + <p> + When the clamor of the soldiers invested the reluctant victims with the + ensigns of sovereign authority, they sometimes mourned in secret their + approaching fate. “You have lost,” said Saturninus, on the day of his + elevation, “you have lost a useful commander, and you have made a very + wretched emperor.” <a href="#linknote-10.164" name="linknoteref-10.164" + id="linknoteref-10.164">164</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.164" id="linknote-10.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.164">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August p. 196.] + </p> + <p> + The apprehensions of Saturninus were justified by the repeated experience + of revolutions. Of the nineteen tyrants who started up under the reign of + Gallienus, there was not one who enjoyed a life of peace, or a natural + death. As soon as they were invested with the bloody purple, they inspired + their adherents with the same fears and ambition which had occasioned + their own revolt. Encompassed with domestic conspiracy, military sedition, + and civil war, they trembled on the edge of precipices, in which, after a + longer or shorter term of anxiety, they were inevitably lost. These + precarious monarchs received, however, such honors as the flattery of + their respective armies and provinces could bestow; but their claim, + founded on rebellion, could never obtain the sanction of law or history. + Italy, Rome, and the senate, constantly adhered to the cause of Gallienus, + and he alone was considered as the sovereign of the empire. That prince + condescended, indeed, to acknowledge the victorious arms of Odenathus, who + deserved the honorable distinction, by the respectful conduct which he + always maintained towards the son of Valerian. With the general applause + of the Romans, and the consent of Gallienus, the senate conferred the + title of Augustus on the brave Palmyrenian; and seemed to intrust him with + the government of the East, which he already possessed, in so independent + a manner, that, like a private succession, he bequeathed it to his + illustrious widow, Zenobia. <a href="#linknote-10.165" + name="linknoteref-10.165" id="linknoteref-10.165">165</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.165" id="linknote-10.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.165">return</a>)<br/> [ The association of + the brave Palmyrenian was the most popular act of the whole reign of + Gallienus. Hist. August. p. 180.] + </p> + <p> + The rapid and perpetual transitions from the cottage to the throne, and + from the throne to the grave, might have amused an indifferent + philosopher; were it possible for a philosopher to remain indifferent + amidst the general calamities of human kind. The election of these + precarious emperors, their power and their death, were equally destructive + to their subjects and adherents. The price of their fatal elevation was + instantly discharged to the troops by an immense donative, drawn from the + bowels of the exhausted people. However virtuous was their character, + however pure their intentions, they found themselves reduced to the hard + necessity of supporting their usurpation by frequent acts of rapine and + cruelty. When they fell, they involved armies and provinces in their fall. + There is still extant a most savage mandate from Gallienus to one of his + ministers, after the suppression of Ingenuus, who had assumed the purple + in Illyricum. + </p> + <p> + “It is not enough,” says that soft but inhuman prince, “that you + exterminate such as have appeared in arms; the chance of battle might have + served me as effectually. The male sex of every age must be extirpated; + provided that, in the execution of the children and old men, you can + contrive means to save our reputation. Let every one die who has dropped + an expression, who has entertained a thought against me, against <i>me</i>, the + son of Valerian, the father and brother of so many princes. <a + href="#linknote-10.166" name="linknoteref-10.166" id="linknoteref-10.166">166</a> + Remember that Ingenuus was made emperor: tear, kill, hew in pieces. I + write to you with my own hand, and would inspire you with my own + feelings.” <a href="#linknote-10.167" name="linknoteref-10.167" + id="linknoteref-10.167">167</a> Whilst the public forces of the state were + dissipated in private quarrels, the defenceless provinces lay exposed to + every invader. The bravest usurpers were compelled, by the perplexity of + their situation, to conclude ignominious treaties with the common enemy, + to purchase with oppressive tributes the neutrality or services of the + Barbarians, and to introduce hostile and independent nations into the + heart of the Roman monarchy. <a href="#linknote-10.168" + name="linknoteref-10.168" id="linknoteref-10.168">168</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.166" id="linknote-10.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.166">return</a>)<br/> [ Gallienus had given + the titles of Cæsar and Augustus to his son Saloninus, slain at Cologne + by the usurper Posthumus. A second son of Gallienus succeeded to the name + and rank of his elder brother Valerian, the brother of Gallienus, was also + associated to the empire: several other brothers, sisters, nephews, and + nieces of the emperor formed a very numerous royal family. See Tillemont, + tom iii, and M. de Brequigny in the Memoires de l’Academie, tom xxxii p. + 262.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.167" id="linknote-10.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.167">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. + 188.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.168" id="linknote-10.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.168">return</a>)<br/> [ Regillianus had some + bands of Roxolani in his service; Posthumus a body of Franks. It was, + perhaps, in the character of auxiliaries that the latter introduced + themselves into Spain.] + </p> + <p> + Such were the barbarians, and such the tyrants, who, under the reigns of + Valerian and Gallienus, dismembered the provinces, and reduced the empire + to the lowest pitch of disgrace and ruin, from whence it seemed impossible + that it should ever emerge. As far as the barrenness of materials would + permit, we have attempted to trace, with order and perspicuity, the + general events of that calamitous period. There still remain some + particular facts; I. The disorders of Sicily; II. The tumults of + Alexandria; and, III. The rebellion of the Isaurians, which may serve to + reflect a strong light on the horrid picture. + </p> + <p> + I. Whenever numerous troops of banditti, multiplied by success and + impunity, publicly defy, instead of eluding, the justice of their country, + we may safely infer that the excessive weakness of the country is felt + and abused by the lowest ranks of the community. The situation of Sicily + preserved it from the Barbarians; nor could the disarmed province have + supported a usurper. The sufferings of that once flourishing and still + fertile island were inflicted by baser hands. A licentious crowd of slaves + and peasants reigned for a while over the plundered country, and renewed + the memory of the servile wars of more ancient times. <a + href="#linknote-10.169" name="linknoteref-10.169" id="linknoteref-10.169">169</a> + Devastations, of which the husbandman was either the victim or the + accomplice, must have ruined the agriculture of Sicily; and as the + principal estates were the property of the opulent senators of Rome, who + often enclosed within a farm the territory of an old republic, it is not + improbable, that this private injury might affect the capital more deeply, + than all the conquests of the Goths or the Persians. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.169" id="linknote-10.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.169">return</a>)<br/> [ The Augustan History, + p. 177. See Diodor. Sicul. l. xxxiv.] + </p> + <p> + II. The foundation of Alexandria was a noble design, at once conceived and + executed by the son of Philip. The beautiful and regular form of that + great city, second only to Rome itself, comprehended a circumference of + fifteen miles; <a href="#linknote-10.170" name="linknoteref-10.170" + id="linknoteref-10.170">170</a> it was peopled by three hundred thousand + free inhabitants, besides at least an equal number of slaves. <a + href="#linknote-10.171" name="linknoteref-10.171" id="linknoteref-10.171">171</a> + The lucrative trade of Arabia and India flowed through the port of + Alexandria, to the capital and provinces of the empire. <a + href="#linknote-10.1711" name="linknoteref-10.1711" id="linknoteref-10.1711">1711</a> + Idleness was unknown. Some were employed in blowing of glass, others in + weaving of linen, others again manufacturing the papyrus. Either sex, and + every age, was engaged in the pursuits of industry, nor did even the blind + or the lame want occupations suited to their condition. <a + href="#linknote-10.172" name="linknoteref-10.172" id="linknoteref-10.172">172</a> + But the people of Alexandria, a various mixture of nations, united the + vanity and inconstancy of the Greeks with the superstition and obstinacy + of the Egyptians. The most trifling occasion, a transient scarcity of + flesh or lentils, the neglect of an accustomed salutation, a mistake of + precedency in the public baths, or even a religious dispute, <a + href="#linknote-10.173" name="linknoteref-10.173" id="linknoteref-10.173">173</a> + were at any time sufficient to kindle a sedition among that vast + multitude, whose resentments were furious and implacable. <a + href="#linknote-10.174" name="linknoteref-10.174" id="linknoteref-10.174">174</a> + After the captivity of Valerian and the insolence of his son had relaxed + the authority of the laws, the Alexandrians abandoned themselves to the + ungoverned rage of their passions, and their unhappy country was the + theatre of a civil war, which continued (with a few short and suspicious + truces) above twelve years. <a href="#linknote-10.175" + name="linknoteref-10.175" id="linknoteref-10.175">175</a> All intercourse + was cut off between the several quarters of the afflicted city, every + street was polluted with blood, every building of strength converted into + a citadel; nor did the tumults subside till a considerable part of + Alexandria was irretrievably ruined. The spacious and magnificent district + of Bruchion, <a href="#linknote-10.1751" name="linknoteref-10.1751" + id="linknoteref-10.1751">1751</a> with its palaces and musæum, the + residence of the kings and philosophers of Egypt, is described above a + century afterwards, as already reduced to its present state of dreary + solitude. <a href="#linknote-10.176" name="linknoteref-10.176" + id="linknoteref-10.176">176</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.170" id="linknote-10.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.170">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. v. + 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.171" id="linknote-10.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.171">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodor. Sicul. l. + xvii. p. 590, edit. Wesseling.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1711" id="linknote-10.1711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1711 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1711">return</a>)<br/> [ Berenice, or + Myos-Hormos, on the Red Sea, received the eastern commodities. From thence + they were transported to the Nile, and down the Nile to Alexandria.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.172" id="linknote-10.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.172">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very curious + letter of Hadrian, in the Augustan History, p. 245.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.173" id="linknote-10.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.173">return</a>)<br/> [ Such as the + sacrilegious murder of a divine cat. See Diodor. Sicul. l. i. * Note: The + hostility between the Jewish and Grecian part of the population afterwards + between the two former and the Christian, were unfailing causes of tumult, + sedition, and massacre. In no place were the religious disputes, after the + establishment of Christianity, more frequent or more sanguinary. See + Philo. de Legat. Hist. of Jews, ii. 171, iii. 111, 198. Gibbon, iii c. + xxi. viii. c. xlvii.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.174" id="linknote-10.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.174">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 195. + This long and terrible sedition was first occasioned by a dispute between + a soldier and a townsman about a pair of shoes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.175" id="linknote-10.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.175">return</a>)<br/> [ Dionysius apud. + Euses. Hist. Eccles. vii. p. 21. Ammian xxii. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.1751" id="linknote-10.1751"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1751 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.1751">return</a>)<br/> [ The Bruchion was a + quarter of Alexandria which extended along the largest of the two ports, + and contained many palaces, inhabited by the Ptolemies. D’Anv. Geogr. Anc. + iii. 10.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.176" id="linknote-10.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.176">return</a>)<br/> [ Scaliger. Animadver. + ad Euseb. Chron. p. 258. Three dissertations of M. Bonamy, in the Mem. de + l’Academie, tom. ix.] + </p> + +<p>III. The obscure rebellion of Trebellianus, who + assumed the purple in Isauria, a petty province of Asia Minor, was + attended with strange and memorable consequences. The pageant of royalty + was soon destroyed by an officer of Gallienus; but his followers, + despairing of mercy, resolved to shake off their allegiance, not only to + the emperor, but to the empire, and suddenly returned to the savage + manners from which they had never perfectly been reclaimed. Their craggy + rocks, a branch of the wide-extended Taurus, protected their inaccessible + retreat. The tillage of some fertile valleys <a href="#linknote-10.177" + name="linknoteref-10.177" id="linknoteref-10.177">177</a> supplied them with + necessaries, and a habit of rapine with the luxuries of life. In the heart + of the Roman monarchy, the Isaurians long continued a nation of wild + barbarians. Succeeding princes, unable to reduce them to obedience, either + by arms or policy, were compelled to acknowledge their weakness, by + surrounding the hostile and independent spot with a strong chain of + fortifications, <a href="#linknote-10.178" name="linknoteref-10.178" + id="linknoteref-10.178">178</a> which often proved insufficient to restrain + the incursions of these domestic foes. The Isaurians, gradually extending + their territory to the sea-coast, subdued the western and mountainous part + of Cilicia, formerly the nest of those daring pirates, against whom the + republic had once been obliged to exert its utmost force, under the + conduct of the great Pompey. <a href="#linknote-10.179" + name="linknoteref-10.179" id="linknoteref-10.179">179</a> +</p> + + + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.177" id="linknote-10.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.177">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xiii. p. + 569.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.178" id="linknote-10.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.178">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. + 197.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.179" id="linknote-10.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.179">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cellarius, Geogr + Antiq. tom. ii. p. 137, upon the limits of Isauria.] + </p> + + <p> + Our habits of thinking so fondly connect the order of the universe with + the fate of man, that this gloomy period of history has been decorated + with inundations, earthquakes, uncommon meteors, preternatural darkness, + and a crowd of prodigies fictitious or exaggerated. <a + href="#linknote-10.180" name="linknoteref-10.180" id="linknoteref-10.180">180</a> + But a long and general famine was a calamity of a more serious kind. It + was the inevitable consequence of rapine and oppression, which extirpated + the produce of the present and the hope of future harvests. Famine is + almost always followed by epidemical diseases, the effect of scanty and + unwholesome food. Other causes must, however, have contributed to the + furious plague, which, from the year two hundred and fifty to the year two + hundred and sixty-five, raged without interruption in every province, + every city, and almost every family, of the Roman empire. During some time + five thousand persons died daily in Rome; and many towns, that had escaped + the hands of the Barbarians, were entirely depopulated. <a + href="#linknote-10.181b" name="linknoteref-10.181b" id="linknoteref-10.181b">181b</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.180" id="linknote-10.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.180">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist August p 177.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.181b" id="linknote-10.181b"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181b (<a href="#linknoteref-10.181b">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. + 177. Zosimus, l. i. p. 24. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 623. Euseb. Chronicon. + Victor in Epitom. Victor in Cæsar. Eutropius, ix. 5. Orosius, vii. 21.] + </p> + <p> + We have the knowledge of a very curious circumstance, of some use perhaps + in the melancholy calculation of human calamities. An exact register was + kept at Alexandria of all the citizens entitled to receive the + distribution of corn. It was found, that the ancient number of those + comprised between the ages of forty and seventy, had been equal to the + whole sum of claimants, from fourteen to fourscore years of age, who + remained alive after the reign of Gallienus. <a href="#linknote-10.182" + name="linknoteref-10.182" id="linknoteref-10.182">182</a> Applying this + authentic fact to the most correct tables of mortality, it evidently + proves, that above half the people of Alexandria had perished; and could + we venture to extend the analogy to the other provinces, we might suspect, + that war, pestilence, and famine, had consumed, in a few years, the moiety + of the human species. <a href="#linknote-10.183" name="linknoteref-10.183" + id="linknoteref-10.183">183</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.182" id="linknote-10.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.182">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. Hist. Eccles. + vii. 21. The fact is taken from the Letters of Dionysius, who, in the time + of those troubles, was bishop of Alexandria.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-10.183" id="linknote-10.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-10.183">return</a>)<br/> [ In a great number of + parishes, 11,000 persons were found between fourteen and eighty; 5365 + between forty and seventy. See Buffon, Histoire Naturelle, tom. ii. p. + 590.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap11.1"></a> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Reign Of Claudius.—Defeat Of The Goths.—Victories, Triumph, And +Death Of Aurelian. +</p> + <p> + Under the deplorable reigns of Valerian and Gallienus, the empire was + oppressed and almost destroyed by the soldiers, the tyrants, and the + barbarians. It was saved by a series of great princes, who derived their + obscure origin from the martial provinces of Illyricum. Within a period of + about thirty years, Claudius, Aurelian, Probus, Diocletian and his + colleagues, triumphed over the foreign and domestic enemies of the state, + reëstablished, with the military discipline, the strength of the + frontiers, and deserved the glorious title of Restorers of the Roman + world. + </p> + <p> + The removal of an effeminate tyrant made way for a succession of heroes. + The indignation of the people imputed all their calamities to Gallienus, + and the far greater part were, indeed, the consequence of his dissolute + manners and careless administration. He was even destitute of a sense of + honor, which so frequently supplies the absence of public virtue; and as + long as he was permitted to enjoy the possession of Italy, a victory of + the barbarians, the loss of a province, or the rebellion of a general, + seldom disturbed the tranquil course of his pleasures. At length, a + considerable army, stationed on the Upper Danube, invested with the + Imperial purple their leader Aureolus; who, disdaining a confined and + barren reign over the mountains of Rhætia, passed the Alps, occupied + Milan, threatened Rome, and challenged Gallienus to dispute in the field + the sovereignty of Italy. The emperor, provoked by the insult, and alarmed + by the instant danger, suddenly exerted that latent vigor which sometimes + broke through the indolence of his temper. Forcing himself from the luxury + of the palace, he appeared in arms at the head of his legions, and + advanced beyond the Po to encounter his competitor. The corrupted name of + Pontirolo <a href="#linknote-11.1" name="linknoteref-11.1" + id="linknoteref-11.1">1</a> still preserves the memory of a bridge over the + Adda, which, during the action, must have proved an object of the utmost + importance to both armies. The Rhætian usurper, after receiving a total + defeat and a dangerous wound, retired into Milan. The siege of that great + city was immediately formed; the walls were battered with every engine in + use among the ancients; and Aureolus, doubtful of his internal strength, + and hopeless of foreign succors already anticipated the fatal consequences + of unsuccessful rebellion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.1" id="linknote-11.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Pons Aureoli, thirteen + miles from Bergamo, and thirty-two from Milan. See Cluver. Italia, Antiq. + tom. i. p. 245. Near this place, in the year 1703, the obstinate battle of + Cassano was fought between the French and Austrians. The excellent + relation of the Chevalier de Folard, who was present, gives a very + distinct idea of the ground. See Polybe de Folard, tom. iii. p. 233-248.] + </p> + <p> + His last resource was an attempt to seduce the loyalty of the besiegers. + He scattered libels through the camp, inviting the troops to desert an + unworthy master, who sacrificed the public happiness to his luxury, and + the lives of his most valuable subjects to the slightest suspicions. The + arts of Aureolus diffused fears and discontent among the principal + officers of his rival. A conspiracy was formed by Heraclianus, the + Prætorian præfect, by Marcian, a general of rank and reputation, and by + Cecrops, who commanded a numerous body of Dalmatian guards. The death of + Gallienus was resolved; and notwithstanding their desire of first + terminating the siege of Milan, the extreme danger which accompanied every + moment’s delay obliged them to hasten the execution of their daring + purpose. At a late hour of the night, but while the emperor still + protracted the pleasures of the table, an alarm was suddenly given, that + Aureolus, at the head of all his forces, had made a desperate sally from + the town; Gallienus, who was never deficient in personal bravery, started + from his silken couch, and without allowing himself time either to put on + his armor, or to assemble his guards, he mounted on horseback, and rode + full speed towards the supposed place of the attack. Encompassed by his + declared or concealed enemies, he soon, amidst the nocturnal tumult, + received a mortal dart from an uncertain hand. Before he expired, a + patriotic sentiment rising in the mind of Gallienus, induced him to name a + deserving successor; and it was his last request, that the Imperial + ornaments should be delivered to Claudius, who then commanded a detached + army in the neighborhood of Pavia. The report at least was diligently + propagated, and the order cheerfully obeyed by the conspirators, who had + already agreed to place Claudius on the throne. On the first news of the + emperor’s death, the troops expressed some suspicion and resentment, till + the one was removed, and the other assuaged, by a donative of twenty + pieces of gold to each soldier. They then ratified the election, and + acknowledged the merit of their new sovereign. <a href="#linknote-11.2" + name="linknoteref-11.2" id="linknoteref-11.2">2</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.2" id="linknote-11.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.2">return</a>)<br/> [ On the death of + Gallienus, see Trebellius Pollio in Hist. August. p. 181. Zosimus, l. i. + p. 37. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 634. Eutrop. ix. ll. Aurelius Victor in Epitom. + Victor in Cæsar. I have compared and blended them all, but have chiefly + followed Aurelius Victor, who seems to have had the best memoirs.] + </p> + <p> + The obscurity which covered the origin of Claudius, though it was + afterwards embellished by some flattering fictions, <a href="#linknote-11.3" + name="linknoteref-11.3" id="linknoteref-11.3">3</a> sufficiently betrays the + meanness of his birth. We can only discover that he was a native of one of + the provinces bordering on the Danube; that his youth was spent in arms, + and that his modest valor attracted the favor and confidence of Decius. + The senate and people already considered him as an excellent officer, + equal to the most important trusts; and censured the inattention of + Valerian, who suffered him to remain in the subordinate station of a + tribune. But it was not long before that emperor distinguished the merit + of Claudius, by declaring him general and chief of the Illyrian frontier, + with the command of all the troops in Thrace, Mæsia, Dacia, Pannonia, and + Dalmatia, the appointments of the præfect of Egypt, the establishment of + the proconsul of Africa, and the sure prospect of the consulship. By his + victories over the Goths, he deserved from the senate the honor of a + statue, and excited the jealous apprehensions of Gallienus. It was + impossible that a soldier could esteem so dissolute a sovereign, nor is it + easy to conceal a just contempt. Some unguarded expressions which dropped + from Claudius were officiously transmitted to the royal ear. The emperor’s + answer to an officer of confidence describes in very lively colors his own + character, and that of the times. “There is not any thing capable of + giving me more serious concern, than the intelligence contained in your + last despatch; <a href="#linknote-11.4" name="linknoteref-11.4" + id="linknoteref-11.4">4</a> that some malicious suggestions have indisposed + towards us the mind of our friend and <i>parent</i> Claudius. As you regard your + allegiance, use every means to appease his resentment, but conduct your + negotiation with secrecy; let it not reach the knowledge of the Dacian + troops; they are already provoked, and it might inflame their fury. I + myself have sent him some presents: be it your care that he accept them + with pleasure. Above all, let him not suspect that I am made acquainted + with his imprudence. The fear of my anger might urge him to desperate + counsels.” <a href="#linknote-11.5" name="linknoteref-11.5" + id="linknoteref-11.5">5</a> The presents which accompanied this humble + epistle, in which the monarch solicited a reconciliation with his + discontented subject, consisted of a considerable sum of money, a splendid + wardrobe, and a valuable service of silver and gold plate. By such arts + Gallienus softened the indignation and dispelled the fears of his Illyrian + general; and during the remainder of that reign, the formidable sword of + Claudius was always drawn in the cause of a master whom he despised. At + last, indeed, he received from the conspirators the bloody purple of + Gallienus: but he had been absent from their camp and counsels; and + however he might applaud the deed, we may candidly presume that he was + innocent of the knowledge of it. <a href="#linknote-11.6" + name="linknoteref-11.6" id="linknoteref-11.6">6</a> When Claudius ascended + the throne, he was about fifty-four years of age. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.3" id="linknote-11.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Some supposed him, oddly + enough, to be a bastard of the younger Gordian. Others took advantage of + the province of Dardania, to deduce his origin from Dardanus, and the + ancient kings of Troy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.4" id="linknote-11.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Notoria, a periodical and + official despatch which the emperor received from the frumentarii, or + agents dispersed through the provinces. Of these we may speak hereafter.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.5" id="linknote-11.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 208. + Gallienus describes the plate, vestments, etc., like a man who loved and + understood those splendid trifles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.6" id="linknote-11.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian (Orat. i. p. 6) + affirms that Claudius acquired the empire in a just and even holy manner. + But we may distrust the partiality of a kinsman.] + </p> + <p> + The siege of Milan was still continued, and Aureolus soon discovered that + the success of his artifices had only raised up a more determined + adversary. He attempted to negotiate with Claudius a treaty of alliance + and partition. “Tell him,” replied the intrepid emperor, “that such + proposals should have been made to Gallienus; <i>he</i>, perhaps, might have + listened to them with patience, and accepted a colleague as despicable as + himself.” <a href="#linknote-11.7" name="linknoteref-11.7" + id="linknoteref-11.7">7</a> This stern refusal, and a last unsuccessful + effort, obliged Aureolus to yield the city and himself to the discretion + of the conqueror. The judgment of the army pronounced him worthy of death; + and Claudius, after a feeble resistance, consented to the execution of the + sentence. Nor was the zeal of the senate less ardent in the cause of their + new sovereign. They ratified, perhaps with a sincere transport of zeal, + the election of Claudius; and, as his predecessor had shown himself the + personal enemy of their order, they exercised, under the name of justice, + a severe revenge against his friends and family. The senate was permitted + to discharge the ungrateful office of punishment, and the emperor reserved + for himself the pleasure and merit of obtaining by his intercession a + general act of indemnity. <a href="#linknote-11.8" name="linknoteref-11.8" + id="linknoteref-11.8">8</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.7" id="linknote-11.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.7">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 203. + There are some trifling differences concerning the circumstances of the + last defeat and death of Aureolus] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.8" id="linknote-11.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor in + Gallien. The people loudly prayed for the damnation of Gallienus. The + senate decreed that his relations and servants should be thrown down + headlong from the Gemonian stairs. An obnoxious officer of the revenue had + his eyes torn out whilst under examination. Note: The expression is + curious, “terram matrem deosque inferos impias uti Gallieno darent.”—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such ostentatious clemency discovers less of the real character of + Claudius, than a trifling circumstance in which he seems to have consulted + only the dictates of his heart. The frequent rebellions of the provinces + had involved almost every person in the guilt of treason, almost every + estate in the case of confiscation; and Gallienus often displayed his + liberality by distributing among his officers the property of his + subjects. On the accession of Claudius, an old woman threw herself at his + feet, and complained that a general of the late emperor had obtained an + arbitrary grant of her patrimony. This general was Claudius himself, who + had not entirely escaped the contagion of the times. The emperor blushed + at the reproach, but deserved the confidence which she had reposed in his + equity. The confession of his fault was accompanied with immediate and + ample restitution. <a href="#linknote-11.9" name="linknoteref-11.9" + id="linknoteref-11.9">9</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.9" id="linknote-11.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 137.] + </p> + <p> + In the arduous task which Claudius had undertaken, of restoring the empire + to its ancient splendor, it was first necessary to revive among his troops + a sense of order and obedience. With the authority of a veteran commander, + he represented to them that the relaxation of discipline had introduced a + long train of disorders, the effects of which were at length experienced + by the soldiers themselves; that a people ruined by oppression, and + indolent from despair, could no longer supply a numerous army with the + means of luxury, or even of subsistence; that the danger of each + individual had increased with the despotism of the military order, since + princes who tremble on the throne will guard their safety by the instant + sacrifice of every obnoxious subject. The emperor expiated on the + mischiefs of a lawless caprice, which the soldiers could only gratify at + the expense of their own blood; as their seditious elections had so + frequently been followed by civil wars, which consumed the flower of the + legions either in the field of battle, or in the cruel abuse of victory. + He painted in the most lively colors the exhausted state of the treasury, + the desolation of the provinces, the disgrace of the Roman name, and the + insolent triumph of rapacious barbarians. It was against those barbarians, + he declared, that he intended to point the first effort of their arms. + Tetricus might reign for a while over the West, and even Zenobia might + preserve the dominion of the East. <a href="#linknote-11.10" + name="linknoteref-11.10" id="linknoteref-11.10">10</a> These usurpers were + his personal adversaries; nor could he think of indulging any private + resentment till he had saved an empire, whose impending ruin would, unless + it was timely prevented, crush both the army and the people. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.10" id="linknote-11.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras on this + occasion mentions Posthumus but the registers of the senate (Hist. August. + p. 203) prove that Tetricus was already emperor of the western provinces.] + </p> + <p> + The various nations of Germany and Sarmatia, who fought under the Gothic + standard, had already collected an armament more formidable than any which + had yet issued from the Euxine. On the banks of the Niester, one of the + great rivers that discharge themselves into that sea, they constructed a + fleet of two thousand, or even of six thousand vessels; <a + href="#linknote-11.11" name="linknoteref-11.11" id="linknoteref-11.11">11</a> + numbers which, however incredible they may seem, would have been + insufficient to transport their pretended army of three hundred and twenty + thousand barbarians. Whatever might be the real strength of the Goths, the + vigor and success of the expedition were not adequate to the greatness of + the preparations. In their passage through the Bosphorus, the unskilful + pilots were overpowered by the violence of the current; and while the + multitude of their ships were crowded in a narrow channel, many were + dashed against each other, or against the shore. The barbarians made + several descents on the coasts both of Europe and Asia; but the open + country was already plundered, and they were repulsed with shame and loss + from the fortified cities which they assaulted. A spirit of discouragement + and division arose in the fleet, and some of their chiefs sailed away + towards the islands of Crete and Cyprus; but the main body, pursuing a + more steady course, anchored at length near the foot of Mount Athos, and + assaulted the city of Thessalonica, the wealthy capital of all the + Macedonian provinces. Their attacks, in which they displayed a fierce but + artless bravery, were soon interrupted by the rapid approach of Claudius, + hastening to a scene of action that deserved the presence of a warlike + prince at the head of the remaining powers of the empire. Impatient for + battle, the Goths immediately broke up their camp, relinquished the siege + of Thessalonica, left their navy at the foot of Mount Athos, traversed the + hills of Macedonia, and pressed forwards to engage the last defence of + Italy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.11" id="linknote-11.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.11">return</a>)<br/> [ The Augustan History + mentions the smaller, Zonaras the larger number; the lively fancy of + Montesquieu induced him to prefer the latter.] + </p> + <p> + We still posses an original letter addressed by Claudius to the senate and + people on this memorable occasion. “Conscript fathers,” says the emperor, + “know that three hundred and twenty thousand Goths have invaded the Roman + territory. If I vanquish them, your gratitude will reward my services. + Should I fall, remember that I am the successor of Gallienus. The whole + republic is fatigued and exhausted. We shall fight after Valerian, after + Ingenuus, Regillianus, Lollianus, Posthumus, Celsus, and a thousand + others, whom a just contempt for Gallienus provoked into rebellion. We are + in want of darts, of spears, and of shields. The strength of the empire, + Gaul, and Spain, are usurped by Tetricus, and we blush to acknowledge that + the archers of the East serve under the banners of Zenobia. Whatever we + shall perform will be sufficiently great.” <a href="#linknote-11.12" + name="linknoteref-11.12" id="linknoteref-11.12">12</a> The melancholy + firmness of this epistle announces a hero careless of his fate, conscious + of his danger, but still deriving a well-grounded hope from the resources + of his own mind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.12" id="linknote-11.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Trebell. Pollio in + Hist. August. p. 204.] + </p> + <p> + The event surpassed his own expectations and those of the world. By the + most signal victories he delivered the empire from this host of + barbarians, and was distinguished by posterity under the glorious + appellation of the Gothic Claudius. The imperfect historians of an + irregular war <a href="#linknote-11.13" name="linknoteref-11.13" + id="linknoteref-11.13">13</a> do not enable us to describe the order and + circumstances of his exploits; but, if we could be indulged in the + allusion, we might distribute into three acts this memorable tragedy. I. + The decisive battle was fought near Naissus, a city of Dardania. The + legions at first gave way, oppressed by numbers, and dismayed by + misfortunes. Their ruin was inevitable, had not the abilities of their + emperor prepared a seasonable relief. A large detachment, rising out of + the secret and difficult passes of the mountains, which, by his order, + they had occupied, suddenly assailed the rear of the victorious Goths. + </p> + <p> + The favorable instant was improved by the activity of Claudius. He revived + the courage of his troops, restored their ranks, and pressed the + barbarians on every side. Fifty thousand men are reported to have been + slain in the battle of Naissus. Several large bodies of barbarians, + covering their retreat with a movable fortification of wagons, retired, or + rather escaped, from the field of slaughter. + </p> + <p> + II. We may presume that some insurmountable difficulty, the fatigue, + perhaps, or the disobedience, of the conquerors, prevented Claudius from + completing in one day the destruction of the Goths. The war was diffused + over the province of Mæsia, Thrace, and Macedonia, and its operations + drawn out into a variety of marches, surprises, and tumultuary + engagements, as well by sea as by land. When the Romans suffered any loss, + it was commonly occasioned by their own cowardice or rashness; but the + superior talents of the emperor, his perfect knowledge of the country, and + his judicious choice of measures as well as officers, assured on most + occasions the success of his arms. The immense booty, the fruit of so many + victories, consisted for the greater part of cattle and slaves. A select + body of the Gothic youth was received among the Imperial troops; the + remainder was sold into servitude; and so considerable was the number of + female captives that every soldier obtained to his share two or three + women. A circumstance from which we may conclude, that the invaders + entertained some designs of settlement as well as of plunder; since even + in a naval expedition, they were accompanied by their families. + </p> + <p> + III. The loss of their fleet, which was either taken or sunk, had + intercepted the retreat of the Goths. A vast circle of Roman posts, + distributed with skill, supported with firmness, and gradually closing + towards a common centre, forced the barbarians into the most inaccessible + parts of Mount Hæmus, where they found a safe refuge, but a very scanty + subsistence. During the course of a rigorous winter in which they were + besieged by the emperor’s troops, famine and pestilence, desertion and the + sword, continually diminished the imprisoned multitude. On the return of + spring, nothing appeared in arms except a hardy and desperate band, the + remnant of that mighty host which had embarked at the mouth of the + Niester. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.13" id="linknote-11.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. in Claud. + Aurelian. et Prob. Zosimus, l. i. p. 38-42. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 638. + Aurel. Victor in Epitom. Victor Junior in Cæsar. Eutrop. ix ll. Euseb. in + Chron.] + </p> + <p> + The pestilence which swept away such numbers of the barbarians, at length + proved fatal to their conqueror. After a short but glorious reign of two + years, Claudius expired at Sirmium, amidst the tears and acclamations of + his subjects. In his last illness, he convened the principal officers of + the state and army, and in their presence recommended Aurelian, <a + href="#linknote-11.14" name="linknoteref-11.14" id="linknoteref-11.14">14</a> + one of his generals, as the most deserving of the throne, and the best + qualified to execute the great design which he himself had been permitted + only to undertake. The virtues of Claudius, his valor, affability, + justice, and temperance, his love of fame and of his country, place him in + that short list of emperors who added lustre to the Roman purple. Those + virtues, however, were celebrated with peculiar zeal and complacency by + the courtly writers of the age of Constantine, who was the great-grandson + of Crispus, the elder brother of Claudius. The voice of flattery was soon + taught to repeat, that gods, who so hastily had snatched Claudius from the + earth, rewarded his merit and piety by the perpetual establishment of the + empire in his family. <a href="#linknote-11.15" name="linknoteref-11.15" + id="linknoteref-11.15">15</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.14" id="linknote-11.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.14">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Zonaras, + (l. xii. p. 638,) Claudius, before his death, invested him with the + purple; but this singular fact is rather contradicted than confirmed by + other writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.15" id="linknote-11.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.15">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Life of + Claudius by Pollio, and the Orations of Mamertinus, Eumenius, and Julian. + See likewise the Cæsars of Julian p. 318. In Julian it was not adulation, + but superstition and vanity.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding these oracles, the greatness of the Flavian family (a name + which it had pleased them to assume) was deferred above twenty years, and + the elevation of Claudius occasioned the immediate ruin of his brother + Quintilius, who possessed not sufficient moderation or courage to descend + into the private station to which the patriotism of the late emperor had + condemned him. Without delay or reflection, he assumed the purple at + Aquileia, where he commanded a considerable force; and though his reign + lasted only seventeen days, <a href="#linknote-11.151" + name="linknoteref-11.151" id="linknoteref-11.151">151</a> he had time to + obtain the sanction of the senate, and to experience a mutiny of the + troops. + </p> + <p> + As soon as he was informed that the great army of the Danube had invested + the well-known valor of Aurelian with Imperial power, he sunk under the + fame and merit of his rival; and ordering his veins to be opened, + prudently withdrew himself from the unequal contest. <a + href="#linknote-11.16" name="linknoteref-11.16" id="linknoteref-11.16">16</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.151" id="linknote-11.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.151">return</a>)<br/> [ Such is the narrative + of the greater part of the older historians; but the number and the + variety of his medals seem to require more time, and give probability to + the report of Zosimus, who makes him reign some months.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.16" id="linknote-11.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 42. + Pollio (Hist. August. p. 107) allows him virtues, and says, that, like + Pertinax, he was killed by the licentious soldiers. According to Dexippus, + he died of a disease.] + </p> + <p> + The general design of this work will not permit us minutely to relate the + actions of every emperor after he ascended the throne, much less to deduce + the various fortunes of his private life. We shall only observe, that the + father of Aurelian was a peasant of the territory of Sirmium, who occupied + a small farm, the property of Aurelius, a rich senator. His warlike son + enlisted in the troops as a common soldier, successively rose to the rank + of a centurion, a tribune, the præfect of a legion, the inspector of the + camp, the general, or, as it was then called, the duke, of a frontier; and + at length, during the Gothic war, exercised the important office of + commander-in-chief of the cavalry. In every station he distinguished + himself by matchless valor, <a href="#linknote-11.17" + name="linknoteref-11.17" id="linknoteref-11.17">17</a> rigid discipline, and + successful conduct. He was invested with the consulship by the emperor + Valerian, who styles him, in the pompous language of that age, the + deliverer of Illyricum, the restorer of Gaul, and the rival of the + Scipios. At the recommendation of Valerian, a senator of the highest rank + and merit, Ulpius Crinitus, whose blood was derived from the same source + as that of Trajan, adopted the Pannonian peasant, gave him his daughter in + marriage, and relieved with his ample fortune the honorable poverty which + Aurelian had preserved inviolate. <a href="#linknote-11.18" + name="linknoteref-11.18" id="linknoteref-11.18">18</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.17" id="linknote-11.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Theoclius (as quoted in + the Augustan History, p. 211) affirms that in one day he killed with his + own hand forty-eight Sarmatians, and in several subsequent engagements + nine hundred and fifty. This heroic valor was admired by the soldiers, and + celebrated in their rude songs, the burden of which was, mille, mile, + mille, occidit.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.18" id="linknote-11.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Acholius (ap. Hist. + August. p. 213) describes the ceremony of the adoption, as it was + performed at Byzantium, in the presence of the emperor and his great + officers.] + </p> + <p> + The reign of Aurelian lasted only four years and about nine months; but + every instant of that short period was filled by some memorable + achievement. He put an end to the Gothic war, chastised the Germans who + invaded Italy, recovered Gaul, Spain, and Britain out of the hands of + Tetricus, and destroyed the proud monarchy which Zenobia had erected in + the East on the ruins of the afflicted empire. + </p> + <p> + It was the rigid attention of Aurelian, even to the minutest articles of + discipline, which bestowed such uninterrupted success on his arms. His + military regulations are contained in a very concise epistle to one of his + inferior officers, who is commanded to enforce them, as he wishes to + become a tribune, or as he is desirous to live. Gaming, drinking, and the + arts of divination, were severely prohibited. Aurelian expected that his + soldiers should be modest, frugal, and laborious; that their armor should + be constantly kept bright, their weapons sharp, their clothing and horses + ready for immediate service; that they should live in their quarters with + chastity and sobriety, without damaging the cornfields, without stealing + even a sheep, a fowl, or a bunch of grapes, without exacting from their + landlords either salt, or oil, or wood. “The public allowance,” continues + the emperor, “is sufficient for their support; their wealth should be + collected from the spoils of the enemy, not from the tears of the + provincials.” <a href="#linknote-11.19" name="linknoteref-11.19" + id="linknoteref-11.19">19</a> A single instance will serve to display the + rigor, and even cruelty, of Aurelian. One of the soldiers had seduced the + wife of his host. The guilty wretch was fastened to two trees forcibly + drawn towards each other, and his limbs were torn asunder by their sudden + separation. A few such examples impressed a salutary consternation. The + punishments of Aurelian were terrible; but he had seldom occasion to + punish more than once the same offence. His own conduct gave a sanction to + his laws, and the seditious legions dreaded a chief who had learned to + obey, and who was worthy to command. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.19" id="linknote-11.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August, p. 211 + This laconic epistle is truly the work of a soldier; it abounds with + military phrases and words, some of which cannot be understood without + difficulty. Ferramenta samiata is well explained by Salmasius. The former + of the words means all weapons of offence, and is contrasted with Arma, + defensive armor The latter signifies keen and well sharpened.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap11.2"></a> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The death of Claudius had revived the fainting spirit of the Goths. The + troops which guarded the passes of Mount Hæmus, and the banks of the + Danube, had been drawn away by the apprehension of a civil war; and it + seems probable that the remaining body of the Gothic and Vandalic tribes + embraced the favorable opportunity, abandoned their settlements of the + Ukraine, traversed the rivers, and swelled with new multitudes the + destroying host of their countrymen. Their united numbers were at length + encountered by Aurelian, and the bloody and doubtful conflict ended only + with the approach of night. <a href="#linknote-11.20" + name="linknoteref-11.20" id="linknoteref-11.20">20</a> Exhausted by so many + calamities, which they had mutually endured and inflicted during a twenty + years’ war, the Goths and the Romans consented to a lasting and beneficial + treaty. It was earnestly solicited by the barbarians, and cheerfully + ratified by the legions, to whose suffrage the prudence of Aurelian + referred the decision of that important question. The Gothic nation + engaged to supply the armies of Rome with a body of two thousand + auxiliaries, consisting entirely of cavalry, and stipulated in return an + undisturbed retreat, with a regular market as far as the Danube, provided + by the emperor’s care, but at their own expense. The treaty was observed + with such religious fidelity, that when a party of five hundred men + straggled from the camp in quest of plunder, the king or general of the + barbarians commanded that the guilty leader should be apprehended and shot + to death with darts, as a victim devoted to the sanctity of their + engagements. <a href="#linknote-11.201" name="linknoteref-11.201" + id="linknoteref-11.201">201</a> It is, however, not unlikely, that the + precaution of Aurelian, who had exacted as hostages the sons and daughters + of the Gothic chiefs, contributed something to this pacific temper. The + youths he trained in the exercise of arms, and near his own person: to the + damsels he gave a liberal and Roman education, and by bestowing them in + marriage on some of his principal officers, gradually introduced between + the two nations the closest and most endearing connections. <a + href="#linknote-11.21" name="linknoteref-11.21" id="linknoteref-11.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.20" id="linknote-11.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 45.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.201" id="linknote-11.201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.201">return</a>)<br/> [ The five hundred + stragglers were all slain.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.21" id="linknote-11.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Dexipphus (ap. Excerpta + Legat. p. 12) relates the whole transaction under the name of Vandals. + Aurelian married one of the Gothic ladies to his general Bonosus, who was + able to drink with the Goths and discover their secrets. Hist. August. p. + 247.] + </p> + <p> + But the most important condition of peace was understood rather than + expressed in the treaty. Aurelian withdrew the Roman forces from Dacia, + and tacitly relinquished that great province to the Goths and Vandals. <a + href="#linknote-11.22" name="linknoteref-11.22" id="linknoteref-11.22">22</a> + His manly judgment convinced him of the solid advantages, and taught him + to despise the seeming disgrace, of thus contracting the frontiers of the + monarchy. The Dacian subjects, removed from those distant possessions + which they were unable to cultivate or defend, added strength and + populousness to the southern side of the Danube. A fertile territory, + which the repetition of barbarous inroads had changed into a desert, was + yielded to their industry, and a new province of Dacia still preserved the + memory of Trajan’s conquests. The old country of that name detained, + however, a considerable number of its inhabitants, who dreaded exile more + than a Gothic master. <a href="#linknote-11.23" name="linknoteref-11.23" + id="linknoteref-11.23">23</a> These degenerate Romans continued to serve + the empire, whose allegiance they had renounced, by introducing among + their conquerors the first notions of agriculture, the useful arts, and + the conveniences of civilized life. An intercourse of commerce and + language was gradually established between the opposite banks of the + Danube; and after Dacia became an independent state, it often proved the + firmest barrier of the empire against the invasions of the savages of the + North. A sense of interest attached these more settled barbarians to the + alliance of Rome, and a permanent interest very frequently ripens into + sincere and useful friendship. This various colony, which filled the + ancient province, and was insensibly blended into one great people, still + acknowledged the superior renown and authority of the Gothic tribe, and + claimed the fancied honor of a Scandinavian origin. At the same time, the + lucky though accidental resemblance of the name of Getæ, <a + href="#linknote-11.231" name="linknoteref-11.231" id="linknoteref-11.231">231</a> + infused among the credulous Goths a vain persuasion, that in a remote age, + their own ancestors, already seated in the Dacian provinces, had received + the instructions of Zamolxis, and checked the victorious arms of Sesostris + and Darius. <a href="#linknote-11.24" name="linknoteref-11.24" + id="linknoteref-11.24">24</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.22" id="linknote-11.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 222. + Eutrop. ix. 15. Sextus Rufus, c. 9. de Mortibus Persecutorum, c. 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.23" id="linknote-11.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.23">return</a>)<br/> [ The Walachians still + preserve many traces of the Latin language and have boasted, in every age, + of their Roman descent. They are surrounded by, but not mixed with, the + barbarians. See a Memoir of M. d’Anville on ancient Dacia, in the Academy + of Inscriptions, tom. xxx.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.231" id="linknote-11.231"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 231 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.231">return</a>)<br/> [ The connection + between the Getæ and the Goths is still in my opinion incorrectly + maintained by some learned writers—M.] <a name="linknote-11.24" + id="linknote-11.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.24">return</a>)<br/> [See the first chapter of + Jornandes. The Vandals, however, (c. 22,) maintained a short independence + between the Rivers Marisia and Crissia, (Maros and Keres,) which fell into + the Teiss.] + </p> + <p> + While the vigorous and moderate conduct of Aurelian restored the Illyrian + frontier, the nation of the Alemanni <a href="#linknote-11.25" + name="linknoteref-11.25" id="linknoteref-11.25">25</a> violated the + conditions of peace, which either Gallienus had purchased, or Claudius had + imposed, and, inflamed by their impatient youth, suddenly flew to arms. + Forty thousand horse appeared in the field, <a href="#linknote-11.26" + name="linknoteref-11.26" id="linknoteref-11.26">26</a> and the numbers of + the infantry doubled those of the cavalry. <a href="#linknote-11.27" + name="linknoteref-11.27" id="linknoteref-11.27">27</a> The first objects of + their avarice were a few cities of the Rhætian frontier; but their hopes + soon rising with success, the rapid march of the Alemanni traced a line of + devastation from the Danube to the Po. <a href="#linknote-11.28" + name="linknoteref-11.28" id="linknoteref-11.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.25" id="linknote-11.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Dexippus, p. 7—12. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 43. Vopiscus in Aurelian in Hist. August. However these + historians differ in names, (Alemanni Juthungi, and Marcomanni,) it is + evident that they mean the same people, and the same war; but it requires + some care to conciliate and explain them.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.26" id="linknote-11.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Cantoclarus, with his + usual accuracy, chooses to translate three hundred thousand: his version + is equally repugnant to sense and to grammar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.27" id="linknote-11.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.27">return</a>)<br/> [ We may remark, as an + instance of bad taste, that Dexippus applies to the light infantry of the + Alemanni the technical terms proper only to the Grecian phalanx.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.28" id="linknote-11.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.28">return</a>)<br/> [ In Dexippus, we at + present read Rhodanus: M. de Valois very judiciously alters the word to + Eridanus.] + </p> + <p> + The emperor was almost at the same time informed of the irruption, and of + the retreat, of the barbarians. Collecting an active body of troops, he + marched with silence and celerity along the skirts of the Hercynian + forest; and the Alemanni, laden with the spoils of Italy, arrived at the + Danube, without suspecting, that on the opposite bank, and in an + advantageous post, a Roman army lay concealed and prepared to intercept + their return. Aurelian indulged the fatal security of the barbarians, and + permitted about half their forces to pass the river without disturbance + and without precaution. Their situation and astonishment gave him an easy + victory; his skilful conduct improved the advantage. Disposing the legions + in a semicircular form, he advanced the two horns of the crescent across + the Danube, and wheeling them on a sudden towards the centre, enclosed the + rear of the German host. The dismayed barbarians, on whatsoever side they + cast their eyes, beheld, with despair, a wasted country, a deep and rapid + stream, a victorious and implacable enemy. + </p> + <p> + Reduced to this distressed condition, the Alemanni no longer disdained to + sue for peace. Aurelian received their ambassadors at the head of his + camp, and with every circumstance of martial pomp that could display the + greatness and discipline of Rome. The legions stood to their arms in + well-ordered ranks and awful silence. The principal commanders, + distinguished by the ensigns of their rank, appeared on horseback on + either side of the Imperial throne. Behind the throne the consecrated + images of the emperor, and his predecessors, <a href="#linknote-11.29" + name="linknoteref-11.29" id="linknoteref-11.29">29</a> the golden eagles, + and the various titles of the legions, engraved in letters of gold, were + exalted in the air on lofty pikes covered with silver. When Aurelian + assumed his seat, his manly grace and majestic figure <a + href="#linknote-11.30" name="linknoteref-11.30" id="linknoteref-11.30">30</a> + taught the barbarians to revere the person as well as the purple of their + conqueror. The ambassadors fell prostrate on the ground in silence. They + were commanded to rise, and permitted to speak. By the assistance of + interpreters they extenuated their perfidy, magnified their exploits, + expatiated on the vicissitudes of fortune and the advantages of peace, + and, with an ill-timed confidence, demanded a large subsidy, as the price + of the alliance which they offered to the Romans. The answer of the + emperor was stern and imperious. He treated their offer with contempt, and + their demand with indignation, reproached the barbarians, that they were + as ignorant of the arts of war as of the laws of peace, and finally + dismissed them with the choice only of submitting to this unconditional + mercy, or awaiting the utmost severity of his resentment. <a + href="#linknote-11.31" name="linknoteref-11.31" id="linknoteref-11.31">31</a> + Aurelian had resigned a distant province to the Goths; but it was + dangerous to trust or to pardon these perfidious barbarians, whose + formidable power kept Italy itself in perpetual alarms. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.29" id="linknote-11.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.29">return</a>)<br/> [ The emperor Claudius + was certainly of the number; but we are ignorant how far this mark of + respect was extended; if to Cæsar and Augustus, it must have produced a + very awful spectacle; a long line of the masters of the world.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.30" id="linknote-11.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 210.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.31" id="linknote-11.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Dexippus gives them a + subtle and prolix oration, worthy of a Grecian sophist.] + </p> + <p> + Immediately after this conference, it should seem that some unexpected + emergency required the emperor’s presence in Pannonia. + </p> + <p> + He devolved on his lieutenants the care of finishing the destruction of + the Alemanni, either by the sword, or by the surer operation of famine. + But an active despair has often triumphed over the indolent assurance of + success. The barbarians, finding it impossible to traverse the Danube and + the Roman camp, broke through the posts in their rear, which were more + feebly or less carefully guarded; and with incredible diligence, but by a + different road, returned towards the mountains of Italy. <a + href="#linknote-11.32" name="linknoteref-11.32" id="linknoteref-11.32">32</a> + Aurelian, who considered the war as totally extinguished, received the + mortifying intelligence of the escape of the Alemanni, and of the ravage + which they already committed in the territory of Milan. The legions were + commanded to follow, with as much expedition as those heavy bodies were + capable of exerting, the rapid flight of an enemy whose infantry and + cavalry moved with almost equal swiftness. A few days afterwards, the + emperor himself marched to the relief of Italy, at the head of a chosen + body of auxiliaries, (among whom were the hostages and cavalry of the + Vandals,) and of all the Prætorian guards who had served in the wars on + the Danube. <a href="#linknote-11.33" name="linknoteref-11.33" + id="linknoteref-11.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.32" id="linknote-11.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 215.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.33" id="linknote-11.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Dexippus, p. 12.] + </p> + <p> + As the light troops of the Alemanni had spread themselves from the Alps to + the Apennine, the incessant vigilance of Aurelian and his officers was + exercised in the discovery, the attack, and the pursuit of the numerous + detachments. Notwithstanding this desultory war, three considerable + battles are mentioned, in which the principal force of both armies was + obstinately engaged. <a href="#linknote-11.34" name="linknoteref-11.34" + id="linknoteref-11.34">34</a> The success was various. In the first, fought + near Placentia, the Romans received so severe a blow, that, according to + the expression of a writer extremely partial to Aurelian, the immediate + dissolution of the empire was apprehended. <a href="#linknote-11.35" + name="linknoteref-11.35" id="linknoteref-11.35">35</a> The crafty + barbarians, who had lined the woods, suddenly attacked the legions in the + dusk of the evening, and, it is most probable, after the fatigue and + disorder of a long march. + </p> + <p> + The fury of their charge was irresistible; but, at length, after a + dreadful slaughter, the patient firmness of the emperor rallied his + troops, and restored, in some degree, the honor of his arms. The second + battle was fought near Fano in Umbria; on the spot which, five hundred + years before, had been fatal to the brother of Hannibal. <a + href="#linknote-11.36" name="linknoteref-11.36" id="linknoteref-11.36">36</a> + Thus far the successful Germans had advanced along the Æmilian and + Flaminian way, with a design of sacking the defenceless mistress of the + world. But Aurelian, who, watchful for the safety of Rome, still hung on + their rear, found in this place the decisive moment of giving them a total + and irretrievable defeat. <a href="#linknote-11.37" name="linknoteref-11.37" + id="linknoteref-11.37">37</a> The flying remnant of their host was + exterminated in a third and last battle near Pavia; and Italy was + delivered from the inroads of the Alemanni. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.34" id="linknote-11.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor Junior in + Aurelian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.35" id="linknote-11.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 216.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.36" id="linknote-11.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.36">return</a>)<br/> [ The little river, or + rather torrent, of, Metaurus, near Fano, has been immortalized, by finding + such an historian as Livy, and such a poet as Horace.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.37" id="linknote-11.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.37">return</a>)<br/> [ It is recorded by an + inscription found at Pesaro. See Gruter cclxxvi. 3.] + </p> + <p> + Fear has been the original parent of superstition, and every new calamity + urges trembling mortals to deprecate the wrath of their invisible enemies. + Though the best hope of the republic was in the valor and conduct of + Aurelian, yet such was the public consternation, when the barbarians were + hourly expected at the gates of Rome, that, by a decree of the senate the + Sibylline books were consulted. Even the emperor himself, from a motive + either of religion or of policy, recommended this salutary measure, chided + the tardiness of the senate, <a href="#linknote-11.38" + name="linknoteref-11.38" id="linknoteref-11.38">38</a> and offered to supply + whatever expense, whatever animals, whatever captives of any nation, the + gods should require. Notwithstanding this liberal offer, it does not + appear, that any human victims expiated with their blood the sins of the + Roman people. The Sibylline books enjoined ceremonies of a more harmless + nature, processions of priests in white robes, attended by a chorus of + youths and virgins; lustrations of the city and adjacent country; and + sacrifices, whose powerful influence disabled the barbarians from passing + the mystic ground on which they had been celebrated. However puerile in + themselves, these superstitious arts were subservient to the success of + the war; and if, in the decisive battle of Fano, the Alemanni fancied they + saw an army of spectres combating on the side of Aurelian, he received a + real and effectual aid from this imaginary reënforcement. <a + href="#linknote-11.39" name="linknoteref-11.39" id="linknoteref-11.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.38" id="linknote-11.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.38">return</a>)<br/> [ One should imagine, he + said, that you were assembled in a Christian church, not in the temple of + all the gods.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.39" id="linknote-11.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus, in Hist. + August. p. 215, 216, gives a long account of these ceremonies from the + Registers of the senate.] + </p> + <p> + But whatever confidence might be placed in ideal ramparts, the experience + of the past, and the dread of the future, induced the Romans to construct + fortifications of a grosser and more substantial kind. The seven hills of + Rome had been surrounded by the successors of Romulus with an ancient + wall of more than thirteen miles. <a href="#linknote-11.40" + name="linknoteref-11.40" id="linknoteref-11.40">40</a> The vast enclosure + may seem disproportioned to the strength and numbers of the infant-state. + But it was necessary to secure an ample extent of pasture and arable land + against the frequent and sudden incursions of the tribes of Latium, the + perpetual enemies of the republic. With the progress of Roman greatness, + the city and its inhabitants gradually increased, filled up the vacant + space, pierced through the useless walls, covered the field of Mars, and, + on every side, followed the public highways in long and beautiful suburbs. + <a href="#linknote-11.41" name="linknoteref-11.41" id="linknoteref-11.41">41</a> + The extent of the new walls, erected by Aurelian, and finished in the + reign of Probus, was magnified by popular estimation to near fifty, <a + href="#linknote-11.42" name="linknoteref-11.42" id="linknoteref-11.42">42</a> + but is reduced by accurate measurement to about twenty-one miles. <a + href="#linknote-11.43" name="linknoteref-11.43" id="linknoteref-11.43">43</a> + It was a great but a melancholy labor, since the defence of the capital + betrayed the decline of monarchy. The Romans of a more prosperous age, + who trusted to the arms of the legions the safety of the frontier camps, + <a href="#linknote-11.44" name="linknoteref-11.44" id="linknoteref-11.44">44</a> + were very far from entertaining a suspicion that it would ever become + necessary to fortify the seat of empire against the inroads of the + barbarians. <a href="#linknote-11.45" name="linknoteref-11.45" + id="linknoteref-11.45">45</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.40" id="linknote-11.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. iii. + 5. To confirm our idea, we may observe, that for a long time Mount Cælius + was a grove of oaks, and Mount Viminal was overrun with osiers; that, in + the fourth century, the Aventine was a vacant and solitary retirement; + that, till the time of Augustus, the Esquiline was an unwholesome + burying-ground; and that the numerous inequalities, remarked by the + ancients in the Quirinal, sufficiently prove that it was not covered with + buildings. Of the seven hills, the Capitoline and Palatine only, with the + adjacent valleys, were the primitive habitations of the Roman people. But + this subject would require a dissertation.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.41" id="linknote-11.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Exspatiantia tecta + multas addidere urbes, is the expression of Pliny.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.42" id="linknote-11.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 222. + Both Lipsius and Isaac Vossius have eagerly embraced this measure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.43" id="linknote-11.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.43">return</a>)<br/> [ See Nardini, Roman + Antica, l. i. c. 8. * Note: But compare Gibbon, ch. xli. note 77.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.44" id="linknote-11.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Hist. iv. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.45" id="linknote-11.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.45">return</a>)<br/> [ For Aurelian’s walls, + see Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 216, 222. Zosimus, l. i. p. 43. + Eutropius, ix. 15. Aurel. Victor in Aurelian Victor Junior in Aurelian. + Euseb. Hieronym. et Idatius in Chronic] + </p> + <p> + The victory of Claudius over the Goths, and the success of Aurelian + against the Alemanni, had already restored to the arms of Rome their + ancient superiority over the barbarous nations of the North. To chastise + domestic tyrants, and to reunite the dismembered parts of the empire, was + a task reserved for the second of those warlike emperors. Though he was + acknowledged by the senate and people, the frontiers of Italy, Africa, + Illyricum, and Thrace, confined the limits of his reign. Gaul, Spain, and + Britain, Egypt, Syria, and Asia Minor, were still possessed by two rebels, + who alone, out of so numerous a list, had hitherto escaped the dangers of + their situation; and to complete the ignominy of Rome, these rival thrones + had been usurped by women. + </p> + <p> + A rapid succession of monarchs had arisen and fallen in the provinces of + Gaul. The rigid virtues of Posthumus served only to hasten his + destruction. After suppressing a competitor, who had assumed the purple at + Mentz, he refused to gratify his troops with the plunder of the rebellious + city; and in the seventh year of his reign, became the victim of their + disappointed avarice. <a href="#linknote-11.46" name="linknoteref-11.46" + id="linknoteref-11.46">46</a> The death of Victorinus, his friend and + associate, was occasioned by a less worthy cause. The shining + accomplishments <a href="#linknote-11.47" name="linknoteref-11.47" + id="linknoteref-11.47">47</a> of that prince were stained by a licentious + passion, which he indulged in acts of violence, with too little regard to + the laws of society, or even to those of love. <a href="#linknote-11.48" + name="linknoteref-11.48" id="linknoteref-11.48">48</a> He was slain at + Cologne, by a conspiracy of jealous husbands, whose revenge would have + appeared more justifiable, had they spared the innocence of his son. After + the murder of so many valiant princes, it is somewhat remarkable, that a + female for a long time controlled the fierce legions of Gaul, and still + more singular, that she was the mother of the unfortunate Victorinus. The + arts and treasures of Victoria enabled her successively to place Marius + and Tetricus on the throne, and to reign with a manly vigor under the name + of those dependent emperors. Money of copper, of silver, and of gold, was + coined in her name; she assumed the titles of Augusta and Mother of the + Camps: her power ended only with her life; but her life was perhaps + shortened by the ingratitude of Tetricus. <a href="#linknote-11.49" + name="linknoteref-11.49" id="linknoteref-11.49">49</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.46" id="linknote-11.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.46">return</a>)<br/> [ His competitor was + Lollianus, or Ælianus, if, indeed, these names mean the same person. See + Tillemont, tom. iii. p. 1177. Note: The medals which bear the name of + Lollianus are considered forgeries except one in the museum of the Prince + of Waldeck there are many extent bearing the name of Lælianus, which + appears to have been that of the competitor of Posthumus. Eckhel. Doct. + Num. t. vi. 149—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.47" id="linknote-11.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.47">return</a>)<br/> [ The character of this + prince by Julius Aterianus (ap. Hist. August. p. 187) is worth + transcribing, as it seems fair and impartial Victorino qui Post Junium + Posthumium Gallias rexit neminem existemo præferendum; non in virtute + Trajanum; non Antoninum in clementia; non in gravitate Nervam; non in + gubernando ærario Vespasianum; non in Censura totius vitæ ac severitate + militari Pertinacem vel Severum. Sed omnia hæc libido et cupiditas + voluptatis mulierriæ sic perdidit, ut nemo audeat virtutes ejus in + literas mittere quem constat omnium judicio meruisse puniri.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.48" id="linknote-11.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.48">return</a>)<br/> [ He ravished the wife of + Attitianus, an actuary, or army agent, Hist. August. p. 186. Aurel. Victor + in Aurelian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.49" id="linknote-11.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Pollio assigns her an + article among the thirty tyrants. Hist. August. p. 200.] + </p> + <p> + When, at the instigation of his ambitious patroness, Tetricus assumed the + ensigns of royalty, he was governor of the peaceful province of Aquitaine, + an employment suited to his character and education. He reigned four or + five years over Gaul, Spain, and Britain, the slave and sovereign of a + licentious army, whom he dreaded, and by whom he was despised. The valor + and fortune of Aurelian at length opened the prospect of a deliverance. He + ventured to disclose his melancholy situation, and conjured the emperor to + hasten to the relief of his unhappy rival. Had this secret correspondence + reached the ears of the soldiers, it would most probably have cost + Tetricus his life; nor could he resign the sceptre of the West without + committing an act of treason against himself. He affected the appearances + of a civil war, led his forces into the field, against Aurelian, posted + them in the most disadvantageous manner, betrayed his own counsels to his + enemy, and with a few chosen friends deserted in the beginning of the + action. The rebel legions, though disordered and dismayed by the + unexpected treachery of their chief, defended themselves with desperate + valor, till they were cut in pieces almost to a man, in this bloody and + memorable battle, which was fought near Chalons in Champagne. <a + href="#linknote-11.50" name="linknoteref-11.50" id="linknoteref-11.50">50</a> + The retreat of the irregular auxiliaries, Franks and Batavians, <a + href="#linknote-11.51" name="linknoteref-11.51" id="linknoteref-11.51">51</a> + whom the conqueror soon compelled or persuaded to repass the Rhine, + restored the general tranquillity, and the power of Aurelian was + acknowledged from the wall of Antoninus to the columns of Hercules. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.50" id="linknote-11.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Pollio in Hist. August. + p. 196. Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 220. The two Victors, in the lives of + Gallienus and Aurelian. Eutrop. ix. 13. Euseb. in Chron. Of all these + writers, only the two last (but with strong probability) place the fall of + Tetricus before that of Zenobia. M. de Boze (in the Academy of + Inscriptions, tom. xxx.) does not wish, and Tillemont (tom. iii. p. 1189) + does not dare to follow them. I have been fairer than the one, and bolder + than the other.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.51" id="linknote-11.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Victor Junior in + Aurelian. Eumenius mentions Batavicœ; some critics, without any reason, + would fain alter the word to Bagandicœ.] As early as the reign of + Claudius, the city of Autun, alone and unassisted, had ventured to declare + against the legions of Gaul. After a siege of seven months, they stormed + and plundered that unfortunate city, already wasted by famine. <a + href="#linknote-11.52" name="linknoteref-11.52" id="linknoteref-11.52">52</a> + Lyons, on the contrary, had resisted with obstinate disaffection the arms + of Aurelian. We read of the punishment of Lyons, <a href="#linknote-11.53" + name="linknoteref-11.53" id="linknoteref-11.53">53</a> but there is not any + mention of the rewards of Autun. Such, indeed, is the policy of civil war: + severely to remember injuries, and to forget the most important services. + Revenge is profitable, gratitude is expensive. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.52" id="linknote-11.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Eumen. in Vet. Panegyr. + iv. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.53" id="linknote-11.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.53">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 246. Autun was not restored till the reign of Diocletian. See + Eumenius de restaurandis scholis.] + </p> + <p> + Aurelian had no sooner secured the person and provinces of Tetricus, than + he turned his arms against Zenobia, the celebrated queen of Palmyra and + the East. Modern Europe has produced several illustrious women who have + sustained with glory the weight of empire; nor is our own age destitute of + such distinguished characters. But if we except the doubtful achievements + of Semiramis, Zenobia is perhaps the only female whose superior genius + broke through the servile indolence imposed on her sex by the climate and + manners of Asia. <a href="#linknote-11.54" name="linknoteref-11.54" + id="linknoteref-11.54">54</a> She claimed her descent from the Macedonian + kings of Egypt, <a href="#linknote-11.541" name="linknoteref-11.541" + id="linknoteref-11.541">541</a> equalled in beauty her ancestor Cleopatra, + and far surpassed that princess in chastity <a href="#linknote-11.55" + name="linknoteref-11.55" id="linknoteref-11.55">55</a> and valor. Zenobia + was esteemed the most lovely as well as the most heroic of her sex. She + was of a dark complexion (for in speaking of a lady these trifles become + important). Her teeth were of a pearly whiteness, and her large black eyes + sparkled with uncommon fire, tempered by the most attractive sweetness. + Her voice was strong and harmonious. Her manly understanding was + strengthened and adorned by study. She was not ignorant of the Latin + tongue, but possessed in equal perfection the Greek, the Syriac, and the + Egyptian languages. She had drawn up for her own use an epitome of + oriental history, and familiarly compared the beauties of Homer and Plato + under the tuition of the sublime Longinus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.54" id="linknote-11.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.54">return</a>)<br/> [ Almost everything that + is said of the manners of Odenathus and Zenobia is taken from their lives + in the Augustan History, by Trebeljus Pollio; see p. 192, 198.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.541" id="linknote-11.541"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 541 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.541">return</a>)<br/> [ According to some + Christian writers, Zenobia was a Jewess. (Jost Geschichte der Israel. iv. + 16. Hist. of Jews, iii. 175.)—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.55" id="linknote-11.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.55">return</a>)<br/> [ She never admitted her + husband’s embraces but for the sake of posterity. If her hopes were + baffled, in the ensuing month she reiterated the experiment.] + </p> + <p> + This accomplished woman gave her hand to Odenathus, <a + href="#linknote-11.551" name="linknoteref-11.551" id="linknoteref-11.551">551</a> + who, from a private station, raised himself to the dominion of the East. + She soon became the friend and companion of a hero. In the intervals of + war, Odenathus passionately delighted in the exercise of hunting; he + pursued with ardor the wild beasts of the desert, lions, panthers, and + bears; and the ardor of Zenobia in that dangerous amusement was not + inferior to his own. She had inured her constitution to fatigue, disdained + the use of a covered carriage, generally appeared on horseback in a + military habit, and sometimes marched several miles on foot at the head of + the troops. The success of Odenathus was in a great measure ascribed to + her incomparable prudence and fortitude. Their splendid victories over the + Great King, whom they twice pursued as far as the gates of Ctesiphon, laid + the foundations of their united fame and power. The armies which they + commanded, and the provinces which they had saved, acknowledged not any + other sovereigns than their invincible chiefs. The senate and people of + Rome revered a stranger who had avenged their captive emperor, and even + the insensible son of Valerian accepted Odenathus for his legitimate + colleague. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.551" id="linknote-11.551"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 551 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.551">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Zosimus, + Odenathus was of a noble family in Palmyra and according to Procopius, he + was prince of the Saracens, who inhabit the ranks of the Euphrates. + Echhel. Doct. Num. vii. 489.—G.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap11.3"></a> + Chapter XI: Reign Of Claudius, Defeat Of The Goths.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + After a successful expedition against the Gothic plunderers of Asia, the + Palmyrenian prince returned to the city of Emesa in Syria. Invincible in + war, he was there cut off by domestic treason, and his favorite amusement + of hunting was the cause, or at least the occasion, of his death. <a + href="#linknote-11.56" name="linknoteref-11.56" id="linknoteref-11.56">56</a> + His nephew Mæonius presumed to dart his javelin before that of his uncle; + and though admonished of his error, repeated the same insolence. As a + monarch, and as a sportsman, Odenathus was provoked, took away his horse, + a mark of ignominy among the barbarians, and chastised the rash youth by a + short confinement. The offence was soon forgot, but the punishment was + remembered; and Mæonius, with a few daring associates, assassinated his + uncle in the midst of a great entertainment. Herod, the son of Odenathus, + though not of Zenobia, a young man of a soft and effeminate temper, <a + href="#linknote-11.57" name="linknoteref-11.57" id="linknoteref-11.57">57</a> + was killed with his father. But Mæonius obtained only the pleasure of + revenge by this bloody deed. He had scarcely time to assume the title of + Augustus, before he was sacrificed by Zenobia to the memory of her + husband. <a href="#linknote-11.58" name="linknoteref-11.58" + id="linknoteref-11.58">58</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.56" id="linknote-11.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 192, + 193. Zosimus, l. i. p. 36. Zonaras, l. xii p. 633. The last is clear and + probable, the others confused and inconsistent. The text of Syncellus, if + not corrupt, is absolute nonsense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.57" id="linknote-11.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Odenathus and Zenobia + often sent him, from the spoils of the enemy, presents of gems and toys, + which he received with infinite delight.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.58" id="linknote-11.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Some very unjust + suspicions have been cast on Zenobia, as if she was accessory to her + husband’s death.] + </p> + <p> + With the assistance of his most faithful friends, she immediately filled + the vacant throne, and governed with manly counsels Palmyra, Syria, and + the East, above five years. By the death of Odenathus, that authority was + at an end which the senate had granted him only as a personal distinction; + but his martial widow, disdaining both the senate and Gallienus, obliged + one of the Roman generals, who was sent against her, to retreat into + Europe, with the loss of his army and his reputation. <a + href="#linknote-11.59" name="linknoteref-11.59" id="linknoteref-11.59">59</a> + Instead of the little passions which so frequently perplex a female reign, + the steady administration of Zenobia was guided by the most judicious + maxims of policy. If it was expedient to pardon, she could calm her + resentment; if it was necessary to punish, she could impose silence on the + voice of pity. Her strict economy was accused of avarice; yet on every + proper occasion she appeared magnificent and liberal. The neighboring + states of Arabia, Armenia, and Persia, dreaded her enmity, and solicited + her alliance. To the dominions of Odenathus, which extended from the + Euphrates to the frontiers of Bithynia, his widow added the inheritance of + her ancestors, the populous and fertile kingdom of Egypt. <a + href="#linknote-11.60" name="linknoteref-11.60" id="linknoteref-11.60">60</a> + The emperor Claudius acknowledged her merit, and was content, that, while + <i>he</i> pursued the Gothic war, <i>she</i> should assert the dignity of the empire in + the East. The conduct, however, of Zenobia was attended with some + ambiguity; not is it unlikely that she had conceived the design of + erecting an independent and hostile monarchy. She blended with the popular + manners of Roman princes the stately pomp of the courts of Asia, and + exacted from her subjects the same adoration that was paid to the + successor of Cyrus. She bestowed on her three sons <a href="#linknote-11.61" + name="linknoteref-11.61" id="linknoteref-11.61">61</a> a Latin education, + and often showed them to the troops adorned with the Imperial purple. For + herself she reserved the diadem, with the splendid but doubtful title of + Queen of the East. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.59" id="linknote-11.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 180, + 181.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.60" id="linknote-11.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.60">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in Hist. August. + p. 198, Aurelian’s testimony to her merit; and for the conquest of Egypt, + Zosimus, l. i. p. 39, 40.] This seems very doubtful. Claudius, during all + his reign, is represented as emperor on the medals of Alexandria, which + are very numerous. If Zenobia possessed any power in Egypt, it could only + have been at the beginning of the reign of Aurelian. The same circumstance + throws great improbability on her conquests in Galatia. Perhaps Zenobia + administered Egypt in the name of Claudius, and emboldened by the death of + that prince, subjected it to her own power.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.61" id="linknote-11.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Timolaus, Herennianus, + and Vaballathus. It is supposed that the two former were already dead + before the war. On the last, Aurelian bestowed a small province of + Armenia, with the title of King; several of his medals are still extant. + See Tillemont, tom. 3, p. 1190.] + </p> + <p> + When Aurelian passed over into Asia, against an adversary whose sex alone + could render her an object of contempt, his presence restored obedience to + the province of Bithynia, already shaken by the arms and intrigues of + Zenobia. <a href="#linknote-11.62" name="linknoteref-11.62" + id="linknoteref-11.62">62</a> Advancing at the head of his legions, he + accepted the submission of Ancyra, and was admitted into Tyana, after an + obstinate siege, by the help of a perfidious citizen. The generous though + fierce temper of Aurelian abandoned the traitor to the rage of the + soldiers; a superstitious reverence induced him to treat with lenity the + countrymen of Apollonius the philosopher. <a href="#linknote-11.63" + name="linknoteref-11.63" id="linknoteref-11.63">63</a> Antioch was deserted + on his approach, till the emperor, by his salutary edicts, recalled the + fugitives, and granted a general pardon to all who, from necessity rather + than choice, had been engaged in the service of the Palmyrenian Queen. The + unexpected mildness of such a conduct reconciled the minds of the Syrians, + and as far as the gates of Emesa, the wishes of the people seconded the + terror of his arms. <a href="#linknote-11.64" name="linknoteref-11.64" + id="linknoteref-11.64">64</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.62" id="linknote-11.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.63" id="linknote-11.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus (in Hist. + August. p. 217) gives us an authentic letter and a doubtful vision, of + Aurelian. Apollonius of Tyana was born about the same time as Jesus + Christ. His life (that of the former) is related in so fabulous a manner + by his disciples, that we are at a loss to discover whether he was a sage, + an impostor, or a fanatic.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.64" id="linknote-11.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 46.] + </p> + <p> + Zenobia would have ill deserved her reputation, had she indolently + permitted the emperor of the West to approach within a hundred miles of + her capital. The fate of the East was decided in two great battles; so + similar in almost every circumstance, that we can scarcely distinguish + them from each other, except by observing that the first was fought near + Antioch, <a href="#linknote-11.65" name="linknoteref-11.65" + id="linknoteref-11.65">65</a> and the second near Emesa. <a + href="#linknote-11.66" name="linknoteref-11.66" id="linknoteref-11.66">66</a> + In both the queen of Palmyra animated the armies by her presence, and + devolved the execution of her orders on Zabdas, who had already signalized + his military talents by the conquest of Egypt. The numerous forces of + Zenobia consisted for the most part of light archers, and of heavy cavalry + clothed in complete steel. The Moorish and Illyrian horse of Aurelian were + unable to sustain the ponderous charge of their antagonists. They fled in + real or affected disorder, engaged the Palmyrenians in a laborious + pursuit, harassed them by a desultory combat, and at length discomfited + this impenetrable but unwieldy body of cavalry. The light infantry, in the + mean time, when they had exhausted their quivers, remaining without + protection against a closer onset, exposed their naked sides to the swords + of the legions. Aurelian had chosen these veteran troops, who were usually + stationed on the Upper Danube, and whose valor had been severely tried in + the Alemannic war. <a href="#linknote-11.67" name="linknoteref-11.67" + id="linknoteref-11.67">67</a> After the defeat of Emesa, Zenobia found it + impossible to collect a third army. As far as the frontier of Egypt, the + nations subject to her empire had joined the standard of the conqueror, + who detached Probus, the bravest of his generals, to possess himself of + the Egyptian provinces. Palmyra was the last resource of the widow of + Odenathus. She retired within the walls of her capital, made every + preparation for a vigorous resistance, and declared, with the intrepidity + of a heroine, that the last moment of her reign and of her life should be + the same. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.65" id="linknote-11.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.65">return</a>)<br/> [ At a place called + Immæ. Eutropius, Sextus Rufus, and Jerome, mention only this first + battle.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.66" id="linknote-11.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus (in Hist. + August. p. 217) mentions only the second.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.67" id="linknote-11.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 44—48. + His account of the two battles is clear and circumstantial.] + </p> + <p> + Amid the barren deserts of Arabia, a few cultivated spots rise like + islands out of the sandy ocean. Even the name of Tadmor, or Palmyra, by + its signification in the Syriac as well as in the Latin language, denoted + the multitude of palm-trees which afforded shade and verdure to that + temperate region. The air was pure, and the soil, watered by some + invaluable springs, was capable of producing fruits as well as corn. A + place possessed of such singular advantages, and situated at a convenient + distance <a href="#linknote-11.68" name="linknoteref-11.68" + id="linknoteref-11.68">68</a> between the Gulf of Persia and the + Mediterranean, was soon frequented by the caravans which conveyed to the + nations of Europe a considerable part of the rich commodities of India. + Palmyra insensibly increased into an opulent and independent city, and + connecting the Roman and the Parthian monarchies by the mutual benefits of + commerce, was suffered to observe an humble neutrality, till at length, + after the victories of Trajan, the little republic sunk into the bosom of + Rome, and flourished more than one hundred and fifty years in the + subordinate though honorable rank of a colony. It was during that peaceful + period, if we may judge from a few remaining inscriptions, that the + wealthy Palmyrenians constructed those temples, palaces, and porticos of + Grecian architecture, whose ruins, scattered over an extent of several + miles, have deserved the curiosity of our travellers. The elevation of + Odenathus and Zenobia appeared to reflect new splendor on their country, + and Palmyra, for a while, stood forth the rival of Rome: but the + competition was fatal, and ages of prosperity were sacrificed to a moment + of glory. <a href="#linknote-11.69" name="linknoteref-11.69" + id="linknoteref-11.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.68" id="linknote-11.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.68">return</a>)<br/> [ It was five hundred and + thirty-seven miles from Seleucia, and two hundred and three from the + nearest coast of Syria, according to the reckoning of Pliny, who, in a few + words, (Hist. Natur. v. 21,) gives an excellent description of Palmyra. * + Note: Talmor, or Palmyra, was probably at a very early period the + connecting link between the commerce of Tyre and Babylon. Heeren, Ideen, + v. i. p. ii. p. 125. Tadmor was probably built by Solomon as a commercial + station. Hist. of Jews, v. p. 271—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.69" id="linknote-11.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Some English travellers + from Aleppo discovered the ruins of Palmyra about the end of the last + century. Our curiosity has since been gratified in a more splendid manner + by Messieurs Wood and Dawkins. For the history of Palmyra, we may consult + the masterly dissertation of Dr. Halley in the Philosophical Transactions: + Lowthorp’s Abridgment, vol. iii. p. 518.] + </p> + <p> + In his march over the sandy desert between Emesa and Palmyra, the emperor + Aurelian was perpetually harassed by the Arabs; nor could he always defend + his army, and especially his baggage, from those flying troops of active + and daring robbers, who watched the moment of surprise, and eluded the + slow pursuit of the legions. The siege of Palmyra was an object far more + difficult and important, and the emperor, who, with incessant vigor, + pressed the attacks in person, was himself wounded with a dart. “The Roman + people,” says Aurelian, in an original letter, “speak with contempt of the + war which I am waging against a woman. They are ignorant both of the + character and of the power of Zenobia. It is impossible to enumerate her + warlike preparations, of stones, of arrows, and of every species of + missile weapons. Every part of the walls is provided with two or three + <i>balistæ</i> and artificial fires are thrown from her military engines. The + fear of punishment has armed her with a desperate courage. Yet still I + trust in the protecting deities of Rome, who have hitherto been favorable + to all my undertakings.” <a href="#linknote-11.70" name="linknoteref-11.70" + id="linknoteref-11.70">70</a> Doubtful, however, of the protection of the + gods, and of the event of the siege, Aurelian judged it more prudent to + offer terms of an advantageous capitulation; to the queen, a splendid + retreat; to the citizens, their ancient privileges. His proposals were + obstinately rejected, and the refusal was accompanied with insult. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.70" id="linknote-11.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 218.] + </p> + <p> + The firmness of Zenobia was supported by the hope, that in a very short + time famine would compel the Roman army to repass the desert; and by the + reasonable expectation that the kings of the East, and particularly the + Persian monarch, would arm in the defence of their most natural ally. But + fortune, and the perseverance of Aurelian, overcame every obstacle. The + death of Sapor, which happened about this time, <a href="#linknote-11.71" + name="linknoteref-11.71" id="linknoteref-11.71">71</a> distracted the + councils of Persia, and the inconsiderable succors that attempted to + relieve Palmyra were easily intercepted either by the arms or the + liberality of the emperor. From every part of Syria, a regular succession + of convoys safely arrived in the camp, which was increased by the return + of Probus with his victorious troops from the conquest of Egypt. It was + then that Zenobia resolved to fly. She mounted the fleetest of her + dromedaries, <a href="#linknote-11.72" name="linknoteref-11.72" + id="linknoteref-11.72">72</a> and had already reached the banks of the + Euphrates, about sixty miles from Palmyra, when she was overtaken by the + pursuit of Aurelian’s light horse, seized, and brought back a captive to + the feet of the emperor. Her capital soon afterwards surrendered, and was + treated with unexpected lenity. The arms, horses, and camels, with an + immense treasure of gold, silver, silk, and precious stones, were all + delivered to the conqueror, who, leaving only a garrison of six hundred + archers, returned to Emesa, and employed some time in the distribution of + rewards and punishments at the end of so memorable a war, which restored + to the obedience of Rome those provinces that had renounced their + allegiance since the captivity of Valerian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.71" id="linknote-11.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.71">return</a>)<br/> [ From a very doubtful + chronology I have endeavored to extract the most probable date.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.72" id="linknote-11.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.72">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 218. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 50. Though the camel is a heavy beast of burden, the + dromedary, which is either of the same or of a kindred species, is used by + the natives of Asia and Africa on all occasions which require celerity. + The Arabs affirm, that he will run over as much ground in one day as their + fleetest horses can perform in eight or ten. See Buffon, Hist. Naturelle, + tom. xi. p. 222, and Shaw’s Travels p. 167] + </p> + <p> + When the Syrian queen was brought into the presence of Aurelian, he + sternly asked her, How she had presumed to rise in arms against the + emperors of Rome! The answer of Zenobia was a prudent mixture of respect + and firmness. “Because I disdained to consider as Roman emperors an + Aureolus or a Gallienus. You alone I acknowledge as my conqueror and my + sovereign.” <a href="#linknote-11.73" name="linknoteref-11.73" + id="linknoteref-11.73">73</a> But as female fortitude is commonly + artificial, so it is seldom steady or consistent. The courage of Zenobia + deserted her in the hour of trial; she trembled at the angry clamors of + the soldiers, who called aloud for her immediate execution, forgot the + generous despair of Cleopatra, which she had proposed as her model, and + ignominiously purchased life by the sacrifice of her fame and her friends. + It was to their counsels, which governed the weakness of her sex, that she + imputed the guilt of her obstinate resistance; it was on their heads that + she directed the vengeance of the cruel Aurelian. The fame of Longinus, + who was included among the numerous and perhaps innocent victims of her + fear, will survive that of the queen who betrayed, or the tyrant who + condemned him. Genius and learning were incapable of moving a fierce + unlettered soldier, but they had served to elevate and harmonize the soul + of Longinus. Without uttering a complaint, he calmly followed the + executioner, pitying his unhappy mistress, and bestowing comfort on his + afflicted friends. <a href="#linknote-11.74" name="linknoteref-11.74" + id="linknoteref-11.74">74</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.73" id="linknote-11.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Pollio in Hist. August. + p. 199.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.74" id="linknote-11.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 219. Zosimus, l. i. p. 51.] + </p> + <p> + Returning from the conquest of the East, Aurelian had already crossed the + Straits which divided Europe from Asia, when he was provoked by the + intelligence that the Palmyrenians had massacred the governor and garrison + which he had left among them, and again erected the standard of revolt. + Without a moment’s deliberation, he once more turned his face towards + Syria. Antioch was alarmed by his rapid approach, and the helpless city of + Palmyra felt the irresistible weight of his resentment. We have a letter + of Aurelian himself, in which he acknowledges, <a href="#linknote-11.75" + name="linknoteref-11.75" id="linknoteref-11.75">75</a> that old men, women, + children, and peasants, had been involved in that dreadful execution, + which should have been confined to armed rebellion; and although his + principal concern seems directed to the reëstablishment of a temple of the + Sun, he discovers some pity for the remnant of the Palmyrenians, to whom + he grants the permission of rebuilding and inhabiting their city. But it + is easier to destroy than to restore. The seat of commerce, of arts, and + of Zenobia, gradually sunk into an obscure town, a trifling fortress, and + at length a miserable village. The present citizens of Palmyra, consisting + of thirty or forty families, have erected their mud cottages within the + spacious court of a magnificent temple. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.75" id="linknote-11.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 219.] + </p> + <p> + Another and a last labor still awaited the indefatigable Aurelian; to + suppress a dangerous though obscure rebel, who, during the revolt of + Palmyra, had arisen on the banks of the Nile. Firmus, the friend and ally, + as he proudly styled himself, of Odenathus and Zenobia, was no more than a + wealthy merchant of Egypt. In the course of his trade to India, he had + formed very intimate connections with the Saracens and the Blemmyes, whose + situation on either coast of the Red Sea gave them an easy introduction + into the Upper Egypt. The Egyptians he inflamed with the hope of freedom, + and, at the head of their furious multitude, broke into the city of + Alexandria, where he assumed the Imperial purple, coined money, published + edicts, and raised an army, which, as he vainly boasted, he was capable of + maintaining from the sole profits of his paper trade. Such troops were a + feeble defence against the approach of Aurelian; and it seems almost + unnecessary to relate, that Firmus was routed, taken, tortured, and put to + death. <a href="#linknote-11.76" name="linknoteref-11.76" + id="linknoteref-11.76">76</a> Aurelian might now congratulate the senate, + the people, and himself, that in little more than three years, he had + restored universal peace and order to the Roman world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.76" id="linknote-11.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.76">return</a>)<br/> [ See Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 220, 242. As an instance of luxury, it is observed, that he had + glass windows. He was remarkable for his strength and appetite, his + courage and dexterity. From the letter of Aurelian, we may justly infer, + that Firmus was the last of the rebels, and consequently that Tetricus was + already suppressed.] + </p> + <p> + Since the foundation of Rome, no general had more nobly deserved a triumph + than Aurelian; nor was a triumph ever celebrated with superior pride and + magnificence. <a href="#linknote-11.77" name="linknoteref-11.77" + id="linknoteref-11.77">77</a> The pomp was opened by twenty elephants, four + royal tigers, and above two hundred of the most curious animals from every + climate of the North, the East, and the South. They were followed by + sixteen hundred gladiators, devoted to the cruel amusement of the + amphitheatre. The wealth of Asia, the arms and ensigns of so many + conquered nations, and the magnificent plate and wardrobe of the Syrian + queen, were disposed in exact symmetry or artful disorder. The ambassadors + of the most remote parts of the earth, of Æthiopia, Arabia, Persia, + Bactriana, India, and China, all remarkable by their rich or singular + dresses, displayed the fame and power of the Roman emperor, who exposed + likewise to the public view the presents that he had received, and + particularly a great number of crowns of gold, the offerings of grateful + cities. + </p> + <p> + The victories of Aurelian were attested by the long train of captives who + reluctantly attended his triumph, Goths, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alemanni, + Franks, Gauls, Syrians, and Egyptians. Each people was distinguished by + its peculiar inscription, and the title of Amazons was bestowed on ten + martial heroines of the Gothic nation who had been taken in arms. <a + href="#linknote-11.78" name="linknoteref-11.78" id="linknoteref-11.78">78</a> + But every eye, disregarding the crowd of captives, was fixed on the + emperor Tetricus and the queen of the East. The former, as well as his + son, whom he had created Augustus, was dressed in Gallic trousers, <a + href="#linknote-11.79" name="linknoteref-11.79" id="linknoteref-11.79">79</a> + a saffron tunic, and a robe of purple. The beauteous figure of Zenobia was + confined by fetters of gold; a slave supported the gold chain which + encircled her neck, and she almost fainted under the intolerable weight of + jewels. She preceded on foot the magnificent chariot, in which she once + hoped to enter the gates of Rome. It was followed by two other chariots, + still more sumptuous, of Odenathus and of the Persian monarch. The + triumphal car of Aurelian (it had formerly been used by a Gothic king) was + drawn, on this memorable occasion, either by four stags or by four + elephants. <a href="#linknote-11.80" name="linknoteref-11.80" + id="linknoteref-11.80">80</a> The most illustrious of the senate, the + people, and the army, closed the solemn procession. Unfeigned joy, wonder, + and gratitude, swelled the acclamations of the multitude; but the + satisfaction of the senate was clouded by the appearance of Tetricus; nor + could they suppress a rising murmur, that the haughty emperor should thus + expose to public ignominy the person of a Roman and a magistrate. <a + href="#linknote-11.81" name="linknoteref-11.81" id="linknoteref-11.81">81</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.77" id="linknote-11.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.77">return</a>)<br/> [ See the triumph of + Aurelian, described by Vopiscus. He relates the particulars with his usual + minuteness; and, on this occasion, they happen to be interesting. Hist. + August. p. 220.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.78" id="linknote-11.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Among barbarous + nations, women have often combated by the side of their husbands. But it + is almost impossible that a society of Amazons should ever have existed + either in the old or new world. * Note: Klaproth’s theory on the origin of + such traditions is at least recommended by its ingenuity. The males of a + tribe having gone out on a marauding expedition, and having been cut off + to a man, the females may have endeavored, for a time, to maintain their + independence in their camp village, till their children grew up. Travels, + ch. xxx. Eng. Trans—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.79" id="linknote-11.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.79">return</a>)<br/> [ The use of braccœ, + breeches, or trousers, was still considered in Italy as a Gallic and + barbarian fashion. The Romans, however, had made great advances towards + it. To encircle the legs and thighs with fasciœ, or bands, was + understood, in the time of Pompey and Horace, to be a proof of ill health + or effeminacy. In the age of Trajan, the custom was confined to the rich + and luxurious. It gradually was adopted by the meanest of the people. See + a very curious note of Casaubon, ad Sueton. in August. c. 82.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.80" id="linknote-11.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Most probably the + former; the latter seen on the medals of Aurelian, only denote (according + to the learned Cardinal Norris) an oriental victory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.81" id="linknote-11.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.81">return</a>)<br/> [ The expression of + Calphurnius, (Eclog. i. 50) Nullos decet captiva triumphos, as applied to + Rome, contains a very manifest allusion and censure.] + </p> + <p> + But however, in the treatment of his unfortunate rivals, Aurelian might + indulge his pride, he behaved towards them with a generous clemency, which + was seldom exercised by the ancient conquerors. Princes who, without + success, had defended their throne or freedom, were frequently strangled + in prison, as soon as the triumphal pomp ascended the Capitol. These + usurpers, whom their defeat had convicted of the crime of treason, were + permitted to spend their lives in affluence and honorable repose. + </p> + <p> + The emperor presented Zenobia with an elegant villa at Tibur, or Tivoli, + about twenty miles from the capital; the Syrian queen insensibly sunk into + a Roman matron, her daughters married into noble families, and her race + was not yet extinct in the fifth century. <a href="#linknote-11.82" + name="linknoteref-11.82" id="linknoteref-11.82">82</a> Tetricus and his son + were reinstated in their rank and fortunes. They erected on the Cælian + hill a magnificent palace, and as soon as it was finished, invited + Aurelian to supper. On his entrance, he was agreeably surprised with a + picture which represented their singular history. They were delineated + offering to the emperor a civic crown and the sceptre of Gaul, and again + receiving at his hands the ornaments of the senatorial dignity. The father + was afterwards invested with the government of Lucania, <a + href="#linknote-11.83" name="linknoteref-11.83" id="linknoteref-11.83">83</a> + and Aurelian, who soon admitted the abdicated monarch to his friendship + and conversation, familiarly asked him, Whether it were not more desirable + to administer a province of Italy, than to reign beyond the Alps. The son + long continued a respectable member of the senate; nor was there any one + of the Roman nobility more esteemed by Aurelian, as well as by his + successors. <a href="#linknote-11.84" name="linknoteref-11.84" + id="linknoteref-11.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.82" id="linknote-11.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 199. Hieronym. in Chron. Prosper in Chron. Baronius supposes + that Zenobius, bishop of Florence in the time of St. Ambrose, was of her + family.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.83" id="linknote-11.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopisc. in Hist. + August. p. 222. Eutropius, ix. 13. Victor Junior. But Pollio, in Hist. + August. p. 196, says, that Tetricus was made corrector of all Italy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.84" id="linknote-11.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 197.] + </p> + <p> + So long and so various was the pomp of Aurelian’s triumph, that although + it opened with the dawn of day, the slow majesty of the procession + ascended not the Capitol before the ninth hour; and it was already dark + when the emperor returned to the palace. The festival was protracted by + theatrical representations, the games of the circus, the hunting of wild + beasts, combats of gladiators, and naval engagements. Liberal donatives + were distributed to the army and people, and several institutions, + agreeable or beneficial to the city, contributed to perpetuate the glory + of Aurelian. A considerable portion of his oriental spoils was consecrated + to the gods of Rome; the Capitol, and every other temple, glittered with + the offerings of his ostentatious piety; and the temple of the Sun alone + received above fifteen thousand pounds of gold. <a href="#linknote-11.85" + name="linknoteref-11.85" id="linknoteref-11.85">85</a> This last was a + magnificent structure, erected by the emperor on the side of the Quirinal + hill, and dedicated, soon after the triumph, to that deity whom Aurelian + adored as the parent of his life and fortunes. His mother had been an + inferior priestess in a chapel of the Sun; a peculiar devotion to the god + of Light was a sentiment which the fortunate peasant imbibed in his + infancy; and every step of his elevation, every victory of his reign, + fortified superstition by gratitude. <a href="#linknote-11.86" + name="linknoteref-11.86" id="linknoteref-11.86">86</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.85" id="linknote-11.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. 222. Zosimus, l. i. p. 56. He placed in it the images of Belus and + of the Sun, which he had brought from Palmyra. It was dedicated in the + fourth year of his reign, (Euseb in Chron.,) but was most assuredly begun + immediately on his accession.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.86" id="linknote-11.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.86">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in the Augustan + History, p. 210, the omens of his fortune. His devotion to the Sun appears + in his letters, on his medals, and is mentioned in the Cæsars of Julian. + Commentaire de Spanheim, p. 109.] + </p> + <p> + The arms of Aurelian had vanquished the foreign and domestic foes of the + republic. We are assured, that, by his salutary rigor, crimes and + factions, mischievous arts and pernicious connivance, the luxurious growth + of a feeble and oppressive government, were eradicated throughout the + Roman world. <a href="#linknote-11.87" name="linknoteref-11.87" + id="linknoteref-11.87">87</a> But if we attentively reflect how much + swifter is the progress of corruption than its cure, and if we remember + that the years abandoned to public disorders exceeded the months allotted + to the martial reign of Aurelian, we must confess that a few short + intervals of peace were insufficient for the arduous work of reformation. + Even his attempt to restore the integrity of the coin was opposed by a + formidable insurrection. The emperor’s vexation breaks out in one of his + private letters. “Surely,” says he, “the gods have decreed that my life + should be a perpetual warfare. A sedition within the walls has just now + given birth to a very serious civil war. The workmen of the mint, at the + instigation of Felicissimus, a slave to whom I had intrusted an employment + in the finances, have risen in rebellion. They are at length suppressed; + but seven thousand of my soldiers have been slain in the contest, of those + troops whose ordinary station is in Dacia, and the camps along the + Danube.” <a href="#linknote-11.88" name="linknoteref-11.88" + id="linknoteref-11.88">88</a> Other writers, who confirm the same fact, add + likewise, that it happened soon after Aurelian’s triumph; that the + decisive engagement was fought on the Cælian hill; that the workmen of + the mint had adulterated the coin; and that the emperor restored the + public credit, by delivering out good money in exchange for the bad, which + the people was commanded to bring into the treasury. <a + href="#linknote-11.89" name="linknoteref-11.89" id="linknoteref-11.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.87" id="linknote-11.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.87">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 221.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.88" id="linknote-11.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 222. + Aurelian calls these soldiers Hiberi Riporiences Castriani, and Dacisci.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.89" id="linknote-11.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 56. + Eutropius, ix. 14. Aurel Victor.] + </p> + <p> + We might content ourselves with relating this extraordinary transaction, + but we cannot dissemble how much in its present form it appears to us + inconsistent and incredible. The debasement of the coin is indeed well + suited to the administration of Gallienus; nor is it unlikely that the + instruments of the corruption might dread the inflexible justice of + Aurelian. But the guilt, as well as the profit, must have been confined to + a very few; nor is it easy to conceive by what arts they could arm a + people whom they had injured, against a monarch whom they had betrayed. We + might naturally expect that such miscreants should have shared the public + detestation with the informers and the other ministers of oppression; and + that the reformation of the coin should have been an action equally + popular with the destruction of those obsolete accounts, which by the + emperor’s order were burnt in the forum of Trajan. <a href="#linknote-11.90" + name="linknoteref-11.90" id="linknoteref-11.90">90</a> In an age when the + principles of commerce were so imperfectly understood, the most desirable + end might perhaps be effected by harsh and injudicious means; but a + temporary grievance of such a nature can scarcely excite and support a + serious civil war. The repetition of intolerable taxes, imposed either on + the land or on the necessaries of life, may at last provoke those who will + not, or who cannot, relinquish their country. But the case is far + otherwise in every operation which, by whatsoever expedients, restores the + just value of money. The transient evil is soon obliterated by the + permanent benefit, the loss is divided among multitudes; and if a few + wealthy individuals experience a sensible diminution of treasure, with + their riches, they at the same time lose the degree of weight and + importance which they derived from the possession of them. However + Aurelian might choose to disguise the real cause of the insurrection, his + reformation of the coin could furnish only a faint pretence to a party + already powerful and discontented. Rome, though deprived of freedom, was + distracted by faction. The people, towards whom the emperor, himself a + plebeian, always expressed a peculiar fondness, lived in perpetual + dissension with the senate, the equestrian order, and the Prætorian + guards. <a href="#linknote-11.91" name="linknoteref-11.91" + id="linknoteref-11.91">91</a> Nothing less than the firm though secret + conspiracy of those orders, of the authority of the first, the wealth of + the second, and the arms of the third, could have displayed a strength + capable of contending in battle with the veteran legions of the Danube, + which, under the conduct of a martial sovereign, had achieved the conquest + of the West and of the East. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.90" id="linknote-11.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 222. + Aurel Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.91" id="linknote-11.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.91">return</a>)<br/> [ It already raged before + Aurelian’s return from Egypt. See Vipiscus, who quotes an original letter. + Hist. August. p. 244.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever was the cause or the object of this rebellion, imputed with so + little probability to the workmen of the mint, Aurelian used his victory + with unrelenting rigor. <a href="#linknote-11.92" name="linknoteref-11.92" + id="linknoteref-11.92">92</a> He was naturally of a severe disposition. A + peasant and a soldier, his nerves yielded not easily to the impressions of + sympathy, and he could sustain without emotion the sight of tortures and + death. Trained from his earliest youth in the exercise of arms, he set too + small a value on the life of a citizen, chastised by military execution + the slightest offences, and transferred the stern discipline of the camp + into the civil administration of the laws. His love of justice often + became a blind and furious passion; and whenever he deemed his own or the + public safety endangered, he disregarded the rules of evidence, and the + proportion of punishments. The unprovoked rebellion with which the Romans + rewarded his services, exasperated his haughty spirit. The noblest + families of the capital were involved in the guilt or suspicion of this + dark conspiracy. A nasty spirit of revenge urged the bloody prosecution, + and it proved fatal to one of the nephews of the emperor. The + executioners (if we may use the expression of a contemporary poet) were + fatigued, the prisons were crowded, and the unhappy senate lamented the + death or absence of its most illustrious members. <a href="#linknote-11.93" + name="linknoteref-11.93" id="linknoteref-11.93">93</a> Nor was the pride of + Aurelian less offensive to that assembly than his cruelty. Ignorant or + impatient of the restraints of civil institutions, he disdained to hold + his power by any other title than that of the sword, and governed by right + of conquest an empire which he had saved and subdued. <a + href="#linknote-11.94" name="linknoteref-11.94" id="linknoteref-11.94">94</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.92" id="linknote-11.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August p. 222. The two Victors. Eutropius ix. 14. Zosimus (l. i. p. 43) + mentions only three senators, and placed their death before the eastern + war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.93" id="linknote-11.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.93">return</a>)<br/> [ Nulla catenati feralis + pompa senatus Carnificum lassabit opus; nec carcere pleno Infelix raros + numerabit curia Patres. Calphurn. Eclog. i. 60.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.94" id="linknote-11.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.94">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the + younger Victor, he sometimes wore the diadem, Deus and Dominus appear on + his medals.] + </p> + <p> + It was observed by one of the most sagacious of the Roman princes, that + the talents of his predecessor Aurelian were better suited to the command + of an army, than to the government of an empire. <a href="#linknote-11.95" + name="linknoteref-11.95" id="linknoteref-11.95">95</a> Conscious of the + character in which nature and experience had enabled him to excel, he + again took the field a few months after his triumph. It was expedient to + exercise the restless temper of the legions in some foreign war, and the + Persian monarch, exulting in the shame of Valerian, still braved with + impunity the offended majesty of Rome. At the head of an army, less + formidable by its numbers than by its discipline and valor, the emperor + advanced as far as the Straits which divide Europe from Asia. He there + experienced that the most absolute power is a weak defence against the + effects of despair. He had threatened one of his secretaries who was + accused of extortion; and it was known that he seldom threatened in vain. + The last hope which remained for the criminal was to involve some of the + principal officers of the army in his danger, or at least in his fears. + Artfully counterfeiting his master’s hand, he showed them, in a long and + bloody list, their own names devoted to death. Without suspecting or + examining the fraud, they resolved to secure their lives by the murder of + the emperor. On his march, between Byzantium and Heraclea, Aurelian was + suddenly attacked by the conspirators, whose stations gave them a right to + surround his person, and after a short resistance, fell by the hand of + Mucapor, a general whom he had always loved and trusted. He died regretted + by the army, detested by the senate, but universally acknowledged as a + warlike and fortunate prince, the useful, though severe reformer of a + degenerate state. <a href="#linknote-11.96" name="linknoteref-11.96" + id="linknoteref-11.96">96</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.95" id="linknote-11.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.95">return</a>)<br/> [ It was the observation + of Dioclatian. See Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 224.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-11.96" id="linknote-11.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-11.96">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 221. Zosimus, l. i. p. 57. Eutrop ix. 15. The two Victors.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap12.1"></a> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Conduct Of The Army And Senate After The Death Of Aurelian.—Reigns Of +Tacitus, Probus, Carus, And His Sons. +</p> + <p> + Such was the unhappy condition of the Roman emperors, that, whatever might + be their conduct, their fate was commonly the same. A life of pleasure or + virtue, of severity or mildness, of indolence or glory, alike led to an + untimely grave; and almost every reign is closed by the same disgusting + repetition of treason and murder. The death of Aurelian, however, is + remarkable by its extraordinary consequences. The legions admired, + lamented, and revenged their victorious chief. The artifice of his + perfidious secretary was discovered and punished. + </p> + <p> + The deluded conspirators attended the funeral of their injured sovereign, + with sincere or well-feigned contrition, and submitted to the unanimous + resolution of the military order, which was signified by the following + epistle: “The brave and fortunate armies to the senate and people of + Rome.—The crime of one man, and the error of many, have deprived us + of the late emperor Aurelian. May it please you, venerable lords and + fathers! to place him in the number of the gods, and to appoint a + successor whom your judgment shall declare worthy of the Imperial purple! + None of those whose guilt or misfortune have contributed to our loss, + shall ever reign over us.” <a href="#linknote-12.1" name="linknoteref-12.1" + id="linknoteref-12.1">1</a> The Roman senators heard, without surprise, + that another emperor had been assassinated in his camp; they secretly + rejoiced in the fall of Aurelian; but the modest and dutiful address of + the legions, when it was communicated in full assembly by the consul, + diffused the most pleasing astonishment. Such honors as fear and perhaps + esteem could extort, they liberally poured forth on the memory of their + deceased sovereign. Such acknowledgments as gratitude could inspire, they + returned to the faithful armies of the republic, who entertained so just + a sense of the legal authority of the senate in the choice of an emperor. + Yet, notwithstanding this flattering appeal, the most prudent of the + assembly declined exposing their safety and dignity to the caprice of an + armed multitude. The strength of the legions was, indeed, a pledge of + their sincerity, since those who may command are seldom reduced to the + necessity of dissembling; but could it naturally be expected, that a + hasty repentance would correct the inveterate habits of fourscore years? + Should the soldiers relapse into their accustomed seditions, their + insolence might disgrace the majesty of the senate, and prove fatal to + the object of its choice. Motives like these dictated a decree, by which + the election of a new emperor was referred to the suffrage of the + military order. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.1" id="linknote-12.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. August. + p. 222. Aurelius Victor mentions a formal deputation from the troops to + the senate.] + </p> + <p> + The contention that ensued is one of the best attested, but most + improbable events in the history of mankind. <a href="#linknote-12.2" + name="linknoteref-12.2" id="linknoteref-12.2">2</a> The troops, as if + satiated with the exercise of power, again conjured the senate to invest + one of its own body with the Imperial purple. The senate still persisted + in its refusal; the army in its request. The reciprocal offer was pressed + and rejected at least three times, and, whilst the obstinate modesty of + either party was resolved to receive a master from the hands of the other, + eight months insensibly elapsed; an amazing period of tranquil anarchy, + during which the Roman world remained without a sovereign, without a + usurper, and without a sedition. <a href="#linknote-12.201" + name="linknoteref-12.201" id="linknoteref-12.201">201</a> The generals and + magistrates appointed by Aurelian continued to execute their ordinary + functions; and it is observed, that a proconsul of Asia was the only + considerable person removed from his office in the whole course of the + interregnum. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.2" id="linknote-12.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus, our principal + authority, wrote at Rome, sixteen years only after the death of Aurelian; + and, besides the recent notoriety of the facts, constantly draws his + materials from the Journals of the Senate, and the original papers of the + Ulpian library. Zosimus and Zonaras appear as ignorant of this transaction + as they were in general of the Roman constitution.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.201" id="linknote-12.201"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 201 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.201">return</a>)<br/> [ The interregnum could + not be more than seven months; Aurelian was assassinated in the middle of + March, the year of Rome 1028. Tacitus was elected the 25th September in + the same year.—G.] + </p> + <p> + An event somewhat similar, but much less authentic, is supposed to have + happened after the death of Romulus, who, in his life and character, bore + some affinity with Aurelian. The throne was vacant during twelve months, + till the election of a Sabine philosopher, and the public peace was + guarded in the same manner, by the union of the several orders of the + state. But, in the time of Numa and Romulus, the arms of the people were + controlled by the authority of the Patricians; and the balance of freedom + was easily preserved in a small and virtuous community. <a + href="#linknote-12.3" name="linknoteref-12.3" id="linknoteref-12.3">3</a> The + decline of the Roman state, far different from its infancy, was attended + with every circumstance that could banish from an interregnum the prospect + of obedience and harmony: an immense and tumultuous capital, a wide extent + of empire, the servile equality of despotism, an army of four hundred + thousand mercenaries, and the experience of frequent revolutions. Yet, + notwithstanding all these temptations, the discipline and memory of + Aurelian still restrained the seditious temper of the troops, as well as + the fatal ambition of their leaders. The flower of the legions maintained + their stations on the banks of the Bosphorus, and the Imperial standard + awed the less powerful camps of Rome and of the provinces. A generous + though transient enthusiasm seemed to animate the military order; and we + may hope that a few real patriots cultivated the returning friendship of + the army and the senate as the only expedient capable of restoring the + republic to its ancient beauty and vigor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.3" id="linknote-12.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Liv. i. 17 Dionys. + Halicarn. l. ii. p. 115. Plutarch in Numa, p. 60. The first of these + writers relates the story like an orator, the second like a lawyer, and + the third like a moralist, and none of them probably without some + intermixture of fable.] + </p> + <p> + On the twenty-fifth of September, near eight months after the murder of + Aurelian, the consul convoked an assembly of the senate, and reported the + doubtful and dangerous situation of the empire. He slightly insinuated, + that the precarious loyalty of the soldiers depended on the chance of + every hour, and of every accident; but he represented, with the most + convincing eloquence, the various dangers that might attend any further + delay in the choice of an emperor. Intelligence, he said, was already + received, that the Germans had passed the Rhine, and occupied some of the + strongest and most opulent cities of Gaul. The ambition of the Persian + king kept the East in perpetual alarms; Egypt, Africa, and Illyricum, were + exposed to foreign and domestic arms, and the levity of Syria would prefer + even a female sceptre to the sanctity of the Roman laws. The consul, then + addressing himself to Tacitus, the first of the senators, <a + href="#linknote-12.4" name="linknoteref-12.4" id="linknoteref-12.4">4</a> + required his opinion on the important subject of a proper candidate for + the vacant throne. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.4" id="linknote-12.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus (in Hist. August + p. 227) calls him “primæ sententia consularis;” and soon afterwards + Princeps senatus. It is natural to suppose, that the monarchs of Rome, + disdaining that humble title, resigned it to the most ancient of the + senators.] + </p> + <p> + If we can prefer personal merit to accidental greatness, we shall esteem + the birth of Tacitus more truly noble than that of kings. He claimed his + descent from the philosophic historian whose writings will instruct the + last generations of mankind. <a href="#linknote-12.5" name="linknoteref-12.5" + id="linknoteref-12.5">5</a> The senator Tacitus was then seventy-five years + of age. <a href="#linknote-12.6" name="linknoteref-12.6" id="linknoteref-12.6">6</a> + The long period of his innocent life was adorned with wealth and honors. + He had twice been invested with the consular dignity, <a + href="#linknote-12.7" name="linknoteref-12.7" id="linknoteref-12.7">7</a> and + enjoyed with elegance and sobriety his ample patrimony of between two and + three millions sterling. <a href="#linknote-12.8" name="linknoteref-12.8" + id="linknoteref-12.8">8</a> The experience of so many princes, whom he had + esteemed or endured, from the vain follies of Elagabalus to the useful + rigor of Aurelian, taught him to form a just estimate of the duties, the + dangers, and the temptations of their sublime station. From the assiduous + study of his immortal ancestor, he derived the knowledge of the Roman + constitution, and of human nature. <a href="#linknote-12.9" + name="linknoteref-12.9" id="linknoteref-12.9">9</a> The voice of the people + had already named Tacitus as the citizen the most worthy of empire. The + ungrateful rumor reached his ears, and induced him to seek the retirement + of one of his villas in Campania. He had passed two months in the + delightful privacy of Baiæ, when he reluctantly obeyed the summons of the + consul to resume his honorable place in the senate, and to assist the + republic with his counsels on this important occasion. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.5" id="linknote-12.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.5">return</a>)<br/> [ The only objection to + this genealogy is, that the historian was named Cornelius, the emperor, + Claudius. But under the lower empire, surnames were extremely various and + uncertain.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.6" id="linknote-12.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. + The Alexandrian Chronicle, by an obvious mistake, transfers that age to + Aurelian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.7" id="linknote-12.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.7">return</a>)<br/> [ In the year 273, he was + ordinary consul. But he must have been Suffectus many years before, and + most probably under Valerian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.8" id="linknote-12.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Bis millies octingenties. + Vopiscus in Hist. August p. 229. This sum, according to the old standard, + was equivalent to eight hundred and forty thousand Roman pounds of silver, + each of the value of three pounds sterling. But in the age of Tacitus, the + coin had lost much of its weight and purity.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.9" id="linknote-12.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.9">return</a>)<br/> [ After his accession, he + gave orders that ten copies of the historian should be annually + transcribed and placed in the public libraries. The Roman libraries have + long since perished, and the most valuable part of Tacitus was preserved + in a single Ms., and discovered in a monastery of Westphalia. See Bayle, + Dictionnaire, Art. Tacite, and Lipsius ad Annal. ii. 9.] + </p> + <p> + He arose to speak, when from every quarter of the house, he was saluted + with the names of Augustus and emperor. “Tacitus Augustus, the gods + preserve thee! we choose thee for our sovereign; to thy care we intrust + the republic and the world. Accept the empire from the authority of the + senate. It is due to thy rank, to thy conduct, to thy manners.” As soon as + the tumult of acclamations subsided, Tacitus attempted to decline the + dangerous honor, and to express his wonder, that they should elect his age + and infirmities to succeed the martial vigor of Aurelian. “Are these + limbs, conscript fathers! fitted to sustain the weight of armor, or to + practise the exercises of the camp? The variety of climates, and the + hardships of a military life, would soon oppress a feeble constitution, + which subsists only by the most tender management. My exhausted strength + scarcely enables me to discharge the duty of a senator; how insufficient + would it prove to the arduous labors of war and government! Can you hope, + that the legions will respect a weak old man, whose days have been spent + in the shade of peace and retirement? Can you desire that I should ever + find reason to regret the favorable opinion of the senate?” <a + href="#linknote-12.10" name="linknoteref-12.10" id="linknoteref-12.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.10" id="linknote-12.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 227.] + </p> + <p> + The reluctance of Tacitus (and it might possibly be sincere) was + encountered by the affectionate obstinacy of the senate. Five hundred + voices repeated at once, in eloquent confusion, that the greatest of the + Roman princes, Numa, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines, had ascended the + throne in a very advanced season of life; that the mind, not the body, a + sovereign, not a soldier, was the object of their choice; and that they + expected from him no more than to guide by his wisdom the valor of the + legions. These pressing though tumultuary instances were seconded by a + more regular oration of Metius Falconius, the next on the consular bench + to Tacitus himself. He reminded the assembly of the evils which Rome had + endured from the vices of headstrong and capricious youths, congratulated + them on the election of a virtuous and experienced senator, and, with a + manly, though perhaps a selfish, freedom, exhorted Tacitus to remember the + reasons of his elevation, and to seek a successor, not in his own family, + but in the republic. The speech of Falconius was enforced by a general + acclamation. The emperor elect submitted to the authority of his country, + and received the voluntary homage of his equals. The judgment of the + senate was confirmed by the consent of the Roman people and of the + Prætorian guards. <a href="#linknote-12.11" name="linknoteref-12.11" + id="linknoteref-12.11">11</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.11" id="linknote-12.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 228. + Tacitus addressed the Prætorians by the appellation of sanctissimi + milites, and the people by that of sacratissim. Quirites.] + </p> + <p> + The administration of Tacitus was not unworthy of his life and principles. + A grateful servant of the senate, he considered that national council as + the author, and himself as the subject, of the laws. <a + href="#linknote-12.12" name="linknoteref-12.12" id="linknoteref-12.12">12</a> + He studied to heal the wounds which Imperial pride, civil discord, and + military violence, had inflicted on the constitution, and to restore, at + least, the image of the ancient republic, as it had been preserved by the + policy of Augustus, and the virtues of Trajan and the Antonines. It may + not be useless to recapitulate some of the most important prerogatives + which the senate appeared to have regained by the election of Tacitus. <a + href="#linknote-12.13" name="linknoteref-12.13" id="linknoteref-12.13">13</a> + 1. To invest one of their body, under the title of emperor, with the + general command of the armies, and the government of the frontier + provinces. 2. To determine the list, or, as it was then styled, the + College of Consuls. They were twelve in number, who, in successive pairs, + each, during the space of two months, filled the year, and represented the + dignity of that ancient office. The authority of the senate, in the + nomination of the consuls, was exercised with such independent freedom, + that no regard was paid to an irregular request of the emperor in favor of + his brother Florianus. “The senate,” exclaimed Tacitus, with the honest + transport of a patriot, “understand the character of a prince whom they + have chosen.” 3. To appoint the proconsuls and presidents of the + provinces, and to confer on all the magistrates their civil jurisdiction. + 4. To receive appeals through the intermediate office of the præfect of + the city from all the tribunals of the empire. 5. To give force and + validity, by their decrees, to such as they should approve of the + emperor’s edicts. 6. To these several branches of authority we may add + some inspection over the finances, since, even in the stern reign of + Aurelian, it was in their power to divert a part of the revenue from the + public service. <a href="#linknote-12.14" name="linknoteref-12.14" + id="linknoteref-12.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.12" id="linknote-12.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.12">return</a>)<br/> [ In his manumissions he + never exceeded the number of a hundred, as limited by the Caninian law, + which was enacted under Augustus, and at length repealed by Justinian. See + Casaubon ad locum Vopisci.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.13" id="linknote-12.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.13">return</a>)<br/> [ See the lives of + Tacitus, Florianus, and Probus, in the Augustan History; we may be well + assured, that whatever the soldier gave the senator had already given.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.14" id="linknote-12.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 216. The passage is perfectly clear, both Casaubon and + Salmasius wish to correct it.] + </p> + <p> + Circular epistles were sent, without delay, to all the principal cities of + the empire, Treves, Milan, Aquileia, Thessalonica, Corinth, Athens, + Antioch, Alexandria, and Carthage, to claim their obedience, and to inform + them of the happy revolution, which had restored the Roman senate to its + ancient dignity. Two of these epistles are still extant. We likewise + possess two very singular fragments of the private correspondence of the + senators on this occasion. They discover the most excessive joy, and the + most unbounded hopes. “Cast away your indolence,” it is thus that one of + the senators addresses his friend, “emerge from your retirements of Baiæ + and Puteoli. Give yourself to the city, to the senate. Rome flourishes, + the whole republic flourishes. Thanks to the Roman army, to an army truly + Roman; at length we have recovered our just authority, the end of all our + desires. We hear appeals, we appoint proconsuls, we create emperors; + perhaps too we may restrain them—to the wise a word is sufficient.” + <a href="#linknote-12.15" name="linknoteref-12.15" id="linknoteref-12.15">15</a> + These lofty expectations were, however, soon disappointed; nor, indeed, + was it possible that the armies and the provinces should long obey the + luxurious and unwarlike nobles of Rome. On the slightest touch, the + unsupported fabric of their pride and power fell to the ground. The + expiring senate displayed a sudden lustre, blazed for a moment, and was + extinguished forever. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.15" id="linknote-12.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 230, 232, 233. The senators celebrated the happy restoration + with hecatombs and public rejoicings.] + </p> + <p> + All that had yet passed at Rome was no more than a theatrical + representation, unless it was ratified by the more substantial power of + the legions. Leaving the senators to enjoy their dream of freedom and + ambition, Tacitus proceeded to the Thracian camp, and was there, by the + Prætorian præfect, presented to the assembled troops, as the prince whom + they themselves had demanded, and whom the senate had bestowed. As soon as + the præfect was silent, the emperor addressed himself to the soldiers + with eloquence and propriety. He gratified their avarice by a liberal + distribution of treasure, under the names of pay and donative. He engaged + their esteem by a spirited declaration, that although his age might + disable him from the performance of military exploits, his counsels should + never be unworthy of a Roman general, the successor of the brave Aurelian. + <a href="#linknote-12.16" name="linknoteref-12.16" id="linknoteref-12.16">16</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.16" id="linknote-12.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 228.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst the deceased emperor was making preparations for a second + expedition into the East, he had negotiated with the Alani, <a + href="#linknote-12.161" name="linknoteref-12.161" id="linknoteref-12.161">161</a> + a Scythian people, who pitched their tents in the neighborhood of the Lake + Mæotis. Those barbarians, allured by presents and subsidies, had promised + to invade Persia with a numerous body of light cavalry. They were faithful + to their engagements; but when they arrived on the Roman frontier, + Aurelian was already dead, the design of the Persian war was at least + suspended, and the generals, who, during the interregnum, exercised a + doubtful authority, were unprepared either to receive or to oppose them. + Provoked by such treatment, which they considered as trifling and + perfidious, the Alani had recourse to their own valor for their payment + and revenge; and as they moved with the usual swiftness of Tartars, they + had soon spread themselves over the provinces of Pontus, Cappadocia, + Cilicia, and Galatia. The legions, who from the opposite shores of the + Bosphorus could almost distinguish the flames of the cities and villages, + impatiently urged their general to lead them against the invaders. The + conduct of Tacitus was suitable to his age and station. He convinced the + barbarians of the faith, as well as the power, of the empire. Great + numbers of the Alani, appeased by the punctual discharge of the + engagements which Aurelian had contracted with them, relinquished their + booty and captives, and quietly retreated to their own deserts, beyond the + Phasis. Against the remainder, who refused peace, the Roman emperor waged, + in person, a successful war. Seconded by an army of brave and experienced + veterans, in a few weeks he delivered the provinces of Asia from the + terror of the Scythian invasion. <a href="#linknote-12.17" + name="linknoteref-12.17" id="linknoteref-12.17">17</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.161" id="linknote-12.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.161">return</a>)<br/> [ On the Alani, see ch. + xxvi. note 55.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.17" id="linknote-12.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 230. Zosimus, l. i. p. 57. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. Two + passages in the life of Probus (p. 236, 238) convince me, that these + Scythian invaders of Pontus were Alani. If we may believe Zosimus, (l. i. + p. 58,) Florianus pursued them as far as the Cimmerian Bosphorus. But he + had scarcely time for so long and difficult an expedition.] + </p> + <p> + But the glory and life of Tacitus were of short duration. Transported, in + the depth of winter, from the soft retirement of Campania to the foot of + Mount Caucasus, he sunk under the unaccustomed hardships of a military + life. The fatigues of the body were aggravated by the cares of the mind. + For a while, the angry and selfish passions of the soldiers had been + suspended by the enthusiasm of public virtue. They soon broke out with + redoubled violence, and raged in the camp, and even in the tent of the + aged emperor. His mild and amiable character served only to inspire + contempt, and he was incessantly tormented with factions which he could + not assuage, and by demands which it was impossible to satisfy. Whatever + flattering expectations he had conceived of reconciling the public + disorders, Tacitus soon was convinced that the licentiousness of the army + disdained the feeble restraint of laws, and his last hour was hastened by + anguish and disappointment. It may be doubtful whether the soldiers + imbrued their hands in the blood of this innocent prince. <a + href="#linknote-12.18" name="linknoteref-12.18" id="linknoteref-12.18">18</a> + It is certain that their insolence was the cause of his death. He expired + at Tyana in Cappadocia, after a reign of only six months and about twenty + days. <a href="#linknote-12.19" name="linknoteref-12.19" + id="linknoteref-12.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.18" id="linknote-12.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius and Aurelius + Victor only say that he died; Victor Junior adds, that it was of a fever. + Zosimus and Zonaras affirm, that he was killed by the soldiers. Vopiscus + mentions both accounts, and seems to hesitate. Yet surely these jarring + opinions are easily reconciled.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.19" id="linknote-12.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.19">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the two + Victors, he reigned exactly two hundred days.] + </p> + <p> + The eyes of Tacitus were scarcely closed, before his brother Florianus + showed himself unworthy to reign, by the hasty usurpation of the purple, + without expecting the approbation of the senate. The reverence for the + Roman constitution, which yet influenced the camp and the provinces, was + sufficiently strong to dispose them to censure, but not to provoke them to + oppose, the precipitate ambition of Florianus. The discontent would have + evaporated in idle murmurs, had not the general of the East, the heroic + Probus, boldly declared himself the avenger of the senate. + </p> + <p> + The contest, however, was still unequal; nor could the most able leader, + at the head of the effeminate troops of Egypt and Syria, encounter, with + any hopes of victory, the legions of Europe, whose irresistible strength + appeared to support the brother of Tacitus. But the fortune and activity + of Probus triumphed over every obstacle. The hardy veterans of his rival, + accustomed to cold climates, sickened and consumed away in the sultry + heats of Cilicia, where the summer proved remarkably unwholesome. Their + numbers were diminished by frequent desertion; the passes of the mountains + were feebly defended; Tarsus opened its gates; and the soldiers of + Florianus, when they had permitted him to enjoy the Imperial title about + three months, delivered the empire from civil war by the easy sacrifice of + a prince whom they despised. <a href="#linknote-12.20" + name="linknoteref-12.20" id="linknoteref-12.20">20</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.20" id="linknote-12.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August, p. 231. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 58, 59. Zonaras, l. xii. p. 637. Aurelius Victor says, + that Probus assumed the empire in Illyricum; an opinion which (though + adopted by a very learned man) would throw that period of history into + inextricable confusion.] + </p> + <p> + The perpetual revolutions of the throne had so perfectly erased every + notion of hereditary title, that the family of an unfortunate emperor was + incapable of exciting the jealousy of his successors. The children of + Tacitus and Florianus were permitted to descend into a private station, + and to mingle with the general mass of the people. Their poverty indeed + became an additional safeguard to their innocence. When Tacitus was + elected by the senate, he resigned his ample patrimony to the public + service; <a href="#linknote-12.21" name="linknoteref-12.21" + id="linknoteref-12.21">21</a> an act of generosity specious in appearance, + but which evidently disclosed his intention of transmitting the empire to + his descendants. The only consolation of their fallen state was the + remembrance of transient greatness, and a distant hope, the child of a + flattering prophecy, that at the end of a thousand years, a monarch of the + race of Tacitus should arise, the protector of the senate, the restorer of + Rome, and the conqueror of the whole earth. <a href="#linknote-12.22" + name="linknoteref-12.22" id="linknoteref-12.22">22</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.21" id="linknote-12.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 229] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.22" id="linknote-12.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.22">return</a>)<br/> [ He was to send judges + to the Parthians, Persians, and Sarmatians, a president to Taprobani, and + a proconsul to the Roman island, (supposed by Casaubon and Salmasius to + mean Britain.) Such a history as mine (says Vopiscus with proper modesty) + will not subsist a thousand years, to expose or justify the prediction.] + </p> + <p> + The peasants of Illyricum, who had already given Claudius and Aurelian to + the sinking empire, had an equal right to glory in the elevation of + Probus. <a href="#linknote-12.23" name="linknoteref-12.23" + id="linknoteref-12.23">23</a> Above twenty years before, the emperor + Valerian, with his usual penetration, had discovered the rising merit of + the young soldier, on whom he conferred the rank of tribune, long before + the age prescribed by the military regulations. The tribune soon justified + his choice, by a victory over a great body of Sarmatians, in which he + saved the life of a near relation of Valerian; and deserved to receive + from the emperor’s hand the collars, bracelets, spears, and banners, the + mural and the civic crown, and all the honorable rewards reserved by + ancient Rome for successful valor. The third, and afterwards the tenth, + legion were intrusted to the command of Probus, who, in every step of his + promotion, showed himself superior to the station which he filled. Africa + and Pontus, the Rhine, the Danube, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by turns + afforded him the most splendid occasions of displaying his personal + prowess and his conduct in war. Aurelian was indebted for the honest + courage with which he often checked the cruelty of his master. Tacitus, + who desired by the abilities of his generals to supply his own deficiency + of military talents, named him commander-in-chief of all the eastern + provinces, with five times the usual salary, the promise of the + consulship, and the hope of a triumph. When Probus ascended the Imperial + throne, he was about forty-four years of age; <a href="#linknote-12.24" + name="linknoteref-12.24" id="linknoteref-12.24">24</a> in the full + possession of his fame, of the love of the army, and of a mature vigor of + mind and body. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.23" id="linknote-12.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.23">return</a>)<br/> [ For the private life of + Probus, see Vopiscus in Hist. August p. 234—237] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.24" id="linknote-12.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.24">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the + Alexandrian chronicle, he was fifty at the time of his death.] + </p> + <p> + His acknowledged merit, and the success of his arms against Florianus, left + him without an enemy or a competitor. Yet, if we may credit his own + professions, very far from being desirous of the empire, he had accepted + it with the most sincere reluctance. “But it is no longer in my power,” + says Probus, in a private letter, “to lay down a title so full of envy and + of danger. I must continue to personate the character which the soldiers + have imposed upon me.” <a href="#linknote-12.25" name="linknoteref-12.25" + id="linknoteref-12.25">25</a> His dutiful address to the senate displayed + the sentiments, or at least the language, of a Roman patriot: “When you + elected one of your order, conscript fathers! to succeed the emperor + Aurelian, you acted in a manner suitable to your justice and wisdom. For + you are the legal sovereigns of the world, and the power which you derive + from your ancestors will descend to your posterity. Happy would it have + been, if Florianus, instead of usurping the purple of his brother, like a + private inheritance, had expected what your majesty might determine, + either in his favor, or in that of any other person. The prudent soldiers have + punished his rashness. To me they have offered the title of Augustus. But + I submit to your clemency my pretensions and my merits.” <a + href="#linknote-12.26" name="linknoteref-12.26" id="linknoteref-12.26">26</a> + When this respectful epistle was read by the consul, the senators were + unable to disguise their satisfaction, that Probus should condescend thus + numbly to solicit a sceptre which he already possessed. They celebrated + with the warmest gratitude his virtues, his exploits, and above all his + moderation. A decree immediately passed, without a dissenting voice, to + ratify the election of the eastern armies, and to confer on their chief + all the several branches of the Imperial dignity: the names of Cæsar and + Augustus, the title of Father of his country, the right of making in the + same day three motions in the senate, <a href="#linknote-12.27" + name="linknoteref-12.27" id="linknoteref-12.27">27</a> the office of + Pontifex Maximus, the tribunitian power, and the proconsular command; a + mode of investiture, which, though it seemed to multiply the authority of + the emperor, expressed the constitution of the ancient republic. The reign + of Probus corresponded with this fair beginning. The senate was permitted + to direct the civil administration of the empire. Their faithful general + asserted the honor of the Roman arms, and often laid at their feet crowns + of gold and barbaric trophies, the fruits of his numerous victories. <a + href="#linknote-12.28" name="linknoteref-12.28" id="linknoteref-12.28">28</a> + Yet, whilst he gratified their vanity, he must secretly have despised + their indolence and weakness. Though it was every moment in their power to + repeal the disgraceful edict of Gallienus, the proud successors of the + Scipios patiently acquiesced in their exclusion from all military + employments. They soon experienced, that those who refuse the sword must + renounce the sceptre. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.25" id="linknote-12.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.25">return</a>)<br/> [ This letter was + addressed to the Prætorian præfect, whom (on condition of his good + behavior) he promised to continue in his great office. See Hist. August. + p. 237.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.26" id="linknote-12.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 237. The date of the letter is assuredly faulty. Instead of + Nen. Februar. we may read Non August.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.27" id="linknote-12.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 238. + It is odd that the senate should treat Probus less favorably than Marcus + Antoninus. That prince had received, even before the death of Pius, Jus + quintoe relationis. See Capitolin. in Hist. August. p. 24.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.28" id="linknote-12.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.28">return</a>)<br/> [ See the dutiful letter + of Probus to the senate, after his German victories. Hist. August. p. + 239.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap12.2"></a> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The strength of Aurelian had crushed on every side the enemies of Rome. + After his death they seemed to revive with an increase of fury and of + numbers. They were again vanquished by the active vigor of Probus, who, in + a short reign of about six years, <a href="#linknote-12.29" + name="linknoteref-12.29" id="linknoteref-12.29">29</a> equalled the fame of + ancient heroes, and restored peace and order to every province of the + Roman world. The dangerous frontier of Rhætia he so firmly secured, that + he left it without the suspicion of an enemy. He broke the wandering power + of the Sarmatian tribes, and by the terror of his arms compelled those + barbarians to relinquish their spoil. The Gothic nation courted the + alliance of so warlike an emperor. <a href="#linknote-12.30" + name="linknoteref-12.30" id="linknoteref-12.30">30</a> He attacked the + Isaurians in their mountains, besieged and took several of their strongest + castles, <a href="#linknote-12.31" name="linknoteref-12.31" + id="linknoteref-12.31">31</a> and flattered himself that he had forever + suppressed a domestic foe, whose independence so deeply wounded the + majesty of the empire. The troubles excited by the usurper Firmus in the + Upper Egypt had never been perfectly appeased, and the cities of Ptolemais + and Coptos, fortified by the alliance of the Blemmyes, still maintained an + obscure rebellion. The chastisement of those cities, and of their + auxiliaries the savages of the South, is said to have alarmed the court of + Persia, <a href="#linknote-12.32" name="linknoteref-12.32" + id="linknoteref-12.32">32</a> and the Great King sued in vain for the + friendship of Probus. Most of the exploits which distinguished his reign + were achieved by the personal valor and conduct of the emperor, insomuch + that the writer of his life expresses some amazement how, in so short a + time, a single man could be present in so many distant wars. The remaining + actions he intrusted to the care of his lieutenants, the judicious choice + of whom forms no inconsiderable part of his glory. Carus, Diocletian, + Maximian, Constantius, Galerius, Asclepiodatus, Annibalianus, and a crowd + of other chiefs, who afterwards ascended or supported the throne, were + trained to arms in the severe school of Aurelian and Probus. <a + href="#linknote-12.33" name="linknoteref-12.33" id="linknoteref-12.33">33</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.29" id="linknote-12.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.29">return</a>)<br/> [ The date and duration + of the reign of Probus are very correctly ascertained by Cardinal Noris in + his learned work, De Epochis Syro-Macedonum, p. 96—105. A passage of + Eusebius connects the second year of Probus with the æras of several of + the Syrian cities.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.30" id="linknote-12.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 239.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.31" id="linknote-12.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus (l. i. p. 62—65) + tells us a very long and trifling story of Lycius, the Isaurian robber.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.32" id="linknote-12.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosim. l. i. p. 65. + Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 239, 240. But it seems incredible that the + defeat of the savages of Æthiopia could affect the Persian monarch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.33" id="linknote-12.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Besides these + well-known chiefs, several others are named by Vopiscus, (Hist. August. p. + 241,) whose actions have not reached knowledge.] + </p> + <p> + But the most important service which Probus rendered to the republic was + the deliverance of Gaul, and the recovery of seventy flourishing cities + oppressed by the barbarians of Germany, who, since the death of Aurelian, + had ravaged that great province with impunity. <a href="#linknote-12.34" + name="linknoteref-12.34" id="linknoteref-12.34">34</a> Among the various + multitude of those fierce invaders we may distinguish, with some degree of + clearness, three great armies, or rather nations, successively vanquished + by the valor of Probus. He drove back the Franks into their morasses; a + descriptive circumstance from whence we may infer, that the confederacy + known by the manly appellation of <i>Free</i>, already occupied the flat maritime + country, intersected and almost overflown by the stagnating waters of the + Rhine, and that several tribes of the Frisians and Batavians had acceded + to their alliance. He vanquished the Burgundians, a considerable people of + the Vandalic race. <a href="#linknote-12.341" name="linknoteref-12.341" + id="linknoteref-12.341">341</a> They had wandered in quest of booty from + the banks of the Oder to those of the Seine. They esteemed themselves + sufficiently fortunate to purchase, by the restitution of all their booty, + the permission of an undisturbed retreat. They attempted to elude that + article of the treaty. Their punishment was immediate and terrible. <a + href="#linknote-12.35" name="linknoteref-12.35" id="linknoteref-12.35">35</a> + But of all the invaders of Gaul, the most formidable were the Lygians, a + distant people, who reigned over a wide domain on the frontiers of Poland + and Silesia. <a href="#linknote-12.36" name="linknoteref-12.36" + id="linknoteref-12.36">36</a> In the Lygian nation, the Arii held the first + rank by their numbers and fierceness. “The Arii” (it is thus that they are + described by the energy of Tacitus) “study to improve by art and + circumstances the innate terrors of their barbarism. Their shields are + black, their bodies are painted black. They choose for the combat the + darkest hour of the night. Their host advances, covered as it were with a + funeral shade; <a href="#linknote-12.37" name="linknoteref-12.37" + id="linknoteref-12.37">37</a> nor do they often find an enemy capable of + sustaining so strange and infernal an aspect. Of all our senses, the eyes + are the first vanquished in battle.” <a href="#linknote-12.38" + name="linknoteref-12.38" id="linknoteref-12.38">38</a> Yet the arms and + discipline of the Romans easily discomfited these horrid phantoms. The + Lygii were defeated in a general engagement, and Semno, the most renowned + of their chiefs, fell alive into the hands of Probus. That prudent + emperor, unwilling to reduce a brave people to despair, granted them an + honorable capitulation, and permitted them to return in safety to their + native country. But the losses which they suffered in the march, the + battle, and the retreat, broke the power of the nation: nor is the Lygian + name ever repeated in the history either of Germany or of the empire. The + deliverance of Gaul is reported to have cost the lives of four hundred + thousand of the invaders; a work of labor to the Romans, and of expense to + the emperor, who gave a piece of gold for the head of every barbarian. <a + href="#linknote-12.39" name="linknoteref-12.39" id="linknoteref-12.39">39</a> + But as the fame of warriors is built on the destruction of human kind, we + may naturally suspect that the sanguinary account was multiplied by the + avarice of the soldiers, and accepted without any very severe examination + by the liberal vanity of Probus. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.34" id="linknote-12.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.34">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Cæsars of + Julian, and Hist. August. p. 238, 240, 241.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.341" id="linknote-12.341"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 341 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.341">return</a>)<br/> [ It was only under the + emperors Diocletian and Maximian, that the Burgundians, in concert with + the Alemanni, invaded the interior of Gaul; under the reign of Probus, + they did no more than pass the river which separated them from the Roman + Empire: they were repelled. Gatterer presumes that this river was the + Danube; a passage in Zosimus appears to me rather to indicate the Rhine. + Zos. l. i. p. 37, edit H. Etienne, 1581.—G. On the origin of the + Burgundians may be consulted Malte Brun, Geogr vi. p. 396, (edit. 1831,) + who observes that all the remains of the Burgundian language indicate that + they spoke a Gothic dialect.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.35" id="linknote-12.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 62. + Hist. August. p. 240. But the latter supposes the punishment inflicted + with the consent of their kings: if so, it was partial, like the offence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.36" id="linknote-12.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.36">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cluver. Germania + Antiqua, l. iii. Ptolemy places in their country the city of Calisia, + probably Calish in Silesia. * Note: Luden (vol ii. 501) supposes that + these have been erroneously identified with the Lygii of Tacitus. Perhaps + one fertile source of mistakes has been, that the Romans have turned + appellations into national names. Malte Brun observes of the Lygii, “that + their name appears Sclavonian, and signifies ‘inhabitants of plains;’ they + are probably the Lieches of the middle ages, and the ancestors of the + Poles. We find among the Arii the worship of the two twin gods known in + the Sclavian mythology.” Malte Brun, vol. i. p. 278, (edit. 1831.)—M. + But compare Schafarik, Slawische Alterthumer, 1, p. 406. They were of + German or Keltish descent, occupying the Wendish (or Slavian) district, + Luhy.—M. 1845.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.37" id="linknote-12.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Feralis umbra, is the + expression of Tacitus: it is surely a very bold one.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.38" id="linknote-12.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.38">return</a>)<br/> [ Tacit. Germania, (c. + 43.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.39" id="linknote-12.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 238] + </p> + <p> + Since the expedition of Maximin, the Roman generals had confined their + ambition to a defensive war against the nations of Germany, who + perpetually pressed on the frontiers of the empire. The more daring Probus + pursued his Gallic victories, passed the Rhine, and displayed his + invincible eagles on the banks of the Elbe and the Neckar. He was fully + convinced that nothing could reconcile the minds of the barbarians to + peace, unless they experienced, in their own country, the calamities of + war. Germany, exhausted by the ill success of the last emigration, was + astonished by his presence. Nine of the most considerable princes repaired + to his camp, and fell prostrate at his feet. Such a treaty was humbly + received by the Germans, as it pleased the conqueror to dictate. He + exacted a strict restitution of the effects and captives which they had + carried away from the provinces; and obliged their own magistrates to + punish the more obstinate robbers who presumed to detain any part of the + spoil. A considerable tribute of corn, cattle, and horses, the only wealth + of barbarians, was reserved for the use of the garrisons which Probus + established on the limits of their territory. He even entertained some + thoughts of compelling the Germans to relinquish the exercise of arms, and + to trust their differences to the justice, their safety to the power, of + Rome. To accomplish these salutary ends, the constant residence of an + Imperial governor, supported by a numerous army, was indispensably + requisite. Probus therefore judged it more expedient to defer the + execution of so great a design; which was indeed rather of specious than + solid utility. <a href="#linknote-12.40" name="linknoteref-12.40" + id="linknoteref-12.40">40</a> Had Germany been reduced into the state of a + province, the Romans, with immense labor and expense, would have acquired + only a more extensive boundary to defend against the fiercer and more + active barbarians of Scythia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.40" id="linknote-12.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. 238, 239. + Vopiscus quotes a letter from the emperor to the senate, in which he + mentions his design of reducing Germany into a province.] + </p> + <p> + Instead of reducing the warlike natives of Germany to the condition of + subjects, Probus contented himself with the humble expedient of raising a + bulwark against their inroads. The country which now forms the circle of + Swabia had been left desert in the age of Augustus by the emigration of + its ancient inhabitants. <a href="#linknote-12.41" name="linknoteref-12.41" + id="linknoteref-12.41">41</a> The fertility of the soil soon attracted a + new colony from the adjacent provinces of Gaul. Crowds of adventurers, of + a roving temper and of desperate fortunes, occupied the doubtful + possession, and acknowledged, by the payment of tithes, the majesty of the + empire. <a href="#linknote-12.42" name="linknoteref-12.42" + id="linknoteref-12.42">42</a> To protect these new subjects, a line of + frontier garrisons was gradually extended from the Rhine to the Danube. + About the reign of Hadrian, when that mode of defence began to be + practised, these garrisons were connected and covered by a strong + intrenchment of trees and palisades. In the place of so rude a bulwark, + the emperor Probus constructed a stone wall of a considerable height, and + strengthened it by towers at convenient distances. From the neighborhood + of Neustadt and Ratisbon on the Danube, it stretched across hills, + valleys, rivers, and morasses, as far as Wimpfen on the Neckar, and at + length terminated on the banks of the Rhine, after a winding course of + near two hundred miles. <a href="#linknote-12.43" name="linknoteref-12.43" + id="linknoteref-12.43">43</a> This important barrier, uniting the two + mighty streams that protected the provinces of Europe, seemed to fill up + the vacant space through which the barbarians, and particularly the + Alemanni, could penetrate with the greatest facility into the heart of the + empire. But the experience of the world, from China to Britain, has + exposed the vain attempt of fortifying any extensive tract of country. <a + href="#linknote-12.44" name="linknoteref-12.44" id="linknoteref-12.44">44</a> + An active enemy, who can select and vary his points of attack, must, in + the end, discover some feeble spot, or some unguarded moment. The + strength, as well as the attention, of the defenders is divided; and such + are the blind effects of terror on the firmest troops, that a line broken + in a single place is almost instantly deserted. The fate of the wall which + Probus erected may confirm the general observation. Within a few years + after his death, it was overthrown by the Alemanni. Its scattered ruins, + universally ascribed to the power of the Dæmon, now serve only to excite + the wonder of the Swabian peasant. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.41" id="linknote-12.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.41">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. vii. + According to Valleius Paterculus, (ii. 108,) Maroboduus led his Marcomanni + into Bohemia; Cluverius (German. Antiq. iii. 8) proves that it was from + Swabia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.42" id="linknote-12.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.42">return</a>)<br/> [ These settlers, from + the payment of tithes, were denominated Decunates. Tacit. Germania, c. 29] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.43" id="linknote-12.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.43">return</a>)<br/> [ See notes de l’Abbé de + la Bleterie a la Germanie de Tacite, p. 183. His account of the wall is + chiefly borrowed (as he says himself) from the Alsatia Illustrata of + Schoepflin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.44" id="linknote-12.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.44">return</a>)<br/> [ See Recherches sur les + Chinois et les Egyptiens, tom. ii. p. 81—102. The anonymous author + is well acquainted with the globe in general, and with Germany in + particular: with regard to the latter, he quotes a work of M. Hanselman; + but he seems to confound the wall of Probus, designed against the + Alemanni, with the fortification of the Mattiaci, constructed in the + neighborhood of Frankfort against the Catti. * Note: De Pauw is well known + to have been the author of this work, as of the Recherches sur les + Americains before quoted. The judgment of M. Remusat on this writer is in + a very different, I fear a juster tone. Quand au lieu de rechercher, + d’examiner, d’etudier, on se borne, comme cet ecrivain, a juger a + prononcer, a decider, sans connoitre ni l’histoire. ni les langues, sans + recourir aux sources, sans meme se douter de leur existence, on peut en + imposer pendant quelque temps a des lecteurs prevenus ou peu instruits; + mais le mepris qui ne manque guere de succeder a cet engouement fait + bientot justice de ces assertions hazardees, et elles retombent dans + l’oubli d’autant plus promptement, qu’elles ont ete posees avec plus de + confiance. Sur les l angues Tartares, p. 231.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Among the useful conditions of peace imposed by Probus on the vanquished + nations of Germany, was the obligation of supplying the Roman army with + sixteen thousand recruits, the bravest and most robust of their youth. The + emperor dispersed them through all the provinces, and distributed this + dangerous reënforcement, in small bands of fifty or sixty each, among the + national troops; judiciously observing, that the aid which the republic + derived from the barbarians should be felt but not seen. <a + href="#linknote-12.45" name="linknoteref-12.45" id="linknoteref-12.45">45</a> + Their aid was now become necessary. The feeble elegance of Italy and the + internal provinces could no longer support the weight of arms. The hardy + frontiers of the Rhine and Danube still produced minds and bodies equal to + the labors of the camp; but a perpetual series of wars had gradually + diminished their numbers. The infrequency of marriage, and the ruin of + agriculture, affected the principles of population, and not only destroyed + the strength of the present, but intercepted the hope of future, + generations. The wisdom of Probus embraced a great and beneficial plan of + replenishing the exhausted frontiers, by new colonies of captive or + fugitive barbarians, on whom he bestowed lands, cattle, instruments of + husbandry, and every encouragement that might engage them to educate a + race of soldiers for the service of the republic. Into Britain, and most + probably into Cambridgeshire, <a href="#linknote-12.46" + name="linknoteref-12.46" id="linknoteref-12.46">46</a> he transported a + considerable body of Vandals. The impossibility of an escape reconciled + them to their situation, and in the subsequent troubles of that island, + they approved themselves the most faithful servants of the state. <a + href="#linknote-12.47" name="linknoteref-12.47" id="linknoteref-12.47">47</a> + Great numbers of Franks and Gepidæ were settled on the banks of the + Danube and the Rhine. A hundred thousand Bastarnæ, expelled from their + own country, cheerfully accepted an establishment in Thrace, and soon + imbibed the manners and sentiments of Roman subjects. <a + href="#linknote-12.48" name="linknoteref-12.48" id="linknoteref-12.48">48</a> + But the expectations of Probus were too often disappointed. The impatience + and idleness of the barbarians could ill brook the slow labors of + agriculture. Their unconquerable love of freedom, rising against + despotism, provoked them into hasty rebellions, alike fatal to themselves + and to the provinces; <a href="#linknote-12.49" name="linknoteref-12.49" + id="linknoteref-12.49">49</a> nor could these artificial supplies, however + repeated by succeeding emperors, restore the important limit of Gaul and + Illyricum to its ancient and native vigor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.45" id="linknote-12.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.45">return</a>)<br/> [ He distributed about + fifty or sixty barbarians to a Numerus, as it was then called, a corps + with whose established number we are not exactly acquainted.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.46" id="linknote-12.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Camden’s Britannia, + Introduction, p. 136; but he speaks from a very doubtful conjecture.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.47" id="linknote-12.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. i. p. 62. + According to Vopiscus, another body of Vandals was less faithful.] <a + name="linknote-12.48" id="linknote-12.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.48">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 48: Hist. + August. p. 240. They were probably expelled by the Goths. Zosim. l. i. p. + 66.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.49" id="linknote-12.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 240.] + </p> + <p> + Of all the barbarians who abandoned their new settlements, and disturbed + the public tranquillity, a very small number returned to their own + country. For a short season they might wander in arms through the empire; + but in the end they were surely destroyed by the power of a warlike + emperor. The successful rashness of a party of Franks was attended, + however, with such memorable consequences, that it ought not to be passed + unnoticed. They had been established by Probus, on the sea-coast of + Pontus, with a view of strengthening the frontier against the inroads of + the Alani. A fleet stationed in one of the harbors of the Euxine fell into + the hands of the Franks; and they resolved, through unknown seas, to + explore their way from the mouth of the Phasis to that of the Rhine. They + easily escaped through the Bosphorus and the Hellespont, and cruising + along the Mediterranean, indulged their appetite for revenge and plunder + by frequent descents on the unsuspecting shores of Asia, Greece, and + Africa. The opulent city of Syracuse, in whose port the navies of Athens + and Carthage had formerly been sunk, was sacked by a handful of + barbarians, who massacred the greatest part of the trembling inhabitants. + From the island of Sicily the Franks proceeded to the columns of + Hercules, trusted themselves to the ocean, coasted round Spain and Gaul, + and steering their triumphant course through the British Channel, at + length finished their surprising voyage, by landing in safety on the + Batavian or Frisian shores. <a href="#linknote-12.50" + name="linknoteref-12.50" id="linknoteref-12.50">50</a> The example of their + success, instructing their countrymen to conceive the advantages and to + despise the dangers of the sea, pointed out to their enterprising spirit a + new road to wealth and glory. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.50" id="linknote-12.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. v. 18. + Zosimus, l. i. p. 66.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the vigilance and activity of Probus, it was almost + impossible that he could at once contain in obedience every part of his + wide-extended dominions. The barbarians, who broke their chains, had + seized the favorable opportunity of a domestic war. When the emperor + marched to the relief of Gaul, he devolved the command of the East on + Saturninus. That general, a man of merit and experience, was driven into + rebellion by the absence of his sovereign, the levity of the Alexandrian + people, the pressing instances of his friends, and his own fears; but from + the moment of his elevation, he never entertained a hope of empire, or + even of life. “Alas!” he said, “the republic has lost a useful servant, + and the rashness of an hour has destroyed the services of many years. You + know not,” continued he, “the misery of sovereign power; a sword is + perpetually suspended over our head. We dread our very guards, we distrust + our companions. The choice of action or of repose is no longer in our + disposition, nor is there any age, or character, or conduct, that can + protect us from the censure of envy. In thus exalting me to the throne, + you have doomed me to a life of cares, and to an untimely fate. The only + consolation which remains is the assurance that I shall not fall alone.” + <a href="#linknote-12.51" name="linknoteref-12.51" id="linknoteref-12.51">51</a> + But as the former part of his prediction was verified by the victory, so + the latter was disappointed by the clemency, of Probus. That amiable prince + attempted even to save the unhappy Saturninus from the fury of the + soldiers. He had more than once solicited the usurper himself to place + some confidence in the mercy of a sovereign who so highly esteemed his + character, that he had punished, as a malicious informer, the first who + related the improbable news of his disaffection. <a href="#linknote-12.52" + name="linknoteref-12.52" id="linknoteref-12.52">52</a> Saturninus might, + perhaps, have embraced the generous offer, had he not been restrained by + the obstinate distrust of his adherents. Their guilt was deeper, and their + hopes more sanguine, than those of their experienced leader. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.51" id="linknote-12.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 245, 246. The unfortunate orator had studied rhetoric at + Carthage; and was therefore more probably a Moor (Zosim. l. i. p. 60) than + a Gaul, as Vopiscus calls him.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.52" id="linknote-12.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Zonaras, l. xii. p. + 638.] + </p> + <p> + The revolt of Saturninus was scarcely extinguished in the East, before new + troubles were excited in the West, by the rebellion of Bonosus and + Proculus, in Gaul. The most distinguished merit of those two officers was + their respective prowess, of the one in the combats of Bacchus, of the + other in those of Venus, <a href="#linknote-12.53" name="linknoteref-12.53" + id="linknoteref-12.53">53</a> yet neither of them was destitute of courage + and capacity, and both sustained, with honor, the august character which + the fear of punishment had engaged them to assume, till they sunk at + length beneath the superior genius of Probus. He used the victory with his + accustomed moderation, and spared the fortune, as well as the lives of + their innocent families. <a href="#linknote-12.54" name="linknoteref-12.54" + id="linknoteref-12.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.53" id="linknote-12.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.53">return</a>)<br/> [ A very surprising + instance is recorded of the prowess of Proculus. He had taken one hundred + Sarmatian virgins. The rest of the story he must relate in his own + language: “Ex his una necte decem inivi; omnes tamen, quod in me erat, + mulieres intra dies quindecim reddidi.” Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 246.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.54" id="linknote-12.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.54">return</a>)<br/> [ Proculus, who was a + native of Albengue, on the Genoese coast armed two thousand of his own + slaves. His riches were great, but they were acquired by robbery. It was + afterwards a saying of his family, sibi non placere esse vel principes vel + latrones. Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 247.] + </p> + <p> + The arms of Probus had now suppressed all the foreign and domestic enemies + of the state. His mild but steady administration confirmed the + re-ëstablishment of the public tranquillity; nor was there left in the + provinces a hostile barbarian, a tyrant, or even a robber, to revive the + memory of past disorders. It was time that the emperor should revisit + Rome, and celebrate his own glory and the general happiness. The triumph + due to the valor of Probus was conducted with a magnificence suitable to + his fortune, and the people, who had so lately admired the trophies of + Aurelian, gazed with equal pleasure on those of his heroic successor. <a + href="#linknote-12.55" name="linknoteref-12.55" id="linknoteref-12.55">55</a> + We cannot, on this occasion, forget the desperate courage of about + fourscore gladiators, reserved, with near six hundred others, for the + inhuman sports of the amphitheatre. Disdaining to shed their blood for the + amusement of the populace, they killed their keepers, broke from the place + of their confinement, and filled the streets of Rome with blood and + confusion. After an obstinate resistance, they were overpowered and cut in + pieces by the regular forces; but they obtained at least an honorable + death, and the satisfaction of a just revenge. <a href="#linknote-12.56" + name="linknoteref-12.56" id="linknoteref-12.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.55" id="linknote-12.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 240.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.56" id="linknote-12.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosim. l. i. p. 66.] + </p> + <p> + The military discipline which reigned in the camps of Probus was less + cruel than that of Aurelian, but it was equally rigid and exact. The + latter had punished the irregularities of the soldiers with unrelenting + severity, the former prevented them by employing the legions in constant + and useful labors. When Probus commanded in Egypt, he executed many + considerable works for the splendor and benefit of that rich country. The + navigation of the Nile, so important to Rome itself, was improved; and + temples, buildings, porticos, and palaces, were constructed by the hands of + the soldiers, who acted by turns as architects, as engineers, and as + husbandmen. <a href="#linknote-12.57" name="linknoteref-12.57" + id="linknoteref-12.57">57</a> It was reported of Hannibal, that, in order to + preserve his troops from the dangerous temptations of idleness, he had + obliged them to form large plantations of olive-trees along the coast of + Africa. <a href="#linknote-12.58" name="linknoteref-12.58" + id="linknoteref-12.58">58</a> From a similar principle, Probus exercised + his legions in covering with rich vineyards the hills of Gaul and + Pannonia, and two considerable spots are described, which were entirely + dug and planted by military labor. <a href="#linknote-12.59" + name="linknoteref-12.59" id="linknoteref-12.59">59</a> One of these, known + under the name of Mount Almo, was situated near Sirmium, the country where + Probus was born, for which he ever retained a partial affection, and whose + gratitude he endeavored to secure, by converting into tillage a large and + unhealthy tract of marshy ground. An army thus employed constituted + perhaps the most useful, as well as the bravest, portion of Roman + subjects. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.57" id="linknote-12.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.57">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 236.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.58" id="linknote-12.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.58">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor. in Prob. + But the policy of Hannibal, unnoticed by any more ancient writer, is + irreconcilable with the history of his life. He left Africa when he was + nine years old, returned to it when he was forty-five, and immediately + lost his army in the decisive battle of Zama. Livilus, xxx. 37.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.59" id="linknote-12.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 240. + Eutrop. ix. 17. Aurel. Victor. in Prob. Victor Junior. He revoked the + prohibition of Domitian, and granted a general permission of planting + vines to the Gauls, the Britons, and the Pannonians.] + </p> + <p> + But in the prosecution of a favorite scheme, the best of men, satisfied + with the rectitude of their intentions, are subject to forget the bounds + of moderation; nor did Probus himself sufficiently consult the patience + and disposition of his fierce legionaries. <a href="#linknote-12.60" + name="linknoteref-12.60" id="linknoteref-12.60">60</a> The dangers of the + military profession seem only to be compensated by a life of pleasure and + idleness; but if the duties of the soldier are incessantly aggravated by + the labors of the peasant, he will at last sink under the intolerable + burden, or shake it off with indignation. The imprudence of Probus is said + to have inflamed the discontent of his troops. More attentive to the + interests of mankind than to those of the army, he expressed the vain + hope, that, by the establishment of universal peace, he should soon + abolish the necessity of a standing and mercenary force. <a + href="#linknote-12.61" name="linknoteref-12.61" id="linknoteref-12.61">61</a> + The unguarded expression proved fatal to him. In one of the hottest days + of summer, as he severely urged the unwholesome labor of draining the + marshes of Sirmium, the soldiers, impatient of fatigue, on a sudden threw + down their tools, grasped their arms, and broke out into a furious mutiny. + The emperor, conscious of his danger, took refuge in a lofty tower, + constructed for the purpose of surveying the progress of the work. <a + href="#linknote-12.62" name="linknoteref-12.62" id="linknoteref-12.62">62</a> + The tower was instantly forced, and a thousand swords were plunged at once + into the bosom of the unfortunate Probus. The rage of the troops subsided + as soon as it had been gratified. They then lamented their fatal rashness, + forgot the severity of the emperor whom they had massacred, and hastened + to perpetuate, by an honorable monument, the memory of his virtues and + victories. <a href="#linknote-12.63" name="linknoteref-12.63" + id="linknoteref-12.63">63</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.60" id="linknote-12.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian bestows a + severe, and indeed excessive, censure on the rigor of Probus, who, as he + thinks, almost deserved his fate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.61" id="linknote-12.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 241. He lavishes on this idle hope a large stock of very + foolish eloquence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.62" id="linknote-12.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Turris ferrata. It + seems to have been a movable tower, and cased with iron.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.63" id="linknote-12.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Probus, et vere probus + situs est; Victor omnium gentium Barbararum; victor etiam tyrannorum.] + </p> + <p> + When the legions had indulged their grief and repentance for the death of + Probus, their unanimous consent declared Carus, his Prætorian præfect, + the most deserving of the Imperial throne. Every circumstance that relates + to this prince appears of a mixed and doubtful nature. He gloried in the + title of Roman Citizen; and affected to compare the purity of <i>his</i> blood + with the foreign and even barbarous origin of the preceding emperors; yet + the most inquisitive of his contemporaries, very far from admitting his + claim, have variously deduced his own birth, or that of his parents, from + Illyricum, from Gaul, or from Africa. <a href="#linknote-12.64" + name="linknoteref-12.64" id="linknoteref-12.64">64</a> Though a soldier, he + had received a learned education; though a senator, he was invested with + the first dignity of the army; and in an age when the civil and military + professions began to be irrecoverably separated from each other, they were + united in the person of Carus. Notwithstanding the severe justice which he + exercised against the assassins of Probus, to whose favor and esteem he + was highly indebted, he could not escape the suspicion of being accessory + to a deed from whence he derived the principal advantage. He enjoyed, at + least before his elevation, an acknowledged character of virtue and + abilities; <a href="#linknote-12.65" name="linknoteref-12.65" + id="linknoteref-12.65">65</a> but his austere temper insensibly degenerated + into moroseness and cruelty; and the imperfect writers of his life almost + hesitate whether they shall not rank him in the number of Roman tyrants. + <a href="#linknote-12.66" name="linknoteref-12.66" id="linknoteref-12.66">66</a> + When Carus assumed the purple, he was about sixty years of age, and his + two sons, Carinus and Numerian had already attained the season of manhood. + <a href="#linknote-12.67" name="linknoteref-12.67" id="linknoteref-12.67">67</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.64" id="linknote-12.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Yet all this may be + conciliated. He was born at Narbonne in Illyricum, confounded by Eutropius + with the more famous city of that name in Gaul. His father might be an + African, and his mother a noble Roman. Carus himself was educated in the + capital. See Scaliger Animadversion. ad Euseb. Chron. p. 241.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.65" id="linknote-12.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.65">return</a>)<br/> [ Probus had requested of + the senate an equestrian statue and a marble palace, at the public + expense, as a just recompense of the singular merit of Carus. Vopiscus in + Hist. August. p. 249.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.66" id="linknote-12.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 242, 249. Julian excludes the emperor Carus and both his sons + from the banquet of the Cæsars.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.67" id="linknote-12.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.67">return</a>)<br/> [ John Malala, tom. i. p. + 401. But the authority of that ignorant Greek is very slight. He + ridiculously derives from Carus the city of Carrhæ, and the province of + Caria, the latter of which is mentioned by Homer.] + </p> + <p> + The authority of the senate expired with Probus; nor was the repentance of + the soldiers displayed by the same dutiful regard for the civil power, + which they had testified after the unfortunate death of Aurelian. The + election of Carus was decided without expecting the approbation of the + senate, and the new emperor contented himself with announcing, in a cold + and stately epistle, that he had ascended the vacant throne. <a + href="#linknote-12.68" name="linknoteref-12.68" id="linknoteref-12.68">68</a> + A behavior so very opposite to that of his amiable predecessor afforded no + favorable presage of the new reign: and the Romans, deprived of power and + freedom, asserted their privilege of licentious murmurs. <a + href="#linknote-12.69" name="linknoteref-12.69" id="linknoteref-12.69">69</a> + The voice of congratulation and flattery was not, however, silent; and we + may still peruse, with pleasure and contempt, an eclogue, which was + composed on the accession of the emperor Carus. Two shepherds, avoiding + the noontide heat, retire into the cave of Faunus. On a spreading beech + they discover some recent characters. The rural deity had described, in + prophetic verses, the felicity promised to the empire under the reign of + so great a prince. Faunus hails the approach of that hero, who, receiving + on his shoulders the sinking weight of the Roman world, shall extinguish + war and faction, and once again restore the innocence and security of the + golden age. <a href="#linknote-12.70" name="linknoteref-12.70" + id="linknoteref-12.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.68" id="linknote-12.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 249. + Carus congratulated the senate, that one of their own order was made + emperor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.69" id="linknote-12.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 242.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.70" id="linknote-12.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.70">return</a>)<br/> [ See the first eclogue + of Calphurnius. The design of it is preferes by Fontenelle to that of + Virgil’s Pollio. See tom. iii. p. 148.] + </p> + <p> + It is more than probable, that these elegant trifles never reached the + ears of a veteran general, who, with the consent of the legions, was + preparing to execute the long-suspended design of the Persian war. Before + his departure for this distant expedition, Carus conferred on his two + sons, Carinus and Numerian, the title of Cæsar, and investing the former + with almost an equal share of the Imperial power, directed the young + prince first to suppress some troubles which had arisen in Gaul, and + afterwards to fix the seat of his residence at Rome, and to assume the + government of the Western provinces. <a href="#linknote-12.71" + name="linknoteref-12.71" id="linknoteref-12.71">71</a> The safety of + Illyricum was confirmed by a memorable defeat of the Sarmatians; sixteen + thousand of those barbarians remained on the field of battle, and the + number of captives amounted to twenty thousand. The old emperor, animated + with the fame and prospect of victory, pursued his march, in the midst of + winter, through the countries of Thrace and Asia Minor, and at length, + with his younger son, Numerian, arrived on the confines of the Persian + monarchy. There, encamping on the summit of a lofty mountain, he pointed + out to his troops the opulence and luxury of the enemy whom they were + about to invade. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.71" id="linknote-12.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 353. + Eutropius, ix. 18. Pagi. Annal.] + </p> + <p> + The successor of Artaxerxes, <a href="#linknote-12.711" + name="linknoteref-12.711" id="linknoteref-12.711">711</a> Varanes, or + Bahram, though he had subdued the Segestans, one of the most warlike + nations of Upper Asia, <a href="#linknote-12.72" name="linknoteref-12.72" + id="linknoteref-12.72">72</a> was alarmed at the approach of the Romans, + and endeavored to retard their progress by a negotiation of peace. <a + href="#linknote-12.721" name="linknoteref-12.721" id="linknoteref-12.721">721</a> + </p> + <p> + His ambassadors entered the camp about sunset, at the time when the troops + were satisfying their hunger with a frugal repast. The Persians expressed + their desire of being introduced to the presence of the Roman emperor. + They were at length conducted to a soldier, who was seated on the grass. A + piece of stale bacon and a few hard peas composed his supper. A coarse + woollen garment of purple was the only circumstance that announced his + dignity. The conference was conducted with the same disregard of courtly + elegance. Carus, taking off a cap which he wore to conceal his baldness, + assured the ambassadors, that, unless their master acknowledged the + superiority of Rome, he would speedily render Persia as naked of trees as + his own head was destitute of hair. <a href="#linknote-12.73" + name="linknoteref-12.73" id="linknoteref-12.73">73</a> Notwithstanding some + traces of art and preparation, we may discover in this scene the manners + of Carus, and the severe simplicity which the martial princes, who + succeeded Gallienus, had already restored in the Roman camps. The + ministers of the Great King trembled and retired. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.711" id="linknote-12.711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 711 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.711">return</a>)<br/> [ Three monarchs had + intervened, Sapor, (Shahpour,) Hormisdas, (Hormooz,) Varanes; Baharam the + First.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.72" id="linknote-12.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.72">return</a>)<br/> [ Agathias, l. iv. p. + 135. We find one of his sayings in the Bibliotheque Orientale of M. + d’Herbelot. “The definition of humanity includes all other virtues.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.721" id="linknote-12.721"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 721 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.721">return</a>)<br/> [ The manner in which + his life was saved by the Chief Pontiff from a conspiracy of his nobles, + is as remarkable as his saying. “By the advice (of the Pontiff) all the + nobles absented themselves from court. The king wandered through his + palace alone. He saw no one; all was silence around. He became alarmed and + distressed. At last the Chief Pontiff appeared, and bowed his head in + apparent misery, but spoke not a word. The king entreated him to declare + what had happened. The virtuous man boldly related all that had passed, + and conjured Bahram, in the name of his glorious ancestors, to change his + conduct and save himself from destruction. The king was much moved, + professed himself most penitent, and said he was resolved his future life + should prove his sincerity. The overjoyed High Priest, delighted at this + success, made a signal, at which all the nobles and attendants were in an + instant, as if by magic, in their usual places. The monarch now perceived + that only one opinion prevailed on his past conduct. He repeated therefore + to his nobles all he had said to the Chief Pontiff, and his future reign + was unstained by cruelty or oppression.” Malcolm’s Persia,—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.73" id="linknote-12.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Synesius tells this + story of Carinus; and it is much more natural to understand it of Carus, + than (as Petavius and Tillemont choose to do) of Probus.] + </p> + <p> + The threats of Carus were not without effect. He ravaged Mesopotamia, cut + in pieces whatever opposed his passage, made himself master of the great + cities of Seleucia and Ctesiphon, (which seemed to have surrendered + without resistance,) and carried his victorious arms beyond the Tigris. <a + href="#linknote-12.74" name="linknoteref-12.74" id="linknoteref-12.74">74</a> + He had seized the favorable moment for an invasion. The Persian councils + were distracted by domestic factions, and the greater part of their forces + were detained on the frontiers of India. Rome and the East received with + transport the news of such important advantages. Flattery and hope + painted, in the most lively colors, the fall of Persia, the conquest of + Arabia, the submission of Egypt, and a lasting deliverance from the + inroads of the Scythian nations. <a href="#linknote-12.75" + name="linknoteref-12.75" id="linknoteref-12.75">75</a> But the reign of + Carus was destined to expose the vanity of predictions. They were scarcely + uttered before they were contradicted by his death; an event attended with + such ambiguous circumstances, that it may be related in a letter from his + own secretary to the præfect of the city. “Carus,” says he, “our dearest + emperor, was confined by sickness to his bed, when a furious tempest arose + in the camp. The darkness which overspread the sky was so thick, that we + could no longer distinguish each other; and the incessant flashes of + lightning took from us the knowledge of all that passed in the general + confusion. Immediately after the most violent clap of thunder, we heard a + sudden cry that the emperor was dead; and it soon appeared, that his + chamberlains, in a rage of grief, had set fire to the royal pavilion; a + circumstance which gave rise to the report that Carus was killed by + lightning. But, as far as we have been able to investigate the truth, his + death was the natural effect of his disorder.” <a href="#linknote-12.76" + name="linknoteref-12.76" id="linknoteref-12.76">76</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.74" id="linknote-12.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 250. Eutropius, ix. 18. The two Victors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.75" id="linknote-12.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.75">return</a>)<br/> [ To the Persian victory + of Carus I refer the dialogue of the Philopatris, which has so long been + an object of dispute among the learned. But to explain and justify my + opinion, would require a dissertation. Note: Niebuhr, in the new edition + of the Byzantine Historians, (vol. x.) has boldly assigned the Philopatris + to the tenth century, and to the reign of Nicephorus Phocas. An opinion so + decisively pronounced by Niebuhr and favorably received by Hase, the + learned editor of Leo Diaconus, commands respectful consideration. But the + whole tone of the work appears to me altogether inconsistent with any + period in which philosophy did not stand, as it were, on some ground of + equality with Christianity. The doctrine of the Trinity is sarcastically + introduced rather as the strange doctrine of a new religion, than the + established tenet of a faith universally prevalent. The argument, adopted + from Solanus, concerning the formula of the procession of the Holy Ghost, + is utterly worthless, as it is a mere quotation in the words of the Gospel + of St. John, xv. 26. The only argument of any value is the historic one, + from the allusion to the recent violation of many virgins in the Island of + Crete. But neither is the language of Niebuhr quite accurate, nor his + reference to the Acroases of Theodosius satisfactory. When, then, could + this occurrence take place? Why not in the devastation of the island by + the Gothic pirates, during the reign of Claudius. Hist. Aug. in Claud. p. + 814. edit. Var. Lugd. Bat 1661.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.76" id="linknote-12.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.76">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 250. + Yet Eutropius, Festus, Rufus, the two Victors, Jerome, Sidonius + Apollinaris, Syncellus, and Zonaras, all ascribe the death of Carus to + lightning.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap12.3"></a> + Chapter XII: Reigns Of Tacitus, Probus, Carus And His Sons.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + The vacancy of the throne was not productive of any disturbance. The + ambition of the aspiring generals was checked by their natural fears, and + young Numerian, with his absent brother Carinus, were unanimously + acknowledged as Roman emperors. + </p> + <p> + The public expected that the successor of Carus would pursue his father’s + footsteps, and, without allowing the Persians to recover from their + consternation, would advance sword in hand to the palaces of Susa and + Ecbatana. <a href="#linknote-12.77" name="linknoteref-12.77" + id="linknoteref-12.77">77</a> But the legions, however strong in numbers + and discipline, were dismayed by the most abject superstition. + Notwithstanding all the arts that were practised to disguise the manner of + the late emperor’s death, it was found impossible to remove the opinion of + the multitude, and the power of opinion is irresistible. Places or persons + struck with lightning were considered by the ancients with pious horror, + as singularly devoted to the wrath of Heaven. <a href="#linknote-12.78" + name="linknoteref-12.78" id="linknoteref-12.78">78</a> An oracle was + remembered, which marked the River Tigris as the fatal boundary of the + Roman arms. The troops, terrified with the fate of Carus and with their + own danger, called aloud on young Numerian to obey the will of the gods, + and to lead them away from this inauspicious scene of war. The feeble + emperor was unable to subdue their obstinate prejudice, and the Persians + wondered at the unexpected retreat of a victorious enemy. <a + href="#linknote-12.79" name="linknoteref-12.79" id="linknoteref-12.79">79</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.77" id="linknote-12.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.77">return</a>)<br/> [ See Nemesian. + Cynegeticon, v. 71, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.78" id="linknote-12.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.78">return</a>)<br/> [ See Festus and his + commentators on the word Scribonianum. Places struck by lightning were + surrounded with a wall; things were buried with mysterious ceremony.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.79" id="linknote-12.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 250. Aurelius Victor seems to believe the prediction, and to + approve the retreat.] + </p> + <p> + The intelligence of the mysterious fate of the late emperor was soon + carried from the frontiers of Persia to Rome; and the senate, as well as + the provinces, congratulated the accession of the sons of Carus. These + fortunate youths were strangers, however, to that conscious superiority, + either of birth or of merit, which can alone render the possession of a + throne easy, and, as it were, natural. Born and educated in a private + station, the election of their father raised them at once to the rank of + princes; and his death, which happened about sixteen months afterwards, + left them the unexpected legacy of a vast empire. To sustain with temper + this rapid elevation, an uncommon share of virtue and prudence was + requisite; and Carinus, the elder of the brothers, was more than commonly + deficient in those qualities. In the Gallic war he discovered some degree + of personal courage; <a href="#linknote-12.80" name="linknoteref-12.80" + id="linknoteref-12.80">80</a> but from the moment of his arrival at Rome, + he abandoned himself to the luxury of the capital, and to the abuse of his + fortune. He was soft, yet cruel; devoted to pleasure, but destitute of + taste; and though exquisitely susceptible of vanity, indifferent to the + public esteem. In the course of a few months, he successively married and + divorced nine wives, most of whom he left pregnant; and notwithstanding + this legal inconstancy, found time to indulge such a variety of irregular + appetites, as brought dishonor on himself and on the noblest houses of + Rome. He beheld with inveterate hatred all those who might remember his + former obscurity, or censure his present conduct. He banished, or put to + death, the friends and counsellors whom his father had placed about him, + to guide his inexperienced youth; and he persecuted with the meanest + revenge his school-fellows and companions who had not sufficiently + respected the latent majesty of the emperor. + </p> + <p> + With the senators, Carinus affected a lofty and regal demeanor, frequently + declaring, that he designed to distribute their estates among the populace + of Rome. From the dregs of that populace he selected his favorites, and + even his ministers. The palace, and even the Imperial table, were filled + with singers, dancers, prostitutes, and all the various retinue of vice + and folly. One of his doorkeepers <a href="#linknote-12.81" + name="linknoteref-12.81" id="linknoteref-12.81">81</a> he intrusted with the + government of the city. In the room of the Prætorian præfect, whom he + put to death, Carinus substituted one of the ministers of his looser + pleasures. Another, who possessed the same, or even a more infamous, title + to favor, was invested with the consulship. A confidential secretary, who + had acquired uncommon skill in the art of forgery, delivered the indolent + emperor, with his own consent from the irksome duty of signing his name. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.80" id="linknote-12.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Nemesian. Cynegeticon, + v 69. He was a contemporary, but a poet.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.81" id="linknote-12.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.81">return</a>)<br/> [ Cancellarius. This + word, so humble in its origin, has, by a singular fortune, risen into the + title of the first great office of state in the monarchies of Europe. See + Casaubon and Salmasius, ad Hist. August, p. 253.] + </p> + <p> + When the emperor Carus undertook the Persian war, he was induced, by + motives of affection as well as policy, to secure the fortunes of his + family, by leaving in the hands of his eldest son the armies and provinces + of the West. The intelligence which he soon received of the conduct of + Carinus filled him with shame and regret; nor had he concealed his + resolution of satisfying the republic by a severe act of justice, and of + adopting, in the place of an unworthy son, the brave and virtuous + Constantius, who at that time was governor of Dalmatia. But the elevation + of Constantius was for a while deferred; and as soon as the father’s death + had released Carinus from the control of fear or decency, he displayed to + the Romans the extravagancies of Elagabalus, aggravated by the cruelty of + Domitian. <a href="#linknote-12.82" name="linknoteref-12.82" + id="linknoteref-12.82">82</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.82" id="linknote-12.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 253, 254. Eutropius, x. 19. Vic to Junior. The reign of + Diocletian indeed was so long and prosperous, that it must have been very + unfavorable to the reputation of Carinus.] + </p> + <p> + The only merit of the administration of Carinus that history could record, + or poetry celebrate, was the uncommon splendor with which, in his own and + his brother’s name, he exhibited the Roman games of the theatre, the + circus, and the amphitheatre. More than twenty years afterwards, when the + courtiers of Diocletian represented to their frugal sovereign the fame and + popularity of his munificent predecessor, he acknowledged that the reign + of Carinus had indeed been a reign of pleasure. <a href="#linknote-12.83" + name="linknoteref-12.83" id="linknoteref-12.83">83</a> But this vain + prodigality, which the prudence of Diocletian might justly despise, was + enjoyed with surprise and transport by the Roman people. The oldest of the + citizens, recollecting the spectacles of former days, the triumphal pomp + of Probus or Aurelian, and the secular games of the emperor Philip, + acknowledged that they were all surpassed by the superior magnificence of + Carinus. <a href="#linknote-12.84" name="linknoteref-12.84" + id="linknoteref-12.84">84</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.83" id="linknote-12.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 254. He calls him Carus, but the sense is sufficiently obvious, + and the words were often confounded.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.84" id="linknote-12.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.84">return</a>)<br/> [ See Calphurnius, Eclog. + vii. 43. We may observe, that the spectacles of Probus were still recent, + and that the poet is seconded by the historian.] + </p> + <p> + The spectacles of Carinus may therefore be best illustrated by the + observation of some particulars, which history has condescended to relate + concerning those of his predecessors. If we confine ourselves solely to + the hunting of wild beasts, however we may censure the vanity of the + design or the cruelty of the execution, we are obliged to confess that + neither before nor since the time of the Romans so much art and expense + have ever been lavished for the amusement of the people. <a + href="#linknote-12.85" name="linknoteref-12.85" id="linknoteref-12.85">85</a> + By the order of Probus, a great quantity of large trees, torn up by the + roots, were transplanted into the midst of the circus. The spacious and + shady forest was immediately filled with a thousand ostriches, a thousand + stags, a thousand fallow deer, and a thousand wild boars; and all this + variety of game was abandoned to the riotous impetuosity of the multitude. + The tragedy of the succeeding day consisted in the massacre of a hundred + lions, an equal number of lionesses, two hundred leopards, and three + hundred bears. <a href="#linknote-12.86" name="linknoteref-12.86" + id="linknoteref-12.86">86</a> The collection prepared by the younger + Gordian for his triumph, and which his successor exhibited in the secular + games, was less remarkable by the number than by the singularity of the + animals. Twenty zebras displayed their elegant forms and variegated beauty + to the eyes of the Roman people. <a href="#linknote-12.87" + name="linknoteref-12.87" id="linknoteref-12.87">87</a> Ten elks, and as many + camelopards, the loftiest and most harmless creatures that wander over the + plains of Sarmatia and Æthiopia, were contrasted with thirty African + hyænas and ten Indian tigers, the most implacable savages of the torrid + zone. The unoffending strength with which Nature has endowed the greater + quadrupeds was admired in the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus of the Nile, <a + href="#linknote-12.88" name="linknoteref-12.88" id="linknoteref-12.88">88</a> + and a majestic troop of thirty-two elephants. <a href="#linknote-12.89" + name="linknoteref-12.89" id="linknoteref-12.89">89</a> While the populace + gazed with stupid wonder on the splendid show, the naturalist might indeed + observe the figure and properties of so many different species, + transported from every part of the ancient world into the amphitheatre of + Rome. But this accidental benefit, which science might derive from folly, + is surely insufficient to justify such a wanton abuse of the public + riches. There occurs, however, a single instance in the first Punic war, + in which the senate wisely connected this amusement of the multitude with + the interest of the state. A considerable number of elephants, taken in + the defeat of the Carthaginian army, were driven through the circus by a + few slaves, armed only with blunt javelins. <a href="#linknote-12.90" + name="linknoteref-12.90" id="linknoteref-12.90">90</a> The useful spectacle + served to impress the Roman soldier with a just contempt for those + unwieldy animals; and he no longer dreaded to encounter them in the ranks + of war. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.85" id="linknote-12.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.85">return</a>)<br/> [ The philosopher + Montaigne (Essais, l. iii. 6) gives a very just and lively view of Roman + magnificence in these spectacles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.86" id="linknote-12.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.86">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 240.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.87" id="linknote-12.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.87">return</a>)<br/> [ They are called Onagri; + but the number is too inconsiderable for mere wild asses. Cuper (de + Elephantis Exercitat. ii. 7) has proved from Oppian, Dion, and an + anonymous Greek, that zebras had been seen at Rome. They were brought from + some island of the ocean, perhaps Madagascar.] <a name="linknote-12.88" + id="linknote-12.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.88">return</a>)<br/> [Carinus gave a + hippopotamus, (see Calphurn. Eclog. vi. 66.) In the latter spectacles, I + do not recollect any crocodiles, of which Augustus once exhibited + thirty-six. Dion Cassius, l. lv. p. 781.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.89" id="linknote-12.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Capitolin. in Hist. + August. p. 164, 165. We are not acquainted with the animals which he calls + archeleontes; some read argoleontes others agrioleontes: both corrections + are very nugatory] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.90" id="linknote-12.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. + viii. 6, from the annals of Piso.] + </p> + <p> + The hunting or exhibition of wild beasts was conducted with a magnificence + suitable to a people who styled themselves the masters of the world; nor + was the edifice appropriated to that entertainment less expressive of + Roman greatness. Posterity admires, and will long admire, the awful + remains of the amphitheatre of Titus, which so well deserved the epithet + of Colossal. <a href="#linknote-12.91" name="linknoteref-12.91" + id="linknoteref-12.91">91</a> It was a building of an elliptic figure, five + hundred and sixty-four feet in length, and four hundred and sixty-seven in + breadth, founded on fourscore arches, and rising, with four successive + orders of architecture, to the height of one hundred and forty feet. <a + href="#linknote-12.92" name="linknoteref-12.92" id="linknoteref-12.92">92</a> + The outside of the edifice was encrusted with marble, and decorated with + statues. The slopes of the vast concave, which formed the inside, were + filled and surrounded with sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble + likewise, covered with cushions, and capable of receiving with ease about + fourscore thousand spectators. <a href="#linknote-12.93" + name="linknoteref-12.93" id="linknoteref-12.93">93</a> Sixty-four <i>vomitories</i> + (for by that name the doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth + the immense multitude; and the entrances, passages, and staircases were + contrived with such exquisite skill, that each person, whether of the + senatorial, the equestrian, or the plebeian order, arrived at his destined + place without trouble or confusion. <a href="#linknote-12.94" + name="linknoteref-12.94" id="linknoteref-12.94">94</a> Nothing was omitted, + which, in any respect, could be subservient to the convenience and + pleasure of the spectators. + </p> + <p> + They were protected from the sun and rain by an ample canopy, occasionally + drawn over their heads. The air was continally refreshed by the playing of + fountains, and profusely impregnated by the grateful scent of aromatics. + In the centre of the edifice, the <i>arena</i>, or stage, was strewed with the + finest sand, and successively assumed the most different forms. At one + moment it seemed to rise out of the earth, like the garden of the + Hesperides, and was afterwards broken into the rocks and caverns of + Thrace. The subterraneous pipes conveyed an inexhaustible supply of water; + and what had just before appeared a level plain, might be suddenly + converted into a wide lake, covered with armed vessels, and replenished + with the monsters of the deep. <a href="#linknote-12.95" + name="linknoteref-12.95" id="linknoteref-12.95">95</a> In the decoration of + these scenes, the Roman emperors displayed their wealth and liberality; + and we read on various occasions that the whole furniture of the + amphitheatre consisted either of silver, or of gold, or of amber. <a + href="#linknote-12.96" name="linknoteref-12.96" id="linknoteref-12.96">96</a> + The poet who describes the games of Carinus, in the character of a + shepherd, attracted to the capital by the fame of their magnificence, + affirms that the nets designed as a defence against the wild beasts were + of gold wire; that the porticos were gilded; and that the <i>belt</i> or circle + which divided the several ranks of spectators from each other was studded + with a precious mosaic of beautiful stones. <a href="#linknote-12.97" + name="linknoteref-12.97" id="linknoteref-12.97">97</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.91" id="linknote-12.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.91">return</a>)<br/> [ See Maffei, Verona + Illustrata, p. iv. l. i. c. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.92" id="linknote-12.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Maffei, l. ii. c. 2. + The height was very much exaggerated by the ancients. It reached almost to + the heavens, according to Calphurnius, (Eclog. vii. 23,) and surpassed the + ken of human sight, according to Ammianus Marcellinus (xvi. 10.) Yet how + trifling to the great pyramid of Egypt, which rises 500 feet + perpendicular] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.93" id="linknote-12.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.93">return</a>)<br/> [ According to different + copies of Victor, we read 77,000, or 87,000 spectators; but Maffei (l. ii. + c. 12) finds room on the open seats for no more than 34,000. The remainder + were contained in the upper covered galleries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.94" id="linknote-12.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.94">return</a>)<br/> [ See Maffei, l. ii. c. 5—12. + He treats the very difficult subject with all possible clearness, and like + an architect, as well as an antiquarian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.95" id="linknote-12.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.95">return</a>)<br/> [ Calphurn. Eclog vii. + 64, 73. These lines are curious, and the whole eclogue has been of + infinite use to Maffei. Calphurnius, as well as Martial, (see his first + book,) was a poet; but when they described the amphitheatre, they both + wrote from their own senses, and to those of the Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.96" id="linknote-12.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.96">return</a>)<br/> [ Consult Plin. Hist. + Natur. xxxiii. 16, xxxvii. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.97" id="linknote-12.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Balteus en gemmis, en + inlita porticus auro Certatim radiant, &c. Calphurn. vii.] + </p> + <p> + In the midst of this glittering pageantry, the emperor Carinus, secure of + his fortune, enjoyed the acclamations of the people, the flattery of his + courtiers, and the songs of the poets, who, for want of a more essential + merit, were reduced to celebrate the divine graces of his person. <a + href="#linknote-12.98" name="linknoteref-12.98" id="linknoteref-12.98">98</a> + In the same hour, but at the distance of nine hundred miles from Rome, his + brother expired; and a sudden revolution transferred into the hands of a + stranger the sceptre of the house of Carus. <a href="#linknote-12.99" + name="linknoteref-12.99" id="linknoteref-12.99">99</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.98" id="linknote-12.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Et Martis vultus et + Apollinis esse putavi, says Calphurnius; but John Malala, who had perhaps + seen pictures of Carinus, describes him as thick, short, and white, tom. + i. p. 403.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.99" id="linknote-12.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.99">return</a>)<br/> [ With regard to the time + when these Roman games were celebrated, Scaliger, Salmasius, and Cuper + have given themselves a great deal of trouble to perplex a very clear + subject.] + </p> + <p> + The sons of Carus never saw each other after their father’s death. The + arrangements which their new situation required were probably deferred + till the return of the younger brother to Rome, where a triumph was + decreed to the young emperors for the glorious success of the Persian war. + <a href="#linknote-12.100" name="linknoteref-12.100" id="linknoteref-12.100">100</a> + It is uncertain whether they intended to divide between them the + administration, or the provinces, of the empire; but it is very unlikely + that their union would have proved of any long duration. The jealousy of + power must have been inflamed by the opposition of characters. In the most + corrupt of times, Carinus was unworthy to live: Numerian deserved to reign + in a happier period. His affable manners and gentle virtues secured him, + as soon as they became known, the regard and affections of the public. He + possessed the elegant accomplishments of a poet and orator, which dignify + as well as adorn the humblest and the most exalted station. His eloquence, + however it was applauded by the senate, was formed not so much on the + model of Cicero, as on that of the modern declaimers; but in an age very + far from being destitute of poetical merit, he contended for the prize + with the most celebrated of his contemporaries, and still remained the + friend of his rivals; a circumstance which evinces either the goodness of + his heart, or the superiority of his genius. <a href="#linknote-12.101" + name="linknoteref-12.101" id="linknoteref-12.101">101</a> But the talents of + Numerian were rather of the contemplative than of the active kind. When + his father’s elevation reluctantly forced him from the shade of + retirement, neither his temper nor his pursuits had qualified him for the + command of armies. His constitution was destroyed by the hardships of the + Persian war; and he had contracted, from the heat of the climate, <a + href="#linknote-12.102" name="linknoteref-12.102" id="linknoteref-12.102">102</a> + such a weakness in his eyes, as obliged him, in the course of a long + retreat, to confine himself to the solitude and darkness of a tent or + litter. + </p> + <p> + The administration of all affairs, civil as well as military, was devolved + on Arrius Aper, the Prætorian præfect, who to the power of his important + office added the honor of being father-in-law to Numerian. The Imperial + pavilion was strictly guarded by his most trusty adherents; and during + many days, Aper delivered to the army the supposed mandates of their + invisible sovereign. <a href="#linknote-12.103" name="linknoteref-12.103" + id="linknoteref-12.103">103</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.100" id="linknote-12.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.100">return</a>)<br/> [ Nemesianus (in the + Cynegeticon) seems to anticipate in his fancy that auspicious day.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.101" id="linknote-12.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.101">return</a>)<br/> [ He won all the crowns + from Nemesianus, with whom he vied in didactic poetry. The senate erected + a statue to the son of Carus, with a very ambiguous inscription, “To the + most powerful of orators.” See Vopiscus in Hist. August. p. 251.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.102" id="linknote-12.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.102">return</a>)<br/> [ A more natural cause, + at least, than that assigned by Vopiscus, (Hist. August. p. 251,) + incessantly weeping for his father’s death.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.103" id="linknote-12.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.103">return</a>)<br/> [ In the Persian war, + Aper was suspected of a design to betray Carus. Hist. August. p. 250.] + </p> + <p> + It was not till eight months after the death of Carus, that the Roman + army, returning by slow marches from the banks of the Tigris, arrived on + those of the Thracian Bosphorus. The legions halted at Chalcedon in Asia, + while the court passed over to Heraclea, on the European side of the + Propontis. <a href="#linknote-12.104" name="linknoteref-12.104" + id="linknoteref-12.104">104</a> But a report soon circulated through the + camp, at first in secret whispers, and at length in loud clamors, of the + emperor’s death, and of the presumption of his ambitious minister, who + still exercised the sovereign power in the name of a prince who was no + more. The impatience of the soldiers could not long support a state of + suspense. With rude curiosity they broke into the Imperial tent, and + discovered only the corpse of Numerian. <a href="#linknote-12.105" + name="linknoteref-12.105" id="linknoteref-12.105">105</a> The gradual + decline of his health might have induced them to believe that his death + was natural; but the concealment was interpreted as an evidence of guilt, + and the measures which Aper had taken to secure his election became the + immediate occasion of his ruin. Yet, even in the transport of their rage + and grief, the troops observed a regular proceeding, which proves how + firmly discipline had been reëstablished by the martial successors of + Gallienus. A general assembly of the army was appointed to be held at + Chalcedon, whither Aper was transported in chains, as a prisoner and a + criminal. A vacant tribunal was erected in the midst of the camp, and the + generals and tribunes formed a great military council. They soon announced + to the multitude that their choice had fallen on Diocletian, commander of + the domestics or body-guards, as the person the most capable of revenging + and succeeding their beloved emperor. The future fortunes of the candidate + depended on the chance or conduct of the present hour. Conscious that the + station which he had filled exposed him to some suspicions, Diocletian + ascended the tribunal, and raising his eyes towards the Sun, made a solemn + profession of his own innocence, in the presence of that all-seeing Deity. + <a href="#linknote-12.106" name="linknoteref-12.106" id="linknoteref-12.106">106</a> + Then, assuming the tone of a sovereign and a judge, he commanded that Aper + should be brought in chains to the foot of the tribunal. “This man,” said + he, “is the murderer of Numerian;” and without giving him time to enter on + a dangerous justification, drew his sword, and buried it in the breast of + the unfortunate præfect. A charge supported by such decisive proof was + admitted without contradiction, and the legions, with repeated + acclamations, acknowledged the justice and authority of the emperor + Diocletian. <a href="#linknote-12.107" name="linknoteref-12.107" + id="linknoteref-12.107">107</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.104" id="linknote-12.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.104">return</a>)<br/> [ We are obliged to the + Alexandrian Chronicle, p. 274, for the knowledge of the time and place + where Diocletian was elected emperor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.105" id="linknote-12.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.105">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 251. + Eutrop. ix. 88. Hieronym. in Chron. According to these judicious writers, + the death of Numerian was discovered by the stench of his dead body. Could + no aromatics be found in the Imperial household?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.106" id="linknote-12.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.106">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurel. Victor. + Eutropius, ix. 20. Hieronym. in Chron.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.107" id="linknote-12.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.107">return</a>)<br/> [ Vopiscus in Hist. + August. p. 252. The reason why Diocletian killed Aper, (a wild boar,) was + founded on a prophecy and a pun, as foolish as they are well known.] + </p> + <p> + Before we enter upon the memorable reign of that prince, it will be proper + to punish and dismiss the unworthy brother of Numerian. Carinus possessed + arms and treasures sufficient to support his legal title to the empire. + But his personal vices overbalanced every advantage of birth and + situation. The most faithful servants of the father despised the + incapacity, and dreaded the cruel arrogance, of the son. The hearts of the + people were engaged in favor of his rival, and even the senate was + inclined to prefer a usurper to a tyrant. The arts of Diocletian inflamed + the general discontent; and the winter was employed in secret intrigues, + and open preparations for a civil war. In the spring, the forces of the + East and of the West encountered each other in the plains of Margus, a + small city of Mæsia, in the neighborhood of the Danube. <a + href="#linknote-12.108" name="linknoteref-12.108" id="linknoteref-12.108">108</a> + The troops, so lately returned from the Persian war, had acquired their + glory at the expense of health and numbers; nor were they in a condition + to contend with the unexhausted strength of the legions of Europe. Their + ranks were broken, and, for a moment, Diocletian despaired of the purple + and of life. But the advantage which Carinus had obtained by the valor of + his soldiers, he quickly lost by the infidelity of his officers. A + tribune, whose wife he had seduced, seized the opportunity of revenge, + and, by a single blow, extinguished civil discord in the blood of the + adulterer. <a href="#linknote-12.109" name="linknoteref-12.109" + id="linknoteref-12.109">109</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.108" id="linknote-12.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius marks its + situation very accurately; it was between the Mons Aureus and Viminiacum. + M. d’Anville (Geographic Ancienne, tom. i. p. 304) places Margus at + Kastolatz in Servia, a little below Belgrade and Semendria. * Note: + Kullieza—Eton Atlas—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-12.109" id="linknote-12.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-12.109">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 254. + Eutropius, ix. 20. Aurelius Victor et Epitome] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap13.1"></a> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates, Maximian, Galerius, And +Constantius.—General Reestablishment Of Order And Tranquillity.—The +Persian War, Victory, And Triumph.—The New Form Of +Administration.—Abdication And Retirement Of Diocletian And Maximian. +</p> + <p> + As the reign of Diocletian was more illustrious than that of any of his + predecessors, so was his birth more abject and obscure. The strong claims + of merit and of violence had frequently superseded the ideal prerogatives + of nobility; but a distinct line of separation was hitherto preserved + between the free and the servile part of mankind. The parents of + Diocletian had been slaves in the house of Anulinus, a Roman senator; nor + was he himself distinguished by any other name than that which he derived + from a small town in Dalmatia, from whence his mother deduced her origin. + <a href="#linknote-13.1" name="linknoteref-13.1" id="linknoteref-13.1">1</a> + It is, however, probable that his father obtained the freedom of the + family, and that he soon acquired an office of scribe, which was commonly + exercised by persons of his condition. <a href="#linknote-13.2" + name="linknoteref-13.2" id="linknoteref-13.2">2</a> Favorable oracles, or + rather the consciousness of superior merit, prompted his aspiring son to + pursue the profession of arms and the hopes of fortune; and it would be + extremely curious to observe the gradation of arts and accidents which + enabled him in the end to fulfil those oracles, and to display that merit + to the world. Diocletian was successively promoted to the government of + Mæsia, the honors of the consulship, and the important command of the + guards of the palace. He distinguished his abilities in the Persian war; + and after the death of Numerian, the slave, by the confession and judgment + of his rivals, was declared the most worthy of the Imperial throne. The + malice of religious zeal, whilst it arraigns the savage fierceness of his + colleague Maximian, has affected to cast suspicions on the personal + courage of the emperor Diocletian. <a href="#linknote-13.3" + name="linknoteref-13.3" id="linknoteref-13.3">3</a> It would not be easy to + persuade us of the cowardice of a soldier of fortune, who acquired and + preserved the esteem of the legions as well as the favor of so many + warlike princes. Yet even calumny is sagacious enough to discover and to + attack the most vulnerable part. The valor of Diocletian was never found + inadequate to his duty, or to the occasion; but he appears not to have + possessed the daring and generous spirit of a hero, who courts danger and + fame, disdains artifice, and boldly challenges the allegiance of his + equals. His abilities were useful rather than splendid; a vigorous mind, + improved by the experience and study of mankind; dexterity and application + in business; a judicious mixture of liberality and economy, of mildness + and rigor; profound dissimulation, under the disguise of military + frankness; steadiness to pursue his ends; flexibility to vary his means; + and, above all, the great art of submitting his own passions, as well as + those of others, to the interest of his ambition, and of coloring his + ambition with the most specious pretences of justice and public utility. + Like Augustus, Diocletian may be considered as the founder of a new + empire. Like the adopted son of Cæsar, he was distinguished as a + statesman rather than as a warrior; nor did either of those princes employ + force, whenever their purpose could be effected by policy. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.1" id="linknote-13.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutrop. ix. 19. Victor in + Epitome. The town seems to have been properly called Doclia, from a small + tribe of Illyrians, (see Cellarius, Geograph. Antiqua, tom. i. p. 393;) + and the original name of the fortunate slave was probably Docles; he first + lengthened it to the Grecian harmony of Diocles, and at length to the + Roman majesty of Diocletianus. He likewise assumed the Patrician name of + Valerius and it is usually given him by Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.2" id="linknote-13.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.2">return</a>)<br/> [ See Dacier on the sixth + satire of the second book of Horace Cornel. Nepos, ’n Vit. Eumen. c. l.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.3" id="linknote-13.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius (or whoever + was the author of the little treatise De Mortibus Persecutorum) accuses + Diocletian of timidity in two places, c. 7. 8. In chap. 9 he says of him, + “erat in omni tumultu meticulosu et animi disjectus.”] + </p> + <p> + The victory of Diocletian was remarkable for its singular mildness. A + people accustomed to applaud the clemency of the conqueror, if the usual + punishments of death, exile, and confiscation, were inflicted with any + degree of temper and equity, beheld, with the most pleasing astonishment, + a civil war, the flames of which were extinguished in the field of battle. + Diocletian received into his confidence Aristobulus, the principal + minister of the house of Carus, respected the lives, the fortunes, and the + dignity, of his adversaries, and even continued in their respective + stations the greater number of the servants of Carinus. <a + href="#linknote-13.4" name="linknoteref-13.4" id="linknoteref-13.4">4</a> It + is not improbable that motives of prudence might assist the humanity of + the artful Dalmatian; of these servants, many had purchased his favor by + secret treachery; in others, he esteemed their grateful fidelity to an + unfortunate master. The discerning judgment of Aurelian, of Probus, and of + Carus, had filled the several departments of the state and army with + officers of approved merit, whose removal would have injured the public + service, without promoting the interest of his successor. Such a conduct, + however, displayed to the Roman world the fairest prospect of the new + reign, and the emperor affected to confirm this favorable prepossession, + by declaring, that, among all the virtues of his predecessors, he was the + most ambitious of imitating the humane philosophy of Marcus Antoninus. <a + href="#linknote-13.5" name="linknoteref-13.5" id="linknoteref-13.5">5</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.4" id="linknote-13.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.4">return</a>)<br/> [ In this encomium, + Aurelius Victor seems to convey a just, though indirect, censure of the + cruelty of Constantius. It appears from the Fasti, that Aristobulus + remained præfect of the city, and that he ended with Diocletian the + consulship which he had commenced with Carinus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.5" id="linknote-13.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor styles + Diocletian, “Parentum potius quam Dominum.” See Hist. August. p. 30.] + </p> + <p> + The first considerable action of his reign seemed to evince his sincerity + as well as his moderation. After the example of Marcus, he gave himself a + colleague in the person of Maximian, on whom he bestowed at first the + title of Cæsar, and afterwards that of Augustus. <a href="#linknote-13.6" + name="linknoteref-13.6" id="linknoteref-13.6">6</a> But the motives of his + conduct, as well as the object of his choice, were of a very different + nature from those of his admired predecessor. By investing a luxurious + youth with the honors of the purple, Marcus had discharged a debt of + private gratitude, at the expense, indeed, of the happiness of the state. + By associating a friend and a fellow-soldier to the labors of government, + Diocletian, in a time of public danger, provided for the defence both of + the East and of the West. Maximian was born a peasant, and, like Aurelian, + in the territory of Sirmium. Ignorant of letters, <a href="#linknote-13.7" + name="linknoteref-13.7" id="linknoteref-13.7">7</a> careless of laws, the + rusticity of his appearance and manners still betrayed in the most + elevated fortune the meanness of his extraction. War was the only art + which he professed. In a long course of service he had distinguished + himself on every frontier of the empire; and though his military talents + were formed to obey rather than to command, though, perhaps, he never + attained the skill of a consummate general, he was capable, by his valor, + constancy, and experience, of executing the most arduous undertakings. Nor + were the vices of Maximian less useful to his benefactor. Insensible to + pity, and fearless of consequences, he was the ready instrument of every + act of cruelty which the policy of that artful prince might at once + suggest and disclaim. As soon as a bloody sacrifice had been offered to + prudence or to revenge, Diocletian, by his seasonable intercession, saved + the remaining few whom he had never designed to punish, gently censured + the severity of his stern colleague, and enjoyed the comparison of a + golden and an iron age, which was universally applied to their opposite + maxims of government. Notwithstanding the difference of their characters, + the two emperors maintained, on the throne, that friendship which they had + contracted in a private station. The haughty, turbulent spirit of + Maximian, so fatal, afterwards, to himself and to the public peace, was + accustomed to respect the genius of Diocletian, and confessed the + ascendant of reason over brutal violence. <a href="#linknote-13.8" + name="linknoteref-13.8" id="linknoteref-13.8">8</a> From a motive either of + pride or superstition, the two emperors assumed the titles, the one of + Jovius, the other of Herculius. Whilst the motion of the world (such was + the language of their venal orators) was maintained by the all-seeing + wisdom of Jupiter, the invincible arm of Hercules purged the earth from + monsters and tyrants. <a href="#linknote-13.9" name="linknoteref-13.9" + id="linknoteref-13.9">9</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.6" id="linknote-13.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.6">return</a>)<br/> [ The question of the time + when Maximian received the honors of Cæsar and Augustus has divided + modern critics, and given occasion to a great deal of learned wrangling. I + have followed M. de Tillemont, (Histoire des Empereurs, tom. iv. p. + 500-505,) who has weighed the several reasons and difficulties with his + scrupulous accuracy. * Note: Eckbel concurs in this view, viii p. 15.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.7" id="linknote-13.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.7">return</a>)<br/> [ In an oration delivered + before him, (Panegyr. Vet. ii. 8,) Mamertinus expresses a doubt, whether + his hero, in imitating the conduct of Hannibal and Scipio, had ever heard + of their names. From thence we may fairly infer, that Maximian was more + desirous of being considered as a soldier than as a man of letters; and it + is in this manner that we can often translate the language of flattery + into that of truth.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.8" id="linknote-13.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. 8. + Aurelius Victor. As among the Panegyrics, we find orations pronounced in + praise of Maximian, and others which flatter his adversaries at his + expense, we derive some knowledge from the contrast.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.9" id="linknote-13.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.9">return</a>)<br/> [ See the second and third + Panegyrics, particularly iii. 3, 10, 14 but it would be tedious to copy + the diffuse and affected expressions of their false eloquence. With regard + to the titles, consult Aurel. Victor Lactantius de M. P. c. 52. Spanheim + de Usu Numismatum, &c. xii 8.] + </p> + <p> + But even the omnipotence of Jovius and Herculius was insufficient to + sustain the weight of the public administration. The prudence of + Diocletian discovered that the empire, assailed on every side by the + barbarians, required on every side the presence of a great army, and of an + emperor. With this view, he resolved once more to divide his unwieldy + power, and with the inferior title of <i>Cæsars</i>, <a href="#linknote-13.901" + name="linknoteref-13.901" id="linknoteref-13.901">901</a> to confer on two + generals of approved merit an unequal share of the sovereign authority. <a + href="#linknote-13.10" name="linknoteref-13.10" id="linknoteref-13.10">10</a> + Galerius, surnamed Armentarius, from his original profession of a + herdsman, and Constantius, who from his pale complexion had acquired the + denomination of Chlorus, <a href="#linknote-13.11" name="linknoteref-13.11" + id="linknoteref-13.11">11</a> were the two persons invested with the second + honors of the Imperial purple. In describing the country, extraction, and + manners of Herculius, we have already delineated those of Galerius, who + was often, and not improperly, styled the younger Maximian, though, in + many instances both of virtue and ability, he appears to have possessed a + manifest superiority over the elder. The birth of Constantius was less + obscure than that of his colleagues. Eutropius, his father, was one of the + most considerable nobles of Dardania, and his mother was the niece of the + emperor Claudius. <a href="#linknote-13.12" name="linknoteref-13.12" + id="linknoteref-13.12">12</a> Although the youth of Constantius had been + spent in arms, he was endowed with a mild and amiable disposition, and the + popular voice had long since acknowledged him worthy of the rank which he + at last attained. To strengthen the bonds of political, by those of + domestic, union, each of the emperors assumed the character of a father to + one of the Cæsars, Diocletian to Galerius, and Maximian to Constantius; + and each, obliging them to repudiate their former wives, bestowed his + daughter in marriage or his adopted son. <a href="#linknote-13.13" + name="linknoteref-13.13" id="linknoteref-13.13">13</a> These four princes + distributed among themselves the wide extent of the Roman empire. The + defence of Gaul, Spain, <a href="#linknote-13.14" name="linknoteref-13.14" + id="linknoteref-13.14">14</a> and Britain, was intrusted to Constantius: + Galerius was stationed on the banks of the Danube, as the safeguard of the + Illyrian provinces. Italy and Africa were considered as the department of + Maximian; and for his peculiar portion, Diocletian reserved Thrace, Egypt, + and the rich countries of Asia. Every one was sovereign with his own + jurisdiction; but their united authority extended over the whole monarchy, + and each of them was prepared to assist his colleagues with his counsels + or presence. The Cæsars, in their exalted rank, revered the majesty of + the emperors, and the three younger princes invariably acknowledged, by + their gratitude and obedience, the common parent of their fortunes. The + suspicious jealousy of power found not any place among them; and the + singular happiness of their union has been compared to a chorus of music, + whose harmony was regulated and maintained by the skilful hand of the + first artist. <a href="#linknote-13.15" name="linknoteref-13.15" + id="linknoteref-13.15">15</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.901" id="linknote-13.901"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 901 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.901">return</a>)<br/> [ On the relative power + of the Augusti and the Cæsars, consult a dissertation at the end of + Manso’s Leben Constantius des Grossen—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.10" id="linknote-13.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.10">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor. Victor + in Epitome. Eutrop. ix. 22. Lactant de M. P. c. 8. Hieronym. in Chron.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.11" id="linknote-13.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.11">return</a>)<br/> [ It is only among the + modern Greeks that Tillemont can discover his appellation of Chlorus. Any + remarkable degree of paleness seems inconsistent with the rubor mentioned + in Panegyric, v. 19.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.12" id="linknote-13.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian, the grandson of + Constantius, boasts that his family was derived from the warlike Mæsians. + Misopogon, p. 348. The Dardanians dwelt on the edge of Mæsia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.13" id="linknote-13.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Galerius married + Valeria, the daughter of Diocletian; if we speak with strictness, + Theodora, the wife of Constantius, was daughter only to the wife of + Maximian. Spanheim, Dissertat, xi. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.14" id="linknote-13.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.14">return</a>)<br/> [ This division agrees + with that of the four præfectures; yet there is some reason to doubt + whether Spain was not a province of Maximian. See Tillemont, tom. iv. p. + 517. * Note: According to Aurelius Victor and other authorities, Thrace + belonged to the division of Galerius. See Tillemont, iv. 36. But the laws + of Diocletian are in general dated in Illyria or Thrace.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.15" id="linknote-13.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian in Cæsarib. p. + 315. Spanheim’s notes to the French translation, p. 122.] + </p> + <p> + This important measure was not carried into execution till about six years + after the association of Maximian, and that interval of time had not been + destitute of memorable incidents. But we have preferred, for the sake of + perspicuity, first to describe the more perfect form of Diocletian’s + government, and afterwards to relate the actions of his reign, following + rather the natural order of the events, than the dates of a very doubtful + chronology. + </p> + <p> + The first exploit of Maximian, though it is mentioned in a few words by + our imperfect writers, deserves, from its singularity, to be recorded in a + history of human manners. He suppressed the peasants of Gaul, who, under + the appellation of Bagaudæ, <a href="#linknote-13.16" + name="linknoteref-13.16" id="linknoteref-13.16">16</a> had risen in a + general insurrection; very similar to those which in the fourteenth + century successively afflicted both France and England. <a + href="#linknote-13.17" name="linknoteref-13.17" id="linknoteref-13.17">17</a> + It should seem that very many of those institutions, referred by an easy + solution to the feudal system, are derived from the Celtic barbarians. + When Cæsar subdued the Gauls, that great nation was already divided into + three orders of men; the clergy, the nobility, and the common people. The + first governed by superstition, the second by arms, but the third and last + was not of any weight or account in their public councils. It was very + natural for the plebeians, oppressed by debt, or apprehensive of injuries, + to implore the protection of some powerful chief, who acquired over their + persons and property the same absolute right as, among the Greeks and + Romans, a master exercised over his slaves. <a href="#linknote-13.18" + name="linknoteref-13.18" id="linknoteref-13.18">18</a> The greatest part of + the nation was gradually reduced into a state of servitude; compelled to + perpetual labor on the estates of the Gallic nobles, and confined to the + soil, either by the real weight of fetters, or by the no less cruel and + forcible restraints of the laws. During the long series of troubles which + agitated Gaul, from the reign of Gallienus to that of Diocletian, the + condition of these servile peasants was peculiarly miserable; and they + experienced at once the complicated tyranny of their masters, of the + barbarians, of the soldiers, and of the officers of the revenue. <a + href="#linknote-13.19" name="linknoteref-13.19" id="linknoteref-13.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.16" id="linknote-13.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.16">return</a>)<br/> [ The general name of + Bagaudæ (in the signification of rebels) continued till the fifth century + in Gaul. Some critics derive it from a Celtic word Bagad, a tumultuous + assembly. Scaliger ad Euseb. Du Cange Glossar. (Compare S. Turner, + Anglo-Sax. History, i. 214.—M.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.17" id="linknote-13.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Chronique de Froissart, + vol. i. c. 182, ii. 73, 79. The naivete of his story is lost in our best + modern writers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.18" id="linknote-13.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.18">return</a>)<br/> [ Cæsar de Bell. Gallic. + vi. 13. Orgetorix, the Helvetian, could arm for his defence a body of ten + thousand slaves.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.19" id="linknote-13.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Their oppression and + misery are acknowledged by Eumenius (Panegyr. vi. 8,) Gallias efferatas + injuriis.] + </p> + <p> + Their patience was at last provoked into despair. On every side they rose + in multitudes, armed with rustic weapons, and with irresistible fury. The + ploughman became a foot soldier, the shepherd mounted on horseback, the + deserted villages and open towns were abandoned to the flames, and the + ravages of the peasants equalled those of the fiercest barbarians. <a + href="#linknote-13.20" name="linknoteref-13.20" id="linknoteref-13.20">20</a> + They asserted the natural rights of men, but they asserted those rights + with the most savage cruelty. The Gallic nobles, justly dreading their + revenge, either took refuge in the fortified cities, or fled from the wild + scene of anarchy. The peasants reigned without control; and two of their + most daring leaders had the folly and rashness to assume the Imperial + ornaments. <a href="#linknote-13.21" name="linknoteref-13.21" + id="linknoteref-13.21">21</a> Their power soon expired at the approach of + the legions. The strength of union and discipline obtained an easy victory + over a licentious and divided multitude. <a href="#linknote-13.22" + name="linknoteref-13.22" id="linknoteref-13.22">22</a> A severe retaliation + was inflicted on the peasants who were found in arms; the affrighted + remnant returned to their respective habitations, and their unsuccessful + effort for freedom served only to confirm their slavery. So strong and + uniform is the current of popular passions, that we might almost venture, + from very scanty materials, to relate the particulars of this war; but we + are not disposed to believe that the principal leaders, Ælianus and + Amandus, were Christians, <a href="#linknote-13.23" name="linknoteref-13.23" + id="linknoteref-13.23">23</a> or to insinuate, that the rebellion, as it + happened in the time of Luther, was occasioned by the abuse of those + benevolent principles of Christianity, which inculcate the natural freedom + of mankind. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.20" id="linknote-13.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. ii. 4. + Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.21" id="linknote-13.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Ælianus and Amandus. + We have medals coined by them Goltzius in Thes. R. A. p. 117, 121.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.22" id="linknote-13.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Levibus proeliis + domuit. Eutrop. ix. 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.23" id="linknote-13.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.23">return</a>)<br/> [ The fact rests indeed + on very slight authority, a life of St. Babolinus, which is probably of + the seventh century. See Duchesne Scriptores Rer. Francicar. tom. i. p. + 662.] + </p> + <p> + Maximian had no sooner recovered Gaul from the hands of the peasants, than + he lost Britain by the usurpation of Carausius. Ever since the rash but + successful enterprise of the Franks under the reign of Probus, their + daring countrymen had constructed squadrons of light brigantines, in which + they incessantly ravaged the provinces adjacent to the ocean. <a + href="#linknote-13.24" name="linknoteref-13.24" id="linknoteref-13.24">24</a> + To repel their desultory incursions, it was found necessary to create a + naval power; and the judicious measure was prosecuted with prudence and + vigor. Gessoriacum, or Boulogne, in the straits of the British Channel, + was chosen by the emperor for the station of the Roman fleet; and the + command of it was intrusted to Carausius, a Menapian of the meanest + origin, <a href="#linknote-13.25" name="linknoteref-13.25" + id="linknoteref-13.25">25</a> but who had long signalized his skill as a + pilot, and his valor as a soldier. The integrity of the new admiral + corresponded not with his abilities. When the German pirates sailed from + their own harbors, he connived at their passage, but he diligently + intercepted their return, and appropriated to his own use an ample share + of the spoil which they had acquired. The wealth of Carausius was, on this + occasion, very justly considered as an evidence of his guilt; and Maximian + had already given orders for his death. But the crafty Menapian foresaw + and prevented the severity of the emperor. By his liberality he had + attached to his fortunes the fleet which he commanded, and secured the + barbarians in his interest. From the port of Boulogne he sailed over to + Britain, persuaded the legion, and the auxiliaries which guarded that + island, to embrace his party, and boldly assuming, with the Imperial + purple, the title of Augustus, defied the justice and the arms of his + injured sovereign. <a href="#linknote-13.26" name="linknoteref-13.26" + id="linknoteref-13.26">26</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.24" id="linknote-13.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.24">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor calls + them Germans. Eutropius (ix. 21) gives them the name of Saxons. But + Eutropius lived in the ensuing century, and seems to use the language of + his own times.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.25" id="linknote-13.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.25">return</a>)<br/> [ The three expressions + of Eutropius, Aurelius Victor, and Eumenius, “vilissime natus,” “Bataviæ + alumnus,” and “Menapiæ civis,” give us a very doubtful account of the + birth of Carausius. Dr. Stukely, however, (Hist. of Carausius, p. 62,) + chooses to make him a native of St. David’s and a prince of the blood + royal of Britain. The former idea he had found in Richard of Cirencester, + p. 44. * Note: The Menapians were settled between the Scheldt and the + Meuse, is the northern part of Brabant. D’Anville, Geogr. Anc. i. 93.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.26" id="linknote-13.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. v. 12. Britain + at this time was secure, and slightly guarded.] + </p> + <p> + When Britain was thus dismembered from the empire, its importance was + sensibly felt, and its loss sincerely lamented. The Romans celebrated, and + perhaps magnified, the extent of that noble island, provided on every side + with convenient harbors; the temperature of the climate, and the fertility + of the soil, alike adapted for the production of corn or of vines; the + valuable minerals with which it abounded; its rich pastures covered with + innumerable flocks, and its woods free from wild beasts or venomous + serpents. Above all, they regretted the large amount of the revenue of + Britain, whilst they confessed, that such a province well deserved to + become the seat of an independent monarchy. <a href="#linknote-13.27" + name="linknoteref-13.27" id="linknoteref-13.27">27</a> During the space of + seven years it was possessed by Carausius; and fortune continued + propitious to a rebellion supported with courage and ability. The British + emperor defended the frontiers of his dominions against the Caledonians of + the North, invited, from the continent, a great number of skilful artists, + and displayed, on a variety of coins that are still extant, his taste and + opulence. Born on the confines of the Franks, he courted the friendship of + that formidable people, by the flattering imitation of their dress and + manners. The bravest of their youth he enlisted among his land or sea + forces; and, in return for their useful alliance, he communicated to the + barbarians the dangerous knowledge of military and naval arts. Carausius + still preserved the possession of Boulogne and the adjacent country. His + fleets rode triumphant in the channel, commanded the mouths of the Seine + and of the Rhine, ravaged the coasts of the ocean, and diffused beyond the + columns of Hercules the terror of his name. Under his command, Britain, + destined in a future age to obtain the empire of the sea, already assumed + its natural and respectable station of a maritime power. <a + href="#linknote-13.28" name="linknoteref-13.28" id="linknoteref-13.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.27" id="linknote-13.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet v 11, vii. + 9. The orator Eumenius wished to exalt the glory of the hero (Constantius) + with the importance of the conquest. Notwithstanding our laudable + partiality for our native country, it is difficult to conceive, that, in + the beginning of the fourth century England deserved all these + commendations. A century and a half before, it hardly paid its own + establishment.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.28" id="linknote-13.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.28">return</a>)<br/> [ As a great number of + medals of Carausius are still preserved, he is become a very favorite + object of antiquarian curiosity, and every circumstance of his life and + actions has been investigated with sagacious accuracy. Dr. Stukely, in + particular, has devoted a large volume to the British emperor. I have used + his materials, and rejected most of his fanciful conjectures.] + </p> + <p> + By seizing the fleet of Boulogne, Carausius had deprived his master of the + means of pursuit and revenge. And when, after a vast expense of time and + labor, a new armament was launched into the water, <a href="#linknote-13.29" + name="linknoteref-13.29" id="linknoteref-13.29">29</a> the Imperial troops, + unaccustomed to that element, were easily baffled and defeated by the + veteran sailors of the usurper. This disappointed effort was soon + productive of a treaty of peace. Diocletian and his colleague, who justly + dreaded the enterprising spirit of Carausius, resigned to him the + sovereignty of Britain, and reluctantly admitted their perfidious servant + to a participation of the Imperial honors. <a href="#linknote-13.30" + name="linknoteref-13.30" id="linknoteref-13.30">30</a> But the adoption of + the two Cæsars restored new vigor to the Romans arms; and while the Rhine + was guarded by the presence of Maximian, his brave associate Constantius + assumed the conduct of the British war. His first enterprise was against + the important place of Boulogne. A stupendous mole, raised across the + entrance of the harbor, intercepted all hopes of relief. The town + surrendered after an obstinate defence; and a considerable part of the + naval strength of Carausius fell into the hands of the besiegers. During + the three years which Constantius employed in preparing a fleet adequate + to the conquest of Britain, he secured the coast of Gaul, invaded the + country of the Franks, and deprived the usurper of the assistance of those + powerful allies. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.29" id="linknote-13.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.29">return</a>)<br/> [ When Mamertinus + pronounced his first panegyric, the naval preparations of Maximian were + completed; and the orator presaged an assured victory. His silence in the + second panegyric might alone inform us that the expedition had not + succeeded.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.30" id="linknote-13.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor, + Eutropius, and the medals, (Pax Augg.) inform us of this temporary + reconciliation; though I will not presume (as Dr. Stukely has done, + Medallic History of Carausius, p. 86, &c) to insert the identical + articles of the treaty.] + </p> + <p> + Before the preparations were finished, Constantius received the + intelligence of the tyrant’s death, and it was considered as a sure + presage of the approaching victory. The servants of Carausius imitated the + example of treason which he had given. He was murdered by his first + minister, Allectus, and the assassin succeeded to his power and to his + danger. But he possessed not equal abilities either to exercise the one or + to repel the other. + </p> + <p> + He beheld, with anxious terror, the opposite shores of the continent + already filled with arms, with troops, and with vessels; for Constantius + had very prudently divided his forces, that he might likewise divide the + attention and resistance of the enemy. The attack was at length made by + the principal squadron, which, under the command of the præfect + Asclepiodatus, an officer of distinguished merit, had been assembled in + the north of the Seine. So imperfect in those times was the art of + navigation, that orators have celebrated the daring courage of the Romans, + who ventured to set sail with a side-wind, and on a stormy day. The + weather proved favorable to their enterprise. Under the cover of a thick + fog, they escaped the fleet of Allectus, which had been stationed off the + Isle of Wight to receive them, landed in safety on some part of the + western coast, and convinced the Britons, that a superiority of naval + strength will not always protect their country from a foreign invasion. + Asclepiodatus had no sooner disembarked the imperial troops, then he set + fire to his ships; and, as the expedition proved fortunate, his heroic + conduct was universally admired. The usurper had posted himself near + London, to expect the formidable attack of Constantius, who commanded in + person the fleet of Boulogne; but the descent of a new enemy required his + immediate presence in the West. He performed this long march in so + precipitate a manner, that he encountered the whole force of the præfect + with a small body of harassed and disheartened troops. The engagement was + soon terminated by the total defeat and death of Allectus; a single + battle, as it has often happened, decided the fate of this great island; + and when Constantius landed on the shores of Kent, he found them covered + with obedient subjects. Their acclamations were loud and unanimous; and + the virtues of the conqueror may induce us to believe, that they sincerely + rejoiced in a revolution, which, after a separation of ten years, restored + Britain to the body of the Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-13.31" + name="linknoteref-13.31" id="linknoteref-13.31">31</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.31" id="linknote-13.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.31">return</a>)<br/> [ With regard to the + recovery of Britain, we obtain a few hints from Aurelius Victor and + Eutropius.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap13.2"></a> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Britain had none but domestic enemies to dread; and as long as the + governors preserved their fidelity, and the troops their discipline, the + incursions of the naked savages of Scotland or Ireland could never + materially affect the safety of the province. + </p> + <p> + The peace of the continent, and the defence of the principal rivers which + bounded the empire, were objects of far greater difficulty and importance. + The policy of Diocletian, which inspired the councils of his associates, + provided for the public tranquility, by encouraging a spirit of dissension + among the barbarians, and by strengthening the fortifications of the Roman + limit. In the East he fixed a line of camps from Egypt to the Persian + dominions, and for every camp, he instituted an adequate number of + stationary troops, commanded by their respective officers, and supplied + with every kind of arms, from the new arsenals which he had formed at + Antioch, Emesa, and Damascus. <a href="#linknote-13.32" + name="linknoteref-13.32" id="linknoteref-13.32">32</a> Nor was the + precaution of the emperor less watchful against the well-known valor of + the barbarians of Europe. From the mouth of the Rhine to that of the + Danube, the ancient camps, towns, and citidels, were diligently + reëstablished, and, in the most exposed places, new ones were skilfully + constructed: the strictest vigilance was introduced among the garrisons of + the frontier, and every expedient was practised that could render the long + chain of fortifications firm and impenetrable. <a href="#linknote-13.33" + name="linknoteref-13.33" id="linknoteref-13.33">33</a> A barrier so + respectable was seldom violated, and the barbarians often turned against + each other their disappointed rage. The Goths, the Vandals, the Gepidæ, + the Burgundians, the Alemanni, wasted each other’s strength by destructive + hostilities: and whosoever vanquished, they vanquished the enemies of + Rome. The subjects of Diocletian enjoyed the bloody spectacle, and + congratulated each other, that the mischiefs of civil war were now + experienced only by the barbarians. <a href="#linknote-13.34" + name="linknoteref-13.34" id="linknoteref-13.34">34</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.32" id="linknote-13.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.32">return</a>)<br/> [ John Malala, in Chron, + Antiochen. tom. i. p. 408, 409.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.33" id="linknote-13.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosim. l. i. p. 3. That + partial historian seems to celebrate the vigilance of Diocletian with a + design of exposing the negligence of Constantine; we may, however, listen + to an orator: “Nam quid ego alarum et cohortium castra percenseam, toto + Rheni et Istri et Euphraus limite restituta.” Panegyr. Vet. iv. 18.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.34" id="linknote-13.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Ruunt omnes in + sanguinem suum populi, quibus ron contigilesse Romanis, obstinatæque + feritatis poenas nunc sponte persolvunt. Panegyr. Vet. iii. 16. Mamertinus + illustrates the fact by the example of almost all the nations in the + world.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the policy of Diocletian, it was impossible to maintain an + equal and undisturbed tranquillity during a reign of twenty years, and + along a frontier of many hundred miles. Sometimes the barbarians suspended + their domestic animosities, and the relaxed vigilance of the garrisons + sometimes gave a passage to their strength or dexterity. Whenever the + provinces were invaded, Diocletian conducted himself with that calm + dignity which he always affected or possessed; reserved his presence for + such occasions as were worthy of his interposition, never exposed his + person or reputation to any unnecessary danger, insured his success by + every means that prudence could suggest, and displayed, with ostentation, + the consequences of his victory. In wars of a more difficult nature, and + more doubtful event, he employed the rough valor of Maximian; and that + faithful soldier was content to ascribe his own victories to the wise + counsels and auspicious influence of his benefactor. But after the + adoption of the two Cæsars, the emperors themselves, retiring to a less + laborious scene of action, devolved on their adopted sons the defence of + the Danube and of the Rhine. The vigilant Galerius was never reduced to + the necessity of vanquishing an army of barbarians on the Roman territory. + <a href="#linknote-13.35" name="linknoteref-13.35" id="linknoteref-13.35">35</a> + The brave and active Constantius delivered Gaul from a very furious inroad + of the Alemanni; and his victories of Langres and Vindonissa appear to + have been actions of considerable danger and merit. As he traversed the + open country with a feeble guard, he was encompassed on a sudden by the + superior multitude of the enemy. He retreated with difficulty towards + Langres; but, in the general consternation, the citizens refused to open + their gates, and the wounded prince was drawn up the wall by the means of + a rope. But, on the news of his distress, the Roman troops hastened from + all sides to his relief, and before the evening he had satisfied his honor + and revenge by the slaughter of six thousand Alemanni. <a + href="#linknote-13.36" name="linknoteref-13.36" id="linknoteref-13.36">36</a> + From the monuments of those times, the obscure traces of several other + victories over the barbarians of Sarmatia and Germany might possibly be + collected; but the tedious search would not be rewarded either with + amusement or with instruction. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.35" id="linknote-13.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.35">return</a>)<br/> [ He complained, though + not with the strictest truth, “Jam fluxisse annos quindecim in quibus, in + Illyrico, ad ripam Danubii relegatus cum gentibus barbaris luctaret.” + Lactant. de M. P. c. 18.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.36" id="linknote-13.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.36">return</a>)<br/> [ In the Greek text of + Eusebius, we read six thousand, a number which I have preferred to the + sixty thousand of Jerome, Orosius Eutropius, and his Greek translator + Pæanius.] + </p> + <p> + The conduct which the emperor Probus had adopted in the disposal of the + vanquished was imitated by Diocletian and his associates. The captive + barbarians, exchanging death for slavery, were distributed among the + provincials, and assigned to those districts (in Gaul, the territories of + Amiens, Beauvais, Cambray, Treves, Langres, and Troyes, are particularly + specified) <a href="#linknote-13.37" name="linknoteref-13.37" + id="linknoteref-13.37">37</a> which had been depopulated by the calamities + of war. They were usefully employed as shepherds and husbandmen, but were + denied the exercise of arms, except when it was found expedient to enroll + them in the military service. Nor did the emperors refuse the property of + lands, with a less servile tenure, to such of the barbarians as solicited + the protection of Rome. They granted a settlement to several colonies of + the Carpi, the Bastarnæ, and the Sarmatians; and, by a dangerous + indulgence, permitted them in some measure to retain their national + manners and independence. <a href="#linknote-13.38" name="linknoteref-13.38" + id="linknoteref-13.38">38</a> Among the provincials, it was a subject of + flattering exultation, that the barbarian, so lately an object of terror, + now cultivated their lands, drove their cattle to the neighboring fair, + and contributed by his labor to the public plenty. They congratulated + their masters on the powerful accession of subjects and soldiers; but they + forgot to observe, that multitudes of secret enemies, insolent from favor, + or desperate from oppression, were introduced into the heart of the + empire. <a href="#linknote-13.39" name="linknoteref-13.39" + id="linknoteref-13.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.37" id="linknote-13.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. vii. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.38" id="linknote-13.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.38">return</a>)<br/> [ There was a settlement + of the Sarmatians in the neighborhood of Treves, which seems to have been + deserted by those lazy barbarians. Ausonius speaks of them in his Mosella:—— + “Unde iter ingrediens nemorosa per avia solum, Et nulla humani spectans + vestigia cultus; ........ Arvaque Sauromatum nuper metata colonis.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.39" id="linknote-13.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.39">return</a>)<br/> [ There was a town of the + Carpi in the Lower Mæsia. See the rhetorical exultation of Eumenius.] + </p> + <p> + While the Cæsars exercised their valor on the banks of the Rhine and + Danube, the presence of the emperors was required on the southern confines + of the Roman world. From the Nile to Mount Atlas, Africa was in arms. A + confederacy of five Moorish nations issued from their deserts to invade + the peaceful provinces. <a href="#linknote-13.40" name="linknoteref-13.40" + id="linknoteref-13.40">40</a> Julian had assumed the purple at Carthage. <a + href="#linknote-13.41" name="linknoteref-13.41" id="linknoteref-13.41">41</a> + Achilleus at Alexandria, and even the Blemmyes, renewed, or rather + continued, their incursions into the Upper Egypt. Scarcely any + circumstances have been preserved of the exploits of Maximian in the + western parts of Africa; but it appears, by the event, that the progress + of his arms was rapid and decisive, that he vanquished the fiercest + barbarians of Mauritania, and that he removed them from the mountains, + whose inaccessible strength had inspired their inhabitants with a lawless + confidence, and habituated them to a life of rapine and violence. <a + href="#linknote-13.42" name="linknoteref-13.42" id="linknoteref-13.42">42</a> + Diocletian, on his side, opened the campaign in Egypt by the siege of + Alexandria, cut off the aqueducts which conveyed the waters of the Nile + into every quarter of that immense city, <a href="#linknote-13.43" + name="linknoteref-13.43" id="linknoteref-13.43">43</a> and rendering his + camp impregnable to the sallies of the besieged multitude, he pushed his + reiterated attacks with caution and vigor. After a siege of eight months, + Alexandria, wasted by the sword and by fire, implored the clemency of the + conqueror, but it experienced the full extent of his severity. Many + thousands of the citizens perished in a promiscuous slaughter, and there + were few obnoxious persons in Egypt who escaped a sentence either of death + or at least of exile. <a href="#linknote-13.44" name="linknoteref-13.44" + id="linknoteref-13.44">44</a> The fate of Busiris and of Coptos was still + more melancholy than that of Alexandria: those proud cities, the former + distinguished by its antiquity, the latter enriched by the passage of the + Indian trade, were utterly destroyed by the arms and by the severe order + of Diocletian. <a href="#linknote-13.45" name="linknoteref-13.45" + id="linknoteref-13.45">45</a> The character of the Egyptian nation, + insensible to kindness, but extremely susceptible of fear, could alone + justify this excessive rigor. The seditions of Alexandria had often + affected the tranquillity and subsistence of Rome itself. Since the + usurpation of Firmus, the province of Upper Egypt, incessantly relapsing + into rebellion, had embraced the alliance of the savages of Æthiopia. The + number of the Blemmyes, scattered between the Island of Meroe and the Red + Sea, was very inconsiderable, their disposition was unwarlike, their + weapons rude and inoffensive. <a href="#linknote-13.46" + name="linknoteref-13.46" id="linknoteref-13.46">46</a> Yet in the public + disorders, these barbarians, whom antiquity, shocked with the deformity of + their figure, had almost excluded from the human species, presumed to rank + themselves among the enemies of Rome. <a href="#linknote-13.47" + name="linknoteref-13.47" id="linknoteref-13.47">47</a> Such had been the + unworthy allies of the Egyptians; and while the attention of the state was + engaged in more serious wars, their vexations inroads might again harass + the repose of the province. With a view of opposing to the Blemmyes a + suitable adversary, Diocletian persuaded the Nobatæ, or people of Nubia, + to remove from their ancient habitations in the deserts of Libya, and + resigned to them an extensive but unprofitable territory above Syene and + the cataracts of the Nile, with the stipulation, that they should ever + respect and guard the frontier of the empire. The treaty long subsisted; + and till the establishment of Christianity introduced stricter notions of + religious worship, it was annually ratified by a solemn sacrifice in the + isle of Elephantine, in which the Romans, as well as the barbarians, + adored the same visible or invisible powers of the universe. <a + href="#linknote-13.48" name="linknoteref-13.48" id="linknoteref-13.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.40" id="linknote-13.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Scaliger (Animadvers. + ad Euseb. p. 243) decides, in his usual manner, that the Quinque gentiani, + or five African nations, were the five great cities, the Pentapolis of the + inoffensive province of Cyrene.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.41" id="linknote-13.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.41">return</a>)<br/> [ After his defeat, + Julian stabbed himself with a dagger, and immediately leaped into the + flames. Victor in Epitome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.42" id="linknote-13.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Tu ferocissimos + Mauritaniæ populos inaccessis montium jugis et naturali munitione + fidentes, expugnasti, recepisti, transtulisti. Panegyr Vet. vi. 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.43" id="linknote-13.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.43">return</a>)<br/> [ See the description of + Alexandria, in Hirtius de Bel. Alexandrin c. 5.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.44" id="linknote-13.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.44">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutrop. ix. 24. + Orosius, vii. 25. John Malala in Chron. Antioch. p. 409, 410. Yet Eumenius + assures us, that Egypt was pacified by the clemency of Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.45" id="linknote-13.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius (in Chron.) + places their destruction several years sooner and at a time when Egypt + itself was in a state of rebellion against the Romans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.46" id="linknote-13.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Strabo, l. xvii. p. + 172. Pomponius Mela, l. i. c. 4. His words are curious: “Intra, si credere + libet vix, homines magisque semiferi Ægipanes, et Blemmyes, et Satyri.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.47" id="linknote-13.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.47">return</a>)<br/> [ Ausus sese inserere + fortunæ et provocare arma Romana.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.48" id="linknote-13.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.48">return</a>)<br/> [ See Procopius de Bell. + Persic. l. i. c. 19. Note: Compare, on the epoch of the final extirpation + of the rites of Paganism from the Isle of Philæ, (Elephantine,) which + subsisted till the edict of Theodosius, in the sixth century, a + dissertation of M. Letronne, on certain Greek inscriptions. The + dissertation contains some very interesting observations on the conduct + and policy of Diocletian in Egypt. Mater pour l’Hist. du Christianisme en + Egypte, Nubie et Abyssinie, Paris 1817—M.] + </p> + <p> + At the same time that Diocletian chastised the past crimes of the + Egyptians, he provided for their future safety and happiness by many wise + regulations, which were confirmed and enforced under the succeeding + reigns. <a href="#linknote-13.49" name="linknoteref-13.49" + id="linknoteref-13.49">49</a> One very remarkable edict which he published, + instead of being condemned as the effect of jealous tyranny, deserves to + be applauded as an act of prudence and humanity. He caused a diligent + inquiry to be made “for all the ancient books which treated of the + admirable art of making gold and silver, and without pity, committed them + to the flames; apprehensive, as we are assumed, lest the opulence of the + Egyptians should inspire them with confidence to rebel against the + empire.” <a href="#linknote-13.50" name="linknoteref-13.50" + id="linknoteref-13.50">50</a> But if Diocletian had been convinced of the + reality of that valuable art, far from extinguishing the memory, he would + have converted the operation of it to the benefit of the public revenue. + It is much more likely, that his good sense discovered to him the folly of + such magnificent pretensions, and that he was desirous of preserving the + reason and fortunes of his subjects from the mischievous pursuit. It may + be remarked, that these ancient books, so liberally ascribed to + Pythagoras, to Solomon, or to Hermes, were the pious frauds of more recent + adepts. The Greeks were inattentive either to the use or to the abuse of + chemistry. In that immense register, where Pliny has deposited the + discoveries, the arts, and the errors of mankind, there is not the least + mention of the transmutation of metals; and the persecution of Diocletian + is the first authentic event in the history of alchemy. The conquest of + Egypt by the Arabs diffused that vain science over the globe. Congenial to + the avarice of the human heart, it was studied in China as in Europe, with + equal eagerness, and with equal success. The darkness of the middle ages + insured a favorable reception to every tale of wonder, and the revival of + learning gave new vigor to hope, and suggested more specious arts of + deception. Philosophy, with the aid of experience, has at length banished + the study of alchemy; and the present age, however desirous of riches, is + content to seek them by the humbler means of commerce and industry. <a + href="#linknote-13.51" name="linknoteref-13.51" id="linknoteref-13.51">51</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.49" id="linknote-13.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.49">return</a>)<br/> [ He fixed the public + allowance of corn, for the people of Alexandria, at two millions of + medimni; about four hundred thousand quarters. Chron. Paschal. p. 276 + Procop. Hist. Arcan. c. 26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.50" id="linknote-13.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.50">return</a>)<br/> [ John Antioch, in + Excerp. Valesian. p. 834. Suidas in Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.51" id="linknote-13.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.51">return</a>)<br/> [ See a short history and + confutation of Alchemy, in the works of that philosophical compiler, La + Mothe le Vayer, tom. i. p. 32—353.] + </p> + <p> + The reduction of Egypt was immediately followed by the Persian war. It was + reserved for the reign of Diocletian to vanquish that powerful nation, and + to extort a confession from the successors of Artaxerxes, of the superior + majesty of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + We have observed, under the reign of Valerian, that Armenia was subdued by + the perfidy and the arms of the Persians, and that, after the + assassination of Chosroes, his son Tiridates, the infant heir of the + monarchy, was saved by the fidelity of his friends, and educated under the + protection of the emperors. Tiridates derived from his exile such + advantages as he could never have obtained on the throne of Armenia; the + early knowledge of adversity, of mankind, and of the Roman discipline. He + signalized his youth by deeds of valor, and displayed a matchless + dexterity, as well as strength, in every martial exercise, and even in the + less honorable contests of the Olympian games. <a href="#linknote-13.52" + name="linknoteref-13.52" id="linknoteref-13.52">52</a> Those qualities were + more nobly exerted in the defence of his benefactor Licinius. <a + href="#linknote-13.53" name="linknoteref-13.53" id="linknoteref-13.53">53</a> + That officer, in the sedition which occasioned the death of Probus, was + exposed to the most imminent danger, and the enraged soldiers were forcing + their way into his tent, when they were checked by the single arm of the + Armenian prince. The gratitude of Tiridates contributed soon afterwards to + his restoration. Licinius was in every station the friend and companion of + Galerius, and the merit of Galerius, long before he was raised to the + dignity of Cæsar, had been known and esteemed by Diocletian. In the third + year of that emperor’s reign Tiridates was invested with the kingdom of + Armenia. The justice of the measure was not less evident than its + expediency. It was time to rescue from the usurpation of the Persian + monarch an important territory, which, since the reign of Nero, had been + always granted under the protection of the empire to a younger branch of + the house of Arsaces. <a href="#linknote-13.54" name="linknoteref-13.54" + id="linknoteref-13.54">54</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.52" id="linknote-13.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.52">return</a>)<br/> [ See the education and + strength of Tiridates in the Armenian history of Moses of Chorene, l. ii. + c. 76. He could seize two wild bulls by the horns, and break them off with + his hands.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.53" id="linknote-13.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.53">return</a>)<br/> [ If we give credit to + the younger Victor, who supposes that in the year 323 Licinius was only + sixty years of age, he could scarcely be the same person as the patron of + Tiridates; but we know from much better authority, (Euseb. Hist. + Ecclesiast. l. x. c. 8,) that Licinius was at that time in the last period + of old age: sixteen years before, he is represented with gray hairs, and + as the contemporary of Galerius. See Lactant. c. 32. Licinius was probably + born about the year 250.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.54" id="linknote-13.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.54">return</a>)<br/> [ See the sixty-second + and sixty-third books of Dion Cassius.] + </p> + <p> + When Tiridates appeared on the frontiers of Armenia, he was received with + an unfeigned transport of joy and loyalty. During twenty-six years, the + country had experienced the real and imaginary hardships of a foreign + yoke. The Persian monarchs adorned their new conquest with magnificent + buildings; but those monuments had been erected at the expense of the + people, and were abhorred as badges of slavery. The apprehension of a + revolt had inspired the most rigorous precautions: oppression had been + aggravated by insult, and the consciousness of the public hatred had been + productive of every measure that could render it still more implacable. We + have already remarked the intolerant spirit of the Magian religion. The + statues of the deified kings of Armenia, and the sacred images of the sun + and moon, were broke in pieces by the zeal of the conqueror; and the + perpetual fire of Ormuzd was kindled and preserved upon an altar erected + on the summit of Mount Bagavan. <a href="#linknote-13.55" + name="linknoteref-13.55" id="linknoteref-13.55">55</a> It was natural, that + a people exasperated by so many injuries, should arm with zeal in the + cause of their independence, their religion, and their hereditary + sovereign. The torrent bore down every obstacle, and the Persian garrisons + retreated before its fury. The nobles of Armenia flew to the standard of + Tiridates, all alleging their past merit, offering their future service, + and soliciting from the new king those honors and rewards from which they + had been excluded with disdain under the foreign government. <a + href="#linknote-13.56" name="linknoteref-13.56" id="linknoteref-13.56">56</a> + The command of the army was bestowed on Artavasdes, whose father had saved + the infancy of Tiridates, and whose family had been massacred for that + generous action. The brother of Artavasdes obtained the government of a + province. One of the first military dignities was conferred on the satrap + Otas, a man of singular temperance and fortitude, who presented to the + king his sister <a href="#linknote-13.57" name="linknoteref-13.57" + id="linknoteref-13.57">57</a> and a considerable treasure, both of which, + in a sequestered fortress, Otas had preserved from violation. Among the + Armenian nobles appeared an ally, whose fortunes are too remarkable to + pass unnoticed. His name was Mamgo, <a href="#linknote-13.571" + name="linknoteref-13.571" id="linknoteref-13.571">571</a> his origin was + Scythian, and the horde which acknowledge his authority had encamped a + very few years before on the skirts of the Chinese empire, <a + href="#linknote-13.58" name="linknoteref-13.58" id="linknoteref-13.58">58</a> + which at that time extended as far as the neighborhood of Sogdiana. <a + href="#linknote-13.59" name="linknoteref-13.59" id="linknoteref-13.59">59</a> + Having incurred the displeasure of his master, Mamgo, with his followers, + retired to the banks of the Oxus, and implored the protection of Sapor. + The emperor of China claimed the fugitive, and alleged the rights of + sovereignty. The Persian monarch pleaded the laws of hospitality, and with + some difficulty avoided a war, by the promise that he would banish Mamgo + to the uttermost parts of the West, a punishment, as he described it, not + less dreadful than death itself. Armenia was chosen for the place of + exile, and a large district was assigned to the Scythian horde, on which + they might feed their flocks and herds, and remove their encampment from + one place to another, according to the different seasons of the year. + </p> + <p> + They were employed to repel the invasion of Tiridates; but their leader, + after weighing the obligations and injuries which he had received from the + Persian monarch, resolved to abandon his party. + </p> + <p> + The Armenian prince, who was well acquainted with the merit as well as + power of Mamgo, treated him with distinguished respect; and, by admitting + him into his confidence, acquired a brave and faithful servant, who + contributed very effectually to his restoration. <a href="#linknote-13.60" + name="linknoteref-13.60" id="linknoteref-13.60">60</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.55" id="linknote-13.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.55">return</a>)<br/> [ Moses of Chorene. Hist. + Armen. l. ii. c. 74. The statues had been erected by Valarsaces, who + reigned in Armenia about 130 years before Christ, and was the first king + of the family of Arsaces, (see Moses, Hist. Armen. l. ii. 2, 3.) The + deification of the Arsacides is mentioned by Justin, (xli. 5,) and by + Ammianus Marcellinus, (xxiii. 6.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.56" id="linknote-13.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.56">return</a>)<br/> [ The Armenian nobility + was numerous and powerful. Moses mentions many families which were + distinguished under the reign of Valarsaces, (l. ii. 7,) and which still + subsisted in his own time, about the middle of the fifth century. See the + preface of his Editors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.57" id="linknote-13.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.57">return</a>)<br/> [ She was named + Chosroiduchta, and had not the os patulum like other women. (Hist. Armen. + l. ii. c. 79.) I do not understand the expression. * Note: Os patulum + signifies merely a large and widely opening mouth. Ovid (Metam. xv. 513) + says, speaking of the monster who attacked Hippolytus, patulo partem maris + evomit ore. Probably a wide mouth was a common defect among the Armenian + women.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.571" id="linknote-13.571"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 571 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.571">return</a>)<br/> [ Mamgo (according to + M. St. Martin, note to Le Beau. ii. 213) belonged to the imperial race of + Hon, who had filled the throne of China for four hundred years. Dethroned + by the usurping race of Wei, Mamgo found a hospitable reception in Persia + in the reign of Ardeschir. The emperor of china having demanded the + surrender of the fugitive and his partisans, Sapor, then king, threatened + with war both by Rome and China, counselled Mamgo to retire into Armenia. + “I have expelled him from my dominions, (he answered the Chinese + ambassador;) I have banished him to the extremity of the earth, where the + sun sets; I have dismissed him to certain death.” Compare Mem. sur + l’Armenie, ii. 25.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.58" id="linknote-13.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.58">return</a>)<br/> [ In the Armenian + history, (l. ii. 78,) as well as in the Geography, (p. 367,) China is + called Zenia, or Zenastan. It is characterized by the production of silk, + by the opulence of the natives, and by their love of peace, above all the + other nations of the earth. * Note: See St. Martin, Mem. sur l’Armenie, i. + 304.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.59" id="linknote-13.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Vou-ti, the first + emperor of the seventh dynasty, who then reigned in China, had political + transactions with Fergana, a province of Sogdiana, and is said to have + received a Roman embassy, (Histoire des Huns, tom. i. p. 38.) In those + ages the Chinese kept a garrison at Kashgar, and one of their generals, + about the time of Trajan, marched as far as the Caspian Sea. With regard + to the intercourse between China and the Western countries, a curious + memoir of M. de Guignes may be consulted, in the Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xxii. p. 355. * Note: The Chinese Annals mention, under + the ninth year of Yan-hi, which corresponds with the year 166 J. C., an + embassy which arrived from Tathsin, and was sent by a prince called + An-thun, who can be no other than Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, who then + ruled over the Romans. St. Martin, Mem. sur l’Armænic. ii. 30. See also + Klaproth, Tableaux Historiques de l’Asie, p. 69. The embassy came by + Jy-nan, Tonquin.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.60" id="linknote-13.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.60">return</a>)<br/> [ See Hist. Armen. l. ii. + c. 81.] + </p> + <p> + For a while, fortune appeared to favor the enterprising valor of + Tiridates. He not only expelled the enemies of his family and country from + the whole extent of Armenia, but in the prosecution of his revenge he + carried his arms, or at least his incursions, into the heart of Assyria. + The historian, who has preserved the name of Tiridates from oblivion, + celebrates, with a degree of national enthusiasm, his personal prowess: + and, in the true spirit of eastern romance, describes the giants and the + elephants that fell beneath his invincible arm. It is from other + information that we discover the distracted state of the Persian monarchy, + to which the king of Armenia was indebted for some part of his advantages. + The throne was disputed by the ambition of contending brothers; and + Hormuz, after exerting without success the strength of his own party, had + recourse to the dangerous assistance of the barbarians who inhabited the + banks of the Caspian Sea. <a href="#linknote-13.61" name="linknoteref-13.61" + id="linknoteref-13.61">61</a> The civil war was, however, soon terminated, + either by a victor or by a reconciliation; and Narses, who was universally + acknowledged as king of Persia, directed his whole force against the + foreign enemy. The contest then became too unequal; nor was the valor of + the hero able to withstand the power of the monarch. Tiridates, a second + time expelled from the throne of Armenia, once more took refuge in the + court of the emperors. <a href="#linknote-13.611" name="linknoteref-13.611" + id="linknoteref-13.611">611</a> Narses soon reëstablished his authority + over the revolted province; and loudly complaining of the protection + afforded by the Romans to rebels and fugitives, aspired to the conquest of + the East. <a href="#linknote-13.62" name="linknoteref-13.62" + id="linknoteref-13.62">62</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.61" id="linknote-13.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Ipsos Persas ipsumque + Regem ascitis Saccis, et Russis, et Gellis, petit frater Ormies. + Panegyric. Vet. iii. 1. The Saccæ were a nation of wandering Scythians, + who encamped towards the sources of the Oxus and the Jaxartes. The Gelli + where the inhabitants of Ghilan, along the Caspian Sea, and who so long, + under the name of Dilemines, infested the Persian monarchy. See + d’Herbelot, Bibliotheque] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.611" id="linknote-13.611"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 611 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.611">return</a>)<br/> [ M St. Martin + represents this differently. Le roi de Perse * * * profits d’un voyage que + Tiridate avoit fait a Rome pour attaquer ce royaume. This reads like the + evasion of the national historians to disguise the fact discreditable to + their hero. See Mem. sur l’Armenie, i. 304.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.62" id="linknote-13.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.62">return</a>)<br/> [ Moses of Chorene takes + no notice of this second revolution, which I have been obliged to collect + from a passage of Ammianus Marcellinus, (l. xxiii. c. 5.) Lactantius + speaks of the ambition of Narses: “Concitatus domesticis exemplis avi sui + Saporis ad occupandum orientem magnis copiis inhiabat.” De Mort. Persecut. + c. 9.] + </p> + <p> + Neither prudence nor honor could permit the emperors to forsake the cause + of the Armenian king, and it was resolved to exert the force of the empire + in the Persian war. Diocletian, with the calm dignity which he constantly + assumed, fixed his own station in the city of Antioch, from whence he + prepared and directed the military operations. <a href="#linknote-13.63" + name="linknoteref-13.63" id="linknoteref-13.63">63</a> The conduct of the + legions was intrusted to the intrepid valor of Galerius, who, for that + important purpose, was removed from the banks of the Danube to those of + the Euphrates. The armies soon encountered each other in the plains of + Mesopotamia, and two battles were fought with various and doubtful + success; but the third engagement was of a more decisive nature; and the + Roman army received a total overthrow, which is attributed to the rashness + of Galerius, who, with an inconsiderable body of troops, attacked the + innumerable host of the Persians. <a href="#linknote-13.64" + name="linknoteref-13.64" id="linknoteref-13.64">64</a> But the consideration + of the country that was the scene of action, may suggest another reason + for his defeat. The same ground on which Galerius was vanquished, had been + rendered memorable by the death of Crassus, and the slaughter of ten + legions. It was a plain of more than sixty miles, which extended from the + hills of Carrhæ to the Euphrates; a smooth and barren surface of sandy + desert, without a hillock, without a tree, and without a spring of fresh + water. <a href="#linknote-13.65" name="linknoteref-13.65" + id="linknoteref-13.65">65</a> The steady infantry of the Romans, fainting + with heat and thirst, could neither hope for victory if they preserved + their ranks, nor break their ranks without exposing themselves to the most + imminent danger. In this situation they were gradually encompassed by the + superior numbers, harassed by the rapid evolutions, and destroyed by the + arrows of the barbarian cavalry. + </p> + <p> + The king of Armenia had signalized his valor in the battle, and acquired + personal glory by the public misfortune. He was pursued as far as the + Euphrates; his horse was wounded, and it appeared impossible for him to + escape the victorious enemy. In this extremity Tiridates embraced the only + refuge which appeared before him: he dismounted and plunged into the + stream. His armor was heavy, the river very deep, and at those parts at + least half a mile in breadth; <a href="#linknote-13.66" + name="linknoteref-13.66" id="linknoteref-13.66">66</a> yet such was his + strength and dexterity, that he reached in safety the opposite bank. <a + href="#linknote-13.67" name="linknoteref-13.67" id="linknoteref-13.67">67</a> + With regard to the Roman general, we are ignorant of the circumstances of + his escape; but when he returned to Antioch, Diocletian received him, not + with the tenderness of a friend and colleague, but with the indignation of + an offended sovereign. The haughtiest of men, clothed in his purple, but + humbled by the sense of his fault and misfortune, was obliged to follow + the emperor’s chariot above a mile on foot, and to exhibit, before the + whole court, the spectacle of his disgrace. <a href="#linknote-13.68" + name="linknoteref-13.68" id="linknoteref-13.68">68</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.63" id="linknote-13.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.63">return</a>)<br/> [ We may readily believe, + that Lactantius ascribes to cowardice the conduct of Diocletian. Julian, + in his oration, says, that he remained with all the forces of the empire; + a very hyperbolical expression.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.64" id="linknote-13.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Our five abbreviators, + Eutropius, Festus, the two Victors, and Orosius, all relate the last and + great battle; but Orosius is the only one who speaks of the two former.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.65" id="linknote-13.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.65">return</a>)<br/> [ The nature of the + country is finely described by Plutarch, in the life of Crassus; and by + Xenophon, in the first book of the Anabasis] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.66" id="linknote-13.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.66">return</a>)<br/> [ See Foster’s + Dissertation in the second volume of the translation of the Anabasis by + Spelman; which I will venture to recommend as one of the best versions + extant.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.67" id="linknote-13.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.67">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. Armen. l. ii. c. + 76. I have transferred this exploit of Tiridates from an imaginary defeat + to the real one of Galerius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.68" id="linknote-13.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Ammian. Marcellin. l. + xiv. The mile, in the hands of Eutropoius, (ix. 24,) of Festus (c. 25,) + and of Orosius, (vii 25), easily increased to several miles] + </p> + <p> + As soon as Diocletian had indulged his private resentment, and asserted + the majesty of supreme power, he yielded to the submissive entreaties of + the Cæsar, and permitted him to retrieve his own honor, as well as that + of the Roman arms. In the room of the unwarlike troops of Asia, which had + most probably served in the first expedition, a second army was drawn from + the veterans and new levies of the Illyrian frontier, and a considerable + body of Gothic auxiliaries were taken into the Imperial pay. <a + href="#linknote-13.69" name="linknoteref-13.69" id="linknoteref-13.69">69</a> + At the head of a chosen army of twenty-five thousand men, Galerius again + passed the Euphrates; but, instead of exposing his legions in the open + plains of Mesopotamia he advanced through the mountains of Armenia, where + he found the inhabitants devoted to his cause, and the country as + favorable to the operations of infantry as it was inconvenient for the + motions of cavalry. <a href="#linknote-13.70" name="linknoteref-13.70" + id="linknoteref-13.70">70</a> Adversity had confirmed the Roman discipline, + while the barbarians, elated by success, were become so negligent and + remiss, that in the moment when they least expected it, they were + surprised by the active conduct of Galerius, who, attended only by two + horsemen, had with his own eyes secretly examined the state and position + of their camp. A surprise, especially in the night time, was for the most + part fatal to a Persian army. “Their horses were tied, and generally + shackled, to prevent their running away; and if an alarm happened, a + Persian had his housing to fix, his horse to bridle, and his corselet to + put on, before he could mount.” <a href="#linknote-13.71" + name="linknoteref-13.71" id="linknoteref-13.71">71</a> On this occasion, the + impetuous attack of Galerius spread disorder and dismay over the camp of + the barbarians. A slight resistance was followed by a dreadful carnage, + and, in the general confusion, the wounded monarch (for Narses commanded + his armies in person) fled towards the deserts of Media. His sumptuous + tents, and those of his satraps, afforded an immense booty to the + conqueror; and an incident is mentioned, which proves the rustic but + martial ignorance of the legions in the elegant superfluities of life. A + bag of shining leather, filled with pearls, fell into the hands of a + private soldier; he carefully preserved the bag, but he threw away its + contents, judging that whatever was of no use could not possibly be of any + value. <a href="#linknote-13.72" name="linknoteref-13.72" + id="linknoteref-13.72">72</a> The principal loss of Narses was of a much + more affecting nature. Several of his wives, his sisters, and children, + who had attended the army, were made captives in the defeat. But though + the character of Galerius had in general very little affinity with that of + Alexander, he imitated, after his victory, the amiable behavior of the + Macedonian towards the family of Darius. The wives and children of Narses + were protected from violence and rapine, conveyed to a place of safety, + and treated with every mark of respect and tenderness, that was due from a + generous enemy to their age, their sex, and their royal dignity. <a + href="#linknote-13.73" name="linknoteref-13.73" id="linknoteref-13.73">73</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.69" id="linknote-13.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.69">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor. + Jornandes de Rebus Geticis, c. 21.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.70" id="linknote-13.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor says, + “Per Armeniam in hostes contendit, quæ fermo sola, seu facilior vincendi + via est.” He followed the conduct of Trajan, and the idea of Julius + Cæsar.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.71" id="linknote-13.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Xenophon’s Anabasis, l. + iii. For that reason the Persian cavalry encamped sixty stadia from the + enemy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.72" id="linknote-13.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.72">return</a>)<br/> [ The story is told by + Ammianus, l. xxii. Instead of saccum, some read scutum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.73" id="linknote-13.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.73">return</a>)<br/> [ The Persians confessed + the Roman superiority in morals as well as in arms. Eutrop. ix. 24. But + this respect and gratitude of enemies is very seldom to be found in their + own accounts.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap13.3"></a> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + While the East anxiously expected the decision of this great contest, the + emperor Diocletian, having assembled in Syria a strong army of + observation, displayed from a distance the resources of the Roman power, + and reserved himself for any future emergency of the war. On the + intelligence of the victory he condescended to advance towards the + frontier, with a view of moderating, by his presence and counsels, the + pride of Galerius. The interview of the Roman princes at Nisibis was + accompanied with every expression of respect on one side, and of esteem on + the other. It was in that city that they soon afterwards gave audience to + the ambassador of the Great King. <a href="#linknote-13.74" + name="linknoteref-13.74" id="linknoteref-13.74">74</a> The power, or at + least the spirit, of Narses, had been broken by his last defeat; and he + considered an immediate peace as the only means that could stop the + progress of the Roman arms. He despatched Apharban, a servant who + possessed his favor and confidence, with a commission to negotiate a + treaty, or rather to receive whatever conditions the conqueror should + impose. Apharban opened the conference by expressing his master’s + gratitude for the generous treatment of his family, and by soliciting the + liberty of those illustrious captives. He celebrated the valor of + Galerius, without degrading the reputation of Narses, and thought it no + dishonor to confess the superiority of the victorious Cæsar, over a + monarch who had surpassed in glory all the princes of his race. + Notwithstanding the justice of the Persian cause, he was empowered to + submit the present differences to the decision of the emperors themselves; + convinced as he was, that, in the midst of prosperity, they would not be + unmindful of the vicissitudes of fortune. Apharban concluded his discourse + in the style of eastern allegory, by observing that the Roman and Persian + monarchies were the two eyes of the world, which would remain imperfect + and mutilated if either of them should be put out. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.74" id="linknote-13.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.74">return</a>)<br/> [ The account of the + negotiation is taken from the fragments of Peter the Patrician, in the + Excerpta Legationum, published in the Byzantine Collection. Peter lived + under Justinian; but it is very evident, by the nature of his materials, + that they are drawn from the most authentic and respectable writers.] + </p> + <p> + “It well becomes the Persians,” replied Galerius, with a transport of + fury, which seemed to convulse his whole frame, “it well becomes the + Persians to expatiate on the vicissitudes of fortune, and calmly to read + us lectures on the virtues of moderation. Let them remember their own + <i>moderation</i> towards the unhappy Valerian. They vanquished him by fraud, + they treated him with indignity. They detained him till the last moment of + his life in shameful captivity, and after his death they exposed his body + to perpetual ignominy.” Softening, however, his tone, Galerius insinuated + to the ambassador, that it had never been the practice of the Romans to + trample on a prostrate enemy; and that, on this occasion, they should + consult their own dignity rather than the Persian merit. He dismissed + Apharban with a hope that Narses would soon be informed on what conditions + he might obtain, from the clemency of the emperors, a lasting peace, and + the restoration of his wives and children. In this conference we may + discover the fierce passions of Galerius, as well as his deference to the + superior wisdom and authority of Diocletian. The ambition of the former + grasped at the conquest of the East, and had proposed to reduce Persia + into the state of a province. The prudence of the latter, who adhered to + the moderate policy of Augustus and the Antonines, embraced the favorable + opportunity of terminating a successful war by an honorable and + advantageous peace. <a href="#linknote-13.75" name="linknoteref-13.75" + id="linknoteref-13.75">75</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.75" id="linknote-13.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Adeo victor (says + Aurelius) ut ni Valerius, cujus nutu omnis gerebantur, abnuisset, Romani + fasces in provinciam novam ferrentur Verum pars terrarum tamen nobis + utilior quæsita.] + </p> + <p> + In pursuance of their promise, the emperors soon afterwards appointed + Sicorius Probus, one of their secretaries, to acquaint the Persian court + with their final resolution. As the minister of peace, he was received + with every mark of politeness and friendship; but, under the pretence of + allowing him the necessary repose after so long a journey, the audience of + Probus was deferred from day to day; and he attended the slow motions of + the king, till at length he was admitted to his presence, near the River + Asprudus in Media. The secret motive of Narses, in this delay, had been to + collect such a military force as might enable him, though sincerely + desirous of peace, to negotiate with the greater weight and dignity. Three + persons only assisted at this important conference, the minister Apharban, + the præfect of the guards, and an officer who had commanded on the + Armenian frontier. <a href="#linknote-13.76" name="linknoteref-13.76" + id="linknoteref-13.76">76</a> The first condition proposed by the + ambassador is not at present of a very intelligible nature; that the city + of Nisibis might be established for the place of mutual exchange, or, as + we should formerly have termed it, for the staple of trade, between the + two empires. There is no difficulty in conceiving the intention of the + Roman princes to improve their revenue by some restraints upon commerce; + but as Nisibis was situated within their own dominions, and as they were + masters both of the imports and exports, it should seem that such + restraints were the objects of an internal law, rather than of a foreign + treaty. To render them more effectual, some stipulations were probably + required on the side of the king of Persia, which appeared so very + repugnant either to his interest or to his dignity, that Narses could not + be persuaded to subscribe them. As this was the only article to which he + refused his consent, it was no longer insisted on; and the emperors either + suffered the trade to flow in its natural channels, or contented + themselves with such restrictions, as it depended on their own authority + to establish. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.76" id="linknote-13.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.76">return</a>)<br/> [ He had been governor of + Sumium, (Pot. Patricius in Excerpt. Legat. p. 30.) This province seems to + be mentioned by Moses of Chorene, (Geograph. p. 360,) and lay to the east + of Mount Ararat. * Note: The Siounikh of the Armenian writers St. Martin + i. 142.—M.] + </p> + <p> + As soon as this difficulty was removed, a solemn peace was concluded and + ratified between the two nations. The conditions of a treaty so glorious + to the empire, and so necessary to Persia, may deserve a more + peculiar attention, as the history of Rome presents very few transactions + of a similar nature; most of her wars having either been terminated by + absolute conquest, or waged against barbarians ignorant of the use of + letters. I. The Aboras, or, as it is called by Xenophon, the Araxes, was + fixed as the boundary between the two monarchies. <a href="#linknote-13.77" + name="linknoteref-13.77" id="linknoteref-13.77">77</a> That river, which + rose near the Tigris, was increased, a few miles below Nisibis, by the + little stream of the Mygdonius, passed under the walls of Singara, and + fell into the Euphrates at Circesium, a frontier town, which, by the care + of Diocletian, was very strongly fortified. <a href="#linknote-13.78" + name="linknoteref-13.78" id="linknoteref-13.78">78</a> Mesopotomia, the + object of so many wars, was ceded to the empire; and the Persians, by this + treaty, renounced all pretensions to that great province. II. They + relinquished to the Romans five provinces beyond the Tigris. <a + href="#linknote-13.79" name="linknoteref-13.79" id="linknoteref-13.79">79</a> + Their situation formed a very useful barrier, and their natural strength + was soon improved by art and military skill. Four of these, to the north + of the river, were districts of obscure fame and inconsiderable extent; + Intiline, Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Moxoene; <a href="#linknote-13.791" + name="linknoteref-13.791" id="linknoteref-13.791">791</a> but on the east of + the Tigris, the empire acquired the large and mountainous territory of + Carduene, the ancient seat of the Carduchians, who preserved for many ages + their manly freedom in the heart of the despotic monarchies of Asia. The + ten thousand Greeks traversed their country, after a painful march, or + rather engagement, of seven days; and it is confessed by their leader, in + his incomparable relation of the retreat, that they suffered more from the + arrows of the Carduchians, than from the power of the Great King. <a + href="#linknote-13.80" name="linknoteref-13.80" id="linknoteref-13.80">80</a> + Their posterity, the Curds, with very little alteration either of name or + manners, <a href="#linknote-13.801" name="linknoteref-13.801" + id="linknoteref-13.801">801</a> acknowledged the nominal sovereignty of the + Turkish sultan. III. It is almost needless to observe, that Tiridates, the + faithful ally of Rome, was restored to the throne of his fathers, and that + the rights of the Imperial supremacy were fully asserted and secured. The + limits of Armenia were extended as far as the fortress of Sintha in Media, + and this increase of dominion was not so much an act of liberality as of + justice. Of the provinces already mentioned beyond the Tigris, the four + first had been dismembered by the Parthians from the crown of Armenia; <a + href="#linknote-13.81" name="linknoteref-13.81" id="linknoteref-13.81">81</a> + and when the Romans acquired the possession of them, they stipulated, at + the expense of the usurpers, an ample compensation, which invested their + ally with the extensive and fertile country of Atropatene. Its principal + city, in the same situation perhaps as the modern Tauris, was frequently + honored by the residence of Tiridates; and as it sometimes bore the name + of Ecbatana, he imitated, in the buildings and fortifications, the + splendid capital of the Medes. <a href="#linknote-13.82" + name="linknoteref-13.82" id="linknoteref-13.82">82</a> IV. The country of + Iberia was barren, its inhabitants rude and savage. But they were + accustomed to the use of arms, and they separated from the empire + barbarians much fiercer and more formidable than themselves. The narrow + defiles of Mount Caucasus were in their hands, and it was in their choice, + either to admit or to exclude the wandering tribes of Sarmatia, whenever a + rapacious spirit urged them to penetrate into the richer climes of the + South. <a href="#linknote-13.83" name="linknoteref-13.83" + id="linknoteref-13.83">83</a> The nomination of the kings of Iberia, which + was resigned by the Persian monarch to the emperors, contributed to the + strength and security of the Roman power in Asia. <a href="#linknote-13.84" + name="linknoteref-13.84" id="linknoteref-13.84">84</a> The East enjoyed a + profound tranquillity during forty years; and the treaty between the rival + monarchies was strictly observed till the death of Tiridates; when a new + generation, animated with different views and different passions, + succeeded to the government of the world; and the grandson of Narses + undertook a long and memorable war against the princes of the house of + Constantine. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.77" id="linknote-13.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.77">return</a>)<br/> [ By an error of the + geographer Ptolemy, the position of Singara is removed from the Aboras to + the Tigris, which may have produced the mistake of Peter, in assigning the + latter river for the boundary, instead of the former. The line of the + Roman frontier traversed, but never followed, the course of the Tigris. * + Note: There are here several errors. Gibbon has confounded the streams, + and the towns which they pass. The Aboras, or rather the Chaboras, the + Araxes of Xenophon, has its source above Ras-Ain or Re-Saina, + (Theodosiopolis,) about twenty-seven leagues from the Tigris; it receives + the waters of the Mygdonius, or Saocoras, about thirty-three leagues below + Nisibis. at a town now called Al Nahraim; it does not pass under the walls + of Singara; it is the Saocoras that washes the walls of that town: the + latter river has its source near Nisibis. at five leagues from the Tigris. + See D’Anv. l’Euphrate et le Tigre, 46, 49, 50, and the map.—— + To the east of the Tigris is another less considerable river, named also + the Chaboras, which D’Anville calls the Centrites, Khabour, Nicephorius, + without quoting the authorities on which he gives those names. Gibbon did + not mean to speak of this river, which does not pass by Singara, and does + not fall into the Euphrates. See Michaelis, Supp. ad Lex. Hebraica. 3d + part, p. 664, 665.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.78" id="linknote-13.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Procopius de Edificiis, + l. ii. c. 6.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.79" id="linknote-13.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Three of the provinces, + Zabdicene, Arzanene, and Carduene, are allowed on all sides. But instead + of the other two, Peter (in Excerpt. Leg. p. 30) inserts Rehimene and + Sophene. I have preferred Ammianus, (l. xxv. 7,) because it might be + proved that Sophene was never in the hands of the Persians, either before + the reign of Diocletian, or after that of Jovian. For want of correct + maps, like those of M. d’Anville, almost all the moderns, with Tillemont + and Valesius at their head, have imagined, that it was in respect to + Persia, and not to Rome, that the five provinces were situate beyond the + Tigris.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.791" id="linknote-13.791"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 791 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.791">return</a>)<br/> [ See St. Martin, note + on Le Beau, i. 380. He would read, for Intiline, Ingeleme, the name of a + small province of Armenia, near the sources of the Tigris, mentioned by + St. Epiphanius, (Hæres, 60;) for the unknown name Arzacene, with Gibbon, + Arzanene. These provinces do not appear to have made an integral part of + the Roman empire; Roman garrisons replaced those of Persia, but the + sovereignty remained in the hands of the feudatory princes of Armenia. A + prince of Carduene, ally or dependent on the empire, with the Roman name + of Jovianus, occurs in the reign of Julian.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.80" id="linknote-13.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Xenophon’s Anabasis, l. + iv. Their bows were three cubits in length, their arrows two; they rolled + down stones that were each a wagon load. The Greeks found a great many + villages in that rude country.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.801" id="linknote-13.801"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 801 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.801">return</a>)<br/> [ I travelled through + this country in 1810, and should judge, from what I have read and seen of + its inhabitants, that they have remained unchanged in their appearance and + character for more than twenty centuries Malcolm, note to Hist. of Persia, + vol. i. p. 82.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.81" id="linknote-13.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.81">return</a>)<br/> [ According to Eutropius, + (vi. 9, as the text is represented by the best Mss.,) the city of + Tigranocerta was in Arzanene. The names and situation of the other three + may be faintly traced.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.82" id="linknote-13.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Compare Herodotus, l. + i. c. 97, with Moses Choronens. Hist Armen. l. ii. c. 84, and the map of + Armenia given by his editors.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.83" id="linknote-13.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Hiberi, locorum + potentes, Caspia via Sarmatam in Armenios raptim effundunt. Tacit. Annal. + vi. 34. See Strabon. Geograph. l. xi. p. 764, edit. Casaub.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.84" id="linknote-13.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Peter Patricius (in + Excerpt. Leg. p. 30) is the only writer who mentions the Iberian article + of the treaty.] + </p> + <p> + The arduous work of rescuing the distressed empire from tyrants and + barbarians had now been completely achieved by a succession of Illyrian + peasants. As soon as Diocletian entered into the twentieth year of his + reign, he celebrated that memorable æra, as well as the success of his + arms, by the pomp of a Roman triumph. <a href="#linknote-13.85" + name="linknoteref-13.85" id="linknoteref-13.85">85</a> Maximian, the equal + partner of his power, was his only companion in the glory of that day. The + two Cæsars had fought and conquered, but the merit of their exploits was + ascribed, according to the rigor of ancient maxims, to the auspicious + influence of their fathers and emperors. <a href="#linknote-13.86" + name="linknoteref-13.86" id="linknoteref-13.86">86</a> The triumph of + Diocletian and Maximian was less magnificent, perhaps, than those of + Aurelian and Probus, but it was dignified by several circumstances of + superior fame and good fortune. Africa and Britain, the Rhine, the Danube, + and the Nile, furnished their respective trophies; but the most + distinguished ornament was of a more singular nature, a Persian victory + followed by an important conquest. The representations of rivers, + mountains, and provinces, were carried before the Imperial car. The images + of the captive wives, the sisters, and the children of the Great King, + afforded a new and grateful spectacle to the vanity of the people. <a + href="#linknote-13.87" name="linknoteref-13.87" id="linknoteref-13.87">87</a> + In the eyes of posterity, this triumph is remarkable, by a distinction of + a less honorable kind. It was the last that Rome ever beheld. Soon after + this period, the emperors ceased to vanquish, and Rome ceased to be the + capital of the empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.85" id="linknote-13.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. in Chron. Pagi + ad annum. Till the discovery of the treatise De Mortibus Persecutorum, it + was not certain that the triumph and the Vicennalia was celebrated at the + same time.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.86" id="linknote-13.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.86">return</a>)<br/> [ At the time of the + Vicennalia, Galerius seems to have kept station on the Danube. See + Lactant. de M. P. c. 38.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.87" id="linknote-13.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.87">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius (ix. 27) + mentions them as a part of the triumph. As the persons had been restored + to Narses, nothing more than their images could be exhibited.] + </p> + <p> + The spot on which Rome was founded had been consecrated by ancient + ceremonies and imaginary miracles. The presence of some god, or the memory + of some hero, seemed to animate every part of the city, and the empire of + the world had been promised to the Capitol. <a href="#linknote-13.88" + name="linknoteref-13.88" id="linknoteref-13.88">88</a> The native Romans + felt and confessed the power of this agreeable illusion. It was derived + from their ancestors, had grown up with their earliest habits of life, and + was protected, in some measure, by the opinion of political utility. The + form and the seat of government were intimately blended together, nor was + it esteemed possible to transport the one without destroying the other. <a + href="#linknote-13.89" name="linknoteref-13.89" id="linknoteref-13.89">89</a> + But the sovereignty of the capital was gradually annihilated in the extent + of conquest; the provinces rose to the same level, and the vanquished + nations acquired the name and privileges, without imbibing the partial + affections, of Romans. During a long period, however, the remains of the + ancient constitution, and the influence of custom, preserved the dignity + of Rome. The emperors, though perhaps of African or Illyrian extraction, + respected their adopted country, as the seat of their power, and the + centre of their extensive dominions. The emergencies of war very + frequently required their presence on the frontiers; but Diocletian and + Maximian were the first Roman princes who fixed, in time of peace, their + ordinary residence in the provinces; and their conduct, however it might + be suggested by private motives, was justified by very specious + considerations of policy. The court of the emperor of the West was, for + the most part, established at Milan, whose situation, at the foot of the + Alps, appeared far more convenient than that of Rome, for the important + purpose of watching the motions of the barbarians of Germany. Milan soon + assumed the splendor of an Imperial city. The houses are described as + numerous and well built; the manners of the people as polished and + liberal. A circus, a theatre, a mint, a palace, baths, which bore the name + of their founder Maximian; porticos adorned with statues, and a double + circumference of walls, contributed to the beauty of the new capital; nor + did it seem oppressed even by the proximity of Rome. <a + href="#linknote-13.90" name="linknoteref-13.90" id="linknoteref-13.90">90</a> + To rival the majesty of Rome was the ambition likewise of Diocletian, who + employed his leisure, and the wealth of the East, in the embellishment of + Nicomedia, a city placed on the verge of Europe and Asia, almost at an + equal distance between the Danube and the Euphrates. By the taste of the + monarch, and at the expense of the people, Nicomedia acquired, in the + space of a few years, a degree of magnificence which might appear to have + required the labor of ages, and became inferior only to Rome, Alexandria, + and Antioch, in extent of populousness. <a href="#linknote-13.91" + name="linknoteref-13.91" id="linknoteref-13.91">91</a> The life of + Diocletian and Maximian was a life of action, and a considerable portion + of it was spent in camps, or in the long and frequent marches; but + whenever the public business allowed them any relaxation, they seemed to + have retired with pleasure to their favorite residences of Nicomedia and + Milan. Till Diocletian, in the twentieth year of his reign, celebrated his + Roman triumph, it is extremely doubtful whether he ever visited the + ancient capital of the empire. Even on that memorable occasion his stay + did not exceed two months. Disgusted with the licentious familiarity of + the people, he quitted Rome with precipitation thirteen days before it was + expected that he should have appeared in the senate, invested with the + ensigns of the consular dignity. <a href="#linknote-13.92" + name="linknoteref-13.92" id="linknoteref-13.92">92</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.88" id="linknote-13.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Livy gives us a speech + of Camillus on that subject, (v. 51—55,) full of eloquence and + sensibility, in opposition to a design of removing the seat of government + from Rome to the neighboring city of Veii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.89" id="linknote-13.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Julius Cæsar was + reproached with the intention of removing the empire to Ilium or + Alexandria. See Sueton. in Cæsar. c. 79. According to the ingenious + conjecture of Le Fevre and Dacier, the ode of the third book of Horace was + intended to divert from the execution of a similar design.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.90" id="linknote-13.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.90">return</a>)<br/> [ See Aurelius Victor, + who likewise mentions the buildings erected by Maximian at Carthage, + probably during the Moorish war. We shall insert some verses of Ausonius + de Clar. Urb. v.—— Et Mediolani miræomnia: copia rerum; + Innumeræ cultæque domus; facunda virorum Ingenia, et mores læti: tum + duplice muro Amplificata loci species; populique voluptas Circus; et + inclusi moles cuneata Theatri; Templa, Palatinæque arces, opulensque + Moneta, Et regio Herculei celebris sub honore lavacri. Cunctaque marmoreis + ornata Peristyla signis; Moeniaque in valli formam circumdata labro, Omnia + quæ magnis operum velut æmula formis Excellunt: nec juncta premit + vicinia Romæ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.91" id="linknote-13.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant. de M. P. c. + 17. Libanius, Orat. viii. p. 203.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.92" id="linknote-13.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant. de M. P. c. + 17. On a similar occasion, Ammianus mentions the dicacitas plebis, as not + very agreeable to an Imperial ear. (See l. xvi. c. 10.)] + </p> + <p> + The dislike expressed by Diocletian towards Rome and Roman freedom was + not the effect of momentary caprice, but the result of the most artful + policy. That crafty prince had framed a new system of Imperial government, + which was afterwards completed by the family of Constantine; and as the + image of the old constitution was religiously preserved in the senate, he + resolved to deprive that order of its small remains of power and + consideration. We may recollect, about eight years before the elevation + of Diocletian, the transient greatness, and the ambitious hopes, of the + Roman senate. As long as that enthusiasm prevailed, many of the nobles + imprudently displayed their zeal in the cause of freedom; and after the + successes of Probus had withdrawn their countenance from the republican + party, the senators were unable to disguise their impotent resentment. + </p> + <p> + As the sovereign of Italy, Maximian was intrusted with the care of + extinguishing this troublesome, rather than dangerous spirit, and the + task was perfectly suited to his cruel temper. The most illustrious + members of the senate, whom Diocletian always affected to esteem, were + involved, by his colleague, in the accusation of imaginary plots; and the + possession of an elegant villa, or a well-cultivated estate, was + interpreted as a convincing evidence of guilt. <a href="#linknote-13.93" + name="linknoteref-13.93" id="linknoteref-13.93">93</a> The camp of the + Prætorians, which had so long oppressed, began to protect, the majesty of + Rome; and as those haughty troops were conscious of the decline of their + power, they were naturally disposed to unite their strength with the + authority of the senate. By the prudent measures of Diocletian, the + numbers of the Prætorians were insensibly reduced, their privileges + abolished, <a href="#linknote-13.94" name="linknoteref-13.94" + id="linknoteref-13.94">94</a> and their place supplied by two faithful + legions of Illyricum, who, under the new titles of Jovians and + Herculians, were appointed to perform the service of the Imperial guards. + <a href="#linknote-13.95" name="linknoteref-13.95" + id="linknoteref-13.95">95</a> But the most fatal though secret wound, + which the senate received from the hands of Diocletian and Maximian, was + inflicted by the inevitable operation of their absence. As long as the + emperors resided at Rome, that assembly might be oppressed, but it could + scarcely be neglected. The successors of Augustus exercised the power of + dictating whatever laws their wisdom or caprice might suggest; but those + laws were ratified by the sanction of the senate. The model of ancient + freedom was preserved in its deliberations and decrees; and wise princes, + who respected the prejudices of the Roman people, were in some measure + obliged to assume the language and behavior suitable to the general and + first magistrate of the republic. In the armies and in the provinces, + they displayed the dignity of monarchs; and when they fixed their + residence at a distance from the capital, they forever laid aside the + dissimulation which Augustus had recommended to his successors. In the + exercise of the legislative as well as the executive power, the sovereign + advised with his ministers, instead of consulting the great council of + the nation. The name of the senate was mentioned with honor till the last + period of the empire; the vanity of its members was still flattered with + honorary distinctions; <a href="#linknote-13.96" name="linknoteref-13.96" + id="linknoteref-13.96">96</a> but the assembly which had so long been the + source, and so long the instrument of power, was respectfully suffered to + sink into oblivion. The senate of Rome, losing all connection with the + Imperial court and the actual constitution, was left a venerable but + useless monument of antiquity on the Capitoline hill. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.93" id="linknote-13.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.93">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius accuses + Maximian of destroying fictis criminationibus lumina senatus, (De M. P. c. + 8.) Aurelius Victor speaks very doubtfully of the faith of Diocletian + towards his friends.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.94" id="linknote-13.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.94">return</a>)<br/> [ Truncatæ vires urbis, + imminuto prætoriarum cohortium atque in armis vulgi numero. Aurelius + Victor. Lactantius attributes to Galerius the prosecution of the same + plan, (c. 26.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.95" id="linknote-13.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.95">return</a>)<br/> [ They were old corps + stationed in Illyricum; and according to the ancient establishment, they + each consisted of six thousand men. They had acquired much reputation by + the use of the plumbatæ, or darts loaded with lead. Each soldier carried + five of these, which he darted from a considerable distance, with great + strength and dexterity. See Vegetius, i. 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.96" id="linknote-13.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.96">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Theodosian + Code, l. vi. tit. ii. with Godefroy’s commentary.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap13.4"></a> + Chapter XIII: Reign Of Diocletian And His Three Associates.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + When the Roman princes had lost sight of the senate and of their ancient + capital, they easily forgot the origin and nature of their legal power. + The civil offices of consul, of proconsul, of censor, and of tribune, by + the union of which it had been formed, betrayed to the people its + republican extraction. Those modest titles were laid aside; <a + href="#linknote-13.97" name="linknoteref-13.97" id="linknoteref-13.97">97</a> + and if they still distinguished their high station by the appellation of + Emperor, or Imperator, that word was understood in a new and more + dignified sense, and no longer denoted the general of the Roman armies, + but the sovereign of the Roman world. The name of Emperor, which was at + first of a military nature, was associated with another of a more servile + kind. The epithet of Dominus, or Lord, in its primitive signification, was + expressive not of the authority of a prince over his subjects, or of a + commander over his soldiers, but of the despotic power of a master over + his domestic slaves. <a href="#linknote-13.98" name="linknoteref-13.98" + id="linknoteref-13.98">98</a> Viewing it in that odious light, it had been + rejected with abhorrence by the first Cæsars. Their resistance insensibly + became more feeble, and the name less odious; till at length the style of + <i>our Lord and Emperor</i> was not only bestowed by flattery, but was regularly + admitted into the laws and public monuments. Such lofty epithets were + sufficient to elate and satisfy the most excessive vanity; and if the + successors of Diocletian still declined the title of King, it seems to + have been the effect not so much of their moderation as of their delicacy. + Wherever the Latin tongue was in use, (and it was the language of + government throughout the empire,) the Imperial title, as it was peculiar + to themselves, conveyed a more respectable idea than the name of king, + which they must have shared with a hundred barbarian chieftains; or which, + at the best, they could derive only from Romulus, or from Tarquin. But the + sentiments of the East were very different from those of the West. From + the earliest period of history, the sovereigns of Asia had been celebrated + in the Greek language by the title of Basileus, or King; and since it was + considered as the first distinction among men, it was soon employed by the + servile provincials of the East, in their humble addresses to the Roman + throne. <a href="#linknote-13.99" name="linknoteref-13.99" + id="linknoteref-13.99">99</a> Even the attributes, or at least the titles, + of the D<small>IVINITY</small>, were usurped by Diocletian and Maximian, who transmitted + them to a succession of Christian emperors. <a href="#linknote-13.100" + name="linknoteref-13.100" id="linknoteref-13.100">100</a> Such extravagant + compliments, however, soon lose their impiety by losing their meaning; and + when the ear is once accustomed to the sound, they are heard with + indifference, as vague though excessive professions of respect. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.97" id="linknote-13.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.97">return</a>)<br/> [ See the 12th + dissertation in Spanheim’s excellent work de Usu Numismatum. From medals, + inscriptions, and historians, he examines every title separately, and + traces it from Augustus to the moment of its disappearing.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.98" id="linknote-13.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Pliny (in Panegyr. c. + 3, 55, &c.) speaks of Dominus with execration, as synonymous to + Tyrant, and opposite to Prince. And the same Pliny regularly gives that + title (in the tenth book of the epistles) to his friend rather than + master, the virtuous Trajan. This strange contradiction puzzles the + commentators, who think, and the translators, who can write.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.99" id="linknote-13.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.99">return</a>)<br/> [ Synesius de Regno, + edit. Petav. p. 15. I am indebted for this quotation to the Abbé de la + Bleterie.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.100" id="linknote-13.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.100">return</a>)<br/> [ Soe Vandale de + Consecratione, p. 354, &c. It was customary for the emperors to + mention (in the preamble of laws) their numen, sacreo majesty, divine + oracles, &c. According to Tillemont, Gregory Nazianzen complains most + bitterly of the profanation, especially when it was practised by an Arian + emperor. * Note: In the time of the republic, says Hegewisch, when the + consuls, the prætors, and the other magistrates appeared in public, to + perform the functions of their office, their dignity was announced both by + the symbols which use had consecrated, and the brilliant cortege by which + they were accompanied. But this dignity belonged to the office, not to the + individual; this pomp belonged to the magistrate, not to the man. * * The + consul, followed, in the comitia, by all the senate, the prætors, the + quæstors, the ædiles, the lictors, the apparitors, and the heralds, on + reentering his house, was served only by freedmen and by his slaves. The + first emperors went no further. Tiberius had, for his personal attendance, + only a moderate number of slaves, and a few freedmen. (Tacit. Ann. iv. 7.) + But in proportion as the republican forms disappeared, one after another, + the inclination of the emperors to environ themselves with personal pomp, + displayed itself more and more. ** The magnificence and the ceremonial of + the East were entirely introduced by Diocletian, and were consecrated by + Constantine to the Imperial use. Thenceforth the palace, the court, the + table, all the personal attendance, distinguished the emperor from his + subjects, still more than his superior dignity. The organization which + Diocletian gave to his new court, attached less honor and distinction to + rank than to services performed towards the members of the Imperial + family. Hegewisch, Essai, Hist. sur les Finances Romains. Few historians + have characterized, in a more philosophic manner, the influence of a new + institution.—G.——It is singular that the son of a slave + reduced the haughty aristocracy of Home to the offices of servitude.—M.] + </p> + <p> + From the time of Augustus to that of Diocletian, the Roman princes, + conversing in a familiar manner among their fellow-citizens, were saluted + only with the same respect that was usually paid to senators and + magistrates. Their principal distinction was the Imperial or military robe + of purple; whilst the senatorial garment was marked by a broad, and the + equestrian by a narrow, band or stripe of the same honorable color. The + pride, or rather the policy, of Diocletian engaged that artful prince to + introduce the stately magnificence of the court of Persia. <a + href="#linknote-13.101" name="linknoteref-13.101" id="linknoteref-13.101">101</a> + He ventured to assume the diadem, an ornament detested by the Romans as + the odious ensign of royalty, and the use of which had been considered as + the most desperate act of the madness of Caligula. It was no more than a + broad white fillet set with pearls, which encircled the emperor’s head. + The sumptuous robes of Diocletian and his successors were of silk and + gold; and it is remarked with indignation that even their shoes were + studded with the most precious gems. The access to their sacred person was + every day rendered more difficult by the institution of new forms and + ceremonies. The avenues of the palace were strictly guarded by the various + schools, as they began to be called, of domestic officers. The interior + apartments were intrusted to the jealous vigilance of the eunuchs, the + increase of whose numbers and influence was the most infallible symptom of + the progress of despotism. When a subject was at length admitted to the + Imperial presence, he was obliged, whatever might be his rank, to fall + prostrate on the ground, and to adore, according to the eastern fashion, + the divinity of his lord and master. <a href="#linknote-13.102" + name="linknoteref-13.102" id="linknoteref-13.102">102</a> Diocletian was a + man of sense, who, in the course of private as well as public life, had + formed a just estimate both of himself and of mankind; nor is it easy to + conceive that in substituting the manners of Persia to those of Rome he + was seriously actuated by so mean a principle as that of vanity. He + flattered himself that an ostentation of splendor and luxury would subdue + the imagination of the multitude; that the monarch would be less exposed + to the rude license of the people and the soldiers, as his person was + secluded from the public view; and that habits of submission would + insensibly be productive of sentiments of veneration. Like the modesty + affected by Augustus, the state maintained by Diocletian was a theatrical + representation; but it must be confessed, that of the two comedies, the + former was of a much more liberal and manly character than the latter. It + was the aim of the one to disguise, and the object of the other to + display, the unbounded power which the emperors possessed over the Roman + world. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.101" id="linknote-13.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.101">return</a>)<br/> [ See Spanheim de Usu + Numismat. Dissert. xii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.102" id="linknote-13.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor. + Eutropius, ix. 26. It appears by the Panegyrists, that the Romans were + soon reconciled to the name and ceremony of adoration.] + </p> + <p> + Ostentation was the first principle of the new system instituted by + Diocletian. The second was division. He divided the empire, the provinces, + and every branch of the civil as well as military administration. He + multiplied the wheels of the machine of government, and rendered its + operations less rapid, but more secure. Whatever advantages and whatever + defects might attend these innovations, they must be ascribed in a very + great degree to the first inventor; but as the new frame of policy was + gradually improved and completed by succeeding princes, it will be more + satisfactory to delay the consideration of it till the season of its full + maturity and perfection. <a href="#linknote-13.103" name="linknoteref-13.103" + id="linknoteref-13.103">103</a> Reserving, therefore, for the reign of + Constantine a more exact picture of the new empire, we shall content + ourselves with describing the principal and decisive outline, as it was + traced by the hand of Diocletian. He had associated three colleagues in + the exercise of the supreme power; and as he was convinced that the + abilities of a single man were inadequate to the public defence, he + considered the joint administration of four princes not as a temporary + expedient, but as a fundamental law of the constitution. It was his + intention that the two elder princes should be distinguished by the use + of the diadem, and the title of <i>Augusti;</i> that, as affection or esteem + might direct their choice, they should regularly call to their assistance + two subordinate colleagues; and that the <i>Cæsars</i>, rising in their turn to + the first rank, should supply an uninterrupted succession of emperors. The + empire was divided into four parts. The East and Italy were the most + honorable, the Danube and the Rhine the most laborious stations. The + former claimed the presence of the <i>Augusti</i>, the latter were intrusted to + the administration of the <i>Cæsars</i>. The strength of the legions was in the + hands of the four partners of sovereignty, and the despair of successively + vanquishing four formidable rivals might intimidate the ambition of an + aspiring general. In their civil government the emperors were supposed to + exercise the undivided power of the monarch, and their edicts, inscribed + with their joint names, were received in all the provinces, as promulgated + by their mutual councils and authority. Notwithstanding these precautions, + the political union of the Roman world was gradually dissolved, and a + principle of division was introduced, which, in the course of a few years, + occasioned the perpetual separation of the Eastern and Western Empires. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.103" id="linknote-13.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.103">return</a>)<br/> [ The innovations + introduced by Diocletian are chiefly deduced, 1st, from some very strong + passages in Lactantius; and, 2dly, from the new and various offices which, + in the Theodosian code, appear already established in the beginning of the + reign of Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + The system of Diocletian was accompanied with another very material + disadvantage, which cannot even at present be totally overlooked; a more + expensive establishment, and consequently an increase of taxes, and the + oppression of the people. Instead of a modest family of slaves and + freedmen, such as had contented the simple greatness of Augustus and + Trajan, three or four magnificent courts were established in the various + parts of the empire, and as many Roman <i>kings</i> contended with each other and + with the Persian monarch for the vain superiority of pomp and luxury. The + number of ministers, of magistrates, of officers, and of servants, who + filled the different departments of the state, was multiplied beyond the + example of former times; and (if we may borrow the warm expression of a + contemporary) “when the proportion of those who received exceeded the + proportion of those who contributed, the provinces were oppressed by the + weight of tributes.” <a href="#linknote-13.104" name="linknoteref-13.104" + id="linknoteref-13.104">104</a> From this period to the extinction of the + empire, it would be easy to deduce an uninterrupted series of clamors and + complaints. According to his religion and situation, each writer chooses + either Diocletian, or Constantine, or Valens, or Theodosius, for the + object of his invectives; but they unanimously agree in representing the + burden of the public impositions, and particularly the land tax and + capitation, as the intolerable and increasing grievance of their own + times. From such a concurrence, an impartial historian, who is obliged to + extract truth from satire, as well as from panegyric, will be inclined to + divide the blame among the princes whom they accuse, and to ascribe their + exactions much less to their personal vices, than to the uniform system of + their administration. <a href="#linknote-13.1041" name="linknoteref-13.1041" + id="linknoteref-13.1041">1041</a> The emperor Diocletian was indeed the + author of that system; but during his reign, the growing evil was confined + within the bounds of modesty and discretion, and he deserves the reproach + of establishing pernicious precedents, rather than of exercising actual + oppression. <a href="#linknote-13.105" name="linknoteref-13.105" + id="linknoteref-13.105">105</a> It may be added, that his revenues were + managed with prudent economy; and that after all the current expenses were + discharged, there still remained in the Imperial treasury an ample + provision either for judicious liberality or for any emergency of the + state. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.104" id="linknote-13.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.104">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant. de M. P. c. + 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.1041" id="linknote-13.1041"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1041 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.1041">return</a>)<br/> [ The most curious + document which has come to light since the publication of Gibbon’s + History, is the edict of Diocletian, published from an inscription found + at Eskihissar, (Stratoniccia,) by Col. Leake. This inscription was first + copied by Sherard, afterwards much more completely by Mr. Bankes. It is + confirmed and illustrated by a more imperfect copy of the same edict, + found in the Levant by a gentleman of Aix, and brought to this country by + M. Vescovali. This edict was issued in the name of the four Cæsars, + Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, and Galerius. It fixed a maximum of + prices throughout the empire, for all the necessaries and commodities of + life. The preamble insists, with great vehemence on the extortion and + inhumanity of the venders and merchants. Quis enim adeo obtunisi (obtusi) + pectores (is) et a sensu inhumanitatis extorris est qui ignorare potest + immo non senserit in venalibus rebus quævel in mercimoniis aguntur vel + diurna urbium conversatione tractantur, in tantum se licen liam defusisse, + ut effrænata libido rapien—rum copia nec annorum ubertatibus + mitigaretur. The edict, as Col. Leake clearly shows, was issued A. C. 303. + Among the articles of which the maximum value is assessed, are oil, salt, + honey, butchers’ meat, poultry, game, fish, vegetables, fruit the wages of + laborers and artisans, schoolmasters and skins, boots and shoes, harness, + timber, corn, wine, and beer, (zythus.) The depreciation in the value of + money, or the rise in the price of commodities, had been so great during + the past century, that butchers’ meat, which, in the second century of the + empire, was in Rome about two denaril the pound, was now fixed at a + maximum of eight. Col. Leake supposes the average price could not be less + than four: at the same time the maximum of the wages of the agricultural + laborers was twenty-five. The whole edict is, perhaps, the most gigantic + effort of a blind though well-intentioned despotism, to control that which + is, and ought to be, beyond the regulation of the government. See an Edict + of Diocletian, by Col. Leake, London, 1826. Col. Leake has not observed + that this Edict is expressly named in the treatise de Mort. Persecut. ch. + vii. Idem cum variis iniquitatibus immensam faceret caritatem, legem + pretiis rerum venalium statuere conatus.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.105" id="linknote-13.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.105">return</a>)<br/> [ Indicta lex nova quæ + sane illorum temporum modestia tolerabilis, in perniciem processit. Aurel. + Victor., who has treated the character of Diocletian with good sense, + though in bad Latin.] + </p> + <p> + It was in the twenty first year of his reign that Diocletian executed his + memorable resolution of abdicating the empire; an action more naturally to + have been expected from the elder or the younger Antoninus, than from a + prince who had never practised the lessons of philosophy either in the + attainment or in the use of supreme power. Diocletian acquired the glory + of giving to the world the first example of a resignation, <a + href="#linknote-13.106" name="linknoteref-13.106" id="linknoteref-13.106">106</a> + which has not been very frequently imitated by succeeding monarchs. The + parallel of Charles the Fifth, however, will naturally offer itself to our + mind, not only since the eloquence of a modern historian has rendered that + name so familiar to an English reader, but from the very striking + resemblance between the characters of the two emperors, whose political + abilities were superior to their military genius, and whose specious + virtues were much less the effect of nature than of art. The abdication of + Charles appears to have been hastened by the vicissitudes of fortune; and + the disappointment of his favorite schemes urged him to relinquish a power + which he found inadequate to his ambition. But the reign of Diocletian had + flowed with a tide of uninterrupted success; nor was it till after he had + vanquished all his enemies, and accomplished all his designs, that he + seems to have entertained any serious thoughts of resigning the empire. + Neither Charles nor Diocletian were arrived at a very advanced period of + life; since the one was only fifty-five, and the other was no more than + fifty-nine years of age; but the active life of those princes, their wars + and journeys, the cares of royalty, and their application to business, had + already impaired their constitution, and brought on the infirmities of a + premature old age. <a href="#linknote-13.107" name="linknoteref-13.107" + id="linknoteref-13.107">107</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.106" id="linknote-13.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.106">return</a>)<br/> [ Solus omnium post + conditum Romanum Imperium, qui extanto fastigio sponte ad privatæ vitæ + statum civilitatemque remearet, Eutrop. ix. 28.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.107" id="linknote-13.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.107">return</a>)<br/> [ The particulars of + the journey and illness are taken from Laclantius, c. 17, who may + sometimes be admitted as an evidence of public facts, though very seldom + of private anecdotes.] + </p> + <p> + Notwithstanding the severity of a very cold and rainy winter, Diocletian + left Italy soon after the ceremony of his triumph, and began his progress + towards the East round the circuit of the Illyrian provinces. From the + inclemency of the weather, and the fatigue of the journey, he soon + contracted a slow illness; and though he made easy marches, and was + generally carried in a close litter, his disorder, before he arrived at + Nicomedia, about the end of the summer, was become very serious and + alarming. During the whole winter he was confined to his palace: his + danger inspired a general and unaffected concern; but the people could + only judge of the various alterations of his health, from the joy or + consternation which they discovered in the countenances and behavior of + his attendants. The rumor of his death was for some time universally + believed, and it was supposed to be concealed with a view to prevent the + troubles that might have happened during the absence of the Cæsar + Galerius. At length, however, on the first of March, Diocletian once more + appeared in public, but so pale and emaciated, that he could scarcely have + been recognized by those to whom his person was the most familiar. It was + time to put an end to the painful struggle, which he had sustained during + more than a year, between the care of his health and that of his dignity. + The former required indulgence and relaxation, the latter compelled him to + direct, from the bed of sickness, the administration of a great empire. He + resolved to pass the remainder of his days in honorable repose, to place + his glory beyond the reach of fortune, and to relinquish the theatre of + the world to his younger and more active associates. <a + href="#linknote-13.108" name="linknoteref-13.108" id="linknoteref-13.108">108</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.108" id="linknote-13.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor + ascribes the abdication, which had been so variously accounted for, to two + causes: 1st, Diocletian’s contempt of ambition; and 2dly, His apprehension + of impending troubles. One of the panegyrists (vi. 9) mentions the age and + infirmities of Diocletian as a very natural reason for his retirement. * + Note: Constantine (Orat. ad Sanct. c. 401) more than insinuated that + derangement of mind, connected with the conflagration of the palace at + Nicomedia by lightning, was the cause of his abdication. But Heinichen. in + a very sensible note on this passage in Eusebius, while he admits that his + long illness might produce a temporary depression of spirits, triumphantly + appeals to the philosophical conduct of Diocletian in his retreat, and the + influence which he still retained on public affairs.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The ceremony of his abdication was performed in a spacious plain, about + three miles from Nicomedia. The emperor ascended a lofty throne, and in a + speech, full of reason and dignity, declared his intention, both to the + people and to the soldiers who were assembled on this extraordinary + occasion. As soon as he had divested himself of his purple, he withdrew + from the gazing multitude; and traversing the city in a covered chariot, + proceeded, without delay, to the favorite retirement which he had chosen + in his native country of Dalmatia. On the same day, which was the first of + May, <a href="#linknote-13.109" name="linknoteref-13.109" + id="linknoteref-13.109">109</a> Maximian, as it had been previously + concerted, made his resignation of the Imperial dignity at Milan. + </p> + <p> + Even in the splendor of the Roman triumph, Diocletian had meditated his + design of abdicating the government. As he wished to secure the obedience + of Maximian, he exacted from him either a general assurance that he would + submit his actions to the authority of his benefactor, or a particular + promise that he would descend from the throne, whenever he should receive + the advice and the example. This engagement, though it was confirmed by + the solemnity of an oath before the altar of the Capitoline Jupiter, <a + href="#linknote-13.110" name="linknoteref-13.110" id="linknoteref-13.110">110</a> + would have proved a feeble restraint on the fierce temper of Maximian, + whose passion was the love of power, and who neither desired present + tranquility nor future reputation. But he yielded, however reluctantly, to + the ascendant which his wiser colleague had acquired over him, and + retired, immediately after his abdication, to a villa in Lucania, where it + was almost impossible that such an impatient spirit could find any lasting + tranquility. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.109" id="linknote-13.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.109">return</a>)<br/> [ The difficulties as + well as mistakes attending the dates both of the year and of the day of + Diocletian’s abdication are perfectly cleared up by Tillemont, Hist. des + Empereurs, tom. iv. p 525, note 19, and by Pagi ad annum.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.110" id="linknote-13.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.110">return</a>)<br/> [ See Panegyr. Veter. + vi. 9. The oration was pronounced after Maximian had resumed the purple.] + </p> + <p> + Diocletian, who, from a servile origin, had raised himself to the throne, + passed the nine last years of his life in a private condition. Reason had + dictated, and content seems to have accompanied, his retreat, in which he + enjoyed, for a long time, the respect of those princes to whom he had + resigned the possession of the world. <a href="#linknote-13.111" + name="linknoteref-13.111" id="linknoteref-13.111">111</a> It is seldom that + minds long exercised in business have formed any habits of conversing with + themselves, and in the loss of power they principally regret the want of + occupation. The amusements of letters and of devotion, which afford so + many resources in solitude, were incapable of fixing the attention of + Diocletian; but he had preserved, or at least he soon recovered, a taste + for the most innocent as well as natural pleasures, and his leisure hours + were sufficiently employed in building, planting, and gardening. His + answer to Maximian is deservedly celebrated. He was solicited by that + restless old man to reassume the reins of government, and the Imperial + purple. He rejected the temptation with a smile of pity, calmly observing, + that if he could show Maximian the cabbages which he had planted with his + own hands at Salona, he should no longer be urged to relinquish the + enjoyment of happiness for the pursuit of power. <a href="#linknote-13.112" + name="linknoteref-13.112" id="linknoteref-13.112">112</a> In his + conversations with his friends, he frequently acknowledged, that of all + arts, the most difficult was the art of reigning; and he expressed himself + on that favorite topic with a degree of warmth which could be the result + only of experience. “How often,” was he accustomed to say, “is it the + interest of four or five ministers to combine together to deceive their + sovereign! Secluded from mankind by his exalted dignity, the truth is + concealed from his knowledge; he can see only with their eyes, he hears + nothing but their misrepresentations. He confers the most important + offices upon vice and weakness, and disgraces the most virtuous and + deserving among his subjects. By such infamous arts,” added Diocletian, + “the best and wisest princes are sold to the venal corruption of their + courtiers.” <a href="#linknote-13.113" name="linknoteref-13.113" + id="linknoteref-13.113">113</a> A just estimate of greatness, and the + assurance of immortal fame, improve our relish for the pleasures of + retirement; but the Roman emperor had filled too important a character in + the world, to enjoy without alloy the comforts and security of a private + condition. It was impossible that he could remain ignorant of the troubles + which afflicted the empire after his abdication. It was impossible that he + could be indifferent to their consequences. Fear, sorrow, and discontent, + sometimes pursued him into the solitude of Salona. His tenderness, or at + least his pride, was deeply wounded by the misfortunes of his wife and + daughter; and the last moments of Diocletian were imbittered by some + affronts, which Licinius and Constantine might have spared the father of + so many emperors, and the first author of their own fortune. A report, + though of a very doubtful nature, has reached our times, that he prudently + withdrew himself from their power by a voluntary death. <a + href="#linknote-13.114" name="linknoteref-13.114" id="linknoteref-13.114">114</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.111" id="linknote-13.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.111">return</a>)<br/> [ Eumenius pays him a + very fine compliment: “At enim divinum illum virum, qui primus imperium et + participavit et posuit, consilii et fact isui non poenitet; nec amisisse + se putat quod sponte transcripsit. Felix beatusque vere quem vestra, + tantorum principum, colunt privatum.” Panegyr. Vet. vii. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.112" id="linknote-13.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.112">return</a>)<br/> [ We are obliged to the + younger Victor for this celebrated item. Eutropius mentions the thing in a + more general manner.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.113" id="linknote-13.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.113">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. 223, + 224. Vopiscus had learned this conversation from his father.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.114" id="linknote-13.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.114">return</a>)<br/> [ The younger Victor + slightly mentions the report. But as Diocletian had disobliged a powerful + and successful party, his memory has been loaded with every crime and + misfortune. It has been affirmed that he died raving mad, that he was + condemned as a criminal by the Roman senate, &c.] + </p> + <p> + Before we dismiss the consideration of the life and character of + Diocletian, we may, for a moment, direct our view to the place of his + retirement. Salona, a principal city of his native province of Dalmatia, + was near two hundred Roman miles (according to the measurement of the + public highways) from Aquileia and the confines of Italy, and about two + hundred and seventy from Sirmium, the usual residence of the emperors + whenever they visited the Illyrian frontier. <a href="#linknote-13.115" + name="linknoteref-13.115" id="linknoteref-13.115">115</a> A miserable + village still preserves the name of Salona; but so late as the sixteenth + century, the remains of a theatre, and a confused prospect of broken + arches and marble columns, continued to attest its ancient splendor. <a + href="#linknote-13.116" name="linknoteref-13.116" id="linknoteref-13.116">116</a> + About six or seven miles from the city Diocletian constructed a + magnificent palace, and we may infer, from the greatness of the work, how + long he had meditated his design of abdicating the empire. The choice of a + spot which united all that could contribute either to health or to luxury + did not require the partiality of a native. “The soil was dry and fertile, + the air is pure and wholesome, and, though extremely hot during the summer + months, this country seldom feels those sultry and noxious winds to which + the coasts of Istria and some parts of Italy are exposed. The views from + the palace are no less beautiful than the soil and climate were inviting. + Towards the west lies the fertile shore that stretches along the Adriatic, + in which a number of small islands are scattered in such a manner as to + give this part of the sea the appearance of a great lake. On the north + side lies the bay, which led to the ancient city of Salona; and the + country beyond it, appearing in sight, forms a proper contrast to that + more extensive prospect of water, which the Adriatic presents both to the + south and to the east. Towards the north, the view is terminated by high + and irregular mountains, situated at a proper distance, and in many places + covered with villages, woods, and vineyards.” <a href="#linknote-13.117" + name="linknoteref-13.117" id="linknoteref-13.117">117</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.115" id="linknote-13.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.115">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Itiner. p. + 269, 272, edit. Wessel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.116" id="linknote-13.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.116">return</a>)<br/> [ The Abate Fortis, in + his Viaggio in Dalmazia, p. 43, (printed at Venice in the year 1774, in + two small volumes in quarto,) quotes a Ms account of the antiquities of + Salona, composed by Giambattista Giustiniani about the middle of the xvith + century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.117" id="linknote-13.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.117">return</a>)<br/> [ Adam’s Antiquities of + Diocletian’s Palace at Spalatro, p. 6. We may add a circumstance or two + from the Abate Fortis: the little stream of the Hyader, mentioned by + Lucan, produces most exquisite trout, which a sagacious writer, perhaps a + monk, supposes to have been one of the principal reasons that determined + Diocletian in the choice of his retirement. Fortis, p. 45. The same author + (p. 38) observes, that a taste for agriculture is reviving at Spalatro; + and that an experimental farm has lately been established near the city, + by a society of gentlemen.] + </p> + <p> + Though Constantine, from a very obvious prejudice, affects to mention the + palace of Diocletian with contempt, <a href="#linknote-13.118" + name="linknoteref-13.118" id="linknoteref-13.118">118</a> yet one of their + successors, who could only see it in a neglected and mutilated state, + celebrates its magnificence in terms of the highest admiration. <a + href="#linknote-13.119" name="linknoteref-13.119" id="linknoteref-13.119">119</a> + It covered an extent of ground consisting of between nine and ten English + acres. The form was quadrangular, flanked with sixteen towers. Two of the + sides were near six hundred, and the other two near seven hundred feet in + length. The whole was constructed of a beautiful freestone, extracted from + the neighboring quarries of Trau, or Tragutium, and very little inferior + to marble itself. Four streets, intersecting each other at right angles, + divided the several parts of this great edifice, and the approach to the + principal apartment was from a very stately entrance, which is still + denominated the Golden Gate. The approach was terminated by a <i>peristylium</i> + of granite columns, on one side of which we discover the square temple of + Æsculapius, on the other the octagon temple of Jupiter. The latter of + those deities Diocletian revered as the patron of his fortunes, the former + as the protector of his health. By comparing the present remains with the + precepts of Vitruvius, the several parts of the building, the baths, + bedchamber, the <i>atrium</i>, the <i>basilica</i>, and the Cyzicene, Corinthian, and + Egyptian halls have been described with some degree of precision, or at + least of probability. Their forms were various, their proportions just; + but they all were attended with two imperfections, very repugnant to our + modern notions of taste and conveniency. These stately rooms had neither + windows nor chimneys. They were lighted from the top, (for the building + seems to have consisted of no more than one story,) and they received + their heat by the help of pipes that were conveyed along the walls. The + range of principal apartments was protected towards the south-west by a + portico five hundred and seventeen feet long, which must have formed a + very noble and delightful walk, when the beauties of painting and + sculpture were added to those of the prospect. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.118" id="linknote-13.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.118">return</a>)<br/> [ Constantin. Orat. ad + Coetum Sanct. c. 25. In this sermon, the emperor, or the bishop who + composed it for him, affects to relate the miserable end of all the + persecutors of the church.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.119" id="linknote-13.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.119">return</a>)<br/> [ Constantin. Porphyr. + de Statu Imper. p. 86.] + </p> + <p> + Had this magnificent edifice remained in a solitary country, it would have + been exposed to the ravages of time; but it might, perhaps, have escaped + the rapacious industry of man. The village of Aspalathus, <a + href="#linknote-13.120" name="linknoteref-13.120" id="linknoteref-13.120">120</a> + and, long afterwards, the provincial town of Spalatro, have grown out of + its ruins. The Golden Gate now opens into the market-place. St. John the + Baptist has usurped the honors of Æsculapius; and the temple of Jupiter, + under the protection of the Virgin, is converted into the cathedral + church. + </p> + <p> + For this account of Diocletian’s palace we are principally indebted to an + ingenious artist of our own time and country, whom a very liberal + curiosity carried into the heart of Dalmatia. <a href="#linknote-13.121" + name="linknoteref-13.121" id="linknoteref-13.121">121</a> But there is room + to suspect that the elegance of his designs and engraving has somewhat + flattered the objects which it was their purpose to represent. We are + informed by a more recent and very judicious traveller, that the awful + ruins of Spalatro are not less expressive of the decline of the art than + of the greatness of the Roman empire in the time of Diocletian. <a + href="#linknote-13.122" name="linknoteref-13.122" id="linknoteref-13.122">122</a> + If such was indeed the state of architecture, we must naturally believe + that painting and sculpture had experienced a still more sensible decay. + The practice of architecture is directed by a few general and even + mechanical rules. But sculpture, and, above all, painting, propose to + themselves the imitation not only of the forms of nature, but of the + characters and passions of the human soul. In those sublime arts the + dexterity of the hand is of little avail, unless it is animated by fancy, + and guided by the most correct taste and observation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.120" id="linknote-13.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.120">return</a>)<br/> [ D’Anville, Geographie + Ancienne, tom. i. p. 162.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.121" id="linknote-13.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.121">return</a>)<br/> [ Messieurs Adam and + Clerisseau, attended by two draughtsmen visited Spalatro in the month of + July, 1757. The magnificent work which their journey produced was + published in London seven years afterwards.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.122" id="linknote-13.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.122">return</a>)<br/> [ I shall quote the + words of the Abate Fortis. “E’bastevolmente agli amatori dell’ + Architettura, e dell’ Antichita, l’opera del Signor Adams, che a donato + molto a que’ superbi vestigi coll’abituale eleganza del suo toccalapis e + del bulino. In generale la rozzezza del scalpello, e’l cattivo gusto del + secolo vi gareggiano colla magnificenz del fabricato.” See Viaggio in + Dalmazia, p. 40.] + </p> + <p> + It is almost unnecessary to remark, that the civil distractions of the + empire, the license of the soldiers, the inroads of the barbarians, and + the progress of despotism, had proved very unfavorable to genius, and even + to learning. The succession of Illyrian princes restored the empire + without restoring the sciences. Their military education was not + calculated to inspire them with the love of letters; and even the mind of + Diocletian, however active and capacious in business, was totally + uninformed by study or speculation. The professions of law and physic are + of such common use and certain profit that they will always secure a + sufficient number of practitioners endowed with a reasonable degree of + abilities and knowledge; but it does not appear that the students in those + two faculties appeal to any celebrated masters who have flourished within + that period. The voice of poetry was silent. History was reduced to dry + and confused abridgments, alike destitute of amusement and instruction. A + languid and affected eloquence was still retained in the pay and service + of the emperors, who encouraged not any arts except those which + contributed to the gratification of their pride, or the defence of their + power. <a href="#linknote-13.123" name="linknoteref-13.123" + id="linknoteref-13.123">123</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-13.123" id="linknote-13.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.123">return</a>)<br/> [ The orator Eumenius + was secretary to the emperors Maximian and Constantius, and Professor of + Rhetoric in the college of Autun. His salary was six hundred thousand + sesterces, which, according to the lowest computation of that age, must + have exceeded three thousand pounds a year. He generously requested the + permission of employing it in rebuilding the college. See his Oration De + Restaurandis Scholis; which, though not exempt from vanity, may atone for + his panegyrics.] + </p> + <p> + The declining age of learning and of mankind is marked, however, by the + rise and rapid progress of the new Platonists. The school of Alexandria + silenced those of Athens; and the ancient sects enrolled themselves under + the banners of the more fashionable teachers, who recommended their system + by the novelty of their method, and the austerity of their manners. + Several of these masters, Ammonius, Plotinus, Amelius, and Porphyry, <a + href="#linknote-13.124" name="linknoteref-13.124" id="linknoteref-13.124">124</a> + were men of profound thought and intense application; but by mistaking the + true object of philosophy, their labors contributed much less to improve + than to corrupt the human understanding. The knowledge that is suited to + our situation and powers, the whole compass of moral, natural, and + mathematical science, was neglected by the new Platonists; whilst they + exhausted their strength in the verbal disputes of metaphysics, attempted + to explore the secrets of the invisible world, and studied to reconcile + Aristotle with Plato, on subjects of which both these philosophers were as + ignorant as the rest of mankind. Consuming their reason in these deep but + unsubstantial meditations, their minds were exposed to illusions of fancy. + They flattered themselves that they possessed the secret of disengaging + the soul from its corporal prison; claimed a familiar intercourse with + demons and spirits; and, by a very singular revolution, converted the + study of philosophy into that of magic. The ancient sages had derided the + popular superstition; after disguising its extravagance by the thin + pretence of allegory, the disciples of Plotinus and Porphyry became its + most zealous defenders. As they agreed with the Christians in a few + mysterious points of faith, they attacked the remainder of their + theological system with all the fury of civil war. The new Platonists + would scarcely deserve a place in the history of science, but in that of + the church the mention of them will very frequently occur. <a + name="linknote-13.124" id="linknote-13.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-13.124">return</a>)<br/> [Porphyry died about + the time of Diocletian’s abdication. The life of his master Plotinus, + which he composed, will give us the most complete idea of the genius of + the sect, and the manners of its professors. This very curious piece is + inserted in Fabricius Bibliotheca Græca tom. iv. p. 88—148.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap14.1"></a> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +Troubles After The Abdication Of Diocletian.—Death Of +Constantius.—Elevation Of Constantine And Maxen Tius.—Six Emperors +At The Same Time.—Death Of Maximian And Galerius.—Victories Of +Constantine Over Maxentius And Licinus.—Reunion Of The Empire Under The +Authority Of Constantine. +</p> + <p> + The balance of power established by Diocletian subsisted no longer than + while it was sustained by the firm and dexterous hand of the founder. It + required such a fortunate mixture of different tempers and abilities as + could scarcely be found or even expected a second time; two emperors + without jealousy, two Cæsars without ambition, and the same general + interest invariably pursued by four independent princes. The abdication of + Diocletian and Maximian was succeeded by eighteen years of discord and + confusion. The empire was afflicted by five civil wars; and the remainder + of the time was not so much a state of tranquillity as a suspension of + arms between several hostile monarchs, who, viewing each other with an eye + of fear and hatred, strove to increase their respective forces at the + expense of their subjects. + </p> + <p> + As soon as Diocletian and Maximian had resigned the purple, their station, + according to the rules of the new constitution, was filled by the two + Cæsars, Constantius and Galerius, who immediately assumed the title of + Augustus. <a href="#linknote-14.1" name="linknoteref-14.1" + id="linknoteref-14.1">1</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.1" id="linknote-14.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.1">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Montesquieu + (Considerations sur la Grandeur et La Decadence des Romains, c. 17) + supposes, on the authority of Orosius and Eusebius, that, on this + occasion, the empire, for the first time, was really divided into two + parts. It is difficult, however, to discover in what respect the plan of + Galerius differed from that of Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + The honors of seniority and precedence were allowed to the former of those + princes, and he continued under a new appellation to administer his + ancient department of Gaul, Spain, and Britain. + </p> + <p> + The government of those ample provinces was sufficient to exercise his + talents and to satisfy his ambition. Clemency, temperance, and moderation, + distinguished the amiable character of Constantius, and his fortunate + subjects had frequently occasion to compare the virtues of their sovereign + with the passions of Maximian, and even with the arts of Diocletian. <a + href="#linknote-14.2" name="linknoteref-14.2" id="linknoteref-14.2">2</a> + Instead of imitating their eastern pride and magnificence, Constantius + preserved the modesty of a Roman prince. He declared, with unaffected + sincerity, that his most valued treasure was in the hearts of his people, + and that, whenever the dignity of the throne, or the danger of the state, + required any extraordinary supply, he could depend with confidence on + their gratitude and liberality. <a href="#linknote-14.3" + name="linknoteref-14.3" id="linknoteref-14.3">3</a> The provincials of + Gaul, Spain, and Britain, sensible of his worth, and of their own + happiness, reflected with anxiety on the declining health of the emperor + Constantius, and the tender age of his numerous family, the issue of his + second marriage with the daughter of Maximian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.2" id="linknote-14.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Hic non modo amabilis, + sed etiam venerabilis Gallis fuit; præcipuc quod Diocletiani suspectam + prudentiam, et Maximiani sanguinariam violentiam imperio ejus evaserant. + Eutrop. Breviar. x. i.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.3" id="linknote-14.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Divitiis Provincialium + (mel. provinciarum) ac privatorum studens, fisci commoda non admodum + affectans; ducensque melius publicas opes a privatis haberi, quam intra + unum claustrum reservari. Id. ibid. He carried this maxim so far, that + whenever he gave an entertainment, he was obliged to borrow a service of + plate.] + </p> + <p> + The stern temper of Galerius was cast in a very different mould; and while + he commanded the esteem of his subjects, he seldom condescended to solicit + their affections. His fame in arms, and, above all, the success of the + Persian war, had elated his haughty mind, which was naturally impatient of + a superior, or even of an equal. If it were possible to rely on the + partial testimony of an injudicious writer, we might ascribe the + abdication of Diocletian to the menaces of Galerius, and relate the + particulars of a <i>private</i> conversation between the two princes, in which + the former discovered as much pusillanimity as the latter displayed + ingratitude and arrogance. <a href="#linknote-14.4" name="linknoteref-14.4" + id="linknoteref-14.4">4</a> But these obscure anecdotes are sufficiently + refuted by an impartial view of the character and conduct of Diocletian. + Whatever might otherwise have been his intentions, if he had apprehended + any danger from the violence of Galerius, his good sense would have + instructed him to prevent the ignominious contest; and as he had held the + sceptre with glory, he would have resigned it without disgrace. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.4" id="linknote-14.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.4">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de Mort. + Persecutor. c. 18. Were the particulars of this conference more consistent + with truth and decency, we might still ask how they came to the knowledge + of an obscure rhetorician. But there are many historians who put us in + mind of the admirable saying of the great Conde to Cardinal de Retz: “Ces + coquins nous font parlor et agir, comme ils auroient fait eux-memes a + notre place.” * Note: This attack upon Lactantius is unfounded. Lactantius + was so far from having been an obscure rhetorician, that he had taught + rhetoric publicly, and with the greatest success, first in Africa, and + afterwards in Nicomedia. His reputation obtained him the esteem of + Constantine, who invited him to his court, and intrusted to him the + education of his son Crispus. The facts which he relates took place during + his own time; he cannot be accused of dishonesty or imposture. Satis me + vixisse arbitrabor et officium hominis implesse si labor meus aliquos + homines, ab erroribus iberatos, ad iter coeleste direxerit. De Opif. Dei, + cap. 20. The eloquence of Lactantius has caused him to be called the + Christian Cicero. Annon Gent.—G. ——Yet no unprejudiced + person can read this coarse and particular private conversation of the two + emperors, without assenting to the justice of Gibbon’s severe sentence. + But the authorship of the treatise is by no means certain. The fame of + Lactantius for eloquence as well as for truth, would suffer no loss if it + should be adjudged to some more “obscure rhetorician.” Manso, in his Leben + Constantins des Grossen, concurs on this point with Gibbon Beylage, iv. + —M.] + </p> + <p> + After the elevation of Constantius and Galerius to the rank of <i>Augusti</i>, + two new <i>Cæsars</i> were required to supply their place, and to complete the + system of the Imperial government. Diocletian was sincerely desirous of + withdrawing himself from the world; he considered Galerius, who had + married his daughter, as the firmest support of his family and of the + empire; and he consented, without reluctance, that his successor should + assume the merit as well as the envy of the important nomination. It was + fixed without consulting the interest or inclination of the princes of the + West. Each of them had a son who was arrived at the age of manhood, and + who might have been deemed the most natural candidates for the vacant + honor. But the impotent resentment of Maximian was no longer to be + dreaded; and the moderate Constantius, though he might despise the + dangers, was humanely apprehensive of the calamities, of civil war. The + two persons whom Galerius promoted to the rank of Cæsar were much better + suited to serve the views of his ambition; and their principal + recommendation seems to have consisted in the want of merit or personal + consequence. The first of these was Daza, or, as he was afterwards called, + Maximin, whose mother was the sister of Galerius. The unexperienced youth + still betrayed, by his manners and language, his rustic education, when, + to his own astonishment, as well as that of the world, he was invested by + Diocletian with the purple, exalted to the dignity of Cæsar, and + intrusted with the sovereign command of Egypt and Syria. <a + href="#linknote-14.5" name="linknoteref-14.5" id="linknoteref-14.5">5</a> + At the same time, Severus, a faithful servant, addicted to pleasure, but + not incapable of business, was sent to Milan, to receive, from the + reluctant hands of Maximian, the Cæsarian ornaments, and the possession + of Italy and Africa. According to the forms of the constitution, Severus + acknowledged the supremacy of the western emperor; but he was absolutely + devoted to the commands of his benefactor Galerius, who, reserving to + himself the intermediate countries from the confines of Italy to those of + Syria, firmly established his power over three fourths of the monarchy. In + the full confidence that the approaching death of Constantius would leave + him sole master of the Roman world, we are assured that he had arranged in + his mind a long succession of future princes, and that he meditated his + own retreat from public life, after he should have accomplished a glorious + reign of about twenty years. <a href="#linknote-14.6" + name="linknoteref-14.6" id="linknoteref-14.6">6</a> <a + href="#linknote-14.7" name="linknoteref-14.7" id="linknoteref-14.7">7</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.5" id="linknote-14.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Sublatus nuper a + pecoribus et silvis (says Lactantius de M. P. c. 19) statim Scutarius, + continuo Protector, mox Tribunus, postridie Cæsar, accepit Orientem. + Aurelius Victor is too liberal in giving him the whole portion of + Diocletian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.6" id="linknote-14.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.6">return</a>)<br/> [ His diligence and + fidelity are acknowledged even by Lactantius, de M. P. c. 18.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.7" id="linknote-14.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.7">return</a>)<br/> [ These schemes, however, + rest only on the very doubtful authority of Lactantius de M. P. c. 20.] + </p> + <p> + But within less than eighteen months, two unexpected revolutions + overturned the ambitious schemes of Galerius. The hopes of uniting the + western provinces to his empire were disappointed by the elevation of + Constantine, whilst Italy and Africa were lost by the successful revolt of + Maxentius. + </p> + <p> + I. The fame of Constantine has rendered posterity attentive to the most + minute circumstances of his life and actions. The place of his birth, as + well as the condition of his mother Helena, have been the subject, not + only of literary, but of national disputes. Notwithstanding the recent + tradition, which assigns for her father a British king, <a + href="#linknote-14.8" name="linknoteref-14.8" id="linknoteref-14.8">8</a> + we are obliged to confess, that Helena was the daughter of an innkeeper; + but at the same time, we may defend the legality of her marriage, against + those who have represented her as the concubine of Constantius. <a + href="#linknote-14.9" name="linknoteref-14.9" id="linknoteref-14.9">9</a> + The great Constantine was most probably born at Naissus, in Dacia; <a + href="#linknote-14.10" name="linknoteref-14.10" id="linknoteref-14.10">10</a> + and it is not surprising that, in a family and province distinguished only + by the profession of arms, the youth should discover very little + inclination to improve his mind by the acquisition of knowledge. <a + href="#linknote-14.11" name="linknoteref-14.11" id="linknoteref-14.11">11</a> + He was about eighteen years of age when his father was promoted to the + rank of Cæsar; but that fortunate event was attended with his mother’s + divorce; and the splendor of an Imperial alliance reduced the son of + Helena to a state of disgrace and humiliation. Instead of following + Constantius in the West, he remained in the service of Diocletian, + signalized his valor in the wars of Egypt and Persia, and gradually rose + to the honorable station of a tribune of the first order. The figure of + Constantine was tall and majestic; he was dexterous in all his exercises, + intrepid in war, affable in peace; in his whole conduct, the active spirit + of youth was tempered by habitual prudence; and while his mind was + engrossed by ambition, he appeared cold and insensible to the allurements + of pleasure. The favor of the people and soldiers, who had named him as a + worthy candidate for the rank of Cæsar, served only to exasperate the + jealousy of Galerius; and though prudence might restrain him from + exercising any open violence, an absolute monarch is seldom at a loss how + to execute a sure and secret revenge. <a href="#linknote-14.12" + name="linknoteref-14.12" id="linknoteref-14.12">12</a> Every hour + increased the danger of Constantine, and the anxiety of his father, who, + by repeated letters, expressed the warmest desire of embracing his son. + For some time the policy of Galerius supplied him with delays and excuses; + but it was impossible long to refuse so natural a request of his + associate, without maintaining his refusal by arms. The permission of the + journey was reluctantly granted, and whatever precautions the emperor + might have taken to intercept a return, the consequences of which he, with + so much reason, apprehended, they were effectually disappointed by the + incredible diligence of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-14.13" + name="linknoteref-14.13" id="linknoteref-14.13">13</a> Leaving the palace + of Nicomedia in the night, he travelled post through Bithynia, Thrace, + Dacia, Pannonia, Italy, and Gaul, and, amidst the joyful acclamations of + the people, reached the port of Boulogne in the very moment when his + father was preparing to embark for Britain. <a href="#linknote-14.14" + name="linknoteref-14.14" id="linknoteref-14.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.8" id="linknote-14.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.8">return</a>)<br/> [ This tradition, unknown + to the contemporaries of Constantine was invented in the darkness of + monestaries, was embellished by Jeffrey of Monmouth, and the writers of + the xiith century, has been defended by our antiquarians of the last age, + and is seriously related in the ponderous History of England, compiled by + Mr. Carte, (vol. i. p. 147.) He transports, however, the kingdom of Coil, + the imaginary father of Helena, from Essex to the wall of Antoninus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.9" id="linknote-14.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.9">return</a>)<br/> [ Eutropius (x. 2) + expresses, in a few words, the real truth, and the occasion of the error + “ex obscuriori matrimonio ejus filius.” Zosimus (l. ii. p. 78) eagerly + seized the most unfavorable report, and is followed by Orosius, (vii. 25,) + whose authority is oddly enough overlooked by the indefatigable, but + partial Tillemont. By insisting on the divorce of Helena, Diocletian + acknowledged her marriage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.10" id="linknote-14.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.10">return</a>)<br/> [ There are three + opinions with regard to the place of Constantine’s birth. 1. Our English + antiquarians were used to dwell with rapture on the words of his + panegyrist, “Britannias illic oriendo nobiles fecisti.” But this + celebrated passage may be referred with as much propriety to the + accession, as to the nativity of Constantine. 2. Some of the modern Greeks + have ascribed the honor of his birth to Drepanum, a town on the Gulf of + Nicomedia, (Cellarius, tom. ii. p. 174,) which Constantine dignified with + the name of Helenopolis, and Justinian adorned with many splendid + buildings, (Procop. de Edificiis, v. 2.) It is indeed probable enough, + that Helena’s father kept an inn at Drepanum, and that Constantius might + lodge there when he returned from a Persian embassy, in the reign of + Aurelian. But in the wandering life of a soldier, the place of his + marriage, and the places where his children are born, have very little + connection with each other. 3. The claim of Naissus is supported by the + anonymous writer, published at the end of Ammianus, p. 710, and who in + general copied very good materials; and it is confirmed by Julius + Firmicus, (de Astrologia, l. i. c. 4,) who flourished under the reign of + Constantine himself. Some objections have been raised against the + integrity of the text, and the application of the passage of Firmicus but + the former is established by the best Mss., and the latter is very ably + defended by Lipsius de Magnitudine Romana, l. iv. c. 11, et Supplement.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.11" id="linknote-14.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.11">return</a>)<br/> [ Literis minus + instructus. Anonym. ad Ammian. p. 710.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.12" id="linknote-14.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.12">return</a>)<br/> [ Galerius, or perhaps + his own courage, exposed him to single combat with a Sarmatian, (Anonym. + p. 710,) and with a monstrous lion. See Praxagoras apud Photium, p. 63. + Praxagoras, an Athenian philosopher, had written a life of Constantine in + two books, which are now lost. He was a contemporary.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.13" id="linknote-14.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.13">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 78, + 79. Lactantius de M. P. c. 24. The former tells a very foolish story, that + Constantine caused all the post-horses which he had used to be hamstrung. + Such a bloody execution, without preventing a pursuit, would have + scattered suspicions, and might have stopped his journey. * Note: Zosimus + is not the only writer who tells this story. The younger Victor confirms + it. Ad frustrandos insequentes, publica jumenta, quaqua iter ageret, + interficiens. Aurelius Victor de Cæsar says the same thing, G. as also + the Anonymus Valesii.— M. ——Manso, (Leben Constantins,) + p. 18, observes that the story has been exaggerated; he took this + precaution during the first stage of his journey.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.14" id="linknote-14.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.14">return</a>)<br/> [ Anonym. p. 710. + Panegyr. Veter. vii. 4. But Zosimus, l. ii. p. 79, Eusebius de Vit. + Constant. l. i. c. 21, and Lactantius de M. P. c. 24. suppose, with less + accuracy, that he found his father on his death-bed.] + </p> + <p> + The British expedition, and an easy victory over the barbarians of + Caledonia, were the last exploits of the reign of Constantius. He ended + his life in the Imperial palace of York, fifteen months after he had + received the title of Augustus, and almost fourteen years and a half after + he had been promoted to the rank of Cæsar. His death was immediately + succeeded by the elevation of Constantine. The ideas of inheritance and + succession are so very familiar, that the generality of mankind consider + them as founded not only in reason but in nature itself. Our imagination + readily transfers the same principles from private property to public + dominion: and whenever a virtuous father leaves behind him a son whose + merit seems to justify the esteem, or even the hopes, of the people, the + joint influence of prejudice and of affection operates with irresistible + weight. The flower of the western armies had followed Constantius into + Britain, and the national troops were reënforced by a numerous body of + Alemanni, who obeyed the orders of Crocus, one of their hereditary + chieftains. <a href="#linknote-14.15" name="linknoteref-14.15" + id="linknoteref-14.15">15</a> The opinion of their own importance, and the + assurance that Britain, Gaul, and Spain would acquiesce in their + nomination, were diligently inculcated to the legions by the adherents of + Constantine. The soldiers were asked, whether they could hesitate a moment + between the honor of placing at their head the worthy son of their beloved + emperor, and the ignominy of tamely expecting the arrival of some obscure + stranger, on whom it might please the sovereign of Asia to bestow the + armies and provinces of the West. It was insinuated to them, that + gratitude and liberality held a distinguished place among the virtues of + Constantine; nor did that artful prince show himself to the troops, till + they were prepared to salute him with the names of Augustus and Emperor. + The throne was the object of his desires; and had he been less actuated by + ambition, it was his only means of safety. He was well acquainted with the + character and sentiments of Galerius, and sufficiently apprised, that if + he wished to live he must determine to reign. The decent and even + obstinate resistance which he chose to affect, <a href="#linknote-14.16" + name="linknoteref-14.16" id="linknoteref-14.16">16</a> was contrived to + justify his usurpation; nor did he yield to the acclamations of the army, + till he had provided the proper materials for a letter, which he + immediately despatched to the emperor of the East. Constantine informed + him of the melancholy event of his father’s death, modestly asserted his + natural claim to the succession, and respectfully lamented, that the + affectionate violence of his troops had not permitted him to solicit the + Imperial purple in the regular and constitutional manner. The first + emotions of Galerius were those of surprise, disappointment, and rage; and + as he could seldom restrain his passions, he loudly threatened, that he + would commit to the flames both the letter and the messenger. But his + resentment insensibly subsided; and when he recollected the doubtful + chance of war, when he had weighed the character and strength of his + adversary, he consented to embrace the honorable accommodation which the + prudence of Constantine had left open to him. Without either condemning or + ratifying the choice of the British army, Galerius accepted the son of his + deceased colleague as the sovereign of the provinces beyond the Alps; but + he gave him only the title of Cæsar, and the fourth rank among the Roman + princes, whilst he conferred the vacant place of Augustus on his favorite + Severus. The apparent harmony of the empire was still preserved, and + Constantine, who already possessed the substance, expected, without + impatience, an opportunity of obtaining the honors, of supreme power. <a + href="#linknote-14.17" name="linknoteref-14.17" id="linknoteref-14.17">17</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.15" id="linknote-14.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.15">return</a>)<br/> [ Cunctis qui aderant, + annitentibus, sed præcipue Croco (alii Eroco) [Erich?] Alamannorum Rege, + auxilii gratia Constantium comitato, imperium capit. Victor Junior, c. 41. + This is perhaps the first instance of a barbarian king, who assisted the + Roman arms with an independent body of his own subjects. The practice grew + familiar and at last became fatal.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.16" id="linknote-14.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.16">return</a>)<br/> [ His panegyrist + Eumenius (vii. 8) ventures to affirm in the presence of Constantine, that + he put spurs to his horse, and tried, but in vain, to escape from the + hands of his soldiers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.17" id="linknote-14.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 25. Eumenius (vii. 8.) gives a rhetorical turn to the whole transaction.] + </p> + <p> + The children of Constantius by his second marriage were six in number, + three of either sex, and whose Imperial descent might have solicited a + preference over the meaner extraction of the son of Helena. But + Constantine was in the thirty-second year of his age, in the full vigor + both of mind and body, at the time when the eldest of his brothers could + not possibly be more than thirteen years old. His claim of superior merit + had been allowed and ratified by the dying emperor. <a + href="#linknote-14.18" name="linknoteref-14.18" id="linknoteref-14.18">18</a> + In his last moments Constantius bequeathed to his eldest son the care of + the safety as well as greatness of the family; conjuring him to assume + both the authority and the sentiments of a father with regard to the + children of Theodora. Their liberal education, advantageous marriages, the + secure dignity of their lives, and the first honors of the state with + which they were invested, attest the fraternal affection of Constantine; + and as those princes possessed a mild and grateful disposition, they + submitted without reluctance to the superiority of his genius and fortune. + <a href="#linknote-14.19" name="linknoteref-14.19" id="linknoteref-14.19">19</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.18" id="linknote-14.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.18">return</a>)<br/> [ The choice of + Constantine, by his dying father, which is warranted by reason, and + insinuated by Eumenius, seems to be confirmed by the most unexceptionable + authority, the concurring evidence of Lactantius (de M. P. c. 24) and of + Libanius, (Oratio i.,) of Eusebius (in Vit. Constantin. l. i. c. 18, 21) + and of Julian, (Oratio i)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.19" id="linknote-14.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Of the three sisters + of Constantine, Constantia married the emperor Licinius, Anastasia the + Cæsar Bassianus, and Eutropia the consul Nepotianus. The three brothers + were, Dalmatius, Julius Constantius, and Annibalianus, of whom we shall + have occasion to speak hereafter.] + </p> + <p> + II. The ambitious spirit of Galerius was scarcely reconciled to the + disappointment of his views upon the Gallic provinces, before the + unexpected loss of Italy wounded his pride as well as power in a still + more sensible part. The long absence of the emperors had filled Rome with + discontent and indignation; and the people gradually discovered, that the + preference given to Nicomedia and Milan was not to be ascribed to the + particular inclination of Diocletian, but to the permanent form of + government which he had instituted. It was in vain that, a few months + after his abdication, his successors dedicated, under his name, those + magnificent baths, whose ruins still supply the ground as well as the + materials for so many churches and convents. <a href="#linknote-14.20" + name="linknoteref-14.20" id="linknoteref-14.20">20</a> The tranquility of + those elegant recesses of ease and luxury was disturbed by the impatient + murmurs of the Romans, and a report was insensibly circulated, that the + sums expended in erecting those buildings would soon be required at their + hands. About that time the avarice of Galerius, or perhaps the exigencies + of the state, had induced him to make a very strict and rigorous + inquisition into the property of his subjects, for the purpose of a + general taxation, both on their lands and on their persons. A very minute + survey appears to have been taken of their real estates; and wherever + there was the slightest suspicion of concealment, torture was very freely + employed to obtain a sincere declaration of their personal wealth. <a + href="#linknote-14.21" name="linknoteref-14.21" id="linknoteref-14.21">21</a> + The privileges which had exalted Italy above the rank of the provinces + were no longer regarded: <a href="#linknote-14.211" + name="linknoteref-14.211" id="linknoteref-14.211">211</a> and the officers + of the revenue already began to number the Roman people, and to settle the + proportion of the new taxes. Even when the spirit of freedom had been + utterly extinguished, the tamest subjects have sometimes ventured to + resist an unprecedented invasion of their property; but on this occasion + the injury was aggravated by the insult, and the sense of private interest + was quickened by that of national honor. The conquest of Macedonia, as we + have already observed, had delivered the Roman people from the weight of + personal taxes. + </p> + <p> + Though they had experienced every form of despotism, they had now enjoyed + that exemption near five hundred years; nor could they patiently brook the + insolence of an Illyrian peasant, who, from his distant residence in Asia, + presumed to number Rome among the tributary cities of his empire. The + rising fury of the people was encouraged by the authority, or at least the + connivance, of the senate; and the feeble remains of the Prætorian + guards, who had reason to apprehend their own dissolution, embraced so + honorable a pretence, and declared their readiness to draw their swords in + the service of their oppressed country. It was the wish, and it soon + became the hope, of every citizen, that after expelling from Italy their + foreign tyrants, they should elect a prince who, by the place of his + residence, and by his maxims of government, might once more deserve the + title of Roman emperor. The name, as well as the situation, of Maxentius + determined in his favor the popular enthusiasm. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.20" id="linknote-14.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.20">return</a>)<br/> [ See Gruter. Inscrip. + p. 178. The six princes are all mentioned, Diocletian and Maximian as the + senior Augusti, and fathers of the emperors. They jointly dedicate, for + the use of their own Romans, this magnificent edifice. The architects have + delineated the ruins of these Thermoe, and the antiquarians, particularly + Donatus and Nardini, have ascertained the ground which they covered. One + of the great rooms is now the Carthusian church; and even one of the + porter’s lodges is sufficient to form another church, which belongs to the + Feuillans.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.21" id="linknote-14.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.21">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lactantius de M. + P. c. 26, 31. ] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.211" id="linknote-14.211"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 211 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.211">return</a>)<br/> [ Saviguy, in his + memoir on Roman taxation, (Mem. Berl. Academ. 1822, 1823, p. 5,) dates + from this period the abolition of the Jus Italicum. He quotes a remarkable + passage of Aurelius Victor. Hinc denique parti Italiæ invec tum + tributorum ingens malum. Aur. Vict. c. 39. It was a necessary consequence + of the division of the empire: it became impossible to maintain a second + court and executive, and leave so large and fruitful a part of the + territory exempt from contribution.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Maxentius was the son of the emperor Maximian, and he had married the + daughter of Galerius. His birth and alliance seemed to offer him the + fairest promise of succeeding to the empire; but his vices and incapacity + procured him the same exclusion from the dignity of Cæsar, which + Constantine had deserved by a dangerous superiority of merit. The policy + of Galerius preferred such associates as would never disgrace the choice, + nor dispute the commands, of their benefactor. An obscure stranger was + therefore raised to the throne of Italy, and the son of the late emperor + of the West was left to enjoy the luxury of a private fortune in a villa a + few miles distant from the capital. The gloomy passions of his soul, + shame, vexation, and rage, were inflamed by envy on the news of + Constantine’s success; but the hopes of Maxentius revived with the public + discontent, and he was easily persuaded to unite his personal injury and + pretensions with the cause of the Roman people. Two Prætorian tribunes + and a commissary of provisions undertook the management of the conspiracy; + and as every order of men was actuated by the same spirit, the immediate + event was neither doubtful nor difficult. The præfect of the city, and a + few magistrates, who maintained their fidelity to Severus, were massacred + by the guards; and Maxentius, invested with the Imperial ornaments, was + acknowledged by the applauding senate and people as the protector of the + Roman freedom and dignity. It is uncertain whether Maximian was previously + acquainted with the conspiracy; but as soon as the standard of rebellion + was erected at Rome, the old emperor broke from the retirement where the + authority of Diocletian had condemned him to pass a life of melancholy and + solitude, and concealed his returning ambition under the disguise of + paternal tenderness. At the request of his son and of the senate, he + condescended to reassume the purple. His ancient dignity, his experience, + and his fame in arms, added strength as well as reputation to the party of + Maxentius. <a href="#linknote-14.22" name="linknoteref-14.22" + id="linknoteref-14.22">22</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.22" id="linknote-14.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.22">return</a>)<br/> [ The sixth Panegyric + represents the conduct of Maximian in the most favorable light, and the + ambiguous expression of Aurelius Victor, “retractante diu,” may signify + either that he contrived, or that he opposed, the conspiracy. See Zosimus, + l. ii. p. 79, and Lactantius de M. P. c. 26.] + </p> + <p> + According to the advice, or rather the orders, of his colleague, the + emperor Severus immediately hastened to Rome, in the full confidence, + that, by his unexpected celerity, he should easily suppress the tumult of + an unwarlike populace, commanded by a licentious youth. But he found on + his arrival the gates of the city shut against him, the walls filled with + men and arms, an experienced general at the head of the rebels, and his + own troops without spirit or affection. A large body of Moors deserted to + the enemy, allured by the promise of a large donative; and, if it be true + that they had been levied by Maximian in his African war, preferring the + natural feelings of gratitude to the artificial ties of allegiance. + Anulinus, the Prætorian præfect, declared himself in favor of Maxentius, + and drew after him the most considerable part of the troops, accustomed to + obey his commands. + </p> + <p> + Rome, according to the expression of an orator, recalled her armies; and + the unfortunate Severus, destitute of force and of counsel, retired, or + rather fled, with precipitation, to Ravenna. + </p> + <p> + Here he might for some time have been safe. The fortifications of Ravenna + were able to resist the attempts, and the morasses that surrounded the + town were sufficient to prevent the approach, of the Italian army. The + sea, which Severus commanded with a powerful fleet, secured him an + inexhaustible supply of provisions, and gave a free entrance to the + legions, which, on the return of spring, would advance to his assistance + from Illyricum and the East. Maximian, who conducted the siege in person, + was soon convinced that he might waste his time and his army in the + fruitless enterprise, and that he had nothing to hope either from force or + famine. With an art more suitable to the character of Diocletian than to + his own, he directed his attack, not so much against the walls of Ravenna, + as against the mind of Severus. The treachery which he had experienced + disposed that unhappy prince to distrust the most sincere of his friends + and adherents. The emissaries of Maximian easily persuaded his credulity, + that a conspiracy was formed to betray the town, and prevailed upon his + fears not to expose himself to the discretion of an irritated conqueror, + but to accept the faith of an honorable capitulation. He was at first + received with humanity and treated with respect. Maximian conducted the + captive emperor to Rome, and gave him the most solemn assurances that he + had secured his life by the resignation of the purple. But Severus could + obtain only an easy death and an Imperial funeral. When the sentence was + signified to him, the manner of executing it was left to his own choice; + he preferred the favorite mode of the ancients, that of opening his veins; + and as soon as he expired, his body was carried to the sepulchre which had + been constructed for the family of Gallienus. <a href="#linknote-14.23" + name="linknoteref-14.23" id="linknoteref-14.23">23</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.23" id="linknote-14.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.23">return</a>)<br/> [ The circumstances of + this war, and the death of Severus, are very doubtfully and variously told + in our ancient fragments, (see Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. + part i. p. 555.) I have endeavored to extract from them a consistent and + probable narration. * Note: Manso justly observes that two totally + different narratives might be formed, almost upon equal authority. + Beylage, iv.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap14.2"></a> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + II. + </h2> + <p> + Though the characters of Constantine and Maxentius had very little + affinity with each other, their situation and interest were the same; and + prudence seemed to require that they should unite their forces against the + common enemy. Notwithstanding the superiority of his age and dignity, the + indefatigable Maximian passed the Alps, and, courting a personal interview + with the sovereign of Gaul, carried with him his daughter Fausta as the + pledge of the new alliance. The marriage was celebrated at Arles with + every circumstance of magnificence; and the ancient colleague of + Diocletian, who again asserted his claim to the Western empire, conferred + on his son-in-law and ally the title of Augustus. By consenting to receive + that honor from Maximian, Constantine seemed to embrace the cause of Rome + and of the senate; but his professions were ambiguous, and his assistance + slow and ineffectual. He considered with attention the approaching contest + between the masters of Italy and the emperor of the East, and was prepared + to consult his own safety or ambition in the event of the war. <a + href="#linknote-14.24" name="linknoteref-14.24" id="linknoteref-14.24">24</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.24" id="linknote-14.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.24">return</a>)<br/> [ The sixth Panegyric + was pronounced to celebrate the elevation of Constantine; but the prudent + orator avoids the mention either of Galerius or of Maxentius. He + introduces only one slight allusion to the actual troubles, and to the + majesty of Rome. * Note: Compare Manso, Beylage, iv. p. 302. Gibbon’s + account is at least as probable as that of his critic.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The importance of the occasion called for the presence and abilities of + Galerius. At the head of a powerful army, collected from Illyricum and the + East, he entered Italy, resolved to revenge the death of Severus, and to + chastise the rebellious Romans; or, as he expressed his intentions, in the + furious language of a barbarian, to extirpate the senate, and to destroy + the people by the sword. But the skill of Maximian had concerted a prudent + system of defence. The invader found every place hostile, fortified, and + inaccessible; and though he forced his way as far as Narni, within sixty + miles of Rome, his dominion in Italy was confined to the narrow limits of + his camp. Sensible of the increasing difficulties of his enterprise, the + haughty Galerius made the first advances towards a reconciliation, and + despatched two of his most considerable officers to tempt the Roman + princes by the offer of a conference, and the declaration of his paternal + regard for Maxentius, who might obtain much more from his liberality than + he could hope from the doubtful chance of war. <a href="#linknote-14.25" + name="linknoteref-14.25" id="linknoteref-14.25">25</a> The offers of + Galerius were rejected with firmness, his perfidious friendship refused + with contempt, and it was not long before he discovered, that, unless he + provided for his safety by a timely retreat, he had some reason to + apprehend the fate of Severus. The wealth which the Romans defended + against his rapacious tyranny, they freely contributed for his + destruction. The name of Maximian, the popular arts of his son, the secret + distribution of large sums, and the promise of still more liberal rewards, + checked the ardor and corrupted the fidelity of the Illyrian legions; and + when Galerius at length gave the signal of the retreat, it was with some + difficulty that he could prevail on his veterans not to desert a banner + which had so often conducted them to victory and honor. A contemporary + writer assigns two other causes for the failure of the expedition; but + they are both of such a nature, that a cautious historian will scarcely + venture to adopt them. We are told that Galerius, who had formed a very + imperfect notion of the greatness of Rome by the cities of the East with + which he was acquainted, found his forces inadequate to the siege of that + immense capital. + </p> + <p> + But the extent of a city serves only to render it more accessible to the + enemy: Rome had long since been accustomed to submit on the approach of a + conqueror; nor could the temporary enthusiasm of the people have long + contended against the discipline and valor of the legions. We are likewise + informed that the legions themselves were struck with horror and remorse, + and that those pious sons of the republic refused to violate the sanctity + of their venerable parent. <a href="#linknote-14.26" + name="linknoteref-14.26" id="linknoteref-14.26">26</a> But when we + recollect with how much ease, in the more ancient civil wars, the zeal of + party and the habits of military obedience had converted the native + citizens of Rome into her most implacable enemies, we shall be inclined to + distrust this extreme delicacy of strangers and barbarians, who had never + beheld Italy till they entered it in a hostile manner. Had they not been + restrained by motives of a more interested nature, they would probably + have answered Galerius in the words of Cæsar’s veterans: “If our general + wishes to lead us to the banks of the Tyber, we are prepared to trace out + his camp. Whatsoever walls he has determined to level with the ground, our + hands are ready to work the engines: nor shall we hesitate, should the + name of the devoted city be Rome itself.” These are indeed the expressions + of a poet; but of a poet who has been distinguished, and even censured, + for his strict adherence to the truth of history. <a href="#linknote-14.27" + name="linknoteref-14.27" id="linknoteref-14.27">27</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.25" id="linknote-14.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.25">return</a>)<br/> [ With regard to this + negotiation, see the fragments of an anonymous historian, published by + Valesius at the end of his edition of Ammianus Marcellinus, p. 711. These + fragments have furnished with several curious, and, as it should seem, + authentic anecdotes.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.26" id="linknote-14.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 28. The former of these reasons is probably taken from Virgil’s Shepherd: + “Illam * * * ego huic notra similem, Meliboee, putavi,” &c. Lactantius + delights in these poetical illusions.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.27" id="linknote-14.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.27">return</a>)<br/> + [ Castra super Tusci si ponere Tybridis undas; (<i>jubeas</i>)<br/> + Hesperios audax veniam metator in agros.<br/> + Tu quoscunque voles in planum effundere muros,<br/> + His aries actus disperget saxa lacertis;<br/> + Illa licet penitus tolli quam jusseris urbem<br/> + Roma sit.<br/> + Lucan. Pharsal. i. 381.] + </p> + <p> + The legions of Galerius exhibited a very melancholy proof of their + disposition, by the ravages which they committed in their retreat. They + murdered, they ravished, they plundered, they drove away the flocks and + herds of the Italians; they burnt the villages through which they passed, + and they endeavored to destroy the country which it had not been in their + power to subdue. During the whole march, Maxentius hung on their rear, but + he very prudently declined a general engagement with those brave and + desperate veterans. His father had undertaken a second journey into Gaul, + with the hope of persuading Constantine, who had assembled an army on the + frontier, to join in the pursuit, and to complete the victory. But the + actions of Constantine were guided by reason, and not by resentment. He + persisted in the wise resolution of maintaining a balance of power in the + divided empire, and he no longer hated Galerius, when that aspiring prince + had ceased to be an object of terror. <a href="#linknote-14.28" + name="linknoteref-14.28" id="linknoteref-14.28">28</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.28" id="linknote-14.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 27. Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. The latter, that Constantine, in his interview + with Maximian, had promised to declare war against Galerius.] + </p> + <p> + The mind of Galerius was the most susceptible of the sterner passions, but + it was not, however, incapable of a sincere and lasting friendship. + Licinius, whose manners as well as character were not unlike his own, + seems to have engaged both his affection and esteem. Their intimacy had + commenced in the happier period perhaps of their youth and obscurity. It + had been cemented by the freedom and dangers of a military life; they had + advanced almost by equal steps through the successive honors of the + service; and as soon as Galerius was invested with the Imperial dignity, + he seems to have conceived the design of raising his companion to the same + rank with himself. During the short period of his prosperity, he + considered the rank of Cæsar as unworthy of the age and merit of + Licinius, and rather chose to reserve for him the place of Constantius, + and the empire of the West. While the emperor was employed in the Italian + war, he intrusted his friend with the defence of the Danube; and + immediately after his return from that unfortunate expedition, he invested + Licinius with the vacant purple of Severus, resigning to his immediate + command the provinces of Illyricum. <a href="#linknote-14.29" + name="linknoteref-14.29" id="linknoteref-14.29">29</a> The news of his + promotion was no sooner carried into the East, than Maximin, who governed, + or rather oppressed, the countries of Egypt and Syria, betrayed his envy + and discontent, disdained the inferior name of Cæsar, and, + notwithstanding the prayers as well as arguments of Galerius, exacted, + almost by violence, the equal title of Augustus. <a href="#linknote-14.30" + name="linknoteref-14.30" id="linknoteref-14.30">30</a> For the first, and + indeed for the last time, the Roman world was administered by six + emperors. In the West, Constantine and Maxentius affected to reverence + their father Maximian. In the East, Licinius and Maximin honored with more + real consideration their benefactor Galerius. The opposition of interest, + and the memory of a recent war, divided the empire into two great hostile + powers; but their mutual fears produced an apparent tranquillity, and even + a feigned reconciliation, till the death of the elder princes, of + Maximian, and more particularly of Galerius, gave a new direction to the + views and passions of their surviving associates. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.29" id="linknote-14.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.29">return</a>)<br/> [ M. de Tillemont (Hist. + des Empereurs, tom. iv. part i. p. 559) has proved that Licinius, without + passing through the intermediate rank of Cæsar, was declared Augustus, + the 11th of November, A. D. 307, after the return of Galerius from Italy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.30" id="linknote-14.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.30">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 32. When Galerius declared Licinius Augustus with himself, he tried to + satisfy his younger associates, by inventing for Constantine and Maximin + (not Maxentius; see Baluze, p. 81) the new title of sons of the Augusti. + But when Maximin acquainted him that he had been saluted Augustus by the + army, Galerius was obliged to acknowledge him as well as Constantine, as + equal associates in the Imperial dignity.] + </p> + <p> + When Maximian had reluctantly abdicated the empire, the venal orators of + the times applauded his philosophic moderation. When his ambition excited, + or at least encouraged, a civil war, they returned thanks to his generous + patriotism, and gently censured that love of ease and retirement which had + withdrawn him from the public service. <a href="#linknote-14.31" + name="linknoteref-14.31" id="linknoteref-14.31">31</a> But it was + impossible that minds like those of Maximian and his son could long + possess in harmony an undivided power. Maxentius considered himself as the + legal sovereign of Italy, elected by the Roman senate and people; nor + would he endure the control of his father, who arrogantly declared that by + <i>his</i> name and abilities the rash youth had been established on the throne. + The cause was solemnly pleaded before the Prætorian guards; and those + troops, who dreaded the severity of the old emperor, espoused the party of + Maxentius. <a href="#linknote-14.32" name="linknoteref-14.32" + id="linknoteref-14.32">32</a> The life and freedom of Maximian were, + however, respected, and he retired from Italy into Illyricum, affecting to + lament his past conduct, and secretly contriving new mischiefs. But + Galerius, who was well acquainted with his character, soon obliged him to + leave his dominions, and the last refuge of the disappointed Maximian was + the court of his son-in-law Constantine. <a href="#linknote-14.33" + name="linknoteref-14.33" id="linknoteref-14.33">33</a> He was received + with respect by that artful prince, and with the appearance of filial + tenderness by the empress Fausta. That he might remove every suspicion, he + resigned the Imperial purple a second time, <a href="#linknote-14.34" + name="linknoteref-14.34" id="linknoteref-14.34">34</a> professing himself + at length convinced of the vanity of greatness and ambition. Had he + persevered in this resolution, he might have ended his life with less + dignity, indeed, than in his first retirement, yet, however, with comfort + and reputation. But the near prospect of a throne brought back to his + remembrance the state from whence he was fallen, and he resolved, by a + desperate effort, either to reign or to perish. An incursion of the Franks + had summoned Constantine, with a part of his army, to the banks of the + Rhine; the remainder of the troops were stationed in the southern + provinces of Gaul, which lay exposed to the enterprises of the Italian + emperor, and a considerable treasure was deposited in the city of Arles. + Maximian either craftily invented, or easily credited, a vain report of + the death of Constantine. Without hesitation he ascended the throne, + seized the treasure, and scattering it with his accustomed profusion among + the soldiers, endeavored to awake in their minds the memory of his ancient + dignity and exploits. Before he could establish his authority, or finish + the negotiation which he appears to have entered into with his son + Maxentius, the celerity of Constantine defeated all his hopes. On the + first news of his perfidy and ingratitude, that prince returned by rapid + marches from the Rhine to the Saone, embarked on the last-mentioned river + at Chalons, and, at Lyons trusting himself to the rapidity of the Rhone, + arrived at the gates of Arles with a military force which it was + impossible for Maximian to resist, and which scarcely permitted him to + take refuge in the neighboring city of Marseilles. The narrow neck of land + which joined that place to the continent was fortified against the + besiegers, whilst the sea was open, either for the escape of Maximian, or + for the succor of Maxentius, if the latter should choose to disguise his + invasion of Gaul under the honorable pretence of defending a distressed, + or, as he might allege, an injured father. Apprehensive of the fatal + consequences of delay, Constantine gave orders for an immediate assault; + but the scaling-ladders were found too short for the height of the walls, + and Marseilles might have sustained as long a siege as it formerly did + against the arms of Cæsar, if the garrison, conscious either of their + fault or of their danger, had not purchased their pardon by delivering up + the city and the person of Maximian. A secret but irrevocable sentence of + death was pronounced against the usurper; he obtained only the same favor + which he had indulged to Severus, and it was published to the world, that, + oppressed by the remorse of his repeated crimes, he strangled himself with + his own hands. After he had lost the assistance, and disdained the + moderate counsels, of Diocletian, the second period of his active life was + a series of public calamities and personal mortifications, which were + terminated, in about three years, by an ignominious death. He deserved his + fate; but we should find more reason to applaud the humanity of + Constantine, if he had spared an old man, the benefactor of his father, + and the father of his wife. During the whole of this melancholy + transaction, it appears that Fausta sacrificed the sentiments of nature to + her conjugal duties. <a href="#linknote-14.35" name="linknoteref-14.35" + id="linknoteref-14.35">35</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.31" id="linknote-14.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.31">return</a>)<br/> [ See Panegyr. Vet. vi. + 9. Audi doloris nostri liberam vocem, &c. The whole passage is + imagined with artful flattery, and expressed with an easy flow of + eloquence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.32" id="linknote-14.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.32">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 28. Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. A report was spread, that Maxentius was the son + of some obscure Syrian, and had been substituted by the wife of Maximian + as her own child. See Aurelius Victor, Anonym. Valesian, and Panegyr. Vet. + ix. 3, 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.33" id="linknote-14.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.33">return</a>)<br/> [ Ab urbe pulsum, ab + Italia fugatum, ab Illyrico repudiatum, provinciis, tuis copiis, tuo + palatio recepisti. Eumen. in Panegyr Vet. vii. 14.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.34" id="linknote-14.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 29. Yet, after the resignation of the purple, Constantine still continued + to Maximian the pomp and honors of the Imperial dignity; and on all public + occasions gave the right hand place to his father-in-law. Panegyr. Vet. + viii. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.35" id="linknote-14.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.35">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosim. l. ii. p. 82. + Eumenius in Panegyr. Vet. vii. 16—21. The latter of these has + undoubtedly represented the whole affair in the most favorable light for + his sovereign. Yet even from this partial narrative we may conclude, that + the repeated clemency of Constantine, and the reiterated treasons of + Maximian, as they are described by Lactantius, (de M. P. c. 29, 30,) and + copied by the moderns, are destitute of any historical foundation. Note: + Yet some pagan authors relate and confirm them. Aurelius Victor speaking + of Maximin, says, cumque specie officii, dolis compositis, Constantinum + generum tentaret acerbe, jure tamen interierat. Aur. Vict. de Cæsar l. p. + 623. Eutropius also says, inde ad Gallias profectus est (Maximianus) + composito tamquam a filio esset expulsus, ut Constantino genero jun + geretur: moliens tamen Constantinum, reperta occasione, interficere, dedit + justissimo exitu. Eutrop. x. p. 661. (Anon. Gent.)—G. —— + These writers hardly confirm more than Gibbon admits; he denies the + repeated clemency of Constantine, and the reiterated treasons of Maximian + Compare Manso, p. 302.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The last years of Galerius were less shameful and unfortunate; and though + he had filled with more glory the subordinate station of Cæsar than the + superior rank of Augustus, he preserved, till the moment of his death, the + first place among the princes of the Roman world. He survived his retreat + from Italy about four years; and wisely relinquishing his views of + universal empire, he devoted the remainder of his life to the enjoyment of + pleasure, and to the execution of some works of public utility, among + which we may distinguish the discharging into the Danube the superfluous + waters of the Lake Pelso, and the cutting down the immense forests that + encompassed it; an operation worthy of a monarch, since it gave an + extensive country to the agriculture of his Pannonian subjects. <a + href="#linknote-14.36" name="linknoteref-14.36" id="linknoteref-14.36">36</a> + His death was occasioned by a very painful and lingering disorder. His + body, swelled by an intemperate course of life to an unwieldy corpulence, + was covered with ulcers, and devoured by innumerable swarms of those + insects which have given their name to a most loathsome disease; <a + href="#linknote-14.37" name="linknoteref-14.37" id="linknoteref-14.37">37</a> + but as Galerius had offended a very zealous and powerful party among his + subjects, his sufferings, instead of exciting their compassion, have been + celebrated as the visible effects of divine justice. <a + href="#linknote-14.38" name="linknoteref-14.38" id="linknoteref-14.38">38</a> + He had no sooner expired in his palace of Nicomedia, than the two emperors + who were indebted for their purple to his favors, began to collect their + forces, with the intention either of disputing, or of dividing, the + dominions which he had left without a master. They were persuaded, + however, to desist from the former design, and to agree in the latter. The + provinces of Asia fell to the share of Maximin, and those of Europe + augmented the portion of Licinius. The Hellespont and the Thracian + Bosphorus formed their mutual boundary, and the banks of those narrow + seas, which flowed in the midst of the Roman world, were covered with + soldiers, with arms, and with fortifications. The deaths of Maximian and + of Galerius reduced the number of emperors to four. The sense of their + true interest soon connected Licinius and Constantine; a secret alliance + was concluded between Maximin and Maxentius, and their unhappy subjects + expected with terror the bloody consequences of their inevitable + dissensions, which were no longer restrained by the fear or the respect + which they had entertained for Galerius. <a href="#linknote-14.39" + name="linknoteref-14.39" id="linknoteref-14.39">39</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.36" id="linknote-14.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor, c. + 40. But that lake was situated on the upper Pannonia, near the borders of + Noricum; and the province of Valeria (a name which the wife of Galerius + gave to the drained country) undoubtedly lay between the Drave and the + Danube, (Sextus Rufus, c. 9.) I should therefore suspect that Victor has + confounded the Lake Pelso with the Volocean marshes, or, as they are now + called, the Lake Sabaton. It is placed in the heart of Valeria, and its + present extent is not less than twelve Hungarian miles (about seventy + English) in length, and two in breadth. See Severini Pannonia, l. i. c. + 9.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.37" id="linknote-14.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius (de M. P. + c. 33) and Eusebius (l. viii. c. 16) describe the symptoms and progress of + his disorder with singular accuracy and apparent pleasure.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.38" id="linknote-14.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.38">return</a>)<br/> [ If any (like the late + Dr. Jortin, Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 307—356) + still delight in recording the wonderful deaths of the persecutors, I + would recommend to their perusal an admirable passage of Grotius (Hist. l. + vii. p. 332) concerning the last illness of Philip II. of Spain.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.39" id="linknote-14.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.39">return</a>)<br/> [ See Eusebius, l. ix. + 6, 10. Lactantius de M. P. c. 36. Zosimus is less exact, and evidently + confounds Maximian with Maximin.] + </p> + <p> + Among so many crimes and misfortunes, occasioned by the passions of the + Roman princes, there is some pleasure in discovering a single action which + may be ascribed to their virtue. In the sixth year of his reign, + Constantine visited the city of Autun, and generously remitted the arrears + of tribute, reducing at the same time the proportion of their assessment + from twenty-five to eighteen thousand heads, subject to the real and + personal capitation. <a href="#linknote-14.40" name="linknoteref-14.40" + id="linknoteref-14.40">40</a> Yet even this indulgence affords the most + unquestionable proof of the public misery. This tax was so extremely + oppressive, either in itself or in the mode of collecting it, that whilst + the revenue was increased by extortion, it was diminished by despair: a + considerable part of the territory of Autun was left uncultivated; and + great numbers of the provincials rather chose to live as exiles and + outlaws, than to support the weight of civil society. It is but too + probable, that the bountiful emperor relieved, by a partial act of + liberality, one among the many evils which he had caused by his general + maxims of administration. But even those maxims were less the effect of + choice than of necessity. And if we except the death of Maximian, the + reign of Constantine in Gaul seems to have been the most innocent and even + virtuous period of his life. + </p> + <p> + The provinces were protected by his presence from the inroads of the + barbarians, who either dreaded or experienced his active valor. After a + signal victory over the Franks and Alemanni, several of their princes were + exposed by his order to the wild beasts in the amphitheatre of Treves, and + the people seem to have enjoyed the spectacle, without discovering, in + such a treatment of royal captives, any thing that was repugnant to the + laws of nations or of humanity. <a href="#linknote-14.41" + name="linknoteref-14.41" id="linknoteref-14.41">41</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.40" id="linknote-14.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.40">return</a>)<br/> [ See the viiith + Panegyr., in which Eumenius displays, in the presence of Constantine, the + misery and the gratitude of the city of Autun.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.41" id="linknote-14.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.41">return</a>)<br/> [Eutropius, x. 3. + Panegyr. Veter. vii. 10, 11, 12. A great number of the French youth were + likewise exposed to the same cruel and ignominious death Yet the panegyric + assumes something of an apologetic tone. Te vero Constantine, quantumlibet + oderint hoses, dum perhorrescant. Hæc est enim vera virtus, ut non ament + et quiescant. The orator appeals to the ancient ideal of the republic.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The virtues of Constantine were rendered more illustrious by the vices of + Maxentius. Whilst the Gallic provinces enjoyed as much happiness as the + condition of the times was capable of receiving, Italy and Africa groaned + under the dominion of a tyrant, as contemptible as he was odious. The zeal + of flattery and faction has indeed too frequently sacrificed the + reputation of the vanquished to the glory of their successful rivals; but + even those writers who have revealed, with the most freedom and pleasure, + the faults of Constantine, unanimously confess that Maxentius was cruel, + rapacious, and profligate. <a href="#linknote-14.42" + name="linknoteref-14.42" id="linknoteref-14.42">42</a> He had the good + fortune to suppress a slight rebellion in Africa. The governor and a few + adherents had been guilty; the province suffered for their crime. The + flourishing cities of Cirtha and Carthage, and the whole extent of that + fertile country, were wasted by fire and sword. The abuse of victory was + followed by the abuse of law and justice. A formidable army of sycophants + and delators invaded Africa; the rich and the noble were easily convicted + of a connection with the rebels; and those among them who experienced the + emperor’s clemency, were only punished by the confiscation of their + estates. <a href="#linknote-14.43" name="linknoteref-14.43" + id="linknoteref-14.43">43</a> So signal a victory was celebrated by a + magnificent triumph, and Maxentius exposed to the eyes of the people the + spoils and captives of a Roman province. The state of the capital was no + less deserving of compassion than that of Africa. The wealth of Rome + supplied an inexhaustible fund for his vain and prodigal expenses, and the + ministers of his revenue were skilled in the arts of rapine. It was under + his reign that the method of exacting a <i>free gift</i> from the senators was + first invented; and as the sum was insensibly increased, the pretences of + levying it, a victory, a birth, a marriage, or an imperial consulship, + were proportionably multiplied. <a href="#linknote-14.44" + name="linknoteref-14.44" id="linknoteref-14.44">44</a> Maxentius had + imbibed the same implacable aversion to the senate, which had + characterized most of the former tyrants of Rome; nor was it possible for + his ungrateful temper to forgive the generous fidelity which had raised + him to the throne, and supported him against all his enemies. The lives of + the senators were exposed to his jealous suspicions, the dishonor of their + wives and daughters heightened the gratification of his sensual passions. + <a href="#linknote-14.45" name="linknoteref-14.45" id="linknoteref-14.45">45</a> + It may be presumed that an Imperial lover was seldom reduced to sigh in + vain; but whenever persuasion proved ineffectual, he had recourse to + violence; and there remains <i>one</i> memorable example of a noble matron, who + preserved her chastity by a voluntary death. The soldiers were the only + order of men whom he appeared to respect, or studied to please. He filled + Rome and Italy with armed troops, connived at their tumults, suffered them + with impunity to plunder, and even to massacre, the defenceless people; <a + href="#linknote-14.46" name="linknoteref-14.46" id="linknoteref-14.46">46</a> + and indulging them in the same licentiousness which their emperor enjoyed, + Maxentius often bestowed on his military favorites the splendid villa, or + the beautiful wife, of a senator. A prince of such a character, alike + incapable of governing, either in peace or in war, might purchase the + support, but he could never obtain the esteem, of the army. Yet his pride + was equal to his other vices. Whilst he passed his indolent life either + within the walls of his palace, or in the neighboring gardens of Sallust, + he was repeatedly heard to declare, that <i>he alone</i> was emperor, and that + the other princes were no more than his lieutenants, on whom he had + devolved the defence of the frontier provinces, that he might enjoy + without interruption the elegant luxury of the capital. Rome, which had so + long regretted the absence, lamented, during the six years of his reign, + the presence of her sovereign. <a href="#linknote-14.47" + name="linknoteref-14.47" id="linknoteref-14.47">47</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.42" id="linknote-14.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.42">return</a>)<br/> [ Julian excludes + Maxentius from the banquet of the Cæsars with abhorrence and contempt; + and Zosimus (l. ii. p. 85) accuses him of every kind of cruelty and + profligacy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.43" id="linknote-14.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.43">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 83—85. + Aurelius Victor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.44" id="linknote-14.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.44">return</a>)<br/> [ The passage of + Aurelius Victor should be read in the following manner: Primus instituto + pessimo, munerum specie, Patres Oratores que pecuniam conferre prodigenti + sibi cogeret.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.45" id="linknote-14.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.45">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 3. + Euseb. Hist Eccles. viii. 14, et in Vit. Constant i. 33, 34. Rufinus, c. + 17. The virtuous matron who stabbed herself to escape the violence of + Maxentius, was a Christian, wife to the præfect of the city, and her name + was Sophronia. It still remains a question among the casuists, whether, on + such occasions, suicide is justifiable.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.46" id="linknote-14.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Prætorianis cædem + vulgi quondam annueret, is the vague expression of Aurelius Victor. See + more particular, though somewhat different, accounts of a tumult and + massacre which happened at Rome, in Eusebius, (l. viii. c. 14,) and in + Zosimus, (l. ii. p. 84.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.47" id="linknote-14.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.47">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in the + Panegyrics, (ix. 14,) a lively description of the indolence and vain pride + of Maxentius. In another place the orator observes that the riches which + Rome had accumulated in a period of 1060 years, were lavished by the + tyrant on his mercenary bands; redemptis ad civile latrocinium manibus in + gesserat.] + </p> + <p> + Though Constantine might view the conduct of Maxentius with abhorrence, + and the situation of the Romans with compassion, we have no reason to + presume that he would have taken up arms to punish the one or to relieve + the other. But the tyrant of Italy rashly ventured to provoke a formidable + enemy, whose ambition had been hitherto restrained by considerations of + prudence, rather than by principles of justice. <a href="#linknote-14.48" + name="linknoteref-14.48" id="linknoteref-14.48">48</a> After the death of + Maximian, his titles, according to the established custom, had been + erased, and his statues thrown down with ignominy. His son, who had + persecuted and deserted him when alive, effected to display the most pious + regard for his memory, and gave orders that a similar treatment should be + immediately inflicted on all the statues that had been erected in Italy + and Africa to the honor of Constantine. + </p> + <p> + That wise prince, who sincerely wished to decline a war, with the + difficulty and importance of which he was sufficiently acquainted, at + first dissembled the insult, and sought for redress by the milder + expedient of negotiation, till he was convinced that the hostile and + ambitious designs of the Italian emperor made it necessary for him to arm + in his own defence. Maxentius, who openly avowed his pretensions to the + whole monarchy of the West, had already prepared a very considerable force + to invade the Gallic provinces on the side of Rhætia; and though he could + not expect any assistance from Licinius, he was flattered with the hope + that the legions of Illyricum, allured by his presents and promises, would + desert the standard of that prince, and unanimously declare themselves his + soldiers and subjects. <a href="#linknote-14.49" name="linknoteref-14.49" + id="linknoteref-14.49">49</a> Constantine no longer hesitated. He had + deliberated with caution, he acted with vigor. He gave a private audience + to the ambassadors, who, in the name of the senate and people, conjured + him to deliver Rome from a detested tyrant; and without regarding the + timid remonstrances of his council, he resolved to prevent the enemy, and + to carry the war into the heart of Italy. <a href="#linknote-14.50" + name="linknoteref-14.50" id="linknoteref-14.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.48" id="linknote-14.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.48">return</a>)<br/> [ After the victory of + Constantine, it was universally allowed, that the motive of delivering the + republic from a detested tyrant, would, at any time, have justified his + expedition into Italy. Euseb in Vi’. Constantin. l. i. c. 26. Panegyr. + Vet. ix. 2.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.49" id="linknote-14.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 84, + 85. Nazarius in Panegyr. x. 7—13.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.50" id="linknote-14.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.50">return</a>)<br/> [ See Panegyr. Vet. ix. + 2. Omnibus fere tuis Comitibus et Ducibus non solum tacite mussantibus, + sed etiam aperte timentibus; contra consilia hominum, contra Haruspicum + monita, ipse per temet liberandæ arbis tempus venisse sentires. The + embassy of the Romans is mentioned only by Zonaras, (l. xiii.,) and by + Cedrenus, (in Compend. Hist. p. 370;) but those modern Greeks had the + opportunity of consulting many writers which have since been lost, among + which we may reckon the life of Constantine by Praxagoras. Photius (p. 63) + has made a short extract from that historical work.] + </p> + <p> + The enterprise was as full of danger as of glory; and the unsuccessful + event of two former invasions was sufficient to inspire the most serious + apprehensions. The veteran troops, who revered the name of Maximian, had + embraced in both those wars the party of his son, and were now restrained + by a sense of honor, as well as of interest, from entertaining an idea of + a second desertion. Maxentius, who considered the Prætorian guards as the + firmest defence of his throne, had increased them to their ancient + establishment; and they composed, including the rest of the Italians who + were enlisted into his service, a formidable body of fourscore thousand + men. Forty thousand Moors and Carthaginians had been raised since the + reduction of Africa. Even Sicily furnished its proportion of troops; and + the armies of Maxentius amounted to one hundred and seventy thousand foot + and eighteen thousand horse. The wealth of Italy supplied the expenses of + the war; and the adjacent provinces were exhausted, to form immense + magazines of corn and every other kind of provisions. + </p> + <p> + The whole force of Constantine consisted of ninety thousand foot and eight + thousand horse; <a href="#linknote-14.51" name="linknoteref-14.51" + id="linknoteref-14.51">51</a> and as the defence of the Rhine required an + extraordinary attention during the absence of the emperor, it was not in + his power to employ above half his troops in the Italian expedition, + unless he sacrificed the public safety to his private quarrel. <a + href="#linknote-14.52" name="linknoteref-14.52" id="linknoteref-14.52">52</a> + At the head of about forty thousand soldiers he marched to encounter an + enemy whose numbers were at least four times superior to his own. But the + armies of Rome, placed at a secure distance from danger, were enervated by + indulgence and luxury. Habituated to the baths and theatres of Rome, they + took the field with reluctance, and were chiefly composed of veterans who + had almost forgotten, or of new levies who had never acquired, the use of + arms and the practice of war. The hardy legions of Gaul had long defended + the frontiers of the empire against the barbarians of the North; and in + the performance of that laborious service, their valor was exercised and + their discipline confirmed. There appeared the same difference between the + leaders as between the armies. Caprice or flattery had tempted Maxentius + with the hopes of conquest; but these aspiring hopes soon gave way to the + habits of pleasure and the consciousness of his inexperience. The intrepid + mind of Constantine had been trained from his earliest youth to war, to + action, and to military command. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.51" id="linknote-14.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.51">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 86) + has given us this curious account of the forces on both sides. He makes no + mention of any naval armaments, though we are assured (Panegyr. Vet. ix. + 25) that the war was carried on by sea as well as by land; and that the + fleet of Constantine took possession of Sardinia, Corsica, and the ports + of Italy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.52" id="linknote-14.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.52">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 3. + It is not surprising that the orator should diminish the numbers with + which his sovereign achieved the conquest of Italy; but it appears + somewhat singular that he should esteem the tyrant’s army at no more than + 100,000 men.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap14.3"></a> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + III. + </h2> + <p> + When Hannibal marched from Gaul into Italy, he was obliged, first to + discover, and then to open, a way over mountains, and through savage + nations, that had never yielded a passage to a regular army. <a + href="#linknote-14.53" name="linknoteref-14.53" id="linknoteref-14.53">53</a> + The Alps were then guarded by nature, they are now fortified by art. + Citadels, constructed with no less skill than labor and expense, command + every avenue into the plain, and on that side render Italy almost + inaccessible to the enemies of the king of Sardinia. <a + href="#linknote-14.54" name="linknoteref-14.54" id="linknoteref-14.54">54</a> + But in the course of the intermediate period, the generals, who have + attempted the passage, have seldom experienced any difficulty or + resistance. In the age of Constantine, the peasants of the mountains were + civilized and obedient subjects; the country was plentifully stocked with + provisions, and the stupendous highways, which the Romans had carried over + the Alps, opened several communications between Gaul and Italy. <a + href="#linknote-14.55" name="linknoteref-14.55" id="linknoteref-14.55">55</a> + Constantine preferred the road of the Cottian Alps, or, as it is now + called, of Mount Cenis, and led his troops with such active diligence, + that he descended into the plain of Piedmont before the court of Maxentius + had received any certain intelligence of his departure from the banks of + the Rhine. The city of Susa, however, which is situated at the foot of + Mount Cenis, was surrounded with walls, and provided with a garrison + sufficiently numerous to check the progress of an invader; but the + impatience of Constantine’s troops disdained the tedious forms of a siege. + The same day that they appeared before Susa, they applied fire to the + gates, and ladders to the walls; and mounting to the assault amidst a + shower of stones and arrows, they entered the place sword in hand, and cut + in pieces the greatest part of the garrison. The flames were extinguished + by the care of Constantine, and the remains of Susa preserved from total + destruction. About forty miles from thence, a more severe contest awaited + him. A numerous army of Italians was assembled under the lieutenants of + Maxentius, in the plains of Turin. Its principal strength consisted in a + species of heavy cavalry, which the Romans, since the decline of their + discipline, had borrowed from the nations of the East. The horses, as well + as the men, were clothed in complete armor, the joints of which were + artfully adapted to the motions of their bodies. The aspect of this + cavalry was formidable, their weight almost irresistible; and as, on this + occasion, their generals had drawn them up in a compact column or wedge, + with a sharp point, and with spreading flanks, they flattered themselves + that they could easily break and trample down the army of Constantine. + They might, perhaps, have succeeded in their design, had not their + experienced adversary embraced the same method of defence, which in + similar circumstances had been practised by Aurelian. The skilful + evolutions of Constantine divided and baffled this massy column of + cavalry. The troops of Maxentius fled in confusion towards Turin; and as + the gates of the city were shut against them, very few escaped the sword + of the victorious pursuers. By this important service, Turin deserved to + experience the clemency and even favor of the conqueror. He made his entry + into the Imperial palace of Milan, and almost all the cities of Italy + between the Alps and the Po not only acknowledged the power, but embraced + with zeal the party, of Constantine. <a href="#linknote-14.56" + name="linknoteref-14.56" id="linknoteref-14.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.53" id="linknote-14.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.53">return</a>)<br/> [ The three principal + passages of the Alps between Gaul and Italy, are those of Mount St. + Bernard, Mount Cenis, and Mount Genevre. Tradition, and a resemblance of + names, (Alpes Penninoe,) had assigned the first of these for the march of + Hannibal, (see Simler de Alpibus.) The Chevalier de Folard (Polyp. tom. + iv.) and M. d’Anville have led him over Mount Genevre. But notwithstanding + the authority of an experienced officer and a learned geographer, the + pretensions of Mount Cenis are supported in a specious, not to say a + convincing, manner, by M. Grosley. Observations sur l’Italie, tom. i. p. + 40, &c. ——The dissertation of Messrs. Cramer and Wickham + has clearly shown that the Little St. Bernard must claim the honor of + Hannibal’s passage. Mr. Long (London, 1831) has added some sensible + corrections re Hannibal’s march to the Alps.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.54" id="linknote-14.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.54">return</a>)<br/> [ La Brunette near Suse, + Demont, Exiles, Fenestrelles, Coni, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.55" id="linknote-14.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.55">return</a>)<br/> [ See Ammian. Marcellin. + xv. 10. His description of the roads over the Alps is clear, lively, and + accurate.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.56" id="linknote-14.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.56">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus as well as + Eusebius hasten from the passage of the Alps to the decisive action near + Rome. We must apply to the two Panegyrics for the intermediate actions of + Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + From Milan to Rome, the Æmilian and Flaminian highways offered an easy + march of about four hundred miles; but though Constantine was impatient to + encounter the tyrant, he prudently directed his operations against another + army of Italians, who, by their strength and position, might either oppose + his progress, or, in case of a misfortune, might intercept his retreat. + Ruricius Pompeianus, a general distinguished by his valor and ability, had + under his command the city of Verona, and all the troops that were + stationed in the province of Venetia. As soon as he was informed that + Constantine was advancing towards him, he detached a large body of cavalry, + which was defeated in an engagement near Brescia, and pursued by the + Gallic legions as far as the gates of Verona. The necessity, the + importance, and the difficulties of the siege of Verona, immediately + presented themselves to the sagacious mind of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-14.57" name="linknoteref-14.57" id="linknoteref-14.57">57</a> + The city was accessible only by a narrow peninsula towards the west, as + the other three sides were surrounded by the Adige, a rapid river, which + covered the province of Venetia, from whence the besieged derived an + inexhaustible supply of men and provisions. It was not without great + difficulty, and after several fruitless attempts, that Constantine found + means to pass the river at some distance above the city, and in a place + where the torrent was less violent. He then encompassed Verona with strong + lines, pushed his attacks with prudent vigor, and repelled a desperate + sally of Pompeianus. That intrepid general, when he had used every means + of defence that the strength of the place or that of the garrison could + afford, secretly escaped from Verona, anxious not for his own, but for the + public safety. With indefatigable diligence he soon collected an army + sufficient either to meet Constantine in the field, or to attack him if he + obstinately remained within his lines. The emperor, attentive to the + motions, and informed of the approach of so formidable an enemy, left a + part of his legions to continue the operations of the siege, whilst, at + the head of those troops on whose valor and fidelity he more particularly + depended, he advanced in person to engage the general of Maxentius. The + army of Gaul was drawn up in two lines, according to the usual practice of + war; but their experienced leader, perceiving that the numbers of the + Italians far exceeded his own, suddenly changed his disposition, and, + reducing the second, extended the front of his first line to a just + proportion with that of the enemy. Such evolutions, which only veteran + troops can execute without confusion in a moment of danger, commonly prove + decisive; but as this engagement began towards the close of the day, and + was contested with great obstinacy during the whole night, there was less + room for the conduct of the generals than for the courage of the soldiers. + The return of light displayed the victory of Constantine, and a field of + carnage covered with many thousands of the vanquished Italians. Their + general, Pompeianus, was found among the slain; Verona immediately + surrendered at discretion, and the garrison was made prisoners of war. <a + href="#linknote-14.58" name="linknoteref-14.58" id="linknoteref-14.58">58</a> + When the officers of the victorious army congratulated their master on + this important success, they ventured to add some respectful complaints, + of such a nature, however, as the most jealous monarchs will listen to + without displeasure. They represented to Constantine, that, not contented + with all the duties of a commander, he had exposed his own person with an + excess of valor which almost degenerated into rashness; and they conjured + him for the future to pay more regard to the preservation of a life in + which the safety of Rome and of the empire was involved. <a + href="#linknote-14.59" name="linknoteref-14.59" id="linknoteref-14.59">59</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.57" id="linknote-14.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.57">return</a>)<br/> [ The Marquis Maffei has + examined the siege and battle of Verona with that degree of attention and + accuracy which was due to a memorable action that happened in his native + country. The fortifications of that city, constructed by Gallienus, were + less extensive than the modern walls, and the amphitheatre was not + included within their circumference. See Verona Illustrata, part i. p. 142 + 150.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.58" id="linknote-14.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.58">return</a>)<br/> [ They wanted chains for + so great a multitude of captives; and the whole council was at a loss; but + the sagacious conqueror imagined the happy expedient of converting into + fetters the swords of the vanquished. Panegyr. Vet. ix. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.59" id="linknote-14.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 11.] + </p> + <p> + While Constantine signalized his conduct and valor in the field, the + sovereign of Italy appeared insensible of the calamities and danger of a + civil war which reigned in the heart of his dominions. Pleasure was still + the only business of Maxentius. Concealing, or at least attempting to + conceal, from the public knowledge the misfortunes of his arms, <a + href="#linknote-14.60" name="linknoteref-14.60" id="linknoteref-14.60">60</a> + he indulged himself in a vain confidence which deferred the remedies of + the approaching evil, without deferring the evil itself. <a + href="#linknote-14.61" name="linknoteref-14.61" id="linknoteref-14.61">61</a> + The rapid progress of Constantine <a href="#linknote-14.62" + name="linknoteref-14.62" id="linknoteref-14.62">62</a> was scarcely + sufficient to awaken him from his fatal security; he flattered himself, + that his well-known liberality, and the majesty of the Roman name, which + had already delivered him from two invasions, would dissipate with the + same facility the rebellious army of Gaul. The officers of experience and + ability, who had served under the banners of Maximian, were at length + compelled to inform his effeminate son of the imminent danger to which he + was reduced; and, with a freedom that at once surprised and convinced him, + to urge the necessity of preventing his ruin by a vigorous exertion of + his remaining power. The resources of Maxentius, both of men and money, + were still considerable. The Prætorian guards felt how strongly their own + interest and safety were connected with his cause; and a third army was + soon collected, more numerous than those which had been lost in the + battles of Turin and Verona. It was far from the intention of the emperor + to lead his troops in person. A stranger to the exercises of war, he + trembled at the apprehension of so dangerous a contest; and as fear is + commonly superstitious, he listened with melancholy attention to the + rumors of omens and presages which seemed to menace his life and empire. + Shame at length supplied the place of courage, and forced him to take the + field. He was unable to sustain the contempt of the Roman people. The + circus resounded with their indignant clamors, and they tumultuously + besieged the gates of the palace, reproaching the pusillanimity of their + indolent sovereign, and celebrating the heroic spirit of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-14.63" name="linknoteref-14.63" id="linknoteref-14.63">63</a> + Before Maxentius left Rome, he consulted the Sibylline books. The + guardians of these ancient oracles were as well versed in the arts of this + world as they were ignorant of the secrets of fate; and they returned him + a very prudent answer, which might adapt itself to the event, and secure + their reputation, whatever should be the chance of arms. <a + href="#linknote-14.64" name="linknoteref-14.64" id="linknoteref-14.64">64</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.60" id="linknote-14.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.60">return</a>)<br/> [ Literas calamitatum + suarum indices supprimebat. Panegyr Vet. ix. 15.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.61" id="linknote-14.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.61">return</a>)<br/> [ Remedia malorum potius + quam mala differebat, is the fine censure which Tacitus passes on the + supine indolence of Vitellius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.62" id="linknote-14.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.62">return</a>)<br/> [ The Marquis Maffei has + made it extremely probable that Constantine was still at Verona, the 1st + of September, A.D. 312, and that the memorable æra of the indications was + dated from his conquest of the Cisalpine Gaul.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.63" id="linknote-14.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.63">return</a>)<br/> [ See Panegyr. Vet. xi. + 16. Lactantius de M. P. c. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.64" id="linknote-14.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.64">return</a>)<br/> [ Illo die hostem + Romanorum esse periturum. The vanquished became of course the enemy of + Rome.] + </p> + <p> + The celerity of Constantine’s march has been compared to the rapid + conquest of Italy by the first of the Cæsars; nor is the flattering + parallel repugnant to the truth of history, since no more than fifty-eight + days elapsed between the surrender of Verona and the final decision of the + war. Constantine had always apprehended that the tyrant would consult the + dictates of fear, and perhaps of prudence; and that, instead of risking + his last hopes in a general engagement, he would shut himself up within + the walls of Rome. His ample magazines secured him against the danger of + famine; and as the situation of Constantine admitted not of delay, he + might have been reduced to the sad necessity of destroying with fire and + sword the Imperial city, the noblest reward of his victory, and the + deliverance of which had been the motive, or rather indeed the pretence, + of the civil war. <a href="#linknote-14.65" name="linknoteref-14.65" + id="linknoteref-14.65">65</a> It was with equal surprise and pleasure, + that on his arrival at a place called Saxa Rubra, about nine miles from + Rome, <a href="#linknote-14.66" name="linknoteref-14.66" + id="linknoteref-14.66">66</a> he discovered the army of Maxentius prepared + to give him battle. <a href="#linknote-14.67" name="linknoteref-14.67" + id="linknoteref-14.67">67</a> Their long front filled a very spacious + plain, and their deep array reached to the banks of the Tyber, which + covered their rear, and forbade their retreat. We are informed, and we may + believe, that Constantine disposed his troops with consummate skill, and + that he chose for himself the post of honor and danger. Distinguished by + the splendor of his arms, he charged in person the cavalry of his rival; + and his irresistible attack determined the fortune of the day. The cavalry + of Maxentius was principally composed either of unwieldy cuirassiers, or + of light Moors and Numidians. They yielded to the vigor of the Gallic + horse, which possessed more activity than the one, more firmness than the + other. The defeat of the two wings left the infantry without any + protection on its flanks, and the undisciplined Italians fled without + reluctance from the standard of a tyrant whom they had always hated, and + whom they no longer feared. The Prætorians, conscious that their offences + were beyond the reach of mercy, were animated by revenge and despair. + Notwithstanding their repeated efforts, those brave veterans were unable + to recover the victory: they obtained, however, an honorable death; and it + was observed that their bodies covered the same ground which had been + occupied by their ranks. <a href="#linknote-14.68" name="linknoteref-14.68" + id="linknoteref-14.68">68</a> The confusion then became general, and the + dismayed troops of Maxentius, pursued by an implacable enemy, rushed by + thousands into the deep and rapid stream of the Tyber. The emperor himself + attempted to escape back into the city over the Milvian bridge; but the + crowds which pressed together through that narrow passage forced him into + the river, where he was immediately drowned by the weight of his armor. <a + href="#linknote-14.69" name="linknoteref-14.69" id="linknoteref-14.69">69</a> + His body, which had sunk very deep into the mud, was found with some + difficulty the next day. The sight of his head, when it was exposed to the + eyes of the people, convinced them of their deliverance, and admonished + them to receive with acclamations of loyalty and gratitude the fortunate + Constantine, who thus achieved by his valor and ability the most splendid + enterprise of his life. <a href="#linknote-14.70" name="linknoteref-14.70" + id="linknoteref-14.70">70</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.65" id="linknote-14.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.65">return</a>)<br/> [ See Panegyr. Vet. ix. + 16, x. 27. The former of these orators magnifies the hoards of corn, which + Maxentius had collected from Africa and the Islands. And yet, if there is + any truth in the scarcity mentioned by Eusebius, (in Vit. Constantin. l. + i. c. 36,) the Imperial granaries must have been open only to the + soldiers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.66" id="linknote-14.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Maxentius... tandem + urbe in Saxa Rubra, millia ferme novem ægerrime progressus. Aurelius + Victor. See Cellarius Geograph. Antiq. tom. i. p. 463. Saxa Rubra was in + the neighborhood of the Cremera, a trifling rivulet, illustrated by the + valor and glorious death of the three hundred Fabii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.67" id="linknote-14.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.67">return</a>)<br/> [ The post which + Maxentius had taken, with the Tyber in his rear is very clearly described + by the two Panegyrists, ix. 16, x. 28.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.68" id="linknote-14.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Exceptis latrocinii + illius primis auctoribus, qui desperata venia ocum quem pugnæ sumpserant + texere corporibus. Panegyr. Vet 17.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.69" id="linknote-14.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.69">return</a>)<br/> [ A very idle rumor soon + prevailed, that Maxentius, who had not taken any precaution for his own + retreat, had contrived a very artful snare to destroy the army of the + pursuers; but that the wooden bridge, which was to have been loosened on + the approach of Constantine, unluckily broke down under the weight of the + flying Italians. M. de Tillemont (Hist. des Empereurs, tom. iv. part i. p. + 576) very seriously examines whether, in contradiction to common sense, + the testimony of Eusebius and Zosimus ought to prevail over the silence of + Lactantius, Nazarius, and the anonymous, but contemporary orator, who + composed the ninth Panegyric. * Note: Manso (Beylage, vi.) examines the + question, and adduces two manifest allusions to the bridge, from the Life + of Constantine by Praxagoras, and from Libanius. Is it not very probable + that such a bridge was thrown over the river to facilitate the advance, + and to secure the retreat, of the army of Maxentius? In case of defeat, + orders were given for destroying it, in order to check the pursuit: it + broke down accidentally, or in the confusion was destroyed, as has not + unfrequently been the case, before the proper time.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.70" id="linknote-14.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.70">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 86-88, and the two Panegyrics, the former of which was pronounced a few + months afterwards, afford the clearest notion of this great battle. + Lactantius, Eusebius, and even the Epitomes, supply several useful hints.] + </p> + <p> + In the use of victory, Constantine neither deserved the praise of + clemency, nor incurred the censure of immoderate rigor. <a + href="#linknote-14.71" name="linknoteref-14.71" id="linknoteref-14.71">71</a> + He inflicted the same treatment to which a defeat would have exposed his + own person and family, put to death the two sons of the tyrant, and + carefully extirpated his whole race. The most distinguished adherents of + Maxentius must have expected to share his fate, as they had shared his + prosperity and his crimes; but when the Roman people loudly demanded a + greater number of victims, the conqueror resisted, with firmness and + humanity, those servile clamors, which were dictated by flattery as well + as by resentment. Informers were punished and discouraged; the innocent, + who had suffered under the late tyranny, were recalled from exile, and + restored to their estates. A general act of oblivion quieted the minds and + settled the property of the people, both in Italy and in Africa. <a + href="#linknote-14.72" name="linknoteref-14.72" id="linknoteref-14.72">72</a> + The first time that Constantine honored the senate with his presence, he + recapitulated his own services and exploits in a modest oration, assured + that illustrious order of his sincere regard, and promised to reëstablish + its ancient dignity and privileges. The grateful senate repaid these + unmeaning professions by the empty titles of honor, which it was yet in + their power to bestow; and without presuming to ratify the authority of + Constantine, they passed a decree to assign him the first rank among the + three <i>Augusti</i> who governed the Roman world. <a href="#linknote-14.73" + name="linknoteref-14.73" id="linknoteref-14.73">73</a> Games and festivals + were instituted to preserve the fame of his victory, and several edifices, + raised at the expense of Maxentius, were dedicated to the honor of his + successful rival. The triumphal arch of Constantine still remains a + melancholy proof of the decline of the arts, and a singular testimony of + the meanest vanity. As it was not possible to find in the capital of the + empire a sculptor who was capable of adorning that public monument, the + arch of Trajan, without any respect either for his memory or for the rules + of propriety, was stripped of its most elegant figures. The difference of + times and persons, of actions and characters, was totally disregarded. The + Parthian captives appear prostrate at the feet of a prince who never + carried his arms beyond the Euphrates; and curious antiquarians can still + discover the head of Trajan on the trophies of Constantine. The new + ornaments which it was necessary to introduce between the vacancies of + ancient sculpture are executed in the rudest and most unskilful manner. + <a href="#linknote-14.74" name="linknoteref-14.74" id="linknoteref-14.74">74</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.71" id="linknote-14.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, the enemy of + Constantine, allows (l. ii. p. 88) that only a few of the friends of + Maxentius were put to death; but we may remark the expressive passage of + Nazarius, (Panegyr. Vet. x. 6.) Omnibus qui labefactari statum ejus + poterant cum stirpe deletis. The other orator (Panegyr. Vet. ix. 20, 21) + contents himself with observing, that Constantine, when he entered Rome, + did not imitate the cruel massacres of Cinna, of Marius, or of Sylla. * + Note: This may refer to the son or sons of Maxentius.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.72" id="linknote-14.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.72">return</a>)<br/> [ See the two + Panegyrics, and the laws of this and the ensuing year, in the Theodosian + Code.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.73" id="linknote-14.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Panegyr. Vet. ix. 20. + Lactantius de M. P. c. 44. Maximin, who was confessedly the eldest Cæsar, + claimed, with some show of reason, the first rank among the Augusti.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.74" id="linknote-14.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Adhuc cuncta opera + quæ magnifice construxerat, urbis fanum atque basilicam, Flavii meritis + patres sacravere. Aurelius Victor. With regard to the theft of Trajan’s + trophies, consult Flaminius Vacca, apud Montfaucon, Diarium Italicum, p. + 250, and l’Antiquite Expliquee of the latter, tom. iv. p. 171.] + </p> + <p> + The final abolition of the Prætorian guards was a measure of prudence as + well as of revenge. Those haughty troops, whose numbers and privileges had + been restored, and even augmented, by Maxentius, were forever suppressed + by Constantine. Their fortified camp was destroyed, and the few + Prætorians who had escaped the fury of the sword were dispersed among the + legions, and banished to the frontiers of the empire, where they might be + serviceable without again becoming dangerous. <a href="#linknote-14.75" + name="linknoteref-14.75" id="linknoteref-14.75">75</a> By suppressing the + troops which were usually stationed in Rome, Constantine gave the fatal + blow to the dignity of the senate and people, and the disarmed capital was + exposed without protection to the insults or neglect of its distant + master. We may observe, that in this last effort to preserve their + expiring freedom, the Romans, from the apprehension of a tribute, had + raised Maxentius to the throne. He exacted that tribute from the senate + under the name of a free gift. They implored the assistance of + Constantine. He vanquished the tyrant, and converted the free gift into a + perpetual tax. The senators, according to the declaration which was + required of their property, were divided into several classes. The most + opulent paid annually eight pounds of gold, the next class paid four, the + last two, and those whose poverty might have claimed an exemption, were + assessed, however, at seven pieces of gold. Besides the regular members of + the senate, their sons, their descendants, and even their relations, + enjoyed the vain privileges, and supported the heavy burdens, of the + senatorial order; nor will it any longer excite our surprise, that + Constantine should be attentive to increase the number of persons who were + included under so useful a description. <a href="#linknote-14.76" + name="linknoteref-14.76" id="linknoteref-14.76">76</a> After the defeat of + Maxentius, the victorious emperor passed no more than two or three months + in Rome, which he visited twice during the remainder of his life, to + celebrate the solemn festivals of the tenth and of the twentieth years of + his reign. Constantine was almost perpetually in motion, to exercise the + legions, or to inspect the state of the provinces. Treves, Milan, + Aquileia, Sirmium, Naissus, and Thessalonica, were the occasional places + of his residence, till he founded a new Rome on the confines of Europe and + Asia. <a href="#linknote-14.77" name="linknoteref-14.77" + id="linknoteref-14.77">77</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.75" id="linknote-14.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Prætoriæ legiones ac + subsidia factionibus aptiora quam urbi Romæ, sublata penitus; simul arma + atque usus indumenti militaris Aurelius Victor. Zosimus (l. ii. p. 89) + mentions this fact as an historian, and it is very pompously celebrated in + the ninth Panegyric.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.76" id="linknote-14.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.76">return</a>)<br/> [ Ex omnibus provinciis + optimates viros Curiæ tuæ pigneraveris ut Senatus dignitas.... ex totius + Orbis flore consisteret. Nazarius in Panegyr. Vet x. 35. The word + pigneraveris might almost seem maliciously chosen. Concerning the + senatorial tax, see Zosimus, l. ii. p. 115, the second title of the sixth + book of the Theodosian Code, with Godefroy’s Commentary, and Memoires de + l’Academic des Inscriptions, tom. xxviii. p. 726.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.77" id="linknote-14.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.77">return</a>)<br/> [ From the Theodosian + Code, we may now begin to trace the motions of the emperors; but the dates + both of time and place have frequently been altered by the carelessness of + transcribers.] + </p> + <p> + Before Constantine marched into Italy, he had secured the friendship, or + at least the neutrality, of Licinius, the Illyrian emperor. He had + promised his sister Constantia in marriage to that prince; but the + celebration of the nuptials was deferred till after the conclusion of the + war, and the interview of the two emperors at Milan, which was appointed + for that purpose, appeared to cement the union of their families and + interests. <a href="#linknote-14.78" name="linknoteref-14.78" + id="linknoteref-14.78">78</a> In the midst of the public festivity they + were suddenly obliged to take leave of each other. An inroad of the Franks + summoned Constantine to the Rhine, and the hostile approach of the + sovereign of Asia demanded the immediate presence of Licinius. Maximin had + been the secret ally of Maxentius, and without being discouraged by his + fate, he resolved to try the fortune of a civil war. He moved out of + Syria, towards the frontiers of Bithynia, in the depth of winter. The + season was severe and tempestuous; great numbers of men as well as horses + perished in the snow; and as the roads were broken up by incessant rains, + he was obliged to leave behind him a considerable part of the heavy + baggage, which was unable to follow the rapidity of his forced marches. By + this extraordinary effort of diligence, he arrived with a harassed but + formidable army, on the banks of the Thracian Bosphorus before the + lieutenants of Licinius were apprised of his hostile intentions. Byzantium + surrendered to the power of Maximin, after a siege of eleven days. He was + detained some days under the walls of Heraclea; and he had no sooner taken + possession of that city than he was alarmed by the intelligence that + Licinius had pitched his camp at the distance of only eighteen miles. + After a fruitless negotiation, in which the two princes attempted to + seduce the fidelity of each other’s adherents, they had recourse to arms. + The emperor of the East commanded a disciplined and veteran army of above + seventy thousand men; and Licinius, who had collected about thirty + thousand Illyrians, was at first oppressed by the superiority of numbers. + His military skill, and the firmness of his troops, restored the day, and + obtained a decisive victory. The incredible speed which Maximin exerted in + his flight is much more celebrated than his prowess in the battle. + Twenty-four hours afterwards he was seen, pale, trembling, and without his + Imperial ornaments, at Nicomedia, one hundred and sixty miles from the + place of his defeat. The wealth of Asia was yet unexhausted; and though + the flower of his veterans had fallen in the late action, he had still + power, if he could obtain time, to draw very numerous levies from Syria + and Egypt. But he survived his misfortune only three or four months. His + death, which happened at Tarsus, was variously ascribed to despair, to + poison, and to the divine justice. As Maximin was alike destitute of + abilities and of virtue, he was lamented neither by the people nor by the + soldiers. The provinces of the East, delivered from the terrors of civil + war, cheerfully acknowledged the authority of Licinius. <a + href="#linknote-14.79" name="linknoteref-14.79" id="linknoteref-14.79">79</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.78" id="linknote-14.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 89) + observes, that before the war the sister of Constantine had been betrothed + to Licinius. According to the younger Victor, Diocletian was invited to + the nuptials; but having ventured to plead his age and infirmities, he + received a second letter, filled with reproaches for his supposed + partiality to the cause of Maxentius and Maximin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.79" id="linknote-14.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus mentions the + defeat and death of Maximin as ordinary events; but Lactantius expatiates + on them, (de M. P. c. 45-50,) ascribing them to the miraculous + interposition of Heaven. Licinius at that time was one of the protectors + of the church.] + </p> + <p> + The vanquished emperor left behind him two children, a boy of about eight, + and a girl of about seven, years old. Their inoffensive age might have + excited compassion; but the compassion of Licinius was a very feeble + resource, nor did it restrain him from <i>extinguishing</i> the name and memory + of his adversary. The death of Severianus will admit of less excuse, as it + was dictated neither by revenge nor by policy. The conqueror had never + received any injury from the father of that unhappy youth, and the short + and obscure reign of Severus, in a distant part of the empire, was already + forgotten. But the execution of Candidianus was an act of the blackest + cruelty and ingratitude. He was the natural son of Galerius, the friend + and benefactor of Licinius. The prudent father had judged him too young to + sustain the weight of a diadem; but he hoped that, under the protection of + princes who were indebted to his favor for the Imperial purple, + Candidianus might pass a secure and honorable life. He was now advancing + towards the twentieth year of his age, and the royalty of his birth, + though unsupported either by merit or ambition, was sufficient to + exasperate the jealous mind of Licinius. <a href="#linknote-14.80" + name="linknoteref-14.80" id="linknoteref-14.80">80</a> To these innocent + and illustrious victims of his tyranny, we must add the wife and daughter + of the emperor Diocletian. When that prince conferred on Galerius the + title of Cæsar, he had given him in marriage his daughter Valeria, whose + melancholy adventures might furnish a very singular subject for tragedy. + She had fulfilled and even surpassed the duties of a wife. As she had not + any children herself, she condescended to adopt the illegitimate son of + her husband, and invariably displayed towards the unhappy Candidianus the + tenderness and anxiety of a real mother. After the death of Galerius, her + ample possessions provoked the avarice, and her personal attractions + excited the desires, of his successor, Maximin. <a href="#linknote-14.81" + name="linknoteref-14.81" id="linknoteref-14.81">81</a> He had a wife still + alive; but divorce was permitted by the Roman law, and the fierce passions + of the tyrant demanded an immediate gratification. The answer of Valeria + was such as became the daughter and widow of emperors; but it was tempered + by the prudence which her defenceless condition compelled her to observe. + She represented to the persons whom Maximin had employed on this occasion, + “that even if honor could permit a woman of her character and dignity to + entertain a thought of second nuptials, decency at least must forbid her + to listen to his addresses at a time when the ashes of her husband and + his benefactor were still warm, and while the sorrows of her mind were + still expressed by her mourning garments. She ventured to declare, that + she could place very little confidence in the professions of a man whose + cruel inconstancy was capable of repudiating a faithful and affectionate + wife.” <a href="#linknote-14.82" name="linknoteref-14.82" + id="linknoteref-14.82">82</a> On this repulse, the love of Maximin was + converted into fury; and as witnesses and judges were always at his + disposal, it was easy for him to cover his fury with an appearance of + legal proceedings, and to assault the reputation as well as the happiness + of Valeria. Her estates were confiscated, her eunuchs and domestics + devoted to the most inhuman tortures; and several innocent and respectable + matrons, who were honored with her friendship, suffered death, on a false + accusation of adultery. The empress herself, together with her mother + Prisca, was condemned to exile; and as they were ignominiously hurried + from place to place before they were confined to a sequestered village in + the deserts of Syria, they exposed their shame and distress to the + provinces of the East, which, during thirty years, had respected their + august dignity. Diocletian made several ineffectual efforts to alleviate + the misfortunes of his daughter; and, as the last return that he expected + for the Imperial purple, which he had conferred upon Maximin, he entreated + that Valeria might be permitted to share his retirement of Salona, and to + close the eyes of her afflicted father. <a href="#linknote-14.83" + name="linknoteref-14.83" id="linknoteref-14.83">83</a> He entreated; but + as he could no longer threaten, his prayers were received with coldness + and disdain; and the pride of Maximin was gratified, in treating + Diocletian as a suppliant, and his daughter as a criminal. The death of + Maximin seemed to assure the empresses of a favorable alteration in their + fortune. The public disorders relaxed the vigilance of their guard, and + they easily found means to escape from the place of their exile, and to + repair, though with some precaution, and in disguise, to the court of + Licinius. His behavior, in the first days of his reign, and the honorable + reception which he gave to young Candidianus, inspired Valeria with a + secret satisfaction, both on her own account and on that of her adopted + son. But these grateful prospects were soon succeeded by horror and + astonishment; and the bloody executions which stained the palace of + Nicomedia sufficiently convinced her that the throne of Maximin was filled + by a tyrant more inhuman than himself. Valeria consulted her safety by a + hasty flight, and, still accompanied by her mother Prisca, they wandered + above fifteen months <a href="#linknote-14.84" name="linknoteref-14.84" + id="linknoteref-14.84">84</a> through the provinces, concealed in the + disguise of plebeian habits. They were at length discovered at + Thessalonica; and as the sentence of their death was already pronounced, + they were immediately beheaded, and their bodies thrown into the sea. The + people gazed on the melancholy spectacle; but their grief and indignation + were suppressed by the terrors of a military guard. Such was the unworthy + fate of the wife and daughter of Diocletian. We lament their misfortunes, + we cannot discover their crimes; and whatever idea we may justly entertain + of the cruelty of Licinius, it remains a matter of surprise that he was + not contented with some more secret and decent method of revenge. <a + href="#linknote-14.85" name="linknoteref-14.85" id="linknoteref-14.85">85</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.80" id="linknote-14.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.80">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 50. Aurelius Victor touches on the different conduct of Licinius, and of + Constantine, in the use of victory.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.81" id="linknote-14.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.81">return</a>)<br/> [ The sensual appetites + of Maximin were gratified at the expense of his subjects. His eunuchs, who + forced away wives and virgins, examined their naked charms with anxious + curiosity, lest any part of their body should be found unworthy of the + royal embraces. Coyness and disdain were considered as treason, and the + obstinate fair one was condemned to be drowned. A custom was gradually + introduced, that no person should marry a wife without the permission of + the emperor, “ut ipse in omnibus nuptiis prægustator esset.” Lactantius + de M. P. c. 38.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.82" id="linknote-14.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.82">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius de M. P. c. + 39.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.83" id="linknote-14.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.83">return</a>)<br/> [ Diocletian at last + sent cognatum suum, quendam militarem æ potentem virum, to intercede in + favor of his daughter, (Lactantius de M. P. c. 41.) We are not + sufficiently acquainted with the history of these times to point out the + person who was employed.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.84" id="linknote-14.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Valeria quoque per + varias provincias quindecim mensibus plebeio cultu pervagata. Lactantius + de M. P. c. 51. There is some doubt whether we should compute the fifteen + months from the moment of her exile, or from that of her escape. The + expression of parvagata seems to denote the latter; but in that case we + must suppose that the treatise of Lactantius was written after the first + civil war between Licinius and Constantine. See Cuper, p. 254.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.85" id="linknote-14.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Ita illis pudicitia et + conditio exitio fuit. Lactantius de M. P. c. 51. He relates the + misfortunes of the innocent wife and daughter of Discletian with a very + natural mixture of pity and exultation.] + </p> + <p> + The Roman world was now divided between Constantine and Licinius, the + former of whom was master of the West, and the latter of the East. It + might perhaps have been expected that the conquerors, fatigued with civil + war, and connected by a private as well as public alliance, would have + renounced, or at least would have suspended, any further designs of + ambition. And yet a year had scarcely elapsed after the death of Maximin, + before the victorious emperors turned their arms against each other. The + genius, the success, and the aspiring temper of Constantine, may seem to + mark him out as the aggressor; but the perfidious character of Licinius + justifies the most unfavorable suspicions, and by the faint light which + history reflects on this transaction, <a href="#linknote-14.86" + name="linknoteref-14.86" id="linknoteref-14.86">86</a> we may discover a + conspiracy fomented by his arts against the authority of his colleague. + Constantine had lately given his sister Anastasia in marriage to + Bassianus, a man of a considerable family and fortune, and had elevated + his new kinsman to the rank of Cæsar. According to the system of + government instituted by Diocletian, Italy, and perhaps Africa, were + designed for his department in the empire. But the performance of the + promised favor was either attended with so much delay, or accompanied with + so many unequal conditions, that the fidelity of Bassianus was alienated + rather than secured by the honorable distinction which he had obtained. + His nomination had been ratified by the consent of Licinius; and that + artful prince, by the means of his emissaries, soon contrived to enter + into a secret and dangerous correspondence with the new Cæsar, to + irritate his discontents, and to urge him to the rash enterprise of + extorting by violence what he might in vain solicit from the justice of + Constantine. But the vigilant emperor discovered the conspiracy before it + was ripe for execution; and after solemnly renouncing the alliance of + Bassianus, despoiled him of the purple, and inflicted the deserved + punishment on his treason and ingratitude. The haughty refusal of + Licinius, when he was required to deliver up the criminals who had taken + refuge in his dominions, confirmed the suspicions already entertained of + his perfidy; and the indignities offered at Æmona, on the frontiers of + Italy, to the statues of Constantine, became the signal of discord between + the two princes. <a href="#linknote-14.87" name="linknoteref-14.87" + id="linknoteref-14.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.86" id="linknote-14.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.86">return</a>)<br/> [ The curious reader, + who consults the Valesian fragment, p. 713, will probably accuse me of + giving a bold and licentious paraphrase; but if he considers it with + attention, he will acknowledge that my interpretation is probable and + consistent.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.87" id="linknote-14.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.87">return</a>)<br/> [ The situation of + Æmona, or, as it is now called, Laybach, in Carniola, (D’Anville, + Geographie Ancienne, tom. i. p. 187,) may suggest a conjecture. As it lay + to the north-east of the Julian Alps, that important territory became a + natural object of dispute between the sovereigns of Italy and of + Illyricum.] + </p> + <p> + The first battle was fought near Cibalis, a city of Pannonia, situated on + the River Save, about fifty miles above Sirmium. <a href="#linknote-14.88" + name="linknoteref-14.88" id="linknoteref-14.88">88</a> From the + inconsiderable forces which in this important contest two such powerful + monarchs brought into the field, it may be inferred that the one was + suddenly provoked, and that the other was unexpectedly surprised. The + emperor of the West had only twenty thousand, and the sovereign of the + East no more than five and thirty thousand, men. The inferiority of number + was, however, compensated by the advantage of the ground. Constantine had + taken post in a defile about half a mile in breadth, between a steep hill + and a deep morass, and in that situation he steadily expected and repulsed + the first attack of the enemy. He pursued his success, and advanced into + the plain. But the veteran legions of Illyricum rallied under the standard + of a leader who had been trained to arms in the school of Probus and + Diocletian. The missile weapons on both sides were soon exhausted; the two + armies, with equal valor, rushed to a closer engagement of swords and + spears, and the doubtful contest had already lasted from the dawn of the + day to a late hour of the evening, when the right wing, which Constantine + led in person, made a vigorous and decisive charge. The judicious retreat + of Licinius saved the remainder of his troops from a total defeat; but + when he computed his loss, which amounted to more than twenty thousand + men, he thought it unsafe to pass the night in the presence of an active + and victorious enemy. Abandoning his camp and magazines, he marched away + with secrecy and diligence at the head of the greatest part of his + cavalry, and was soon removed beyond the danger of a pursuit. His + diligence preserved his wife, his son, and his treasures, which he had + deposited at Sirmium. Licinius passed through that city, and breaking down + the bridge on the Save, hastened to collect a new army in Dacia and + Thrace. In his flight he bestowed the precarious title of Cæsar on + Valens, his general of the Illyrian frontier. <a href="#linknote-14.89" + name="linknoteref-14.89" id="linknoteref-14.89">89</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.88" id="linknote-14.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Cibalis or Cibalæ + (whose name is still preserved in the obscure ruins of Swilei) was + situated about fifty miles from Sirmium, the capital of Illyricum, and + about one hundred from Taurunum, or Belgrade, and the conflux of the + Danube and the Save. The Roman garrisons and cities on those rivers are + finely illustrated by M. d’Anville in a memoir inserted in l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. xxviii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.89" id="linknote-14.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus (l. ii. p. 90, + 91) gives a very particular account of this battle; but the descriptions + of Zosimus are rhetorical rather than military] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap14.4"></a> + Chapter XIV: Six Emperors At The Same Time, Reunion Of The Empire.—Part + IV. + </h2> + <p> + The plain of Mardia in Thrace was the theatre of a second battle no less + obstinate and bloody than the former. The troops on both sides displayed + the same valor and discipline; and the victory was once more decided by + the superior abilities of Constantine, who directed a body of five + thousand men to gain an advantageous height, from whence, during the heat + of the action, they attacked the rear of the enemy, and made a very + considerable slaughter. The troops of Licinius, however, presenting a + double front, still maintained their ground, till the approach of night + put an end to the combat, and secured their retreat towards the mountains + of Macedonia. <a href="#linknote-14.90" name="linknoteref-14.90" + id="linknoteref-14.90">90</a> The loss of two battles, and of his bravest + veterans, reduced the fierce spirit of Licinius to sue for peace. His + ambassador Mistrianus was admitted to the audience of Constantine: he + expatiated on the common topics of moderation and humanity, which are so + familiar to the eloquence of the vanquished; represented in the most + insinuating language, that the event of the war was still doubtful, whilst + its inevitable calamities were alike pernicious to both the contending + parties; and declared that he was authorized to propose a lasting and + honorable peace in the name of the <i>two</i> emperors his masters. Constantine + received the mention of Valens with indignation and contempt. “It was not + for such a purpose,” he sternly replied, “that we have advanced from the + shores of the western ocean in an uninterrupted course of combats and + victories, that, after rejecting an ungrateful kinsman, we should accept + for our colleague a contemptible slave. The abdication of Valens is the + first article of the treaty.” <a href="#linknote-14.91" + name="linknoteref-14.91" id="linknoteref-14.91">91</a> It was necessary to + accept this humiliating condition; and the unhappy Valens, after a reign + of a few days, was deprived of the purple and of his life. As soon as this + obstacle was removed, the tranquillity of the Roman world was easily + restored. The successive defeats of Licinius had ruined his forces, but + they had displayed his courage and abilities. His situation was almost + desperate, but the efforts of despair are sometimes formidable, and the + good sense of Constantine preferred a great and certain advantage to a + third trial of the chance of arms. He consented to leave his rival, or, as + he again styled Licinius, his friend and brother, in the possession of + Thrace, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt; but the provinces of Pannonia, + Dalmatia, Dacia, Macedonia, and Greece, were yielded to the Western + empire, and the dominions of Constantine now extended from the confines of + Caledonia to the extremity of Peloponnesus. It was stipulated by the same + treaty, that three royal youths, the sons of emperors, should be called to + the hopes of the succession. Crispus and the young Constantine were soon + afterwards declared Cæsars in the West, while the younger Licinius was + invested with the same dignity in the East. In this double proportion of + honors, the conqueror asserted the superiority of his arms and power. <a + href="#linknote-14.92" name="linknoteref-14.92" id="linknoteref-14.92">92</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.90" id="linknote-14.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 92, + 93. Anonym. Valesian. p. 713. The Epitomes furnish some circumstances; but + they frequently confound the two wars between Licinius and Constantine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.91" id="linknote-14.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Petrus Patricius in + Excerpt. Legat. p. 27. If it should be thought that signifies more + properly a son-in-law, we might conjecture that Constantine, assuming the + name as well as the duties of a father, had adopted his younger brothers + and sisters, the children of Theodora. But in the best authors sometimes + signifies a husband, sometimes a father-in-law, and sometimes a kinsman in + general. See Spanheim, Observat. ad Julian. Orat. i. p. 72.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.92" id="linknote-14.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. 93. + Anonym. Valesian. p. 713. Eutropius, x. v. Aurelius Victor, Euseb. in + Chron. Sozomen, l. i. c. 2. Four of these writers affirm that the + promotion of the Cæsars was an article of the treaty. It is, however, + certain, that the younger Constantine and Licinius were not yet born; and + it is highly probable that the promotion was made the 1st of March, A. D. + 317. The treaty had probably stipulated that the two Cæsars might be + created by the western, and one only by the eastern emperor; but each of + them reserved to himself the choice of the persons.] + </p> + <p> + The reconciliation of Constantine and Licinius, though it was imbittered + by resentment and jealousy, by the remembrance of recent injuries, and by + the apprehension of future dangers, maintained, however, above eight + years, the tranquility of the Roman world. As a very regular series of the + Imperial laws commences about this period, it would not be difficult to + transcribe the civil regulations which employed the leisure of + Constantine. But the most important of his institutions are intimately + connected with the new system of policy and religion, which was not + perfectly established till the last and peaceful years of his reign. There + are many of his laws, which, as far as they concern the rights and + property of individuals, and the practice of the bar, are more properly + referred to the private than to the public jurisprudence of the empire; + and he published many edicts of so local and temporary a nature, that they + would ill deserve the notice of a general history. Two laws, however, may + be selected from the crowd; the one for its importance, the other for its + singularity; the former for its remarkable benevolence, the latter for its + excessive severity. 1. The horrid practice, so familiar to the ancients, + of exposing or murdering their new-born infants, was become every day more + frequent in the provinces, and especially in Italy. It was the effect of + distress; and the distress was principally occasioned by the intolerant + burden of taxes, and by the vexatious as well as cruel prosecutions of the + officers of the revenue against their insolvent debtors. The less opulent + or less industrious part of mankind, instead of rejoicing in an increase + of family, deemed it an act of paternal tenderness to release their + children from the impending miseries of a life which they themselves were + unable to support. The humanity of Constantine, moved, perhaps, by some + recent and extraordinary instances of despair, engaged him to address an + edict to all the cities of Italy, and afterwards of Africa, directing + immediate and sufficient relief to be given to those parents who should + produce before the magistrates the children whom their own poverty would + not allow them to educate. But the promise was too liberal, and the + provision too vague, to effect any general or permanent benefit. <a + href="#linknote-14.93" name="linknoteref-14.93" id="linknoteref-14.93">93</a> + The law, though it may merit some praise, served rather to display than to + alleviate the public distress. It still remains an authentic monument to + contradict and confound those venal orators, who were too well satisfied + with their own situation to discover either vice or misery under the + government of a generous sovereign. <a href="#linknote-14.94" + name="linknoteref-14.94" id="linknoteref-14.94">94</a> 2. The laws of + Constantine against rapes were dictated with very little indulgence for + the most amiable weaknesses of human nature; since the description of that + crime was applied not only to the brutal violence which compelled, but + even to the gentle seduction which might persuade, an unmarried woman, + under the age of twenty-five, to leave the house of her parents. “The + successful ravisher was punished with death;” and as if simple death was + inadequate to the enormity of his guilt, he was either burnt alive, or + torn in pieces by wild beasts in the amphitheatre. The virgin’s + declaration, that she had been carried away with her own consent, instead + of saving her lover, exposed her to share his fate. The duty of a public + prosecution was intrusted to the parents of the guilty or unfortunate + maid; and if the sentiments of nature prevailed on them to dissemble the + injury, and to repair by a subsequent marriage the honor of their family, + they were themselves punished by exile and confiscation. The slaves, + whether male or female, who were convicted of having been accessory to + rape or seduction, were burnt alive, or put to death by the ingenious + torture of pouring down their throats a quantity of melted lead. As the + crime was of a public kind, the accusation was permitted even to + strangers.<a href="#linknote-14.9401" name="linknoteref-14.9401" + id="linknoteref-14.9401">9401</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.9401" id="linknote-14.9401"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9401 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.9401">return</a>)<br/> [ This explanation + appears to me little probable. Godefroy has made a much more happy + conjecture, supported by all the historical circumstances which relate to + this edict. It was published the 12th of May, A. D. 315. at Naissus in + Pannonia, the birthplace of Constantine. The 8th of October, in that year, + Constantine gained the victory of Cibalis over Licinius. He was yet + uncertain as to the fate of the war: the Christians, no doubt, whom he + favored, had prophesied his victory. Lactantius, then preceptor of + Crispus, had just written his work upon Christianity, (his Divine + Institutes;) he had dedicated it to Constantine. In this book he had + inveighed with great force against infanticide, and the exposure of + infants, (l. vi. c. 20.) Is it not probable that Constantine had read this + work, that he had conversed on the subject with Lactantius, that he was + moved, among other things, by the passage to which I have referred, and in + the first transport of his enthusiasm, he published the edict in question? + The whole of the edict bears the character of precipitation, of + excitement, (entrainement,) rather than of deliberate reflection—the + extent of the promises, the indefiniteness of the means, of the + conditions, and of the time during which the parents might have a right to + the succor of the state. Is there not reason to believe that the humanity + of Constantine was excited by the influence of Lactantius, by that of the + principles of Christianity, and of the Christians themselves, already in + high esteem with the emperor, rather than by some “extraordinary instances + of despair”? * * * See Hegewisch, Essai Hist. sur les Finances Romaines. + The edict for Africa was not published till 322: of that we may say in + truth that its origin was in the misery of the times. Africa had suffered + much from the cruelty of Maxentius. Constantine says expressly, that he + had learned that parents, under the pressure of distress, were there + selling their children. This decree is more distinct, more maturely + deliberated than the former; the succor which was to be given to the + parents, and the source from which it was to be derived, are determined. + (Code Theod. l. xi. tit. 27, c 2.) If the direct utility of these laws may + not have been very extensive, they had at least the great and happy effect + of establishing a decisive opposition between the principles of the + government and those which, at this time, had prevailed among the subjects + of the empire.—G.] + </p> + <p> + The commencement of the action was not limited to any term of years, and + the consequences of the sentence were extended to the innocent offspring + of such an irregular union. <a href="#linknote-14.95" + name="linknoteref-14.95" id="linknoteref-14.95">95</a> But whenever the + offence inspires less horror than the punishment, the rigor of penal law + is obliged to give way to the common feelings of mankind. The most odious + parts of this edict were softened or repealed in the subsequent reigns; <a + href="#linknote-14.96" name="linknoteref-14.96" id="linknoteref-14.96">96</a> + and even Constantine himself very frequently alleviated, by partial acts + of mercy, the stern temper of his general institutions. Such, indeed, was + the singular humor of that emperor, who showed himself as indulgent, and + even remiss, in the execution of his laws, as he was severe, and even + cruel, in the enacting of them. It is scarcely possible to observe a more + decisive symptom of weakness, either in the character of the prince, or in + the constitution of the government. <a href="#linknote-14.97" + name="linknoteref-14.97" id="linknoteref-14.97">97</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.93" id="linknote-14.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.93">return</a>)<br/> [ Codex Theodosian. l. + xi. tit. 27, tom. iv. p. 188, with Godefroy’s observations. See likewise + l. v. tit. 7, 8.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.94" id="linknote-14.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.94">return</a>)<br/> [ Omnia foris placita, + domi prospera, annonæ ubertate, fructuum copia, &c. Panegyr. Vet. x. + 38. This oration of Nazarius was pronounced on the day of the + Quinquennalia of the Cæsars, the 1st of March, A. D. 321.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.95" id="linknote-14.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.95">return</a>)<br/> [ See the edict of + Constantine, addressed to the Roman people, in the Theodosian Code, l. ix. + tit. 24, tom. iii. p. 189.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.96" id="linknote-14.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.96">return</a>)<br/> [ His son very fairly + assigns the true reason of the repeal: “Na sub specie atrocioris judicii + aliqua in ulciscendo crimine dilatio næ ceretur.” Cod. Theod. tom. iii. + p. 193] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.97" id="linknote-14.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius (in Vita + Constant. l. iii. c. 1) chooses to affirm, that in the reign of this hero, + the sword of justice hung idle in the hands of the magistrates. Eusebius + himself, (l. iv. c. 29, 54,) and the Theodosian Code, will inform us that + this excessive lenity was not owing to the want either of atrocious + criminals or of penal laws.] + </p> + <p> + The civil administration was sometimes interrupted by the military defence + of the empire. Crispus, a youth of the most amiable character, who had + received with the title of Cæsar the command of the Rhine, distinguished + his conduct, as well as valor, in several victories over the Franks and + Alemanni, and taught the barbarians of that frontier to dread the eldest + son of Constantine, and the grandson of Constantius. <a + href="#linknote-14.98" name="linknoteref-14.98" id="linknoteref-14.98">98</a> + The emperor himself had assumed the more difficult and important province + of the Danube. The Goths, who in the time of Claudius and Aurelian had + felt the weight of the Roman arms, respected the power of the empire, even + in the midst of its intestine divisions. But the strength of that warlike + nation was now restored by a peace of near fifty years; a new generation + had arisen, who no longer remembered the misfortunes of ancient days; the + Sarmatians of the Lake Mæotis followed the Gothic standard either as + subjects or as allies, and their united force was poured upon the + countries of Illyricum. Campona, Margus, and Benonia, <a + href="#linknote-14.982" name="linknoteref-14.982" id="linknoteref-14.982">982</a> + appear to have been the scenes of several memorable sieges and battles; <a + href="#linknote-14.99" name="linknoteref-14.99" id="linknoteref-14.99">99</a> + and though Constantine encountered a very obstinate resistance, he + prevailed at length in the contest, and the Goths were compelled to + purchased an ignominious retreat, by restoring the booty and prisoners + which they had taken. Nor was this advantage sufficient to satisfy the + indignation of the emperor. He resolved to chastise as well as to repulse + the insolent barbarians who had dared to invade the territories of Rome. + At the head of his legions he passed the Danube, after repairing the bridge + which had been constructed by Trajan, penetrated into the strongest + recesses of Dacia, <a href="#linknote-14.100" name="linknoteref-14.100" + id="linknoteref-14.100">100</a> and when he had inflicted a severe + revenge, condescended to give peace to the suppliant Goths, on condition + that, as often as they were required, they should supply his armies with a + body of forty thousand soldiers. <a href="#linknote-14.101" + name="linknoteref-14.101" id="linknoteref-14.101">101</a> Exploits like + these were no doubt honorable to Constantine, and beneficial to the state; + but it may surely be questioned, whether they can justify the exaggerated + assertion of Eusebius, that <small>ALL</small> S<small>CYTHIA</small>, as far as the extremity of the + North, divided as it was into so many names and nations of the most + various and savage manners, had been added by his victorious arms to the + Roman empire. <a href="#linknote-14.102" name="linknoteref-14.102" + id="linknoteref-14.102">102</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.98" id="linknote-14.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Nazarius in Panegyr. + Vet. x. The victory of Crispus over the Alemanni is expressed on some + medals. * Note: Other medals are extant, the legends of which commemorate + the success of Constantine over the Sarmatians and other barbarous + nations, Sarmatia Devicta. Victoria Gothica. Debellatori Gentium + Barbarorum. Exuperator Omnium Gentium. St. Martin, note on Le Beau, i. + 148.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.982" id="linknote-14.982"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 982 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.982">return</a>)<br/> [ Campona, Old Buda in + Hungary; Margus, Benonia, Widdin, in Mæsia—G and M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.99" id="linknote-14.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.99">return</a>)<br/> [ See Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 93, 94; though the narrative of that historian is neither clear nor + consistent. The Panegyric of Optatianus (c. 23) mentions the alliance of + the Sarmatians with the Carpi and Getæ, and points out the several fields + of battle. It is supposed that the Sarmatian games, celebrated in the + month of November, derived their origin from the success of this war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.100" id="linknote-14.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.100">return</a>)<br/> [ In the Cæsars of + Julian, (p. 329. Commentaire de Spanheim, p. 252.) Constantine boasts, + that he had recovered the province (Dacia) which Trajan had subdued. But + it is insinuated by Silenus, that the conquests of Constantine were like + the gardens of Adonis, which fade and wither almost the moment they + appear.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.101" id="linknote-14.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.101">return</a>)<br/> [ Jornandes de Rebus + Geticis, c. 21. I know not whether we may entirely depend on his + authority. Such an alliance has a very recent air, and scarcely is suited + to the maxims of the beginning of the fourth century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.102" id="linknote-14.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.102">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius in Vit. + Constantin. l. i. c. 8. This passage, however, is taken from a general + declamation on the greatness of Constantine, and not from any particular + account of the Gothic war.] + </p> + <p> + In this exalted state of glory, it was impossible that Constantine should + any longer endure a partner in the empire. Confiding in the superiority of + his genius and military power, he determined, without any previous injury, + to exert them for the destruction of Licinius, whose advanced age and + unpopular vices seemed to offer a very easy conquest. <a + href="#linknote-14.103" name="linknoteref-14.103" id="linknoteref-14.103">103</a> + But the old emperor, awakened by the approaching danger, deceived the + expectations of his friends, as well as of his enemies. Calling forth that + spirit and those abilities by which he had deserved the friendship of + Galerius and the Imperial purple, he prepared himself for the contest, + collected the forces of the East, and soon filled the plains of + Hadrianople with his troops, and the straits of the Hellespont with his + fleet. The army consisted of one hundred and fifty thousand foot, and + fifteen thousand horse; and as the cavalry was drawn, for the most part, + from Phrygia and Cappadocia, we may conceive a more favorable opinion of + the beauty of the horses, than of the courage and dexterity of their + riders. The fleet was composed of three hundred and fifty galleys of three + ranks of oars. A hundred and thirty of these were furnished by Egypt and + the adjacent coast of Africa. A hundred and ten sailed from the ports of + Phœnicia and the isle of Cyprus; and the maritime countries of Bithynia, + Ionia, and Caria were likewise obliged to provide a hundred and ten + galleys. The troops of Constantine were ordered to a rendezvous at + Thessalonica; they amounted to above a hundred and twenty thousand horse + and foot. <a href="#linknote-14.104" name="linknoteref-14.104" + id="linknoteref-14.104">104</a> Their emperor was satisfied with their + martial appearance, and his army contained more soldiers, though fewer + men, than that of his eastern competitor. The legions of Constantine were + levied in the warlike provinces of Europe; action had confirmed their + discipline, victory had elevated their hopes, and there were among them a + great number of veterans, who, after seventeen glorious campaigns under + the same leader, prepared themselves to deserve an honorable dismission by + a last effort of their valor. <a href="#linknote-14.105" + name="linknoteref-14.105" id="linknoteref-14.105">105</a> But the naval + preparations of Constantine were in every respect much inferior to those + of Licinius. The maritime cities of Greece sent their respective quotas of + men and ships to the celebrated harbor of Piræus, and their united forces + consisted of no more than two hundred small vessels—a very feeble + armament, if it is compared with those formidable fleets which were + equipped and maintained by the republic of Athens during the Peloponnesian + war. <a href="#linknote-14.106" name="linknoteref-14.106" + id="linknoteref-14.106">106</a> Since Italy was no longer the seat of + government, the naval establishments of Misenum and Ravenna had been + gradually neglected; and as the shipping and mariners of the empire were + supported by commerce rather than by war, it was natural that they should + the most abound in the industrious provinces of Egypt and Asia. It is only + surprising that the eastern emperor, who possessed so great a superiority + at sea, should have neglected the opportunity of carrying an offensive war + into the centre of his rival’s dominions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.103" id="linknote-14.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.103">return</a>)<br/> [ Constantinus tamen, + vir ingens, et omnia efficere nitens quæ animo præparasset, simul + principatum totius urbis affectans, Licinio bellum intulit. Eutropius, x. + 5. Zosimus, l. ii. p 89. The reasons which they have assigned for the + first civil war, may, with more propriety, be applied to the second.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.104" id="linknote-14.104"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 104 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.104">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 94, 95.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.105" id="linknote-14.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.105">return</a>)<br/> [ Constantine was very + attentive to the privileges and comforts of his fellow-veterans, + (Conveterani,) as he now began to style them. See the Theodosian Code, l. + vii. tit. 10, tom. ii. p. 419, 429.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.106" id="linknote-14.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.106">return</a>)<br/> [ Whilst the Athenians + maintained the empire of the sea, their fleet consisted of three, and + afterwards of four, hundred galleys of three ranks of oars, all completely + equipped and ready for immediate service. The arsenal in the port of + Piræus had cost the republic a thousand talents, about two hundred and + sixteen thousand pounds. See Thucydides de Bel. Pelopon. l. ii. c. 13, and + Meursius de Fortuna Attica, c. 19.] + </p> + <p> + Instead of embracing such an active resolution, which might have changed + the whole face of the war, the prudent Licinius expected the approach of + his rival in a camp near Hadrianople, which he had fortified with an + anxious care that betrayed his apprehension of the event. Constantine + directed his march from Thessalonica towards that part of Thrace, till he + found himself stopped by the broad and rapid stream of the Hebrus, and + discovered the numerous army of Licinius, which filled the steep ascent of + the hill, from the river to the city of Hadrianople. Many days were spent + in doubtful and distant skirmishes; but at length the obstacles of the + passage and of the attack were removed by the intrepid conduct of + Constantine. In this place we might relate a wonderful exploit of + Constantine, which, though it can scarcely be paralleled either in poetry + or romance, is celebrated, not by a venal orator devoted to his fortune, + but by an historian, the partial enemy of his fame. We are assured that + the valiant emperor threw himself into the River Hebrus, accompanied only + by <i>twelve</i> horsemen, and that by the effort or terror of his invincible + arm, he broke, slaughtered, and put to flight a host of a hundred and + fifty thousand men. The credulity of Zosimus prevailed so strongly over + his passion, that among the events of the memorable battle of Hadrianople, + he seems to have selected and embellished, not the most important, but the + most marvellous. The valor and danger of Constantine are attested by a + slight wound which he received in the thigh; but it may be discovered even + from an imperfect narration, and perhaps a corrupted text, that the + victory was obtained no less by the conduct of the general than by the + courage of the hero; that a body of five thousand archers marched round to + occupy a thick wood in the rear of the enemy, whose attention was diverted + by the construction of a bridge, and that Licinius, perplexed by so many + artful evolutions, was reluctantly drawn from his advantageous post to + combat on equal ground on the plain. The contest was no longer equal. His + confused multitude of new levies was easily vanquished by the experienced + veterans of the West. Thirty-four thousand men are reported to have been + slain. The fortified camp of Licinius was taken by assault the evening of + the battle; the greater part of the fugitives, who had retired to the + mountains, surrendered themselves the next day to the discretion of the + conqueror; and his rival, who could no longer keep the field, confined + himself within the walls of Byzantium. <a href="#linknote-14.107" + name="linknoteref-14.107" id="linknoteref-14.107">107</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.107" id="linknote-14.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.107">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 95, 96. This great battle is described in the Valesian fragment, (p. 714,) + in a clear though concise manner. “Licinius vero circum Hadrianopolin + maximo exercitu latera ardui montis impleverat; illuc toto agmine + Constantinus inflexit. Cum bellum terra marique traheretur, quamvis per + arduum suis nitentibus, attamen disciplina militari et felicitate, + Constantinus Licinu confusum et sine ordine agentem vicit exercitum; + leviter femore sau ciatus.”] + </p> + <p> + The siege of Byzantium, which was immediately undertaken by Constantine, + was attended with great labor and uncertainty. In the late civil wars, the + fortifications of that place, so justly considered as the key of Europe + and Asia, had been repaired and strengthened; and as long as Licinius + remained master of the sea, the garrison was much less exposed to the + danger of famine than the army of the besiegers. The naval commanders of + Constantine were summoned to his camp, and received his positive orders to + force the passage of the Hellespont, as the fleet of Licinius, instead of + seeking and destroying their feeble enemy, continued inactive in those + narrow straits, where its superiority of numbers was of little use or + advantage. Crispus, the emperor’s eldest son, was intrusted with the + execution of this daring enterprise, which he performed with so much + courage and success, that he deserved the esteem, and most probably + excited the jealousy, of his father. The engagement lasted two days; and + in the evening of the first, the contending fleets, after a considerable + and mutual loss, retired into their respective harbors of Europe and Asia. + The second day, about noon, a strong south wind <a href="#linknote-14.108" + name="linknoteref-14.108" id="linknoteref-14.108">108</a> sprang up, which + carried the vessels of Crispus against the enemy; and as the casual + advantage was improved by his skilful intrepidity, he soon obtained a + complete victory. A hundred and thirty vessels were destroyed, five + thousand men were slain, and Amandus, the admiral of the Asiatic fleet, + escaped with the utmost difficulty to the shores of Chalcedon. As soon as + the Hellespont was open, a plentiful convoy of provisions flowed into the + camp of Constantine, who had already advanced the operations of the siege. + He constructed artificial mounds of earth of an equal height with the + ramparts of Byzantium. The lofty towers which were erected on that + foundation galled the besieged with large stones and darts from the + military engines, and the battering rams had shaken the walls in several + places. If Licinius persisted much longer in the defence, he exposed + himself to be involved in the ruin of the place. Before he was surrounded, + he prudently removed his person and treasures to Chalcedon in Asia; and as + he was always desirous of associating companions to the hopes and dangers + of his fortune, he now bestowed the title of Cæsar on Martinianus, who + exercised one of the most important offices of the empire. <a + href="#linknote-14.109" name="linknoteref-14.109" id="linknoteref-14.109">109</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.108" id="linknote-14.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 97, 98. The current always sets out of the Hellespont; and when it is + assisted by a north wind, no vessel can attempt the passage. A south wind + renders the force of the current almost imperceptible. See Tournefort’s + Voyage au Levant, Let. xi.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.109" id="linknote-14.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.109">return</a>)<br/> [ Aurelius Victor. + Zosimus, l. ii. p. 93. According to the latter, Martinianus was Magister + Officiorum, (he uses the Latin appellation in Greek.) Some medals seem to + intimate, that during his short reign he received the title of Augustus.] + </p> + <p> + Such were still the resources, and such the abilities, of Licinius, that, + after so many successive defeats, he collected in Bithynia a new army of + fifty or sixty thousand men, while the activity of Constantine was + employed in the siege of Byzantium. The vigilant emperor did not, however, + neglect the last struggles of his antagonist. A considerable part of his + victorious army was transported over the Bosphorus in small vessels, and + the decisive engagement was fought soon after their landing on the heights + of Chrysopolis, or, as it is now called, of Scutari. The troops of + Licinius, though they were lately raised, ill armed, and worse + disciplined, made head against their conquerors with fruitless but + desperate valor, till a total defeat, and a slaughter of five and twenty + thousand men, irretrievably determined the fate of their leader. <a + href="#linknote-14.110" name="linknoteref-14.110" id="linknoteref-14.110">110</a> + He retired to Nicomedia, rather with the view of gaining some time for + negotiation, than with the hope of any effectual defence. Constantia, his + wife, and the sister of Constantine, interceded with her brother in favor + of her husband, and obtained from his policy, rather than from his + compassion, a solemn promise, confirmed by an oath, that after the + sacrifice of Martinianus, and the resignation of the purple, Licinius + himself should be permitted to pass the remainder of this life in peace + and affluence. The behavior of Constantia, and her relation to the + contending parties, naturally recalls the remembrance of that virtuous + matron who was the sister of Augustus, and the wife of Antony. But the + temper of mankind was altered, and it was no longer esteemed infamous for + a Roman to survive his honor and independence. Licinius solicited and + accepted the pardon of his offences, laid himself and his purple at the + feet of his <i>lord</i> and <i>master</i>, was raised from the ground with insulting + pity, was admitted the same day to the Imperial banquet, and soon + afterwards was sent away to Thessalonica, which had been chosen for the + place of his confinement. <a href="#linknote-14.111" + name="linknoteref-14.111" id="linknoteref-14.111">111</a> His confinement + was soon terminated by death, and it is doubtful whether a tumult of the + soldiers, or a decree of the senate, was suggested as the motive for his + execution. According to the rules of tyranny, he was accused of forming a + conspiracy, and of holding a treasonable correspondence with the + barbarians; but as he was never convicted, either by his own conduct or by + any legal evidence, we may perhaps be allowed, from his weakness, to + presume his innocence. <a href="#linknote-14.112" name="linknoteref-14.112" + id="linknoteref-14.112">112</a> The memory of Licinius was branded with + infamy, his statues were thrown down, and by a hasty edict, of such + mischievous tendency that it was almost immediately corrected, all his + laws, and all the judicial proceedings of his reign, were at once + abolished. <a href="#linknote-14.113" name="linknoteref-14.113" + id="linknoteref-14.113">113</a> By this victory of Constantine, the Roman + world was again united under the authority of one emperor, thirty-seven + years after Diocletian had divided his power and provinces with his + associate Maximian. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.110" id="linknote-14.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.110">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius (in Vita + Constantin. I. ii. c. 16, 17) ascribes this decisive victory to the pious + prayers of the emperor. The Valesian fragment (p. 714) mentions a body of + Gothic auxiliaries, under their chief Aliquaca, who adhered to the party + of Licinius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.111" id="linknote-14.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.111">return</a>)<br/> [ Zosimus, l. ii. p. + 102. Victor Junior in Epitome. Anonym. Valesian. p. 714.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.112" id="linknote-14.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.112">return</a>)<br/> [ Contra religionem + sacramenti Thessalonicæ privatus occisus est. Eutropius, x. 6; and his + evidence is confirmed by Jerome (in Chronic.) as well as by Zosimus, l. + ii. p. 102. The Valesian writer is the only one who mentions the soldiers, + and it is Zonaras alone who calls in the assistance of the senate. + Eusebius prudently slides over this delicate transaction. But Sozomen, a + century afterwards, ventures to assert the treasonable practices of + Licinius.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-14.113" id="linknote-14.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-14.113">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Theodosian + Code, l. xv. tit. 15, tom. v. p 404, 405. These edicts of Constantine + betray a degree of passion and precipitation very unbecoming the character + of a lawgiver.] + </p> + <p> + The successive steps of the elevation of Constantine, from his first + assuming the purple at York, to the resignation of Licinius, at Nicomedia, + have been related with some minuteness and precision, not only as the + events are in themselves both interesting and important, but still more, + as they contributed to the decline of the empire by the expense of blood + and treasure, and by the perpetual increase, as well of the taxes, as of + the military establishment. The foundation of Constantinople, and the + establishment of the Christian religion, were the immediate and memorable + consequences of this revolution. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.1"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part I. + </h2> +<p class="letter"> +The Progress Of The Christian Religion, And The Sentiments, Manners, Numbers, +And Condition Of The Primitive +Christians.<a href="#linknote-15.101" name="linknoteref-15.101" id="linknoteref-15.101">101</a> +</p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.101" id="linknote-15.101"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.101">return</a>)<br/> [ In spite of my + resolution, Lardner led me to look through the famous fifteenth and + sixteenth chapters of Gibbon. I could not lay them down without finishing + them. The causes assigned, in the fifteenth chapter, for the diffusion of + Christianity, must, no doubt, have contributed to it materially; but I + doubt whether he saw them all. Perhaps those which he enumerates are among + the most obvious. They might all be safely adopted by a Christian writer, + with some change in the language and manner. Mackintosh see Life, i. p. + 244.—M.] + </p> + <p> + A candid but rational inquiry into the progress and establishment of + Christianity may be considered as a very essential part of the history of + the Roman empire. While that great body was invaded by open violence, or + undermined by slow decay, a pure and humble religion gently insinuated + itself into the minds of men, grew up in silence and obscurity, derived + new vigor from opposition, and finally erected the triumphant banner of + the Cross on the ruins of the Capitol. Nor was the influence of + Christianity confined to the period or to the limits of the Roman empire. + After a revolution of thirteen or fourteen centuries, that religion is + still professed by the nations of Europe, the most distinguished portion + of human kind in arts and learning as well as in arms. By the industry and + zeal of the Europeans, it has been widely diffused to the most distant + shores of Asia and Africa; and by the means of their colonies has been + firmly established from Canada to Chili, in a world unknown to the + ancients. + </p> + <p> + But this inquiry, however useful or entertaining, is attended with two + peculiar difficulties. The scanty and suspicious materials of + ecclesiastical history seldom enable us to dispel the dark cloud that + hangs over the first age of the church. The great law of impartiality too + often obliges us to reveal the imperfections of the uninspired teachers + and believers of the gospel; and, to a careless observer, <i>their</i> faults may + seem to cast a shade on the faith which they professed. But the scandal of + the pious Christian, and the fallacious triumph of the Infidel, should + cease as soon as they recollect not only <i>by whom</i>, but likewise <i>to whom</i>, + the Divine Revelation was given. The theologian may indulge the pleasing + task of describing Religion as she descended from Heaven, arrayed in her + native purity. A more melancholy duty is imposed on the historian. He must + discover the inevitable mixture of error and corruption, which she + contracted in a long residence upon earth, among a weak and degenerate + race of beings. <a href="#linknote-15.102" name="linknoteref-15.102" + id="linknoteref-15.102">102</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.102" id="linknote-15.102"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.102">return</a>)<br/> [ The art of Gibbon, + or at least the unfair impression produced by these two memorable + chapters, consists in confounding together, in one undistinguishable mass, + the origin and apostolic propagation of the Christian religion with its + later progress. The main question, the divine origin of the religion, is + dexterously eluded or speciously conceded; his plan enables him to + commence his account, in most parts, below the apostolic times; and it is + only by the strength of the dark coloring with which he has brought out + the failings and the follies of succeeding ages, that a shadow of doubt + and suspicion is thrown back on the primitive period of Christianity. + Divest this whole passage of the latent sarcasm betrayed by the subsequent + one of the whole disquisition, and it might commence a Christian history, + written in the most Christian spirit of candor.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Our curiosity is naturally prompted to inquire by what means the Christian + faith obtained so remarkable a victory over the established religions of + the earth. To this inquiry, an obvious but satisfactory answer may be + returned; that it was owing to the convincing evidence of the doctrine + itself, and to the ruling providence of its great Author. But as truth and + reason seldom find so favorable a reception in the world, and as the + wisdom of Providence frequently condescends to use the passions of the + human heart, and the general circumstances of mankind, as instruments to + execute its purpose, we may still be permitted, though with becoming + submission, to ask, not indeed what were the first, but what were the + secondary causes of the rapid growth of the Christian church. It will, + perhaps, appear, that it was most effectually favored and assisted by the + five following causes: + </p> + <p> + I. The inflexible, and if we may use the expression, the intolerant zeal + of the Christians, derived, it is true, from the Jewish religion, but + purified from the narrow and unsocial spirit, which, instead of inviting, + had deterred the Gentiles from embracing the law of Moses.<a + href="#linknote-15.1023" name="linknoteref-15.1023" + id="linknoteref-15.1023">1023</a> + </p> + <p> + II. The doctrine of a future life, improved by every additional + circumstance which could give weight and efficacy to that important truth. + III. The miraculous powers ascribed to the primitive church. IV. The pure + and austere morals of the Christians. + </p> + <p> + V. The union and discipline of the Christian republic, which gradually + formed an independent and increasing state in the heart of the Roman + empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1023" id="linknote-15.1023"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1023 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1023">return</a>)<br/> [Though we are thus + far agreed with respect to the inflexibility and intolerance of Christian + zeal, yet as to the principle from which it was derived, we are, toto + cœlo, divided in opinion. You deduce it from the Jewish religion; I would + refer it to a more adequate and a more obvious source, a full persuasion + of the truth of Christianity. Watson. Letters Gibbon, i. 9.—M.] + </p> + <p> + I. We have already described the religious harmony of the ancient world, + and the facility with which the most different and even hostile nations + embraced, or at least respected, each other’s superstitions. A single + people refused to join in the common intercourse of mankind. The Jews, + who, under the Assyrian and Persian monarchies, had languished for many + ages the most despised portion of their slaves, <a href="#linknote-15.1" + name="linknoteref-15.1" id="linknoteref-15.1">1</a> emerged from obscurity + under the successors of Alexander; and as they multiplied to a surprising + degree in the East, and afterwards in the West, they soon excited the + curiosity and wonder of other nations. <a href="#linknote-15.2" + name="linknoteref-15.2" id="linknoteref-15.2">2</a> The sullen obstinacy + with which they maintained their peculiar rites and unsocial manners + seemed to mark them out as a distinct species of men, who boldly + professed, or who faintly disguised, their implacable habits to the rest + of human kind. <a href="#linknote-15.3" name="linknoteref-15.3" + id="linknoteref-15.3">3</a> Neither the violence of Antiochus, nor the + arts of Herod, nor the example of the circumjacent nations, could ever + persuade the Jews to associate with the institutions of Moses the elegant + mythology of the Greeks. <a href="#linknote-15.4" name="linknoteref-15.4" + id="linknoteref-15.4">4</a> According to the maxims of universal + toleration, the Romans protected a superstition which they despised. <a + href="#linknote-15.5" name="linknoteref-15.5" id="linknoteref-15.5">5</a> + The polite Augustus condescended to give orders, that sacrifices should be + offered for his prosperity in the temple of Jerusalem; <a + href="#linknote-15.6" name="linknoteref-15.6" id="linknoteref-15.6">6</a> + whilst the meanest of the posterity of Abraham, who should have paid the + same homage to the Jupiter of the Capitol, would have been an object of + abhorrence to himself and to his brethren. + </p> + <p> + But the moderation of the conquerors was insufficient to appease the + jealous prejudices of their subjects, who were alarmed and scandalized at + the ensigns of paganism, which necessarily introduced themselves into a + Roman province. <a href="#linknote-15.7" name="linknoteref-15.7" + id="linknoteref-15.7">7</a> The mad attempt of Caligula to place his own + statue in the temple of Jerusalem was defeated by the unanimous resolution + of a people who dreaded death much less than such an idolatrous + profanation. <a href="#linknote-15.8" name="linknoteref-15.8" + id="linknoteref-15.8">8</a> Their attachment to the law of Moses was equal + to their detestation of foreign religions. The current of zeal and + devotion, as it was contracted into a narrow channel, ran with the + strength, and sometimes with the fury, of a torrent. This facility has not + always prevented intolerance, which seems inherent in the religious + spirit, when armed with authority. The separation of the ecclesiastical + and civil power, appears to be the only means of at once maintaining + religion and tolerance: but this is a very modern notion. The passions, + which mingle themselves with opinions, made the Pagans very often + intolerant and persecutors; witness the Persians, the Egyptians even the + Greeks and Romans. + </p> + <p> + 1st. The Persians.—Cambyses, conqueror of the Egyptians, condemned + to death the magistrates of Memphis, because they had offered divine + honors to their god. Apis: he caused the god to be brought before him, + struck him with his dagger, commanded the priests to be scourged, and + ordered a general massacre of all the Egyptians who should be found + celebrating the festival of the statues of the gods to be burnt. Not + content with this intolerance, he sent an army to reduce the Ammonians to + slavery, and to set on fire the temple in which Jupiter delivered his + oracles. See Herod. iii. 25—29, 37. Xerxes, during his invasion of + Greece, acted on the same principles: l c destroyed all the temples of + Greece and Ionia, except that of Ephesus. See Paus. l. vii. p. 533, and x. + p. 887. + </p> + <p> + Strabo, l. xiv. b. 941. 2d. The Egyptians.—They thought themselves + defiled when they had drunk from the same cup or eaten at the same table + with a man of a different belief from their own. “He who has voluntarily + killed any sacred animal is punished with death; but if any one, even + involuntarily, has killed a cat or an ibis, he cannot escape the extreme + penalty: the people drag him away, treat him in the most cruel manner, + sometimes without waiting for a judicial sentence. * * * Even at the time + when King Ptolemy was not yet the acknowledged friend of the Roman people, + while the multitude were paying court with all possible attention to the + strangers who came from Italy * * a Roman having killed a cat, the people + rushed to his house, and neither the entreaties of the nobles, whom the + king sent to them, nor the terror of the Roman name, were sufficiently + powerful to rescue the man from punishment, though he had committed the + crime involuntarily.” Diod. Sic. i 83. Juvenal, in his 13th Satire, + describes the sanguinary conflict between the inhabitants of Ombos and of + Tentyra, from religious animosity. The fury was carried so far, that the + conquerors tore and devoured the quivering limbs of the conquered. + </p> + <p> + Ardet adhuc Ombos et Tentyra, summus utrinque Inde furor vulgo, quod + numina vicinorum Odit uterque locus; quum solos credat habendos Esse Deos + quos ipse colit. Sat. xv. v. 85. + </p> + <p> + 3d. The Greeks.—“Let us not here,” says the Abbé Guénée, “refer to + the cities of Peloponnesus and their severity against atheism; the + Ephesians prosecuting Heraclitus for impiety; the Greeks armed one against + the other by religious zeal, in the Amphictyonic war. Let us say nothing + either of the frightful cruelties inflicted by three successors of + Alexander upon the Jews, to force them to abandon their religion, nor of + Antiochus expelling the philosophers from his states. Let us not seek our + proofs of intolerance so far off. Athens, the polite and learned Athens, + will supply us with sufficient examples. Every citizen made a public and + solemn vow to conform to the religion of his country, to defend it, and to + cause it to be respected. An express law severely punished all discourses + against the gods, and a rigid decree ordered the denunciation of all who + should deny their existence. * * * The practice was in unison with the + severity of the law. The proceedings commenced against Protagoras; a price + set upon the head of Diagoras; the danger of Alcibiades; Aristotle obliged + to fly; Stilpo banished; Anaxagoras hardly escaping death; Pericles + himself, after all his services to his country, and all the glory he had + acquired, compelled to appear before the tribunals and make his defence; * + * a priestess executed for having introduced strange gods; Socrates + condemned and drinking the hemlock, because he was accused of not + recognizing those of his country, &c.; these facts attest too loudly, + to be called in question, the religious intolerance of the most humane and + enlightened people in Greece.” Lettres de quelques Juifs a Mons. Voltaire, + i. p. 221. (Compare Bentley on Freethinking, from which much of this is + derived.)—M. + </p> + <p> + 4th. The Romans.—The laws of Rome were not less express and severe. + The intolerance of foreign religions reaches, with the Romans, as high as + the laws of the twelve tables; the prohibitions were afterwards renewed at + different times. Intolerance did not discontinue under the emperors; + witness the counsel of Mæcenas to Augustus. This counsel is so + remarkable, that I think it right to insert it entire. “Honor the gods + yourself,” says Mæcenas to Augustus, “in every way according to the usage + of your ancestors, and compel others to worship them. Hate and punish + those who introduce strange gods, not only for the sake of the gods, (he + who despises them will respect no one,) but because those who introduce + new gods engage a multitude of persons in foreign laws and customs. From + hence arise unions bound by oaths and confederacies, and associations, + things dangerous to a monarchy.” Dion Cass. l. ii. c. 36. (But, though + some may differ from it, see Gibbon’s just observation on this passage in + Dion Cassius, ch. xvi. note 117; impugned, indeed, by M. Guizot, note in + loc.)—M. + </p> + <p> + Even the laws which the philosophers of Athens and of Rome wrote for their + imaginary republics are intolerant. Plato does not leave to his citizens + freedom of religious worship; and Cicero expressly prohibits them from + having other gods than those of the state. Lettres de quelques Juifs a + Mons. Voltaire, i. p. 226.—G. + </p> + <p> + According to M. Guizot’s just remarks, religious intolerance will always + ally itself with the passions of man, however different those passions may + be. In the instances quoted above, with the Persians it was the pride of + despotism; to conquer the gods of a country was the last mark of + subjugation. With the Egyptians, it was the gross Fetichism of the + superstitious populace, and the local jealousy of neighboring towns. In + Greece, persecution was in general connected with political party; in + Rome, with the stern supremacy of the law and the interests of the state. + Gibbon has been mistaken in attributing to the tolerant spirit of Paganism + that which arose out of the peculiar circumstances of the times. 1st. The + decay of the old Polytheism, through the progress of reason and + intelligence, and the prevalence of philosophical opinions among the + higher orders. + </p> + <p> + 2d. The Roman character, in which the political always predominated over + the religious party. The Romans were contented with having bowed the world + to a uniformity of subjection to their power, and cared not for + establishing the (to them) less important uniformity of religion.—M. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1" id="linknote-15.1"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1">return</a>)<br/> [ Dum Assyrios penes, + Medosque, et Persas Oriens fuit, despectissima pars servientium. Tacit. + Hist. v. 8. Herodotus, who visited Asia whilst it obeyed the last of those + empires, slightly mentions the Syrians of Palestine, who, according to + their own confession, had received from Egypt the rite of circumcision. + See l. ii. c. 104.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.2" id="linknote-15.2"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 2 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.2">return</a>)<br/> [ Diodorus Siculus, l. xl. + Dion Cassius, l. xxxvii. p. 121. Tacit Hist. v. 1—9. Justin xxxvi. + 2, 3.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.3" id="linknote-15.3"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 3 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.3">return</a>)<br/> [ Tradidit arcano + quæcunque volumine Moses, Non monstrare vias cadem nisi sacra colenti, + Quæsitum ad fontem solos deducere verpas. The letter of this law is not + to be found in the present volume of Moses. But the wise, the humane + Maimonides openly teaches that if an idolater fall into the water, a Jew + ought not to save him from instant death. See Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, + l. vi. c. 28. * Note: It is diametrically opposed to its spirit and to its + letter, see, among other passages, Deut. v. 18. 19, (God) “loveth the + stranger in giving him food and raiment. Love ye, therefore, the stranger: + for ye were strangers in the land of Egypt.” Comp. Lev. xxiii. 25. Juvenal + is a satirist, whose strong expressions can hardly be received as historic + evidence; and he wrote after the horrible cruelties of the Romans, which, + during and after the war, might give some cause for the complete isolation + of the Jew from the rest of the world. The Jew was a bigot, but his + religion was not the only source of his bigotry. After how many centuries + of mutual wrong and hatred, which had still further estranged the Jew from + mankind, did Maimonides write?—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.4" id="linknote-15.4"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 4 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.4">return</a>)<br/> [ A Jewish sect, which + indulged themselves in a sort of occasional conformity, derived from + Herod, by whose example and authority they had been seduced, the name of + Herodians. But their numbers were so inconsiderable, and their duration so + short, that Josephus has not thought them worthy of his notice. See + Prideaux’s Connection, vol. ii. p. 285. * Note: The Herodians were + probably more of a political party than a religious sect, though Gibbon is + most likely right as to their occasional conformity. See Hist. of the + Jews, ii. 108.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.5" id="linknote-15.5"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 5 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.5">return</a>)<br/> [ Cicero pro Flacco, c. + 28. * Note: The edicts of Julius Cæsar, and of some of the cities in Asia + Minor (Krebs. Decret. pro Judæis,) in favor of the nation in general, or + of the Asiatic Jews, speak a different language.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.6" id="linknote-15.6"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 6 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.6">return</a>)<br/> [ Philo de Legatione. + Augustus left a foundation for a perpetual sacrifice. Yet he approved of + the neglect which his grandson Caius expressed towards the temple of + Jerusalem. See Sueton. in August. c. 93, and Casaubon’s notes on that + passage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.7" id="linknote-15.7"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 7 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.7">return</a>)<br/> [ See, in particular, + Joseph. Antiquitat. xvii. 6, xviii. 3; and de Bell. Judiac. i. 33, and ii. + 9, edit. Havercamp. * Note: This was during the government of Pontius + Pilate. (Hist. of Jews, ii. 156.) Probably in part to avoid this + collision, the Roman governor, in general, resided at Cæsarea.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.8" id="linknote-15.8"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 8 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.8">return</a>)<br/> [ Jussi a Caio Cæsare, + effigiem ejus in templo locare, arma potius sumpsere. Tacit. Hist. v. 9. + Philo and Josephus gave a very circumstantial, but a very rhetorical, + account of this transaction, which exceedingly perplexed the governor of + Syria. At the first mention of this idolatrous proposal, King Agrippa + fainted away; and did not recover his senses until the third day. (Hist. + of Jews, ii. 181, &c.)] + </p> + <p> + This inflexible perseverance, which appeared so odious or so ridiculous to + the ancient world, assumes a more awful character, since Providence has + deigned to reveal to us the mysterious history of the chosen people. But + the devout and even scrupulous attachment to the Mosaic religion, so + conspicuous among the Jews who lived under the second temple, becomes + still more surprising, if it is compared with the stubborn incredulity of + their forefathers. When the law was given in thunder from Mount Sinai, + when the tides of the ocean and the course of the planets were suspended + for the convenience of the Israelites, and when temporal rewards and + punishments were the immediate consequences of their piety or + disobedience, they perpetually relapsed into rebellion against the visible + majesty of their Divine King, placed the idols of the nations in the + sanctuary of Jehovah, and imitated every fantastic ceremony that was + practised in the tents of the Arabs, or in the cities of Phœnicia. <a + href="#linknote-15.9" name="linknoteref-15.9" id="linknoteref-15.9">9</a> + As the protection of Heaven was deservedly withdrawn from the ungrateful + race, their faith acquired a proportionable degree of vigor and purity. + </p> + <p> + The contemporaries of Moses and Joshua had beheld with careless + indifference the most amazing miracles. Under the pressure of every + calamity, the belief of those miracles has preserved the Jews of a later + period from the universal contagion of idolatry; and in contradiction to + every known principle of the human mind, that singular people seems to + have yielded a stronger and more ready assent to the traditions of their + remote ancestors, than to the evidence of their own senses. <a + href="#linknote-15.10" name="linknoteref-15.10" id="linknoteref-15.10">10</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.9" id="linknote-15.9"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 9 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.9">return</a>)<br/> [ For the enumeration of + the Syrian and Arabian deities, it may be observed, that Milton has + comprised in one hundred and thirty very beautiful lines the two large and + learned syntagmas which Selden had composed on that abstruse subject.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.10" id="linknote-15.10"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 10 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.10">return</a>)<br/> [ “How long will this + people provoke me? and how long will it be ere they believe me, for all + the signs which I have shown among them?” (Numbers xiv. 11.) It would be + easy, but it would be unbecoming, to justify the complaint of the Deity + from the whole tenor of the Mosaic history. Note: Among a rude and + barbarous people, religious impressions are easily made, and are as soon + effaced. The ignorance which multiplies imaginary wonders, would weaken + and destroy the effect of real miracle. At the period of the Jewish + history, referred to in the passage from Numbers, their fears predominated + over their faith,—the fears of an unwarlike people, just rescued + from debasing slavery, and commanded to attack a fierce, a well-armed, a + gigantic, and a far more numerous race, the inhabitants of Canaan. As to + the frequent apostasy of the Jews, their religion was beyond their state + of civilization. Nor is it uncommon for a people to cling with passionate + attachment to that of which, at first, they could not appreciate the + value. Patriotism and national pride will contend, even to death, for + political rights which have been forced upon a reluctant people. The + Christian may at least retort, with justice, that the great sign of his + religion, the resurrection of Jesus, was most ardently believed, and most + resolutely asserted, by the eye witnesses of the fact.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The Jewish religion was admirably fitted for defence, but it was never + designed for conquest; and it seems probable that the number of proselytes + was never much superior to that of apostates. The divine promises were + originally made, and the distinguishing rite of circumcision was enjoined, + to a single family. When the posterity of Abraham had multiplied like the + sands of the sea, the Deity, from whose mouth they received a system of + laws and ceremonies, declared himself the proper and as it were the + national God of Israel; and with the most jealous care separated his + favorite people from the rest of mankind. The conquest of the land of + Canaan was accompanied with so many wonderful and with so many bloody + circumstances, that the victorious Jews were left in a state of + irreconcilable hostility with all their neighbors. They had been commanded + to extirpate some of the most idolatrous tribes, and the execution of the + divine will had seldom been retarded by the weakness of humanity. + </p> + <p> + With the other nations they were forbidden to contract any marriages or + alliances; and the prohibition of receiving them into the congregation, + which in some cases was perpetual, almost always extended to the third, to + the seventh, or even to the tenth generation. The obligation of preaching + to the Gentiles the faith of Moses had never been inculcated as a precept + of the law, nor were the Jews inclined to impose it on themselves as a + voluntary duty. + </p> + <p> + In the admission of new citizens that unsocial people was actuated by the + selfish vanity of the Greeks, rather than by the generous policy of Rome. + The descendants of Abraham were flattered by the opinion that they alone + were the heirs of the covenant, and they were apprehensive of diminishing + the value of their inheritance by sharing it too easily with the strangers + of the earth. A larger acquaintance with mankind extended their knowledge + without correcting their prejudices; and whenever the God of Israel + acquired any new votaries, he was much more indebted to the inconstant + humor of polytheism than to the active zeal of his own missionaries. <a + href="#linknote-15.11" name="linknoteref-15.11" id="linknoteref-15.11">11</a> + The religion of Moses seems to be instituted for a particular country as + well as for a single nation; and if a strict obedience had been paid to + the order, that every male, three times in the year, should present + himself before the Lord Jehovah, it would have been impossible that the + Jews could ever have spread themselves beyond the narrow limits of the + promised land. <a href="#linknote-15.12" name="linknoteref-15.12" + id="linknoteref-15.12">12</a> That obstacle was indeed removed by the + destruction of the temple of Jerusalem; but the most considerable part of + the Jewish religion was involved in its destruction; and the Pagans, who + had long wondered at the strange report of an empty sanctuary, <a + href="#linknote-15.13" name="linknoteref-15.13" id="linknoteref-15.13">13</a> + were at a loss to discover what could be the object, or what could be the + instruments, of a worship which was destitute of temples and of altars, of + priests and of sacrifices. + </p> + <p> + Yet even in their fallen state, the Jews, still asserting their lofty and + exclusive privileges, shunned, instead of courting, the society of + strangers. They still insisted with inflexible rigor on those parts of the + law which it was in their power to practise. Their peculiar distinctions + of days, of meats, and a variety of trivial though burdensome observances, + were so many objects of disgust and aversion for the other nations, to + whose habits and prejudices they were diametrically opposite. The painful + and even dangerous rite of circumcision was alone capable of repelling a + willing proselyte from the door of the synagogue. <a href="#linknote-15.14" + name="linknoteref-15.14" id="linknoteref-15.14">14</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.11" id="linknote-15.11"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 11 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.11">return</a>)<br/> [ All that relates to + the Jewish proselytes has been very ably by Basnage, Hist. des Juifs, l. + vi. c. 6, 7.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.12" id="linknote-15.12"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 12 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.12">return</a>)<br/> [ See Exod. xxiv. 23, + Deut. xvi. 16, the commentators, and a very sensible note in the Universal + History, vol. i. p. 603, edit. fol.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.13" id="linknote-15.13"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 13 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.13">return</a>)<br/> [ When Pompey, using or + abusing the right of conquest, entered into the Holy of Holies, it was + observed with amazement, “Nulli intus Deum effigie, vacuam sedem et inania + arcana.” Tacit. Hist. v. 9. It was a popular saying, with regard to the + Jews, “Nil præter nubes et coeli numen adorant.”] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.14" id="linknote-15.14"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 14 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.14">return</a>)<br/> [ A second kind of + circumcision was inflicted on a Samaritan or Egyptian proselyte. The + sullen indifference of the Talmudists, with respect to the conversion of + strangers, may be seen in Basnage Histoire des Juifs, l. xi. c. 6.] + </p> + <p> + Under these circumstances, Christianity offered itself to the world, armed + with the strength of the Mosaic law, and delivered from the weight of its + fetters. An exclusive zeal for the truth of religion, and the unity of + God, was as carefully inculcated in the new as in the ancient system; and + whatever was now revealed to mankind concerning the nature and designs of + the Supreme Being was fitted to increase their reverence for that + mysterious doctrine. The divine authority of Moses and the prophets was + admitted, and even established, as the firmest basis of Christianity. From + the beginning of the world, an uninterrupted series of predictions had + announced and prepared the long-expected coming of the Messiah, who, in + compliance with the gross apprehensions of the Jews, had been more + frequently represented under the character of a King and Conqueror, than + under that of a Prophet, a Martyr, and the Son of God. By his expiatory + sacrifice, the imperfect sacrifices of the temple were at once consummated + and abolished. The ceremonial law, which consisted only of types and + figures, was succeeded by a pure and spiritual worship equally adapted to + all climates, as well as to every condition of mankind; and to the + initiation of blood was substituted a more harmless initiation of water. + The promise of divine favor, instead of being partially confined to the + posterity of Abraham, was universally proposed to the freeman and the + slave, to the Greek and to the barbarian, to the Jew and to the Gentile. + Every privilege that could raise the proselyte from earth to heaven, that + could exalt his devotion, secure his happiness, or even gratify that + secret pride which, under the semblance of devotion, insinuates itself + into the human heart, was still reserved for the members of the Christian + church; but at the same time all mankind was permitted, and even + solicited, to accept the glorious distinction, which was not only + proffered as a favor, but imposed as an obligation. It became the most + sacred duty of a new convert to diffuse among his friends and relations + the inestimable blessing which he had received, and to warn them against a + refusal that would be severely punished as a criminal disobedience to the + will of a benevolent but all-powerful Deity. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.2"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part II. + </h2> + <p> + The enfranchisement of the church from the bonds of the synagogue was a + work, however, of some time and of some difficulty. The Jewish converts, + who acknowledged Jesus in the character of the Messiah foretold by their + ancient oracles, respected him as a prophetic teacher of virtue and + religion; but they obstinately adhered to the ceremonies of their + ancestors, and were desirous of imposing them on the Gentiles, who + continually augmented the number of believers. These Judaizing Christians + seem to have argued with some degree of plausibility from the divine + origin of the Mosaic law, and from the immutable perfections of its great + Author. They affirmed, that if the Being, who is the same through all + eternity, had designed to abolish those sacred rites which had served to + distinguish his chosen people, the repeal of them would have been no less + clear and solemn than their first promulgation: <i>that</i>, instead of those + frequent declarations, which either suppose or assert the perpetuity of + the Mosaic religion, it would have been represented as a provisionary + scheme intended to last only to the coming of the Messiah, who should + instruct mankind in a more perfect mode of faith and of worship: <a + href="#linknote-15.15" name="linknoteref-15.15" id="linknoteref-15.15">15</a> + <i>that</i> the Messiah himself, and his disciples who conversed with him on + earth, instead of authorizing by their example the most minute observances + of the Mosaic law, <a href="#linknote-15.16" name="linknoteref-15.16" + id="linknoteref-15.16">16</a> would have published to the world the + abolition of those useless and obsolete ceremonies, without suffering + Christianity to remain during so many years obscurely confounded among the + sects of the Jewish church. Arguments like these appear to have been used + in the defence of the expiring cause of the Mosaic law; but the industry + of our learned divines has abundantly explained the ambiguous language of + the Old Testament, and the ambiguous conduct of the apostolic teachers. It + was proper gradually to unfold the system of the gospel, and to pronounce, + with the utmost caution and tenderness, a sentence of condemnation so + repugnant to the inclination and prejudices of the believing Jews. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.15" id="linknote-15.15"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 15 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.15">return</a>)<br/> [ These arguments were + urged with great ingenuity by the Jew Orobio, and refuted with equal + ingenuity and candor by the Christian Limborch. See the Amica Collatio, + (it well deserves that name,) or account of the dispute between them.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.16" id="linknote-15.16"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 16 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.16">return</a>)<br/> [ Jesus... circumcisus + erat; cibis utebatur Judaicis; vestitu simili; purgatos scabie mittebat ad + sacerdotes; Paschata et alios dies festos religiose observabat: Si quos + sanavit sabbatho, ostendit non tantum ex lege, sed et exceptis sententiis, + talia opera sabbatho non interdicta. Grotius de Veritate Religionis + Christianæ, l. v. c. 7. A little afterwards, (c. 12,) he expatiates on + the condescension of the apostles.] + </p> + <p> + The history of the church of Jerusalem affords a lively proof of the + necessity of those precautions, and of the deep impression which the + Jewish religion had made on the minds of its sectaries. The first fifteen + bishops of Jerusalem were all circumcised Jews; and the congregation over + which they presided united the law of Moses with the doctrine of Christ. + <a href="#linknote-15.17" name="linknoteref-15.17" id="linknoteref-15.17">17</a> + It was natural that the primitive tradition of a church which was founded + only forty days after the death of Christ, and was governed almost as many + years under the immediate inspection of his apostle, should be received as + the standard of orthodoxy. The distant churches very frequently appealed + to the authority of their venerable Parent, and relieved her distresses by + a liberal contribution of alms. But when numerous and opulent societies + were established in the great cities of the empire, in Antioch, + Alexandria, Ephesus, Corinth, and Rome, the reverence which Jerusalem had + inspired to all the Christian colonies insensibly diminished. <a + href="#linknote-15.18b" name="linknoteref-15.18b" id="linknoteref-15.18b">18b</a> + The Jewish converts, or, as they were afterwards called, the Nazarenes, + who had laid the foundations of the church, soon found themselves + overwhelmed by the increasing multitudes, that from all the various + religions of polytheism enlisted under the banner of Christ: and the + Gentiles, who, with the approbation of their peculiar apostle, had + rejected the intolerable weight of the Mosaic ceremonies, at length + refused to their more scrupulous brethren the same toleration which at + first they had humbly solicited for their own practice. The ruin of the + temple of the city, and of the public religion of the Jews, was severely + felt by the Nazarenes; as in their manners, though not in their faith, + they maintained so intimate a connection with their impious countrymen, + whose misfortunes were attributed by the Pagans to the contempt, and more + justly ascribed by the Christians to the wrath, of the Supreme Deity. The + Nazarenes retired from the ruins of Jerusalem <a href="#linknote-15.18" + name="linknoteref-15.18" id="linknoteref-15.18">18</a> to the little town + of Pella beyond the Jordan, where that ancient church languished above + sixty years in solitude and obscurity. <a href="#linknote-15.19" + name="linknoteref-15.19" id="linknoteref-15.19">19</a> They still enjoyed + the comfort of making frequent and devout visits to the <i>Holy City</i>, and the + hope of being one day restored to those seats which both nature and + religion taught them to love as well as to revere. But at length, under + the reign of Hadrian, the desperate fanaticism of the Jews filled up the + measure of their calamities; and the Romans, exasperated by their repeated + rebellions, exercised the rights of victory with unusual rigor. The + emperor founded, under the name of Ælia Capitolina, a new city on Mount + Sion, <a href="#linknote-15.20" name="linknoteref-15.20" + id="linknoteref-15.20">20</a> to which he gave the privileges of a colony; + and denouncing the severest penalties against any of the Jewish people who + should dare to approach its precincts, he fixed a vigilant garrison of a + Roman cohort to enforce the execution of his orders. The Nazarenes had + only one way left to escape the common proscription, and the force of + truth was on this occasion assisted by the influence of temporal + advantages. They elected Marcus for their bishop, a prelate of the race of + the Gentiles, and most probably a native either of Italy or of some of the + Latin provinces. At his persuasion, the most considerable part of the + congregation renounced the Mosaic law, in the practice of which they had + persevered above a century. By this sacrifice of their habits and + prejudices, they purchased a free admission into the colony of Hadrian, + and more firmly cemented their union with the Catholic church. <a + href="#linknote-15.21" name="linknoteref-15.21" id="linknoteref-15.21">21</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.17" id="linknote-15.17"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 17 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.17">return</a>)<br/> [ Pæne omnes Christum + Deum sub legis observatione credebant Sulpicius Severus, ii. 31. See + Eusebius, Hist. Ecclesiast. l. iv. c. 5.] <a name="linknote-15.18b" + id="linknote-15.18b"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18b (<a href="#linknoteref-15.18b">return</a>)<br/> [Footnote 18b: Mosheim + de Rebus Christianis ante Constantinum Magnum, page 153. In this masterly + performance, which I shall often have occasion to quote he enters much + more fully into the state of the primitive church than he has an + opportunity of doing in his General History.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.18" id="linknote-15.18"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 18 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.18">return</a>)<br/> [ This is incorrect: all + the traditions concur in placing the abandonment of the city by the + Christians, not only before it was in ruins, but before the seige had + commenced. Euseb. loc. cit., and Le Clerc.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.19" id="linknote-15.19"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 19 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.19">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. iii. c. + 5. Le Clerc, Hist. Ecclesiast. p. 605. During this occasional absence, the + bishop and church of Pella still retained the title of Jerusalem. In the + same manner, the Roman pontiffs resided seventy years at Avignon; and the + patriarchs of Alexandria have long since transferred their episcopal seat + to Cairo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.20" id="linknote-15.20"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 20 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.20">return</a>)<br/> [ Dion Cassius, l. lxix. + The exile of the Jewish nation from Jerusalem is attested by Aristo of + Pella, (apud Euseb. l. iv. c. 6,) and is mentioned by several + ecclesiastical writers; though some of them too hastily extend this + interdiction to the whole country of Palestine.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.21" id="linknote-15.21"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 21 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.21">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. 6. + Sulpicius Severus, ii. 31. By comparing their unsatisfactory accounts, + Mosheim (p. 327, &c.) has drawn out a very distinct representation of + the circumstances and motives of this revolution.] + </p> + <p> + When the name and honors of the church of Jerusalem had been restored to + Mount Sion, the crimes of heresy and schism were imputed to the obscure + remnant of the Nazarenes, which refused to accompany their Latin bishop. + They still preserved their former habitation of Pella, spread themselves + into the villages adjacent to Damascus, and formed an inconsiderable + church in the city of Berœa, or, as it is now called, of Aleppo, in + Syria. <a href="#linknote-15.22" name="linknoteref-15.22" + id="linknoteref-15.22">22</a> The name of Nazarenes was deemed too + honorable for those Christian Jews, and they soon received, from the + supposed poverty of their understanding, as well as of their condition, + the contemptuous epithet of Ebionites. <a href="#linknote-15.23" + name="linknoteref-15.23" id="linknoteref-15.23">23</a> In a few years + after the return of the church of Jerusalem, it became a matter of doubt + and controversy, whether a man who sincerely acknowledged Jesus as the + Messiah, but who still continued to observe the law of Moses, could + possibly hope for salvation. The humane temper of Justin Martyr inclined + him to answer this question in the affirmative; and though he expressed + himself with the most guarded diffidence, he ventured to determine in + favor of such an imperfect Christian, if he were content to practise the + Mosaic ceremonies, without pretending to assert their general use or + necessity. But when Justin was pressed to declare the sentiment of the + church, he confessed that there were very many among the orthodox + Christians, who not only excluded their Judaizing brethren from the hope + of salvation, but who declined any intercourse with them in the common + offices of friendship, hospitality, and social life. <a + href="#linknote-15.24" name="linknoteref-15.24" id="linknoteref-15.24">24</a> + The more rigorous opinion prevailed, as it was natural to expect, over the + milder; and an eternal bar of separation was fixed between the disciples + of Moses and those of Christ. The unfortunate Ebionites, rejected from one + religion as apostates, and from the other as heretics, found themselves + compelled to assume a more decided character; and although some traces of + that obsolete sect may be discovered as late as the fourth century, they + insensibly melted away, either into the church or the synagogue. <a + href="#linknote-15.25" name="linknoteref-15.25" id="linknoteref-15.25">25</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.22" id="linknote-15.22"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 22 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.22">return</a>)<br/> [ Le Clerc (Hist. + Ecclesiast. p. 477, 535) seems to have collected from Eusebius, Jerome, + Epiphanius, and other writers, all the principal circumstances that relate + to the Nazarenes or Ebionites. The nature of their opinions soon divided + them into a stricter and a milder sect; and there is some reason to + conjecture, that the family of Jesus Christ remained members, at least, of + the latter and more moderate party.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.23" id="linknote-15.23"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 23 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.23">return</a>)<br/> [ Some writers have been + pleased to create an Ebion, the imaginary author of their sect and name. + But we can more safely rely on the learned Eusebius than on the vehement + Tertullian, or the credulous Epiphanius. According to Le Clerc, the Hebrew + word Ebjonim may be translated into Latin by that of Pauperes. See Hist. + Ecclesiast. p. 477. * Note: The opinion of Le Clerc is generally admitted; + but Neander has suggested some good reasons for supposing that this term + only applied to poverty of condition. The obscure history of their tenets + and divisions, is clearly and rationally traced in his History of the + Church, vol. i. part ii. p. 612, &c., Germ. edit.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.24" id="linknote-15.24"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 24 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.24">return</a>)<br/> [ See the very curious + Dialogue of Justin Martyr with the Jew Tryphon. The conference between + them was held at Ephesus, in the reign of Antoninus Pius, and about twenty + years after the return of the church of Pella to Jerusalem. For this date + consult the accurate note of Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiastiques, tom. ii. + p. 511. * Note: Justin Martyr makes an important distinction, which Gibbon + has neglected to notice. * * * There were some who were not content with + observing the Mosaic law themselves, but enforced the same observance, as + necessary to salvation, upon the heathen converts, and refused all social + intercourse with them if they did not conform to the law. Justin Martyr + himself freely admits those who kept the law themselves to Christian + communion, though he acknowledges that some, not the Church, thought + otherwise; of the other party, he himself thought less favorably. The + former by some are considered the Nazarenes the atter the Ebionites—G + and M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.25" id="linknote-15.25"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 25 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.25">return</a>)<br/> [ Of all the systems of + Christianity, that of Abyssinia is the only one which still adheres to the + Mosaic rites. (Geddes’s Church History of Æthiopia, and Dissertations de + La Grand sur la Relation du P. Lobo.) The eunuch of the queen Candace + might suggest some suspicious; but as we are assured (Socrates, i. 19. + Sozomen, ii. 24. Ludolphus, p. 281) that the Æthiopians were not + converted till the fourth century, it is more reasonable to believe that + they respected the sabbath, and distinguished the forbidden meats, in + imitation of the Jews, who, in a very early period, were seated on both + sides of the Red Sea. Circumcision had been practised by the most ancient + Æthiopians, from motives of health and cleanliness, which seem to be + explained in the Recherches Philosophiques sur les Americains, tom. ii. p. + 117.] + </p> + <p> + While the orthodox church preserved a just medium between excessive + veneration and improper contempt for the law of Moses, the various + heretics deviated into equal but opposite extremes of error and + extravagance. From the acknowledged truth of the Jewish religion, the + Ebionites had concluded that it could never be abolished. From its + supposed imperfections, the Gnostics as hastily inferred that it never was + instituted by the wisdom of the Deity. There are some objections against + the authority of Moses and the prophets, which too readily present + themselves to the sceptical mind; though they can only be derived from our + ignorance of remote antiquity, and from our incapacity to form an adequate + judgment of the divine economy. These objections were eagerly embraced and + as petulantly urged by the vain science of the Gnostics. <a + href="#linknote-15.26" name="linknoteref-15.26" id="linknoteref-15.26">26</a> + As those heretics were, for the most part, averse to the pleasures of + sense, they morosely arraigned the polygamy of the patriarchs, the + gallantries of David, and the seraglio of Solomon. The conquest of the + land of Canaan, and the extirpation of the unsuspecting natives, they were + at a loss how to reconcile with the common notions of humanity and + justice. <a href="#linknote-15.261" name="linknoteref-15.261" + id="linknoteref-15.261">261</a> But when they recollected the sanguinary + list of murders, of executions, and of massacres, which stain almost every + page of the Jewish annals, they acknowledged that the barbarians of + Palestine had exercised as much compassion towards their idolatrous + enemies, as they had ever shown to their friends or countrymen. <a + href="#linknote-15.27" name="linknoteref-15.27" id="linknoteref-15.27">27</a> + Passing from the sectaries of the law to the law itself, they asserted + that it was impossible that a religion which consisted only of bloody + sacrifices and trifling ceremonies, and whose rewards as well as + punishments were all of a carnal and temporal nature, could inspire the + love of virtue, or restrain the impetuosity of passion. The Mosaic account + of the creation and fall of man was treated with profane derision by the + Gnostics, who would not listen with patience to the repose of the Deity + after six days’ labor, to the rib of Adam, the garden of Eden, the trees + of life and of knowledge, the speaking serpent, the forbidden fruit, and + the condemnation pronounced against human kind for the venial offence of + their first progenitors. <a href="#linknote-15.28" name="linknoteref-15.28" + id="linknoteref-15.28">28</a> The God of Israel was impiously represented + by the Gnostics as a being liable to passion and to error, capricious in + his favor, implacable in his resentment, meanly jealous of his + superstitious worship, and confining his partial providence to a single + people, and to this transitory life. In such a character they could + discover none of the features of the wise and omnipotent Father of the + universe. <a href="#linknote-15.29" name="linknoteref-15.29" + id="linknoteref-15.29">29</a> They allowed that the religion of the Jews + was somewhat less criminal than the idolatry of the Gentiles; but it was + their fundamental doctrine that the Christ whom they adored as the first + and brightest emanation of the Deity appeared upon earth to rescue mankind + from their various errors, and to reveal a new system of truth and + perfection. The most learned of the fathers, by a very singular + condescension, have imprudently admitted the sophistry of the Gnostics. <a + href="#linknote-15.291" name="linknoteref-15.291" id="linknoteref-15.291">291</a> + Acknowledging that the literal sense is repugnant to every principle of + faith as well as reason, they deem themselves secure and invulnerable + behind the ample veil of allegory, which they carefully spread over every + tender part of the Mosaic dispensation. <a href="#linknote-15.30" + name="linknoteref-15.30" id="linknoteref-15.30">30</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.26" id="linknote-15.26"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 26 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.26">return</a>)<br/> [ Beausobre, Histoire du + Manicheisme, l. i. c. 3, has stated their objections, particularly those + of Faustus, the adversary of Augustin, with the most learned + impartiality.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.261" id="linknote-15.261"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 261 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.261">return</a>)<br/> [ On the “war law” of + the Jews, see Hist. of Jews, i. 137.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.27" id="linknote-15.27"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 27 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.27">return</a>)<br/> [ Apud ipsos fides + obstinata, misericordia in promptu: adversus amnes alios hostile odium. + Tacit. Hist. v. 4. Surely Tacitus had seen the Jews with too favorable an + eye. The perusal of Josephus must have destroyed the antithesis. * Note: + Few writers have suspected Tacitus of partiality towards the Jews. The + whole later history of the Jews illustrates as well their strong feelings + of humanity to their brethren, as their hostility to the rest of mankind. + The character and the position of Josephus with the Roman authorities, + must be kept in mind during the perusal of his History. Perhaps he has not + exaggerated the ferocity and fanaticism of the Jews at that time; but + insurrectionary warfare is not the best school for the humaner virtues, + and much must be allowed for the grinding tyranny of the later Roman + governors. See Hist. of Jews, ii. 254.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.28" id="linknote-15.28"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 28 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.28">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Burnet + (Archæologia, l. ii. c. 7) has discussed the first chapters of Genesis + with too much wit and freedom. * Note: Dr. Burnet apologized for the + levity with which he had conducted some of his arguments, by the excuse + that he wrote in a learned language for scholars alone, not for the + vulgar. Whatever may be thought of his success in tracing an Eastern + allegory in the first chapters of Genesis, his other works prove him to + have been a man of great genius, and of sincere piety.—M] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.29" id="linknote-15.29"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 29 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.29">return</a>)<br/> [ The milder Gnostics + considered Jehovah, the Creator, as a Being of a mixed nature between God + and the Dæmon. Others confounded him with an evil principle. Consult the + second century of the general history of Mosheim, which gives a very + distinct, though concise, account of their strange opinions on this + subject.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.291" id="linknote-15.291"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 291 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.291">return</a>)<br/> [ The Gnostics, and + the historian who has stated these plausible objections with so much force + as almost to make them his own, would have shown a more considerate and + not less reasonable philosophy, if they had considered the religion of + Moses with reference to the age in which it was promulgated; if they had + done justice to its sublime as well as its more imperfect views of the + divine nature; the humane and civilizing provisions of the Hebrew law, as + well as those adapted for an infant and barbarous people. See Hist of + Jews, i. 36, 37, &c.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.30" id="linknote-15.30"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 30 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.30">return</a>)<br/> [ See Beausobre, Hist. + du Manicheisme, l. i. c. 4. Origen and St. Augustin were among the + allegorists.] + </p> + <p> + It has been remarked with more ingenuity than truth, that the virgin + purity of the church was never violated by schism or heresy before the + reign of Trajan or Hadrian, about one hundred years after the death of + Christ. <a href="#linknote-15.31" name="linknoteref-15.31" + id="linknoteref-15.31">31</a> We may observe with much more propriety, + that, during that period, the disciples of the Messiah were indulged in a + freer latitude, both of faith and practice, than has ever been allowed in + succeeding ages. As the terms of communion were insensibly narrowed, and + the spiritual authority of the prevailing party was exercised with + increasing severity, many of its most respectable adherents, who were + called upon to renounce, were provoked to assert their private opinions, + to pursue the consequences of their mistaken principles, and openly to + erect the standard of rebellion against the unity of the church. The + Gnostics were distinguished as the most polite, the most learned, and the + most wealthy of the Christian name; and that general appellation, which + expressed a superiority of knowledge, was either assumed by their own + pride, or ironically bestowed by the envy of their adversaries. They were + almost without exception of the race of the Gentiles, and their principal + founders seem to have been natives of Syria or Egypt, where the warmth of + the climate disposes both the mind and the body to indolent and + contemplative devotion. The Gnostics blended with the faith of Christ many + sublime but obscure tenets, which they derived from oriental philosophy, + and even from the religion of Zoroaster, concerning the eternity of + matter, the existence of two principles, and the mysterious hierarchy of + the invisible world. <a href="#linknote-15.32" name="linknoteref-15.32" + id="linknoteref-15.32">32</a> As soon as they launched out into that vast + abyss, they delivered themselves to the guidance of a disordered + imagination; and as the paths of error are various and infinite, the + Gnostics were imperceptibly divided into more than fifty particular sects, + <a href="#linknote-15.33" name="linknoteref-15.33" id="linknoteref-15.33">33</a> + of whom the most celebrated appear to have been the Basilidians, the + Valentinians, the Marcionites, and, in a still later period, the + Manichæans. Each of these sects could boast of its bishops and + congregations, of its doctors and martyrs; <a href="#linknote-15.34" + name="linknoteref-15.34" id="linknoteref-15.34">34</a> and, instead of the + Four Gospels adopted by the church, <a href="#linknote-15.341" + name="linknoteref-15.341" id="linknoteref-15.341">341</a> the heretics + produced a multitude of histories, in which the actions and discourses of + Christ and of his apostles were adapted to their respective tenets. <a + href="#linknote-15.35" name="linknoteref-15.35" id="linknoteref-15.35">35</a> + The success of the Gnostics was rapid and extensive. <a + href="#linknote-15.36" name="linknoteref-15.36" id="linknoteref-15.36">36</a> + They covered Asia and Egypt, established themselves in Rome, and sometimes + penetrated into the provinces of the West. For the most part they arose in + the second century, flourished during the third, and were suppressed in + the fourth or fifth, by the prevalence of more fashionable controversies, + and by the superior ascendant of the reigning power. Though they + constantly disturbed the peace, and frequently disgraced the name, of + religion, they contributed to assist rather than to retard the progress of + Christianity. The Gentile converts, whose strongest objections and + prejudices were directed against the law of Moses, could find admission + into many Christian societies, which required not from their untutored + mind any belief of an antecedent revelation. Their faith was insensibly + fortified and enlarged, and the church was ultimately benefited by the + conquests of its most inveterate enemies. <a href="#linknote-15.37" + name="linknoteref-15.37" id="linknoteref-15.37">37</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.31" id="linknote-15.31"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 31 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.31">return</a>)<br/> [ Hegesippus, ap. Euseb. + l. iii. 32, iv. 22. Clemens Alexandrin Stromat. vii. 17. * Note: The + assertion of Hegesippus is not so positive: it is sufficient to read the + whole passage in Eusebius, to see that the former part is modified by the + matter. Hegesippus adds, that up to this period the church had remained + pure and immaculate as a virgin. Those who labored to corrupt the + doctrines of the gospel worked as yet in obscurity—G] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.32" id="linknote-15.32"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 32 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.32">return</a>)<br/> [ In the account of the + Gnostics of the second and third centuries, Mosheim is ingenious and + candid; Le Clerc dull, but exact; Beausobre almost always an apologist; + and it is much to be feared that the primitive fathers are very frequently + calumniators. * Note The Histoire du Gnosticisme of M. Matter is at once + the fairest and most complete account of these sects.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.33" id="linknote-15.33"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 33 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.33">return</a>)<br/> [ See the catalogues of + Irenæus and Epiphanius. It must indeed be allowed, that those writers + were inclined to multiply the number of sects which opposed the unity of + the church.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.34" id="linknote-15.34"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 34 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.34">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. iv. c. + 15. Sozomen, l. ii. c. 32. See in Bayle, in the article of Marcion, a + curious detail of a dispute on that subject. It should seem that some of + the Gnostics (the Basilidians) declined, and even refused the honor of + Martyrdom. Their reasons were singular and abstruse. See Mosheim, p. 539.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.341" id="linknote-15.341"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 341 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.341">return</a>)<br/> [ M. Hahn has restored + the Marcionite Gospel with great ingenuity. His work is reprinted in + Thilo. Codex. Apoc. Nov. Test. vol. i.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.35" id="linknote-15.35"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 35 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.35">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very remarkable + passage of Origen, (Proem. ad Lucam.) That indefatigable writer, who had + consumed his life in the study of the Scriptures, relies for their + authenticity on the inspired authority of the church. It was impossible + that the Gnostics could receive our present Gospels, many parts of which + (particularly in the resurrection of Christ) are directly, and as it might + seem designedly, pointed against their favorite tenets. It is therefore + somewhat singular that Ignatius (Epist. ad Smyrn. Patr. Apostol. tom. ii. + p. 34) should choose to employ a vague and doubtful tradition, instead of + quoting the certain testimony of the evangelists. Note: Bishop Pearson has + attempted very happily to explain this singularity.’ The first Christians + were acquainted with a number of sayings of Jesus Christ, which are not + related in our Gospels, and indeed have never been written. Why might not + St. Ignatius, who had lived with the apostles or their disciples, repeat + in other words that which St. Luke has related, particularly at a time + when, being in prison, he could have the Gospels at hand? Pearson, Vind + Ign. pp. 2, 9 p. 396 in tom. ii. Patres Apost. ed. Coteler—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.36" id="linknote-15.36"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 36 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.36">return</a>)<br/> [ Faciunt favos et + vespæ; faciunt ecclesias et Marcionitæ, is the strong expression of + Tertullian, which I am obliged to quote from memory. In the time of + Epiphanius (advers. Hæreses, p. 302) the Marcionites were very numerous + in Italy, Syria, Egypt, Arabia, and Persia.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.37" id="linknote-15.37"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 37 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.37">return</a>)<br/> [ Augustin is a + memorable instance of this gradual progress from reason to faith. He was, + during several years, engaged in the Manichæar sect.] + </p> + <p> + But whatever difference of opinion might subsist between the Orthodox, the + Ebionites, and the Gnostics, concerning the divinity or the obligation of + the Mosaic law, they were all equally animated by the same exclusive zeal, + and by the same abhorrence for idolatry, which had distinguished the Jews + from the other nations of the ancient world. The philosopher, who + considered the system of polytheism as a composition of human fraud and + error, could disguise a smile of contempt under the mask of devotion, + without apprehending that either the mockery, or the compliance, would + expose him to the resentment of any invisible, or, as he conceived them, + imaginary powers. But the established religions of Paganism were seen by + the primitive Christians in a much more odious and formidable light. It + was the universal sentiment both of the church and of heretics, that the + dæmons were the authors, the patrons, and the objects of idolatry. <a + href="#linknote-15.38" name="linknoteref-15.38" id="linknoteref-15.38">38</a> + Those rebellious spirits who had been degraded from the rank of angels, + and cast down into the infernal pit, were still permitted to roam upon + earth, to torment the bodies, and to seduce the minds, of sinful men. The + dæmons soon discovered and abused the natural propensity of the human + heart towards devotion, and artfully withdrawing the adoration of mankind + from their Creator, they usurped the place and honors of the Supreme + Deity. By the success of their malicious contrivances, they at once + gratified their own vanity and revenge, and obtained the only comfort of + which they were yet susceptible, the hope of involving the human species + in the participation of their guilt and misery. It was confessed, or at + least it was imagined, that they had distributed among themselves the most + important characters of polytheism, one dæmon assuming the name and + attributes of Jupiter, another of Æsculapius, a third of Venus, and a + fourth perhaps of Apollo; <a href="#linknote-15.39" + name="linknoteref-15.39" id="linknoteref-15.39">39</a> and that, by the + advantage of their long experience and ærial nature, they were enabled to + execute, with sufficient skill and dignity, the parts which they had + undertaken. They lurked in the temples, instituted festivals and + sacrifices, invented fables, pronounced oracles, and were frequently + allowed to perform miracles. The Christians, who, by the interposition of + evil spirits, could so readily explain every præternatural appearance, + were disposed and even desirous to admit the most extravagant fictions of + the Pagan mythology. But the belief of the Christian was accompanied with + horror. The most trifling mark of respect to the national worship he + considered as a direct homage yielded to the dæmon, and as an act of + rebellion against the majesty of God. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.38" id="linknote-15.38"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 38 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.38">return</a>)<br/> [ The unanimous + sentiment of the primitive church is very clearly explained by Justin + Martyr, Apolog. Major, by Athenagoras, Legat. c. 22. &c., and by + Lactantius, Institut. Divin. ii. 14—19.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.39" id="linknote-15.39"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 39 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.39">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. + 23) alleges the confession of the dæmons themselves as often as they were + tormented by the Christian exorcists] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.3"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part III. + </h2> + <p> + In consequence of this opinion, it was the first but arduous duty of a + Christian to preserve himself pure and undefiled by the practice of + idolatry. The religion of the nations was not merely a speculative + doctrine professed in the schools or preached in the temples. The + innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were closely interwoven with + every circumstance of business or pleasure, of public or of private life, + and it seemed impossible to escape the observance of them, without, at the + same time, renouncing the commerce of mankind, and all the offices and + amusements of society. <a href="#linknote-15.40" name="linknoteref-15.40" + id="linknoteref-15.40">40</a> The important transactions of peace and war + were prepared or concluded by solemn sacrifices, in which the magistrate, + the senator, and the soldier, were obliged to preside or to participate. + <a href="#linknote-15.41" name="linknoteref-15.41" id="linknoteref-15.41">41</a> + The public spectacles were an essential part of the cheerful devotion of + the Pagans, and the gods were supposed to accept, as the most grateful + offering, the games that the prince and people celebrated in honor of + their peculiar festivals. <a href="#linknote-15.42" + name="linknoteref-15.42" id="linknoteref-15.42">42</a> The Christians, who + with pious horror avoided the abomination of the circus or the theatre, + found himself encompassed with infernal snares in every convivial + entertainment, as often as his friends, invoking the hospitable deities, + poured out libations to each other’s happiness. <a href="#linknote-15.43" + name="linknoteref-15.43" id="linknoteref-15.43">43</a> When the bride, + struggling with well-affected reluctance, was forced in hymenæal pomp + over the threshold of her new habitation, <a href="#linknote-15.44" + name="linknoteref-15.44" id="linknoteref-15.44">44</a> or when the sad + procession of the dead slowly moved towards the funeral pile, <a + href="#linknote-15.45" name="linknoteref-15.45" id="linknoteref-15.45">45</a> + the Christian, on these interesting occasions, was compelled to desert the + persons who were the dearest to him, rather than contract the guilt + inherent to those impious ceremonies. Every art and every trade that was + in the least concerned in the framing or adorning of idols was polluted by + the stain of idolatry; <a href="#linknote-15.46" name="linknoteref-15.46" + id="linknoteref-15.46">46</a> a severe sentence, since it devoted to + eternal misery the far greater part of the community, which is employed in + the exercise of liberal or mechanic professions. If we cast our eyes over + the numerous remains of antiquity, we shall perceive, that besides the + immediate representations of the gods, and the holy instruments of their + worship, the elegant forms and agreeable fictions consecrated by the + imagination of the Greeks, were introduced as the richest ornaments of the + houses, the dress, and the furniture of the Pagans. <a + href="#linknote-15.47" name="linknoteref-15.47" id="linknoteref-15.47">47</a> + Even the arts of music and painting, of eloquence and poetry, flowed from + the same impure origin. In the style of the fathers, Apollo and the Muses + were the organs of the infernal spirit; Homer and Virgil were the most + eminent of his servants; and the beautiful mythology which pervades and + animates the compositions of their genius, is destined to celebrate the + glory of the dæmons. Even the common language of Greece and Rome abounded + with familiar but impious expressions, which the imprudent Christian might + too carelessly utter, or too patiently hear. <a href="#linknote-15.48" + name="linknoteref-15.48" id="linknoteref-15.48">48</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.40" id="linknote-15.40"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 40 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.40">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian has written + a most severe treatise against idolatry, to caution his brethren against + the hourly danger of incurring that guilt. Recogita sylvam, et quantæ + latitant spinæ. De Corona Militis, c. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.41" id="linknote-15.41"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 41 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.41">return</a>)<br/> [ The Roman senate was + always held in a temple or consecrated place. (Aulus Gellius, xiv. 7.) + Before they entered on business, every senator dropped some wine and + frankincense on the altar. Sueton. in August. c. 35.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.42" id="linknote-15.42"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 42 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.42">return</a>)<br/> [ See Tertullian, De + Spectaculis. This severe reformer shows no more indulgence to a tragedy of + Euripides, than to a combat of gladiators. The dress of the actors + particularly offends him. By the use of the lofty buskin, they impiously + strive to add a cubit to their stature. c. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.43" id="linknote-15.43"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 43 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.43">return</a>)<br/> [ The ancient practice + of concluding the entertainment with libations, may be found in every + classic. Socrates and Seneca, in their last moments, made a noble + application of this custom. Postquam stagnum, calidæ aquæ introiit, + respergens proximos servorum, addita voce, libare se liquorem illum Jovi + Liberatori. Tacit. Annal. xv. 64.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.44" id="linknote-15.44"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 44 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.44">return</a>)<br/> [ See the elegant but + idolatrous hymn of Catullus, on the nuptials of Manlius and Julia. O + Hymen, Hymenæe Io! Quis huic Deo compararier ausit?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.45" id="linknote-15.45"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 45 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.45">return</a>)<br/> [ The ancient funerals + (in those of Misenus and Pallas) are no less accurately described by + Virgil, than they are illustrated by his commentator Servius. The pile + itself was an altar, the flames were fed with the blood of victims, and + all the assistants were sprinkled with lustral water.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.46" id="linknote-15.46"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 46 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.46">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian de + Idololatria, c. 11. * Note: The exaggerated and declamatory opinions of + Tertullian ought not to be taken as the general sentiment of the early + Christians. Gibbon has too often allowed himself to consider the peculiar + notions of certain Fathers of the Church as inherent in Christianity. This + is not accurate.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.47" id="linknote-15.47"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 47 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.47">return</a>)<br/> [ See every part of + Montfaucon’s Antiquities. Even the reverses of the Greek and Roman coins + were frequently of an idolatrous nature. Here indeed the scruples of the + Christian were suspended by a stronger passion. Note: All this scrupulous + nicety is at variance with the decision of St. Paul about meat offered to + idols, 1, Cor. x. 21— 32.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.48" id="linknote-15.48"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 48 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.48">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian de + Idololatria, c. 20, 21, 22. If a Pagan friend (on the occasion perhaps of + sneezing) used the familiar expression of “Jupiter bless you,” the + Christian was obliged to protest against the divinity of Jupiter.] + </p> + <p> + The dangerous temptations which on every side lurked in ambush to surprise + the unguarded believer, assailed him with redoubled violence on the days + of solemn festivals. So artfully were they framed and disposed throughout + the year, that superstition always wore the appearance of pleasure, and + often of virtue. Some of the most sacred festivals in the Roman ritual + were destined to salute the new calends of January with vows of public and + private felicity; to indulge the pious remembrance of the dead and living; + to ascertain the inviolable bounds of property; to hail, on the return of + spring, the genial powers of fecundity; to perpetuate the two memorable + æras of Rome, the foundation of the city and that of the republic; and to + restore, during the humane license of the Saturnalia, the primitive + equality of mankind. Some idea may be conceived of the abhorrence of the + Christians for such impious ceremonies, by the scrupulous delicacy which + they displayed on a much less alarming occasion. On days of general + festivity it was the custom of the ancients to adorn their doors with + lamps and with branches of laurel, and to crown their heads with a garland + of flowers. This innocent and elegant practice might perhaps have been + tolerated as a mere civil institution. But it most unluckily happened that + the doors were under the protection of the household gods, that the laurel + was sacred to the lover of Daphne, and that garlands of flowers, though + frequently worn as a symbol either of joy or mourning, had been dedicated in + their first origin to the service of superstition. The trembling + Christians, who were persuaded in this instance to comply with the fashion + of their country, and the commands of the magistrate, labored under the + most gloomy apprehensions, from the reproaches of his own conscience, the + censures of the church, and the denunciations of divine vengeance. <a + href="#linknote-15.49" name="linknoteref-15.49" id="linknoteref-15.49">49</a> + <a href="#linknote-15.50" name="linknoteref-15.50" id="linknoteref-15.50">50</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.49" id="linknote-15.49"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 49 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.49">return</a>)<br/> [ Consult the most + labored work of Ovid, his imperfect Fasti. He finished no more than the + first six months of the year. The compilation of Macrobius is called the + Saturnalia, but it is only a small part of the first book that bears any + relation to the title.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.50" id="linknote-15.50"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 50 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.50">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian has + composed a defence, or rather panegyric, of the rash action of a Christian + soldier, who, by throwing away his crown of laurel, had exposed himself + and his brethren to the most imminent danger. By the mention of the + emperors, (Severus and Caracalla,) it is evident, notwithstanding the + wishes of M. de Tillemont, that Tertullian composed his treatise De Corona + long before he was engaged in the errors of the Montanists. See Memoires + Ecclesiastiques, tom. iii. p. 384. Note: The soldier did not tear off his + crown to throw it down with contempt; he did not even throw it away; he + held it in his hand, while others were it on their heads. Solus libero + capite, ornamento in manu otioso.—G Note: Tertullian does not + expressly name the two emperors, Severus and Caracalla: he speaks only of + two emperors, and of a long peace which the church had enjoyed. It is + generally agreed that Tertullian became a Montanist about the year 200: + his work, de Corona Militis, appears to have been written, at the earliest + about the year 202 before the persecution of Severus: it may be + maintained, then, that it is subsequent to the Montanism of the author. + See Mosheim, Diss. de Apol. Tertull. p. 53. Biblioth. Amsterd. tom. x. + part ii. p. 292. Cave’s Hist. Lit. p. 92, 93.—G. ——The + state of Tertullian’s opinions at the particular period is almost an idle + question. “The fiery African” is not at any time to be considered a fair + representative of Christianity.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such was the anxious diligence which was required to guard the chastity of + the gospel from the infectious breath of idolatry. The superstitious + observances of public or private rites were carelessly practised, from + education and habit, by the followers of the established religion. But as + often as they occurred, they afforded the Christians an opportunity of + declaring and confirming their zealous opposition. By these frequent + protestations their attachment to the faith was continually fortified; and + in proportion to the increase of zeal, they combated with the more ardor + and success in the holy war, which they had undertaken against the empire + of the demons. + </p> + <p> + II. The writings of Cicero <a href="#linknote-15.51" + name="linknoteref-15.51" id="linknoteref-15.51">51</a> represent in the + most lively colors the ignorance, the errors, and the uncertainty of the + ancient philosophers with regard to the immortality of the soul. When they + are desirous of arming their disciples against the fear of death, they + inculcate, as an obvious though melancholy position, that the fatal + stroke of our dissolution releases us from the calamities of life; and + that those can no longer suffer, who no longer exist. Yet there were a few + sages of Greece and Rome who had conceived a more exalted, and, in some + respects, a juster idea of human nature, though it must be confessed, that + in the sublime inquiry, their reason had been often guided by their + imagination, and that their imagination had been prompted by their vanity. + When they viewed with complacency the extent of their own mental powers, + when they exercised the various faculties of memory, of fancy, and of + judgment, in the most profound speculations, or the most important labors, + and when they reflected on the desire of fame, which transported them into + future ages, far beyond the bounds of death and of the grave, they were + unwilling to confound themselves with the beasts of the field, or to + suppose that a being, for whose dignity they entertained the most sincere + admiration, could be limited to a spot of earth, and to a few years of + duration. With this favorable prepossession they summoned to their aid the + science, or rather the language, of Metaphysics. They soon discovered, + that as none of the properties of matter will apply to the operations of + the mind, the human soul must consequently be a substance distinct from + the body, pure, simple, and spiritual, incapable of dissolution, and + susceptible of a much higher degree of virtue and happiness after the + release from its corporeal prison. From these specious and noble + principles, the philosophers who trod in the footsteps of Plato deduced a + very unjustifiable conclusion, since they asserted, not only the future + immortality, but the past eternity, of the human soul, which they were too + apt to consider as a portion of the infinite and self-existing spirit, + which pervades and sustains the universe. <a href="#linknote-15.52" + name="linknoteref-15.52" id="linknoteref-15.52">52</a> A doctrine thus + removed beyond the senses and the experience of mankind might serve to + amuse the leisure of a philosophic mind; or, in the silence of solitude, + it might sometimes impart a ray of comfort to desponding virtue; but the + faint impression which had been received in the schools was soon + obliterated by the commerce and business of active life. We are + sufficiently acquainted with the eminent persons who flourished in the age + of Cicero and of the first Cæsars, with their actions, their characters, + and their motives, to be assured that their conduct in this life was never + regulated by any serious conviction of the rewards or punishments of a + future state. At the bar and in the senate of Rome the ablest orators were + not apprehensive of giving offence to their hearers by exposing that + doctrine as an idle and extravagant opinion, which was rejected with + contempt by every man of a liberal education and understanding. <a + href="#linknote-15.53" name="linknoteref-15.53" id="linknoteref-15.53">53</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.51" id="linknote-15.51"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 51 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.51">return</a>)<br/> [ In particular, the + first book of the Tusculan Questions, and the treatise De Senectute, and + the Somnium Scipionis, contain, in the most beautiful language, every + thing that Grecian philosophy, on Roman good sense, could possibly suggest + on this dark but important object.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.52" id="linknote-15.52"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 52 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.52">return</a>)<br/> [ The preexistence of + human souls, so far at least as that doctrine is compatible with religion, + was adopted by many of the Greek and Latin fathers. See Beausobre, Hist. + du Manicheisme, l. vi. c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.53" id="linknote-15.53"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 53 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.53">return</a>)<br/> [ See Cicero pro Cluent. + c. 61. Cæsar ap. Sallust. de Bell. Catilis n 50. Juvenal. Satir. ii. 149. + ——Esse aliquid manes, et subterranea regna, —————Nec + pueri credunt, nisi qui nondum æree lavantæ.] + </p> + <p> + Since therefore the most sublime efforts of philosophy can extend no + further than feebly to point out the desire, the hope, or, at most, the + probability, of a future state, there is nothing, except a divine + revelation, that can ascertain the existence and describe the condition, + of the invisible country which is destined to receive the souls of men + after their separation from the body. But we may perceive several defects + inherent to the popular religions of Greece and Rome, which rendered them + very unequal to so arduous a task. 1. The general system of their + mythology was unsupported by any solid proofs; and the wisest among the + Pagans had already disclaimed its usurped authority. 2. The description of + the infernal regions had been abandoned to the fancy of painters and of + poets, who peopled them with so many phantoms and monsters, who dispensed + their rewards and punishments with so little equity, that a solemn truth, + the most congenial to the human heart, was oppressed and disgraced by the + absurd mixture of the wildest fictions. <a href="#linknote-15.54" + name="linknoteref-15.54" id="linknoteref-15.54">54</a> 3. The doctrine of + a future state was scarcely considered among the devout polytheists of + Greece and Rome as a fundamental article of faith. The providence of the + gods, as it related to public communities rather than to private + individuals, was principally displayed on the visible theatre of the + present world. The petitions which were offered on the altars of Jupiter + or Apollo expressed the anxiety of their worshippers for temporal + happiness, and their ignorance or indifference concerning a future life. + <a href="#linknote-15.55" name="linknoteref-15.55" id="linknoteref-15.55">55</a> + The important truth of the immortality of the soul was inculcated + with more diligence, as well as success, in India, in Assyria, in Egypt, + and in Gaul; and since we cannot attribute such a difference to the + superior knowledge of the barbarians, we must ascribe it to the + influence of an established priesthood, which employed the motives of + virtue as the instrument of ambition. <a href="#linknote-15.56" + name="linknoteref-15.56" id="linknoteref-15.56">56</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.54" id="linknote-15.54"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 54 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.54">return</a>)<br/> [ The xith book of the + Odyssey gives a very dreary and incoherent account of the infernal shades. + Pindar and Virgil have embellished the picture; but even those poets, + though more correct than their great model, are guilty of very strange + inconsistencies. See Bayle, Responses aux Questions d’un Provincial, part + iii. c. 22.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.55" id="linknote-15.55"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 55 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.55">return</a>)<br/> [ See xvith epistle of + the first book of Horace, the xiiith Satire of Juvenal, and the iid Satire + of Persius: these popular discourses express the sentiment and language of + the multitude.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.56" id="linknote-15.56"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 56 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.56">return</a>)<br/> [ If we confine + ourselves to the Gauls, we may observe, that they intrusted, not only + their lives, but even their money, to the security of another world. Vetus + ille mos Gallorum occurrit (says Valerius Maximus, l. ii. c. 6, p. 10) + quos, memoria proditum est pecunias montuas, quæ his apud inferos + redderentur, dare solitos. The same custom is more darkly insinuated by + Mela, l. iii. c. 2. It is almost needless to add, that the profits of + trade hold a just proportion to the credit of the merchant, and that the + Druids derived from their holy profession a character of responsibility, + which could scarcely be claimed by any other order of men.] + </p> + <p> + We might naturally expect that a principle so essential to religion, would + have been revealed in the clearest terms to the chosen people of + Palestine, and that it might safely have been intrusted to the hereditary + priesthood of Aaron. It is incumbent on us to adore the mysterious + dispensations of Providence, <a href="#linknote-15.57" + name="linknoteref-15.57" id="linknoteref-15.57">57</a> when we discover + that the doctrine of the immortality of the soul is omitted in the law of + Moses; it is darkly insinuated by the prophets; and during the long period + which elapsed between the Egyptian and the Babylonian servitudes, the + hopes as well as fears of the Jews appear to have been confined within the + narrow compass of the present life. <a href="#linknote-15.58" + name="linknoteref-15.58" id="linknoteref-15.58">58</a> After Cyrus had + permitted the exiled nation to return into the promised land, and after + Ezra had restored the ancient records of their religion, two celebrated + sects, the Sadducees and the Pharisees, insensibly arose at Jerusalem. <a + href="#linknote-15.59" name="linknoteref-15.59" id="linknoteref-15.59">59</a> + The former, selected from the more opulent and distinguished ranks of + society, were strictly attached to the literal sense of the Mosaic law, + and they piously rejected the immortality of the soul, as an opinion that + received no countenance from the divine book, which they revered as the + only rule of their faith. To the authority of Scripture the Pharisees + added that of tradition, and they accepted, under the name of traditions, + several speculative tenets from the philosophy or religion of the eastern + nations. The doctrines of fate or predestination, of angels and spirits, + and of a future state of rewards and punishments, were in the number of + these new articles of belief; and as the Pharisees, by the austerity of + their manners, had drawn into their party the body of the Jewish people, + the immortality of the soul became the prevailing sentiment of the + synagogue, under the reign of the Asmonæan princes and pontiffs. The + temper of the Jews was incapable of contenting itself with such a cold and + languid assent as might satisfy the mind of a Polytheist; and as soon as + they admitted the idea of a future state, they embraced it with the zeal + which has always formed the characteristic of the nation. Their zeal, + however, added nothing to its evidence, or even probability: and it was + still necessary that the doctrine of life and immortality, which had been + dictated by nature, approved by reason, and received by superstition, + should obtain the sanction of divine truth from the authority and example + of Christ. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.57" id="linknote-15.57"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 57 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.57">return</a>)<br/> [ The right reverend + author of the Divine Legation of Moses as signs a very curious reason for + the omission, and most ingeniously retorts it on the unbelievers. * Note: + The hypothesis of Warburton concerning this remarkable fact, which, as far + as the Law of Moses, is unquestionable, made few disciples; and it is + difficult to suppose that it could be intended by the author himself for + more than a display of intellectual strength. Modern writers have + accounted in various ways for the silence of the Hebrew legislator on the + immortality of the soul. According to Michaelis, “Moses wrote as an + historian and as a lawgiver; he regulated the ecclesiastical discipline, + rather than the religious belief of his people; and the sanctions of the + law being temporal, he had no occasion, and as a civil legislator could + not with propriety, threaten punishments in another world.” See Michaelis, + Laws of Moses, art. 272, vol. iv. p. 209, Eng. Trans.; and Syntagma + Commentationum, p. 80, quoted by Guizot. M. Guizot adds, the “ingenious + conjecture of a philosophic theologian,” which approximates to an opinion + long entertained by the Editor. That writer believes, that in the state of + civilization at the time of the legislator, this doctrine, become popular + among the Jews, would necessarily have given birth to a multitude of + idolatrous superstitions which he wished to prevent. His primary object + was to establish a firm theocracy, to make his people the conservators of + the doctrine of the Divine Unity, the basis upon which Christianity was + hereafter to rest. He carefully excluded everything which could obscure or + weaken that doctrine. Other nations had strangely abused their notions on + the immortality of the soul; Moses wished to prevent this abuse: hence he + forbade the Jews from consulting necromancers, (those who evoke the + spirits of the dead.) Deut. xviii. 11. Those who reflect on the state of + the Pagans and the Jews, and on the facility with which idolatry crept in + on every side, will not be astonished that Moses has not developed a + doctrine of which the influence might be more pernicious than useful to + his people. Orat. Fest. de Vitæ Immort. Spe., &c., auct. Ph. Alb. + Stapfer, p. 12 13, 20. Berne, 1787. ——Moses, as well from the + intimations scattered in his writings, the passage relating to the + translation of Enoch, (Gen. v. 24,) the prohibition of necromancy, + (Michaelis believes him to be the author of the Book of Job though this + opinion is in general rejected; other learned writers consider this Book + to be coeval with and known to Moses,) as from his long residence in + Egypt, and his acquaintance with Egyptian wisdom, could not be ignorant of + the doctrine of the immortality of the soul. But this doctrine if + popularly known among the Jews, must have been purely Egyptian, and as so, + intimately connected with the whole religious system of that country. It + was no doubt moulded up with the tenet of the transmigration of the soul, + perhaps with notions analogous to the emanation system of India in which + the human soul was an efflux from or indeed a part of, the Deity. The + Mosaic religion drew a wide and impassable interval between the Creator + and created human beings: in this it differed from the Egyptian and all + the Eastern religions. As then the immortality of the soul was thus + inseparably blended with those foreign religions which were altogether to + be effaced from the minds of the people, and by no means necessary for the + establishment of the theocracy, Moses maintained silence on this point and + a purer notion of it was left to be developed at a more favorable period + in the history of man.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.58" id="linknote-15.58"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 58 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.58">return</a>)<br/> [ See Le Clerc + (Prolegomena ad Hist. Ecclesiast. sect. 1, c. 8) His authority seems to + carry the greater weight, as he has written a learned and judicious + commentary on the books of the Old Testament.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.59" id="linknote-15.59"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 59 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.59">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. Antiquitat. l. + xiii. c. 10. De Bell. Jud. ii. 8. According to the most natural + interpretation of his words, the Sadducees admitted only the Pentateuch; + but it has pleased some modern critics to add the Prophets to their creed, + and to suppose that they contented themselves with rejecting the + traditions of the Pharisees. Dr. Jortin has argued that point in his + Remarks on Ecclesiastical History, vol. ii. p. 103.] + </p> + <p> + When the promise of eternal happiness was proposed to mankind on condition + of adopting the faith, and of observing the precepts, of the gospel, it is + no wonder that so advantageous an offer should have been accepted by great + numbers of every religion, of every rank, and of every province in the + Roman empire. The ancient Christians were animated by a contempt for their + present existence, and by a just confidence of immortality, of which the + doubtful and imperfect faith of modern ages cannot give us any adequate + notion. In the primitive church, the influence of truth was very + powerfully strengthened by an opinion, which, however it may deserve + respect for its usefulness and antiquity, has not been found agreeable to + experience. It was universally believed, that the end of the world, and + the kingdom of heaven, were at hand. <a href="#linknote-15.591" + name="linknoteref-15.591" id="linknoteref-15.591">591</a> The near + approach of this wonderful event had been predicted by the apostles; the + tradition of it was preserved by their earliest disciples, and those who + understood in their literal senses the discourse of Christ himself, were + obliged to expect the second and glorious coming of the Son of Man in the + clouds, before that generation was totally extinguished, which had beheld + his humble condition upon earth, and which might still be witness of the + calamities of the Jews under Vespasian or Hadrian. The revolution of + seventeen centuries has instructed us not to press too closely the + mysterious language of prophecy and revelation; but as long as, for wise + purposes, this error was permitted to subsist in the church, it was + productive of the most salutary effects on the faith and practice of + Christians, who lived in the awful expectation of that moment, when the + globe itself, and all the various race of mankind, should tremble at the + appearance of their divine Judge. <a href="#linknote-15.60" + name="linknoteref-15.60" id="linknoteref-15.60">60</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.591" id="linknote-15.591"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 591 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.591">return</a>)<br/> [ This was, in fact, + an integral part of the Jewish notion of the Messiah, from which the minds + of the apostles themselves were but gradually detached. See Bertholdt, + Christologia Judæorum, concluding chapters—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.60" id="linknote-15.60"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 60 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.60">return</a>)<br/> [ This expectation was + countenanced by the twenty-fourth chapter of St. Matthew, and by the first + epistle of St. Paul to the Thessalonians. Erasmus removes the difficulty + by the help of allegory and metaphor; and the learned Grotius ventures to + insinuate, that, for wise purposes, the pious deception was permitted to + take place. * Note: Some modern theologians explain it without discovering + either allegory or deception. They say, that Jesus Christ, after having + proclaimed the ruin of Jerusalem and of the Temple, speaks of his second + coming and the sings which were to precede it; but those who believed that + the moment was near deceived themselves as to the sense of two words, an + error which still subsists in our versions of the Gospel according to St. + Matthew, xxiv. 29, 34. In verse 29, we read, “Immediately after the + tribulation of those days shall the sun be darkened,” &c. The Greek + word signifies all at once, suddenly, not immediately; so that it + signifies only the sudden appearance of the signs which Jesus Christ + announces not the shortness of the interval which was to separate them + from the “days of tribulation,” of which he was speaking. The verse 34 is + this “Verily I say unto you, This generation shall not pass till all these + things shall be fulfilled.” Jesus, speaking to his disciples, uses these + words, which the translators have rendered by this generation, but which + means the race, the filiation of my disciples; that is, he speaks of a + class of men, not of a generation. The true sense then, according to these + learned men, is, In truth I tell you that this race of men, of which you + are the commencement, shall not pass away till this shall take place; that + is to say, the succession of Christians shall not cease till his coming. + See Commentary of M. Paulus on the New Test., edit. 1802, tom. iii. p. + 445,—446.—G. ——Others, as Rosenmuller and Kuinoel, + in loc., confine this passage to a highly figurative description of the + ruins of the Jewish city and polity.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.4"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IV. + </h2> + <p> + The ancient and popular doctrine of the Millennium was intimately + connected with the second coming of Christ. As the works of the creation + had been finished in six days, their duration in their present state, + according to a tradition which was attributed to the prophet Elijah, was + fixed to six thousand years. <a href="#linknote-15.61" + name="linknoteref-15.61" id="linknoteref-15.61">61</a> By the same analogy + it was inferred, that this long period of labor and contention, which was + now almost elapsed, <a href="#linknote-15.62" name="linknoteref-15.62" + id="linknoteref-15.62">62</a> would be succeeded by a joyful Sabbath of a + thousand years; and that Christ, with the triumphant band of the saints + and the elect who had escaped death, or who had been miraculously revived, + would reign upon earth till the time appointed for the last and general + resurrection. So pleasing was this hope to the mind of believers, that the + <i>New Jerusalem</i>, the seat of this blissful kingdom, was quickly adorned with + all the gayest colors of the imagination. A felicity consisting only of + pure and spiritual pleasure would have appeared too refined for its + inhabitants, who were still supposed to possess their human nature and + senses. A garden of Eden, with the amusements of the pastoral life, was no + longer suited to the advanced state of society which prevailed under the + Roman empire. A city was therefore erected of gold and precious stones, + and a supernatural plenty of corn and wine was bestowed on the adjacent + territory; in the free enjoyment of whose spontaneous productions the + happy and benevolent people was never to be restrained by any jealous laws + of exclusive property. <a href="#linknote-15.63" name="linknoteref-15.63" + id="linknoteref-15.63">63</a> The assurance of such a Millennium was + carefully inculcated by a succession of fathers from Justin Martyr, <a + href="#linknote-15.64" name="linknoteref-15.64" id="linknoteref-15.64">64</a> + and Irenæus, who conversed with the immediate disciples of the apostles, + down to Lactantius, who was preceptor to the son of Constantine. <a + href="#linknote-15.65" name="linknoteref-15.65" id="linknoteref-15.65">65</a> + Though it might not be universally received, it appears to have been the + reigning sentiment of the orthodox believers; and it seems so well adapted + to the desires and apprehensions of mankind, that it must have contributed + in a very considerable degree to the progress of the Christian faith. But + when the edifice of the church was almost completed, the temporary support + was laid aside. The doctrine of Christ’s reign upon earth was at first + treated as a profound allegory, was considered by degrees as a doubtful + and useless opinion, and was at length rejected as the absurd invention of + heresy and fanaticism. <a href="#linknote-15.66" name="linknoteref-15.66" + id="linknoteref-15.66">66</a> A mysterious prophecy, which still forms a + part of the sacred canon, but which was thought to favor the exploded + sentiment, has very narrowly escaped the proscription of the church. <a + href="#linknote-15.67" name="linknoteref-15.67" id="linknoteref-15.67">67</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.61" id="linknote-15.61"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 61 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.61">return</a>)<br/> [ See Burnet’s Sacred + Theory, part iii. c. 5. This tradition may be traced as high as the the + author of Epistle of Barnabas, who wrote in the first century, and who + seems to have been half a Jew. * Note: In fact it is purely Jewish. See + Mosheim, De Reb. Christ. ii. 8. Lightfoot’s Works, 8vo. edit. vol. iii. p. + 37. Bertholdt, Christologia Judæorum ch. 38.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.62" id="linknote-15.62"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 62 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.62">return</a>)<br/> [ The primitive church + of Antioch computed almost 6000 years from the creation of the world to + the birth of Christ. Africanus, Lactantius, and the Greek church, have + reduced that number to 5500, and Eusebius has contented himself with 5200 + years. These calculations were formed on the Septuagint, which was + universally received during the six first centuries. The authority of the + vulgate and of the Hebrew text has determined the moderns, Protestants as + well as Catholics, to prefer a period of about 4000 years; though, in the + study of profane antiquity, they often find themselves straitened by those + narrow limits. * Note: Most of the more learned modern English + Protestants, Dr. Hales, Mr. Faber, Dr. Russel, as well as the Continental + writers, adopt the larger chronology. There is little doubt that the + narrower system was framed by the Jews of Tiberias; it was clearly neither + that of St. Paul, nor of Josephus, nor of the Samaritan Text. It is + greatly to be regretted that the chronology of the earlier Scriptures + should ever have been made a religious question—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.63" id="linknote-15.63"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 63 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.63">return</a>)<br/> [ Most of these pictures + were borrowed from a misrepresentation of Isaiah, Daniel, and the + Apocalypse. One of the grossest images may be found in Irenæus, (l. v. p. + 455,) the disciple of Papias, who had seen the apostle St. John.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.64" id="linknote-15.64"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 64 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.64">return</a>)<br/> [ See the second + dialogue of Justin with Triphon, and the seventh book of Lactantius. It is + unnecessary to allege all the intermediate fathers, as the fact is not + disputed. Yet the curious reader may consult Daille de Uus Patrum, l. ii. + c. 4.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.65" id="linknote-15.65"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 65 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.65">return</a>)<br/> [ The testimony of + Justin of his own faith and that of his orthodox brethren, in the doctrine + of a Millennium, is delivered in the clearest and most solemn manner, + (Dialog. cum Tryphonte Jud. p. 177, 178, edit. Benedictin.) If in the + beginning of this important passage there is any thing like an + inconsistency, we may impute it, as we think proper, either to the author + or to his transcribers. * Note: The Millenium is described in what once + stood as the XLIst Article of the English Church (see Collier, Eccles. + Hist., for Articles of Edw. VI.) as “a fable of Jewish dotage.” The whole + of these gross and earthly images may be traced in the works which treat + on the Jewish traditions, in Lightfoot, Schoetgen, and Eisenmenger; “Das + enthdeckte Judenthum” t. ii 809; and briefly in Bertholdt, i. c. 38, 39.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.66" id="linknote-15.66"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 66 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.66">return</a>)<br/> [ Dupin, Bibliotheque + Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 223, tom. ii. p. 366, and Mosheim, p. 720; + though the latter of these learned divines is not altogether candid on + this occasion.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.67" id="linknote-15.67"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 67 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.67">return</a>)<br/> [ In the council of + Laodicea, (about the year 360,) the Apocalypse was tacitly excluded from + the sacred canon, by the same churches of Asia to which it is addressed; + and we may learn from the complaint of Sulpicius Severus, that their + sentence had been ratified by the greater number of Christians of his + time. From what causes then is the Apocalypse at present so generally + received by the Greek, the Roman, and the Protestant churches? The + following ones may be assigned. 1. The Greeks were subdued by the + authority of an impostor, who, in the sixth century, assumed the character + of Dionysius the Areopagite. 2. A just apprehension that the grammarians + might become more important than the theologians, engaged the council of + Trent to fix the seal of their infallibility on all the books of Scripture + contained in the Latin Vulgate, in the number of which the Apocalypse was + fortunately included. (Fr. Paolo, Istoria del Concilio Tridentino, l. ii.) + 3. The advantage of turning those mysterious prophecies against the See of + Rome, inspired the Protestants with uncommon veneration for so useful an + ally. See the ingenious and elegant discourses of the present bishop of + Litchfield on that unpromising subject. * Note: The exclusion of the + Apocalypse is not improbably assigned to its obvious unfitness to be read + in churches. It is to be feared that a history of the interpretation of + the Apocalypse would not give a very favorable view either of the wisdom + or the charity of the successive ages of Christianity. Wetstein’s + interpretation, differently modified, is adopted by most Continental + scholars.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Whilst the happiness and glory of a temporal reign were promised to the + disciples of Christ, the most dreadful calamities were denounced against + an unbelieving world. The edification of a new Jerusalem was to advance by + equal steps with the destruction of the mystic Babylon; and as long as the + emperors who reigned before Constantine persisted in the profession of + idolatry, the epithet of Babylon was applied to the city and to the empire + of Rome. A regular series was prepared of all the moral and physical evils + which can afflict a flourishing nation; intestine discord, and the + invasion of the fiercest barbarians from the unknown regions of the North; + pestilence and famine, comets and eclipses, earthquakes and inundations. + <a href="#linknote-15.68" name="linknoteref-15.68" id="linknoteref-15.68">68</a> + All these were only so many preparatory and alarming signs of the great + catastrophe of Rome, when the country of the Scipios and Cæsars should be + consumed by a flame from Heaven, and the city of the seven hills, with her + palaces, her temples, and her triumphal arches, should be buried in a vast + lake of fire and brimstone. It might, however, afford some consolation to + Roman vanity, that the period of their empire would be that of the world + itself; which, as it had once perished by the element of water, was + destined to experience a second and a speedy destruction from the element + of fire. In the opinion of a general conflagration, the faith of the + Christian very happily coincided with the tradition of the East, the + philosophy of the Stoics, and the analogy of Nature; and even the country, + which, from religious motives, had been chosen for the origin and + principal scene of the conflagration, was the best adapted for that + purpose by natural and physical causes; by its deep caverns, beds of + sulphur, and numerous volcanoes, of which those of Ætna, of Vesuvius, + and of Lipari, exhibit a very imperfect representation. The calmest and + most intrepid sceptic could not refuse to acknowledge that the destruction + of the present system of the world by fire was in itself extremely + probable. The Christian, who founded his belief much less on the + fallacious arguments of reason than on the authority of tradition and the + interpretation of Scripture, expected it with terror and confidence as a + certain and approaching event; and as his mind was perpetually filled with + the solemn idea, he considered every disaster that happened to the empire + as an infallible symptom of an expiring world. <a href="#linknote-15.69" + name="linknoteref-15.69" id="linknoteref-15.69">69</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.68" id="linknote-15.68"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 68 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.68">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactantius (Institut. + Divin. vii. 15, &c.) relates the dismal talk of futurity with great + spirit and eloquence. * Note: Lactantius had a notion of a great Asiatic + empire, which was previously to rise on the ruins of the Roman: quod + Romanum nomen animus dicere, sed dicam. quia futurum est tolletur de + terra, et impere. Asiam revertetur.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.69" id="linknote-15.69"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 69 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.69">return</a>)<br/> [ On this subject every + reader of taste will be entertained with the third part of Burnet’s Sacred + Theory. He blends philosophy, Scripture, and tradition, into one + magnificent system; in the description of which he displays a strength of + fancy not inferior to that of Milton himself.] + </p> + <p> + The condemnation of the wisest and most virtuous of the Pagans, on account + of their ignorance or disbelief of the divine truth, seems to offend the + reason and the humanity of the present age. <a href="#linknote-15.70" + name="linknoteref-15.70" id="linknoteref-15.70">70</a> But the primitive + church, whose faith was of a much firmer consistence, delivered over, + without hesitation, to eternal torture, the far greater part of the human + species. A charitable hope might perhaps be indulged in favor of Socrates, + or some other sages of antiquity, who had consulted the light of reason + before that of the gospel had arisen. <a href="#linknote-15.71" + name="linknoteref-15.71" id="linknoteref-15.71">71</a> But it was + unanimously affirmed, that those who, since the birth or the death of + Christ, had obstinately persisted in the worship of the dæmons, neither + deserved nor could expect a pardon from the irritated justice of the + Deity. These rigid sentiments, which had been unknown to the ancient + world, appear to have infused a spirit of bitterness into a system of love + and harmony. The ties of blood and friendship were frequently torn asunder + by the difference of religious faith; and the Christians, who, in this + world, found themselves oppressed by the power of the Pagans, were + sometimes seduced by resentment and spiritual pride to delight in the + prospect of their future triumph. “You are fond of spectacles,” exclaims + the stern Tertullian; “expect the greatest of all spectacles, the last and + eternal judgment of the universe. <a href="#linknote-15.71b" + name="linknoteref-15.71b" id="linknoteref-15.71b">71b</a> How shall I + admire, how laugh, how rejoice, how exult, when I behold so many proud + monarchs, so many fancied gods, groaning in the lowest abyss of darkness; + so many magistrates, who persecuted the name of the Lord, liquefying in + fiercer fires than they ever kindled against the Christians; so many sage + philosophers blushing in red-hot flames with their deluded scholars; so + many celebrated poets trembling before the tribunal, not of Minos, but of + Christ; so many tragedians, more tuneful in the expression of their own + sufferings; so many dancers.” + </p> + <p> + <a href="#linknote-15.711" name="linknoteref-15.711" + id="linknoteref-15.711">711</a> But the humanity of the reader will permit + me to draw a veil over the rest of this infernal description, which the + zealous African pursues in a long variety of affected and unfeeling + witticisms. <a href="#linknote-15.72" name="linknoteref-15.72" + id="linknoteref-15.72">72</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.70" id="linknote-15.70"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 70 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.70">return</a>)<br/> [ And yet whatever may + be the language of individuals, it is still the public doctrine of all the + Christian churches; nor can even our own refuse to admit the conclusions + which must be drawn from the viiith and the xviiith of her Articles. The + Jansenists, who have so diligently studied the works of the fathers, + maintain this sentiment with distinguished zeal; and the learned M. de + Tillemont never dismisses a virtuous emperor without pronouncing his + damnation. Zuinglius is perhaps the only leader of a party who has ever + adopted the milder sentiment, and he gave no less offence to the Lutherans + than to the Catholics. See Bossuet, Histoire des Variations des Eglises + Protestantes, l. ii. c. 19—22.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.71" id="linknote-15.71"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.71">return</a>)<br/> [ Justin and Clemens of + Alexandria allow that some of the philosophers were instructed by the + Logos; confounding its double signification of the human reason, and of + the Divine Word.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.711" id="linknote-15.711"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 711 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.711">return</a>)<br/> [ This translation is + not exact: the first sentence is imperfect. Tertullian says, Ille dies + nationibus insperatus, ille derisus, cum tanta sacculi vetustas et tot + ejus nativitates uno igne haurientur. The text does not authorize the + exaggerated expressions, so many magistrates, so many sago philosophers, + so many poets, &c.; but simply magistrates, philosophers, poets.—G. + —It is not clear that Gibbon’s version or paraphrase is incorrect: + Tertullian writes, tot tantosque reges item præsides, &c.—M.] + <a name="linknote-15.71b" id="linknote-15.71b"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 71b (<a href="#linknoteref-15.71b">return</a>)<br/> [Tertullian, de + Spectaculis, c. 30. In order to ascertain the degree of authority which + the zealous African had acquired it may be sufficient to allege the + testimony of Cyprian, the doctor and guide of all the western churches. + (See Prudent. Hym. xiii. 100.) As often as he applied himself to his daily + study of the writings of Tertullian, he was accustomed to say, “Da mihi + magistrum, Give me my master.” (Hieronym. de Viris Illustribus, tom. i. p. + 284.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.72" id="linknote-15.72"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 72 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.72">return</a>)<br/> [ The object of + Tertullian’s vehemence in his Treatise, was to keep the Christians away + from the secular games celebrated by the Emperor Severus: It has not + prevented him from showing himself in other places full of benevolence and + charity towards unbelievers: the spirit of the gospel has sometimes + prevailed over the violence of human passions: Qui ergo putaveris nihil + nos de salute Cæsaris curare (he says in his Apology) inspice Dei voces, + literas nostras. Scitote ex illis præceptum esse nobis ad redudantionem, + benignitates etiam pro inimicis Deum orare, et pro persecutoribus cona + precari. Sed etiam nominatim atque manifeste orate inquit (Christus) pro + regibus et pro principibus et potestatibus ut omnia sint tranquilla vobis + Tert. Apol. c. 31.—G. ——It would be wiser for + Christianity, retreating upon its genuine records in the New Testament, to + disclaim this fierce African, than to identify itself with his furious + invectives by unsatisfactory apologies for their unchristian fanaticism.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Doubtless there were many among the primitive Christians of a temper more + suitable to the meekness and charity of their profession. There were many + who felt a sincere compassion for the danger of their friends and + countrymen, and who exerted the most benevolent zeal to save them from the + impending destruction. + </p> + <p> + The careless Polytheist, assailed by new and unexpected terrors, against + which neither his priests nor his philosophers could afford him any + certain protection, was very frequently terrified and subdued by the + menace of eternal tortures. His fears might assist the progress of his + faith and reason; and if he could once persuade himself to suspect that + the Christian religion might possibly be true, it became an easy task to + convince him that it was the safest and most prudent party that he could + possibly embrace. + </p> + <p> + III. The supernatural gifts, which even in this life were ascribed to the + Christians above the rest of mankind, must have conduced to their own + comfort, and very frequently to the conviction of infidels. Besides the + occasional prodigies, which might sometimes be effected by the immediate + interposition of the Deity when he suspended the laws of Nature for the + service of religion, the Christian church, from the time of the apostles + and their first disciples, <a href="#linknote-15.73" + name="linknoteref-15.73" id="linknoteref-15.73">73</a> has claimed an + uninterrupted succession of miraculous powers, the gift of tongues, of + vision, and of prophecy, the power of expelling dæmons, of healing the + sick, and of raising the dead. The knowledge of foreign languages was + frequently communicated to the contemporaries of Irenæus, though Irenæus + himself was left to struggle with the difficulties of a barbarous dialect, + whilst he preached the gospel to the natives of Gaul. <a + href="#linknote-15.74" name="linknoteref-15.74" id="linknoteref-15.74">74</a> + The divine inspiration, whether it was conveyed in the form of a waking or + of a sleeping vision, is described as a favor very liberally bestowed on + all ranks of the faithful, on women as on elders, on boys as well as upon + bishops. When their devout minds were sufficiently prepared by a course of + prayer, of fasting, and of vigils, to receive the extraordinary impulse, + they were transported out of their senses, and delivered in ecstasy what + was inspired, being mere organs of the Holy Spirit, just as a pipe or + flute is of him who blows into it. <a href="#linknote-15.75" + name="linknoteref-15.75" id="linknoteref-15.75">75</a> We may add, that + the design of these visions was, for the most part, either to disclose the + future history, or to guide the present administration, of the church. The + expulsion of the dæmons from the bodies of those unhappy persons whom + they had been permitted to torment, was considered as a signal though + ordinary triumph of religion, and is repeatedly alleged by the ancient + apoligists, as the most convincing evidence of the truth of Christianity. + The awful ceremony was usually performed in a public manner, and in the + presence of a great number of spectators; the patient was relieved by the + power or skill of the exorcist, and the vanquished dæmon was heard to + confess that he was one of the fabled gods of antiquity, who had impiously + usurped the adoration of mankind. <a href="#linknote-15.76" + name="linknoteref-15.76" id="linknoteref-15.76">76</a> But the miraculous + cure of diseases of the most inveterate or even preternatural kind can no + longer occasion any surprise, when we recollect, that in the days of + Irenæus, about the end of the second century, the resurrection of the + dead was very far from being esteemed an uncommon event; that the miracle + was frequently performed on necessary occasions, by great fasting and the + joint supplication of the church of the place, and that the persons thus + restored to their prayers had lived afterwards among them many years. <a + href="#linknote-15.77" name="linknoteref-15.77" id="linknoteref-15.77">77</a> + At such a period, when faith could boast of so many wonderful victories + over death, it seems difficult to account for the scepticism of those + philosophers, who still rejected and derided the doctrine of the + resurrection. A noble Grecian had rested on this important ground the + whole controversy, and promised Theophilus, Bishop of Antioch, that if he + could be gratified with the sight of a single person who had been actually + raised from the dead, he would immediately embrace the Christian religion. + It is somewhat remarkable, that the prelate of the first eastern church, + however anxious for the conversion of his friend, thought proper to + decline this fair and reasonable challenge. <a href="#linknote-15.78" + name="linknoteref-15.78" id="linknoteref-15.78">78</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.73" id="linknote-15.73"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 73 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.73">return</a>)<br/> [ Notwithstanding the + evasions of Dr. Middleton, it is impossible to overlook the clear traces + of visions and inspiration, which may be found in the apostolic fathers. * + Note: Gibbon should have noticed the distinct and remarkable passage from + Chrysostom, quoted by Middleton, (Works, vol. i. p. 105,) in which he + affirms the long discontinuance of miracles as a notorious fact.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.74" id="linknote-15.74"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 74 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.74">return</a>)<br/> [ Irenæus adv. Hæres. + Proem. p.3 Dr. Middleton (Free Inquiry, p. 96, &c.) observes, that as + this pretension of all others was the most difficult to support by art, it + was the soonest given up. The observation suits his hypothesis. * Note: + This passage of Irenæus contains no allusion to the gift of tongues; it + is merely an apology for a rude and unpolished Greek style, which could + not be expected from one who passed his life in a remote and barbarous + province, and was continually obliged to speak the Celtic language.—M. + Note: Except in the life of Pachomius, an Egyptian monk of the fourth + century. (see Jortin, Ecc. Hist. i. p. 368, edit. 1805,) and the latter + (not earlier) lives of Xavier, there is no claim laid to the gift of + tongues since the time of Irenæus; and of this claim, Xavier’s own + letters are profoundly silent. See Douglas’s Criterion, p. 76 edit. 1807.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.75" id="linknote-15.75"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 75 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.75">return</a>)<br/> [ Athenagoras in + Legatione. Justin Martyr, Cohort. ad Gentes Tertullian advers. Marcionit. + l. iv. These descriptions are not very unlike the prophetic fury, for + which Cicero (de Divinat.ii. 54) expresses so little reverence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.76" id="linknote-15.76"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 76 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.76">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian (Apolog. c. + 23) throws out a bold defiance to the Pagan magistrates. Of the primitive + miracles, the power of exorcising is the only one which has been assumed + by Protestants. * Note: But by Protestants neither of the most enlightened + ages nor most reasoning minds.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.77" id="linknote-15.77"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 77 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.77">return</a>)<br/> [ Irenæus adv. + Hæreses, l. ii. 56, 57, l. v. c. 6. Mr. Dodwell (Dissertat. ad Irenæum, + ii. 42) concludes, that the second century was still more fertile in + miracles than the first. * Note: It is difficult to answer Middleton’s + objection to this statement of Irenæus: “It is very strange, that from + the time of the apostles there is not a single instance of this miracle to + be found in the three first centuries; except a single case, slightly + intimated in Eusebius, from the Works of Papias; which he seems to rank + among the other fabulous stories delivered by that weak man.” Middleton, + Works, vol. i. p. 59. Bp. Douglas (Criterion, p 389) would consider + Irenæus to speak of what had “been performed formerly.” not in his own + time.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.78" id="linknote-15.78"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 78 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.78">return</a>)<br/> [ Theophilus ad + Autolycum, l. i. p. 345. Edit. Benedictin. Paris, 1742. * Note: A candid + sceptic might discern some impropriety in the Bishop being called upon to + perform a miracle on demand.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The miracles of the primitive church, after obtaining the sanction of + ages, have been lately attacked in a very free and ingenious inquiry, <a + href="#linknote-15.79" name="linknoteref-15.79" id="linknoteref-15.79">79</a> + which, though it has met with the most favorable reception from the + public, appears to have excited a general scandal among the divines of our + own as well as of the other Protestant churches of Europe. <a + href="#linknote-15.80" name="linknoteref-15.80" id="linknoteref-15.80">80</a> + Our different sentiments on this subject will be much less influenced by + any particular arguments, than by our habits of study and reflection; and, + above all, by the degree of evidence which we have accustomed ourselves to + require for the proof of a miraculous event. The duty of an historian does + not call upon him to interpose his private judgment in this nice and + important controversy; but he ought not to dissemble the difficulty of + adopting such a theory as may reconcile the interest of religion with that + of reason, of making a proper application of that theory, and of defining + with precision the limits of that happy period, exempt from error and from + deceit, to which we might be disposed to extend the gift of supernatural + powers. From the first of the fathers to the last of the popes, a + succession of bishops, of saints, of martyrs, and of miracles, is + continued without interruption; and the progress of superstition was so + gradual, and almost imperceptible, that we know not in what particular + link we should break the chain of tradition. Every age bears testimony to + the wonderful events by which it was distinguished, and its testimony + appears no less weighty and respectable than that of the preceding + generation, till we are insensibly led on to accuse our own inconsistency, + if in the eighth or in the twelfth century we deny to the venerable Bede, + or to the holy Bernard, the same degree of confidence which, in the second + century, we had so liberally granted to Justin or to Irenæus. <a + href="#linknote-15.81" name="linknoteref-15.81" id="linknoteref-15.81">81</a> + If the truth of any of those miracles is appreciated by their apparent use + and propriety, every age had unbelievers to convince, heretics to confute, + and idolatrous nations to convert; and sufficient motives might always be + produced to justify the interposition of Heaven. And yet, since every + friend to revelation is persuaded of the reality, and every reasonable man + is convinced of the cessation, of miraculous powers, it is evident that + there must have been <i>some period</i> in which they were either suddenly or + gradually withdrawn from the Christian church. Whatever æra is chosen for + that purpose, the death of the apostles, the conversion of the Roman + empire, or the extinction of the Arian heresy, <a href="#linknote-15.82" + name="linknoteref-15.82" id="linknoteref-15.82">82</a> the insensibility + of the Christians who lived at that time will equally afford a just matter + of surprise. They still supported their pretensions after they had lost + their power. Credulity performed the office of faith; fanaticism was + permitted to assume the language of inspiration, and the effects of + accident or contrivance were ascribed to supernatural causes. The recent + experience of genuine miracles should have instructed the Christian world + in the ways of Providence, and habituated their eye (if we may use a very + inadequate expression) to the style of the divine artist. Should the most + skilful painter of modern Italy presume to decorate his feeble imitations + with the name of Raphæl or of Correggio, the insolent fraud would be soon + discovered, and indignantly rejected. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.79" id="linknote-15.79"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 79 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.79">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Middleton sent out + his Introduction in the year 1747, published his Free Inquiry in 1749, and + before his death, which happened in 1750, he had prepared a vindication of + it against his numerous adversaries.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.80" id="linknote-15.80"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 80 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.80">return</a>)<br/> [ The university of + Oxford conferred degrees on his opponents. From the indignation of + Mosheim, (p. 221,) we may discover the sentiments of the Lutheran divines. + * Note: Yet many Protestant divines will now without reluctance confine + miracles to the time of the apostles, or at least to the first century.—M] + <a name="linknote-15.81" id="linknote-15.81"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 81 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.81">return</a>)<br/> [It may seem somewhat + remarkable, that Bernard of Clairvaux, who records so many miracles of his + friend St. Malachi, never takes any notice of his own, which, in their + turn, however, are carefully related by his companions and disciples. In + the long series of ecclesiastical history, does there exist a single + instance of a saint asserting that he himself possessed the gift of + miracles?] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.82" id="linknote-15.82"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 82 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.82">return</a>)<br/> [ The conversion of + Constantine is the æra which is most usually fixed by Protestants. The + more rational divines are unwilling to admit the miracles of the ivth, + whilst the more credulous are unwilling to reject those of the vth + century. * Note: All this appears to proceed on the principle that any + distinct line can be drawn in an unphilosophic age between wonders and + miracles, or between what piety, from their unexpected and extraordinary + nature, the marvellous concurrence of secondary causes to some remarkable + end, may consider providential interpositions, and miracles strictly so + called, in which the laws of nature are suspended or violated. It is + impossible to assign, on one side, limits to human credulity, on the + other, to the influence of the imagination on the bodily frame; but some + of the miracles recorded in the Gospels are such palpable impossibilities, + according to the known laws and operations of nature, that if recorded on + sufficient evidence, and the evidence we believe to be that of + eye-witnesses, we cannot reject them, without either asserting, with Hume, + that no evidence can prove a miracle, or that the Author of Nature has no + power of suspending its ordinary laws. But which of the post-apostolic + miracles will bear this test?—M.] + </p> + <p> + Whatever opinion may be entertained of the miracles of the primitive + church since the time of the apostles, this unresisting softness of + temper, so conspicuous among the believers of the second and third + centuries, proved of some accidental benefit to the cause of truth and + religion. In modern times, a latent and even involuntary scepticism + adheres to the most pious dispositions. Their admission of supernatural + truths is much less an active consent than a cold and passive + acquiescence. Accustomed long since to observe and to respect the invariable + order of Nature, our reason, or at least our imagination, is not + sufficiently prepared to sustain the visible action of the Deity. + </p> + <p> + But, in the first ages of Christianity, the situation of mankind was + extremely different. The most curious, or the most credulous, among the + Pagans, were often persuaded to enter into a society which asserted an + actual claim of miraculous powers. The primitive Christians perpetually + trod on mystic ground, and their minds were exercised by the habits of + believing the most extraordinary events. They felt, or they fancied, that + on every side they were incessantly assaulted by dæmons, comforted by + visions, instructed by prophecy, and surprisingly delivered from danger, + sickness, and from death itself, by the supplications of the church. The + real or imaginary prodigies, of which they so frequently conceived + themselves to be the objects, the instruments, or the spectators, very + happily disposed them to adopt with the same ease, but with far greater + justice, the authentic wonders of the evangelic history; and thus miracles + that exceeded not the measure of their own experience, inspired them with + the most lively assurance of mysteries which were acknowledged to surpass + the limits of their understanding. It is this deep impression of + supernatural truths which has been so much celebrated under the name of + faith; a state of mind described as the surest pledge of the divine favor + and of future felicity, and recommended as the first, or perhaps the only + merit of a Christian. According to the more rigid doctors, the moral + virtues, which may be equally practised by infidels, are destitute of any + value or efficacy in the work of our justification. + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.5"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part V. + </h2> + <p> + IV. But the primitive Christian demonstrated his faith by his virtues; and + it was very justly supposed that the divine persuasion, which enlightened + or subdued the understanding, must, at the same time, purify the heart, + and direct the actions, of the believer. The first apologists of + Christianity who justify the innocence of their brethren, and the writers + of a later period who celebrate the sanctity of their ancestors, display, + in the most lively colors, the reformation of manners which was introduced + into the world by the preaching of the gospel. As it is my intention to + remark only such human causes as were permitted to second the influence of + revelation, I shall slightly mention two motives which might naturally + render the lives of the primitive Christians much purer and more austere + than those of their Pagan contemporaries, or their degenerate successors; + repentance for their past sins, and the laudable desire of supporting the + reputation of the society in which they were engaged. <a + href="#linknote-15.83" name="linknoteref-15.83" id="linknoteref-15.83">83</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.83" id="linknote-15.83"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.83">return</a>)<br/> [ These, in the opinion + of the editor, are the most uncandid paragraphs in Gibbon’s History. He + ought either, with manly courage, to have denied the moral reformation + introduced by Christianity, or fairly to have investigated all its + motives; not to have confined himself to an insidious and sarcastic + description of the less pure and generous elements of the Christian + character as it appeared even at that early time.—M.] + </p> + <p> + It is a very ancient reproach, suggested by the ignorance or the malice of + infidelity, that the Christians allured into their party the most + atrocious criminals, who, as soon as they were touched by a sense of + remorse, were easily persuaded to wash away, in the water of baptism, the + guilt of their past conduct, for which the temples of the gods refused to + grant them any expiation. But this reproach, when it is cleared from + misrepresentation, contributes as much to the honor as it did to the + increase of the church. The friends of Christianity may acknowledge + without a blush that many of the most eminent saints had been before + their baptism the most abandoned sinners. Those persons, who in the world + had followed, though in an imperfect manner, the dictates of benevolence + and propriety, derived such a calm satisfaction from the opinion of their + own rectitude, as rendered them much less susceptible of the sudden + emotions of shame, of grief, and of terror, which have given birth to so + many wonderful conversions. After the example of their divine Master, the + missionaries of the gospel disdained not the society of men, and + especially of women, oppressed by the consciousness, and very often by the + effects, of their vices. As they emerged from sin and superstition to the + glorious hope of immortality, they resolved to devote themselves to a + life, not only of virtue, but of penitence. The desire of perfection + became the ruling passion of their soul; and it is well known that, while + reason embraces a cold mediocrity, our passions hurry us, with rapid + violence, over the space which lies between the most opposite extremes. <a + href="#linknote-15.83b" name="linknoteref-15.83b" id="linknoteref-15.83b">83b</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.83b" id="linknote-15.83b"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 83b (<a href="#linknoteref-15.83b">return</a>)<br/> [The imputations of + Celsus and Julian, with the defence of the fathers, are very fairly stated + by Spanheim, Commentaire sur les Cesars de Julian, p. 468.] + </p> + <p> + When the new converts had been enrolled in the number of the faithful, and + were admitted to the sacraments of the church, they found themselves + restrained from relapsing into their past disorders by another + consideration of a less spiritual, but of a very innocent and respectable + nature. Any particular society that has departed from the great body of + the nation, or the religion to which it belonged, immediately becomes the + object of universal as well as invidious observation. In proportion to the + smallness of its numbers, the character of the society may be affected by + the virtues and vices of the persons who compose it; and every member is + engaged to watch with the most vigilant attention over his own behavior, + and over that of his brethren, since, as he must expect to incur a part of + the common disgrace, he may hope to enjoy a share of the common + reputation. When the Christians of Bithynia were brought before the + tribunal of the younger Pliny, they assured the proconsul, that, far from + being engaged in any unlawful conspiracy, they were bound by a solemn + obligation to abstain from the commission of those crimes which disturb + the private or public peace of society, from theft, robbery, adultery, + perjury, and fraud. <a href="#linknote-15.84" name="linknoteref-15.84" + id="linknoteref-15.84">84</a> <a href="#linknote-15.841" + name="linknoteref-15.841" id="linknoteref-15.841">841</a> Near a century + afterwards, Tertullian, with an honest pride, could boast, that very few + Christians had suffered by the hand of the executioner, except on account + of their religion. <a href="#linknote-15.85" name="linknoteref-15.85" + id="linknoteref-15.85">85</a> Their serious and sequestered life, averse + to the gay luxury of the age, inured them to chastity, temperance, + economy, and all the sober and domestic virtues. As the greater number + were of some trade or profession, it was incumbent on them, by the + strictest integrity and the fairest dealing, to remove the suspicions + which the profane are too apt to conceive against the appearances of + sanctity. The contempt of the world exercised them in the habits of + humility, meekness, and patience. The more they were persecuted, the more + closely they adhered to each other. Their mutual charity and unsuspecting + confidence has been remarked by infidels, and was too often abused by + perfidious friends. <a href="#linknote-15.86" name="linknoteref-15.86" + id="linknoteref-15.86">86</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.84" id="linknote-15.84"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 84 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.84">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. * + Note: Is not the sense of Tertullian rather, if guilty of any other + offence, he had thereby ceased to be a Christian?—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.841" id="linknote-15.841"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 841 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.841">return</a>)<br/> [ And this + blamelessness was fully admitted by the candid and enlightened Roman.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.85" id="linknote-15.85"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 85 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.85">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian, Apolog. c. + 44. He adds, however, with some degree of hesitation, “Aut si aliud, jam + non Christianus.” * Note: Tertullian says positively no Christian, nemo + illic Christianus; for the rest, the limitation which he himself subjoins, + and which Gibbon quotes in the foregoing note, diminishes the force of + this assertion, and appears to prove that at least he knew none such.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.86" id="linknote-15.86"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 86 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.86">return</a>)<br/> [ The philosopher + Peregrinus (of whose life and death Lucian has left us so entertaining an + account) imposed, for a long time, on the credulous simplicity of the + Christians of Asia.] + </p> + <p> + It is a very honorable circumstance for the morals of the primitive + Christians, that even their faults, or rather errors, were derived from an + excess of virtue. The bishops and doctors of the church, whose evidence + attests, and whose authority might influence, the professions, the + principles, and even the practice of their contemporaries, had studied the + Scriptures with less skill than devotion; and they often received, in the + most literal sense, those rigid precepts of Christ and the apostles, to + which the prudence of succeeding commentators has applied a looser and + more figurative mode of interpretation. Ambitious to exalt the perfection + of the gospel above the wisdom of philosophy, the zealous fathers have + carried the duties of self-mortification, of purity, and of patience, to a + height which it is scarcely possible to attain, and much less to preserve, + in our present state of weakness and corruption. A doctrine so + extraordinary and so sublime must inevitably command the veneration of the + people; but it was ill calculated to obtain the suffrage of those worldly + philosophers who, in the conduct of this transitory life, consult only + the feelings of nature and the interest of society. <a + href="#linknote-15.87" name="linknoteref-15.87" id="linknoteref-15.87">87</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.87" id="linknote-15.87"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 87 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.87">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very judicious + treatise of Barbeyrac sur la Morale des Peres.] + </p> + <p> + There are two very natural propensities which we may distinguish in the + most virtuous and liberal dispositions, the love of pleasure and the love + of action. If the former is refined by art and learning, improved by the + charms of social intercourse, and corrected by a just regard to economy, + to health, and to reputation, it is productive of the greatest part of the + happiness of private life. The love of action is a principle of a much + stronger and more doubtful nature. It often leads to anger, to ambition, + and to revenge; but when it is guided by the sense of propriety and + benevolence, it becomes the parent of every virtue, and if those virtues + are accompanied with equal abilities, a family, a state, or an empire may + be indebted for their safety and prosperity to the undaunted courage of a + single man. To the love of pleasure we may therefore ascribe most of the + agreeable, to the love of action we may attribute most of the useful and + respectable, qualifications. The character in which both the one and the + other should be united and harmonized would seem to constitute the most + perfect idea of human nature. The insensible and inactive disposition, + which should be supposed alike destitute of both, would be rejected, by + the common consent of mankind, as utterly incapable of procuring any + happiness to the individual, or any public benefit to the world. But it + was not in <i>this</i> world that the primitive Christians were desirous of + making themselves either agreeable or useful. <a href="#linknote-15.871" + name="linknoteref-15.871" id="linknoteref-15.871">871</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.871" id="linknote-15.871"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 871 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.871">return</a>)<br/> [ El que me fait cette + homelie semi-stoicienne, semi-epicurienne? t’on jamais regarde l’amour du + plaisir comme l’un des principes de la perfection morale? Et de quel droit + faites vous de l’amour de l’action, et de l’amour du plaisir, les seuls + elemens de l’etre humain? Est ce que vous faites abstraction de la verite + en elle-meme, de la conscience et du sentiment du devoir? Est ce que vous + ne sentez point, par exemple, que le sacrifice du moi a la justice et a la + verite, est aussi dans le coeur de l’homme: que tout n’est pas pour lui + action ou plaisir, et que dans le bien ce n’est pas le mouvement, mais la + verite, qu’il cherche? Et puis * * Thucy dide et Tacite. ces maitres de + l’histoire, ont ils jamais introduits dans leur recits un fragment de + dissertation sur le plaisir et sur l’action. Villemain Cours de Lit. Franc + part ii. Lecon v.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The acquisition of knowledge, the exercise of our reason or fancy, and the + cheerful flow of unguarded conversation, may employ the leisure of a + liberal mind. Such amusements, however, were rejected with abhorrence, or + admitted with the utmost caution, by the severity of the fathers, who + despised all knowledge that was not useful to salvation, and who + considered all levity of discours as a criminal abuse of the gift of + speech. In our present state of existence the body is so inseparably + connected with the soul, that it seems to be our interest to taste, with + innocence and moderation, the enjoyments of which that faithful companion + is susceptible. Very different was the reasoning of our devout + predecessors; vainly aspiring to imitate the perfection of angels, they + disdained, or they affected to disdain, every earthly and corporeal + delight. <a href="#linknote-15.88" name="linknoteref-15.88" + id="linknoteref-15.88">88</a> Some of our senses indeed are necessary for + our preservation, others for our subsistence, and others again for our + information; and thus far it was impossible to reject the use of them. The + first sensation of pleasure was marked as the first moment of their abuse. + The unfeeling candidate for heaven was instructed, not only to resist the + grosser allurements of the taste or smell, but even to shut his ears + against the profane harmony of sounds, and to view with indifference the + most finished productions of human art. Gay apparel, magnificent houses, + and elegant furniture, were supposed to unite the double guilt of pride + and of sensuality; a simple and mortified appearance was more suitable to + the Christian who was certain of his sins and doubtful of his salvation. + In their censures of luxury the fathers are extremely minute and + circumstantial; <a href="#linknote-15.89" name="linknoteref-15.89" + id="linknoteref-15.89">89</a> and among the various articles which excite + their pious indignation we may enumerate false hair, garments of any + color except white, instruments of music, vases of gold or silver, downy + pillows, (as Jacob reposed his head on a stone,) white bread, foreign + wines, public salutations, the use of warm baths, and the practice of + shaving the beard, which, according to the expression of Tertullian, is a + lie against our own faces, and an impious attempt to improve the works of + the Creator. <a href="#linknote-15.90" name="linknoteref-15.90" + id="linknoteref-15.90">90</a> When Christianity was introduced among the + rich and the polite, the observation of these singular laws was left, as + it would be at present, to the few who were ambitious of superior + sanctity. But it is always easy, as well as agreeable, for the inferior + ranks of mankind to claim a merit from the contempt of that pomp and + pleasure which fortune has placed beyond their reach. The virtue of the + primitive Christians, like that of the first Romans, was very frequently + guarded by poverty and ignorance. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.88" id="linknote-15.88"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 88 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.88">return</a>)<br/> [ Lactant. Institut. + Divin. l. vi. c. 20, 21, 22.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.89" id="linknote-15.89"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 89 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.89">return</a>)<br/> [ Consult a work of + Clemens of Alexandria, entitled The Pædagogue, which contains the + rudiments of ethics, as they were taught in the most celebrated of the + Christian schools.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.90" id="linknote-15.90"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 90 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.90">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian, de + Spectaculis, c. 23. Clemens Alexandrin. Pædagog. l. iii. c. 8.] + </p> + <p> + The chaste severity of the fathers, in whatever related to the commerce of + the two sexes, flowed from the same principle; their abhorrence of every + enjoyment which might gratify the sensual, and degrade the spiritual + nature of man. It was their favorite opinion, that if Adam had preserved + his obedience to the Creator, he would have lived forever in a state of + virgin purity, and that some harmless mode of vegetation might have + peopled paradise with a race of innocent and immortal beings. <a + href="#linknote-15.91" name="linknoteref-15.91" id="linknoteref-15.91">91</a> + The use of marriage was permitted only to his fallen posterity, as a + necessary expedient to continue the human species, and as a restraint, + however imperfect, on the natural licentiousness of desire. The hesitation + of the orthodox casuists on this interesting subject, betrays the + perplexity of men, unwilling to approve an institution which they were + compelled to tolerate. <a href="#linknote-15.92" name="linknoteref-15.92" + id="linknoteref-15.92">92</a> The enumeration of the very whimsical laws, + which they most circumstantially imposed on the marriage-bed, would force + a smile from the young and a blush from the fair. It was their unanimous + sentiment that a first marriage was adequate to all the purposes of + nature and of society. The sensual connection was refined into a + resemblance of the mystic union of Christ with his church, and was + pronounced to be indissoluble either by divorce or by death. The practice + of second nuptials was branded with the name of a legal adultery; and the + persons who were guilty of so scandalous an offence against Christian + purity, were soon excluded from the honors, and even from the alms, of the + church. <a href="#linknote-15.93" name="linknoteref-15.93" + id="linknoteref-15.93">93</a> Since desire was imputed as a crime, and + marriage was tolerated as a defect, it was consistent with the same + principles to consider a state of celibacy as the nearest approach to the + divine perfection. It was with the utmost difficulty that ancient Rome + could support the institution of six vestals; <a href="#linknote-15.94" + name="linknoteref-15.94" id="linknoteref-15.94">94</a> but the primitive + church was filled with a number of persons of either sex, who had + devoted themselves to the profession of perpetual chastity. <a + href="#linknote-15.95" name="linknoteref-15.95" id="linknoteref-15.95">95</a> + A few of these, among whom we may reckon the learned Origen, judged it the + most prudent to disarm the tempter. <a href="#linknote-15.96" + name="linknoteref-15.96" id="linknoteref-15.96">96</a> Some were + insensible and some were invincible against the assaults of the flesh. + Disdaining an ignominious flight, the virgins of the warm climate of + Africa encountered the enemy in the closest engagement; they permitted + priests and deacons to share their bed, and gloried amidst the flames in + their unsullied purity. But insulted Nature sometimes vindicated her + rights, and this new species of martyrdom served only to introduce a new + scandal into the church. <a href="#linknote-15.97" name="linknoteref-15.97" + id="linknoteref-15.97">97</a> Among the Christian ascetics, however, (a + name which they soon acquired from their painful exercise,) many, as they + were less presumptuous, were probably more successful. The loss of sensual + pleasure was supplied and compensated by spiritual pride. Even the + multitude of Pagans were inclined to estimate the merit of the sacrifice + by its apparent difficulty; and it was in the praise of these chaste + spouses of Christ that the fathers have poured forth the troubled stream + of their eloquence. <a href="#linknote-15.98" name="linknoteref-15.98" + id="linknoteref-15.98">98</a> Such are the early traces of monastic + principles and institutions, which, in a subsequent age, have + counterbalanced all the temporal advantages of Christianity. <a + href="#linknote-15.99" name="linknoteref-15.99" id="linknoteref-15.99">99</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.91" id="linknote-15.91"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 91 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.91">return</a>)<br/> [ Beausobro, Hist. + Critique du Manicheisme, l. vii. c. 3. Justin, Gregory of Nyssa, Augustin, + &c., strongly incline to this opinion. Note: But these were Gnostic or + Manichean opinions. Beausobre distinctly describes Autustine’s bias to his + recent escape from Manicheism; and adds that he afterwards changed his + views.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.92" id="linknote-15.92"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 92 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.92">return</a>)<br/> [ Some of the Gnostic + heretics were more consistent; they rejected the use of marriage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.93" id="linknote-15.93"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 93 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.93">return</a>)<br/> [ See a chain of + tradition, from Justin Martyr to Jerome, in the Morale des Peres, c. iv. 6—26.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.94" id="linknote-15.94"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 94 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.94">return</a>)<br/> [ See a very curious + Dissertation on the Vestals, in the Memoires de l’Academie des + Inscriptions, tom. iv. p. 161—227. Notwithstanding the honors and + rewards which were bestowed on those virgins, it was difficult to procure + a sufficient number; nor could the dread of the most horrible death always + restrain their incontinence.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.95" id="linknote-15.95"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 95 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.95">return</a>)<br/> [ Cupiditatem procreandi + aut unam scimus aut nullam. Minutius Fælix, c. 31. Justin. Apolog. Major. + Athenagoras in Legat. c 28. Tertullian de Cultu Foemin. l. ii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.96" id="linknote-15.96"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 96 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.96">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. vi. 8. + Before the fame of Origen had excited envy and persecution, this + extraordinary action was rather admired than censured. As it was his + general practice to allegorize Scripture, it seems unfortunate that in + this instance only, he should have adopted the literal sense.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.97" id="linknote-15.97"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 97 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.97">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian. Epist. 4, and + Dodwell, Dissertat. Cyprianic. iii. Something like this rash attempt was + long afterwards imputed to the founder of the order of Fontevrault. Bayle + has amused himself and his readers on that very delicate subject.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.98" id="linknote-15.98"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 98 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.98">return</a>)<br/> [ Dupin (Bibliotheque + Ecclesiastique, tom. i. p. 195) gives a particular account of the dialogue + of the ten virgins, as it was composed by Methodius, Bishop of Tyre. The + praises of virginity are excessive.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.99" id="linknote-15.99"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 99 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.99">return</a>)<br/> [ The Ascetics (as early + as the second century) made a public profession of mortifying their + bodies, and of abstaining from the use of flesh and wine. Mosheim, p. + 310.] + </p> + <p> + The Christians were not less averse to the business than to the pleasures + of this world. The defence of our persons and property they knew not how + to reconcile with the patient doctrine which enjoined an unlimited + forgiveness of past injuries, and commanded them to invite the repetition + of fresh insults. Their simplicity was offended by the use of oaths, by + the pomp of magistracy, and by the active contention of public life; nor + could their humane ignorance be convinced that it was lawful on any + occasion to shed the blood of our fellow-creatures, either by the sword of + justice, or by that of war; even though their criminal or hostile attempts + should threaten the peace and safety of the whole community. <a + href="#linknote-15.100" name="linknoteref-15.100" id="linknoteref-15.100">100</a> + It was acknowledged that, under a less perfect law, the powers of the + Jewish constitution had been exercised, with the approbation of heaven, by + inspired prophets and by anointed kings. The Christians felt and confessed + that such institutions might be necessary for the present system of the + world, and they cheerfully submitted to the authority of their Pagan + governors. But while they inculcated the maxims of passive obedience, they + refused to take any active part in the civil administration or the + military defence of the empire. Some indulgence might, perhaps, be allowed + to those persons who, before their conversion, were already engaged in + such violent and sanguinary occupations; <a href="#linknote-15.101a" + name="linknoteref-15.101a" id="linknoteref-15.101a">101a</a> but it was + impossible that the Christians, without renouncing a more sacred duty, + could assume the character of soldiers, of magistrates, or of princes. <a + href="#linknote-15.102b" name="linknoteref-15.102b" + id="linknoteref-15.102b">102b</a> This indolent, or even criminal + disregard to the public welfare, exposed them to the contempt and + reproaches of the Pagans, who very frequently asked, what must be the fate + of the empire, attacked on every side by the barbarians, if all mankind + should adopt the pusillanimous sentiments of the new sect. <a + href="#linknote-15.103" name="linknoteref-15.103" id="linknoteref-15.103">103</a> + To this insulting question the Christian apologists returned obscure and + ambiguous answers, as they were unwilling to reveal the secret cause of + their security; the expectation that, before the conversion of mankind was + accomplished, war, government, the Roman empire, and the world itself, + would be no more. It may be observed, that, in this instance likewise, the + situation of the first Christians coincided very happily with their + religious scruples, and that their aversion to an active life contributed + rather to excuse them from the service, than to exclude them from the + honors, of the state and army. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.100" id="linknote-15.100"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 100 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.100">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Morale des + Peres. The same patient principles have been revived since the Reformation + by the Socinians, the modern Anabaptists, and the Quakers. Barclay, the + Apologist of the Quakers, has protected his brethren by the authority of + the primitive Christian; p. 542-549] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.101a" id="linknote-15.101a"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 101a (<a href="#linknoteref-15.101a">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian, + Apolog. c. 21. De Idololatria, c. 17, 18. Origen contra Celsum, l. v. p. + 253, l. vii. p. 348, l. viii. p. 423-428.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.102b" id="linknote-15.102b"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 102b (<a href="#linknoteref-15.102b">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian (de + Corona Militis, c. 11) suggested to them the expedient of deserting; a + counsel which, if it had been generally known, was not very proper to + conciliate the favor of the emperors towards the Christian sect. * Note: + There is nothing which ought to astonish us in the refusal of the + primitive Christians to take part in public affairs; it was the natural + consequence of the contrariety of their principles to the customs, laws, + and active life of the Pagan world. As Christians, they could not enter + into the senate, which, according to Gibbon himself, always assembled in a + temple or consecrated place, and where each senator, before he took his + seat, made a libation of a few drops of wine, and burnt incense on the + altar; as Christians, they could not assist at festivals and banquets, + which always terminated with libations, &c.; finally, as “the + innumerable deities and rites of polytheism were closely interwoven with + every circumstance of public and private life,” the Christians could not + participate in them without incurring, according to their principles, the + guilt of impiety. It was then much less by an effect of their doctrine, + than by the consequence of their situation, that they stood aloof from + public business. Whenever this situation offered no impediment, they + showed as much activity as the Pagans. Proinde, says Justin Martyr, (Apol. + c. 17,) nos solum Deum adoramus, et vobis in rebus aliis læti inservimus.—G. + ——-This latter passage, M. Guizot quotes in Latin; if he had + consulted the original, he would have found it to be altogether + irrelevant: it merely relates to the payment of taxes.—M. — + —Tertullian does not suggest to the soldiers the expedient of + deserting; he says that they ought to be constantly on their guard to do + nothing during their service contrary to the law of God, and to resolve to + suffer martyrdom rather than submit to a base compliance, or openly to + renounce the service. (De Cor. Mil. ii. p. 127.) He does not positively + decide that the military service is not permitted to Christians; he ends, + indeed, by saying, Puta denique licere militiam usque ad causam coronæ.—G. + ——M. Guizot is. I think, again unfortunate in his defence of + Tertullian. That father says, that many Christian soldiers had deserted, + aut deserendum statim sit, ut a multis actum. The latter sentence, Puta, + &c, &c., is a concession for the sake of argument: wha follows is + more to the purpose.—M. Many other passages of Tertullian prove that + the army was full of Christians, Hesterni sumus et vestra omnia + implevimus, urbes, insulas, castella, municipia, conciliabula, castra + ipsa. (Apol. c. 37.) Navigamus et not vobiscum et militamus. (c. 42.) + Origen, in truth, appears to have maintained a more rigid opinion, (Cont. + Cels. l. viii.;) but he has often renounced this exaggerated severity, + perhaps necessary to produce great results, and he speaks of the + profession of arms as an honorable one. (l. iv. c. 218.)— G. ——On + these points Christian opinion, it should seem, was much divided + Tertullian, when he wrote the De Cor. Mil., was evidently inclining to + more ascetic opinions, and Origen was of the same class. See Neander, vol. + l part ii. p. 305, edit. 1828.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.103" id="linknote-15.103"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 103 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.103">return</a>)<br/> [ As well as we can + judge from the mutilated representation of Origen, (1. viii. p. 423,) his + adversary, Celsus, had urged his objection with great force and candor.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.6"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VI. + </h2> + <p> + V. But the human character, however it may be exalted or depressed by a + temporary enthusiasm, will return by degrees to its proper and natural + level, and will resume those passions that seem the most adapted to its + present condition. The primitive Christians were dead to the business and + pleasures of the world; but their love of action, which could never be + entirely extinguished, soon revived, and found a new occupation in the + government of the church. A separate society, which attacked the + established religion of the empire, was obliged to adopt some form of + internal policy, and to appoint a sufficient number of ministers, + intrusted not only with the spiritual functions, but even with the + temporal direction of the Christian commonwealth. The safety of that + society, its honor, its aggrandizement, were productive, even in the most + pious minds, of a spirit of patriotism, such as the first of the Romans + had felt for the republic, and sometimes of a similar indifference, in the + use of whatever means might probably conduce to so desirable an end. The + ambition of raising themselves or their friends to the honors and offices + of the church, was disguised by the laudable intention of devoting to the + public benefit the power and consideration, which, for that purpose only, + it became their duty to solicit. In the exercise of their functions, they + were frequently called upon to detect the errors of heresy or the arts of + faction, to oppose the designs of perfidious brethren, to stigmatize their + characters with deserved infamy, and to expel them from the bosom of a + society whose peace and happiness they had attempted to disturb. The + ecclesiastical governors of the Christians were taught to unite the wisdom + of the serpent with the innocence of the dove; but as the former was + refined, so the latter was insensibly corrupted, by the habits of + government. In the church as well as in the world, the persons who were + placed in any public station rendered themselves considerable by their + eloquence and firmness, by their knowledge of mankind, and by their + dexterity in business; and while they concealed from others, and perhaps + from themselves, the secret motives of their conduct, they too frequently + relapsed into all the turbulent passions of active life, which were + tinctured with an additional degree of bitterness and obstinacy from the + infusion of spiritual zeal. + </p> + <p> + The government of the church has often been the subject, as well as the + prize, of religious contention. The hostile disputants of Rome, of Paris, + of Oxford, and of Geneva, have alike struggled to reduce the primitive and + apostolic model <a href="#linknote-15.1041" name="linknoteref-15.1041" + id="linknoteref-15.1041">1041</a> to the respective standards of their own + policy. The few who have pursued this inquiry with more candor and + impartiality, are of opinion, <a href="#linknote-15.105" + name="linknoteref-15.105" id="linknoteref-15.105">105</a> that the + apostles declined the office of legislation, and rather chose to endure + some partial scandals and divisions, than to exclude the Christians of a + future age from the liberty of varying their forms of ecclesiastical + government according to the changes of times and circumstances. The scheme + of policy, which, under their approbation, was adopted for the use of the + first century, may be discovered from the practice of Jerusalem, of + Ephesus, or of Corinth. The societies which were instituted in the cities + of the Roman empire were united only by the ties of faith and charity. + Independence and equality formed the basis of their internal constitution. + The want of discipline and human learning was supplied by the occasional + assistance of the <i>prophets</i>, <a href="#linknote-15.106" + name="linknoteref-15.106" id="linknoteref-15.106">106</a> who were called + to that function without distinction of age, of sex, <a + href="#linknote-15.1061" name="linknoteref-15.1061" + id="linknoteref-15.1061">1061</a> or of natural abilities, and who, as + often as they felt the divine impulse, poured forth the effusions of the + Spirit in the assembly of the faithful. But these extraordinary gifts were + frequently abused or misapplied by the prophetic teachers. They displayed + them at an improper season, presumptuously disturbed the service of the + assembly, and, by their pride or mistaken zeal, they introduced, + particularly into the apostolic church of Corinth, a long and melancholy + train of disorders. <a href="#linknote-15.107" name="linknoteref-15.107" + id="linknoteref-15.107">107</a> As the institution of prophets became + useless, and even pernicious, their powers were withdrawn, and their + office abolished. The public functions of religion were solely intrusted + to the established ministers of the church, the <i>bishops</i> and the + <i>presbyters;</i> two appellations which, in their first origin, appear to have + distinguished the same office and the same order of persons. The name of + Presbyter was expressive of their age, or rather of their gravity and + wisdom. The title of Bishop denoted their inspection over the faith and + manners of the Christians who were committed to their pastoral care. In + proportion to the respective numbers of the faithful, a larger or smaller + number of these <i>episcopal presbyters</i> guided each infant congregation with + equal authority and with united counsels. <a href="#linknote-15.108" + name="linknoteref-15.108" id="linknoteref-15.108">108</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1041" id="linknote-15.1041"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1041 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1041">return</a>)<br/> [ The aristocratical + party in France, as well as in England, has strenuously maintained the + divine origin of bishops. But the Calvinistical presbyters were impatient + of a superior; and the Roman Pontiff refused to acknowledge an equal. See + Fra Paolo.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.105" id="linknote-15.105"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 105 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.105">return</a>)<br/> [ In the history of + the Christian hierarchy, I have, for the most part, followed the learned + and candid Mosheim.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.106" id="linknote-15.106"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 106 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.106">return</a>)<br/> [ For the prophets of + the primitive church, see Mosheim, Dissertationes ad Hist. Eccles. + pertinentes, tom. ii. p. 132—208.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1061" id="linknote-15.1061"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1061 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1061">return</a>)<br/> [ St. Paul + distinctly reproves the intrusion of females into the prophets office. 1 + Cor. xiv. 34, 35. 1 Tim. ii. 11.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.107" id="linknote-15.107"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 107 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.107">return</a>)<br/> [ See the epistles of + St. Paul, and of Clemens, to the Corinthians. * Note: The first ministers + established in the church were the deacons, appointed at Jerusalem, seven + in number; they were charged with the distribution of the alms; even + females had a share in this employment. After the deacons came the elders + or priests, charged with the maintenance of order and decorum in the + community, and to act every where in its name. The bishops were afterwards + charged to watch over the faith and the instruction of the disciples: the + apostles themselves appointed several bishops. Tertullian, (adv. Marium, + c. v.,) Clement of Alexandria, and many fathers of the second and third + century, do not permit us to doubt this fact. The equality of rank between + these different functionaries did not prevent their functions being, even + in their origin, distinct; they became subsequently still more so. See + Plank, Geschichte der Christ. Kirch. Verfassung., vol. i. p. 24.—G. + On this extremely obscure subject, which has been so much perplexed by + passion and interest, it is impossible to justify any opinion without + entering into long and controversial details.——It must be + admitted, in opposition to Plank, that in the New Testament, several words + are sometimes indiscriminately used. (Acts xx. v. 17, comp. with 28 Tit. + i. 5 and 7. Philip. i. 1.) But it is as clear, that as soon as we can + discern the form of church government, at a period closely bordering upon, + if not within, the apostolic age, it appears with a bishop at the head of + each community, holding some superiority over the presbyters. Whether he + was, as Gibbon from Mosheim supposes, merely an elective head of the + College of Presbyters, (for this we have, in fact, no valid authority,) or + whether his distinct functions were established on apostolic authority, is + still contested. The universal submission to this episcopacy, in every + part of the Christian world appears to me strongly to favor the latter + view.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.108" id="linknote-15.108"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 108 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.108">return</a>)<br/> [ Hooker’s + Ecclesiastical Polity, l. vii.] + </p> + <p> + But the most perfect equality of freedom requires the directing hand of a + superior magistrate: and the order of public deliberations soon introduces + the office of a president, invested at least with the authority of + collecting the sentiments, and of executing the resolutions, of the + assembly. A regard for the public tranquillity, which would so frequently + have been interrupted by annual or by occasional elections, induced the + primitive Christians to constitute an honorable and perpetual magistracy, + and to choose one of the wisest and most holy among their presbyters to + execute, during his life, the duties of their ecclesiastical governor. It + was under these circumstances that the lofty title of Bishop began to + raise itself above the humble appellation of Presbyter; and while the + latter remained the most natural distinction for the members of every + Christian senate, the former was appropriated to the dignity of its new + president. <a href="#linknote-15.109" name="linknoteref-15.109" + id="linknoteref-15.109">109</a> The advantages of this episcopal form of + government, which appears to have been introduced before the end of the + first century, <a href="#linknote-15.110" name="linknoteref-15.110" + id="linknoteref-15.110">110</a> were so obvious, and so important for the + future greatness, as well as the present peace, of Christianity, that it + was adopted without delay by all the societies which were already + scattered over the empire, had acquired in a very early period the + sanction of antiquity, <a href="#linknote-15.111" name="linknoteref-15.111" + id="linknoteref-15.111">111</a> and is still revered by the most powerful + churches, both of the East and of the West, as a primitive and even as a + divine establishment. <a href="#linknote-15.112" name="linknoteref-15.112" + id="linknoteref-15.112">112</a> It is needless to observe, that the pious + and humble presbyters, who were first dignified with the episcopal title, + could not possess, and would probably have rejected, the power and pomp + which now encircles the tiara of the Roman pontiff, or the mitre of a + German prelate. But we may define, in a few words, the narrow limits of + their original jurisdiction, which was chiefly of a spiritual, though in + some instances of a temporal nature. <a href="#linknote-15.113" + name="linknoteref-15.113" id="linknoteref-15.113">113</a> It consisted in + the administration of the sacraments and discipline of the church, the + superintendency of religious ceremonies, which imperceptibly increased in + number and variety, the consecration of ecclesiastical ministers, to whom + the bishop assigned their respective functions, the management of the + public fund, and the determination of all such differences as the faithful + were unwilling to expose before the tribunal of an idolatrous judge. These + powers, during a short period, were exercised according to the advice of + the presbyteral college, and with the consent and approbation of the + assembly of Christians. The primitive bishops were considered only as the + first of their equals, and the honorable servants of a free people. + Whenever the episcopal chair became vacant by death, a new president was + chosen among the presbyters by the suffrage of the whole congregation, + every member of which supposed himself invested with a sacred and + sacerdotal character. <a href="#linknote-15.114" name="linknoteref-15.114" + id="linknoteref-15.114">114</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.109" id="linknote-15.109"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 109 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.109">return</a>)<br/> [ See Jerome and + Titum, c. i. and Epistol. 85, (in the Benedictine edition, 101,) and the + elaborate apology of Blondel, pro sententia Hieronymi. The ancient state, + as it is described by Jerome, of the bishop and presbyters of Alexandria, + receives a remarkable confirmation from the patriarch Eutychius, (Annal. + tom. i. p. 330, Vers Pocock;) whose testimony I know not how to reject, in + spite of all the objections of the learned Pearson in his Vindiciæ + Ignatianæ, part i. c. 11.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.110" id="linknote-15.110"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 110 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.110">return</a>)<br/> [ See the introduction + to the Apocalypse. Bishops, under the name of angels, were already + instituted in the seven cities of Asia. And yet the epistle of Clemens + (which is probably of as ancient a date) does not lead us to discover any + traces of episcopacy either at Corinth or Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.111" id="linknote-15.111"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 111 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.111">return</a>)<br/> [ Nulla Ecclesia sine + Episcopo, has been a fact as well as a maxim since the time of Tertullian + and Irenæus.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.112" id="linknote-15.112"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 112 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.112">return</a>)<br/> [ After we have passed + the difficulties of the first century, we find the episcopal government + universally established, till it was interrupted by the republican genius + of the Swiss and German reformers.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.113" id="linknote-15.113"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 113 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.113">return</a>)<br/> [ See Mosheim in the + first and second centuries. Ignatius (ad Smyrnæos, c. 3, &c.) is fond + of exalting the episcopal dignity. Le Clerc (Hist. Eccles. p. 569) very + bluntly censures his conduct, Mosheim, with a more critical judgment, (p. + 161,) suspects the purity even of the smaller epistles.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.114" id="linknote-15.114"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 114 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.114">return</a>)<br/> [ Nonne et Laici + sacerdotes sumus? Tertullian, Exhort. ad Castitat. c. 7. As the human + heart is still the same, several of the observations which Mr. Hume has + made on Enthusiasm, (Essays, vol. i. p. 76, quarto edit.) may be applied + even to real inspiration. * Note: This expression was employed by the + earlier Christian writers in the sense used by St. Peter, 1 Ep ii. 9. It + was the sanctity and virtue not the power of priesthood, in which all + Christians were to be equally distinguished.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Such was the mild and equal constitution by which the Christians were + governed more than a hundred years after the death of the apostles. Every + society formed within itself a separate and independent republic; and + although the most distant of these little states maintained a mutual as + well as friendly intercourse of letters and deputations, the Christian + world was not yet connected by any supreme authority or legislative + assembly. As the numbers of the faithful were gradually multiplied, they + discovered the advantages that might result from a closer union of their + interest and designs. Towards the end of the second century, the churches + of Greece and Asia adopted the useful institutions of provincial synods, + <a href="#linknote-15.1141" name="linknoteref-15.1141" + id="linknoteref-15.1141">1141</a> and they may justly be supposed to have + borrowed the model of a representative council from the celebrated + examples of their own country, the Amphictyons, the Achæan league, or the + assemblies of the Ionian cities. It was soon established as a custom and + as a law, that the bishops of the independent churches should meet in the + capital of the province at the stated periods of spring and autumn. Their + deliberations were assisted by the advice of a few distinguished + presbyters, and moderated by the presence of a listening multitude. <a + href="#linknote-15.115" name="linknoteref-15.115" id="linknoteref-15.115">115</a> + Their decrees, which were styled Canons, regulated every important + controversy of faith and discipline; and it was natural to believe that a + liberal effusion of the Holy Spirit would be poured on the united assembly + of the delegates of the Christian people. The institution of synods was so + well suited to private ambition, and to public interest, that in the space + of a few years it was received throughout the whole empire. A regular + correspondence was established between the provincial councils, which + mutually communicated and approved their respective proceedings; and the + catholic church soon assumed the form, and acquired the strength, of a + great fœderative republic. <a href="#linknote-15.116" + name="linknoteref-15.116" id="linknoteref-15.116">116</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1141" id="linknote-15.1141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1141 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1141">return</a>)<br/> [ The synods were + not the first means taken by the insulated churches to enter into + communion and to assume a corporate character. The dioceses were first + formed by the union of several country churches with a church in a city: + many churches in one city uniting among themselves, or joining a more + considerable church, became metropolitan. The dioceses were not formed + before the beginning of the second century: before that time the + Christians had not established sufficient churches in the country to stand + in need of that union. It is towards the middle of the same century that + we discover the first traces of the metropolitan constitution. (Probably + the country churches were founded in general by missionaries from those in + the city, and would preserve a natural connection with the parent church.)—M. + ——The provincial synods did not commence till towards the + middle of the third century, and were not the first synods. History gives + us distinct notions of the synods, held towards the end of the second + century, at Ephesus at Jerusalem, at Pontus, and at Rome, to put an end to + the disputes which had arisen between the Latin and Asiatic churches about + the celebration of Easter. But these synods were not subject to any + regular form or periodical return; this regularity was first established + with the provincial synods, which were formed by a union of the bishops of + a district, subject to a metropolitan. Plank, p. 90. Geschichte der + Christ. Kirch. Verfassung—G] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.115" id="linknote-15.115"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 115 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.115">return</a>)<br/> [ Acta Concil. + Carthag. apud Cyprian. edit. Fell, p. 158. This council was composed of + eighty-seven bishops from the provinces of Mauritania, Numidia, and + Africa; some presbyters and deacons assisted at the assembly; præsente + plebis maxima parte.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.116" id="linknote-15.116"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 116 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.116">return</a>)<br/> [ Aguntur præterea + per Græcias illas, certis in locis concilia, &c Tertullian de + Jejuniis, c. 13. The African mentions it as a recent and foreign + institution. The coalition of the Christian churches is very ably + explained by Mosheim, p. 164 170.] + </p> + <p> + As the legislative authority of the particular churches was insensibly + superseded by the use of councils, the bishops obtained by their alliance + a much larger share of executive and arbitrary power; and as soon as they + were connected by a sense of their common interest, they were enabled to + attack, with united vigor, the original rights of their clergy and people. + The prelates of the third century imperceptibly changed the language of + exhortation into that of command, scattered the seeds of future + usurpations, and supplied, by scripture allegories and declamatory + rhetoric, their deficiency of force and of reason. They exalted the unity + and power of the church, as it was represented in the episcopal office, of + which every bishop enjoyed an equal and undivided portion. <a + href="#linknote-15.117" name="linknoteref-15.117" id="linknoteref-15.117">117</a> + Princes and magistrates, it was often repeated, might boast an earthly + claim to a transitory dominion; it was the episcopal authority alone which + was derived from the Deity, and extended itself over this and over another + world. The bishops were the vicegerents of Christ, the successors of the + apostles, and the mystic substitutes of the high priest of the Mosaic law. + Their exclusive privilege of conferring the sacerdotal character invaded + the freedom both of clerical and of popular elections; and if, in the + administration of the church, they still consulted the judgment of the + presbyters, or the inclination of the people, they most carefully + inculcated the merit of such a voluntary condescension. The bishops + acknowledged the supreme authority which resided in the assembly of their + brethren; but in the government of his peculiar diocese, each of them + exacted from his <i>flock</i> the same implicit obedience as if that favorite + metaphor had been literally just, and as if the shepherd had been of a + more exalted nature than that of his sheep. <a href="#linknote-15.118" + name="linknoteref-15.118" id="linknoteref-15.118">118</a> This obedience, + however, was not imposed without some efforts on one side, and some + resistance on the other. The democratical part of the constitution was, in + many places, very warmly supported by the zealous or interested opposition + of the inferior clergy. But their patriotism received the ignominious + epithets of faction and schism; and the episcopal cause was indebted for + its rapid progress to the labors of many active prelates, who, like + Cyprian of Carthage, could reconcile the arts of the most ambitious + statesman with the Christian virtues which seem adapted to the character + of a saint and martyr. <a href="#linknote-15.119" name="linknoteref-15.119" + id="linknoteref-15.119">119</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.117" id="linknote-15.117"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 117 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.117">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian, in his + admired treatise De Unitate Ecclesiæ. p. 75—86] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.118" id="linknote-15.118"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 118 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.118">return</a>)<br/> [ We may appeal to the + whole tenor of Cyprian’s conduct, of his doctrine, and of his epistles. Le + Clerc, in a short life of Cyprian, (Bibliotheque Universelle, tom. xii. p. + 207—378,) has laid him open with great freedom and accuracy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.119" id="linknote-15.119"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 119 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.119">return</a>)<br/> [ If Novatus, + Felicissimus, &c., whom the Bishop of Carthage expelled from his + church, and from Africa, were not the most detestable monsters of + wickedness, the zeal of Cyprian must occasionally have prevailed over his + veracity. For a very just account of these obscure quarrels, see Mosheim, + p. 497—512.] + </p> + <p> + The same causes which at first had destroyed the equality of the + presbyters introduced among the bishops a preeminence of rank, and from + thence a superiority of jurisdiction. As often as in the spring and autumn + they met in provincial synod, the difference of personal merit and + reputation was very sensibly felt among the members of the assembly, and + the multitude was governed by the wisdom and eloquence of the few. But the + order of public proceedings required a more regular and less invidious + distinction; the office of perpetual presidents in the councils of each + province was conferred on the bishops of the principal city; and these + aspiring prelates, who soon acquired the lofty titles of Metropolitans and + Primates, secretly prepared themselves to usurp over their episcopal + brethren the same authority which the bishops had so lately assumed above + the college of presbyters. <a href="#linknote-15.120" + name="linknoteref-15.120" id="linknoteref-15.120">120</a> Nor was it long + before an emulation of preeminence and power prevailed among the + Metropolitans themselves, each of them affecting to display, in the most + pompous terms, the temporal honors and advantages of the city over which + he presided; the numbers and opulence of the Christians who were subject + to their pastoral care; the saints and martyrs who had arisen among them; + and the purity with which they preserved the tradition of the faith, as it + had been transmitted through a series of orthodox bishops from the apostle + or the apostolic disciple, to whom the foundation of their church was + ascribed. <a href="#linknote-15.121" name="linknoteref-15.121" + id="linknoteref-15.121">121</a> From every cause, either of a civil or of + an ecclesiastical nature, it was easy to foresee that Rome must enjoy the + respect, and would soon claim the obedience, of the provinces. The society + of the faithful bore a just proportion to the capital of the empire; and + the Roman church was the greatest, the most numerous, and, in regard to + the West, the most ancient of all the Christian establishments, many of + which had received their religion from the pious labors of her + missionaries. Instead of one apostolic founder, the utmost boast of + Antioch, of Ephesus, or of Corinth, the banks of the Tyber were supposed + to have been honored with the preaching and martyrdom of the two most + eminent among the apostles; <a href="#linknote-15.122" + name="linknoteref-15.122" id="linknoteref-15.122">122</a> and the bishops + of Rome very prudently claimed the inheritance of whatsoever prerogatives + were attributed either to the person or to the office of St. Peter. <a + href="#linknote-15.123" name="linknoteref-15.123" id="linknoteref-15.123">123</a> + The bishops of Italy and of the provinces were disposed to allow them a + primacy of order and association (such was their very accurate expression) + in the Christian aristocracy. <a href="#linknote-15.124" + name="linknoteref-15.124" id="linknoteref-15.124">124</a> But the power of + a monarch was rejected with abhorrence, and the aspiring genius of Rome + experienced from the nations of Asia and Africa a more vigorous resistance + to her spiritual, than she had formerly done to her temporal, dominion. + The patriotic Cyprian, who ruled with the most absolute sway the church of + Carthage and the provincial synods, opposed with resolution and success + the ambition of the Roman pontiff, artfully connected his own cause with + that of the eastern bishops, and, like Hannibal, sought out new allies in + the heart of Asia. <a href="#linknote-15.125" name="linknoteref-15.125" + id="linknoteref-15.125">125</a> If this Punic war was carried on without + any effusion of blood, it was owing much less to the moderation than to + the weakness of the contending prelates. Invectives and excommunications + were <i>their</i> only weapons; and these, during the progress of the whole + controversy, they hurled against each other with equal fury and devotion. + The hard necessity of censuring either a pope, or a saint and martyr, + distresses the modern Catholics whenever they are obliged to relate the + particulars of a dispute in which the champions of religion indulged such + passions as seem much more adapted to the senate or to the camp. <a + href="#linknote-15.126" name="linknoteref-15.126" id="linknoteref-15.126">126</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.120" id="linknote-15.120"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 120 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.120">return</a>)<br/> [ Mosheim, p. 269, + 574. Dupin, Antiquæ Eccles. Disciplin. p. 19, 20.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.121" id="linknote-15.121"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 121 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.121">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian, in a + distinct treatise, has pleaded against the heretics the right of + prescription, as it was held by the apostolic churches.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.122" id="linknote-15.122"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 122 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.122">return</a>)<br/> [ The journey of St. + Peter to Rome is mentioned by most of the ancients, (see Eusebius, ii. + 25,) maintained by all the Catholics, allowed by some Protestants, (see + Pearson and Dodwell de Success. Episcop. Roman,) but has been vigorously + attacked by Spanheim, (Miscellanes Sacra, iii. 3.) According to Father + Hardouin, the monks of the thirteenth century, who composed the Æneid, + represented St. Peter under the allegorical character of the Trojan hero. + * Note: It is quite clear that, strictly speaking, the church of Rome was + not founded by either of these apostles. St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans + proves undeniably the flourishing state of the church before his visit to + the city; and many Roman Catholic writers have given up the impracticable + task of reconciling with chronology any visit of St. Peter to Rome before + the end of the reign of Claudius, or the beginning of that of Nero.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.123" id="linknote-15.123"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 123 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.123">return</a>)<br/> [ It is in French only + that the famous allusion to St. Peter’s name is exact. Tu es Pierre, et + sur cette pierre.—The same is imperfect in Greek, Latin, Italian, + &c., and totally unintelligible in our Tentonic languages. * Note: It + is exact in Syro-Chaldaic, the language in which it was spoken by Jesus + Christ. (St. Matt. xvi. 17.) Peter was called Cephas; and cepha signifies + base, foundation, rock—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.124" id="linknote-15.124"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 124 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.124">return</a>)<br/> [ Irenæus adv. + Hæreses, iii. 3. Tertullian de Præscription. c. 36, and Cyprian, + Epistol. 27, 55, 71, 75. Le Clere (Hist. Eccles. p. 764) and Mosheim (p. + 258, 578) labor in the interpretation of these passages. But the loose and + rhetorical style of the fathers often appears favorable to the pretensions + of Rome.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.125" id="linknote-15.125"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 125 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.125">return</a>)<br/> [ See the sharp + epistle from Firmilianus, bishop of Cæsarea, to Stephen, bishop of Rome, + ap. Cyprian, Epistol. 75.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.126" id="linknote-15.126"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 126 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.126">return</a>)<br/> [ Concerning this + dispute of the rebaptism of heretics, see the epistles of Cyprian, and the + seventh book of Eusebius.] + </p> + <p> + The progress of the ecclesiastical authority gave birth to the memorable + distinction of the laity and of the clergy, which had been unknown to the + Greeks and Romans. <a href="#linknote-15.127" name="linknoteref-15.127" + id="linknoteref-15.127">127</a> The former of these appellations + comprehended the body of the Christian people; the latter, according to + the signification of the word, was appropriated to the chosen portion that + had been set apart for the service of religion; a celebrated order of men, + which has furnished the most important, though not always the most + edifying, subjects for modern history. Their mutual hostilities sometimes + disturbed the peace of the infant church, but their zeal and activity were + united in the common cause, and the love of power, which (under the most + artful disguises) could insinuate itself into the breasts of bishops and + martyrs, animated them to increase the number of their subjects, and to + enlarge the limits of the Christian empire. They were destitute of any + temporal force, and they were for a long time discouraged and oppressed, + rather than assisted, by the civil magistrate; but they had acquired, and + they employed within their own society, the two most efficacious + instruments of government, rewards and punishments; the former derived + from the pious liberality, the latter from the devout apprehensions, of + the faithful. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.127" id="linknote-15.127"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 127 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.127">return</a>)<br/> [ For the origin of + these words, see Mosheim, p. 141. Spanheim, Hist. Ecclesiast. p. 633. The + distinction of Clerus and Iaicus was established before the time of + Tertullian.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.7"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VII + </h2> + <p> + I. The community of goods, which had so agreeably amused the imagination + of Plato, <a href="#linknote-15.128" name="linknoteref-15.128" + id="linknoteref-15.128">128</a> and which subsisted in some degree among + the austere sect of the Essenians, <a href="#linknote-15.129" + name="linknoteref-15.129" id="linknoteref-15.129">129</a> was adopted for + a short time in the primitive church. The fervor of the first proselytes + prompted them to sell those worldly possessions, which they despised, to + lay the price of them at the feet of the apostles, and to content + themselves with receiving an equal share out of the general distribution. + <a href="#linknote-15.130" name="linknoteref-15.130" + id="linknoteref-15.130">130</a> The progress of the Christian religion + relaxed, and gradually abolished, this generous institution, which, in + hands less pure than those of the apostles, would too soon have been + corrupted and abused by the returning selfishness of human nature; and the + converts who embraced the new religion were permitted to retain the + possession of their patrimony, to receive legacies and inheritances, and + to increase their separate property by all the lawful means of trade and + industry. Instead of an absolute sacrifice, a moderate proportion was + accepted by the ministers of the gospel; and in their weekly or monthly + assemblies, every believer, according to the exigency of the occasion, and + the measure of his wealth and piety, presented his voluntary offering for + the use of the common fund. <a href="#linknote-15.131" + name="linknoteref-15.131" id="linknoteref-15.131">131</a> Nothing, however + inconsiderable, was refused; but it was diligently inculcated that, in + the article of Tithes, the Mosaic law was still of divine obligation; and + that since the Jews, under a less perfect discipline, had been commanded + to pay a tenth part of all that they possessed, it would become the + disciples of Christ to distinguish themselves by a superior degree of + liberality, <a href="#linknote-15.132" name="linknoteref-15.132" + id="linknoteref-15.132">132</a> and to acquire some merit by resigning a + superfluous treasure, which must so soon be annihilated with the world + itself. <a href="#linknote-15.133" name="linknoteref-15.133" + id="linknoteref-15.133">133</a> It is almost unnecessary to observe, that + the revenue of each particular church, which was of so uncertain and + fluctuating a nature, must have varied with the poverty or the opulence of + the faithful, as they were dispersed in obscure villages, or collected in + the great cities of the empire. In the time of the emperor Decius, it was + the opinion of the magistrates, that the Christians of Rome were possessed + of very considerable wealth; that vessels of gold and silver were used in + their religious worship, and that many among their proselytes had sold + their lands and houses to increase the public riches of the sect, at the + expense, indeed, of their unfortunate children, who found themselves + beggars, because their parents had been saints. <a href="#linknote-15.134" + name="linknoteref-15.134" id="linknoteref-15.134">134</a> We should listen + with distrust to the suspicions of strangers and enemies: on this + occasion, however, they receive a very specious and probable color from + the two following circumstances, the only ones that have reached our + knowledge, which define any precise sums, or convey any distinct idea. + Almost at the same period, the bishop of Carthage, from a society less + opulent than that of Rome, collected a hundred thousand sesterces, (above + eight hundred and fifty pounds sterling,) on a sudden call of charity to + redeem the brethren of Numidia, who had been carried away captives by the + barbarians of the desert. <a href="#linknote-15.135" + name="linknoteref-15.135" id="linknoteref-15.135">135</a> About a hundred + years before the reign of Decius, the Roman church had received, in a + single donation, the sum of two hundred thousand sesterces from a stranger + of Pontus, who proposed to fix his residence in the capital. <a + href="#linknote-15.136" name="linknoteref-15.136" id="linknoteref-15.136">136</a> + These oblations, for the most part, were made in money; nor was the + society of Christians either desirous or capable of acquiring, to any + considerable degree, the encumbrance of landed property. It had been + provided by several laws, which were enacted with the same design as our + statutes of mortmain, that no real estates should be given or bequeathed + to any corporate body, without either a special privilege or a particular + dispensation from the emperor or from the senate; <a + href="#linknote-15.137" name="linknoteref-15.137" id="linknoteref-15.137">137</a> + who were seldom disposed to grant them in favor of a sect, at first the + object of their contempt, and at last of their fears and jealousy. A + transaction, however, is related under the reign of Alexander Severus, + which discovers that the restraint was sometimes eluded or suspended, and + that the Christians were permitted to claim and to possess lands within + the limits of Rome itself. <a href="#linknote-15.138" + name="linknoteref-15.138" id="linknoteref-15.138">138</a> The progress of + Christianity, and the civil confusion of the empire, contributed to relax + the severity of the laws; and before the close of the third century many + considerable estates were bestowed on the opulent churches of Rome, Milan, + Carthage, Antioch, Alexandria, and the other great cities of Italy and the + provinces. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.128" id="linknote-15.128"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 128 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.128">return</a>)<br/> [ The community + instituted by Plato is more perfect than that which Sir Thomas More had + imagined for his Utopia. The community of women, and that of temporal + goods, may be considered as inseparable parts of the same system.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.129" id="linknote-15.129"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 129 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.129">return</a>)<br/> [ Joseph. Antiquitat. + xviii. 2. Philo, de Vit. Contemplativ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.130" id="linknote-15.130"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 130 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.130">return</a>)<br/> [ See the Acts of the + Apostles, c. 2, 4, 5, with Grotius’s Commentary. Mosheim, in a particular + dissertation, attacks the common opinion with very inconclusive arguments. + * Note: This is not the general judgment on Mosheim’s learned + dissertation. There is no trace in the latter part of the New Testament of + this community of goods, and many distinct proofs of the contrary. All + exhortations to almsgiving would have been unmeaning if property had been + in common—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.131" id="linknote-15.131"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 131 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.131">return</a>)<br/> [ Justin Martyr, + Apolog. Major, c. 89. Tertullian, Apolog. c. 39.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.132" id="linknote-15.132"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 132 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.132">return</a>)<br/> [ Irenæus ad Hæres. + l. iv. c. 27, 34. Origen in Num. Hom. ii Cyprian de Unitat. Eccles. + Constitut. Apostol. l. ii. c. 34, 35, with the notes of Cotelerius. The + Constitutions introduce this divine precept, by declaring that priests are + as much above kings as the soul is above the body. Among the tithable + articles, they enumerate corn, wine, oil, and wool. On this interesting + subject, consult Prideaux’s History of Tithes, and Fra Paolo delle Materie + Beneficiarie; two writers of a very different character.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.133" id="linknote-15.133"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 133 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.133">return</a>)<br/> [ The same opinion + which prevailed about the year one thousand, was productive of the same + effects. Most of the Donations express their motive, “appropinquante mundi + fine.” See Mosheim’s General History of the Church, vol. i. p. 457.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.134" id="linknote-15.134"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 134 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.134">return</a>)<br/> [ Tum summa cura est + fratribus (Ut sermo testatur loquax.) Offerre, fundis venditis + Sestertiorum millia. Addicta avorum prædia Foedis sub auctionibus, + Successor exheres gemit Sanctis egens Parentibus. Hæc occuluntur abditis + Ecclesiarum in angulis. Et summa pietas creditur Nudare dulces liberos.——Prudent. + Hymn 2. The subsequent conduct of the deacon Laurence only proves how + proper a use was made of the wealth of the Roman church; it was + undoubtedly very considerable; but Fra Paolo (c. 3) appears to exaggerate, + when he supposes that the successors of Commodus were urged to persecute + the Christians by their own avarice, or that of their Prætorian + præfects.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.135" id="linknote-15.135"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 135 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.135">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian, Epistol. + 62.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.136" id="linknote-15.136"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 136 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.136">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian de + Præscriptione, c. 30.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.137" id="linknote-15.137"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 137 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.137">return</a>)<br/> [ Diocletian gave a + rescript, which is only a declaration of the old law; “Collegium, si nullo + speciali privilegio subnixum sit, hæreditatem capere non posse, dubium + non est.” Fra Paolo (c. 4) thinks that these regulations had been much + neglected since the reign of Valerian.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.138" id="linknote-15.138"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 138 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.138">return</a>)<br/> [ Hist. August. p. + 131. The ground had been public; and was row disputed between the society + of Christians and that of butchers. Note *: Carponarii, rather + victuallers.—M.] + </p> + <p> + The bishop was the natural steward of the church; the public stock was + intrusted to his care without account or control; the presbyters were + confined to their spiritual functions, and the more dependent order of the + deacons was solely employed in the management and distribution of the + ecclesiastical revenue. <a href="#linknote-15.139" + name="linknoteref-15.139" id="linknoteref-15.139">139</a> If we may give + credit to the vehement declamations of Cyprian, there were too many among + his African brethren, who, in the execution of their charge, violated + every precept, not only of evangelical perfection, but even of moral + virtue. By some of these unfaithful stewards the riches of the church were + lavished in sensual pleasures; by others they were perverted to the + purposes of private gain, of fraudulent purchases, and of rapacious usury. + <a href="#linknote-15.140" name="linknoteref-15.140" + id="linknoteref-15.140">140</a> But as long as the contributions of the + Christian people were free and unconstrained, the abuse of their + confidence could not be very frequent, and the general uses to which their + liberality was applied reflected honor on the religious society. A decent + portion was reserved for the maintenance of the bishop and his clergy; a + sufficient sum was allotted for the expenses of the public worship, of + which the feasts of love, the <i>agapæ</i>, as they were called, constituted a + very pleasing part. The whole remainder was the sacred patrimony of the + poor. According to the discretion of the bishop, it was distributed to + support widows and orphans, the lame, the sick, and the aged of the + community; to comfort strangers and pilgrims, and to alleviate the + misfortunes of prisoners and captives, more especially when their + sufferings had been occasioned by their firm attachment to the cause of + religion. <a href="#linknote-15.141" name="linknoteref-15.141" + id="linknoteref-15.141">141</a> A generous intercourse of charity united + the most distant provinces, and the smaller congregations were cheerfully + assisted by the alms of their more opulent brethren. <a + href="#linknote-15.142" name="linknoteref-15.142" id="linknoteref-15.142">142</a> + Such an institution, which paid less regard to the merit than to the + distress of the object, very materially conduced to the progress of + Christianity. The Pagans, who were actuated by a sense of humanity, while + they derided the doctrines, acknowledged the benevolence, of the new sect. + <a href="#linknote-15.143" name="linknoteref-15.143" + id="linknoteref-15.143">143</a> The prospect of immediate relief and of + future protection allured into its hospitable bosom many of those unhappy + persons whom the neglect of the world would have abandoned to the miseries + of want, of sickness, and of old age. There is some reason likewise to + believe that great numbers of infants, who, according to the inhuman + practice of the times, had been exposed by their parents, were frequently + rescued from death, baptized, educated, and maintained by the piety of the + Christians, and at the expense of the public treasure. <a + href="#linknote-15.144" name="linknoteref-15.144" id="linknoteref-15.144">144</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.139" id="linknote-15.139"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 139 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.139">return</a>)<br/> [ Constitut. Apostol. + ii. 35.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.140" id="linknote-15.140"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 140 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.140">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian de Lapsis, + p. 89. Epistol. 65. The charge is confirmed by the 19th and 20th canon of + the council of Illiberis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.141" id="linknote-15.141"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 141 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.141">return</a>)<br/> [ See the apologies of + Justin, Tertullian, &c.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.142" id="linknote-15.142"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 142 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.142">return</a>)<br/> [ The wealth and + liberality of the Romans to their most distant brethren is gratefully + celebrated by Dionysius of Corinth, ap. Euseb. l. iv. c. 23.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.143" id="linknote-15.143"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 143 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.143">return</a>)<br/> [ See Lucian iu + Peregrin. Julian (Epist. 49) seems mortified that the Christian charity + maintains not only their own, but likewise the heathen poor.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.144" id="linknote-15.144"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 144 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.144">return</a>)<br/> [ Such, at least, has + been the laudable conduct of more modern missionaries, under the same + circumstances. Above three thousand new-born infants are annually exposed + in the streets of Pekin. See Le Comte, Memoires sur la Chine, and the + Recherches sur les Chinois et les Egyptians, tom. i. p. 61.] + </p> + <p> + II. It is the undoubted right of every society to exclude from its + communion and benefits such among its members as reject or violate those + regulations which have been established by general consent. In the + exercise of this power, the censures of the Christian church were chiefly + directed against scandalous sinners, and particularly those who were + guilty of murder, of fraud, or of incontinence; against the authors or the + followers of any heretical opinions which had been condemned by the + judgment of the episcopal order; and against those unhappy persons, who, + whether from choice or compulsion, had polluted themselves after their + baptism by any act of idolatrous worship. The consequences of + excommunication were of a temporal as well as a spiritual nature. The + Christian against whom it was pronounced was deprived of any part in the + oblations of the faithful. The ties both of religious and of private + friendship were dissolved: he found himself a profane object of abhorrence + to the persons whom he the most esteemed, or by whom he had been the most + tenderly beloved; and as far as an expulsion from a respectable society + could imprint on his character a mark of disgrace, he was shunned or + suspected by the generality of mankind. The situation of these unfortunate + exiles was in itself very painful and melancholy; but, as it usually + happens, their apprehensions far exceeded their sufferings. The benefits + of the Christian communion were those of eternal life; nor could they + erase from their minds the awful opinion, that to those ecclesiastical + governors by whom they were condemned, the Deity had committed the keys of + Hell and of Paradise. The heretics, indeed, who might be supported by the + consciousness of their intentions, and by the flattering hope that they + alone had discovered the true path of salvation, endeavored to regain, in + their separate assemblies, those comforts, temporal as well as spiritual, + which they no longer derived from the great society of Christians. But + almost all those who had reluctantly yielded to the power of vice or + idolatry were sensible of their fallen condition, and anxiously desirous + of being restored to the benefits of the Christian communion. + </p> + <p> + With regard to the treatment of these penitents, two opposite opinions, + the one of justice, the other of mercy, divided the primitive church. The + more rigid and inflexible casuists refused them forever, and without + exception, the meanest place in the holy community, which they had + disgraced or deserted; and leaving them to the remorse of a guilty + conscience, indulged them only with a faint ray of hope that the + contrition of their life and death might possibly be accepted by the + Supreme Being. <a href="#linknote-15.145" name="linknoteref-15.145" + id="linknoteref-15.145">145</a> A milder sentiment was embraced, in + practice as well as in theory, by the purest and most respectable of the + Christian churches. <a href="#linknote-15.146" name="linknoteref-15.146" + id="linknoteref-15.146">146</a> The gates of reconciliation and of heaven + were seldom shut against the returning penitent; but a severe and solemn + form of discipline was instituted, which, while it served to expiate his + crime, might powerfully deter the spectators from the imitation of his + example. Humbled by a public confession, emaciated by fasting and clothed + in sackcloth, the penitent lay prostrate at the door of the assembly, + imploring with tears the pardon of his offences, and soliciting the + prayers of the faithful. <a href="#linknote-15.147" + name="linknoteref-15.147" id="linknoteref-15.147">147</a> If the fault was + of a very heinous nature, whole years of penance were esteemed an + inadequate satisfaction to the divine justice; and it was always by slow + and painful gradations that the sinner, the heretic, or the apostate, was + readmitted into the bosom of the church. A sentence of perpetual + excommunication was, however, reserved for some crimes of an extraordinary + magnitude, and particularly for the inexcusable relapses of those + penitents who had already experienced and abused the clemency of their + ecclesiastical superiors. According to the circumstances or the number of + the guilty, the exercise of the Christian discipline was varied by the + discretion of the bishops. The councils of Ancyra and Illiberis were held + about the same time, the one in Galatia, the other in Spain; but their + respective canons, which are still extant, seem to breathe a very + different spirit. The Galatian, who after his baptism had repeatedly + sacrificed to idols, might obtain his pardon by a penance of seven years; + and if he had seduced others to imitate his example, only three years more + were added to the term of his exile. But the unhappy Spaniard, who had + committed the same offence, was deprived of the hope of reconciliation, + even in the article of death; and his idolatry was placed at the head of a + list of seventeen other crimes, against which a sentence no less terrible + was pronounced. Among these we may distinguish the inexpiable guilt of + calumniating a bishop, a presbyter, or even a deacon. <a + href="#linknote-15.148" name="linknoteref-15.148" id="linknoteref-15.148">148</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.145" id="linknote-15.145"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 145 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.145">return</a>)<br/> [ The Montanists and + the Novatians, who adhered to this opinion with the greatest rigor and + obstinacy, found themselves at last in the number of excommunicated + heretics. See the learned and copious Mosheim, Secul. ii. and iii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.146" id="linknote-15.146"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 146 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.146">return</a>)<br/> [ Dionysius ap. Euseb. + iv. 23. Cyprian, de Lapsis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.147" id="linknote-15.147"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 147 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.147">return</a>)<br/> [ Cave’s Primitive + Christianity, part iii. c. 5. The admirers of antiquity regret the loss of + this public penance.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.148" id="linknote-15.148"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 148 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.148">return</a>)<br/> [ See in Dupin, + Bibliotheque Ecclesiastique, tom. ii. p. 304—313, a short but + rational exposition of the canons of those councils, which were assembled + in the first moments of tranquillity, after the persecution of Diocletian. + This persecution had been much less severely felt in Spain than in + Galatia; a difference which may, in some measure account for the contrast + of their regulations.] + </p> + <p> + The well-tempered mixture of liberality and rigor, the judicious + dispensation of rewards and punishments, according to the maxims of policy + as well as justice, constituted the <i>human</i> strength of the church. The + Bishops, whose paternal care extended itself to the government of both + worlds, were sensible of the importance of these prerogatives; and + covering their ambition with the fair pretence of the love of order, they + were jealous of any rival in the exercise of a discipline so necessary to + prevent the desertion of those troops which had enlisted themselves under + the banner of the cross, and whose numbers every day became more + considerable. From the imperious declamations of Cyprian, we should + naturally conclude that the doctrines of excommunication and penance + formed the most essential part of religion; and that it was much less + dangerous for the disciples of Christ to neglect the observance of the + moral duties, than to despise the censures and authority of their bishops. + Sometimes we might imagine that we were listening to the voice of Moses, + when he commanded the earth to open, and to swallow up, in consuming + flames, the rebellious race which refused obedience to the priesthood of + Aaron; and we should sometimes suppose that we heard a Roman consul + asserting the majesty of the republic, and declaring his inflexible + resolution to enforce the rigor of the laws. “If such irregularities are + suffered with impunity,” (it is thus that the bishop of Carthage chides + the lenity of his colleague,) “if such irregularities are suffered, there + is an end of <small>EPISCOPAL VIGOR</small>; <a href="#linknote-15.149" + name="linknoteref-15.149" id="linknoteref-15.149">149</a> an end of the + sublime and divine power of governing the Church, an end of Christianity + itself.” Cyprian had renounced those temporal honors which it is probable + he would never have obtained; but the acquisition of such absolute command + over the consciences and understanding of a congregation, however obscure + or despised by the world, is more truly grateful to the pride of the human + heart than the possession of the most despotic power, imposed by arms and + conquest on a reluctant people. + </p> + <p> + [ Gibbon has been accused of injustice to the character of Cyprian, as + exalting the “censures and authority of the church above the + observance of the moral duties.” Felicissimus had been condemned by + a synod of bishops, (non tantum mea, sed plurimorum coepiscorum, + sententia condemnatum,) on the charge not only of schism, but of + embezzlement of public money, the debauching of virgins, and frequent + acts of adultery. His violent menaces had extorted his readmission into + the church, against which Cyprian protests with much vehemence: ne + pecuniæ commissæ sibi fraudator, ne stuprator virginum, ne matrimoniorum + multorum depopulator et corruptor, ultra adhuc sponsam Christi + incorruptam præsentiæ suæ dedecore, et impudica atque incesta contagione, + violaret. See Chelsum’s Remarks, p. 134. If these charges against + Felicissimus were true, they were something more than + “irregularities,” A Roman censor would have been a fairer + subject of comparison than a consul. On the other hand, it must be + admitted that the charge of adultery deepens very rapidly as the + controversy becomes more violent. It is first represented as a single + act, recently detected, and which men of character were prepared to + substantiate: adulterii etiam crimen accedit. quod patres nostri graves + viri deprehendisse se nuntiaverunt, et probaturos se asseverarunt. Epist. + xxxviii. The heretic has now darkened into a man of notorious and general + profligacy. Nor can it be denied that of the whole long epistle, very far + the larger and the more passionate part dwells on the breach of + ecclesiastical unity rather than on the violation of Christian + holiness.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.149" id="linknote-15.149"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 149 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.149">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian Epist. 69.] + </p> + <p> + [ This supposition + appears unfounded: the birth and the talents of Cyprian might make us + presume the contrary. Thascius Cæcilius Cyprianus, Carthaginensis, artis + oratoriæ professione clarus, magnam sibi gloriam, opes, honores + acquisivit, epularibus cænis et largis dapibus assuetus, pretiosa veste + conspicuus, auro atque purpura fulgens, fascibus oblectatus et honoribus, + stipatus clientium cuneis, frequentiore comitatu officii agminis + honestatus, ut ipse de se loquitur in Epistola ad Donatum. See De Cave, + Hist. Liter. b. i. p. 87.—G. Cave has rather embellished Cyprian’s + language.—M.] + </p> + <p> + In the course of this important, though perhaps tedious inquiry, I have + attempted to display the secondary causes which so efficaciously assisted + the truth of the Christian religion. If among these causes we have + discovered any artificial ornaments, any accidental circumstances, or any + mixture of error and passion, it cannot appear surprising that mankind + should be the most sensibly affected by such motives as were suited to + their imperfect nature. It was by the aid of these causes, exclusive zeal, + the immediate expectation of another world, the claim of miracles, the + practice of rigid virtue, and the constitution of the primitive church, + that Christianity spread itself with so much success in the Roman empire. + To the first of these the Christians were indebted for their invincible + valor, which disdained to capitulate with the enemy whom they were + resolved to vanquish. The three succeeding causes supplied their valor + with the most formidable arms. The last of these causes united their + courage, directed their arms, and gave their efforts that irresistible + weight, which even a small band of well-trained and intrepid volunteers + has so often possessed over an undisciplined multitude, ignorant of the + subject and careless of the event of the war. In the various religions of + Polytheism, some wandering fanatics of Egypt and Syria, who addressed + themselves to the credulous superstition of the populace, were perhaps the + only order of priests <a href="#linknote-15.150" name="linknoteref-15.150" + id="linknoteref-15.150">150</a> that derived their whole support and + credit from their sacerdotal profession, and were very deeply affected by + a personal concern for the safety or prosperity of their tutelar deities. + The ministers of Polytheism, both in Rome and in the provinces, were, for + the most part, men of a noble birth, and of an affluent fortune, who + received, as an honorable distinction, the care of a celebrated temple, or + of a public sacrifice, exhibited, very frequently at their own expense, + the sacred games, <a href="#linknote-15.151" name="linknoteref-15.151" + id="linknoteref-15.151">151</a> and with cold indifference performed the + ancient rites, according to the laws and fashion of their country. As they + were engaged in the ordinary occupations of life, their zeal and devotion + were seldom animated by a sense of interest, or by the habits of an + ecclesiastical character. Confined to their respective temples and cities, + they remained without any connection of discipline or government; and + whilst they acknowledged the supreme jurisdiction of the senate, of the + college of pontiffs, and of the emperor, those civil magistrates contented + themselves with the easy task of maintaining in peace and dignity the + general worship of mankind. We have already seen how various, how loose, + and how uncertain were the religious sentiments of Polytheists. They were + abandoned, almost without control, to the natural workings of a + superstitious fancy. The accidental circumstances of their life and + situation determined the object as well as the degree of their devotion; + and as long as their adoration was successively prostituted to a thousand + deities, it was scarcely possible that their hearts could be susceptible + of a very sincere or lively passion for any of them. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.150" id="linknote-15.150"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 150 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.150">return</a>)<br/> [ The arts, the + manners, and the vices of the priests of the Syrian goddess are very + humorously described by Apuleius, in the eighth book of his + Metamorphosis.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.151" id="linknote-15.151"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 151 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.151">return</a>)<br/> [ The office of + Asiarch was of this nature, and it is frequently mentioned in Aristides, + the Inscriptions, &c. It was annual and elective. None but the vainest + citizens could desire the honor; none but the most wealthy could support + the expense. See, in the Patres Apostol. tom. ii. p. 200, with how much + indifference Philip the Asiarch conducted himself in the martyrdom of + Polycarp. There were likewise Bithyniarchs, Lyciarchs, &c.] + </p> + <p> + When Christianity appeared in the world, even these faint and imperfect + impressions had lost much of their original power. Human reason, which by + its unassisted strength is incapable of perceiving the mysteries of faith, + had already obtained an easy triumph over the folly of Paganism; and when + Tertullian or Lactantius employ their labors in exposing its falsehood and + extravagance, they are obliged to transcribe the eloquence of Cicero or + the wit of Lucian. The contagion of these sceptical writings had been + diffused far beyond the number of their readers. The fashion of + incredulity was communicated from the philosopher to the man of pleasure + or business, from the noble to the plebeian, and from the master to the + menial slave who waited at his table, and who eagerly listened to the + freedom of his conversation. On public occasions the philosophic part of + mankind affected to treat with respect and decency the religious + institutions of their country; but their secret contempt penetrated + through the thin and awkward disguise; and even the people, when they + discovered that their deities were rejected and derided by those whose + rank or understanding they were accustomed to reverence, were filled with + doubts and apprehensions concerning the truth of those doctrines, to which + they had yielded the most implicit belief. The decline of ancient + prejudice exposed a very numerous portion of human kind to the danger of a + painful and comfortless situation. A state of scepticism and suspense may + amuse a few inquisitive minds. But the practice of superstition is so + congenial to the multitude, that if they are forcibly awakened, they still + regret the loss of their pleasing vision. Their love of the marvellous and + supernatural, their curiosity with regard to future events, and their + strong propensity to extend their hopes and fears beyond the limits of the + visible world, were the principal causes which favored the establishment + of Polytheism. So urgent on the vulgar is the necessity of believing, that + the fall of any system of mythology will most probably be succeeded by the + introduction of some other mode of superstition. Some deities of a more + recent and fashionable cast might soon have occupied the deserted temples + of Jupiter and Apollo, if, in the decisive moment, the wisdom of + Providence had not interposed a genuine revelation, fitted to inspire the + most rational esteem and conviction, whilst, at the same time, it was + adorned with all that could attract the curiosity, the wonder, and the + veneration of the people. In their actual disposition, as many were almost + disengaged from their artificial prejudices, but equally susceptible and + desirous of a devout attachment; an object much less deserving would have + been sufficient to fill the vacant place in their hearts, and to gratify + the uncertain eagerness of their passions. Those who are inclined to + pursue this reflection, instead of viewing with astonishment the rapid + progress of Christianity, will perhaps be surprised that its success was + not still more rapid and still more universal. It has been observed, with + truth as well as propriety, that the conquests of Rome prepared and + facilitated those of Christianity. In the second chapter of this work we + have attempted to explain in what manner the most civilized provinces of + Europe, Asia, and Africa were united under the dominion of one sovereign, + and gradually connected by the most intimate ties of laws, of manners, and + of language. The Jews of Palestine, who had fondly expected a temporal + deliverer, gave so cold a reception to the miracles of the divine prophet, + that it was found unnecessary to publish, or at least to preserve, any + Hebrew gospel. <a href="#linknote-15.152" name="linknoteref-15.152" + id="linknoteref-15.152">152</a> The authentic histories of the actions of + Christ were composed in the Greek language, at a considerable distance + from Jerusalem, and after the Gentile converts were grown extremely + numerous. <a href="#linknote-15.153" name="linknoteref-15.153" + id="linknoteref-15.153">153</a> As soon as those histories were translated + into the Latin tongue, they were perfectly intelligible to all the + subjects of Rome, excepting only to the peasants of Syria and Egypt, for + whose benefit particular versions were afterwards made. The public + highways, which had been constructed for the use of the legions, opened an + easy passage for the Christian missionaries from Damascus to Corinth, and + from Italy to the extremity of Spain or Britain; nor did those spiritual + conquerors encounter any of the obstacles which usually retard or prevent + the introduction of a foreign religion into a distant country. There is + the strongest reason to believe, that before the reigns of Diocletian and + Constantine, the faith of Christ had been preached in every province, and + in all the great cities of the empire; but the foundation of the several + congregations, the numbers of the faithful who composed them, and their + proportion to the unbelieving multitude, are now buried in obscurity, or + disguised by fiction and declamation. Such imperfect circumstances, + however, as have reached our knowledge concerning the increase of the + Christian name in Asia and Greece, in Egypt, in Italy, and in the West, we + shall now proceed to relate, without neglecting the real or imaginary + acquisitions which lay beyond the frontiers of the Roman empire. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.152" id="linknote-15.152"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 152 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.152">return</a>)<br/> [ The modern critics + are not disposed to believe what the fathers almost unanimously assert, + that St. Matthew composed a Hebrew gospel, of which only the Greek + translation is extant. It seems, however, dangerous to reject their + testimony. * Note: Strong reasons appear to confirm this testimony. + Papias, contemporary of the Apostle St. John, says positively that Matthew + had written the discourses of Jesus Christ in Hebrew, and that each + interpreted them as he could. This Hebrew was the Syro-Chaldaic dialect, + then in use at Jerusalem: Origen, Irenæus, Eusebius, Jerome, Epiphanius, + confirm this statement. Jesus Christ preached himself in Syro-Chaldaic, as + is proved by many words which he used, and which the Evangelists have + taken the pains to translate. St. Paul, addressing the Jews, used the same + language: Acts xxi. 40, xxii. 2, xxvi. 14. The opinions of some critics + prove nothing against such undeniable testimonies. Moreover, their + principal objection is, that St. Matthew quotes the Old Testament + according to the Greek version of the LXX., which is inaccurate; for of + ten quotations, found in his Gospel, seven are evidently taken from the + Hebrew text; the threo others offer little that differ: moreover, the + latter are not literal quotations. St. Jerome says positively, that, + according to a copy which he had seen in the library of Cæsarea, the + quotations were made in Hebrew (in Catal.) More modern critics, among + others Michaelis, do not entertain a doubt on the subject. The Greek + version appears to have been made in the time of the apostles, as St. + Jerome and St. Augustus affirm, perhaps by one of them.—G. ——Among + modern critics, Dr. Hug has asserted the Greek original of St. Matthew, + but the general opinion of the most learned biblical writer, supports the + view of M. Guizot.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.153" id="linknote-15.153"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 153 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.153">return</a>)<br/> [ Under the reigns of + Nero and Domitian, and in the cities of Alexandria, Antioch, Rome, and + Ephesus. See Mill. Prolegomena ad Nov. Testament, and Dr. Lardner’s fair + and extensive collection, vol. xv. Note: This question has, it is well + known, been most elaborately discussed since the time of Gibbon. The + Preface to the Translation of Schleier Macher’s Version of St. Luke + contains a very able summary of the various theories.—M.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.8"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part VIII. + </h2> + <p> + The rich provinces that extend from the Euphrates to the Ionian Sea were + the principal theatre on which the apostle of the Gentiles displayed his + zeal and piety. The seeds of the gospel, which he had scattered in a + fertile soil, were diligently cultivated by his disciples; and it should + seem that, during the two first centuries, the most considerable body of + Christians was contained within those limits. Among the societies which + were instituted in Syria, none were more ancient or more illustrious than + those of Damascus, of Berea or Aleppo, and of Antioch. The prophetic + introduction of the Apocalypse has described and immortalized the seven + churches of Asia; Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, <a + href="#linknote-15.154" name="linknoteref-15.154" id="linknoteref-15.154">154</a> + Sardes, Laodicea, and Philadelphia; and their colonies were soon diffused + over that populous country. In a very early period, the islands of Cyprus + and Crete, the provinces of Thrace and Macedonia, gave a favorable + reception to the new religion; and Christian republics were soon founded + in the cities of Corinth, of Sparta, and of Athens. <a + href="#linknote-15.155" name="linknoteref-15.155" id="linknoteref-15.155">155</a> + The antiquity of the Greek and Asiatic churches allowed a sufficient space + of time for their increase and multiplication; and even the swarms of + Gnostics and other heretics serve to display the flourishing condition of + the orthodox church, since the appellation of heretics has always been + applied to the less numerous party. To these domestic testimonies we may + add the confession, the complaints, and the apprehensions of the Gentiles + themselves. From the writings of Lucian, a philosopher who had studied + mankind, and who describes their manners in the most lively colors, we may + learn that, under the reign of Commodus, his native country of Pontus was + filled with Epicureans and <i>Christians</i>. <a href="#linknote-15.156" + name="linknoteref-15.156" id="linknoteref-15.156">156</a> Within fourscore + years after the death of Christ, <a href="#linknote-15.157" + name="linknoteref-15.157" id="linknoteref-15.157">157</a> the humane Pliny + laments the magnitude of the evil which he vainly attempted to eradicate. + In his very curious epistle to the emperor Trajan, he affirms that the + temples were almost deserted, that the sacred victims scarcely found any + purchasers, and that the superstition had not only infected the cities, + but had even spread itself into the villages and the open country of + Pontus and Bithynia. <a href="#linknote-15.158" name="linknoteref-15.158" + id="linknoteref-15.158">158</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.154" id="linknote-15.154"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 154 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.154">return</a>)<br/> [ The Alogians + (Epiphanius de Hæres. 51) disputed the genuineness of the Apocalypse, + because the church of Thyatira was not yet founded. Epiphanius, who allows + the fact, extricates himself from the difficulty by ingeniously supposing + that St. John wrote in the spirit of prophecy. See Abauzit, Discours sur + l’Apocalypse.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.155" id="linknote-15.155"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 155 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.155">return</a>)<br/> [ The epistles of + Ignatius and Dionysius (ap. Euseb. iv. 23) point out many churches in Asia + and Greece. That of Athens seems to have been one of the least + flourishing.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.156" id="linknote-15.156"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 156 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.156">return</a>)<br/> [ Lucian in Alexandro, + c. 25. Christianity however, must have been very unequally diffused over + Pontus; since, in the middle of the third century, there was no more than + seventeen believers in the extensive diocese of Neo-Cæsarea. See M. de + Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiast. tom. iv. p. 675, from Basil and Gregory of + Nyssa, who were themselves natives of Cappadocia. Note: Gibbon forgot the + conclusion of this story, that Gregory left only seventeen heathens in his + diocese. The antithesis is suspicious, and both numbers may have been + chosen to magnify the spiritual fame of the wonder-worker.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.157" id="linknote-15.157"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 157 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.157">return</a>)<br/> [ According to the + ancients, Jesus Christ suffered under the consulship of the two Gemini, in + the year 29 of our present æra. Pliny was sent into Bithynia (according + to Pagi) in the year 110.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.158" id="linknote-15.158"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 158 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.158">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Epist. x. 97.] + </p> + <p> + Without descending into a minute scrutiny of the expressions or of the + motives of those writers who either celebrate or lament the progress of + Christianity in the East, it may in general be observed that none of them + have left us any grounds from whence a just estimate might be formed of + the real numbers of the faithful in those provinces. One circumstance, + however, has been fortunately preserved, which seems to cast a more + distinct light on this obscure but interesting subject. Under the reign of + Theodosius, after Christianity had enjoyed, during more than sixty years, + the sunshine of Imperial favor, the ancient and illustrious church of + Antioch consisted of one hundred thousand persons, three thousand of whom + were supported out of the public oblations. <a href="#linknote-15.159" + name="linknoteref-15.159" id="linknoteref-15.159">159</a> The splendor and + dignity of the queen of the East, the acknowledged populousness of + Cæsarea, Seleucia, and Alexandria, and the destruction of two hundred and + fifty thousand souls in the earthquake which afflicted Antioch under the + elder Justin, <a href="#linknote-15.160" name="linknoteref-15.160" + id="linknoteref-15.160">160</a> are so many convincing proofs that the + whole number of its inhabitants was not less than half a million, and that + the Christians, however multiplied by zeal and power, did not exceed a + fifth part of that great city. How different a proportion must we adopt + when we compare the persecuted with the triumphant church, the West with + the East, remote villages with populous towns, and countries recently + converted to the faith with the place where the believers first received + the appellation of Christians! It must not, however, be dissembled, that, + in another passage, Chrysostom, to whom we are indebted for this useful + information, computes the multitude of the faithful as even superior to + that of the Jews and Pagans. <a href="#linknote-15.161" + name="linknoteref-15.161" id="linknoteref-15.161">161</a> But the solution + of this apparent difficulty is easy and obvious. The eloquent preacher + draws a parallel between the civil and the ecclesiastical constitution of + Antioch; between the list of Christians who had acquired heaven by + baptism, and the list of citizens who had a right to share the public + liberality. Slaves, strangers, and infants were comprised in the former; + they were excluded from the latter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.159" id="linknote-15.159"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 159 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.159">return</a>)<br/> [ Chrysostom. Opera, + tom. vii. p. 658, 810, (edit. Savil. ii. 422, 329.)] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.160" id="linknote-15.160"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 160 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.160">return</a>)<br/> [ John Malala, tom. + ii. p. 144. He draws the same conclusion with regard to the populousness + of antioch.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.161" id="linknote-15.161"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 161 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.161">return</a>)<br/> [ Chrysostom. tom. i. + p. 592. I am indebted for these passages, though not for my inference, to + the learned Dr. Lardner. Credibility of the Gospel of History, vol. xii. + p. 370. * Note: The statements of Chrysostom with regard to the population + of Antioch, whatever may be their accuracy, are perfectly consistent. In + one passage he reckons the population at 200,000. In a second the + Christians at 100,000. In a third he states that the Christians formed + more than half the population. Gibbon has neglected to notice the first + passage, and has drawn by estimate of the population of Antioch from other + sources. The 8000 maintained by alms were widows and virgins alone—M.] + </p> + <p> + The extensive commerce of Alexandria, and its proximity to Palestine, gave + an easy entrance to the new religion. It was at first embraced by great + numbers of the Theraputæ, or Essenians, of the Lake Mareotis, a Jewish + sect which had abated much of its reverence for the Mosaic ceremonies. The + austere life of the Essenians, their fasts and excommunications, the + community of goods, the love of celibacy, their zeal for martyrdom, and + the warmth though not the purity of their faith, already offered a very + lively image of the primitive discipline. <a href="#linknote-15.162" + name="linknoteref-15.162" id="linknoteref-15.162">162</a> It was in the + school of Alexandria that the Christian theology appears to have assumed a + regular and scientific form; and when Hadrian visited Egypt, he found a + church composed of Jews and of Greeks, sufficiently important to attract + the notice of that inquisitive prince. <a href="#linknote-15.163" + name="linknoteref-15.163" id="linknoteref-15.163">163</a> But the progress + of Christianity was for a long time confined within the limits of a single + city, which was itself a foreign colony, and till the close of the second + century the predecessors of Demetrius were the only prelates of the + Egyptian church. Three bishops were consecrated by the hands of Demetrius, + and the number was increased to twenty by his successor Heraclas. <a + href="#linknote-15.164" name="linknoteref-15.164" id="linknoteref-15.164">164</a> + The body of the natives, a people distinguished by a sullen inflexibility + of temper, <a href="#linknote-15.165" name="linknoteref-15.165" + id="linknoteref-15.165">165</a> entertained the new doctrine with coldness + and reluctance; and even in the time of Origen, it was rare to meet with + an Egyptian who had surmounted his early prejudices in favor of the sacred + animals of his country. <a href="#linknote-15.166" + name="linknoteref-15.166" id="linknoteref-15.166">166</a> As soon, indeed, + as Christianity ascended the throne, the zeal of those barbarians obeyed + the prevailing impulsion; the cities of Egypt were filled with bishops, + and the deserts of Thebais swarmed with hermits. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.162" id="linknote-15.162"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 162 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.162">return</a>)<br/> [ Basnage, Histoire + des Juifs, l. 2, c. 20, 21, 22, 23, has examined with the most critical + accuracy the curious treatise of Philo, which describes the Therapeutæ. + By proving that it was composed as early as the time of Augustus, Basnage + has demonstrated, in spite of Eusebius (l. ii. c. 17) and a crowd of + modern Catholics, that the Therapeutæ were neither Christians nor monks. + It still remains probable that they changed their name, preserved their + manners, adopted some new articles of faith, and gradually became the + fathers of the Egyptian Ascetics.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.163" id="linknote-15.163"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 163 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.163">return</a>)<br/> [ See a letter of + Hadrian in the Augustan History, p. 245.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.164" id="linknote-15.164"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 164 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.164">return</a>)<br/> [ For the succession + of Alexandrian bishops, consult Renaudot’s History, p. 24, &c. This + curious fact is preserved by the patriarch Eutychius, (Annal. tom. i. p. + 334, Vers. Pocock,) and its internal evidence would alone be a sufficient + answer to all the objections which Bishop Pearson has urged in the + Vindiciæ Ignatianæ.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.165" id="linknote-15.165"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 165 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.165">return</a>)<br/> [ Ammian. Marcellin. + xxii. 16.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.166" id="linknote-15.166"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 166 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.166">return</a>)<br/> [ Origen contra + Celsum, l. i. p. 40.] + </p> + <p> + A perpetual stream of strangers and provincials flowed into the capacious + bosom of Rome. Whatever was strange or odious, whoever was guilty or + suspected, might hope, in the obscurity of that immense capital, to elude + the vigilance of the law. In such a various conflux of nations, every + teacher, either of truth or falsehood, every founder, whether of a + virtuous or a criminal association, might easily multiply his disciples or + accomplices. The Christians of Rome, at the time of the accidental + persecution of Nero, are represented by Tacitus as already amounting to a + very great multitude, <a href="#linknote-15.167" name="linknoteref-15.167" + id="linknoteref-15.167">167</a> and the language of that great historian + is almost similar to the style employed by Livy, when he relates the + introduction and the suppression of the rites of Bacchus. After the + Bacchanals had awakened the severity of the senate, it was likewise + apprehended that a very great multitude, as it were <i>another people</i>, had + been initiated into those abhorred mysteries. A more careful inquiry soon + demonstrated that the offenders did not exceed seven thousand; a number + indeed sufficiently alarming, when considered as the object of public + justice. <a href="#linknote-15.168" name="linknoteref-15.168" + id="linknoteref-15.168">168</a> It is with the same candid allowance that + we should interpret the vague expressions of Tacitus, and in a former + instance of Pliny, when they exaggerate the crowds of deluded fanatics who + had forsaken the established worship of the gods. The church of Rome was + undoubtedly the first and most populous of the empire; and we are + possessed of an authentic record which attests the state of religion in + that city about the middle of the third century, and after a peace of + thirty-eight years. The clergy, at that time, consisted of a bishop, + forty-six presbyters, seven deacons, as many sub-deacons, forty-two + acolytes, and fifty readers, exorcists, and porters. The number of + widows, of the infirm, and of the poor, who were maintained by the + oblations of the faithful, amounted to fifteen hundred. <a + href="#linknote-15.169" name="linknoteref-15.169" id="linknoteref-15.169">169</a> + From reason, as well as from the analogy of Antioch, we may venture to + estimate the Christians of Rome at about fifty thousand. The populousness + of that great capital cannot perhaps be exactly ascertained; but the most + modest calculation will not surely reduce it lower than a million of + inhabitants, of whom the Christians might constitute at the most a + twentieth part. <a href="#linknote-15.170" name="linknoteref-15.170" + id="linknoteref-15.170">170</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.167" id="linknote-15.167"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 167 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.167">return</a>)<br/> [ Ingens multitudo is + the expression of Tacitus, xv. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.168" id="linknote-15.168"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 168 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.168">return</a>)<br/> [ T. Liv. xxxix. 13, + 15, 16, 17. Nothing could exceed the horror and consternation of the + senate on the discovery of the Bacchanalians, whose depravity is + described, and perhaps exaggerated, by Livy.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.169" id="linknote-15.169"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 169 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.169">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, l. vi. c. + 43. The Latin translator (M. de Valois) has thought proper to reduce the + number of presbyters to forty-four.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.170" id="linknote-15.170"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 170 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.170">return</a>)<br/> [ This proportion of + the presbyters and of the poor, to the rest of the people, was originally + fixed by Burnet, (Travels into Italy, p. 168,) and is approved by Moyle, + (vol. ii. p. 151.) They were both unacquainted with the passage of + Chrysostom, which converts their conjecture almost into a fact.] + </p> + <p> + The western provincials appeared to have derived the knowledge of + Christianity from the same source which had diffused among them the + language, the sentiments, and the manners of Rome. + </p> + <p> + In this more important circumstance, Africa, as well as Gaul was + gradually fashioned to the imitation of the capital. Yet notwithstanding + the many favorable occasions which might invite the Roman missionaries to + visit their Latin provinces, it was late before they passed either the sea + or the Alps; <a href="#linknote-15.171" name="linknoteref-15.171" + id="linknoteref-15.171">171</a> nor can we discover in those great + countries any assured traces either of faith or of persecution that ascend + higher than the reign of the Antonines. <a href="#linknote-15.172" + name="linknoteref-15.172" id="linknoteref-15.172">172</a> The slow + progress of the gospel in the cold climate of Gaul, was extremely + different from the eagerness with which it seems to have been received on + the burning sands of Africa. The African Christians soon formed one of the + principal members of the primitive church. The practice introduced into + that province of appointing bishops to the most inconsiderable towns, and + very frequently to the most obscure villages, contributed to multiply the + splendor and importance of their religious societies, which during the + course of the third century were animated by the zeal of Tertullian, + directed by the abilities of Cyprian, and adorned by the eloquence of + Lactantius. + </p> + <p> + But if, on the contrary, we turn our eyes towards Gaul, we must content + ourselves with discovering, in the time of Marcus Antoninus, the feeble + and united congregations of Lyons and Vienna; and even as late as the + reign of Decius we are assured, that in a few cities only, Arles, + Narbonne, Thoulouse, Limoges, Clermont, Tours, and Paris, some scattered + churches were supported by the devotion of a small number of Christians. + <a href="#linknote-15.173" name="linknoteref-15.173" + id="linknoteref-15.173">173</a> Silence is indeed very consistent with + devotion; but as it is seldom compatible with zeal, we may perceive and + lament the languid state of Christianity in those provinces which had + exchanged the Celtic for the Latin tongue, since they did not, during the + three first centuries, give birth to a single ecclesiastical writer. From + Gaul, which claimed a just preeminence of learning and authority over all + the countries on this side of the Alps, the light of the gospel was more + faintly reflected on the remote provinces of Spain and Britain; and if we + may credit the vehement assertions of Tertullian, they had already + received the first rays of the faith, when he addressed his apology to the + magistrates of the emperor Severus. <a href="#linknote-15.174" + name="linknoteref-15.174" id="linknoteref-15.174">174</a> But the obscure + and imperfect origin of the western churches of Europe has been so + negligently recorded, that if we would relate the time and manner of their + foundation, we must supply the silence of antiquity by those legends which + avarice or superstition long afterwards dictated to the monks in the lazy + gloom of their convents. <a href="#linknote-15.175" + name="linknoteref-15.175" id="linknoteref-15.175">175</a> Of these holy + romances, that of the apostle St. James can alone, by its singular + extravagance, deserve to be mentioned. From a peaceful fisherman of the + Lake of Gennesareth, he was transformed into a valorous knight, who + charged at the head of the Spanish chivalry in their battles against the + Moors. The gravest historians have celebrated his exploits; the miraculous + shrine of Compostella displayed his power; and the sword of a military + order, assisted by the terrors of the Inquisition, was sufficient to + remove every objection of profane criticism. <a href="#linknote-15.176" + name="linknoteref-15.176" id="linknoteref-15.176">176</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.171" id="linknote-15.171"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 171 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.171">return</a>)<br/> [ Serius trans Alpes, + religione Dei suscepta. Sulpicius Severus, l. ii. With regard to Africa, + see Tertullian ad Scapulam, c. 3. It is imagined that the Scyllitan + martyrs were the first, (Acta Sincera Rumart. p. 34.) One of the + adversaries of Apuleius seems to have been a Christian. Apolog. p. 496, + 497, edit. Delphin.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.172" id="linknote-15.172"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 172 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.172">return</a>)<br/> [ Tum primum intra + Gallias martyria visa. Sulp. Severus, l. ii. These were the celebrated + martyrs of Lyons. See Eusebius, v. i. Tillemont, Mem. Ecclesiast. tom. ii. + p. 316. According to the Donatists, whose assertion is confirmed by the + tacit acknowledgment of Augustin, Africa was the last of the provinces + which received the gospel. Tillemont, Mem. Ecclesiast. tom. i. p. 754.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.173" id="linknote-15.173"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 173 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.173">return</a>)<br/> [ Raræ in aliquibus + civitatibus ecclesiæ, paucorum Christianorum devotione, resurgerent. Acta + Sincera, p. 130. Gregory of Tours, l i. c. 28. Mosheim, p. 207, 449. There + is some reason to believe that in the beginning of the fourth century, the + extensive dioceses of Liege, of Treves, and of Cologne, composed a single + bishopric, which had been very recently founded. See Memoires de + Tillemont, tom vi. part i. p. 43, 411.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.174" id="linknote-15.174"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 174 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.174">return</a>)<br/> [ The date of + Tertullian’s Apology is fixed, in a dissertation of Mosheim, to the year + 198.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.175" id="linknote-15.175"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 175 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.175">return</a>)<br/> [ In the fifteenth + century, there were few who had either inclination or courage to question, + whether Joseph of Arimathea founded the monastery of Glastonbury, and + whether Dionysius the Areopagite preferred the residence of Paris to that + of Athens.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.176" id="linknote-15.176"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 176 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.176">return</a>)<br/> [ The stupendous + metamorphosis was performed in the ninth century. See Mariana, (Hist. + Hispan. l. vii. c. 13, tom. i. p. 285, edit. Hag. Com. 1733,) who, in + every sense, imitates Livy, and the honest detection of the legend of St. + James by Dr. Geddes, Miscellanies, vol. ii. p. 221.] + </p> + <p> + The progress of Christianity was not confined to the Roman empire; and + according to the primitive fathers, who interpret facts by prophecy, the + new religion, within a century after the death of its divine Author, had + already visited every part of the globe. “There exists not,” says Justin + Martyr, “a people, whether Greek or Barbarian, or any other race of men, + by whatsoever appellation or manners they may be distinguished, however + ignorant of arts or agriculture, whether they dwell under tents, or wander + about in covered wagons, among whom prayers are not offered up in the name + of a crucified Jesus to the Father and Creator of all things.” <a + href="#linknote-15.177" name="linknoteref-15.177" id="linknoteref-15.177">177</a> + But this splendid exaggeration, which even at present it would be + extremely difficult to reconcile with the real state of mankind, can be + considered only as the rash sally of a devout but careless writer, the + measure of whose belief was regulated by that of his wishes. But neither + the belief nor the wishes of the fathers can alter the truth of history. + It will still remain an undoubted fact, that the barbarians of Scythia and + Germany, who afterwards subverted the Roman monarchy, were involved in the + darkness of paganism; and that even the conversion of Iberia, of Armenia, + or of Æthiopia, was not attempted with any degree of success till the + sceptre was in the hands of an orthodox emperor. <a href="#linknote-15.178" + name="linknoteref-15.178" id="linknoteref-15.178">178</a> Before that + time, the various accidents of war and commerce might indeed diffuse an + imperfect knowledge of the gospel among the tribes of Caledonia, <a + href="#linknote-15.179" name="linknoteref-15.179" id="linknoteref-15.179">179</a> + and among the borderers of the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euphrates. <a + href="#linknote-15.180" name="linknoteref-15.180" id="linknoteref-15.180">180</a> + Beyond the last-mentioned river, Edessa was distinguished by a firm and + early adherence to the faith. <a href="#linknote-15.181" + name="linknoteref-15.181" id="linknoteref-15.181">181</a> From Edessa the + principles of Christianity were easily introduced into the Greek and + Syrian cities which obeyed the successors of Artaxerxes; but they do not + appear to have made any deep impression on the minds of the Persians, + whose religious system, by the labors of a well-disciplined order of + priests, had been constructed with much more art and solidity than the + uncertain mythology of Greece and Rome. <a href="#linknote-15.182" + name="linknoteref-15.182" id="linknoteref-15.182">182</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.177" id="linknote-15.177"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 177 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.177">return</a>)<br/> [ Justin Martyr, + Dialog. cum Tryphon. p. 341. Irenæus adv. Hæres. l. i. c. 10. Tertullian + adv. Jud. c. 7. See Mosheim, p. 203.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.178" id="linknote-15.178"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 178 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.178">return</a>)<br/> [ See the fourth + century of Mosheim’s History of the Church. Many, though very confused + circumstances, that relate to the conversion of Iberia and Armenia, may be + found in Moses of Chorene, l. ii. c. 78—89. Note: Mons. St. Martin + has shown that Armenia was the first nation that embraced Christianity. + Memoires sur l’Armenie, vol. i. p. 306, and notes to Le Beæ. Gibbon, + indeed had expressed his intention of withdrawing the words “of Armenia” + from the text of future editions. (Vindication, Works, iv. 577.) He was + bitterly taunted by Person for neglecting or declining to fulfil his + promise. Preface to Letters to Travis.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.179" id="linknote-15.179"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 179 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.179">return</a>)<br/> [ According to + Tertullian, the Christian faith had penetrated into parts of Britain + inaccessible to the Roman arms. About a century afterwards, Ossian, the + son of Fingal, is said to have disputed, in his extreme old age, with one + of the foreign missionaries, and the dispute is still extant, in verse, + and in the Erse language. See Mr. Macpher son’s Dissertation on the + Antiquity of Ossian’s Poems, p. 10.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.180" id="linknote-15.180"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 180 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.180">return</a>)<br/> [ The Goths, who + ravaged Asia in the reign of Gallienus, carried away great numbers of + captives; some of whom were Christians, and became missionaries. See + Tillemont, Memoires Ecclesiast. tom. iv. p. 44.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.181" id="linknote-15.181"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 181 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.181">return</a>)<br/> [ The legends of + Abgarus, fabulous as it is, affords a decisive proof, that many years + before Eusebius wrote his history, the greatest part of the inhabitants of + Edessa had embraced Christianity. Their rivals, the citizens of Carrhæ, + adhered, on the contrary, to the cause of Paganism, as late as the sixth + century.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.182" id="linknote-15.182"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 182 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.182">return</a>)<br/> [ According to + Bardesanes (ap. Euseb. Præpar. Evangel.) there were some Christians in + Persia before the end of the second century. In the time of Constantine + (see his epistle to Sapor, Vit. l. iv. c. 13) they composed a flourishing + church. Consult Beausobre, Hist. Cristique du Manicheisme, tom. i. p. 180, + and the Bibliotheca Orietalis of Assemani.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div class="chapter"> + + <h2><a name="chap15.9"></a> + Chapter XV: Progress Of The Christian Religion.—Part IX. + </h2> + <p> + From this impartial though imperfect survey of the progress of + Christianity, it may perhaps seem probable, that the number of its + proselytes has been excessively magnified by fear on the one side, and by + devotion on the other. According to the irreproachable testimony of + Origen, <a href="#linknote-15.183" name="linknoteref-15.183" + id="linknoteref-15.183">183</a> the proportion of the faithful was very + inconsiderable, when compared with the multitude of an unbelieving world; + but, as we are left without any distinct information, it is impossible to + determine, and it is difficult even to conjecture, the real numbers of the + primitive Christians. The most favorable calculation, however, that can be + deduced from the examples of Antioch and of Rome, will not permit us to + imagine that more than a twentieth part of the subjects of the empire had enlisted themselves under the banner of the cross before + the important conversion of Constantine. But their habits of faith, of + zeal, and of union, seemed to multiply their numbers; and the same causes + which contributed to their future increase, served to render their actual + strength more apparent and more formidable. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.183" id="linknote-15.183"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 183 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.183">return</a>)<br/> [Origen contra Celsum, + l. viii. p. 424.] + </p> + <p> + Such is the constitution of civil society, that, whilst a few persons are + distinguished by riches, by honors, and by knowledge, the body of the + people is condemned to obscurity, ignorance and poverty. The Christian + religion, which addressed itself to the whole human race, must + consequently collect a far greater number of proselytes from the lower + than from the superior ranks of life. This innocent and natural + circumstance has been improved into a very odious imputation, which seems + to be less strenuously denied by the apologists, than it is urged by the + adversaries, of the faith; that the new sect of Christians was almost + entirely composed of the dregs of the populace, of peasants and mechanics, + of boys and women, of beggars and slaves, the last of whom might sometimes + introduce the missionaries into the rich and noble families to which they + belonged. These obscure teachers (such was the charge of malice and + infidelity) are as mute in public as they are loquacious and dogmatical in + private. Whilst they cautiously avoid the dangerous encounter of + philosophers, they mingle with the rude and illiterate crowd, and + insinuate themselves into those minds whom their age, their sex, or their + education, has the best disposed to receive the impression of + superstitious terrors. <a href="#linknote-15.184" name="linknoteref-15.184" + id="linknoteref-15.184">184</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.184" id="linknote-15.184"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 184 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.184">return</a>)<br/> [ Minucius Felix, c. + 8, with Wowerus’s notes. Celsus ap. Origen, l. iii. p. 138, 142. Julian + ap. Cyril. l. vi. p. 206, edit. Spanheim.] + </p> + <p> + This unfavorable picture, though not devoid of a faint resemblance, + betrays, by its dark coloring and distorted features, the pencil of an + enemy. As the humble faith of Christ diffused itself through the world, it + was embraced by several persons who derived some consequence from the + advantages of nature or fortune. Aristides, who presented an eloquent + apology to the emperor Hadrian, was an Athenian philosopher. <a + href="#linknote-15.185" name="linknoteref-15.185" id="linknoteref-15.185">185</a> + Justin Martyr had sought divine knowledge in the schools of Zeno, of + Aristotle, of Pythagoras, and of Plato, before he fortunately was accosted + by the old man, or rather the angel, who turned his attention to the study + of the Jewish prophets. <a href="#linknote-15.186" + name="linknoteref-15.186" id="linknoteref-15.186">186</a> Clemens of + Alexandria had acquired much various reading in the Greek, and Tertullian + in the Latin, language. Julius Africanus and Origen possessed a very + considerable share of the learning of their times; and although the style + of Cyprian is very different from that of Lactantius, we might almost + discover that both those writers had been public teachers of rhetoric. + Even the study of philosophy was at length introduced among the + Christians, but it was not always productive of the most salutary effects; + knowledge was as often the parent of heresy as of devotion, and the + description which was designed for the followers of Artemon, may, with + equal propriety, be applied to the various sects that resisted the + successors of the apostles. “They presume to alter the Holy Scriptures, to + abandon the ancient rule of faith, and to form their opinions according to + the subtile precepts of logic. The science of the church is neglected for + the study of geometry, and they lose sight of heaven while they are + employed in measuring the earth. Euclid is perpetually in their hands. + Aristotle and Theophrastus are the objects of their admiration; and they + express an uncommon reverence for the works of Galen. Their errors are + derived from the abuse of the arts and sciences of the infidels, and they + corrupt the simplicity of the gospel by the refinements of human reason.” + <a href="#linknote-15.187" name="linknoteref-15.187" + id="linknoteref-15.187">187</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.185" id="linknote-15.185"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 185 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.185">return</a>)<br/> [ Euseb. Hist. Eccles. + iv. 3. Hieronym. Epist. 83.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.186" id="linknote-15.186"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 186 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.186">return</a>)<br/> [ The story is + prettily told in Justin’s Dialogues. Tillemont, (Mem Ecclesiast. tom. ii. + p. 384,) who relates it after him is sure that the old man was a disguised + angel.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.187" id="linknote-15.187"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 187 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.187">return</a>)<br/> [ Eusebius, v. 28. It + may be hoped, that none, except the heretics, gave occasion to the + complaint of Celsus, (ap. Origen, l. ii. p. 77,) that the Christians were + perpetually correcting and altering their Gospels. * Note: Origen states + in reply, that he knows of none who had altered the Gospels except the + Marcionites, the Valentinians, and perhaps some followers of Lucanus.—M.] + </p> + <p> + Nor can it be affirmed with truth, that the advantages of birth and + fortune were always separated from the profession of Christianity. Several + Roman citizens were brought before the tribunal of Pliny, and he soon + discovered, that a great number of persons of <i>every order</i> of men in + Bithynia had deserted the religion of their ancestors. <a + href="#linknote-15.188" name="linknoteref-15.188" id="linknoteref-15.188">188</a> + His unsuspected testimony may, in this instance, obtain more credit than + the bold challenge of Tertullian, when he addresses himself to the fears + as well as the humanity of the proconsul of Africa, by assuring him, that + if he persists in his cruel intentions, he must decimate Carthage, and + that he will find among the guilty many persons of his own rank, senators + and matrons of noblest extraction, and the friends or relations of his + most intimate friends. <a href="#linknote-15.189" name="linknoteref-15.189" + id="linknoteref-15.189">189</a> It appears, however, that about forty + years afterwards the emperor Valerian was persuaded of the truth of this + assertion, since in one of his rescripts he evidently supposes that + senators, Roman knights, and ladies of quality, were engaged in the + Christian sect. <a href="#linknote-15.190" name="linknoteref-15.190" + id="linknoteref-15.190">190</a> The church still continued to increase its + outward splendor as it lost its internal purity; and, in the reign of + Diocletian, the palace, the courts of justice, and even the army, + concealed a multitude of Christians, who endeavored to reconcile the + interests of the present with those of a future life. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.188" id="linknote-15.188"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 188 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.188">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Epist. x. 97. + Fuerunt alii similis amentiæ, cives Romani—-Multi enim omnis + ætatis, omnis ordinis, utriusque sexus, etiam vocuntur in periculum et + vocabuntur.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.189" id="linknote-15.189"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 189 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.189">return</a>)<br/> [ Tertullian ad + Scapulum. Yet even his rhetoric rises no higher than to claim a tenth part + of Carthage.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.190" id="linknote-15.190"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 190 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.190">return</a>)<br/> [ Cyprian. Epist. 70.] + </p> + <p> + And yet these exceptions are either too few in number, or too recent in + time, entirely to remove the imputation of ignorance and obscurity which + has been so arrogantly cast on the first proselytes of Christianity. <a + href="#linknote-15.1901" name="linknoteref-15.1901" + id="linknoteref-15.1901">1901</a> Instead of employing in our defence the + fictions of later ages, it will be more prudent to convert the occasion of + scandal into a subject of edification. Our serious thoughts will suggest + to us, that the apostles themselves were chosen by Providence among the + fishermen of Galilee, and that the lower we depress the temporal condition + of the first Christians, the more reason we shall find to admire their + merit and success. It is incumbent on us diligently to remember, that the + kingdom of heaven was promised to the poor in spirit, and that minds + afflicted by calamity and the contempt of mankind, cheerfully listen to + the divine promise of future happiness; while, on the contrary, the + fortunate are satisfied with the possession of this world; and the wise + abuse in doubt and dispute their vain superiority of reason and knowledge. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1901" id="linknote-15.1901"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1901 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1901">return</a>)<br/> [ This incomplete + enumeration ought to be increased by the names of several Pagans converted + at the dawn of Christianity, and whose conversion weakens the reproach + which the historian appears to support. Such are, the Proconsul Sergius + Paulus, converted at Paphos, (Acts xiii. 7—12.) Dionysius, member of + the Areopagus, converted with several others, al Athens, (Acts xvii. 34;) + several persons at the court of Nero, (Philip. iv 22;) Erastus, receiver + at Corinth, (Rom. xvi.23;) some Asiarchs, (Acts xix. 31) As to the + philosophers, we may add Tatian, Athenagoras, Theophilus of Antioch, + Hegesippus, Melito, Miltiades, Pantænus, Ammenius, all distinguished for + their genius and learning.—G.] + </p> + <p> + We stand in need of such reflections to comfort us for the loss of some + illustrious characters, which in our eyes might have seemed the most + worthy of the heavenly present. The names of Seneca, of the elder and the + younger Pliny, of Tacitus, of Plutarch, of Galen, of the slave Epictetus, + and of the emperor Marcus Antoninus, adorn the age in which they + flourished, and exalt the dignity of human nature. They filled with glory + their respective stations, either in active or contemplative life; their + excellent understandings were improved by study; Philosophy had purified + their minds from the prejudices of the popular superstitions; and their + days were spent in the pursuit of truth and the practice of virtue. Yet + all these sages (it is no less an object of surprise than of concern) + overlooked or rejected the perfection of the Christian system. Their + language or their silence equally discover their contempt for the growing + sect, which in their time had diffused itself over the Roman empire. Those + among them who condescended to mention the Christians, consider them only + as obstinate and perverse enthusiasts, who exacted an implicit submission + to their mysterious doctrines, without being able to produce a single + argument that could engage the attention of men of sense and learning. <a + href="#linknote-15.191" name="linknoteref-15.191" id="linknoteref-15.191">191</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.191" id="linknote-15.191"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 191 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.191">return</a>)<br/> [ Dr. Lardner, in his + first and second volumes of Jewish and Christian testimonies, collects and + illustrates those of Pliny the younger, of Tacitus, of Galen, of Marcus + Antoninus, and perhaps of Epictetus, (for it is doubtful whether that + philosopher means to speak of the Christians.) The new sect is totally + unnoticed by Seneca, the elder Pliny, and Plutarch.] + </p> + <p> + It is at least doubtful whether any of these philosophers perused the + apologies <a href="#linknote-15.1911" name="linknoteref-15.1911" + id="linknoteref-15.1911">1911</a> which the primitive Christians + repeatedly published in behalf of themselves and of their religion; but it + is much to be lamented that such a cause was not defended by abler + advocates. They expose with superfluous wit and eloquence the + extravagance of Polytheism. They interest our compassion by displaying the + innocence and sufferings of their injured brethren. But when they would + demonstrate the divine origin of Christianity, they insist much more + strongly on the predictions which announced, than on the miracles which + accompanied, the appearance of the Messiah. Their favorite argument might + serve to edify a Christian or to convert a Jew, since both the one and the + other acknowledge the authority of those prophecies, and both are obliged, + with devout reverence, to search for their sense and their accomplishment. + But this mode of persuasion loses much of its weight and influence, when + it is addressed to those who neither understand nor respect the Mosaic + dispensation and the prophetic style. <a href="#linknote-15.192" + name="linknoteref-15.192" id="linknoteref-15.192">192</a> In the unskilful + hands of Justin and of the succeeding apologists, the sublime meaning of + the Hebrew oracles evaporates in distant types, affected conceits, and + cold allegories; and even their authenticity was rendered suspicious to an + unenlightened Gentile, by the mixture of pious forgeries, which, under the + names of Orpheus, Hermes, and the Sibyls, <a href="#linknote-15.193" + name="linknoteref-15.193" id="linknoteref-15.193">193</a> were obtruded on + him as of equal value with the genuine inspirations of Heaven. The + adoption of fraud and sophistry in the defence of revelation too often + reminds us of the injudicious conduct of those poets who load their + <i>invulnerable</i> heroes with a useless weight of cumbersome and brittle armor. + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.1911" id="linknote-15.1911"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 1911 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.1911">return</a>)<br/> [ The emperors + Hadrian, Antoninus &c., read with astonishment the apologies of Justin + Martyr, of Aristides, of Melito, &c. (See St. Hieron. ad mag. orat. + Orosius, lviii. c. 13.) Eusebius says expressly, that the cause of + Christianity was defended before the senate, in a very elegant discourse, + by Apollonius the Martyr.—G. ——Gibbon, in his severer + spirit of criticism, may have questioned the authority of Jerome and + Eusebius. There are some difficulties about Apollonius, which Heinichen + (note in loc. Eusebii) would solve, by suppose lag him to have been, as + Jerome states, a senator.—M.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.192" id="linknote-15.192"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 192 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.192">return</a>)<br/> [ If the famous + prophecy of the Seventy Weeks had been alleged to a Roman philosopher, + would he not have replied in the words of Cicero, “Quæ tandem ista + auguratio est, annorum potius quam aut rænsium aut dierum?” De + Divinatione, ii. 30. Observe with what irreverence Lucian, (in Alexandro, + c. 13.) and his friend Celsus ap. Origen, (l. vii. p. 327,) express + themselves concerning the Hebrew prophets.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.193" id="linknote-15.193"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 193 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.193">return</a>)<br/> [ The philosophers who + derided the more ancient predictions of the Sibyls, would easily have + detected the Jewish and Christian forgeries, which have been so + triumphantly quoted by the fathers, from Justin Martyr to Lactantius. When + the Sibylline verses had performed their appointed task, they, like the + system of the millennium, were quietly laid aside. The Christian Sybil had + unluckily fixed the ruin of Rome for the year 195, A. U. C. 948.] + </p> + <p> + But how shall we excuse the supine inattention of the Pagan and + philosophic world, to those evidences which were represented by the hand + of Omnipotence, not to their reason, but to their senses? During the age + of Christ, of his apostles, and of their first disciples, the doctrine + which they preached was confirmed by innumerable prodigies. The lame + walked, the blind saw, the sick were healed, the dead were raised, dæmons + were expelled, and the laws of Nature were frequently suspended for the + benefit of the church. But the sages of Greece and Rome turned aside from + the awful spectacle, and, pursuing the ordinary occupations of life and + study, appeared unconscious of any alterations in the moral or physical + government of the world. Under the reign of Tiberius, the whole earth, <a + href="#linknote-15.194" name="linknoteref-15.194" id="linknoteref-15.194">194</a> + or at least a celebrated province of the Roman empire, <a + href="#linknote-15.195" name="linknoteref-15.195" id="linknoteref-15.195">195</a> + was involved in a preternatural darkness of three hours. Even this + miraculous event, which ought to have excited the wonder, the curiosity, + and the devotion of mankind, passed without notice in an age of science + and history. <a href="#linknote-15.196" name="linknoteref-15.196" + id="linknoteref-15.196">196</a> It happened during the lifetime of Seneca + and the elder Pliny, who must have experienced the immediate effects, or + received the earliest intelligence, of the prodigy. Each of these + philosophers, in a laborious work, has recorded all the great phenomena of + Nature, earthquakes, meteors, comets, and eclipses, which his indefatigable + curiosity could collect. <a href="#linknote-15.197" + name="linknoteref-15.197" id="linknoteref-15.197">197</a> Both the one and + the other have omitted to mention the greatest phenomenon to which the + mortal eye has been witness since the creation of the globe. A distinct + chapter of Pliny <a href="#linknote-15.198" name="linknoteref-15.198" + id="linknoteref-15.198">198</a> is designed for eclipses of an + extraordinary nature and unusual duration; but he contents himself with + describing the singular defect of light which followed the murder of + Cæsar, when, during the greatest part of a year, the orb of the sun + appeared pale and without splendor. The season of obscurity, which cannot + surely be compared with the preternatural darkness of the Passion, had + been already celebrated by most of the poets <a href="#linknote-15.199" + name="linknoteref-15.199" id="linknoteref-15.199">199</a> and historians + of that memorable age. <a href="#linknote-15.200" name="linknoteref-15.200" + id="linknoteref-15.200">200</a> + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.194" id="linknote-15.194"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 194 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.194">return</a>)<br/> [ The fathers, as they + are drawn out in battle array by Dom Calmet, (Dissertations sur la Bible, + tom. iii. p. 295—308,) seem to cover the whole earth with darkness, + in which they are followed by most of the moderns.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.195" id="linknote-15.195"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 195 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.195">return</a>)<br/> [ Origen ad Matth. c. + 27, and a few modern critics, Beza, Le Clerc, Lardner, &c., are + desirous of confining it to the land of Judea.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.196" id="linknote-15.196"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 196 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.196">return</a>)<br/> [ The celebrated + passage of Phlegon is now wisely abandoned. When Tertullian assures the + Pagans that the mention of the prodigy is found in Arcanis (not Archivis) + vestris, (see his Apology, c. 21,) he probably appeals to the Sibylline + verses, which relate it exactly in the words of the Gospel. * Note: + According to some learned theologians a misunderstanding of the text in + the Gospel has given rise to this mistake, which has employed and wearied + so many laborious commentators, though Origen had already taken the pains + to preinform them. The expression does not mean, they assert, an eclipse, + but any kind of obscurity occasioned in the atmosphere, whether by clouds + or any other cause. As this obscuration of the sun rarely took place in + Palestine, where in the middle of April the sky was usually clear, it + assumed, in the eyes of the Jews and Christians, an importance conformable + to the received notion, that the sun concealed at midday was a sinister + presage. See Amos viii. 9, 10. The word is often taken in this sense by + contemporary writers; the Apocalypse says the sun was concealed, when + speaking of an obscuration caused by smoke and dust. (Revel. ix. 2.) + Moreover, the Hebrew word ophal, which in the LXX. answers to the Greek, + signifies any darkness; and the Evangelists, who have modelled the sense + of their expressions by those of the LXX., must have taken it in the same + latitude. This darkening of the sky usually precedes earthquakes. (Matt. + xxvii. 51.) The Heathen authors furnish us a number of examples, of which + a miraculous explanation was given at the time. See Ovid. ii. v. 33, l. + xv. v. 785. Pliny, Hist. Nat. l. ii. c 30. Wetstein has collected all + these examples in his edition of the New Testament. We need not, then, be + astonished at the silence of the Pagan authors concerning a phenomenon + which did not extend beyond Jerusalem, and which might have nothing + contrary to the laws of nature; although the Christians and the Jews may + have regarded it as a sinister presage. See Michaelis Notes on New + Testament, v. i. p. 290. Paulus, Commentary on New Testament, iii. p. 760.—G.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.197" id="linknote-15.197"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 197 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.197">return</a>)<br/> [ Seneca, Quæst. + Natur. l. i. 15, vi. l. vii. 17. Plin. Hist. Natur. l. ii.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.198" id="linknote-15.198"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 198 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.198">return</a>)<br/> [ Plin. Hist. Natur. + ii. 30.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.199" id="linknote-15.199"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 199 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.199">return</a>)<br/> [ Virgil. Georgic. i. + 466. Tibullus, l. i. Eleg. v. ver. 75. Ovid Metamorph. xv. 782. Lucan. + Pharsal. i. 540. The last of these poets places this prodigy before the + civil war.] + </p> + <p> + <a name="linknote-15.200" id="linknote-15.200"> + <!-- Note --></a> + </p> + <p class="foot"> + 200 (<a href="#linknoteref-15.200">return</a>)<br/> [ See a public epistle + of M. Antony in Joseph. Antiquit. xiv. 12. Plutarch in Cæsar. p. 471. + Appian. Bell. Civil. l. iv. Dion Cassius, l. xlv. p. 431. Julius + Obsequens, c. 128. His little treatise is an abstract of Livy’s + prodigies.] + </p> + +</div><!--end chapter--> + +<div style='display:block;margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK DECLINE AND FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE ***</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This file should be named 731-h.htm or 731-h.zip</div> +<div style='display:block;margin:1em 0;'>This and all associated files of various formats will be found in https://www.gutenberg.org/7/3/731/</div> +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will +be renamed. +</div> + +<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> +Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright +law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, +so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United +States without permission and without paying copyright +royalties. 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