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diff --git a/7082.txt b/7082.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b4438c --- /dev/null +++ b/7082.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11645 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Lives of the Necromancers, by William Godwin + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Lives of the Necromancers + +Author: William Godwin + +Posting Date: August 7, 2012 [EBook #7082] +Release Date: December, 2004 +First Posted: March 8, 2003 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE NECROMANCERS *** + + + + +Produced by Wendy Crockett, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team, from images +generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale +de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr. + + + + + + + + + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: Footnotes have been numbered sequentially and +moved to the end of the text.] + + + + +LIVES OF THE NECROMANCERS: + +OR + +AN ACCOUNT OF THE MOST EMINENT PERSONS IN SUCCESSIVE AGES, WHO HAVE +CLAIMED FOR THEMSELVES, OR TO WHOM HAS BEEN IMPUTED BY OTHERS, + +THE + +EXERCISE OF MAGICAL POWER. + + +BY WILLIAM GODWIN. + + +LONDON + +Frederick J Mason, 444, West Strand + +1834 + + + + + +PREFACE. + + +The main purpose of this book is to exhibit a fair delineation of the +credulity of the human mind. Such an exhibition cannot fail to be +productive of the most salutary lessons. + +One view of the subject will teach us a useful pride in the abundance +of our faculties. Without pride man is in reality of little value. It +is pride that stimulates us to all our great undertakings. Without +pride, and the secret persuasion of extraordinary talents, what man +would take up the pen with a view to produce an important work, +whether of imagination and poetry, or of profound science, or of acute +and subtle reasoning and intellectual anatomy? It is pride in this +sense that makes the great general and the consummate legislator, that +animates us to tasks the most laborious, and causes us to shrink from +no difficulty, and to be confounded and overwhelmed with no obstacle +that can be interposed in our path. + +Nothing can be more striking than the contrast between man and the +inferior animals. The latter live only for the day, and see for the +most part only what is immediately before them. But man lives in the +past and the future. He reasons upon and improves by the past; he +records the acts of a long series of generations: and he looks into +future time, lays down plans which he shall be months and years in +bringing to maturity, and contrives machines and delineates systems +of education and government, which may gradually add to the +accommodations of all, and raise the species generally into a nobler +and more honourable character than our ancestors were capable of +sustaining. + +Man looks through nature, and is able to reduce its parts into a great +whole. He classes the beings which are found in it, both animate and +inanimate, delineates and describes them, investigates their +properties, and records their capacities, their good and evil +qualities, their dangers and their uses. + +Nor does he only see all that is; but he also images all that is not. +He takes to pieces the substances that are, and combines their parts +into new arrangements. He peoples all the elements from the world of +his imagination. It is here that he is most extraordinary and +wonderful. The record of what actually is, and has happened in the +series of human events, is perhaps the smallest part of human history. +If we would know man in all his subtleties, we must deviate into the +world of miracles and sorcery. To know the things that are not, and +cannot be, but have been imagined and believed, is the most curious +chapter in the annals of man. To observe the actual results of these +imaginary phenomena, and the crimes and cruelties they have caused us +to commit, is one of the most instructive studies in which we can +possibly be engaged. It is here that man is most astonishing, and that +we contemplate with most admiration the discursive and unbounded +nature of his faculties. + +But, if a recollection of the examples of the credulity of the human +mind may in one view supply nourishment to our pride, it still more +obviously tends to teach us sobriety and humiliation. Man in his +genuine and direct sphere is the disciple of reason; it is by this +faculty that he draws inferences, exerts his prudence, and displays +the ingenuity of machinery, and the subtlety of system both in natural +and moral philosophy. Yet what so irrational as man? Not contented +with making use of the powers we possess, for the purpose of conducing +to our accommodation and well being, we with a daring spirit inquire +into the invisible causes of what we see, and people all nature with +Gods "of every shape and size" and angels, with principalities and +powers, with beneficent beings who "take charge concerning us lest at +any time we dash our foot against a stone," and with devils who are +perpetually on the watch to perplex us and do us injury. And, having +familiarised our minds with the conceptions of these beings, we +immediately aspire to hold communion with them. We represent to +ourselves God, as "walking in the garden with us in the cool of the +day," and teach ourselves "not to forget to entertain strangers, lest +by so doing we should repel angels unawares." + +No sooner are we, even in a slight degree, acquainted with the laws of +nature, than we frame to ourselves the idea, by the aid of some +invisible ally, of suspending their operation, of calling out meteors +in the sky, of commanding storms and tempests, of arresting the motion +of the heavenly bodies, of producing miraculous cures upon the bodies +of our fellow-men, or afflicting them with disease and death, of +calling up the deceased from the silence of the grave, and compelling +them to disclose "the secrets of the world unknown." + +But, what is most deplorable, we are not contented to endeavour to +secure the aid of God and good angels, but we also aspire to enter +into alliance with devils, and beings destined for their rebellion to +suffer eternally the pains of hell. As they are supposed to be of a +character perverted and depraved, we of course apply to them +principally for purposes of wantonness, or of malice and revenge. And, +in the instances which have occurred only a few centuries back, the +most common idea has been of a compact entered into by an unprincipled +and impious human being with the sworn enemy of God and man, in the +result of which the devil engages to serve the capricious will and +perform the behests of his blasphemous votary for a certain number of +years, while the deluded wretch in return engages to renounce his God +and Saviour, and surrender himself body and soul to the pains of hell +from the end of that term to all eternity. No sooner do we imagine +human beings invested with these wonderful powers, and conceive them +as called into action for the most malignant purposes, than we become +the passive and terrified slaves of the creatures of our own +imaginations, and fear to be assailed at every moment by beings to +whose power we can set no limit, and whose modes of hostility no human +sagacity can anticipate and provide against. But, what is still more +extraordinary, the human creatures that pretend to these powers have +often been found as completely the dupes of this supernatural +machinery, as the most timid wretch that stands in terror at its +expected operation; and no phenomenon has been more common than the +confession of these allies of hell, that they have verily and indeed +held commerce and formed plots and conspiracies with Satan. + +The consequence of this state of things has been, that criminal +jurisprudence and the last severities of the law have been called +forth to an amazing extent to exterminate witches and witchcraft. More +especially in the sixteenth century hundreds and thousands were burned +alive within the compass of a small territory; and judges, the +directors of the scene, a Nicholas Remi, a De Lancre, and many others, +have published copious volumes, entering into a minute detail of the +system and fashion of the witchcraft of the professors, whom they sent +in multitudes to expiate their depravity at the gallows and the stake. + +One useful lesson which we may derive from the detail of these +particulars, is the folly in most cases of imputing pure and unmingled +hypocrisy to man. The human mind is of so ductile a character that, +like what is affirmed of charity by the apostle, it "believeth all +things, and endureth all things." We are not at liberty to trifle with +the sacredness of truth. While we persuade others, we begin to deceive +ourselves. Human life is a drama of that sort, that, while we act our +part, and endeavour to do justice to the sentiments which are put down +for us, we begin to believe we are the thing we would represent. + +To shew however the modes in which the delusion acts upon the person +through whom it operates, is not properly the scope of this book. Here +and there I have suggested hints to this purpose, which the curious +reader may follow to their furthest extent, and discover how with +perfect good faith the artist may bring himself to swallow the +grossest impossibilities. But the work I have written is not a +treatise of natural magic. It rather proposes to display the immense +wealth of the faculty of imagination, and to shew the extravagances of +which the man may be guilty who surrenders himself to its guidance. + +It is fit however that the reader should bear in mind, that what is +put down in this book is but a small part and scantling of the acts of +sorcery and witchcraft which have existed in human society. They have +been found in all ages and countries. The torrid zone and the frozen +north have neither of them escaped from a fruitful harvest of this +sort of offspring. In ages of ignorance they have been especially at +home; and the races of men that have left no records behind them to +tell almost that they existed, have been most of all rife in deeds of +darkness, and those marvellous incidents which especially astonish the +spectator, and throw back the infant reason of man into those shades +and that obscurity from which it had so recently endeavoured to +escape. + +I wind up for the present my literary labours with the production of +this book. Nor let any reader imagine that I here put into his hands a +mere work of idle recreation. It will be found pregnant with deeper +uses. The wildest extravagances of human fancy, the most deplorable +perversion of human faculties, and the most horrible distortions of +jurisprudence, may occasionally afford us a salutary lesson. I love in +the foremost place to contemplate man in all his honours and in all +the exaltation of wisdom and virtue; but it will also be occasionally +of service to us to look into his obliquities, and distinctly to +remark how great and portentous have been his absurdities and his +follies. + +_May_ 29, 1834. + + + + +CONTENTS + + +INTRODUCTION + +AMBITIOUS NATURE OF MAN + HIS DESIRE TO PENETRATE INTO FUTURITY + DIVINATION + AUGURY + CHIROMANCY + PHYSIOGNOMY + INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS + CASTING OF LOTS + ASTROLOGY + ORACLES + DELPHI + THE DESIRE TO COMMAND AND CONTROL FUTURE EVENTS + COMMERCE WITH THE INVISIBLE WORLD + SORCERY AND ENCHANTMENT + WITCHCRAFT + COMPACTS WITH THE DEVIL + IMPS + TALISMANS AND AMULETS + NECROMANCY + ALCHEMY + FAIRIES + ROSICRUCIANS + SYLPHS AND GNOMES, SALAMANDERS AND UNDINES + +EXAMPLES OF NECROMANCY AND WITCHCRAFT FROM THE BIBLE + THE MAGI, OR WISE MEN OF THE EAST + EGYPT + STATUE OF MEMNON + TEMPLE OF JUPITER AMMON: ITS ORACLES + CHALDEA AND BABYLON + ZOROASTER + +GREECE + DEITIES OF GREECE + DEMIGODS + DAEDALUS + THE ARGONAUTS + MEDEA + CIRCE + ORPHEUS + AMPHION + TIRESIAS + ABARIS + PYTHAGORAS + EPIMENIDES + EMPEDOCLES + ARISTEAS + HERMOTIMUS + THE MOTHER OF DEMARATUS, KING OF SPARTA + ORACLES + INVASION OF XERXES INTO GREECE + DEMOCRITUS + SOCRATES + +ROME + VIRGIL + POLYDORUS + DIDO + ROMULUS + NUMA + TULLUS HOSTILIUS + ACCIUS NAVIUS + SERVIUS TULLIUS + THE SORCERESS OF VIRGIL + CANIDIA + ERICHTHO + SERTORIUS + CASTING OUT DEVILS + SIMON MAGUS + ELYMAS, THE SORCERER + NERO + VESPASIAN + APOLLONIUS OF TYANA + APULEIUS + ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN + +REVOLUTION PRODUCED IN THE HISTORY OF NECROMANCY AND WITCHCRAFT UPON +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY + MAGICAL CONSULTATIONS RESPECTING THE LIFE OF THE EMPEROR + +HISTORY OF NECROMANCY IN THE EAST + GENERAL SILENCE OF THE EAST RESPECTING INDIVIDUAL NECROMANCERS + ROCAIL + HAKEM, OTHERWISE MACANNA + ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS + PERSIAN TALES + STORY OF A GOULE + ARABIAN NIGHTS + RESEMBLANCE OF THE TALES OF THE EAST AND OF EUROPE + CAUSES OF HUMAN CREDULITY + +DARK AGES OF EUROPE + MERLIN + ST. DUNSTAN + +COMMUNICATION OF EUROPE AND THE SARACENS + GERBERT, POPE SILVESTER II + BENEDICT THE NINTH + GREGORY THE SEVENTH + DUFF, KING OF SCOTLAND + MACBETH + VIRGIL + ROBERT OF LINCOLN + MICHAEL SCOT + THE DEAN OF BADAJOZ + MIRACLE OF THE TUB OF WATER + INSTITUTION OF FRIARS + ALBERTUS MAGNUS + ROGER BACON + THOMAS AQUINAS + PETER OF APONO + ENGLISH LAW OF HIGH TREASON + ZIITO + TRANSMUTATION OF METALS + ARTEPHIUS + RAYMOND LULLI + ARNOLD OF VILLENEUVE + ENGLISH LAWS RESPECTING TRANSMUTATION + +REVIVAL OF LETTERS + JOAN OF ARC + ELEANOR COBHAM, DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER + RICHARD III + +SANGUINARY PROCEEDINGS AGAINST WITCHCRAFT + SAVONAROLA + TRITHEMIUS + LUTHER + CORNELIUS AGRIPPA + FAUSTUS + SABELLICUS + PARACELSUS + CARDAN + QUACKS, WHO IN COOL BLOOD UNDERTOOK TO OVERREACH MANKIND + BENVENUTO CELLINI + NOSTRADAMUS + DOCTOR DEE + EARL OF DERBY + KING JAMES'S VOYAGE TO NORWAY + JOHN FIAN + KING JAMES'S DEMONOLOGY + STATUTE, 1 JAMES I + FORMAN AND OTHERS + LATEST IDEAS OF JAMES ON THE SUBJECT + LANCASHIRE WITCHES + LADY DAVIES + EDWARD FAIRFAX + DOCTOR LAMB + URBAIN GRANDIER + ASTROLOGY + WILLIAM LILLY + MATTHEW HOPKINS + CROMWEL + DOROTHY MATELEY + WITCHES HANGED BY SIR MATTHEW HALE + WITCHCRAFT IN SWEDEN + WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND + +CONCLUSION + + + + +LIVES OF THE NECROMANCERS + + +The improvements that have been effected in natural philosophy have by +degrees convinced the enlightened part of mankind that the material +universe is every where subject to laws, fixed in their weight, +measure and duration, capable of the most exact calculation, and which +in no case admit of variation and exception. Whatever is not thus to +be accounted for is of mind, and springs from the volition of some +being, of which the material form is subjected to our senses, and the +action of which is in like manner regulated by the laws of matter. +Beside this, mind, as well as matter, is subject to fixed laws; and +thus every phenomenon and occurrence around us is rendered a topic for +the speculations of sagacity and foresight. Such is the creed which +science has universally prescribed to the judicious and reflecting +among us. + +It was otherwise in the infancy and less mature state of human +knowledge. The chain of causes and consequences was yet unrecognized; +and events perpetually occurred, for which no sagacity that was then +in being was able to assign an original. Hence men felt themselves +habitually disposed to refer many of the appearances with which they +were conversant to the agency of invisible intelligences; sometimes +under the influence of a benignant disposition, sometimes of malice, +and sometimes perhaps from an inclination to make themselves sport of +the wonder and astonishment of ignorant mortals. Omens and portents +told these men of some piece of good or ill fortune speedily to befal +them. The flight of birds was watched by them, as foretokening +somewhat important. Thunder excited in them a feeling of supernatural +terror. Eclipses with fear of change perplexed the nations. The +phenomena of the heavens, regular and irregular, were anxiously +remarked from the same principle. During the hours of darkness men +were apt to see a supernatural being in every bush; and they could not +cross a receptacle for the dead, without expecting to encounter some +one of the departed uneasily wandering among graves, or commissioned +to reveal somewhat momentous and deeply affecting to the survivors. +Fairies danced in the moonlight glade; and something preternatural +perpetually occurred to fill the living with admiration and awe. + +All this gradually reduced itself into a system. Mankind, particularly +in the dark and ignorant ages, were divided into the strong and the +weak; the strong and weak of animal frame, when corporeal strength +more decidedly bore sway than in a period of greater cultivation; and +the strong and weak in reference to intellect; those who were bold, +audacious and enterprising in acquiring an ascendancy over their +fellow-men, and those who truckled, submitted, and were acted upon, +from an innate consciousness of inferiority, and a superstitious +looking up to such as were of greater natural or acquired endowments +than themselves. The strong in intellect were eager to avail +themselves of their superiority, by means that escaped the penetration +of the multitude, and had recourse to various artifices to effect +their ends. Beside this, they became the dupes of their own practices. +They set out at first in their conception of things from the level of +the vulgar. They applied themselves diligently to the unravelling of +what was unknown; wonder mingled with their contemplation; they +abstracted their minds from things of ordinary occurrence, and, as we +may denominate it, of real life, till at length they lost their true +balance amidst the astonishment they sought to produce in their +inferiors. They felt a vocation to things extraordinary; and they +willingly gave scope and line without limit to that which engendered +in themselves the most gratifying sensations, at the same time that it +answered the purposes of their ambition. + +As these principles in the two parties, the more refined and the +vulgar, are universal, and derive their origin from the nature of man, +it has necessarily happened that this faith in extraordinary events, +and superstitious fear of what is supernatural, has diffused itself +through every climate of the world, in a certain stage of human +intellect, and while refinement had not yet got the better of +barbarism. The Celts of antiquity had their Druids, a branch of whose +special profession was the exercise of magic. The Chaldeans and +Egyptians had their wise men, their magicians and their sorcerers. The +negroes have their foretellers of events, their amulets, and their +reporters and believers of miraculous occurrences. A similar race of +men was found by Columbus and the other discoverers of the New World +in America; and facts of a parallel nature are attested to us in the +islands of the South Seas. And, as phenomena of this sort were +universal in their nature, without distinction of climate, whether +torrid or frozen, and independently of the discordant manners and +customs of different countries, so have they been very slow and recent +in their disappearing. Queen Elizabeth sent to consult Dr. John Dee, +the astrologer, respecting a lucky day for her coronation; King James +the First employed much of his learned leisure upon questions of +witchcraft and demonology, in which he fully believed and sir Matthew +Hale in the year 1664 caused two old women to be hanged upon a charge +of unlawful communion with infernal agents. + +The history of mankind therefore will be very imperfect, and our +knowledge of the operations and eccentricities of the mind lamentably +deficient, unless we take into our view what has occurred under this +head. The supernatural appearances with which our ancestors conceived +themselves perpetually surrounded must have had a strong tendency to +cherish and keep alive the powers of the imagination, and to penetrate +those who witnessed or expected such things with an extraordinary +sensitiveness. As the course of events appears to us at present, there +is much, though abstractedly within the compass of human sagacity to +foresee, which yet the actors on the scene do not foresee: but the +blindness and perplexity of short-sighted mortals must have been +wonderfully increased, when ghosts and extraordinary appearances were +conceived liable to cross the steps and confound the projects of men +at every turn, and a malicious wizard or a powerful enchanter might +involve his unfortunate victim in a chain of calamities, which no +prudence could disarm, and no virtue could deliver him from. They were +the slaves of an uncontrolable destiny, and must therefore have been +eminently deficient in the perseverance and moral courage, which may +justly be required of us in a more enlightened age. And the men (but +these were few compared with the great majority of mankind), who +believed themselves gifted with supernatural endowments, must have +felt exempt and privileged from common rules, somewhat in the same way +as the persons whom fiction has delighted to pourtray as endowed with +immeasurable wealth, or with the power of rendering themselves +impassive or invisible. But, whatever were their advantages or +disadvantages, at any rate it is good for us to call up in review +things, which are now passed away, but which once occupied so large a +share of the thoughts and attention of mankind, and in a great degree +tended to modify their characters and dictate their resolutions. + +As has already been said, numbers of those who were endowed with the +highest powers of human intellect, such as, if they had lived in these +times, would have aspired to eminence in the exact sciences, to the +loftiest flights of imagination, or to the discovery of means by which +the institutions of men in society might be rendered more beneficial +and faultless, at that time wasted the midnight oil in endeavouring to +trace the occult qualities and virtues of things, to render invisible +spirits subject to their command, and to effect those wonders, of +which they deemed themselves to have a dim conception, but which more +rational views of nature have taught us to regard as beyond our power +to effect. These sublime wanderings of the mind are well entitled to +our labour to trace and investigate. The errors of man are worthy to +be recorded, not only as beacons to warn us from the shelves where our +ancestors have made shipwreck, but even as something honourable to our +nature, to show how high a generous ambition could sour, though in +forbidden paths, and in things too wonderful for us. + +Nor only is this subject inexpressibly interesting, as setting before +us how the loftiest and most enterprising minds of ancient days +formerly busied themselves. It is also of the highest importance to an +ingenuous curiosity, inasmuch as it vitally affected the fortunes of +so considerable a portion of the mass of mankind. The legislatures of +remote ages bent all their severity at different periods against what +they deemed the unhallowed arts of the sons and daughters of +reprobation. Multitudes of human creatures have been sacrificed in +different ages and countries, upon the accusation of having exercised +arts of the most immoral and sacrilegious character. They were +supposed to have formed a contract with a mighty and invisible spirit, +the great enemy of man, and to have sold themselves, body and soul, to +everlasting perdition, for the sake of gratifying, for a short term of +years, their malignant passions against those who had been so +unfortunate as to give them cause of offence. If there were any +persons who imagined they had entered into such a contract, however +erroneous was their belief, they must of necessity have been greatly +depraved. And it was but natural that such as believed in this crime, +must have considered it as atrocious beyond all others, and have +regarded those who were supposed guilty of it with inexpressible +abhorrence. There are many instances on record, where the persons +accused of it, either from the depth of their delusion, or, which is +more probable, harassed by persecution, by the hatred of their +fellow-creatures directed against them, or by torture, actually +confessed themselves guilty. These instances are too numerous, not to +constitute an important chapter in the legislation of past ages. And, +now that the illusion has in a manner passed away from the face of the +earth, we are on that account the better qualified to investigate this +error in its causes and consequences, and to look back on the tempest +and hurricane from which we have escaped, with chastened feelings, and +a sounder estimate of its nature, its reign, and its effects. + + + + +AMBITIOUS NATURE OF MAN + + +Man is a creature of boundless ambition. + +It is probably our natural wants that first awaken us from that +lethargy and indifference in which man may be supposed to be plunged +previously to the impulse of any motive, or the accession of any +uneasiness. One of our earliest wants may be conceived to be hunger, +or the desire of food. + +From this simple beginning the history of man in all its complex +varieties may be regarded as proceeding. + +Man in a state of society, more especially where there is an +inequality of condition and rank, is very often the creature of +leisure. He finds in himself, either from internal or external +impulse, a certain activity. He finds himself at one time engaged in +the accomplishment of his obvious and immediate desires, and at +another in a state in which these desires have for the present been +fulfilled, and he has no present occasion to repeat those exertions +which led to their fulfilment. This is the period of contemplation. +This is the state which most eminently distinguishes us from the +brutes. Here it is that the history of man, in its exclusive sense, +may be considered as taking its beginning. + +Here it is that he specially recognises in himself the sense of power. +Power in its simplest acceptation, may be exerted in either of two +ways, either in his procuring for himself an ample field for more +refined accommodations, or in the exercise of compulsion and authority +over other living creatures. In the pursuit of either of these, and +especially the first, he is led to the attainment of skill and +superior adroitness in the use of his faculties. + +No sooner has man reached to this degree of improvement, than now, if +not indeed earlier, he is induced to remark the extreme limitedness of +his faculties in respect to the future; and he is led, first earnestly +to desire a clearer insight into the future, and next a power of +commanding those external causes upon which the events of the future +depend. The first of these desires is the parent of divination, augury, +chiromancy, astrology, and the consultation of oracles; and the second +has been the prolific source of enchantment, witchcraft, sorcery, +magic, necromancy, and alchemy, in its two branches, the unlimited +prolongation of human life, and the art of converting less precious +metals into gold. + + +HIS DESIRE TO PENETRATE INTO FUTURITY. + +Nothing can suggest to us a more striking and stupendous idea of the +faculties of the human mind, than the consideration of the various +arts by which men have endeavoured to penetrate into the future, and +to command the events of the future, in ways that in sobriety and +truth are entirely out of our competence. We spurn impatiently against +the narrow limits which the constitution of things has fixed to our +aspirings, and endeavour by a multiplicity of ways to accomplish that +which it is totally beyond the power of man to effect. + + +DIVINATION. + +Divination has been principally employed in inspecting the entrails of +beasts offered for sacrifice, and from their appearance drawing omens +of the good or ill success of the enterprises in which we are about to +engage. + +What the divination by the cup was which Joseph practised, or +pretended to practise, we do not perhaps exactly understand. We all of +us know somewhat of the predictions, to this day resorted to by +maid-servants and others, from the appearance of the sediment to be +found at the bottom of a tea-cup. Predictions of a similar sort are +formed from the unpremeditated way in which we get out of bed in a +morning, or put on our garments, from the persons or things we shall +encounter when we first leave our chamber or go forth in the air, or +any of the indifferent accidents of life. + + +AUGURY. + +Augury has its foundation in observing the flight of birds, the sounds +they utter, their motions whether sluggish or animated, and the +avidity or otherwise with which they appear to take their food. The +college of augurs was one of the most solemn institutions of ancient +Rome. + + +CHIROMANCY. + +Chiromancy, or the art of predicting the various fortunes of the +individual, from an inspection of the minuter variations of the lines +to be found in the palm of the human hand, has been used perhaps at +one time or other in all the nations of the world. + + +PHYSIOGNOMY. + +Physiognomy is not so properly a prediction of future events, as an +attempt to explain the present and inherent qualities of a man. By +unfolding his propensities however, it virtually gave the world to +understand the sort of proceedings in which he was most likely to +engage. The story of Socrates and the physiognomist is sufficiently +known. The physiognomist having inspected the countenance of the +philosopher, pronounced that he was given to intemperance, sensuality, +and violent bursts of passion, all of which was so contrary to his +character as universally known, that his disciples derided the +physiognomist as a vain-glorious pretender. Socrates however presently +put them to silence, by declaring that he had had an original +propensity to all the vices imputed to him, and had only conquered the +propensity by dint of a severe and unremitted self-discipline. + + +INTERPRETATION OF DREAMS. + +Oneirocriticism, or the art of interpreting dreams, seems of all the +modes of prediction the most inseparable from the nature of man. A +considerable portion of every twenty-four hours of our lives is spent +in sleep; and in sleep nothing is at least more usual, than for the +mind to be occupied in a thousand imaginary scenes, which for the time +are as realities, and often excite the passions of the mind of the +sleeper in no ordinary degree. Many of them are wild and rambling; but +many also have a portentous sobriety. Many seem to have a strict +connection with the incidents of our actual lives; and some appear as +if they came for the very purpose to warn us of danger, or prepare us +for coming events. It is therefore no wonder that these occasionally +fill our waking thoughts with a deep interest, and impress upon us an +anxiety of which we feel it difficult to rid ourselves. Accordingly, +in ages when men were more prone to superstition, than at present, +they sometimes constituted a subject of earnest anxiety and +inquisitiveness; and we find among the earliest exercises of the art +of prediction, the interpretation of dreams to have occupied a +principal place, and to have been as it were reduced into a science. + + +CASTING OF LOTS. + +The casting of lots seems scarcely to come within the enumeration here +given. It was intended as an appeal to heaven upon a question involved +in uncertainty, with the idea that the supreme Ruler of the skies, +thus appealed to, would from his omniscience supply the defect of +human knowledge. Two examples, among others sufficiently remarkable, +occur in the Bible. One of Achan, who secreted part of the spoil taken +in Jericho, which was consecrated to the service of God, and who, +being taken by lot, confessed, and was stoned to death. [1] The other +of Jonah, upon whom the lot fell in a mighty tempest, the crew of the +ship enquiring by this means what was the cause of the calamity that +had overtaken them, and Jonah being in consequence cast into the sea. + + +ASTROLOGY. + +Astrology was one of the modes most anciently and universally resorted +to for discovering the fortunes of men and nations. Astronomy and +astrology went hand in hand, particularly among the people of the +East. The idea of fate was most especially bound up in this branch of +prophecy. If the fortune of a man was intimately connected with the +position of the heavenly bodies, it became evident that little was +left to the province of his free will. The stars overruled him in all +his determinations; and it was in vain for him to resist them. There +was something flattering to the human imagination in conceiving that +the planets and the orbs on high were concerned in the conduct we +should pursue, and the events that should befal us. Man resigned +himself to his fate with a solemn, yet a lofty feeling, that the +remotest portions of the universe were concerned in the catastrophe +that awaited him. Beside which, there was something peculiarly +seducing in the apparently profound investigation of the professors of +astrology. They busied themselves with the actual position of the +heavenly bodies, their conjunctions and oppositions; and of +consequence there was a great apparatus of diagrams and calculation to +which they were prompted to apply themselves, and which addressed +itself to the eyes and imaginations of those who consulted them. + + +ORACLES. + +But that which seems to have had the greatest vogue in times of +antiquity, relative to the prediction of future events, is what is +recorded of oracles. Finding the insatiable curiosity of mankind as to +what was to happen hereafter, and the general desire they felt to be +guided in their conduct by an anticipation of things to come, the +priests pretty generally took advantage of this passion, to increase +their emoluments and offerings, and the more effectually to inspire +the rest of their species with veneration and a willing submission to +their authority. The oracle was delivered in a temple, or some sacred +place; and in this particular we plainly discover that mixture of +nature and art, of genuine enthusiasm and contriving craft, which is +so frequently exemplified in the character of man. + + +DELPHI. + +The oracle of Apollo at Delphi is the most remarkable; and respecting +it we are furnished with the greatest body of particulars. The +locality of this oracle is said to have been occasioned by the +following circumstance. A goat-herd fed his flocks on the acclivity of +mount Parnassus. As the animals wandered here and there in pursuit of +food, they happened to approach a deep and long chasm which appeared +in the rock. From this chasm a vapour issued; and the goats had no +sooner inhaled a portion of the vapour, than they began to play and +frisk about with singular agility. The goat-herd, observing this, and +curious to discover the cause, held his head over the chasm; when, in +a short time, the fumes having ascended to his brain, he threw himself +into a variety of strange attitudes, and uttered words, which probably +he did not understand himself, but which were supposed to convey a +prophetic meaning. + +This phenomenon was taken advantage of, and a temple to Apollo was +erected on the spot. The credulous many believed that here was +obviously a centre and focus of divine inspiration. On this mountain +Apollo was said to have slain the serpent Python. The apartment of the +oracle was immediately over the chasm from which the vapour issued. A +priestess delivered the responses, who was called Pythia, probably in +commemoration of the exploit which had been performed by Apollo. She +sat upon a tripod, or three-legged stool, perforated with holes, over +the seat of the vapours. After a time, her figure enlarged itself, her +hair stood on end, her complexion and features became altered, her +heart panted and her bosom swelled, and her voice grew more than +human. In this condition she uttered a number of wild and incoherent +phrases, which were supposed to be dictated by the God. The questions +which were offered by those who came to consult the oracle were then +proposed to her, and her answers taken down by the priest, whose +office was to arrange and methodize them, and put them into hexameter +verse, after which they were delivered to the votaries. The priestess +could only be consulted on one day in every month. + +Great ingenuity and contrivance were no doubt required to uphold the +credit of the oracle; and no less boldness and self-collectedness on +the part of those by whom the machinery was conducted. Like the +conjurors of modern times, they took care to be extensively informed +as to all such matters respecting which the oracle was likely to be +consulted. They listened probably to the Pythia with a superstitious +reverence for the incoherent sentences she uttered. She, like them, +spent her life in being trained for the office to which she was +devoted. All that was rambling and inapplicable in her wild +declamation they consigned to oblivion. Whatever seemed to bear on the +question proposed they preserved. The persons by whom the responses +were digested into hexameter verse, had of course a commission +attended with great discretionary power. They, as Horace remarks on +another occasion, [2] divided what it was judicious to say, from what +it was prudent to omit, dwelt upon one thing, and slurred over and +accommodated another, just as would best suit the purpose they had in +hand. Beside this, for the most part they clothed the apparent meaning +of the oracle in obscurity, and often devised sentences of ambiguous +interpretation, that might suit with opposite issues, whichever might +happen to fall out. This was perfectly consistent with a high degree +of enthusiasm on the part of the priest. However confident he might be +in some things, he could not but of necessity feel that his +prognostics were surrounded with uncertainty. Whatever decisions of +the oracle were frustrated by the event, and we know that there were +many of this sort, were speedily forgotten; while those which +succeeded, were conveyed from shore to shore, and repeated by every +echo. Nor is it surprising that the transmitters of the sentences of +the God should in time arrive at an extraordinary degree of sagacity +and skill. The oracles accordingly reached to so high a degree of +reputation, that, as Cicero observes, no expedition for a long time +was undertaken, no colony sent out, and often no affair of any +distinguished family or individual entered on, without the previously +obtaining their judgment and sanction. Their authority in a word was +so high, that the first fathers of the Christian church could no +otherwise account for a reputation thus universally received, than by +supposing that the devils were permitted by God Almighty to inform the +oracles with a more than human prescience, that all the world might be +concluded in idolatry and unbelief, [3] and the necessity of a Saviour +be made more apparent. The gullibility of man is one of the most +prominent features of our nature. Various periods and times, when +whole nations have as it were with one consent run into the most +incredible and the grossest absurdities, perpetually offer themselves +in the page of history; and in the records of remote antiquity it +plainly appears that such delusions continued through successive +centuries. + + +THE DESIRE TO COMMAND AND CONTROL FUTURE EVENTS. + +Next to the consideration of those measures by which men have sought +to dive into the secrets of future time, the question presents itself +of those more daring undertakings, the object of which has been by +some supernatural power to control the future, and place it in +subjection to the will of the unlicensed adventurer. Men have always, +especially in ages of ignorance, and when they most felt their +individual weakness, figured to themselves an invisible strength +greater than their own; and, in proportion to their impatience, and +the fervour of their desires, have sought to enter into a league with +those beings whose mightier force might supply that in which their +weakness failed. + + +COMMERCE WITH THE INVISIBLE WORLD. + +It is an essential feature of different ages and countries to vary +exceedingly in the good or ill construction, the fame or dishonour, +which shall attend upon the same conduct or mode of behaviour. In +Egypt and throughout the East, especially in the early periods of +history, the supposed commerce with invisible powers was openly +professed, which, under other circumstances, and during the reign of +different prejudices, was afterwards carefully concealed, and +barbarously hunted out of the pale of allowed and authorised practice. +The Magi of old, who claimed a power of producing miraculous +appearances, and boasted a familiar intercourse with the world of +spirits, were regarded by their countrymen with peculiar reverence, +and considered as the first and chiefest men in the state. For this +mitigated view of such dark and mysterious proceedings the ancients +were in a great degree indebted to their polytheism. The Romans are +computed to have acknowledged thirty thousand divinities, to all of +whom was rendered a legitimate homage; and other countries in a +similar proportion. + + +SORCERY AND ENCHANTMENT. + +In Asia, however, the Gods were divided into two parties, under +Oromasdes, the principle of good, and Arimanius, the principle of +evil. These powers were in perpetual contention with each other, +sometimes the one, and sometimes the other gaining the superiority. +Arimanius and his legions were therefore scarcely considered as +entitled to the homage of mankind. Those who were actuated by +benevolence, and who desired to draw down blessings upon their +fellow-creatures, addressed themselves to the principle of good; while +such unhappy beings, with whom spite and ill-will had the +predominance, may be supposed often to have invoked in preference the +principle of evil. Hence seems to have originated the idea of sorcery, +or an appeal by incantations and wicked arts to the demons who +delighted in mischief. + +These beings rejoiced in the opportunity of inflicting calamity and +misery on mankind. But by what we read of them we might be induced to +suppose that they were in some way restrained from gratifying their +malignant intentions, and waited in eager hope, till some mortal +reprobate should call out their dormant activity, and demand their +aid. + +Various enchantments were therefore employed by those unhappy mortals +whose special desire was to bring down calamity and plagues upon the +individuals or tribes of men against whom their animosity was +directed. Unlawful and detested words and mysteries were called into +action to conjure up demons who should yield their powerful and +tremendous assistance. Songs of a wild and maniacal character were +chaunted. Noisome scents and the burning of all unhallowed and odious +things were resorted to. In later times books and formulas of a +terrific character were commonly employed, upon the reading or recital +of which the prodigies resorted to began to display themselves. The +heavens were darkened; the thunder rolled; and fierce and blinding +lightnings flashed from one corner of the heavens to the other. The +earth quaked and rocked from side to side. All monstrous and deformed +things shewed themselves, "Gorgons, and Hydras, and Chimeras dire," +enough to cause the stoutest heart to quail. Lastly, devils, whose +name was legion, and to whose forms and distorted and menacing +countenances superstition had annexed the most frightful ideas, +crowded in countless multitudes upon the spectator, whose breath was +flame, whose dances were full of terror, and whose strength infinitely +exceeded every thing human. Such were the appalling conceptions which +ages of bigotry and ignorance annexed to the notion of sorcery, and +with these they scared the unhappy beings over whom this notion had +usurped an ascendancy into lunacy, and prepared them for the +perpetrating flagitious and unheard-of deeds. + +The result of these horrible incantations was not less tremendous, +than the preparations might have led us to expect. The demons +possessed all the powers of the air, and produced tempests and +shipwrecks at their pleasure. "Castles toppled on their warder's +heads, and palaces and pyramids sloped their summits to their +foundations;" forests and mountains were torn from their roots, and +cast into the sea. They inflamed the passions of men, and caused them +to commit the most unheard-of excesses. They laid their ban on those +who enjoyed the most prosperous health, condemned them to peak and +pine, wasted them into a melancholy atrophy, and finally consigned +them to a premature grave. They breathed a new and unblest life into +beings in whom existence had long been extinct, and by their hateful +and resistless power caused the sepulchres to give up their dead. + + +WITCHCRAFT. + +Next to sorcery we may recollect the case of witchcraft, which occurs +oftener, particularly in modern times, than any other alleged mode of +changing by supernatural means the future course of events. The +sorcerer, as we shall see hereafter, was frequently a man of learning +and intellectual abilities, sometimes of comparative opulence and +respectable situation in society. But the witch or wizard was almost +uniformly old, decrepid, and nearly or altogether in a state of +penury. The functions however of the witch and the sorcerer were in a +great degree the same. The earliest account of a witch, attended with +any degree of detail, is that of the witch of Endor in the Bible, who +among other things, professed the power of calling up the dead upon +occasion from the peace of the sepulchre. Witches also claimed the +faculty of raising storms, and in various ways disturbing the course +of nature. They appear in most cases to have been brought into action +by the impulse of private malice. They occasioned mortality of greater +or less extent in man and beast. They blighted the opening prospect of +a plentiful harvest. They covered the heavens with clouds, and sent +abroad withering and malignant blasts. They undermined the health of +those who were so unfortunate as to incur their animosity, and caused +them to waste away gradually with incurable disease. They were +notorious two or three centuries ago for the power of the "evil eye." +The vulgar, both great and small, dreaded their displeasure, and +sought, by small gifts, and fair speeches, but insincere, and the +offspring of terror only, to avert the pernicious consequences of +their malice. They were famed for fabricating small images of wax, to +represent the object of their persecution; and, as these by gradual +and often studiously protracted degrees wasted before the fire, so the +unfortunate butts of their resentment perished with a lingering, but +inevitable death. + + +COMPACTS WITH THE DEVIL. + +The power of these witches, as we find in their earliest records, +originated in their intercourse with "familiar spirits," invisible +beings who must be supposed to be enlisted in the armies of the prince +of darkness. We do not read in these ancient memorials of any league +of mutual benefit entered into between the merely human party, and his +or her supernatural assistant. But modern times have amply supplied +this defect. The witch or sorcerer could not secure the assistance of +the demon but by a sure and faithful compact, by which the human party +obtained the industrious and vigilant service of his familiar for a +certain term of years, only on condition that, when the term was +expired, the demon of undoubted right was to obtain possession of the +indentured party, and to convey him irremissibly and for ever to the +regions of the damned. The contract was drawn out in authentic form, +signed by the sorcerer, and attested with his blood, and was then +carried away by the demon, to be produced again at the appointed time. + + +IMPS. + +These familiar spirits often assumed the form of animals, and a black +dog or cat was considered as a figure in which the attendant devil was +secretly hidden. These subordinate devils were called Imps. Impure and +carnal ideas were mingled with these theories. The witches were said +to have preternatural teats from which their familiars sucked their +blood. The devil also engaged in sexual intercourse with the witch or +wizard, being denominated _incubus_, if his favourite were a +woman, and _succubus_, if a man. In short, every frightful and +loathsome idea was carefully heaped up together, to render the +unfortunate beings to whom the crime of witchcraft was imputed the +horror and execration of their species. + + +TALISMANS AND AMULETS. + +As according to the doctrine of witchcraft, there were certain +compounds, and matters prepared by rules of art, that proved baleful +and deadly to the persons against whom their activity was directed, so +there were also preservatives, talismans, amulets and charms, for the +most [Errata: _read_ for the most part] to be worn about the +person, which rendered him superior to injury, not only from the +operations of witchcraft, but in some cases from the sword or any +other mortal weapon. As the poet says, he that had this, + + Might trace huge forests and unhallowed heaths,-- + Yea there, where very desolation dwells, + By grots and caverns shagged with horrid shades, + +nay, in the midst of every tremendous assailant, "might pass on with +unblenched majesty," uninjured and invulnerable. + + +NECROMANCY. + +Last of all we may speak of necromancy, which has something in it that +so strongly takes hold of the imagination, that, though it is one only +of the various modes which have been enumerated for the exorcise of +magical power, we have selected it to give a title to the present +volume. + +There is something sacred to common apprehension in the repose of the +dead. They seem placed beyond our power to disturb. "There is no work, +nor device, nor knowledge, nor wisdom in the grave." + + After life's fitful fever they sleep well: + Nor steel, nor poison, + Malice domestic, foreign levy, nothing, + Can touch them further. + +Their remains moulder in the earth. Neither form nor feature is long +continued to them. We shrink from their touch, and their sight. To +violate the sepulchre therefore for the purpose of unholy spells and +operations, as we read of in the annals of witchcraft, cannot fail to +be exceedingly shocking. To call up the spirits of the departed, after +they have fulfilled the task of life, and are consigned to their final +sleep, is sacrilegious. Well may they exclaim, like the ghost of +Samuel in the sacred story, "Why hast thou disquieted me?" + +There is a further circumstance in the case, which causes us +additionally to revolt from the very idea of necromancy, strictly so +called. Man is a mortal, or an immortal being. His frame either wholly +"returns to the earth as it was, or his spirit," the thinking +principle within him, "to God who gave it." The latter is the +prevailing sentiment of mankind in modern times. Man is placed upon +earth in a state of probation, to be dealt with hereafter according to +the deeds done in the flesh. "Some shall go away into everlasting +punishment; and others into life eternal." In this case there is +something blasphemous in the idea of intermedding with the state of +the dead. We must leave them in the hands of God. Even on the idea of +an interval, the "sleep of the soul" from death to the general +resurrection, which is the creed of no contemptible sect of +Christians, it is surely a terrific notion that we should disturb the +pause, which upon that hypothesis, the laws of nature have assigned to +the departed soul, and come to awake, or to "torment him before the +time." + + +ALCHEMY. + +To make our catalogue of supernatural doings, and the lawless +imaginations of man, the more complete, it may be further necessary to +refer to the craft, so eagerly cultivated in successive ages of the +world of converting the inferior metals into gold, to which was +usually joined the _elixir vitae_, or universal medicine, having +the quality of renewing the youth of man, and causing him to live for +ever. The first authentic record on this subject is an edict of +Dioclesian about three hundred years after Christ, ordering a diligent +search to be made in Egypt for all the ancient books which treated of +the art of making gold and silver, that they might without distinction +be consigned to the flames. This edict however necessarily presumes a +certain antiquity to the pursuit; and fabulous history has recorded +Solomon, Pythagoras and Hermes among its distinguished votaries. From +this period the study seems to have slept, till it was revived among +the Arabians after a lapse of five or six hundred years. + +It is well known however how eagerly it was cultivated in various +countries of the world for many centuries after it was divulged by +Geber. Men of the most wonderful talents devoted their lives to the +investigation; and in multiplied instances the discovery was said to +have been completed. Vast sums of money were consumed in the fruitless +endeavour; and in a later period it seems to have furnished an +excellent handle to vain and specious projectors, to extort money from +those more amply provided with the goods of fortune than themselves. + +The art no doubt is in itself sufficiently mystical, having been +pursued by multitudes, who seemed to themselves ever on the eve of +consummation, but as constantly baffled when to their own apprehension +most on the verge of success. The discovery indeed appears upon the +face of it to be of the most delicate nature, as the benefit must +wholly depend upon its being reserved to one or a very few, the object +being unbounded wealth, which is nothing unless confined. If the power +of creating gold is diffused, wealth by such diffusion becomes +poverty, and every thing after a short time would but return to what +it had been. Add to which, that the nature of discovery has ordinarily +been, that, when once the clue has been found, it reveals itself to +several about the same period of time. + +The art, as we have said, is in its own nature sufficiently mystical, +depending on nice combinations and proportions of ingredients, and +upon the addition of each ingredient being made exactly in the +critical moment, and in the precise degree of heat, indicated by the +colour of the vapour arising from the crucible or retort. This was +watched by the operator with inexhaustible patience; and it was often +found or supposed, that the minutest error in this respect caused the +most promising appearances to fail of the expected success. This +circumstance no doubt occasionally gave an opportunity to an artful +impostor to account for his miscarriage, and thus to prevail upon his +credulous dupe to enable him to begin his tedious experiment again. + +But, beside this, it appears that those whose object was the +transmutation of metals, very frequently joined to this pursuit the +study of astrology, and even the practice of sorcery. So much delicacy +and nicety were supposed to be required in the process for the +transmutation of metals, that it could not hope to succeed but under a +favourable conjunction of the planets; and the most flourishing +pretenders to the art boasted that they had also a familiar +intercourse with certain spirits of supernatural power, which assisted +them in their undertakings, and enabled them to penetrate into things +undiscoverable to mere human sagacity, and to predict future events. + + +FAIRIES. + +Another mode in which the wild and erratic imagination of our +ancestors manifested itself, was in the creation of a world of +visionary beings of a less terrific character, but which did not fail +to annoy their thoughts, and perplex their determinations, known by +the name of Fairies. + +There are few things more worthy of contemplation, and that at the +same time tend to place the dispositions of our ancestors in a more +amiable point of view, than the creation of this airy and fantastic +race. They were so diminutive as almost to elude the organs of human +sight. They were at large, even though confined to the smallest +dimensions. They "could be bounded in a nutshell, and count themselves +kings of infinite space." + + Their midnight revels, by a forest-side + Or fountain, the belated peasant saw, + Or dreamed he saw, while overhead the moon + Sat arbitress, and nearer to the earth + Wheeled her pale course--they, on their mirth and dance + Intent, with jocund music charmed his ear; + At once with joy and fear his heart rebounds. + +Small circles marked the grass in solitary places, the trace of their +little feet, which, though narrow, were ample enough to afford every +accommodation to their pastime. + +The fairy tribes appear to have been every where distinguished for +their patronage of truth, simplicity and industry, and their +abhorrence of sensuality and prevarication. They left little rewards +in secret, as tokens of their approbation of the virtues they loved, +and by their supernatural power afforded a supplement to pure and +excellent intentions, when the corporeal powers of the virtuous sank +under the pressure of human infirmity. Where they conceived +displeasure, the punishments they inflicted were for the most part +such as served moderately to vex and harass the offending party, +rather than to inflict upon him permanent and irremediable evils. + + Their airy tongues would syllable men's names + On sands, and shores, and desert wildernesses. + +They were supposed to guide the wandering lights, that in the +obscurity of the night beguiled the weary traveller "through bog, +through bush, through brake, through briar." But their power of evil +only extended, or was only employed, to vex those who by a certain +obliquity of conduct gave occasion for their reproofs. They besides +pinched and otherwise tormented the objects of their displeasure; and, +though the mischiefs they executed were not of the most vital kind, +yet, coming from a supernatural enemy, and being inflicted by +invisible hands, they could not fail greatly to disturb and disorder +those who suffered from them. + +There is at first sight a great inconsistency in the representations +of these imaginary people. For the most part they are described to us +as of a stature and appearance, almost too slight to be marked by our +grosser human organs. At other times however, and especially in the +extremely popular tales digested by M. Perrault, they shew themselves +in indiscriminate assemblies, brought together for some solemn +festivity or otherwise, and join the human frequenters of the scene, +without occasioning enquiry or surprise. They are particularly +concerned in the business of summarily and without appeal bestowing +miraculous gifts, sometimes as a mark of special friendship and +favour, and sometimes with a malicious and hostile intention.--But we +are to consider that spirits + + Can every form assume; so soft + And uncompounded is their essence pure; + Not tied or manacled with joint or limb, + Like cumbrous flesh; but, in what shape they choose, + Dilated or condensed, bright or obscure, + Can execute their airy purposes, + And works of love or enmity fulfil. + +And then again, as their bounties were shadowy, so were they specially +apt to disappear in a moment, the most splendid palaces and +magnificent exhibitions vanishing away, and leaving their disconcerted +dupe with his robes converted into the poorest rags, and, instead of +glittering state, finding himself suddenly in the midst of desolation, +and removed no man knew whither. + +One of the mischiefs that were most frequently imputed to them, was +the changing the beautiful child of some doating parents, for a babe +marked with ugliness and deformity. But this idea seems fraught with +inconsistency. The natural stature of the fairy is of the smallest +dimensions; and, though they could occasionally dilate their figure so +as to imitate humanity, yet it is to be presumed that this was only +for a special purpose, and, that purpose obtained, that they shrank +again habitually into their characteristic littleness. The change +therefore can only be supposed to have been of one human child for +another. + + +ROSICRUCIANS. + +Nothing very distinct has been ascertained respecting a sect, calling +itself Rosicrucians. It is said to have originated in the East from +one of the crusaders in the fourteenth century; but it attracted at +least no public notice till the beginning of the seventeenth century. +Its adherents appear to have imbibed their notions from the Arabians, +and claimed the possession of the philosopher's stone, the art of +transmuting metals, and the _elixir vitae_. + + +SYLPHS AND GNOMES, SALAMANDERS AND UNDINES. + +But that for which they principally excited public attention, was +their creed respecting certain elementary beings, which to grosser +eyes are invisible, but were familiarly known to the initiated. To be +admitted to their acquaintance it was previously necessary that the +organs of human sight should be purged by the universal medicine, and +that certain glass globes should be chemically prepared with one or +other of the four elements, and for one month exposed to the beams of +the sun. These preliminary steps being taken, the initiated +immediately had a sight of innumerable beings of a luminous substance, +but of thin and evanescent structure, that people the elements on all +sides of us. Those who inhabited the air were called Sylphs; and those +who dwelt in the earth bore the name of Gnomes; such as peopled the +fire were Salamanders; and those who made their home in the waters +were Undines. Each class appears to have had an extensive power in the +elements to which they belonged. They could raise tempests in the air, +and storms at sea, shake the earth, and alarm the inhabitants of the +globe with the sight of devouring flames. These appear however to have +been more formidable in appearance than in reality. And the whole race +was subordinate to man, and particularly subject to the initiated. The +gnomes, inhabitants of the earth and the mines, liberally supplied to +the human beings with whom they conversed, the hidden treasures over +which they presided. The four classes were some of them male, and some +female; but the female sex seems to have preponderated in all. + +These elementary beings, we are told, were by their constitution more +long-lived than man, but with this essential disadvantage, that at +death they wholly ceased to exist. In the mean time they were inspired +with an earnest desire for immortality; and there was one way left for +them, by which this desire might be gratified. If they were so happy +as to awaken in any of the initiated a passion the end of which was +marriage, then the sylph who became the bride of a virtuous man, +followed his nature, and became immortal; while on the other hand, if +she united herself to an immoral being and a profligate, the husband +followed the law of the wife, and was rendered entirely mortal. The +initiated however were required, as a condition to their being +admitted into the secrets of the order, to engage themselves in a vow +of perpetual chastity as to women. And they were abundantly rewarded +by the probability of being united to a sylph, a gnome, a salamander, +or an undine, any one of whom was inexpressibly more enchanting than +the most beautiful woman, in addition to which her charms were in a +manner perpetual, while a wife of our own nature is in a short time +destined to wrinkles, and all the other disadvantages of old age. The +initiated of course enjoyed a beatitude infinitely greater than that +which falls to the lot of ordinary mortals, being conscious of a +perpetual commerce with these wonderful beings from whose society the +vulgar are debarred, and having such associates unintermittedly +anxious to perform their behests, and anticipate their desires. [4] + +We should have taken but an imperfect survey of the lawless +extravagancies of human imagination, if we had not included a survey +of this sect. There is something particularly soothing to the fancy of +an erratic mind, in the conception of being conversant with a race of +beings the very existence of which is unperceived by ordinary mortals, +and thus entering into an infinitely numerous and variegated society, +even when we are apparently swallowed up in entire solitude. + +The Rosicrucians are further entitled to our special notice, as their +tenets have had the good fortune to furnish Pope with the beautiful +machinery with which he has adorned the Rape of the Lock. There is +also, of much later date, a wild and poetical fiction for which we are +indebted to the same source, called Undine, from the pen of Lamotte +Fouquet. + + + + +EXAMPLES OF NECROMANCY AND WITCHCRAFT FROM THE BIBLE. + + +The oldest and most authentic record from which we can derive our +ideas on the subject of necromancy and witchcraft, unquestionably is +the Bible. The Egyptians and Chaldeans were early distinguished for +their supposed proficiency in magic, in the production of supernatural +phenomena, and in penetrating into the secrets of future time. The +first appearance of men thus extraordinarily gifted, or advancing +pretensions of this sort, recorded in Scripture, is on occasion of +Pharoah's dream of the seven years of plenty, and seven years of +famine. At that period the king "sent and called for all the magicians +of Egypt and all the wise men; but they could not interpret the +dream," [5] which Joseph afterwards expounded. + +Their second appearance was upon a most memorable occasion, when Moses +and Aaron, armed with miraculous powers, came to a subsequent king of +Egypt, to demand from him that their countrymen might be permitted to +depart to another tract of the world. They produced a miracle as the +evidence of their divine mission: and the king, who was also named +Pharoah, "called before him the wise men and the sorcerers of Egypt, +who with their enchantments did in like manner" as Moses had done; +till, after some experiments in which they were apparently successful, +they at length were compelled to allow themselves overcome, and fairly +to confess to their master, "This is the finger of God!" [6] + +The spirit of the Jewish history loudly affirms, that the Creator of +heaven and earth had adopted this nation for his chosen people, and +therefore demanded their exclusive homage, and that they should +acknowledge no other God. It is on this principle that it is made one +of his early commands to them, "Thou shalt not suffer a witch to +live." [7] And elsewhere the meaning of this prohibition is more fully +explained: "There shall not be found among you any one that useth +divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, or a +charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a +necromancer: [8] these shall surely be put to death; they shall stone +them with stones." [9] + +The character of an enchanter is elsewhere more fully illustrated in +the case of Balaam, the soothsayer, who was sent for by Balak, the +king of Moab, that he might "curse the people of Israel. The +messengers of the king came to Balaam with the rewards of divination +in their hand;" [10] but the soothsayer was restrained from his +purpose by the God of the Jews, and, where he came to curse, was +compelled to bless. He therefore "did not go, as at other times, to +seek for enchantments," [11] but took up his discourse, and began, +saying, "Surely there is no enchantment against Jacob, neither is +there any divination against Israel!" [12] + +Another example of necromantic power or pretension is to be found in +the story of Saul and the witch of Endor. Saul, the first king of the +Jews, being rejected by God, and obtaining "no answer to his +enquiries, either by dreams, or by prophets, said to his servants, +seek me a woman that has a familiar spirit. And his servants, said, +Lo, there is a woman that has a familiar spirit at Endor." Saul +accordingly had recourse to her. But, previously to this time, in +conformity to the law of God, he "had cut off those that had familiar +spirits, and the wizards out of the land;" and the woman therefore was +terrified at his present application. Saul re-assured her; and in +consequence the woman consented to call up the person he should name. +Saul demanded of her to bring up the ghost of Samuel. The ghost, +whether by her enchantments or through divine interposition we are not +told, appeared, and prophesied to Saul, that he and his son should +fall in battle on the succeeding day, [13] which accordingly came to +pass. + +Manasseh, a subsequent king in Jerusalem, "observed times, and used +enchantments, and dealt with familiar spirits and wizards, and so +provoked God to anger." [14] + +It appears plainly from the same authority, that there were good +spirits and evil spirits, "The Lord said, Who shall persuade Ahab, +that he may go up, and fall before Ramoth Gilead? And there came a +spirit, and stood before the Lord, and said, I will persuade him: I +will go forth, and be a lying spirit in the mouth of all his prophets. +And the Lord said, Thou shall persuade him." [15] + +In like manner, we are told, "Satan stood up against Israel, and +provoked David to number the people; and God was displeased with the +thing, and smote Israel, so that there fell of the people seventy +thousand men." [16] + +Satan also, in the Book of Job, presented himself before the Lord +among the Sons of God, and asked and obtained leave to try the +faithfulness of Job by "putting forth his hand," and despoiling the +patriarch of "all that he had." + +Taking these things into consideration, there can be no reasonable +doubt, though the devil and Satan are not mentioned in the story, that +the serpent who in so crafty a way beguiled Eve, was in reality no +other than the malevolent enemy of mankind under that disguise. + +We are in the same manner informed of the oracles of the false Gods; +and an example occurs of a king of Samaria, who fell sick, and who +"sent messengers, and said to them, Go, and enquire of Baalzebub, the +God of Ekron, whether I shall recover of this disease." At which +proceeding the God of the Jews was displeased, and sent Elijah to the +messengers to say, "Is it because there is not a God in Israel, that +you go to enquire of Baalzebub, the God of Ekron? Because the king has +done this, he shall not recover; he shall surely die." [17] + +The appearance of the Wise Men of the East again occurs in considerable +detail in the Prophecy of Daniel, though they are only brought forward +there, as discoverers of hidden things, and interpreters of dreams. +Twice, on occasion of dreams that troubled him, Nebuchadnezzar, king +of Babylon, "commanded to be called to him the magicians, and the +astrologers, and the sorcerers, and the Chaldeans" of his kingdom, and +each time with similar success. They confessed their incapacity; and +Daniel, the prophet of the Jews, expounded to the king that in which +they had failed. Nebuchadnezzar in consequence promoted Daniel to be +master of the magicians. A similar scene occurred in the court of +Belshazzar, the son of Nebuchadnezzar, in the case of the hand-writing +on the wall. + +It is probable that the Jews considered the Gods of the nations around +them as so many of the fallen angels, or spirits of hell, since, among +other arguments, the coincidence of the name of Beelzebub, the prince +of devils, [18] with Baalzebub, the God of Ekron, could scarcely have +fallen out by chance. + +It seemed necessary to enter into these particulars, as they occur in +the oldest and most authentic records from which we can derive our +ideas on the subject of necromancy, witchcraft, and the claims that +were set up in ancient times to the exercise of magcial power. Among +these examples there is only one, that of the contention for +superiority between Moses and the Wise Men of Egypt in which we are +presented with their pretensions to a visible exhibition of +supernatural effects. + + +THE MAGI, OR WISE MEN OF THE EAST. + +The Magi, or Wise Men of the East, extended their ramifications over +Egypt, Babylonia, Persia, India, and probably, though with a different +name, over China, and indeed the whole known world. Their profession +was of a mysterious nature. They laid claim to a familiar intercourse +with the Gods. They placed themselves as mediators between heaven and +earth, assumed the prerogative of revealing the will of beings of a +nature superior to man, and pretended to show wonders and prodigies +that surpassed any power which was merely human. + +To understand this, we must bear in mind the state of knowledge in +ancient times, where for the most part the cultivation of the mind, +and an acquaintance with either science or art, were confined to a +very small part of the population. In each of the nations we have +mentioned, there was a particular caste or tribe of men, who, by the +prerogative of their birth, were entitled to the advantages of science +and a superior education, while the rest of their countrymen were +destined to subsist by manual labour. This of necessity gave birth in +the privileged few to an overweening sense of their own importance. +They scarcely regarded the rest of their countrymen as beings of the +same species with themselves; and, finding a strong line of distinction +cutting them off from the herd, they had recourse to every practicable +method for making that distinction still stronger. Wonder is one of +the most obvious means of generating deference; and, by keeping to +themselves the grounds and process of their skill, and presenting the +results only, they were sure to excite the admiration and reverence of +their contemporaries. This mode of proceeding further produced a +re-action upon themselves. That which supplied and promised to supply +to them so large a harvest of honour and fame, unavoidably became +precious in their eyes. They pursued their discoveries with avidity, +because few had access to their opportunities in that respect, and +because, the profounder were their researches, the more sure they were +of being looked up to by the public as having that in them which was +sacred and inviolable. They spent their days and nights in these +investigations. They shrank from no privation and labour. At the same +time that in these labours they had at all times an eye to their +darling object, an ascendancy over the minds of their countrymen at +large, and the extorting from them a blind and implicit deference to +their oracular decrees. They however loved their pursuits for the +pursuits themselves. They felt their abstraction and their unlimited +nature, and on that account contemplated them with admiration. They +valued them (for such is the indestructible character of the human +mind) for the pains they had bestowed on them. The sweat of their brow +grew into a part as it were of the intrinsic merit of the articles; +and that which had with so much pains been attained by them, they +could not but regard as of inestimable worth. + + +EGYPT. + +The Egyptians took the lead in early antiquity, with respect to +civilisation and the stupendous productions of human labour and art, +of all other known nations of the world. The pyramids stand by +themselves as a monument of the industry of mankind. Thebes, with her +hundred gates, at each of which we are told she could send out at once +two hundred chariots and ten thousand warriors completely accoutred, +was one of the noblest cities on record. The whole country of Lower +Egypt was intersected with canals giving a beneficent direction to the +periodical inundations of the Nile; and the artificial lake Moeris was +dug of a vast extent, that it might draw off the occasional excesses +of the overflowings of the river. The Egyptians had an extraordinary +custom of preserving their dead, so that the country was peopled +almost as numerously with mummies prepared by extreme assiduity and +skill, as with the living. + +And, in proportion to their edifices and labours of this durable sort, +was their unwearied application to all the learning that was then +known. Geometry is said to have owed its existence to the necessity +under which they were placed of every man recognising his own property +in land, as soon as the overflowings of the Nile had ceased. They were +not less assiduous in their application to astronomy. The hieroglyphics +of Egypt are of universal notoriety. Their mythology was of the most +complicated nature. Their Gods were infinitely varied in their kind; +and the modes of their worship not less endlessly diversified. All +these particulars still contributed to the abstraction of their +studies, and the loftiness of their pretensions to knowledge. They +perpetually conversed with the invisible world, and laid claim to the +faculty of revealing things hidden, of foretelling future events, and +displaying wonders that exceeded human power to produce. + +A striking illustration of the state of Egypt in that respect in early +times, occurs incidentally in the history of Joseph in the Bible. Jacob +had twelve sons, among whom his partiality for Joseph was so notorious, +that his brethren out of envy sold him as a slave to the wandering +Midianites. Thus it was his fortune to be placed in Egypt, where in +the process of events he became the second man in the country, and +chief minister of the king. A severe famine having visited these +climates, Jacob sent his sons into Egypt to buy corn, where only it +was to be found. As soon as Joseph saw them, he knew them, though they +knew not him in his exalted situation; and he set himself to devise +expedients to settle them permanently in the country in which he +ruled. Among the rest he caused a precious cup from his stores to be +privily conveyed into the corn-sack of Benjamin, his only brother by +the same mother. The brothers were no sooner departed, than Joseph +sent in pursuit of them; and the messengers accosted them with the +words, "Is not this the cup in which my lord drinketh, and whereby +also he divineth? Ye have done evil in taking it away." [19] They +brought the strangers again into the presence of Joseph, who addressed +them with severity, saying, "What is this deed that ye have done? Wot +ye not that such a man as I could certainly divine?" [20] + +From this story it plainly appears, that the art of divination was +extensively exercised in Egypt, that the practice was held in honour, +and that such was the state of the country, that it was to be presumed +as a thing of course, that a man of the high rank and distinction of +Joseph should professedly be an adept in it. + +In the great contention for supernatural power between Moses and the +magicians of Egypt, it is plain that they came forward with confidence, +and did not shrink from the debate. Moses's rod was turned into a +serpent; so were their rods: Moses changed the waters of Egypt into +blood; and the magicians did the like with their enchantments: Moses +caused frogs to come up, and cover the land of Egypt; and the magicians +also brought frogs upon the country. Without its being in any way +necessary to enquire how they effected these wonders, it is evident +from the whole train of the narrative, that they must have been much +in the practice of astonishing their countrymen with their feats in +such a kind, and, whether it were delusion, or to whatever else we may +attribute their success, that they were universally looked up to for +the extraordinariness of their performances. + +While we are on this subject of illustrations from the Bible, it may +be worth while to revert more particularly to the story of Balaam. +Balak the king of Moab, sent for Balaam that he might come and curse +the invaders of his country; and in the sequel we are told, when the +prophet changed his curses into a blessing, that he did not "go forth, +as at other times, to seek for enchantments." It is plain therefore +that Balak did not rely singly upon the eloquence and fervour of +Balaam to pour out vituperations upon the people of Israel, but that +it was expected that the prophet should use incantations and certain +mystical rites, upon which the efficacy of his foretelling disaster +to the enemy principally depended. + + +STATUE OF MEMNON. + +The Magi of Egypt looked round in every quarter for phenomena that +might produce astonishment among their countrymen, and induce them to +believe that they dwelt in a land which overflowed with the testimonies +and presence of a divine power. Among others the statue of Memnon, +erected over his tomb near Thebes, is recorded by many authors. Memnon +is said to have been the son of Aurora, the Goddess of the morning; +and his statue is related to have had the peculiar faculty of uttering +a melodious sound every morning when touched by the first beams of +day, as if to salute his mother; and every night at sunset to have +imparted another sound, low and mournful, as lamenting the departure +of the day. This prodigy is spoken of by Tacitus, Strabo, Juvenal and +Philostratus. The statue uttered these sounds, while perfect; and, +when it was mutilated by human violence, or by a convulsion of nature, +it still retained the property with which it had been originally +endowed. Modern travellers, for the same phenomenon has still been +observed, have asserted that it does not owe its existence to any +prodigy, but to a property of the granite, of which the statue or its +pedestal is formed, which, being hollow, is found in various parts of +the world to exhibit this quality. It has therefore been suggested, +that the priests, having ascertained its peculiarity, expressly formed +the statue of that material, for the purpose of impressing on it a +supernatural character, and thus being enabled to extend their +influence with a credulous people. [21] + + +TEMPLE OF JUPITER AMMON: ITS ORACLES. + +Another of what may be considered as the wonders of Egypt, is the +temple of Jupiter Ammon in the midst of the Great Desert. This temple +was situated at a distance of no less than twelve days' journey from +Memphis, the capital of the Lower Egypt. The principal part of this +space consisted of one immense tract of moving sand, so hot as to be +intolerable to the sole of the foot, while the air was pregnant with +fire, so that it was almost impossible to breathe in it. Not a drop of +water, not a tree, not a blade of grass, was to be found through this +vast surface. It was here that Cambyses, engaged in an impious +expedition to demolish the temple, is said to have lost an army of +fifty thousand men, buried in the sands. When you arrived however, +you were presented with a wood of great circumference, the foliage of +which was so thick that the beams of the sun could not pierce it. The +atmosphere of the place was of a delicious temperature; the scene was +every where interspersed with fountains; and all the fruits of the +earth were found in the highest perfection. In the midst was the +temple and oracle of the God, who was worshipped in the likeness of a +ram. The Egyptian priests chose this site as furnishing a test of the +zeal of their votaries; the journey being like the pilgrimage to +Jerusalem or Mecca, if not from so great a distance, yet attended in +many respects with perils more formidable. It was not safe to attempt +the passage but with moderate numbers, and those expressly equipped +for expedition. + +Bacchus is said to have visited this spot in his great expedition to +the East, when Jupiter appeared to him in the form of a ram, having +struck his foot upon the soil, and for the first time occasioned that +supply of water, with which the place was ever after plentifully +supplied. Alexander the Great in a subsequent age undertook the same +journey with his army, that he might cause himself to be acknowledged +for the son of the God, under which character he was in all due form +recognised. The priests no doubt had heard of the successful battles +of the Granicus and of Issus, of the capture of Tyre after a seven +months' siege, and of the march of the great conqueror in Egypt, where +he carried every thing before him. + +Here we are presented with a striking specimen of the mode and spirit +in which the oracles of old were accustomed to be conducted. It may be +said that the priests were corrupted by the rich presents which +Alexander bestowed on them with a liberal hand. But this was not the +prime impulse in the business. They were astonished at the daring with +which Alexander with a comparative handful of men set out from Greece, +having meditated the overthrow of the great Persian empire. They were +astonished with his perpetual success, and his victorious progress +from the Hellespont to mount Taurus, from mount Taurus to Pelusium, +and from Pelusium quite across the ancient kingdom of Egypt to the +Palus Mareotis. Accustomed to the practice of adulation, and to the +belief that mortal power and true intellectual greatness were the +same, they with a genuine enthusiastic fervour regarded Alexander as +the son of their God, and acknowledged him as such.--Nothing can be +more memorable than the way in which belief and unbelief hold a +divided empire over the human mind, our passions hurrying us into +belief, at the same time that our intervals of sobriety suggest to +us that it is all pure imposition. + + +CHALDEA AND BABYLON. + +The history of the Babylonish monarchy not having been handed down to +us, except incidentally as it is touched upon by the historians of +other countries, we know little of those anecdotes respecting it which +are best calculated to illustrate the habits and manners of a people. +We know that they in probability preceded all other nations in the +accuracy of their observations on the phenomena of the heavenly +bodies. We know that the Magi were highly respected among them as an +order in the state; and that, when questions occurred exciting great +alarm in the rulers, "the magicians, the astrologers, the sorcerers, +and the Chaldeans," were called together, to see whether by their arts +they could throw light upon questions so mysterious and perplexing, +and we find sufficient reason, both from analogy, and from the very +circumstance that sorcerers are specifically named among the classes +of which their Wise Men consisted, to believe that the Babylonian Magi +advanced no dubious pretensions to the exercise of magical power. + + +ZOROASTER. + +Among the Chaldeans the most famous name is that of Zoroaster, who is +held to have been the author of their religion, their civil policy, +their sciences, and their magic. He taught the doctrine of two great +principles, the one the author of good, the other of evil. He +prohibited the use of images in the ceremonies of religion, and +pronounced that nothing deserved homage but fire, and the sun, the +centre and the source of fire, and these perhaps to be venerated not +for themselves, but as emblematical of the principle of all good +things. He taught astronomy and astrology. We may with sufficient +probability infer his doctrines from those of the Magi, who were his +followers. He practised enchantments, by means of which he would send +a panic among the forces that were brought to make war against him, +rendering the conflict by force of arms unnecessary. He prescribed the +use of certain herbs as all-powerful for the production of supernatural +effects. He pretended to the faculty of working miracles, and of +superseding and altering the ordinary course of nature.--There was, +beside the Chaldean Zoroaster, a Persian known by the same name, who +is said to have been a contemporary of Darius Hystaspes. + + + + +GREECE. + + +Thus obscure and general is our information respecting the +Babylonians. But it was far otherwise with the Greeks. Long before +the period, when, by their successful resistance to the Persian +invasion, they had rendered themselves of paramount importance in the +history of the civilised world, they had their poets and annalists, +who preserved to future time the memory of their tastes, their manners +and superstitions, their strength, and their weakness. Homer in +particular had already composed his two great poems, rendering the +peculiarities of his countrymen familiar to the latest posterity. The +consequence of this is, that the wonderful things of early Greece are +even more frequent than the record of its sober facts. As men advance +in observation and experience, they are compelled more and more to +perceive that all the phenomena of nature are one vast chain of +uninterrupted causes and consequences: but to the eye of uninstructed +ignorance every thing is astonishing, every thing is unexpected. The +remote generations of mankind are in all cases full of prodigies: but +it is the fortune of Greece to have preserved its early adventures, so +as to render the beginning pages of its history one mass of impossible +falsehoods. + + +DEITIES OF GREECE. + +The Gods of the Greeks appear all of them once to have been men. Their +real or supposed adventures therefore make a part of what is recorded +respecting them. Jupiter was born in Crete, and being secreted by his +mother in a cave, was suckled by a goat. Being come to man's estate, +he warred with the giants, one of whom had an hundred hands, and two +others brethren, grew nine inches every month, and, when nine years +old, were fully qualified to engage in all exploits of corporeal +strength. The war was finished, by the giants being overwhelmed with +the thunderbolts of heaven, and buried under mountains. + +Minerva was born from the head of her father, without a mother; and +Bacchus, coming into the world after the death of his female parent, +was inclosed in the thigh of Jupiter, and was thus produced at the +proper time in full vigour and strength. Minerva had a shield, in +which was preserved the real head of Medusa, that had the property of +turning every one that looked on it into stone. Bacchus, when a child, +was seized on by pirates with the intention to sell him for a slave: +but he waved a spear, and the oars of the sailors were turned into +vines, which climbed the masts, and spread their clusters over the +sails; and tigers, lynxes and panthers, appeared to swim round the +ship, so terrifying the crew that they leaped overboard, and were +changed into dolphins. Bacchus, in his maturity, is described as +having been the conqueror of India. He did not set out on this +expedition like other conquerors, at the head of an army. He rode in +an open chariot, which was drawn by tame lions. His attendants were +men and women in great multitudes, eminently accomplished in the arts +of rural industry. Wherever he came, he taught men the science of +husbandry, and the cultivation of the vine. Wherever he came, he was +received, not with hostility, but with festivity and welcome. On his +return however, Lycurgus, king of Thrace, and Pentheus, king of +Thebes, set themselves in opposition to the improvements which the +East had received with the most lively gratitude; and Bacchus, to +punish them, caused Lycurgus to be torn to pieces by wild horses, and +spread a delusion among the family of Pentheus, so that they mistook +him for a wild boar which had broken into their vineyards, and of +consequence fell upon him, and he expired amidst a thousand wounds. + +Apollo was the author of plagues and contagious diseases; at the same +time that, when he pleased, he could restore salubrity to a climate, +and health and vigour to the sons of men. He was the father of poetry, +and possessed in an eminent degree the gift of foretelling future +events. Hecate, which was one of the names of Diana, was distinguished +as the Goddess of magic and enchantments. Venus was the Goddess of +love, the most irresistible and omnipotent impulse of which the heart +of man is susceptible. The wand of Mercury was endowed with such +virtues, that whoever it touched, if asleep, would start up into life +and alacrity, and, if awake, would immediately fall into a profound +sleep. When it touched the dying, their souls gently parted from their +mortal frame; and, when it was applied to the dead, the dead returned +to life. Neptune had the attribute of raising and appeasing tempests: +and Vulcan, the artificer of heaven and earth, not only produced the +most exquisite specimens of skill, but also constructed furniture that +was endowed with a self-moving principle, and would present itself for +use or recede at the will of its proprietor. Pluto, in perpetrating +the rape of Proserpine, started up in his chariot through a cleft of +the earth in the vale of Enna in Sicily, and, having seized his prize, +disappeared again by the way that he came. + +Ceres, the mother of Proserpine, in her search after her lost daughter, +was received with peculiar hospitality by Celeus, king of Eleusis. She +became desirous of remunerating his liberality by some special favour. +She saw his only child laid in a cradle, and labouring under a fatal +distemper. She took him under her protection. She fed him with milk +from her own breast, and at night covered him with coals of fire. +Under this treatment he not only recovered his strength, but shot up +miraculously into manhood, so that what in other men is the effect of +years, was accomplished in Triptolemus in as many hours. She gave him +for a gift the art of agriculture, so that he is said to have been the +first to teach mankind to sow and to reap corn, and to make bread of +the produce. + +Prometheus, one of the race of the giants, was peculiarly distinguished +for his proficiency in the arts. Among other extraordinary productions +he formed a man of clay, of such exquisite workmanship, as to have +wanted nothing but a living soul to cause him to be acknowledged as +the paragon of the world. Minerva beheld the performance of Prometheus +with approbation, and offered him her assistance. She conducted him to +heaven, where he watched his opportunity to carry off on the tip of +his wand a portion of celestial fire from the chariot of the sun. With +this he animated his image; and the man of Prometheus moved, and +thought, and spoke, and became every thing that the fondest wishes of +his creator could ask. Jupiter ordered Vulcan to make a woman, that +should surpass this man. All the Gods gave her each one a several +gift: Venus gave her the power to charm; the Graces bestowed on her +symmetry of limb, and elegance of motion; Apollo the accomplishments +of vocal and instrumental music; Mercury the art of persuasive speech; +Juno a multitude of rich and gorgeous ornaments; and Minerva the +management of the loom and the needle. Last of all, Jupiter presented +her with a sealed box, of which the lid was no sooner unclosed, than a +multitude of calamities and evils of all imaginable sorts flew out, +only Hope remaining at the bottom. + +Deucalion was the son of Prometheus and Pyrrha, his niece. They +married. In their time a flood occurred, which as they imagined +destroyed the whole human race; they were the only survivors. By the +direction of an oracle they cast stones over their shoulders; when, by +the divine interposition, the stones cast by Deucalion became men, and +those cast by Pyrrha women. Thus the earth was re-peopled. + +I have put down a few of these particulars, as containing in several +instances the qualities of what is called magic, and thus furnishing +examples of some of the earliest occasions upon which supernatural +powers have been alleged to mix with human affairs. + + +DEMIGODS. + +The early history of mortals in Greece is scarcely separated from that +of the Gods. The first adventurer that it is perhaps proper to notice, +as his exploits have I know not what of magic in them, is Perseus, the +founder of the metropolis and kingdom of Mycenae. By way of rendering +his birth illustrious, he is said to have been the son of Jupiter, by +Danae, the daughter of Acrisius, king of Argos. The king, being +forewarned by an oracle that his daughter should bear a son, by whose +hand her father should be deprived of life, thought proper to shut her +up in a tower of brass. Jupiter, having metamorphosed himself into a +shower of gold, found his way into her place of confinement, and +became the father of Perseus. On the discovery of this circumstance, +Acrisius caused both mother and child to be inclosed in a chest, and +committed to the waves. The chest however drifted upon the lands of a +person of royal descent in the island of Seriphos, who extended his +care and hospitality to both. When Perseus grew to man's estate, he +was commissioned by the king of Seriphos to bring him the head of +Medusa, one of the Gorgons. Medusa had the wonderful faculty, that +whoever met her eyes was immediately turned into stone; and the king, +who had conceived a passion for Danae, sent her son on this enterprise, +with the hope that he would never come back alive. He was however +favoured by the Gods; Mercury gave him wings to fly, Pluto an invisible +helmet, and Minerva a mirror-shield, by looking in which he could +discover how his enemy was disposed, without the danger of meeting her +eyes. Thus equipped, he accomplished his undertaking, cut off the head +of the Gorgon, and pursed it in a bag. From this exploit he proceeded +to visit Atlas, king of Mauritania, who refused him hospitality, and +in revenge Perseus turned him into stone. He next rescued Andromeda, +daughter of the king of Ethiopia, from a monster sent by Neptune to +devour her. And, lastly, returning to his mother, and finding the king +of Seriphos still incredulous and obstinate, he turned him likewise +into a stone. + +The labours of Hercules, the most celebrated of the Greeks of the +heroic age, appear to have had little of magic in them, but to have +been indebted for their success to a corporal strength, superior to +that of all other mortals, united with an invincible energy of mind, +which disdained to yield to any obstacle that could be opposed to him. +His achievements are characteristic of the rude and barbarous age in +which he lived: he strangled serpents, and killed the Erymanthian +boar, the Nemaean lion, and the Hydra. + + +DAEDALUS. + +Nearly contemporary with the labours of Hercules is the history of +Pasiphae and the Minotaur; and this brings us again within the sphere +of magic. Pasiphae was the wife of Minos, king of Crete, who conceived +an unnatural passion for a beautiful white bull, which Neptune had +presented to the king. Having found the means of gratifying her +passion, she became the mother of a monster, half-man and half-bull, +called the Minotaur. Minos was desirous of hiding this monster from +the observation of mankind, and for this purpose applied to Daedalus, +an Athenian, the most skilful artist of his time, who is said to have +invented the axe, the wedge, and the plummet, and to have found out +the use of glue. He first contrived masts and sails for ships, and +carved statues so admirably, that they not only looked as if they were +alive, but had actually the power of self-motion, and would have +escaped from the custody of their possessor, if they had not been +chained to the wall. + +Daedalus contrived for Minos a labyrinth, a wonderful structure, that +covered many acres of ground. The passages in this edifice met and +crossed each other with such intricacy, that a stranger who had once +entered the building, would have been starved to death before he could +find his way out. In this labyrinth Minos shut up the Minotaur. Having +conceived a deep resentment against the people of Athens, where his +only son had been killed in a riot, he imposed upon them an annual +tribute of seven noble youths, and as many virgins to be devoured by +the Minotaur. Theseus, son of the king of Athens, put an end to this +disgrace. He was taught by Ariadne, the daughter of Minos, how to +destroy the monster, and furnished with a clue by which afterwards to +find his way out of the labyrinth. + +Daedalus for some reason having incurred the displeasure of Minos, was +made a prisoner by him in his own labyrinth. But the artist being +never at an end of his inventions, contrived with feathers and wax to +make a pair of wings for himself, and escaped. Icarus, his son, who +was prisoner along with him, was provided by his father with a similar +equipment. But the son, who was inexperienced and heedless, approached +too near to the sun in his flight; and, the wax of his wings being +melted with the heat, he fell into the sea and was drowned. + + +THE ARGONAUTS. + +Contemporary with the reign of Minos occurred the expedition of the +Argonauts. Jason, the son of the king of Iolchos in Thessaly, was at +the head of this expedition. Its object was to fetch the golden +fleece, which was hung up in a grove sacred to Mars, in the kingdom +of Colchis, at the eastern extremity of the Euxine sea. He enlisted in +this enterprise all the most gallant spirits existing in the country, +and among the rest Hercules, Theseus, Orpheus and Amphion. After having +passed through a multitude of perils, one of which was occasioned by +the Cyanean rocks at the entrance of the Euxine, that had the quality +of closing upon every vessel which attempted to make its way between +them and crushing it to pieces, a danger that could only be avoided by +sending a dove before as their harbinger, they at length arrived. + + +MEDEA. + +The golden fleece was defended by bulls, whose hoofs were brass, and +whose breath was fire, and by a never-sleeping dragon that planted +itself at the foot of the tree upon which the fleece was suspended. +Jason was prepared for his undertaking by Medea, the daughter of the +king of the country, herself an accomplished magician, and furnished +with philtres, drugs and enchantments. Thus equipped, he tamed the +bulls, put a yoke on their necks, and caused them to plough two acres +of the stiffest land. He killed the dragon, and, to complete the +adventure, drew the monster's teeth, sowed them in the ground, and saw +an army of soldiers spring from the seed. The army hastened forward to +attack him; but he threw a large stone into the midst of their ranks, +when they immediately turned from him, and, falling on each other, +were all killed with their mutual weapons. + +The adventure being accomplished, Medea set out with Jason on his +return to Thessaly. On their arrival, they found Aeson, the father of +Jason, and Pelias, his uncle, who had usurped the throne, both old and +decrepid. Jason applied to Medea, and asked her whether among her +charms she had none to make an old man young again. She replied she +had: she drew the impoverished and watery blood from the body of Aeson; +she infused the juice of certain potent herbs into his veins; and he +rose from the operation as fresh and vigorous a man as his son. + +The daughters of Pelias professed a perfect willingness to abdicate +the throne of Iolchos; but, before they retired, they requested Medea +to do the same kindness for their father which she had already done +for Aeson. She said she would. She told them the method was to cut the +old man in pieces, and boil him in a kettle with an infusion of +certain herbs, and he would come out as smooth and active as a child. + +The daughters of Pelias a little scrupled the operation. Medea, seeing +this, begged they would not think she was deceiving them. If however +they doubted, she desired they would bring her the oldest ram from +their flocks, and they should see the experiment. Medea cut up the +ram, cast in certain herbs, and the old bell-wether came out as +beautiful and innocent a he-lamb as was ever beheld. The daughters of +Pelias were satisfied. They divided their father in pieces; but he was +never restored either to health or life. + +From Iolchos, upon some insurrection of the people, Medea and Jason +fled to Corinth. Here they lived ten years in much harmony. At the end +of that time Jason grew tired of his wife, and fell in love with +Glauce, daughter of the king of Corinth. Medea was greatly exasperated +with his infidelity, and, among other enormities, slew with her own +hand the two children she had borne him before his face, Jason +hastened to punish her barbarity; but Medea mounted a chariot drawn by +fiery dragons, fled through the air to Athens, and escaped. + +At Athens she married Aegeus, king of that city. Aegeus by a former wife +had a son, named Theseus, who for some reason had been brought up +obscure, unknown and in exile. At a suitable time he returned home to +his father with the intention to avow his parentage. But Medea was +beforehand with him. She put a poisoned goblet into the hands of Aegeus +at an entertainment he gave to Theseus, with the intent that he should +deliver it to his son. At the critical moment Aegeus cast his eyes on +the sword of Theseus, which he recognised as that which he had +delivered with his son, when a child, and had directed that it should +be brought by him, when a man, as a token of the mystery of his birth. +The goblet was cast away; the father and son rushed into each other's +arms; and Medea fled from Athens in her chariot drawn by dragons +through the air, as she had years before fled from Corinth. + + +CIRCE. + +Circe was the sister of Aeetes and Pasiphae, and was, like Medea, her +niece, skilful in sorcery. She had besides the gift of immortality. +She was exquisitely beautiful; but she employed the charms of her +person, and the seducing grace of her manners to a bad purpose. She +presented to every stranger who landed in her territory an enchanted +cup, of which she intreated him to drink. He no sooner tasted it, than +he was turned into a hog, and was driven by the magician to her sty. +The unfortunate stranger retained under this loathsome appearance the +consciousness of what he had been, and mourned for ever the criminal +compliance by which he was brought to so melancholy a pass. + + +ORPHEUS. + +Cicero [22] quotes Aristotle as affirming that there was no such man +as Orpheus. But Aristotle is at least single in that opinion. And +there are too many circumstances known respecting Orpheus, and which +have obtained the consenting voice of all antiquity, to allow us to +call in question his existence. He was a native of Thrace, and from +that country migrated into Greece. He travelled into Egypt for the +purpose of collecting there the information necessary to the +accomplishment of his ends. He died a violent death; and, as is almost +universally affirmed, fell a sacrifice to the resentment and fury of +the women of his native soil. [23] + +Orpheus was doubtless a poet; though it is not probable that any of +his genuine productions have been handed down to us. He was, as all +the poets of so remote a period were, extremely accomplished in all +the arts of vocal and instrumental music. He civilised the rude +inhabitants of Greece, and subjected them to order and law. He formed +them into communities. He is said by Aristophanes [24] and Horace [25] +to have reclaimed the savage man, from slaughter, and an indulgence in +food that was loathsome and foul. And this has with sufficient +probability been interpreted to mean, that he found the race of men +among whom he lived cannibals, and that, to cure them the more +completely of this horrible practice, he taught them to be contented +to subsist upon the fruits of the earth. [26] Music and poetry are +understood to have been made specially instrumental by him to the +effecting this purpose. He is said to have made the hungry lion and +the famished tiger obedient to his bidding, and to put off their wild +and furious natures. + +This is interpreted by Horace [27] and other recent expositors to mean +no more than that he reduced the race of savages as he found them, to +order and civilisation. But it was at first perhaps understood more +literally. We shall not do justice to the traditions of these remote +times, if we do not in imagination transport ourselves among them, and +teach ourselves to feel their feelings, and conceive their conceptions. +Orpheus lived in a time when all was enchantment and prodigy. Gifted +and extraordinary persons in those ages believed that they were endowed +with marvellous prerogatives, and acted upon that belief. We may +occasionally observe, even in these days of the dull and the literal, +how great is the ascendancy of the man over the beast, when he feels a +full and entire confidence in that ascendancy. The eye and the gesture +of man cannot fail to produce effects, incredible till they are seen. +Magic was the order of the day; and the enthusiasm of its heroes was +raised to the highest pitch, and attended with no secret misgivings. +We are also to consider that, in all operations of a magical nature, +there is a wonderful mixture of frankness and _bonhommie_ with a +strong vein of cunning and craft. Man in every age is full of +incongruous and incompatible principles; and, when we shall cease to +be inconsistent, we shall cease to be men. + +It is difficult fully to explain what is meant by the story of Orpheus +and Eurydice; but in its circumstances it bears a striking resemblance +to what has been a thousand times recorded respecting the calling up +of the ghosts of the dead by means of sorcery. The disconsolate +husband has in the first place recourse to the resistless aid of +music. [28] After many preparatives he appears to have effected his +purpose, and prevailed upon the powers of darkness to allow him the +presence of his beloved. She appears in the sequel however to have +been a thin and a fleeting shadow. He is forbidden to cast his eyes on +her; and, if he had obeyed this injunction, it is uncertain how the +experiment would have ended. He proceeds however, as he is commanded, +towards the light of day. He is led to believe that his consort is +following his steps. He is beset with a multitude of unearthly +phenomena. He advances for some time with confidence. At length he is +assailed with doubts. He has recourse to the auricular sense, to know +if she is following him. He can hear nothing. Finally he can endure +this uncertainty no longer; and, in defiance of the prohibition he has +received, cannot refrain from turning his head to ascertain whether he +is baffled, and has spent all his labour in vain. He sees her; but no +sooner he sees her, than she becomes evanescent and impalpable; +farther and farther she retreats before him; she utters a shrill cry, +and endeavours to articulate; but she grows more and more +imperceptible; and in the conclusion he is left with the scene around +him in all respects the same as it had been before his incantations. +The result of the whole that is known of Orpheus, is, that he was an +eminently great and virtuous man, but was the victim of singular +calamity. + +We have not yet done with the history of Orpheus. As has been said, he +fell a sacrifice to the resentment and fury of the women of his native +soil. They are affirmed to have torn him limb from limb. His head, +divided from his body, floated down the waters of the Hebrus, and +miraculously, as it passed along to the sea, it was still heard to +exclaim in mournful accents, Eurydice, Eurydice! [29] At length it was +carried ashore on the island of Lesbos. [30] Here, by some +extraordinary concurrence of circumstances, it found a resting-place +in a fissure of a rock over-arched by a cave, and, thus domiciliated, +is said to have retained the power of speech, and to have uttered +oracles. Not only the people of Lesbos resorted to it for guidance in +difficult questions, but also the Asiatic Greeks from Ionia and Aetolia; +and its fame and character for predicting future events even extended +to Babylon. [31] + + +AMPHION. + +The story of Amphion is more perplexing than that of the living +Orpheus. Both of them turn in a great degree upon the miraculous +effects of music. Amphion was of the royal family of Thebes, and +ultimately became ruler of the territory. He is said, by the potency +of his lyre, or his skill in the magic art, to have caused the stones +to follow him, to arrange themselves in the way he proposed, and +without the intervention of a human hand to have raised a wall about +his metropolis. [32] It is certainly less difficult to conceive the +savage man to be rendered placable, and to conform to the dictates of +civilisation, or even wild beasts to be made tame, than to imagine +stones to obey the voice and the will of a human being. The example +however is not singular; and hereafter we shall find related that +Merlin, the British enchanter, by the power of magic caused the rocks +of Stonehenge, though of such vast dimensions, to be carried through +the air from Ireland to the place where we at present find them.--Homer +mentions that Amphion, and his brother Zethus built the walls of +Thebes, but does not describe it as having been done by miracle. [33] + + +TIRESIAS. + +Tiresias was one of the most celebrated soothsayers of the early ages +of Greece. He lived in the times of Oedipus, and the war of the seven +chiefs against Thebes. He was afflicted by the Gods with blindness, in +consequence of some displeasure they conceived against him; but in +compensation they endowed him beyond all other mortals with the gift +of prophecy. He is said to have understood the language of birds. He +possessed the art of divining future events from the various +indications that manifest themselves in fire, in smoke, and in other +ways, [34] but to have set the highest value upon the communications +of the dead, whom by spells and incantations he constrained to appear +and answer his enquiries; [35] and he is represented as pouring out +tremendous menaces against them, when they shewed themselves tardy to +attend upon his commands. [36] + + +ABARIS. + +Abaris, the Scythian, known to us for his visit to Greece, was by all +accounts a great magician. Herodotus says [37] that he is reported to +have travelled over the world with an arrow, eating nothing during his +journey. Other authors relate that this arrow was given to him by +Apollo, and that he rode upon it through the air, over lands, and +seas, and all inaccessible places. [38] The time in which he flourished +is very uncertain, some having represented him as having constructed +the Palladium, which, as long as it was preserved, kept Troy from +being taken by an enemy, [39] and others affirming that he was +familiar with Pythagoras, who lived six hundred years later, and that +he was admitted into his special confidence. [40] He is said to have +possessed the faculty of foretelling earthquakes, allaying storms, and +driving away pestilence; he gave out predictions wherever he went; and +is described as an enchanter, professing to cure diseases by virtue of +certain words which he pronounced over those who were afflicted with +them. [41] + + +PYTHAGORAS. + +The name of Pythagoras is one of the most memorable in the records of +the human species; and his character is well worthy of the minutest +investigation. By this name we are brought at once within the limits +of history properly so called. He lived in the time of Cyrus and +Darius Hystaspes, of Croesus, of Pisistratus, of Polycrates, tyrant of +Samos, and Amasis, king of Egypt. Many hypotheses have been laid down +respecting the precise period of his birth and death; but, as it is +not to our purpose to enter into any lengthened discussions of that +sort, we will adopt at once the statement that appears to be the most +probable, which is that of Lloyd, [42] who fixes his birth about the +year before Christ 586, and his death about the year 506. + +Pythagoras was a man of the most various accomplishments, and appears +to have penetrated in different directions into the depths of human +knowledge. He sought wisdom in its retreats of fairest promise, in +Egypt and other distant countries. [43] In this investigation he +employed the earlier period of his life, probably till he was forty, +and devoted the remainder to such modes of proceeding, as appeared to +him the most likely to secure the advantage of what he had acquired to +a late posterity. [44] + +He founded a school, and delivered his acquisitions by oral +communication to a numerous body of followers. He divided his pupils +into two classes, the one neophytes, to whom was explained only the +most obvious and general truths, the other who were admitted into the +entire confidence of the master. These last he caused to throw their +property into a common stock, and to live together in the same place +of resort. [45] He appears to have spent the latter half of his life +in that part of Italy, called Magna Graecia, so denominated in some +degree from the numerous colonies of Grecians by whom it was planted, +and partly perhaps from the memory of the illustrious things which +Pythagoras achieved there. [46] He is said to have spread the seeds of +political liberty in Crotona, Sybaris, Metapontum, and Rhegium, and +from thence in Sicily to Tauromenium, Catana, Agrigentum and Himera. +[47] Charondas and Zaleucus, themselves famous legislators, derived +the rudiments of their political wisdom from the instructions of +Pythagoras. [48] + +But this marvellous man in some way, whether from the knowlege he +received, or from his own proper discoveries, has secured to his +species benefits of a more permanent nature, and which shall outlive +the revolutions of ages, and the instability of political institutions. +He was a profound geometrician. The two theorems, that the internal +angles of every right-line triangle are equal to two right angles, [49] +and that the square of the hypothenuse of every right angled triangle +is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides, [50] are +ascribed to him. In memory of the latter of these discoveries he is +said to have offered a public sacrifice to the Gods; and the theorem +is still known by the name of the Pythagorean theorem. He ascertained +from the length of the Olympic course, which was understood to have +measured six hundred of Hercules's feet, the precise stature of that +hero. [51] Lastly, Pythagoras is the first person, who is known to +have taught the spherical figure of the earth, and that we have +antipodes; [52] and he propagated the doctrine that the earth is a +planet, and that the sun is the centre round which the earth and the +other planets move, now known by the name of the Copernican +system. [53] + +To inculcate a pure and a simple mode of subsistence was also an +express object of pursuit to Pythagoras. He taught a total abstinence +from every thing having had the property of animal life. It has been +affirmed, as we have seen, [54] that Orpheus before him taught the +same thing. But the claim of Orpheus to this distinction is ambiguous; +while the theories and dogmas of the Samian sage, as he has frequently +been styled, were more methodically digested, and produced more +lasting and unequivocal effects. He taught temperance in all its +branches, and a resolute subjection of the appetites of the body to +contemplation and the exercises of the mind; and, by the unremitted +discipline and authority he exerted over his followers, he caused his +lessons to be constantly observed. There was therefore an edifying and +an exemplary simplicity that prevailed as far as the influence of +Pythagoras extended, that won golden opinions to his adherents at all +times that they appeared, and in all places. [55] + +One revolution that Pythagoras worked, was that, whereas, immediately +before, those who were most conspicuous among the Greeks as instructors +of mankind in understanding and virtue, styled themselves sophists, +professors of wisdom, this illustrious man desired to be known only by +the appellation of a philosopher, a lover of wisdom. [56] The sophists +had previously brought their denomination into discredit and reproach, +by the arrogance of their pretensions, and the imperious way in which +they attempted to lay down the law to the world. + +The modesty of this appellation however did not altogether suit with +the deep designs of Pythagoras, the ascendancy he resolved to acquire, +and the oracular subjection in which he deemed it necessary to hold +those who placed themselves under his instruction. This wonderful man +set out with making himself a model of the passive and unscrupulous +docility which he afterwards required from others. He did not begin to +teach till he was forty years of age, and from eighteen to that period +he studied in foreign countries, with the resolution to submit to all +his teachers enjoined, and to make himself master of their least +communicated and most secret wisdom. In Egypt in particular, we are +told that, though he brought a letter of recommendation from +Polycrates, his native sovereign, to Amasis, king of that country, who +fully concurred with the views of the writer, the priests, jealous of +admitting a foreigner into their secrets, baffled him as long as they +could, referring him from one college to another, and prescribing to +him the most rigorous preparatives, not excluding the rite of +circumcision. [57] But Pythagoras endured and underwent every thing, +till at length their unwillingness was conquered, and his perseverance +received its suitable reward. + +When in the end Pythagoras thought himself fully qualified for the +task he had all along had in view, he was no less strict in prescribing +ample preliminaries to his own scholars. At the time that a pupil was +proposed to him, the master, we are told, examined him with multiplied +questions as to his principles, his habits and intentions, observed +minutely his voice and manner of speaking, his walk and his gestures, +the lines of his countenance, and the expression and management of his +eye, and, when he was satisfied with these, then and not till then +admitted him as a probationer. [58] It is to be supposed that all this +must have been personal. As soon however as this was over, the master +was withdrawn from the sight of the pupil; and a noviciate of three +and five, in all eight years, [59] was prescribed to the scholar, +during which time he was only to hear his instructor from behind a +curtain, and the strictest silence was enjoined him through the whole +period. As the instructions Pythagoras received in Egypt and the East +admitted of no dispute, so in his turn he required an unreserved +submission from those who heard him: autos iphae "the master has said +it," was deemed a sufficient solution to all doubt and uncertainty. [60] + +To give the greater authority and effect to his communications +Pythagoras hid himself during the day at least from the great body of +his pupils, and was only seen by them at night. Indeed there is no +reason to suppose that any one was admitted into his entire +familiarity. When he came forth, he appeared in a long garment of the +purest white, with a flowing beard, and a garland upon his head. He is +said to have been of the finest symmetrical form, with a majestic +carriage, and a grave and awful countenance. [61] He suffered his +followers to believe that he was one of the Gods, the Hyperborean +Apollo, [62] and is said to have told Abaris that he assumed the human +form, that he might the better invite men to an easiness of approach +and to confidence in him. [63] What however seems to be agreed in by +all his biographers, is that he professed to have already in different +ages appeared in the likeness of man: first as Aethalides, the son of +Mercury; and, when his father expressed himself ready to invest him +with any gift short of immortality, he prayed that, as the human soul +is destined successively to dwell in various forms, he might have the +privilege in each to remember his former state of being, which was +granted him. From, Aethalides he became Euphorbus, who slew Patroclus +at the siege of Troy. He then appeared as Hermotimus, then Pyrrhus, a +fisherman of Delos, and finally Pythagoras. He said that a period of +time was interposed between each transmigration, during which he +visited the seat of departed souls; and he professed to relate a part +of the wonders he had seen. [64] He is said to have eaten sparingly +and in secret, and in all respects to have given himself out for a +being not subject to the ordinary laws of nature. [65] + +Pythagoras therefore pretended to miraculous endowments. Happening to +be on the sea-shore when certain fishermen drew to land an enormous +multitude of fishes, he desired them to allow him to dispose of the +capture, which they consented to, provided he would name the precise +number they had caught. He did so, and required that they should throw +their prize into the sea again, at the same time paying them the value +of the fish. [66] He tamed a Daunian bear by whispering in his ear, +and prevailed on him henceforth to refrain from the flesh of animals, +and to feed on vegetables. By the same means he induced an ox not to +eat beans, which was a diet specially prohibited by Pythagoras; and he +called down an eagle from his flight, causing him to sit on his hand, +and submit to be stroked down by the philosopher. [67] In Greece, when +he passed the river Nessus in Macedon, the stream was heard to salute +him with the words "Hail, Pythagoras!" [68] When Abaris addressed him +as one of the heavenly host, he took the stranger aside, and convinced +him that he was under no mistake, by exhibiting to him his thigh of +gold: or, according to another account, he used the same sort of +evidence at a certain time, to satisfy his pupils of his celestial +descent. [69] He is said to have been seen on the same day at +Metapontum in Italy, and at Taurominium in Sicily, though these places +are divided by the sea, so that it was conceived that it would cost +several days to pass from one to the other. [70] In one instance he +absented himself from his associates in Italy for a whole year; and +when he appeared again, related that he had passed that time in the +infernal regions, describing likewise the marvellous things he had +seen. [71] Diogenes Laertius, speaking of this circumstance affirms +however that he remained during this period in a cave, where his +mother conveyed to him intelligence and necessaries, and that, when +he came once more into light and air, he appeared so emaciated and +colourless, that he might well be believed to have come out of Hades. + +The close of the life of Pythagoras was, according to every statement, +in the midst of misfortune and violence. Some particulars are related +by Iamblichus, [72] which, though he is not an authority beyond all +exception, are so characteristic as seem to entitle them to the being +transcribed. This author is more circumstantial than any other in +stating the elaborate steps by which the pupils of Pythagoras came to +be finally admitted into the full confidence of the master. He says, +that they passed three years in the first place in a state of +probation, carefully watched by their seniors, and exposed to their +occasional taunts and ironies, by way of experiment to ascertain +whether they were of a temper sufficiently philosophical and firm. At +the expiration of that period they were admitted to a noviciate, in +which they were bound to uninterrupted silence, and heard the lectures +of the master, while he was himself concealed from their view by a +curtain. They were then received to initiation, and required to +deliver over their property to the common stock. They were admitted to +intercourse with the master. They were invited to a participation of +the most obscure theories, and the abstrusest problems. If however in +this stage of their progress they were discovered to be too weak of +intellectual penetration, or any other fundamental objection were +established against them, they were expelled the community; the double +of the property they had contributed to the common stock was paid down +to them; a head-stone and a monument inscribed with their names were +set up in the place of meeting of the community; they were considered +as dead; and, if afterwards they met by chance any of those who were +of the privileged few, they were treated by them as entirely strangers. + +Cylon, the richest man, or, as he is in one place styled, the prince, +of Crotona, had manifested the greatest partiality to Pythagoras. He +was at the same time a man of rude, impatient and boisterous character. +He, together with Perialus of Thurium, submitted to all the severities +of the Pythagorean school. They passed the three years of probation, +and the five years of silence. They were received into the familiarity +of the master. They were then initiated, and delivered all their +wealth into the common stock. They were however ultimately pronounced +deficient in intellectual power, or for some other reason were not +judged worthy to continue among the confidential pupils of Pythagoras. +They were expelled. The double of the property they had contributed +was paid back to them. A monument was set up in memory of what they +had been; and they were pronounced dead to the school. + +It will easily be conceived in what temper Cylon sustained this +degradation. Of Perialus we hear nothing further. But Cylon, from +feelings of the deepest reverence and awe for Pythagoras, which he had +cherished for years, was filled even to bursting with inextinguishable +hatred and revenge. The unparalleled merits, the venerable age of the +master whom he had so long followed, had no power to control his +violence. His paramount influence in the city insured him the command +of a great body of followers. He excited them to a frame of turbulence +and riot. He represented to them how intolerable was the despotism of +this pretended philosopher. They surrounded the school in which the +pupils were accustomed to assemble, and set it on fire. Forty persons +perished in the flames. [73] According to some accounts Pythagoras was +absent at the time. According to others he and two of his pupils +escaped. He retired from Crotona to Metapontum. But the hostility +which had broken out in the former city, followed him there. He took +refuge in the Temple of the Muses. But he was held so closely besieged +that no provisions could be conveyed to him; and he finally perished +with hunger, after, according to Laertius, forty days' abstinence. [74] + +It is difficult to imagine any thing more instructive, and more +pregnant with matter for salutary reflection, than the contrast +presented to us by the character and system of action of Pythagoras +on the one hand, and those of the great enquirers of the last two +centuries, for example, Bacon, Newton and Locke, on the other. +Pythagoras probably does not yield to any one of these in the +evidences of true intellectual greatness. In his school, in the +followers he trained resembling himself, and in the salutary effects +he produced on the institutions of the various republics of Magna +Graecia and Sicily, he must be allowed greatly to have excelled them. +His discoveries of various propositions in geometry, of the earth as +a planet, and of the solar system as now universally recognised, +clearly stamp him a genius of the highest order. + +Yet this man, thus enlightened and philanthropical, established his +system of proceeding upon narrow and exclusive principles, and +conducted it by methods of artifice, quackery and delusion. One of his +leading maxims was, that the great and fundamental truths to the +establishment of which he devoted himself, were studiously to be +concealed from the vulgar, and only to be imparted to a select few, +and after years of the severest noviciate and trial. He learned his +earliest lessons of wisdom in Egypt after this method, and he +conformed through life to the example which had thus been delivered to +him. The severe examination that he made of the candidates previously +to their being admitted into his school, and the years of silence that +were then prescribed to them, testify this. He instructed them by +symbols, obscure and enigmatical propositions, which they were first +to exercise their ingenuity to expound. The authority and dogmatical +assertions of the master were to remain unquestioned; and the pupils +were to fashion themselves to obsequious and implicit submission, and +were the furthest in the world from being encouraged to the independent +exercise of their own understandings. There was nothing that Pythagoras +was more fixed to discountenance, than the communication of the truths +upon which he placed the highest value, to the uninitiated. It is not +probable therefore that he wrote any thing: all was communicated +orally, by such gradations, and with such discretion, as he might +think fit to adopt and to exercise. + +Delusion and falsehood were main features of his instruction. With +what respect therefore can we consider, and what manliness worthy of +his high character and endowments can we impute to, his discourses +delivered from behind a curtain, his hiding himself during the day, +and only appearing by night in a garb assumed for the purpose of +exciting awe and veneration? What shall we say to the story of his +various transmigrations? At first sight it appears in the light of the +most audacious and unblushing imposition. And, if we were to yield so +far as to admit that by a high-wrought enthusiasm, by a long train of +maceration and visionary reveries, he succeeded in imposing on himself, +this, though in a different way, would scarcely less detract from the +high stage of eminence upon which the nobler parts of his character +would induce us to place him. + +Such were some of the main causes that have made his efforts +perishable, and the lustre which should have attended his genius in a +great degree transitory and fugitive. He was probably much under the +influence of a contemptible jealousy, and must be considered as +desirous that none of his contemporaries or followers should eclipse +their master. All was oracular and dogmatic in the school of +Pythagoras. He prized and justly prized the greatness of his +attainments and discoveries, and had no conception that any thing +could go beyond them. He did not encourage, nay, he resolutely opposed, +all true independence of mind, and that undaunted spirit of enterprise +which is the atmosphere in which the sublimest thoughts are most +naturally generated. He therefore did not throw open the gates of +science and wisdom, and invite every comer; but on the contrary +narrowed the entrance, and carefully reduced the number of aspirants. +He thought not of the most likely methods to give strength and +permanence and an extensive sphere to the progress of the human mind. +For these reasons he wrote nothing; but consigned all to the frail and +uncertain custody of tradition. And distant posterity has amply +avenged itself upon the narrowness of his policy; and the name of +Pythagoras, which would otherwise have been ranked with the first +luminaries of mankind, and consigned to everlasting gratitude, has in +consequence of a few radical and fatal mistakes, been often loaded +with obloquy, and the hero who bore it been indiscriminately classed +among the votaries of imposture and artifice. + + +EPIMENIDES. + +Epimenides has been mentioned among the disciples of Pythagoras; but +he probably lived at an earlier period. He was a native of Crete. The +first extraordinary circumstance that is recorded of him is, that, +being very young, he was sent by his father in search of a stray +sheep, when, being overcome by the heat of the weather, he retired +into a cave, and slept fifty-seven years. Supposing that he had slept +only a few hours, he repaired first to his father's country-house, +which he found in possession of a new tenant, and then to the city, +where he encountered his younger brother, now grown an old man, who +with difficulty was brought to acknowledge him. [75] It was probably +this circumstance that originally brought Epimenides into repute as a +prophet, and a favourite of the Gods. + +Epimenides appears to have been one of those persons, who make it +their whole study to delude their fellow-men, and to obtain for +themselves the reputation of possessing supernatural gifts. Such +persons, almost universally, and particularly in ages of ignorance and +wonder, become themselves the dupes of their own pretensions. He gave +out that he was secretly subsisted by food brought to him by the +nymphs; and he is said to have taken nourishment in so small +quantities, as to be exempted from the ordinary necessities of nature. +[76] He boasted that he could send his soul out of his body, and recal +it, when he pleased; and alternately appeared an inanimate corpse, and +then again his life would return to him, and he appear capable of +every human function as before. [77] He is said to have practised the +ceremony of exorcising houses and fields, and thus rendering them +fruitful and blessed. [78] He frequently uttered prophecies of events +with such forms of ceremony and such sagacious judgment, that they +seemed to come to pass as he predicted. + +One of the most memorable acts of his life happened in this manner. +Cylon, the head of one of the principal families in Athens, set on +foot a rebellion against the government, and surprised the citadel. +His power however was of short duration. Siege was laid to the place, +and Cylon found his safety in flight. His partisans forsook their +arms, and took refuge at the altars. Seduced from this security by +fallacious promises, they were brought to judgment and all of them put +to death. The Gods were said to be offended with this violation of the +sanctions of religion, and sent a plague upon the city. All things +were in confusion, and sadness possessed the whole community. +Prodigies were perpetually seen; the spectres of the dead walked the +streets; and terror universally prevailed. The sacrifices offered to +the gods exhibited the most unfavourable symptoms. [79] In this +emergency the Athenian senate resolved to send for Epimenides to come +to their relief. His reputation was great. He was held for a holy and +devout man, and wise in celestial things by inspiration from above. A +vessel was fitted out under the command of one of the first citizens +of the state to fetch Epimenides from Crete. He performed various +rites and purifications. He took a certain number of sheep, black and +white, and led them to the Areopagus, where he caused them to be let +loose to go wherever they would. He directed certain persons to follow +them, and mark the place where they lay down. He enquired to what +particular deity the spot was consecrated, and sacrificed the sheep to +that deity; and in the result of these ceremonies the plague was +stayed. According to others he put an end to the plague by the +sacrifice of two human victims. The Athenian senate, full of gratitude +to their benefactor, tendered him the gift of a talent. But Epimenides +refused all compensation, and only required, as an acknowledgment of +what he had done, that there should be perpetual peace between the +Athenians and the people of Gnossus, his native city. [80] He is said +to have died shortly after his return to his country, being of the age +of one hundred and fifty-seven years. [81] + + +EMPEDOCLES. + +Empedocles has also been mentioned as a disciple of Pythagoras. But he +probably lived too late for that to have been the case. His principles +were in a great degree similar to those of that illustrious personage; +and he might have studied under one of the immediate successors of +Pythagoras. He was a citizen of Agrigentum in Sicily; and, having +inherited considerable wealth, exercised great authority in his native +place. [82] He was a distinguished orator and poet. He was greatly +conversant in the study of nature, and was eminent for his skill in +medicine. [83] In addition to these accomplishments, he appears to +have been a devoted adherent to the principles of liberty. He effected +the dissolution of the ruling council of Agrigentum, and substituted +in their room a triennial magistracy, by means of which the public +authority became not solely in the hands of the rich as before, but +was shared by them with expert and intelligent men of an inferior +class. [84] He opposed all arbitrary exercises of rule. He gave +dowries from his own stores to many young maidens of impoverished +families, and settled them in eligible marriages. [85] He performed +many cures upon his fellow-citizens; and is especially celebrated for +having restored a woman to life, who had been apparently dead, +according to one account for seven days, but according to others for +thirty. [86] + +But the most memorable things known of Empedocles, are contained in +the fragments of his verses that have been preserved to us. In one of +them he says of himself, "I well remember the time before I was +Empedocles, that I once was a boy, then a girl, a plant, a glittering +fish, a bird that cut the air." [87] Addressing those who resorted to +him for improvement and wisdom, he says, "By my instructions you shall +learn medicines that are powerful to cure disease, and re-animate old +age; you shall be able to calm the savage winds which lay waste the +labours of the husbandman, and, when you will, shall send forth the +tempest again; you shall cause the skies to be fair and serene, or +once more shall draw down refreshing showers, re-animating the fruits +of the earth; nay, you shall recal the strength of the dead man, when +he has already become the victim of Pluto." [88] Further, speaking of +himself, Empedocles exclaims: "Friends, who inhabit the great city +laved by the yellow Acragas, all hail! I mix with you a God, no longer +a mortal, and am every where honoured by you, as is just; crowned with +fillets, and fragrant garlands, adorned with which when I visit +populous cities, I am revered by both men and women, who follow me by +ten thousands, enquiring the road to boundless wealth, seeking the +gift of prophecy, and who would learn the marvellous skill to cure all +kinds of diseases." [89] + +The best known account of the death of Empedocles may reasonably be +considered as fabulous. From what has been said it sufficiently +appears, that he was a man of extraordinary intellectual endowments, +and the most philanthropical dispositions; at the same time that he +was immoderately vain, aspiring by every means in his power to acquire +to himself a deathless remembrance. Working on these hints, a story +has been invented that he aspired to a miraculous way of disappearing +from among men; and for this purpose repaired, when alone, to the top +of Mount Aetna, then in a state of eruption, and threw himself down the +burning crater: but it is added, that in the result of this perverse +ambition he was baffled, the volcano having thrown up one of his +brazen sandals, by means of which the mode of his death became known. +[90] + + +ARISTEAS. + +Herodotus tells a marvellous story of one Aristeas, a poet of +Proconnesus, an island of the Propontis. This man, coming by chance +into a fuller's workshop in his native place, suddenly fell down dead. +As the man was of considerable rank, the fuller immediately, quitting +and locking up his shop, proceeded to inform his family of what had +happened. The relations went accordingly, having procured what was +requisite to give the deceased the rites of sepulture, to the shop; +but, when it was opened, they could discover no vestige of Aristeas, +either dead or alive. A traveller however from the neighbouring town +of Cyzicus on the continent, protested that he had just left that +place, and, as he set foot in the wherry which had brought him over, +had met Aristeas, and held a particular conversation with him. Seven +years after, Aristeas reappeared at Proconnesus, resided there a +considerable time, and during this abode wrote his poem of the wars of +the one-eyed Arimaspians and the Gryphons. He then again disappeared +in an unaccountable manner. But, what is more than all extraordinary, +three hundred and forty years after this disappearance, he shewed +himself again at Metapontum, in Magna Graecia, and commanded the +citizens to erect a statue in his honour near the temple of Apollo in +the forum; which being done, he raised himself in the air; and flew +away in the form of a crow. [91] + + +HERMOTIMUS. + +Hermotimus, or, as Plutarch names him, Hermodorus of Clazomene, is +said to have possessed, like Epimenides, the marvellous power of +quitting his body, and returning to it again, as often, and for as +long a time as he pleased. In these absences his unembodied spirit +would visit what places he thought proper, observe every thing that +was going on, and, when he returned to his fleshy tabernacle, make a +minute relation of what he had seen. Hermotimus had enemies, who, one +time when his body had lain unanimated unusually long, beguiled his +wife, made her believe that he was certainly dead, and that it was +disrespectful and indecent to keep him so long in that state. The +woman therefore placed her husband on the funeral pyre, and consumed +him to ashes; so that, continues the philosopher, when the soul of +Hermotimus came back again, it no longer found its customary +receptacle to retire into. [92] Certainly this kind of treatment +appeared to furnish an infallible criterion, whether the seeming +absences of the soul of this miraculous man were pretended or real. + + +THE MOTHER OF DEMARATUS, KING OF SPARTA. + +Herodotus [93] tells a story of the mother of Demaratus, king of +Sparta, which bears a striking resemblance to the fairy tales of +modern times. This lady, afterward queen of Sparta, was sprung from +opulent parents, but, when she was born, was so extravagantly ugly, +that her parents hid her from all human observation. According to the +mode of the times however, they sent the babe daily in its nurse's +arms to the shrine of Helen, now metamorphosed into a Goddess, to pray +that the child might be delivered from its present preternatural +deformity. On these occasions the child was shrouded in many coverings, +that it might escape being seen. One day as the nurse came out of the +temple, a strange woman met her, and asked her what she carried so +carefully concealed. The nurse said it was a female child, but of +opulent parents, and she was strictly enjoined that it should be seen +by no one. The stranger was importunate, and by dint of perseverance +overcame the nurse's reluctance. The woman took the babe in her arms, +stroked down its hair, kissed it, and then returning it to the nurse, +said that it should grow up the most perfect beauty in Sparta. So +accordingly it proved: and the king of the country, having seen her, +became so enamoured of her, that, though he already had a wife, and +she a husband, he overcame all obstacles, and made her his queen. + + +ORACLES. + +One of the most extraordinary things to be met with in the history of +ancient times is the oracles. They maintained their reputation for +many successive centuries. The most famous perhaps were that of Delphi +in Greece, and that of Jupiter Ammon in the deserts of Lybia. But they +were scattered through many cities, many plains, and many islands. +They were consulted by the foolish and the wise; and scarcely anything +considerable was undertaken, especially about the time of the Persian +invasion into Greece, without the parties having first had recourse to +these; and they in most cases modified the conduct of princes and +armies accordingly. To render the delusion more successful, every kind +of artifice was put in practice. The oracle could only be consulted on +fixed days; and the persons who resorted to it, prefaced their +application with costly offerings to the presiding God. Their +questions passed through the hands of certain priests, residing in +and about the temple. These priests received the embassy with all due +solemnity, and retired. A priestess, or Pythia, who was seldom or +never seen by any of the profane vulgar, was the immediate vehicle of +communication with the God. She was cut off from all intercourse with +the world, and was carefully trained by the attendant priests. +Spending almost the whole of her time in solitude, and taught to +consider her office as ineffably sacred, she saw visions, and was for +the most part in a state of great excitement. The Pythia, at least of +the Delphian God, was led on with much ceremony to the performance of +her office, and placed upon the sacred tripod. The tripod, we are +told, stood over a chasm in the rock, from which issued fumes of an +inebriating quality. The Pythia became gradually penetrated through +every limb with these fumes, till her bosom swelled, her features +enlarged, her mouth foamed, her voice seemed supernatural, and she +uttered words that could sometimes scarcely be called articulate. +She could with difficulty contain herself, and seemed to be possessed, +and wholly overpowered, with the God. After a prelude of many +unintelligible sounds, uttered with fervour and a sort of frenzy, she +became by degrees more distinct. She uttered incoherent sentences, +with breaks and pauses, that were filled up with preternatural efforts +and distorted gestures; while the priests stood by, carefully recording +her words, and then reducing them into a sort of obscure signification. +They finally digested them for the most part into a species of +hexameter verse. We may suppose the supplicants during this ceremony +placed at a proper distance, so as to observe these things imperfectly, +while the less they understood, they were ordinarily the more impressed +with religious awe, and prepared implicitly to receive what was +communicated to them. Sometimes the priestess found herself in a frame, +not entirely equal to her function, and refused for the present to +proceed with the ceremony. + +The priests of the oracle doubtless conducted them in a certain degree +like the gipsies and fortune-tellers of modern times, cunningly +procuring to themselves intelligence in whatever way they could, and +ingeniously worming out the secrets of their suitors, at the same time +contriving that their drift should least of all be suspected. But +their main resource probably was in the obscurity, almost amounting to +unintelligibleness, of their responses. Their prophecies in most cases +required the comment of the event to make them understood; and it not +seldom happened, that the meaning in the sequel was found to be the +diametrically opposite of that which the pious votaries had originally +conceived. + +In the mean time the obscurity of the oracles was of inexpressible +service to the cause of superstition. If the event turned out to be +such as could in no way be twisted to come within the scope of the +response, the pious suitor only concluded that the failure was owing +to the grossness and carnality of his own apprehension, and not to any +deficiency in the institution. Thus the oracle by no means lost credit, +even when its meaning remained for ever in its original obscurity. But, +when, by any fortunate chance, its predictions seemed to be verified, +then the unerringness of the oracle was lauded from nation to nation; +and the omniscience of the God was admitted with astonishment and +adoration. + +It would be a vulgar and absurd mistake however, to suppose that all +this was merely the affair of craft, the multitude only being the +dupes, while the priests in cold blood carried on the deception, and +secretly laughed at the juggle they were palming on the world. They +felt their own importance; and they cherished it. They felt that they +were regarded by their countrymen as something more than human; and +the opinion entertained of them by the world around them, did not fail +to excite a responsive sentiment in their own bosoms. If their +contemporaries willingly ascribed to them an exclusive sacredness, by +how much stronger an impulse were they led fully to receive so +flattering a suggestion! Their minds were in a perpetual state of +exaltation; and they believed themselves specially favoured by the God +whose temple constituted their residence. A small matter is found +sufficient to place a creed which flatters all the passions of its +votaries, on the most indubitable basis. Modern philosophers think +that by their doctrine of gases they can explain all the appearances +of the Pythia; but the ancients, to whom this doctrine was unknown, +admitted these appearances as the undoubted evidence of an +interposition from heaven. + +It is certainly a matter of the extremest difficulty, for us in +imagination to place ourselves in the situation of those who believed +in the ancient polytheistical creed. And yet these believers nearly +constituted the whole of the population of the kingdoms of antiquity. +Even those who professed to have shaken off the prejudices of their +education, and to rise above the absurdities of paganism, had still +some of the old leaven adhering to them. One of the last acts of the +life of Socrates, was to order the sacrifice of a cock to be made to +Aesculapius. + +Now the creed of paganism is said to have made up to the number of +thirty thousand deities. Every kingdom, every city, every street, nay, +in a manner every house, had its protecting God. These Gods were +rivals to each other; and were each jealous of his own particular +province, and watchful against the intrusion of any neighbour deity +upon ground where he had a superior right. The province of each of +these deities was of small extent; and therefore their watchfulness +and jealousy of their appropriate honours do not enter into the +slightest comparison with the Providence of the God who directs the +concerns of the universe. They had ample leisure to employ in +vindicating their prerogatives. Prophecy was of all means the plainest +and most obvious for each deity to assert his existence, and to +inforce the reverence and submission of his votaries. Prophecy was +that species of interference which was least liable to the being +confuted and exposed. The oracles, as we have said, were delivered in +terms and phrases that were nearly unintelligible. If therefore they +met with no intelligible fulfilment, this lost them nothing; and, if +it gained them no additional credit, neither did it expose them to any +disgrace. Whereas every example, where the obscure prediction seemed +to tally with, and be illustrated by any subsequent event, was hailed +with wonder and applause, confirmed the faith of the true believers, +and was held forth as a victorious confutation of the doubts of the +infidel. + + +INVASION OF XERXES INTO GREECE. + +It is particularly suitable in this place to notice the events which +took place at Delphi upon occasion of the memorable invasion of Xerxes +into Greece. This was indeed a critical moment for the heathen +mythology. The Persians were pointed and express in their hostility +against the altars and the temples of the Greeks. It was no sooner +known that the straits of Thermopylae had been forced, than the priests +consulted the God, as to whether they should bury the treasures of the +temple, so to secure them against the sacrilege of the invader. The +answer of the oracle was: "Let nothing be moved; the God is sufficient +for the protection of his rights." The inhabitants therefore of the +neighbourhood withdrew: only sixty men and the priest remained. The +Persians in the mean time approached. Previously to this however, the +sacred arms which were placed in the temple, were seen to be moved by +invisible hands, and deposited on the declivity which was on the +outside of the building. The invaders no sooner shewed themselves, +than a miraculous storm of thunder and lightning rebounded and flashed +among the multiplied hills which surrounded the sacred area, and +struck terror into all hearts. Two vast fragments were detached from +the top of mount Parnassus, and crushed hundreds in their fall. A +voice of warlike acclamation issued from within the walls. Dismay +seized the Persian troops. The Delphians then, rushing from their +caverns, and descending from the summits, attacked them with great +slaughter. Two persons, exceeding all human stature, and that were +said to be the demigods whose fanes were erected near the temple of +Apollo, joined in the pursuit, and extended the slaughter. [94] It has +been said that the situation of the place was particularly adapted to +this mode of defence. Surrounded and almost overhung with lofty +mountain-summits, the area of the city was inclosed within crags and +precipices. No way led to it but through defiles, narrow and steep, +shadowed with wood, and commanded at every step by fastnesses from +above. In such a position artificial fires and explosion might imitate +a thunder storm. Great pains had been taken, to represent the place as +altogether abandoned; and therefore the detachment of rocks from the +top of mount Parnassus, though effected by human hands, might appear +altogether supernatural. + +Nothing can more forcibly illustrate the strength of the religious +feeling among the Greeks, than the language of the Athenian government +at the time of the second descent of the Persian armament upon their +territory, when they were again compelled to abandon their houses and +land to the invader. Mardonius said to them: "I am thus commissioned +by the king of Persia, he will release and give back to you your +country; he invites you to choose a further territory, whatever you +may think desirable, which he will guarantee to you to govern as you +shall judge fit. He will rebuild for you, without its costing you +either money or labour, the temples which in his former incursion he +destroyed with fire. It is in vain for you to oppose him by force, for +his armies are innumerable." To which the Athenians replied, "As long +as the sun pursues his course in the heavens, so long will we resist +the Persian invader." Then turning to the Spartan ambassadors who were +sent to encourage and animate them to persist, they added, "It is but +natural that your employers should apprehend that we might give way +and be discouraged. But there is no sum of money so vast, and no +region so inviting and fertile, that could buy us to concur in the +enslaving of Greece. Many and resistless are the causes which induce +us to this resolve. First and chiefest, the temples and images of the +Gods, which Xerxes has burned and laid in ruins, and which we are +called upon to avenge to the utmost, instead of forming a league with +him who made this devastation. Secondly, the consideration of the +Grecian race, the same with us in blood and in speech, the same in +religion and manners, and whose cause we will never betray. Know +therefore now, if you knew not before, that, as long as a single +Athenian survives, we will never swerve from the hostility to Persia +to which we have devoted ourselves." + +Contemplating this magnanimous resolution, it is in vain for us to +reflect on the absurdity, incongruity and frivolousness, as we +apprehend it, of the pagan worship, inasmuch as we find, whatever we +may think of its demerits, that the most heroic people that ever +existed on earth, in the hour of their direst calamity, regarded a +zealous and fervent adherence to that religion as the most sacred of +all duties. [95] + + +DEMOCRITUS. + +The fame of Democritus has sustained a singular fortune. He is +represented by Pliny as one of the most superstitious of mortals. This +character is founded on certain books which appeared in his name. In +these books he is made to say, that, if the blood of certain birds be +mingled together, the combination will produce a serpent, of which +whoever eats will become endowed with the gift of understanding the +language of birds. [96] He attributes a multitude of virtues to the +limbs of a dead camelion: among others that, if the left foot of this +animal be grilled, and there be added certain herbs, and a particular +unctuous preparation, it will have the quality to render the person +who carries it about him invisible. [97] But all this is wholly +irreconcileable with the known character of Democritus, who +distinguished himself by the hypothesis that the world was framed from +the fortuitous concourse of atoms, and that the soul died with the +body. And accordingly Lucian, [98] a more judicious author than Pliny, +expressly cites Democritus as the strenuous opposer of all the +pretenders to miracles. "Such juggling tricks," he says, "call for a +Democritus, an Epicurus, a Metrodorus, or some one of that temper, who +should endeavour to detect the illusion, and would hold it for certain, +even if he could not fully lay open the deceit, that the whole was a +lying pretence, and had not a spark of reality in it." + +Democritus was in reality one of the most disinterested characters on +record in the pursuit of truth. He has been styled the father of +experimental philosophy. When his father died, and the estate came to +be divided between him and two brothers, he chose the part which was +in money, though the smallest, that he might indulge him [Errata: +_read_ himself] in travelling in pursuit of knowledge. He visited +Egypt and Persia, and turned aside into Ethiopia and India. He is +reported to have said, that he had rather be the possessor of one of +the cardinal secrets of nature, than of the diadem of Persia. + + +SOCRATES. + +Socrates is the most eminent of the ancient philosophers. He lived in +the most enlightened age of Greece, and in Athens, the most illustrious +of her cities. He was born in the middle ranks of life, the son of a +sculptor. He was of a mean countenance, with a snub nose, projecting +eyes, and otherwise of an appearance so unpromising, that a +physiognomist, his contemporary, pronounced him to be given to the +grossest vices. But he was of a penetrating understanding, the simplest +manners, and a mind wholly bent on the study of moral excellence. He +at once abjured all the lofty pretensions, and the dark and recondite +pursuits of the most applauded teachers of his time, and led those to +whom he addressed his instructions from obvious and irresistible data +to the most unexpected and useful conclusions. There was something in +his manner of teaching that drew to him the noblest youth of Athens. +Plato and Xenophon, two of the most admirable of the Greek writers, +were among his pupils. He reconciled in his own person in a surprising +degree poverty with the loftiest principles of independence. He taught +an unreserved submission to the laws of our country. He several times +unequivocally displayed his valour in the field of battle, while at +the same time he kept aloof from public offices and trusts. The +serenity of his mind never forsook him. He was at all times ready to +teach, and never found it difficult to detach himself from his own +concerns, to attend to the wants and wishes of others. He was +uniformly courteous and unpretending; and, if at any time he indulged +in a vein of playful ridicule, it was only against the presumptuously +ignorant, and those who were without foundation wise in their own +conceit. + +Yet, with all these advantages and perfections, the name of Socrates +would not have been handed down with such lustre to posterity but for +the manner of his death. He made himself many enemies. The plainness +of his manner and the simplicity of his instructions were inexpressibly +wounding to those (and they were many), who, setting up for professors, +had hitherto endeavoured to dazzle their hearers by the loftiness of +their claims, and to command from them implicit submission by the +arrogance with which they dictated. It must be surprising to us, that +a man like Socrates should be arraigned in a country like Athens upon +a capital accusation. He was charged with instilling into the youth a +disobedience to their duties, and propagating impiety to the Gods, +faults of which he was notoriously innocent. But the plot against him +was deeply laid, and is said to have been twenty years in the +concoction. And he greatly assisted the machinations of his +adversaries, by the wonderful firmness of his conduct upon his trial, +and his spirited resolution not to submit to any thing indirect and +pusillanimous. He defended himself with a serene countenance and the +most cogent arguments, but would not stoop to deprecation and intreaty. +When sentence was pronounced against him, this did not induce the +least alteration of his conduct. He did not think that a life which he +had passed for seventy years with a clear conscience, was worth +preserving by the sacrifice of honour. He refused to escape from +prison, when one of his rich friends had already purchased of the +jailor the means of his freedom. And, during the last days of his life, +and when he was waiting the signal of death, which was to be the return +of a ship that had been sent with sacrifices to Delos, he uttered those +admirable discourses, which have been recorded by Xenophon and Plato +to the latest posterity. + +But the question which introduces his name into this volume, is that +of what is called the demon of Socrates. He said that he repeatedly +received a divine premonition of dangers impending over himself and +others; and considerable pains have been taken to ascertain the cause +and author of these premonitions. Several persons, among whom we may +include Plato, have conceived that Socrates regarded himself as +attended by a supernatural guardian who at all times watched over his +welfare and concerns. + +But the solution is probably of a simpler nature. Socrates, with all +his incomparable excellencies and perfections, was not exempt from the +superstitions of his age and country. He had been bred up among the +absurdities of polytheism. In them were included, as we have seen, a +profound deference for the responses of oracles, and a vigilant +attention to portents and omens. Socrates appears to have been +exceedingly regardful of omens. Plato tells us that this intimation, +which he spoke of as his demon, never prompted him to any act, but +occasionally interfered to prevent him or his friends from proceeding +in any thing that would have been attended with injurious consequences. +[99] Sometimes he described it as a voice, which no one however heard +but himself; and sometimes it shewed itself in the act of sneezing. If +the sneezing came, when he was in doubt to do a thing or not to do it, +it confirmed him; but if, being already engaged in any act, he sneezed, +this he considered as a warning to desist. If any of his friends +sneezed on his right hand, he interpreted this as a favourable omen; +but, if on his left, he immediately relinquished his purpose. [100] +Socrates vindicated his mode of expressing himself on the subject, by +saying that others, when they spoke of omens, for example, by the +voice of a bird, said the bird told me this, but that he, knowing that +the omen was purely instrumental to a higher power, deemed it more +religious and respectful to have regard only to the higher power, and +to say that God had graciously warned him. [101] One of the examples +of this presage was, that, going along a narrow street with several +companions in earnest discourse, he suddenly stopped, and turned +another way, warning his friends to do the same. Some yielded to him, +and others went on, who were encountered by the rushing forward of a +multitude of hogs, and did not escape without considerable +inconvenience and injury. [102] In another instance one of a company +among whom was Socrates, had confederated to commit an act of +assassination. Accordingly he rose to quit the place, saying to +Socrates, "I will be back presently." Socrates, unaware of his purpose, +but having received the intimation of his demon, said to him earnestly, +"Go not." The conspirator sat down. Again however he rose, and again +Socrates stopped him. At length he escaped, without the observation of +the philosopher, and committed the act, for which he was afterwards +brought to trial. When led to execution, he exclaimed, "This would +never have happened to me, if I had yielded to the intimation of +Socrates." [103] In the same manner, and by a similar suggestion, the +philosopher predicted the miscarriage of the Athenian expedition to +Sicily under Nicias, which terminated with such signal disaster. [104] +This feature in the character of Socrates is remarkable, and may shew +the prevalence of superstitious observances, even in persons whom we +might think the most likely to be exempt from this weakness. + + + + +ROME. + + +VIRGIL. + +From the Greeks let us turn to the Romans. The earliest examples to +our purpose occur in the Aeneid. And, though Virgil is a poet, yet is +he so correct a writer, that we may well take for granted, that he +either records facts which had been handed down by tradition, or that, +when he feigns, he feigns things strikingly in accord with the manners +and belief of the age of which he speaks. + + +POLYDORUS. + +One of the first passages that occur, is of the ghost of the deceased +Polydorus on the coast of Thrace. Polydorus, the son of Priam, was +murdered by the king of that country, his host, for the sake of the +treasures he had brought with him from Troy. He was struck through +with darts made of the wood of the myrtle. The body was cast into a +pit, and earth thrown upon it. The stems of myrtle grew and flourished. +Aeneas, after the burning of Troy, first attempted a settlement in this +place. Near the spot where he landed he found a hillock thickly set +with myrtle. He attempted to gather some, thinking it might form a +suitable screen to an altar which he had just raised. To his +astonishment and horror he found the branches he had plucked, dropping +with blood. He tried the experiment again and again. At length a voice +from the mound was heard, exclaiming, "Spare me! I am Polydorus;" and +warning him to fly the blood-stained and treacherous shore. + + +DIDO. + +We have a more detailed tale of necromancy, when Dido, deserted by +Aeneas, resolves on self-destruction. To delude her sister as to her +secret purpose, she sends for a priestess from the gardens of the +Hesperides, pretending that her object is by magical incantations +again to relumine the passion of love in the breast of Aeneas. This +priestess is endowed with the power, by potent verse to free the +oppressed soul from care, and by similar means to agitate the bosom +with passion which is free from its empire. She can arrest the +headlong stream, and cause the stars to return back in their orbits. +She can call up the ghosts of the dead. She is able to compel the +solid earth to rock, and the trees of the forest to descend from their +mountains. To give effect to the infernal spell, Dido commands that a +funeral pyre shall be set up in the interior court of her palace, and +that the arms of Aeneas, what remained of his attire, and the marriage +bed in which Dido had received him, shall be heaped upon it. The pyre +is hung round with garlands, and adorned with branches of cypress. The +sword of Aeneas and his picture are added. Altars are placed round the +pyre; and the priestess, with dishevelled hair, calls with terrific +charms upon her three hundred Gods, upon Erebus, chaos, and the +three-faced Hecate. She sprinkles around the waters of Avernus, and +adds certain herbs that had been cropped by moonlight with a sickle of +brass. She brings with her the excrescence which is found upon the +forehead of a new-cast foal, of the size of a dried fig, and which +unless first eaten by the mare, the mother never admits her young to +the nourishment of her milk. After these preparations, Dido, with +garments tucked up, and with one foot bare, approached the altars, +breaking over them a consecrated cake, and embracing them successively +in her arms. The pyre was then to be set on fire; and, as the +different objects placed upon it were gradually consumed, the charm +became complete, and the ends proposed to the ceremony were expected +to follow. Dido assures her sister, that she well knew the unlawfulness +of her proceeding, and protests that nothing but irresistible necessity +should have compelled her to have recourse to these unhallowed arts. +She finally stabs herself, and expires. + + +ROMULUS. + +The early history of Rome is, as might be expected, interspersed with +prodigies. Romulus himself, the founder, after a prosperous reign of +many years, disappeared at last by a miracle. The king assembled his +army to a general review, when suddenly, in the midst of the ceremony, +a tempest arose, with vivid lightnings and tremendous crashes of +thunder. Romulus became enveloped in a cloud, and, when, shortly after, +a clear sky and serene heavens succeeded, the king was no more seen, +and the throne upon which he had sat appeared vacant. The people were +somewhat dissatisfied with the event, and appear to have suspected +foul play. But the next day Julius Proculus, a senator of the highest +character, shewed himself in the general assembly, and assured them, +that, with the first dawn of the morning, Romulus had stood before him, +and certified to him that the Gods had taken him up to their celestial +abodes, authorising him withal to declare to his citizens, that their +arms should be for ever successful against all their enemies. [105] + + +NUMA. + +Numa was the second king of Rome: and, the object of Romulus having +been to render his people soldiers and invincible in war, Numa, an old +man and a philosopher, made it his purpose to civilise them, and +deeply to imbue them with sentiments of religion. He appears to have +imagined the thing best calculated to accomplish this purpose, was to +lead them by prodigies and the persuasion of an intercourse with the +invisible world. A shield fell from heaven in his time, which he +caused to be carefully kept and consecrated to the Gods; and he +conceived no means so likely to be effectual to this end, as to make +eleven other shields exactly like the one which had descended by +miracle, so that, if an accident happened to any one, the Romans might +believe that the one given to them by the divinity was still in their +possession.[106] + +Numa gave to his people civil statutes, and a code of observances in +matters of religion; and these also were inforced with a divine +sanction. Numa met the goddess Egeria from time to time in a cave; and +by her was instructed in the institutions he should give to the Romans: +and this barbarous people, awed by the venerable appearance of their +king, by the sanctity of his manners, and still more by the divine +favour which was so signally imparted to him, received his mandates +with exemplary reverence, and ever after implicitly conformed +themselves to all that he had suggested. [107] + + +TULLUS HOSTILIUS. + +Tullus Hostilius, the third king of Rome, restored again the policy of +Romulus. In his time, Alba, the parent state, was subdued and united +to its more flourishing colony. In the mean time Tullus, who during +the greater part of his reign had been distinguished by martial +achievements, in the latter part became the victim of superstitions. +A shower of stones fell from heaven, in the manner, as Livy tells us, +of a hail-storm. A plague speedily succeeded to this prodigy. [108] +Tullus, awed by these events, gave his whole attention to the rites of +religion. Among other things he found in the sacred books of Numa an +account of a certain ceremony, by which, if rightly performed, the +appearance of a God, named Jupiter Elicius, would be conjured up. But +Tullus, who had spent his best days in the ensanguined field, proved +inadequate to this new undertaking. Some defects having occurred in +his performance of the magical ceremony, not only no God appeared at +his bidding, but, the anger of heaven being awakened, a thunderbolt +fell on the palace, and the king, and the place of his abode were +consumed together. [109] + + +ACCIUS NAVIUS. + +In the reign of Tarquinius Priscus, the fifth king of Rome, another +famous prodigy is recorded. The king had resolved to increase the +number of the Roman cavalry. Romulus had raised the first body with +the customary ceremony of augury. Tarquinius proposed to proceed in +the present case, omitting this ceremony. Accius Navius, the chief +augur, protested against the innovation. Tarquin, in contempt of his +interference, addressed Accius, saying, "Come, augur, consult your +birds, and tell me, whether the thing I have now in my mind can be +done, or cannot be done." Accius proceeded according to the rules of +his art, and told the king it could be done. "What I was thinking of," +replied Tarquinius, "was whether you could cut this whetstone in two +with this razor." Accius immediately took the one instrument and the +other, and performed the prodigy in the face of the assembled people. +[110] + + +SERVIUS TULLIUS. + +Servius Tullius, the sixth king of Rome, was the model of a +disinterested and liberal politician, and gave to his subjects those +institutions to which, more than to any other cause, they were indebted +for their subsequent greatness. Tarquinius subjected nearly the whole +people of Latium to his rule, capturing one town of this district +after another. In Corniculum, one of these places, Servius Tullius, +being in extreme youth, was made a prisoner of war, and subsequently +dwelt as a slave in the king's palace. One day as he lay asleep in the +sight of many, his head was observed to be on fire. The bystanders, +terrified at the spectacle, hastened to bring water that they might +extinguish the flames. The queen forbade their assiduity, regarding +the event as a token from the Gods. By and by the boy awoke of his own +accord, and the flames at the same instant disappeared. The queen, +impressed with the prodigy, became persuaded that the youth was +reserved for high fortunes, and directed that he should be instructed +accordingly in all liberal knowledge. In due time he was married to +the daughter of Tarquinius, and was destined in all men's minds to +succeed in the throne, which took place in the sequel. [111] + +In the year of Rome two hundred and ninety one, forty-seven years +after the expulsion of Tarquin, a dreadful plague broke out in the +city, and carried off both the consuls, the augurs, and a vast +multitude of the people. The following year was distinguished by +numerous prodigies; fires were seen in the heavens, and the earth +shook, spectres appeared, and supernatural voices were heard, an ox +spoke, and a shower of raw flesh fell in the fields. Most of these +prodigies were not preternatural; the speaking ox was probably +received on the report of a single hearer; and the whole was invested +with exaggerated terror by means of the desolation of the preceding +year. [112] + + +THE SORCERESS OF VIRGIL. + +Prodigies are plentifully distributed through the earlier parts of the +Roman history; but it is not our purpose to enter into a chronological +detail on the subject. And in reality those already given, except in +the instance of Tullus Hostilius, do not entirely fall within the +scope of the present volume. The Roman poets, Virgil, Horace, Ovid and +Lucan, give a fuller insight than the Latin prose-writers, into the +conceptions of their countrymen upon the subject of incantations and +magic. + +The eighth eclogue of Virgil, entitled Pharmaceutria, is particularly +to our purpose in this point. There is an Idyll of Theocritus under +the same name; but it is of an obscurer character; and the enchantress +is not, like that of Virgil, triumphant in the success of her arts. + +The sorceress is introduced by Virgil, giving direction to her female +attendant as to the due administration of her charms. Her object is to +recal Daphnis, whom she styles her husband, to his former love for her. +At the same time, she says, she will endeavour by magic to turn him +away from his wholesome sense. She directs her attendant to burn +vervain and frankincense; and she ascribes the highest efficacy to the +solemn chant, which, she says, can call down the moon from its sphere, +can make the cold-blooded snake burst in the field, and was the means +by which Circe turned the companions of Ulysses into beasts. She +orders his image to be thrice bound round with fillets of three +colours, and then that it be paraded about a prepared altar, while in +binding the knots the attendant shall still say, "Thus do I bind the +fillets of Venus." One image of clay and one of wax are placed before +the same fire; and as the image of clay hardens, so does the heart of +Daphnis harden towards his new mistress; and as the image of wax +softens, so is the heart of Daphnis made tender towards the sorceress. +She commands a consecrated cake to be broken over the image, and +crackling laurels to be burned before it, that as Daphnis had +tormented her by his infidelity, so he in his turn may be agitated +with a returning constancy. She prays that as the wanton heifer +pursues the steer through woods and glens, till at length, worn out +with fatigue, she lies down on the oozy reeds by the banks of the +stream, and the night-dew is unable to induce her to withdraw, so +Daphnis may be led on after her for ever with inextinguishable love. +She buries the relics of what had belonged to Daphnis beneath her +threshold. She bruises poisonous herbs of resistless virtue which had +been gathered in the kingdom of Pontus, herbs, which enabled him who +gave them to turn himself into a hungry wolf prowling amidst the +forests, to call up ghosts from the grave, and to translate the +ripened harvest from the field where it grew to the lands of another. +She orders her attendant to bring out to the face of heaven the ashes +of these herbs, and [Errata: _dele_ and] to cast them over her +head into the running stream, and at the same time taking care not to +look behind her. After all her efforts the sorceress begins to despair. +She says, "Daphnis heeds not my incantations, heeds not the Gods." She +looks again; she perceives the ashes on the altar emit sparkles of +fire; she hears her faithful house-dog bark before the door; she says, +"Can these things be; or do lovers dream what they desire? It is not +so! The real Daphnis comes; I hear his steps; he has left the deluding +town; he hastens to my longing arms!" + + +CANIDIA. + +In the works of Horace occurs a frightful and repulsive, but a curious +detail of a scene of incantation. [113] Four sorceresses are +represented as assembled, Canidia, the principal, to perform, the other +three to assist in, the concoction of a charm, by means of which a +certain youth, named Varus, for whom Canidia had conceived a passion, +but who regards the hag with the utmost contempt, may be made +obsequious to her desires. Canidia appears first, the locks of her +dishevelled hair twined round with venomous and deadly serpents, +ordering the wild fig-tree and the funereal cypress to be rooted up +from the sepulchres on which they grew, and these, together with the +egg of a toad smeared with blood, the plumage of the screech-owl, +various herbs brought from Thessaly and Georgia, and bones torn from +the jaws of a famished dog, to be burned in flames fed with perfumes +from Colchis. Of the assistant witches, one traces with hurried steps +the edifice, sprinkling it, as she goes, with drops from the Avernus, +her hair on her head stiff and erect, like the quills of the +sea-hedge-hog, or the bristles of a hunted boar; and another, who is +believed by all the neighbourhood to have the faculty of conjuring the +stars and the moon down from heaven, contributes her aid. + +But, which is most horrible, the last of the assistant witches is seen, +armed with a spade, and, with earnest and incessant labour, throwing +up earth, that she may dig a trench, in which is to be plunged up to +his chin a beardless youth, stripped of his purple robe, the emblem of +his noble descent, and naked, that, from his marrow already dry and +his liver (when at length his eye-balls, long fixed on the still +renovated food which is withheld from his famished jaws, have no more +the power to discern), may be concocted the love-potion, from which +these hags promise themselves the most marvellous results. + +Horace presents before us the helpless victim of their malice, already +inclosed in the fatal trench, first viewing their orgies with affright, +asking, by the Gods who rule the earth and all the race of mortals, +what means the tumult around him? He then intreats Canidia, by her +children if ever she had offspring, by the visible evidences of his +high rank, and by the never-failing vengeance of Jupiter upon such +misdeeds, to say why she casts on him glances, befitting the fury of a +stepmother, or suited to a beast already made desperate by the wounds +of the hunter. + +At length, no longer exhausting himself in fruitless intreaties, the +victim has recourse in his agonies to curses on his executioners. He +says, his ghost shall haunt them for ever, for no vengeance can +expiate such cruelty. He will tear their cheeks with his fangs, for +that power is given to the shades below. He will sit, a night-mare, on +their bosoms, driving away sleep from their eyes; while the enraged +populace shall pursue them with stones, and the wolves shall gnaw and +howl over their unburied members. The unhappy youth winds up all with +the remark, that his parents who will survive him, shall themselves +witness this requital of the sorceresses' infernal deeds. + +Canidia, unmoved by these menaces and execrations, complains of the +slow progress of her charms. She gnaws her fingers with rage. She +invokes the night and the moon, beneath whose rays these preparations +are carried on, now, while the wild beasts lie asleep in the forests, +and while the dogs alone bay the superanuated letcher, who relies +singly on the rich scents with which he is perfumed for success, to +speed her incantations, and signalise their power beneath the roof of +him whose love she seeks. She impatiently demands why her drugs should +be of less avail than those of Medea, with which she poisoned a +garment, that, once put on, caused Creusa, daughter of the king of +Corinth, to expire in intolerable torments? She discovers that Varus +had hitherto baffled her power by means of some magical antidote; and +she resolves to prepare a mightier charm, that nothing from earth or +hell shall resist. "Sooner," she says, "shall the sky be swallowed up +in the sea, and the earth be stretched a covering over both, than thou, +my enemy, shalt not be wrapped in the flames of love, as subtle and +tenacious as those of burning pitch." + +It is not a little curious to remark the operation of the antagonist +principles of superstition and scepticism among the Romans in this +enlightened period, as it comes illustrated to us in the compositions +of Horace on this subject. In the piece, the contents of which have +just been given, things are painted in all the solemnity and terror +which is characteristic of the darkest ages. But, a few pages further +on, we find the poet in a mock Palinodia deprecating the vengeance of +the sorceress, who, he says, has already sufficiently punished him by +turning through her charms his flaxen hair to hoary white, and +overwhelming him by day and night with ceaseless anxieties. He feels +himself through her powerful magic tortured, like Hercules in the +envenomed shirt of Nessus, or as if he were cast down into the flames +of Aetna; nor does he hope that she will cease compounding a thousand +deadly ingredients against him, till his very ashes shall have been +scattered by the resistless winds. He offers therefore to expiate his +offence at her pleasure either by a sacrifice of an hundred oxen, or +by a lying ode, in which her chastity and spotless manners shall be +applauded to the skies. + +What Ovid gives is only a new version of the charms and philtres of +Medea. [114] + + +ERICHTHO. + +Lucan, in his Pharsalia, [115] takes occasion, immediately before the +battle which was to decide the fate of the Roman world, to introduce +Sextus, the younger son of Pompey, as impatient to enquire, even by +the most sacrilegious means, into the important events which are +immediately impending. He is encouraged in the attempt by the +reflection, that the soil upon which they are now standing, Thessaly, +had been notorious for ages as the noxious and unwholesome seat of +sorcery and witchcraft. The poet therefore embraces this occasion to +expatiate on the various modes in which this detested art was +considered as displaying itself. And, however he may have been +ambitious to seize this opportunity to display the wealth of his +imagination, the whole does not fail to be curious, as an exhibition +of the system of magical power so far as the matter in hand is +concerned. + +The soil of Thessaly, says the poet, is in the utmost degree fertile +in poisonous herbs, and her rocks confess the power of the sepulchral +song of the magician. There a vegetation springs up of virtue to +compel the Gods; and Colchis itself imports from Thessaly treasures of +this sort which she cannot boast as her own. The chaunt of the +Thessalian witch penetrates the furthest seat of the Gods, and +contains words so powerful, that not the care of the skies, or of the +revolving spheres, can avail as an excuse to the deities to decline +its force. Babylon and Memphis yield to the superior might; and the +Gods of foreign climes fly to fulfil the dread behests of the magician. + +Prompted by Thessalian song, love glides into the hardest hearts; and +even the severity of age is taught to burn with youthful fires. The +ingredients of the poisoned cup, nor the excrescence found on the +forehead of the new-cast foal, can rival in efficacy the witching +incantation. The soul is melted by its single force. The heart which +not all the attractions of the genial bed could fire, nor the +influence of the most beautiful form, the wheel of the sorceress shall +force from its bent. + +But the effects are perhaps still more marvellous that are produced on +inanimate and unintellectual nature. The eternal succession of the +world is suspended; day delays to rise on the earth; the skies no +longer obey their ruler. Nature becomes still at the incantation: and +Jove, accustomed to guide the machine, is astonished to find the poles +disobedient to his impulse. Now the sorceress deluges the plains with +rain, hides the face of heaven with murky clouds, and the thunders +roll, unbidden by the thunderer. Anon she shakes her hair, and the +darkness is dispersed, and the whole horizon is cleared. At one time +the sea rages, urged by no storm; and at another is smooth as glass, +in defiance of the tempestuous North. The breath of the enchanter +carries along the bark in the teeth of the wind; the headlong torrent +is suspended, and rivers run back to their source. The Nile overflows +not in the summer; the crooked Meander shapes to itself a direct +course; the sluggish Arar gives new swiftness to the rapid Rhone; and +the mountains bow their heads to their foundations. Clouds shroud the +peaks of the cloudless Olympus; and the Scythian snows dissolve, +unurged by the sun. The sea, though impelled by the tempestuous +constellations, is counteracted by witchcraft, and no longer beats +along the shore. Earthquakes shake the solid globe; and the affrighted +inhabitants behold both hemispheres at once. The animals most dreaded +for their fury, and whose rage is mortal, become tame; the hungry +tiger and the lordly lion fawn at the sorceress's feet; the snake +untwines all her folds amidst the snow; the viper, divided by wounds, +unites again its severed parts; and the envenomed serpent pines and +dies under the power of a breath more fatal than his own. + +What, exclaims the poet, is the nature of the compulsion thus +exercised on the Gods, this obedience to song and to potent herbs, +this fear to disobey and scorn the enchanter? Do they yield from +necessity, or is it a voluntary subjection? Is it the piety of these +hags that obtains the reward, or by menaces do they secure their +purpose? Are all the Gods subject to this control, or, is there one +God upon whom it has power, who, himself compelled, compels the +elements? The stars fall from heaven at their command. The silver moon +yields to their execrations, and burns with a smouldering flame, even +as when the earth comes between her and the sun, and by its shadow +intercepts its rays; thus is the moon brought lower and more low, till +she covers with her froth the herbs destined to receive her malignant +influence. + +But Erichtho, the witch of the poet, flouts all these arts, as too +poor and timid for her purposes. She never allows a roof to cover her +horrid head, or confesses the influence of the Houshold Gods. She +inhabits the deserted tomb, and dwells in a grave from which the ghost +of the dead has been previously expelled. She knows the Stygian abodes, +and the counsels of the infernals. Her countenance is lean; and her +complexion overspread with deadly paleness. Her hair is neglected and +matted. But when clouds and tempests obscure the stars, then she comes +forth, and defies the midnight lightning. Wherever she treads, the +fruits of the earth become withered, and the wholesome air is poisoned +with her breath. She offers no prayers, and pours forth no +supplications; she has recourse to no divination. She delights to +profane the sacred altar with a funereal flame, and pollutes the +incense with a torch from the pyre. The Gods yield at once to her +voice, nor dare to provoke her to a second mandate. She incloses the +living man within the confines of the grave; she subjects to sudden +death those who were destined to a protracted age; and she brings back +to life the corses of the dead. She snatches the smoaking cinders, +and the bones whitened with flame, from the midst of the pile, and +wrests the torch from the hand of the mourning parent. She seizes the +fragments of the burning shroud, and the embers yet moistened with +blood. But, where the sad remains are already hearsed in marble, it is +there that she most delights to exercise her sacrilegious power. She +tears the limbs of the dead, and digs out their eyes. She gnaws their +fingers. She separates with her teeth the rope on the gibbet, and +tears away the murderer from the cross on which he hung suspended. She +applies to her purposes the entrails withered with the wind, and the +marrow that had been dried by the sun. She bears away the nails which +had pierced the hands and feet of the criminal, the clotted blood +which had distilled from his wounds, and the sinews that had held him +suspended. She pounces upon the body of the dead in the battle-field, +anticipating the vulture and the beast of prey; but she does not +divide the limbs with a knife, nor tear them asunder with her hands: +she watches the approach of the wolf, that she may wrench the morsels +from his hungry jaws. Nor does the thought of murder deter her, if her +rites require the living blood, first spurting from the lacerated +throat. She drags forth the foetus from its pregnant mother, by a +passage which violence has opened. Wherever there is occasion for a +bolder and more remorseless ghost, with her own hand she dismisses him +from life; man at every period of existence furnishes her with +materials. She drags away the first down from the cheek of the +stripling, and with her left hand cuts the favourite lock from the +head of the young man. Often she watches with seemingly pious care the +dying hours of a relative, and seizes the occasion to bite his lips, +to compress his windpipe, and whisper in his expiring organ some +message to the infernal shades. + +Sextus, guided by the general fame of this woman, sought her in her +haunts. He chose his time, in the depth of the night, when the sun is +at its lowermost distance from the upper sky. He took his way through +the desert fields. He took for companions the associates, the +accustomed ministers of his crimes. Wandering among broken graves and +crumbling sepulchres, they discovered her, sitting sublime on a ragged +rock, where mount Haemus stretches its roots to the Pharsalic field. +She was mumbling charms of the Magi and the magical Gods. For she +feared that the war might yet be transferred to other than the +Emathian fields. The sorceress was busy therefore enchanting the soil +of Philippi, and scattering on its surface the juice of potent herbs, +that it might be heaped with carcasses of the dead, and saturated with +their blood, that Macedon, and not Italy, might receive the bodies of +departed kings and the bones of the noble, and might be amply peopled +with the shades of men. Her choicest labour was as to the earth where +should be deposited the prostrate Pompey, or the limbs of the mighty +Caesar. + +Sextus approached, and bespoke her thus: "Oh, glory of Haemonia, that +hast the power to divulge the fates of men, or canst turn aside fate +itself from its prescribed course, I pray thee to exercise thy gift in +disclosing events to come. Not the meanest of the Roman race am I, the +offspring of an illustrious chieftain, lord of the world in the one +case, or in the other the destined heir to my father's calamity. I +stand on a tremendous and giddy height: snatch me from this posture of +doubt; let me not blindly rush on, and blindly fall; extort this +secret from the Gods, or force the dead to confess what they know." + +To whom the Thessalian crone replied: "If you asked to change the fate +of an individual, though it were to restore an old man, decrepid with +age, to vigorous youth, I could comply; but to break the eternal chain +of causes and consequences exceeds even our power. You seek however +only a foreknowledge of events to come, and you shall be gratified. +Meanwhile it were best, where slaughter has afforded so ample a field, +to select the body of one newly deceased, and whose flexible organs +shall be yet capable of speech, not with lineaments already hardened +in the sun." + +Saying thus, Erichtho proceeded (having first with her art made the +night itself more dark, and involved her head in a pitchy cloud), to +explore the field, and examine one by one the bodies of the unburied +dead. As she approached, the wolves fled before her, and the birds of +prey, unwillingly sheathing their talons, abandoned their repast, +while the Thessalian witch, searching into the vital parts of the +frames before her, at length fixed on one whose lungs were uninjured, +and whose organs of speech had sustained no wound. The fate of many +hung in doubt, till she had made her selection. Had the revival of +whole armies been her will, armies would have stood up obedient to her +bidding. She passed a hook beneath the jaw of the selected one, and, +fastening it to a cord, dragged him along over rocks and stones, till +she reached a cave, overhung by a projecting ridge. A gloomy fissure +in the ground was there, of a depth almost reaching to the Infernal +Gods, where the yew-tree spread thick its horizontal branches, at all +times excluding the light of the sun. Fearful and withering shade was +there, and noisome slime cherished by the livelong night. The air was +heavy and flagging as that of the Taenarian promontory; and hither the +God of hell permits his ghosts to extend their wanderings. It is +doubtful whether the sorceress called up the dead to attend her here, +or herself descended to the abodes of Pluto. She put on a fearful and +variegated robe; she covered her face with her dishevelled hair, and +bound her brow with a wreath of vipers. + +Meanwhile she observed Sextus afraid, with his eyes fixed on the +ground, and his companions trembling; and thus she reproached them. +"Lay aside," she said, "your vainly-conceived terrors! You shall +behold only a living and a human figure, whose accents you may listen +to with perfect security. If this alarms you, what would you say, if +you should have seen the Stygian lakes, and the shores burning with +sulphur unconsumed, if the furies stood before you, and Cerberus with +his mane of vipers, and the giants chained in eternal adamant? Yet all +these you might have witnessed unharmed; for all these would quail at +the terror of my brow." + +She spoke, and next plied the dead body with her arts. She supples his +wounds, and infuses fresh blood into his veins: she frees his scars +from the clotted gore, and penetrates them with froth from the moon. +She mixes whatever nature has engendered in its most fearful caprices, +foam from the jaws of a mad dog, the entrails of the lynx, the backbone +of the hyena, and the marrow of a stag that had dieted on serpents, +the sinews of the remora, and the eyes of a dragon, the eggs of the +eagle, the flying serpent of Arabia, the viper that guards the pearl +in the Red Sea, the slough of the hooded snake, and the ashes that +remain when the phoenix has been consumed. To these she adds all venom +that has a name, the foliage of herbs over which she has sung her +charms, and on which she had voided her rheum as they grew. + +At length she chaunts her incantation to the Stygian Gods, in a voice +compounded of all discords, and altogether alien to human organs. It +resembles at once the barking of a dog, and the howl of a wolf; it +consists of the hooting of the screech-owl, the yelling of a ravenous +wild beast, and the fearful hiss of a serpent. It borrows somewhat +from the roar of tempestuous waves, the hollow rushing of the winds +among the branches of the forest, and the tremendous crash of +deafening thunder. + +"Ye furies," she cries, "and dreadful Styx, ye sufferings of the +damned, and Chaos, for ever eager to destroy the fair harmony of +worlds, and thou, Pluto, condemned to an eternity of ungrateful +existence, Hell, and Elysium, of which no Thessalian witch shall +partake, Proserpine, for ever cut off from thy health-giving mother, +and horrid Hecate, Cerebrus [Errata: _read_ Cerberus] curst with +incessant hunger, ye Destinies, and Charon endlessly murmuring at the +task I impose of bringing back the dead again to the land of the +living, hear me!--if I call on you with a voice sufficiently impious +and abominable, if I have never sung this chaunt, unsated with human +gore, if I have frequently laid on your altars the fruit of the +pregnant mother, bathing its contents with the reeking brain, if I +have placed on a dish before you the head and entrails of an infant on +the point to be born-- + +"I ask not of you a ghost, already a tenant of the Tartarean abodes, +and long familiarised to the shades below, but one who has recently +quitted the light of day, and who yet hovers over the mouth of hell: +let him hear these incantations, and immediately after descend to his +destined place! Let him articulate suitable omens to the son of his +general, having so late been himself a soldier of the great Pompey! Do +this, as you love the very sound and rumour of a civil war!" + +Saying this, behold, the ghost of the dead man stood erect before her, +trembling at the view of his own unanimated limbs, and loth to enter +again the confines of his wonted prison. He shrinks to invest himself +with the gored bosom, and the fibres from which death had separated +him. Unhappy wretch, to whom death had not given the privilege to die! +Erichtho, impatient at the unlooked for delay, lashes the unmoving +corpse with one of her serpents. She calls anew on the powers of hell, +and threatens to pronounce the dreadful name, which cannot be +articulated without consequences never to be thought of, nor without +the direst necessity to be ventured upon. + +At length the congealed blood becomes liquid and warm; it oozes from +the wounds, and creeps steadily along the veins and the members; the +fibres are called into action beneath the gelid breast, and the nerves +once more become instinct with life. Life and death are there at once. +The arteries beat; the muscles are braced; the body raises itself, not +by degrees, but at a single impulse, and stands erect. The eyelids +unclose. The countenance is not that of a living subject, but of the +dead. The paleness of the complexion, the rigidity of the lines, +remain; and he looks about with an unmeaning stare, but utters no +sound. He waits on the potent enchantress. + +"Speak!" said she; "and ample shall be your reward. You shall not +again be subject to the art of the magician. I will commit your +members to such a sepulchre; I will burn your form with such wood, and +will chaunt such a charm over your funeral pyre, that all incantations +shall thereafter assail you in vain. Be it enough, that you have once +been brought back to life! Tripods, and the voice of oracles deal in +ambiguous responses; but the voice of the dead is perspicuous and +certain to him who receives it with an unshrinking spirit. Spare not! +Give names to things; give places a clear designation; speak with a +full and articulate voice." + +Saying this, she added a further spell, qualified to give to him who +was to answer, a distinct knowledge of that respecting which he was +about to be consulted. He accordingly delivers the responses demanded +of him; and, that done, earnestly requires of the witch to be +dismissed. Herbs and magic rites are necessary, that the corpse may be +again unanimated, and the spirit never more be liable to be recalled +to the realms of day. The sorceress constructs the funeral pile; the +dead man places himself thereon; Erichtho applies the torch; and the +charm is for ever at an end. + +Lucan in this passage is infinitely too precise, and exhausts his muse +in a number of particulars, where he had better have been more +succinct and select. He displays the prolific exuberance of a young +poet, who had not yet taught himself the multiplied advantages of +compression. He had not learned the principle, _Relinquere quae +desperat tractata nitescere posse_. [116] But, as this is the +fullest enumeration of the forms of witchcraft that occurs in the +writers of antiquity, it seemed proper to give it to the reader +entire. + + +SERTORIUS. + +The story of Sertorius and his hind, which occurred about thirty years +before, may not be improperly introduced here. It is told by Plutarch +in the spirit of a philosopher, and as a mere deception played by that +general, to render the barbarous people of Spain more devoted to his +service. But we must suppose that it had, at least for the time, the +full effect of something preternatural. Sertorius was one of the most +highly gifted and well balanced characters that is to be found in +Roman story. He considered with the soundest discernment the nature of +the persons among whom he was to act, and conducted himself +accordingly. The story in Plutarch is this. + +"So soone as Sertorius arriued from Africa, he straight leauied men of +warre, and with them subdued the people of Spaine fronting upon his +marches, of which the more part did willingly submit themselves, upon +the bruit that ran of him to be mercifull and courteous, and a valiant +man besides in present danger, Furthermore, he lacked no fine deuises +and subtilties to win their goodwils: as among others, the policy, and +deuise of the hind. There was a poore man of the countrey called +Spanus, who meeting by chance one day with a hind in his way that had +newly calved, flying from the hunters, he let the damme go, not being +able to take her; and running after her calfe tooke it, which was a +young hind, and of a strange haire, for she was all milk-white. It +chanced so, that Sertorius was at that time in those parts. So, this +poore man presented Sertorius with his young hind, which he gladly +receiued, and which with time he made so tame, that she would come to +him when he called her, and follow him where-euer he went, being +nothing the wilder for the daily sight of such a number of armed +souldiers together as they were, nor yet afraid of the noise and +tumult of the campe. Insomuch as Sertorius by little and little made +it a miracle, making the simple barbarous people beleeue that it was a +gift that Diana had sent him, by the which she made him understand of +many and sundrie things to come: knowing well inough of himselfe, that +the barbarous people were men easily deceiued, and quickly caught by +any subtill superstition, besides that by art also he brought them to +beleeue it as a thing verie true. For when he had any secret +intelligence giuen him, that the enemies would inuade some part of the +countries and prouinces subject vnto him, or that they had taken any +of his forts from him by any intelligence or sudden attempt, he +straight told them that his hind spake to him as he slept, and had +warned him both to arme his men, and put himselfe in strength. In like +manner if he had heard any newes that one of his lieutenants had wonne +a battell, or that he had any aduantage of his enemies, he would hide +the messenger, and bring his hind abroad with a garland and coller of +nosegayes: and then say, it was a token of some good newes comming +towards him, perswading them withall to be of good cheare; and so did +sacrifice to the Gods, to giue them thankes for the good tidings he +should heare before it were long. Thus by putting this superstition +into their heades, he made them the more tractable and obedient to his +will, in so much as they thought they were not now gouerned any more +by a stranger wiser than themselues, but were steadfastly perswaded +that they were rather led by some certaine God."-- + +"Now was Sertorius very heauie, that no man could tell him what was +become of his white hind: for thereby all his subtilltie and finenesse +to keepe the barbarous people in obedience was taken away, and then +specially when they stood in need of most comfort. But by good hap, +certaine of his souldiers that had lost themselves in the night, met +with the hind in their way, and knowing her by her colour, tooke her +and brought her backe againe. Sertorius hearing of her, promised them +a good reward, so that they would tell no liuing creature that they +brought her againe, and thereupon made her to be secretly kept. Then +within a few dayes after, he came abroad among them, and with a +pleasant countenance told the noble men and chiefe captaines of these +barbarous people, how the Gods had reuealed it to him in his dreame, +that he should shortly have a maruellous good thing happen to him: and +with these words sate downe in his chaire to give audience. Whereupon +they that kept the hind not farre from thence, did secretly let her go. +The hind being loose, when she had spied Sertorius, ranne straight to +his chaire with great joy, and put her head betwixt his legges, and +layed her mouth in his right hand, as she before was wont to do. +Sertorius also made very much of her, and of purpose appeared +maruellous glad, shewing such tender affection to the hind, as it +seemed the water stood in his eyes for joy. The barbarous people that +stood there by and beheld the same, at the first were much amazed +therewith, but afterwards when they had better bethought themselues, +for ioy they clapped their hands together, and waited upon Sertorius +to his lodging with great and ioyfull shouts, saying, and steadfastly +beleeuing, that he he was a heavenly creature, and beloued of the +Gods." [117] + + +CASTING OUT DEVILS. + +We are now brought down to the era of the Christian religion; and +there is repeated mention of sorcery in the books of the New Testament. + +One of the most frequent miracles recorded of Jesus Christ is called +the "casting out devils." The Pharisees in the Evangelist, for the +purpose of depreciating this evidence of his divine mission, are +recorded to have said, "this fellow doth not cast out devils, but by +Beelzebub, the prince of devils." Jesus, among other remarks in +refutation of this opprobrium, rejoins upon them, "If I by Beelzebub +cast out devils, by whom do your children cast them out?" [118] Here +then we have a plain insinuation of sorcery from the lips of Christ +himself, at the same time that he appears to admit that his +adversaries produced supernatural achievements similar to his own. + + +SIMON MAGUS. + +But the most remarkable passage in the New Testament on the subject of +sorcery, is one which describes the proceedings of Simon Magus, as +follows. + +"Then Philip went down to the city of Samaria, and preached Christ +unto them. But there was a certain man, called Simon, which before +time in the same city used sorcery, and bewitched the people of +Samaria, giving out that himself was some great one. To whom they all +gave heed, from the least to the greatest, saying, This man is the +great power of God. And to him they had regard, because that of long +time he had bewitched them with sorceries. But, when they believed +Philip, preaching the things concerning the kingdom of God and the +name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized both men and women. Then +Simon himself believed also. And, when he was baptized, he continued +with Philip, and wondered, beholding the miracles and signs which were +done. + +"Now, when the apostles which were at Jerusalem heard that Samaria had +received the word of God, they sent unto them Peter and John. Who, +when they were come down, prayed for them, that they might receive the +Holy Ghost. For as yet he was fallen upon none of them: only they were +baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then laid they their hands on +them, and they received the Holy Ghost. + +"And, when Simon saw that, through the laying on of the apostles' +hands, the Holy Ghost was given, he offered them money, saying, Give +me also this power, that on whomsoever I lay hands he may receive the +Holy Ghost. But Peter said unto him, Thy money perish with thee! +because thou hast thought that the gift of God might be purchased with +money. Thou hast neither part nor lot in this matter: for thy heart is +not right in the sight of God. Repent therefore of this thy wickedness, +and pray God, if perhaps the thought of thy heart may be forgiven thee: +for I perceive that thou art in the gall of bitterness, and in the +bond of iniquity. Then answered Simon, and said, Pray ye to the Lord +for me, that none of these things which ye have spoken come upon me." +[119] + +This passage of the New Testament leaves us in considerable uncertainty +as to the nature of the sorceries, by which "of a long time Simon had +bewitched the people of Samaria." But the fathers of the church, +Clemens Romanus and Anastasius Sinaita, have presented us with a +detail of the wonders he actually performed. When and to whom he +pleased he made himself invisible; he created a man out of air; he +passed through rocks and mountains without encountering an obstacle; +he threw himself from a precipice uninjured; he flew along in the air; +he flung himself in the fire without being burned. Bolts and chains +were impotent to detain him. He animated statues, so that they +appeared to every beholder to be men and women; he made all the +furniture of the house and the table to change places as required, +without a visible mover; he metamorphosed his countenance and visage +into that of another person; he could make himself into a sheep, or a +goat, or a serpent; he walked through the streets attended with a +multitude of strange figures, which he affirmed to be the souls of the +departed; he made trees and branches of trees suddenly to spring up +where he pleased; he set up and deposed kings at will; he caused a +sickle to go into a field of corn, which unassisted would mow twice as +fast as the most industrious reaper. [120] + +Thus endowed, it is difficult to imagine what he thought he would have +gained by purchasing from the apostles their gift of working miracles. +But Clemens Romanus informs us that he complained that, in his +sorceries, he was obliged to employ tedious ceremonies and +incantations; whereas the apostles appeared to effect their wonders +without difficulty and effort, by barely speaking a word. [121] + + +ELYMAS, THE SORCERER. + +But Simon Magus is not the only magician spoken of in the New +Testament. When the apostle Paul came to Paphos in the isle of Cyprus, +he found the Roman governor divided in his preference between Paul and +Elymas, the sorcerer, who before the governor withstood Paul to his +face. Then Paul, prompted by his indignation, said, "Oh, full of all +subtlety and mischief, child of the devil, enemy of all righteousness, +wilt thou not cease to pervert the right ways of the Lord? And now, +behold, the hand of the Lord is upon thee, and thou shalt be blind, +not seeing the sun for a season." What wonders Elymas effected to +deceive the Roman governor we are not told: but "immediately there +fell on him a mist and a darkness; and he went about, seeking some to +lead him by the hand." [122] + +In another instance we find certain vagabond Jews, exorcists, who +pretended to cast out devils from the possessed. But they came to the +apostle, and "confessed, and shewed their deeds. Many of them also +which used curious arts, brought their books together, and burned them +before all. And they counted the price of them, and found it fifty +thousand pieces of silver." [123] + +It is easy to see however on which side the victory lay. The apostles +by their devotion and the integrity of their proceedings triumphed; +while those whose only motive was selfishness, the applause of the +vulgar, or the admiration of the superficial, gained the honours of a +day, and were then swept away into the gulf of general oblivion. + + +NERO. + +The arts of the magician are said to have been called into action by +Nero upon occasion of the assassination of his mother, Agrippina. He +was visited with occasional fits of the deepest remorse in the +recollection of his enormity. Notwithstanding all the ostentatious +applauses and congratulations which he obtained from the senate, the +army and the people, he complained that he was perpetually haunted +with the ghost of his mother, and pursued by the furies with flaming +torches and whips. He therefore caused himself to be attended by +magicians, who employed their arts to conjure up the shade of +Agrippina, and to endeavour to obtain her forgiveness for the crime +perpetrated by her son. [124] We are not informed of the success of +their evocations. + + +VESPASIAN. + +In the reign of Vespasian we meet with a remarkable record of +supernatural power, though it does not strictly fall under the head of +magic. It is related by both Tacitus and Suetonius. Vespasian having +taken up his abode for some months at Alexandria, a blind man, of the +common people, came to him, earnestly intreating the emperor to assist +in curing his infirmity, alleging that he was prompted to apply by the +admonition of the God Serapis, and importuning the prince to anoint +his cheeks and the balls of his eyes with the royal spittle. Vespasian +at first treated the supplication with disdain; but at length, moved +by the fervour of the petitioner, inforced as it was by the flattery +of his courtiers, the emperor began to think that every thing would +give way to his prosperous fortune, and yielded to the poor man's +desire. With a confident carriage therefore, the multitude of those +who stood by being full of expectation, he did as he was requested, +and the desired success immediately followed. Another supplicant +appeared at the same time, who had lost the use of his hands, and +intreated Vespasian to touch the diseased members with his foot; and +he also was cured.[125] + +Hume has remarked that many circumstances contribute to give +authenticity to this miracle, "if," as he says, "any evidence could +avail to establish so palpable a falsehood. The gravity, solidity, age +and probity of so great an emperor, who, through the whole course of +his life, conversed in a familiar manner with his friends and +courtiers, and never affected any airs of divinity: the historian, a +contemporary writer, noted for candour and veracity, and perhaps the +greatest and most penetrating genius of all antiquity: and lastly, the +persons from whose authority he related the miracle, who we may +presume to have been of established character for judgment and honour; +eye-witnesses of the fact, and confirming their testimony, as Tacitus +goes on to say, after the Flavian family ceased to be in power, and +could no longer give any reward as the price of a lie." [126] + + +APOLLONIUS OF TYANA. + +Apollonius of Tyana in Asia Minor was born nearly at the same time as +Jesus Christ, and acquired great reputation while he lived, and for a +considerable time after. He was born of wealthy parents, and seems +early to have betrayed a passion for philosophy. His father, +perceiving this, placed him at fourteen years of age under Euthydemus, +a rhetorician of Tarsus; but the youth speedily became dissatisfied +with the indolence and luxury of the citizens, and removed himself to +Aegas, a neighbouring town, where was a temple of Aesculapius, and where +the God was supposed sometimes to appear in person. Here he became +professedly a disciple of the sect of Pythagoras. He refrained from +animal food, and subsisted entirely on fruits and herbs. He went +barefoot, and wore no article of clothing made from the skins of +animals. [127] He further imposed on himself a noviciate of five years +silence. At the death of his father, he divided his patrimony equally +with his brother; and, that brother having wasted his estate by +prodigality, he again made an equal division with him of what +remained. [128] He travelled to Babylon and Susa in pursuit of +knowledge, and even among the Brachmans of India, and appears +particularly to have addicted himself to the study of magic. [129] He +was of a beautiful countenance and a commanding figure, and, by means +of these things, combined with great knowledge, a composed and +striking carriage, and much natural eloquence, appears to have won +universal favour wherever he went. He is said to have professed the +understanding of all languages without learning them, to read the +thoughts of men, and to be able to interpret the language of animals. +A power of working miracles attended him in all places. [130] + +On one occasion he announced to the people of Ephesus the approach of +a terrible pestilence; but the citizens paid no attention to his +prophecy. The calamity however having overtaken them, they sent to +Apollonius who was then at Smyrna, to implore his assistance. He +obeyed the summons. Having assembled the inhabitants, there was seen +among them a poor, old and decrepid beggar, clothed in rags, hideous +of visage, and with a peculiarly fearful and tremendous expression in +his eyes. Apollonius called out to the Ephesians, "This is an enemy to +the Gods; turn all your animosity against him, and stone him to death!" +The old man in the most piteous tones besought their mercy. The +citizens were shocked with the inhumanity of the prophet. Some however +of the more thoughtless flung a few stones, without any determined +purpose. The old man, who had stood hitherto crouching, and with his +eyes half-closed, now erected his figure, and cast on the crowd +glances, fearful, and indeed diabolical. The Ephesians understood at +once that this was the genius of the plague. They showered upon him +stones without mercy, so as not only to cover him, but to produce a +considerable mound where he had stood. After a time Apollonius +commanded them to take away the stones, that they might discover what +sort of an enemy they had destroyed. Instead of a man they now saw an +enormous black dog, of the size of a lion, and whose mouth and jaws +were covered with a thick envenomed froth. [131] + +Another miracle was performed by Apollonius in favour of a young man, +named Menippus of Corinth, five and twenty years of age, for whom the +prophet entertained a singular favour. This man conceived himself to +be beloved by a rich and beautiful woman, who made advances to him, +and to whom he was on the point of being contracted in marriage. +Apollonius warned his young friend against the match in an enigmatical +way, telling him that he nursed a serpent in his bosom. This however +did not deter Menippus. All things were prepared; and the wedding +table was spread. Apollonius meanwhile came among them, and prevented +the calamity. He told the young man that the dishes before him, the +wine he was drinking, the vessels of gold and silver that appeared +around him, and the very guests themselves were unreal and illusory; +and to prove his words, he caused them immediately to vanish. The +bride alone was refractory. She prayed the philosopher not to torment +her, and not to compel her to confess what she was. He was however +inexorable. She at length owned that she was an empuse (a sort of +vampire), and that she had determined to cherish and pamper Menippus, +that she might in the conclusion eat his flesh, and lap up his blood. +[132] + +One of the miracles of Apollonius consisted in raising the dead. A +young woman of beautiful person was laid out upon a bier, and was in +the act of being conveyed to the tomb. She was followed by a multitude +of friends, weeping and lamenting, and among others by a young man, +to whom she had been on the point to be married. Apollonius met the +procession, and commanded those who bore it, to set down the bier. He +exhorted the proposed bridegroom to dry up his tears. He enquired the +name of the deceased, and, saluting her accordingly, took hold of her +hand, and murmured over her certain mystical words. At this act the +maiden raised herself on her seat, and presently returned home, whole +and sound, to the house of her father. [133] + +Towards the end of his life Apollonius was accused before Domitian of +having conspired with Nerva to put an end to the reign of the tyrant. +He appears to have proved that he was at another place, and therefore +could not have engaged in the conspiracy that was charged upon him. +Domitian publicly cleared him from the accusation, but at the same +time required him not to withdraw from Rome, till the emperor had +first had a private conference with him. To this requisition Apollonius +replied in the most spirited terms. "I thank your majesty," said he, +"for the justice you have rendered me. But I cannot submit to what you +require. How can I be secure from the false accusations of the +unprincipled informers who infest your court? It is by their means +that whole towns of your empire are unpeopled, that provinces are +involved in mourning and tears, your armies are in mutiny, your senate +full of suspicion and alarms, and the islands are crowded with exiles. +It is not for myself that I speak, my soul is invulnerable to your +enmity; and it is not given to you by the Gods to become master of my +body." And, having thus given utterance to the virtuous anguish of his +spirit, he suddenly became invisible in the midst of a full assembly, +and was immediately after seen at Puteoli in the neighbourhood of +Mount Vesuvius. [134] + +Domitian pursued the prophet no further; and he passed shortly after +to Greece, to Ionia, and finally to Ephesus. He every where delivered +lectures as he went, and was attended with crowds of the most +distinguished auditors, and with the utmost popularity. At length at +Ephesus, when he was in the midst of an eloquent harangue, he suddenly +became silent. He seemed as if he saw a spectacle which engrossed all +his attention. His countenance expressed fervour and the most +determined purpose. He exclaimed, "Strike the tyrant; strike him!" and +immediately after, raising himself, and addressing the assembly, he +said, "Domitian is no more; the world is delivered of its bitterest +oppressor."--The next post brought the news that the emperor was +killed at Rome, exactly on the day and at the hour when Apollonius had +thus made known the event at Ephesus. [135] + +Nerva succeeded Domitian, between whom and Apollonius there subsisted +the sincerest friendship. The prophet however did not long survive +this event. He was already nearly one hundred years old. But what is +most extraordinary, no one could tell precisely when or where he died. +No tomb bore the record of his memory; and his biographer inclines to +the opinion that he was taken up into heaven. [136] + +Divine honours were paid to this philosopher, both during his life, +and after his death. The inhabitants of Tyana built a temple to him, +and his image was to be found in many other temples. [137] The emperor +Adrian collected his letters, and treated them as an invaluable relic. +Alexander Severus placed his statue in his oratory, together with +those of Jesus Christ, Abraham and Orpheus, to whom he was accustomed +daily to perform the ceremonies of religion. [138] Vopiscus, in his +Life of Aurelian, [139] relates that this emperor had determined to +rase the city of Tyana, but that Apollonius, whom he knew from his +statues, appeared to him, and said, "Aurelian, if you would conquer, +do not think of the destruction of my citizens: Aurelian, if you would +reign, abstain from the blood of the innocent: Aurelian, if you would +conquer, distinguish yourself by acts of clemency." It was at the +desire of Julia, the mother of Severus, that Philostratus composed the +life of Apollonius, to which he is now principally indebted for his +fame. [140] + +The publicity of Apollonius and his miracles has become considerably +greater, from the circumstance of the early enemies of the Christian +religion having instituted a comparison between the miracles of Christ +and of this celebrated philosopher, for the obvious purpose of +undermining one of the most considerable evidences of the truth of +divine revelation. It was probably with an indirect view of this sort +that Philostratus was incited by the empress Julia to compose his life +of this philosopher; and Hierocles, a writer of the time of Dioclesian, +appears to have penned an express treatise in the way of a parallel +between the two, attempting to shew a decisive superiority in the +miracles of Apollonius. + + +APULEIUS. + +Apuleius of Madaura in Africa, who lived in the time of the Antonines, +appears to have been more remarkable as an author, than for any thing +that occurs in the history of his life. St. Augustine and Lactantius +however have coupled him with Apollonius of Tyana, as one of those who +for their pretended miracles were brought into competition with the +author of the Christian religion. But this seems to have arisen from +their misapprehension respecting his principal work, the Golden Ass, +which is a romance detailing certain wonderful transformations, and +which they appear to have thought was intended as an actual history of +the life of the author. + +The work however deserves to be cited in this place, as giving a +curious representation of the ideas which were then prevalent on the +subjects of magic and witchcraft. The author in the course of his +narrative says: "When the day began to dawn, I chanced to awake, and +became desirous to know and see some marvellous and strange things, +remembering that I was now in the midst of Thessaly, where, by the +common report of the world, sorceries and enchantments are most +frequent. I viewed the situation of the place in which I was; nor was +there any thing I saw, that I believed to be the same thing which it +appeared. Insomuch that the very stones in the street I thought were +men bewitched and turned into that figure, and the birds I heard +chirping, the trees without the walls, and the running waters, were +changed from human creatures into the appearances they wore. I +persuaded myself that the statues and buildings could move, that the +oxen and other brute beasts could speak and tell strange tidings, and +that I should see and hear oracles from heaven, conveyed on the beams +of the sun." + + +ALEXANDER THE PAPHLAGONIAN. + +At the same time with Apuleius lived Alexander the Paphlagonian, of +whom so extraordinary an account is transmitted to us by Lucian. He +was the native of an obscure town, called Abonotica, but was endowed +with all that ingenuity and cunning which enables men most effectually +to impose upon their fellow-creatures. He was tall of stature, of an +impressive aspect, a fair complexion, eyes that sparkled with an +awe-commanding fire as if informed by some divinity, and a voice to +the last degree powerful and melodious. To these he added the graces +of carriage and attire. Being born to none of the goods of fortune, he +considered with himself how to turn these advantages to the greatest +account; and the plan he fixed upon was that of instituting an oracle +entirely under his own direction. He began at Chalcedon on the +Thracian Bosphorus; but, continuing but a short time there, he used it +principally as an opportunity for publishing that Aesculapius, with +Apollo, his father, would in no long time fix his residence at +Abonotica. This rumour reached the fellow-citizens of the prophet, who +immediately began to lay the foundations of a temple for the reception +of the God. In due time Alexander made his appearance; and he so well +managed his scheme, that, by means of spies and emissaries whom he +scattered in all directions, he not only collected applications to his +prophetic skill from the different towns of Ionia, Cilicia and Galatia, +but presently extended his fame to Italy and Rome. For twenty years +scarcely any oracle of the known world could vie with that of +Abonotica; and the emperor Aurelius himself is said to have relied for +the success of a military expedition upon the predictions of Alexander +the Paphlagonian. + +Lucian gives, or pretends to give, an account of the manner in which +Alexander gained so extraordinary a success. He says, that this young +man in his preliminary travels, coming to Pella in Macedon, found that +the environs of this city were distinguished from perhaps all other +parts of the world, by a breed of serpents of extraordinary size and +beauty. Our author adds that these serpents were so tame, that they +inhabited the houses of the province, and slept in bed with the +children. If you trod upon them, they did not turn again, or shew +tokens of anger, and they sucked the breasts of the women to whom it +might be of service to draw off their milk. Lucian says, it was +probably one of these serpents, that was found in the bed of Olympias, +and gave occasion to the tale that Alexander the Great was begotten by +Jupiter under the form of a serpent. The prophet bought the largest +and finest serpent he could find, and conveyed it secretly with him +into Asia. When he came to Abonotica, he found the temple that was +built surrounded with a moat; and he took an opportunity privately of +sinking a goose-egg, which he had first emptied of its contents, +inserting instead a young serpent just hatched, and closing it again +with great care. He then told his fellow-citizens that the God was +arrived, and hastening to the moat, scooped up the egg in an egg-cup +in presence of the whole assembly. He next broke the shell, and shewed +the young serpent that twisted about his fingers in presence of the +admiring multitude. After this he suffered several days to elapse, and +then, collecting crowds from every part of Paphlagonia, he exhibited +himself, as he had previously announced he should do, with the fine +serpent he had brought from Macedon twisted in coils about the +prophet's neck, and its head hid under his arm-pit, while a head +artfully formed with linen, and bearing some resemblance to a human +face, protruded itself, and passed for the head of the reptile. The +spectators were beyond measure astonished to see a little embryo +serpent, grown in a few days to so magnificent a size, and exhibiting +the features of a human countenance. + +Having thus far succeeded, Alexander did not stop here. He contrived +a pipe which passed seemingly into the mouth of the animal, while the +other end terminated in an adjoining room, where a man was placed +unseen, and delivered the replies which appeared to come from the +mouth of the serpent. This immediate communication with the God was +reserved for a few favoured suitors, who bought at a high price the +envied distinction. + +The method with ordinary enquirers was for them to communicate their +requests in writing, which they were enjoined to roll up and carefully +seal; and these scrolls were returned to them in a few days, with the +seals apparently unbroken, but with an answer written within, +strikingly appropriate to the demand that was preferred.--It is further +to be observed, that the mouth of the serpent was occasionally opened +by means of a horsehair skilfully adjusted for the purpose, at the +same time that by similar means the animal darted out its biforked +tongue to the terror of the amazed bystanders. + + + + +REVOLUTION PRODUCED IN THE HISTORY OF NECROMANCY AND WITCHCRAFT UPON +THE ESTABLISHMENT OF CHRISTIANITY. + + +It is necessary here to take notice of the great revolution that took +place under Constantine, nearly three hundred years after the death of +Christ, when Christianity became the established religion of the Roman +empire. This was a period which produced a new era in the history of +necromancy and witchcraft. Under the reign of polytheism, devotion was +wholly unrestrained in every direction it might chance to assume. Gods +known and unknown, the spirits of departed heroes, the Gods of heaven +and hell, abstractions of virtue or vice, might unblamed be made the +objects of religious worship. Witchcraft therefore, and the invocation +of the spirits of the dead, might be practised with toleration; or at +all events were not regarded otherwise than as venial deviations from +the religion of the state. + +It is true, there must always have been a horror of secret arts, +especially of such as were of a maleficent nature. At all times men +dreaded the mysterious power of spells and incantations, of potent +herbs and nameless rites, which were able to control the eternal order +of the planets, and the voluntary operations of mind, which could +extinguish or recal life, inflame the passions of the soul, blast the +works of creation, and extort from invisible beings and the dead the +secrets of futurity. But under the creed of the unity of the divine +nature the case was exceedingly different. Idolatry, and the worship +of other Gods than one, were held to be crimes worthy of the utmost +abhorrence and the severest punishment. There was no medium between +the worship of heaven and hell. All adoration was to be directed to +God the Creator through the mediation of his only begotten Son; or, if +prayers were addressed to inferior beings, and the glorified spirits +of his saints, at least they terminated in the Most High, were a +deprecation of his wrath, a soliciting his favour, and a homage to his +omnipotence. On the other hand sorcery and witchcraft were sins of the +blackest dye. In opposition to the one only God, the creator of heaven +and earth, was the "prince of darkness," the "prince of the power of +the air," who contended perpetually against the Almighty, and sought +to seduce his creatures and his subjects from their due allegiance. +Sorcerers and witches were supposed to do homage and sell themselves +to the devil, than which it was not in the mind of man to conceive a +greater enormity, or a crime more worthy to cause its perpetrators to +be exterminated from the face of the earth. The thought of it was of +power to cause the flesh of man to creep and tingle with horror: and +such as were prone to indulge their imaginations to the utmost extent +of the terrible, found a perverse delight in conceiving this +depravity, and were but too much disposed to fasten it upon their +fellow-creatures. + + +MAGICAL CONSULTATIONS RESPECTING THE LIFE OF THE EMPEROR. + +It was not within the range of possibility, that such a change should +take place in the established religion of the empire as that from +Paganism to Christianity, without convulsions and vehement struggle. +The prejudices of mankind on a subject so nearly concerned with their +dearest interests and affections must inevitably be powerful and +obstinate; and the lucre of the priesthood, together with the strong +hold they must necessarily have had on the weakness and superstition +of their flocks, would tend to give force and perpetuity to the +contention. Julian, a man of great ability and unquestionable +patriotism, succeeded to the empire only twenty-four years after the +death of Constantine; and he employed the most vigorous measures for +the restoration of the ancient religion. But the reign of Julian was +scarcely more than eighteen months in duration: and that of Jovian, +his successor, who again unfurled the standard of Christianity, lasted +hardly more than half a year. The state of things bore a striking +similarity to that of England at the time of the Protestant +Reformation, where the opposite faiths of Edward the Sixth and his +sister Mary, and the shortness of their reigns, gave preternatural +keenness to the feelings of the parties, and instigated them to hang +with the most restless anticipation upon the chances of the demise of +the sovereign, and the consequences, favourable or unfavourable, that +might arise from a new accession. + +The joint reign of Valentinian and Valens, Christian emperors, had now +lasted several years, when information was conveyed to these princes, +and particularly to the latter, who had the rule of Asia, that +numerous private consultations were held, as to the duration of their +authority, and the person of the individual who should come after them. +The succession of the Roman empire was elective; and consequently +there was almost an unlimited scope for conjecture in this question. +Among the various modes of enquiry that were employed we are told, +that the twenty-four letters of the alphabet were artificially +disposed in a circle, and that a magic ring, being suspended over the +centre, was conceived to point to the initial letters of the name of +him who should be the future emperor. Theodorus, a man of most eminent +qualifications, and high popularity, was put to death by the jealousy +of Valens, on the vague evidence that this kind of trial had indicated +the early letters of his name. [141] It may easily be imagined, that, +where so restless and secret an investigation was employed as to the +successor that fate might provide, conspiracy would not always be +absent. Charges of this sort were perpetually multiplied; informers +were eager to obtain favour or rewards by the disclosures they +pretended to communicate; and the Christians, who swayed the sceptre +of the state, did not fail to aggravate the guilt of those who had +recourse to these means for satisfying their curiosity, by alleging +that demons were called up from hell to aid in the magic solution. The +historians of these times no doubt greatly exaggerate the terror and +the danger, when they say, that the persons apprehended on such +charges in the great cities outnumbered the peaceable citizens who +were left unsuspected, and that the military who had charge of the +prisoners, complained that they were wholly without the power to +restrain the flight of the captives, or to control the multitude of +partisans who insisted on their immediate release. [142] The +punishments were barbarous and indiscriminate; to be accused was +almost the same thing as to be convicted; and those were obliged to +hold themselves fortunate, who escaped with a fine that in a manner +swallowed up their estates. + + + + +HISTORY OF NECROMANCY IN THE EAST. + + +From the countries best known in what is usually styled ancient +history, in other words from Greece and Rome, and the regions into +which the spirit of conquest led the people of Rome and Greece, it is +time we should turn to the East, and those remoter divisions of the +world, which to them were comparatively unknown. + +With what has been called the religion of the Magi, of Egypt, Persia +and Chaldea, they were indeed superficially acquainted; but for a more +familiar and accurate knowledge of the East we are chiefly indebted to +certain events of modern history; to the conquests of the Saracens, +when they possessed themselves of the North of Africa, made themselves +masters of Spain, and threatened in their victorious career to subject +France to their standard; to the crusades; to the spirit of nautical +discovery which broke out in the close of the fifteenth century; and +more recently to the extensive conquests and mighty augmentation of +territory which have been realised by the English East India Company. + +The religion of Persia was that of Zoroaster and the Magi. When +Ardshir, or Artaxerxes, the founder of the race of the Sassanides, +restored the throne of Persia in the year of Christ 226, he called +together an assembly of the Magi from all parts of his dominions, and +they are said to have met to the number of eighty thousand. [143] +These priests, from a remote antiquity, had to a great degree +preserved their popularity, and had remarkably adhered to their +ancient institutions. + +They seem at all times to have laid claim to the power of suspending +the course of nature, and producing miraculous phenomena. But in so +numerous a body there must have been some whose pretensions were of a +more moderate nature, and others who displayed a loftier aspiration. +The more ambitious we find designated in their native language by the +name of _Jogees_, [144] of the same signification as the Latin +_juncti_. + +Their notions of the Supreme Being are said to have been of the +highest and abstrusest character, as comprehending every possible +perfection of power, wisdom and goodness, as purely spiritual in his +essence, and incapable of the smallest variation and change, the same +yesterday, to-day, and for ever. Such as they apprehended him to be, +such the most perfect of their priests aspired to make themselves. +They were to put off all human weakness and frailty; and, in +proportion as they _assimilated_, or rather _became one_ +with the Deity, they supposed themselves to partake of his attributes, +to become infinitely wise and powerful and good. Hence their claim to +suspend the course of nature, and to produce miraculous phenomena. For +this purpose it was necessary that they should abstract themselves +from every thing mortal, have no human passions or partialities, and +divest themselves as much as possible of all the wants and demands of +our material frame. Zoroaster appears indeed to have preferred +morality to devotion, to have condemned celibacy and fasting, and to +have pronounced, that "he who sows the ground with diligence and care, +acquires a greater stock of religious merit than he who should repeat +ten thousand prayers." But his followers at least did not abide by +this decision. They found it more practicable to secure to themselves +an elevated reputation by severe observances, rigid self-denial, and +the practice of the most inconceivable mortifications. This excited +wonder and reverence and a sort of worship from the bystander, which +industry and benevolence do not so assuredly secure. They therefore in +frequent instances lacerated their flesh, and submitted to incredible +hardships. They scourged themselves without mercy, wounded their +bodies with lancets and nails, [145] and condemned themselves to +remain for days and years unmoved in the most painful attitudes. It +was no unprecedented thing for them to take their station upon the top +of a high pillar; and some are said to have continued in this position, +without ever coming down from it, for thirty years. The more they +trampled under foot the universal instincts of our nature, and shewed +themselves superior to its infirmities, the nearer they approached to +the divine essence, and to the becoming one with the Omnipresent. They +were of consequence the more sinless and perfect; their will became +the will of the Deity, and they were in a sense invested with, and +became the mediums of the acts of, his power. The result of all this +is, that they who exercised the art of magic in its genuine and +unadulterated form, at all times applied it to purposes of goodness +and benevolence, and that their interference was uniformly the signal +of some unequivocal benefit, either to mankind in general, or to those +individuals of mankind who were best entitled to their aid. It was +theirs to succour virtue in distress, and to interpose the divine +assistance in cases that most loudly and unquestionably called for it. + +Such, we are told, was the character of the pure and primitive magic, +as it was handed down from the founder of their religion. It was +called into action by the Jogees, men who, by an extraordinary merit +of whatever sort, had in a certain sense rendered themselves one with +the Deity. But the exercise of magical power was too tempting an +endowment, not in some cases to be liable to abuse. Even as we read of +the angels in heaven, that not all of them stood, and persevered in +their original sinlessness and integrity, so of the Jogees some, +partaking of the divine power, were also under the direction of a will +celestial and divine, while others, having derived, we must suppose, a +mighty and miraculous power from the gift of God, afterwards abused it +by applying it to capricious, or, as it should seem, to malignant +purposes. This appears to have been every where essential to the +history of magic. If those who were supposed to possess it in its +widest extent and most astonishing degree, had uniformly employed it +only in behalf of justice and virtue, they would indeed have been +regarded as benefactors, and been entitled to the reverence and love +of mankind. But the human mind is always prone to delight in the +terrible. No sooner did men entertain the idea of what was supernatural +and uncontrolable, than they began to fear it and to deprecate its +hostility. They apprehended they knew not what, of the dead returning +to life, of invisible beings armed with the power and intention of +executing mischief, and of human creatures endowed with the prerogative +of bringing down pestilence and slaughter, of dispensing wealth and +poverty, prosperity and calamity at their pleasure, of causing health +and life to waste away by insensible, but sure degrees, of producing +lingering torments, and death in its most fearful form. Accordingly it +appears that, as there were certain magicians who were as Gods +dispensing benefits to those who best deserved it, so there were +others, whose only principle of action was caprice, and against whose +malice no innocence and no degree of virtue would prove a defence. As +the former sort of magicians were styled _Jogees_, and were held +to be the deputies and instruments of infinite goodness, so the other +sort were named _Ku-Jogees_, that is, persons who possessing the +same species of ascendancy over the powers of nature, employed it only +in deeds of malice and wickedness. + +In the mean time these magicians appear to have produced the wonderful +effects which drew to them the reverence of the vulgar, very frequently +by the intervention of certain beings of a nature superior to the +human, who should seem, though ordinarily invisible, to have had the +faculty of rendering themselves visible when they thought proper, and +assuming what shape they pleased. These are principally known by the +names of Peris, Dives, [146] and Gins, or Genii. Richardson, in the +preface to his Persian Dictionary, from which our account will +principally be taken, refers us to what he calls a romance, but from +which he, appears to derive the outline of his Persian mythology. In +this romance Kahraman, a mortal, is introduced in conversation with +Simurgh, a creature partaking of the nature of a bird and a griffon, +who reveals to him the secrets of the past history of the earth. She +tells him that she has lived to see the world seven times peopled with +inhabitants of so many different natures, and seven times depopulated, +the former inhabitants having been so often removed, and giving place +to their successors. The beings who occupied the earth previously to +man, were distinguished into the Peris and the Dives; and, when they +no longer possessed the earth in chief, they were, as it should seem, +still permitted, in an airy and unsubstantial form, and for the most +part invisibly, to interfere in the affairs of the human race. These +beings ruled the earth during seventy-two generations. The last +monarch, named Jan bin Jan, conducted himself so ill, that God sent +the angel Haris to chastise him. Haris however became intoxicated with +power, and employed his prerogative in the most reprehensible manner. +God therefore at length created Adam, the first of men, crowning him +with glory and honour, and giving him dominion over all other earthly +beings. He commanded the angels to obey him; but Haris refused, and +the Dives followed his example. The rebels were for the most part sent +to hell for their contumacy; but a part of the Dives, whose +disobedience had been less flagrant, were reserved, and allowed for a +certain term to walk the earth, and by their temptations to put the +virtue and constancy of man to trial. Henceforth the human race was +secretly surrounded by invisible beings of two species, the Peris, who +were friendly to man, and the Dives, who exercised their ingenuity in +involving them in error and guilt. The Peris were beautiful and +benevolent, but imperfect and offending beings; they are supposed to +have borne a considerable resemblance to the Fairies of the western +world. The Dives were hideous in form, and of a malignant disposition. +The Peris subsist wholly on perfumes, which the Dives, being of a +grosser nature, hold in abhorrence. This mythology is said to have +been unknown in Arabia till long after Mahomet: the only invisible +beings we read of in their early traditions are the Gins, which term, +though now used for the most part as synonimous with Dives, originally +signified nothing more than certain infernal fiends of stupendous +power, whose agency was hostile to man. + +There was perpetual war between the Peris and the Dives, whose proper +habitation was Kaf, or Caucasus, a line of mountains which was +supposed to reach round the globe. In these wars the Peris generally +came off with the worst; and in that case they are represented in the +traditional tales of the East, as applying to some gallant and heroic +mortal to reinforce their exertions. The warriors who figure in these +narratives appear all to have been ancient Persian kings. Tahmuras, +one of the most celebrated of them, is spoken of as mounting upon +Simurgh, surrounded with talismans and enchanted armour, and furnished +with a sword the dint of which nothing could resist. He proceeds to +Kaf, or Ginnistan, and defeats Arzshank, the chief of the Dives, but +is defeated in turn by a more formidable competitor. The war appears +to be carried on for successive ages with alternate advantage and +disadvantage, till after the lapse of centuries Rustan kills Arzshank, +and finally reduces the Dives to a subject and tributary condition. +In all this there is a great resemblance to the fables of Scandinavia; +and the Northern and the Eastern world seem emulously to have +contributed their quota of chivalry and romance, of heroic achievements +and miraculous events, of monsters and dragons, of amulets and +enchantment, and all those incidents which most rouse the imagination, +and are calculated to instil into generous and enterprising youth a +courage the most undaunted and invincible. + + +GENERAL SILENCE OF THE EAST RESPECTING INDIVIDUAL NECROMANCERS. + +Asia has been more notorious than perhaps any other division of the +globe for the vast multiplicity and variety of its narratives of +sorcery and magic. I have however been much disappointed in the thing +I looked for in the first place, and that is, in the individual +adventures of such persons as might be supposed to have gained a high +degree of credit and reputation for their skill in exploits of magic. +Where the professors are many (and they have been perhaps no where so +numerous as those of magic in the East), it is unavoidable but that +some should have been more dextrous than others, more eminently gifted +by nature, more enthusiastic and persevering in the prosecution of +their purpose, and more fortunate in awakening popularity and +admiration among their contemporaries. In the instances of Apollonius +Tyanaeus and others among the ancients, and of Cornelius Agrippa, Roger +Bacon and Faust among the moderns, we are acquainted with many +biographical particulars of their lives, and can trace with some +degree of accuracy, their peculiarities of disposition, and observe +how they were led gradually from one study and one mode of action to +another. But the magicians of the East, so to speak, are mere +abstractions, not characterised by any of those habits which +distinguish one individual of the human race from another, and having +those marking traits and petty lineaments which make the person, as it +were, start up into life while he passes before our eyes. They are +merely reported to us as men prone to the producing great signs and +wonders, and nothing more. + +Two of the most remarkable exceptions that I have found to this rule, +occur in the examples of Rocail, and of Hakem, otherwise called +Mocanna. + + +ROCAIL. + +The first of these however is scarcely to be called an exception, as +lying beyond the limits of all credible history, Rocail is said to +have been the younger brother of Seth, the son of Adam. A Dive, or +giant of mount Caucasus, being hard pressed by his enemies, sought as +usual among the sons of men for aid that might extricate him out of +his difficulties. He at length made an alliance with Rocail, by whose +assistance he arrived at the tranquillity he desired, and who in +consequence became his grand vizier, or prime minister. He governed +the dominions of his principal for many years with great honour and +success; but, ultimately perceiving the approaches of old age and +death, he conceived a desire to leave behind him a monument worthy of +his achievements in policy and war. He according erected, we are not +told by what means, a magnificent palace, and a sepulchre equally +worthy of admiration. But what was most entitled to notice, he peopled +this palace with statues of so extraordinary a quality, that they +moved and performed all the functions and offices of living men, so +that every one who beheld them would have believed that they were +actually informed with souls, whereas in reality all they did was by +the power of magic, in consequence of which, though they were in fact +no more than inanimate matter, they were enabled to obey the behests, +and perform the will, of the persons by whom they were visited. [147] + + +HAKEM, OTHERWISE MOCANNA. + +Hakem was a leader in one of the different divisions of the followers +of Mahomet. To inspire the greater awe into the minds of his +supporters, he pretended that he was the Most High God, the creator of +heaven and earth, under one of the different forms by which he has in +successive ages become incarnate, and made himself manifest to his +creatures. He distinguished himself by the peculiarity of always +wearing a thick and impervious veil, by which, according to his +followers, he covered the dazzling splendour of his countenance, which +was so great that no mortal could behold it and live, but that, +according to his enemies, only served to conceal the hideousness of +his features, too monstrously deformed to be contemplated without +horror. One of his miracles, which seems the most to have been +insisted on, was that he nightly, for a considerable space of time, +caused an orb, something like the moon, to rise from a sacred well, +which gave a light scarcely less splendid than the day, that diffused +its beams for many miles around. His followers were enthusiastically +devoted to his service, and he supported his authority unquestioned +for a number of years. At length a more formidable opponent appeared, +and after several battles he became obliged to shut himself up in a +strong fortress. Here however he was so straitly besieged as to be +driven to the last despair, and, having administered poison to his +whole garrison, he prepared a bath of the most powerful ingredients, +which, when he threw himself into it, dissolved his frame, even to the +very bones, so that nothing remained of him but a lock of his hair. He +acted thus, with the hope that it would be believed that he was +miraculously taken up into heaven; nor did this fail to be the effect +on the great body of his adherents. [148] + + +ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS. + +The most copious record of stories of Asiatic enchantment that we +possess, is contained in the Arabian Nights' Entertainments; to which +we may add the Persian Tales, and a few other repositories of Oriental +adventures. It is true that these are delivered to us in a garb of +fiction; but they are known to present so exact a picture of Eastern +manners and customs, and so just a delineation of the follies, the +weaknesses and credulity of the races of men that figure in them, that, +in the absence of materials of a strictly historical sort of which we +have to complain, they may not inadequately supply the place, and may +furnish us with a pretty full representation of the ideas of sorcery +and magic which for centuries were entertained in this part of the +world. They have indeed one obvious defect, which it is proper the +reader should keep constantly in mind. The mythology and groundwork of +the whole is Persian: but the narrator is for the most part a +Mahometan. Of consequence the ancient Fire-worshippers, though they +contribute the entire materials, and are therefore solely entitled to +our gratitude and deference for the abundant supply they have furnished +to our curiosity, are uniformly treated in these books with disdain +and contumely as unworthy of toleration, while the comparative upstart +race of the believers in the Koran are held out to us as the only +enlightened and upright among the sons of men. + +Many of the matters most currently related among these supernatural +phenomena, are tales of transformation. A lady has two sisters of the +most profligate and unprincipled character. They have originally the +same share of the paternal inheritance as herself. But they waste it +in profusion and folly, while she improves her portion by good +judgment and frugality. Driven to the extremity of distress, they +humble themselves, and apply to her for assistance. She generously +imparts to them the same amount of wealth that they originally +possessed, and they are once more reduced to poverty. This happens +again and again. At length, finding them incapable of discretion, she +prevails on them to come and live with her. By wearisome and ceaseless +importunity they induce her to embark in a mercantile enterprise. Here +she meets with a prince, who had the misfortune to be born in a region +of fire-worshippers, but was providentially educated by a Mahometan +nurse. Hence, when his countrymen were by divine vengeance all turned +into stones, he alone was saved alive. The lady finds him in this +situation, endowed with sense and motion amidst a petrified city, and +they immediately fall in love with each other. She brings him away +from this melancholy scene, and together they go on board the vessel +which had been freighted by herself and her sisters. But the sisters +become envious of her good fortune, and conspire, while she and the +prince are asleep, to throw them overboard. The prince is drowned; but +the lady with great difficulty escapes. She finds herself in a desert +island, not far from the place where she had originally embarked on +her adventure; and, having slept off the fatigues she had encountered, +beholds on her awaking a black woman with an agreeable countenance, a +fairy, who leads in her hand two black bitches coupled together with a +cord. These black bitches are the lady's sisters, thus metamorphosed, +as a punishment for their ingratitude and cruelty. The fairy conveys +her through the air to her own house in Bagdad, which she finds well +stored with all sorts of commodities, and delivers to her the two +animals, with an injunction that she is to whip them every day at a +certain hour as a further retribution for their crimes. This was +accordingly punctually performed; and, at the end of each day's +penance, the lady, having before paid no regard to the animals' +gestures and pitiable cries, wept over them, took them in her arms, +kissed them, and carefully wiped the moisture from their eyes. Having +persevered for a length of time in this discipline, the offenders are +finally, by a counter-incantation, restored to their original forms, +being by the severities they had suffered entirely cured of the vices +which had occasioned their calamitous condition. + +Another story is of a calender, a sort of Mahometan monk, with one eye, +who had originally been a prince. He had contracted a taste for +navigation and naval discoveries; and, in one of his voyages, having +been driven by stress of weather into unknown seas, he suddenly finds +himself attracted towards a vast mountain of loadstone, which first, +by virtue of the iron and nails in the ship, draws the vessel towards +itself, and then, by its own intrinsic force, extracts the nails, so +that the ship tumbles to pieces, and every one on board is drowned. +The mountain, on the side towards the sea, is all covered with nails, +which had been drawn from vessels that previously suffered the same +calamity; and these nails at once preserve and augment the fatal power +of the mountain. The prince only escapes; and he finds himself in a +desolate island, with a dome of brass, supported by brazen pillars, +and on the top of it a horse of brass, and a rider of the same metal. +This rider the prince is fated to throw down, by means of an enchanted +arrow, and thus to dissolve the charm which had been fatal to +thousands. From the desolate island he embarked on board a boat, with +a single rower, a man of metal, and would have been safely conveyed to +his native country, had he not inadvertently pronounced the name of +God, that he had been warned not to do, and which injunction he had +observed many days. On this the boat immediately sunk; but the prince +was preserved, who comes into a desolate island, where he finds but +one inhabitant, a youth of fifteen. This youth is hid in a cavern, it +having been predicted of him that he should be killed after fifty days, +by the man that threw down the horse of brass and his rider. A great +friendship is struck up between the unsuspecting youth and the prince, +who nevertheless fulfils the prediction, having by a pure accident +killed the youth on the fiftieth day. He next arrives at a province of +the main land, where he visits a castle, inhabited by ten very +agreeable young men, each blind of the right eye. He dwells with them +for a month, and finds, after a day of pleasant entertainment, that +each evening they do penance in squalidness and ashes. His curiosity +is greatly excited to obtain an explanation of what he saw, but this +they refuse, telling him at the same time, that he may, if he pleases, +pass through the same adventure as they have done, and, if he does, +wishing it may be attended with a more favourable issue. He determines +to make the experiment; and by their direction, after certain +preparations, is flown away with through the air by a roc, a stupendous +bird, that is capable in the same manner of carrying off an elephant. +By this means he is brought to a castle of the most extraordinary +magnificence, inhabited by forty ladies of exquisite beauty. With +these ladies he lives for eleven months in a perpetual succession of +delights. But in the twelfth month they tell him, that they are +obliged to leave him till the commencement of the new year. In the +mean time they give him for his amusement the keys of one hundred +apartments, all but one of which he is permitted to open. He is +delighted with the wonders of these apartments till the last day. On +that day he opens the forbidden room, where the rarity that most +strikes him is a black horse of admirable shape and appearance, with +a saddle and bridle of gold. He leads this horse into the open air, +and is tempted to mount him. The horse first stands still; but at +length, being touched with a switch, spreads a pair of wings which the +prince had not before perceived, and mounts to an amazing height in +the air. The horse finally descends on the terrace of a castle, where +he throws his rider, and leaves him, having first dashed out his right +eye with a sudden swing of his tail. The prince goes down into the +castle, and to his surprise finds himself in company with the ten +young men, blind of one eye, who had passed through the same adventure +as he had done, and all been betrayed by means of the same infirmity. + + +PERSIAN TALES. + +These two stories are from the Arabian Nights: the two following are +from the Persian Tales.--Fadlallah, king of Mousel, contracted an +intimacy with a young dervise, a species of Turkish friar, who makes a +vow of perpetual poverty. The dervise, to ingratiate himself the more +with the prince, informed him of a secret he possessed, by means of a +certain incantation, of projecting his soul into the body of any dead +animal he thought proper. + +To convince the king that this power was no empty boast, he offered to +quit his own body, and animate that of a doe, which Fadlallah had just +killed in hunting. He accordingly executed what he proposed, took +possession of the body of the doe, displayed the most surprising +agility, approached the king, fawning on him with every expression of +endearment, and then, after various bounds, deserting the limbs of the +animal, and repossessing his own frame, which during the experiment +had lain breathless on the ground. Fadlallah became earnest to possess +the secret of the dervise; and, after some demurs, it was communicated +to him. The king took possession of the body of the doe; but his +treacherous confident no sooner saw the limbs of Fadlallah stretched +senseless on the ground, than he conveyed his own spirit into them, +and, bending his bow, sought to destroy the life of his defenceless +victim. The king by his agility escaped; and the dervise, resorting to +the palace, took possession of the throne, and of the bed of the queen, +Zemroude, with whom Fadlallah was desperately enamoured. The first +precaution of the usurper was to issue a decree that all the deer +within his dominions should be killed, hoping by this means to destroy +the rightful sovereign. But the king, aware of his danger, had deserted +the body of the doe, and entered that of a dead nightingale that lay +in his path. In this disguise he hastened to the palace, and placed +himself in a wide-spreading tree, which grew immediately before the +apartment of Zemroude. Here he poured out his complaints and the grief +that penetrated his soul in such melodious notes, as did not fail to +attract the attention of the queen. She sent out her bird-catchers to +make captive the little warbler; and Fadlallah, who desired no better, +easily suffered himself to be made their prisoner. In this new +position he demonstrated by every gesture of fondness his partiality +to the queen; but if any of her women approached him, he pecked at +them in anger, and, when the impostor made his appearance, could not +contain the vehemence of his rage. It happened one night that the +queen's lap-dog died; and the thought struck Fadlallah that he would +animate the corpse of this animal. The next morning Zemroude found her +favourite bird dead in his cage, and immediately became inconsolable. +Never, she said, was so amiable a bird; he distinguished her from all +others; he seemed even to entertain a passion for her; and she felt as +if she could not survive his loss. The dervise in vain tried every +expedient to console her. At length he said, that, if she pleased, he +would cause her nightingale to revive every morning, and entertain her +with his tunes as long as she thought proper. The dervise accordingly +laid himself on a sopha, and by means of certain cabalistic words, +transported his soul into the body of the nightingale, and began to +sing. Fadlallah watched his time; he lay in a corner of the room +unobserved; but no sooner had the dervise deserted his body, than the +king proceeded to take possession of it. The first thing he did was to +hasten to the cage, to open the door with uncontrolable impatience, +and, seizing the bird, to twist off its head. Zemroude, amazed, asked +him what he meant by so inhuman an action. Fadlallah in reply related +to her all the circumstances that had befallen him; and the queen +became so struck with agony and remorse that she had suffered her +person, however innocently, to be polluted by so vile an impostor, +that she could not get over the recollection, but pined away and died +from a sense of the degradation she had endured. + +But a much more perplexing and astounding instance of transformation +occurs in the history of the Young King of Thibet and the Princess of +the Naimans. The sorcerers in this case are represented as, without +any intermediate circumstance to facilitate their witchcraft, having +the ability to assume the form of any one they please, and in +consequence to take the shape of one actually present, producing a +duplication the most confounding that can be imagined.--Mocbel, the +son of an artificer of Damascus, but whose father had bequeathed him +considerable wealth, contrived to waste his patrimony and his youth +together in profligate living with Dilnouaze, a woman of dissolute +manners. Finding themselves at once poor and despised, they had +recourse to the sage Bedra, the most accomplished magician of the +desert, and found means to obtain her favour. In consequence she +presented them with two rings, which had the power of enabling them to +assume the likeness of any man or woman they please. Thus equipped, +Mocbel heard of the death of Mouaffack, prince of the Naimans, who was +supposed to have been slain in a battle, and whose body had never been +found. The niece of Mouaffack now filled the throne; and under these +circumstances Mocbel conceived the design of personating the absent +Mouaffack, exciting a rebellion among his countrymen, and taking +possession of the throne. In this project he succeeded; and the +princess driven into exile, took refuge in the capital of Thibet. Here +the king saw her, fell in love with her, and espoused her. Being made +acquainted with her history, he resolved to re-conquer her dominions, +and sent a defiance to the usurper. Mocbel, terrified at the thought +of so formidable an invader, first pretended to die, and then, with +Dilnouaze, who during his brief reign had under the form of a beautiful +woman personated his queen, proceeded in his original form to the +capital of Thibet. Here his purpose was to interrupt the happiness of +those who had disturbed him in his deceitful career. Accordingly one +night, when the queen, previously to proceeding to her repose, had +shut herself up in her closet to read certain passages of the Alcoran, +Dilnouaze, assuming her form with the minutest exactness, hastened to +place herself in the royal bed by the side of the king. After a time, +the queen shut her book, and went along the gallery to the king's +bedchamber, Mocbel watched his time, and placed himself, under the +form of a frightful apparition, directly in the queen's path. She +started at the sight, and uttered a piercing shriek. The king +recognised her voice, and hastened to see what had happened to her. +She explained; but the king spoke of something much more extraordinary, +and asked her how it could possibly happen that she should be in the +gallery, at the same moment that he had left her, undressed and in bed. +They proceeded to the chamber to unravel the mystery. Here a contention +occurred between the real and the seeming queen, each charging the +other with imposture. The king turned from one to the other, and was +unable to decide between their pretensions. The courtiers and the +ladies of the bedchamber were called, and all were perplexed with +uncertainty and doubt. At length they determine in favour of the false +queen, It was then proposed that the other should be burned for a +sorceress. The king however forbade this. He was not yet altogether +decided; and could not resolve to consign his true queen, as it might +possibly be, to a cruel death. He was therefore content to strip her +of her royal robes, to clothe her in rags, and thrust her ignominiously +from his palace. + +Treachery however was not destined to be ultimately triumphant. The +king one day rode out a hunting; and Mocbel, that he might the better +deceive the guards of the palace, seizing the opportunity, assumed his +figure, and went to bed to Dilnouaze. The king meanwhile recollected +something of importance, that he had forgotten before he went out to +hunt, and returning upon his steps, proceeded to the royal chamber. +Here to his utter confusion he found a man in bed with his queen, and +that man to his greater astonishment the exact counterpart of himself. +Furious at the sight, he immediately drew his scymetar. The man +contrived to escape down the backstairs. The woman however remained in +bed; and, stretching out her hands to intreat for mercy, the king +struck off the hand which had the ring on it, and she immediately +appeared, as she really was, a frightful hag. She begged for life; and, +that she might mollify his rage, explained the mystery, told him that +it was by means of a ring that she effected the delusion, and that by +a similar enchantment her paramour had assumed the likeness of the +king. The king meanwhile was inexorable, and struck off her head. He +next turned in pursuit of the adulterer. Mocbel however had had time +to mount on horseback. But the king mounted also; and, being the +better horseman, in a short time overtook his foe. The impostor did +not dare to cope with him, but asked his life; and the king, +considering him as the least offender of the two, pardoned him upon +condition of his surrendering the ring, in consequence of which he +passed the remainder of his life in poverty and decrepitude. + + +STORY OF A GOULE. + +A story in the Arabian Nights, which merits notice for its singularity, +and as exhibiting a particular example of the credulity of the people +of the East, is that of a man who married a sorceress, without being +in any way conscious of her character in that respect. She was +sufficiently agreeable in her person, and he found for the most part +no reason to be dissatisfied with her. But he became uneasy at the +strangeness of her behaviour, whenever they sat together at meals. The +husband provided a sufficient variety of dishes, and was anxious that +his wife should eat and be refreshed. But she took scarcely any +nourishment. He set before her a plate of rice. From this plate she +took somewhat, grain by grain; but she would taste of no other dish. +The husband remonstrated with her upon her way of eating, but to no +purpose; she still went on the same. He knew it was impossible for any +one to subsist upon so little as she ate; and his curiosity was roused. +One night, as he lay quietly awake, he perceived his wife rise very +softly, and put on her clothes. He watched, but made as if he saw +nothing. Presently she opened the door, and went out. He followed her +unperceived, by moonlight, and tracked her into a place of graves. +Here to his astonishment he saw her joined by a Goule, a sort of +wandering demon, which is known to infest ruinous buildings, and from +time to time suddenly rushes out, seizes children and other defenceless +people, strangles, and devours them. Occasionally, for want of other +food, this detested race will resort to churchyards, and, digging up +the bodies of the newly-buried, gorge their appetites upon the flesh +of these. The husband followed his wife and her supernatural companion, +and watched their proceedings. He saw them digging in a new-made grave. +They extracted the body of the deceased; and, the Goule cutting it up +joint by joint, they feasted voraciously, and, having satisfied their +appetites, cast the remainder into the grave again, and covered it up +as before. The husband now withdrew unobserved to his bed, and the +wife followed presently after. He however conceived a horrible +loathing of such a wife; and she discovers that he is acquainted with +her dreadful secret. They can no longer live together; and a +metamorphosis followed. She turned him into a dog, which by ill usage +she drove from her door; and he, aided by a benevolent sorceress, +first recovers his natural shape, and then, having changed her into a +mare, by perpetual hard usage and ill treatment vents his detestation +of the character he had discovered in her. + + +ARABIAN NIGHTS. + +A compilation of more vigorous imagination and more exhaustless +variety than the Arabian Nights, perhaps never existed. Almost every +thing that can be conceived of marvellous and terrific is there to be +found. When we should apprehend the author or authors to have come to +an end of the rich vein in which they expatiate, still new wonders are +presented to us in endless succession. Their power of comic exhibition +is not less extraordinary than their power of surprising and +terrifying. The splendour of their painting is endless; and the mind +of the reader is roused and refreshed by shapes and colours for ever +new. + + +RESEMBLANCE OF THE TALES OF THE EAST AND OF EUROPE. + +It is characteristic of this work to exhibit a faithful and particular +picture of Eastern manners, customs, and modes of thinking and acting. +And yet, now and then, it is curious to observe the coincidence of +Oriental imagination with that of antiquity and of the North of Europe, +so that it is difficult to conceive the one not to be copied from the +other. Perhaps it was so; and perhaps not. Man is every where man, +possessed of the same faculties, stimulated by the same passions, +deriving pain and pleasure from the same sources, with similar hopes +and fears, aspirations and alarms. + +In the Third Voyage of Sinbad he arrives at an island were he finds +one man, a negro, as tall as a palm-tree, and with a single eye in the +middle of his forehead. He takes up the crew, one by one, and selects +the fattest as first to be devoured. This is done a second time. At +length nine of the boldest seize on a spit, while he lay on his back +asleep, and, having heated it red-hot, thrust it into his eye.--This +is precisely the story of Ulysses and the Cyclops. + +The story of the Little Hunchback, who is choaked with a fish-bone, +and, after having brought successive individuals into trouble on the +suspicion of murdering him, is restored to life again, is nearly the +best known of the Arabian Tales. The merry jest of Dan Hew, Monk of +Leicester, who "once was hanged, and four times slain," bears a very +striking resemblance to this. [149] + +A similar resemblance is to be found, only changing the sex of the +aggressor, between the well known tale of Patient Grizzel, and that of +Cheheristany in the Persian Tales. This lady was a queen of the Gins, +who fell in love with the emperor of China, and agrees to marry him +upon condition that she shall do what she pleases, and he shall never +doubt that what she does is right. She bears him a son, beautiful as +the day, and throws him into the fire. She bears him a daughter, and +gives her to a white bitch, who runs away with her, and disappears. +The emperor goes to war with the Moguls; and the queen utterly +destroys the provisions of his army. But the fire was a salamander, +and the bitch a fairy, who rear the children in the most admirable +manner; and the provisions of the army were poisoned by a traitor, and +are in a miraculous manner replaced by such as were wholesome and of +the most invigorating qualities. + + +CAUSES OF HUMAN CREDULITY. + +Meanwhile, though the stories above related are extracted from books +purely and properly of fiction, they exhibit so just a delineation of +Eastern manners and habits of mind, that, in the defect of materials +strictly historical, they may to a certain degree supply the place. +The principal feature they set before us is credulity and a love of +the marvellous. This is ever found characteristic of certain ages of +the world; but in Asia it prevails in uninterrupted continuity. +Wherever learning and the exercise of the intellectual faculties first +shew themselves, there mystery and a knowledge not to be communicated +but to the select few must be expected to appear. Wisdom in its +natural and genuine form seeks to diffuse itself; but in the East on +the contrary it is only valued in proportion to its rarity. Those who +devoted themselves to intellectual improvement, looked for it rather +in solitary abstraction, than in free communication with the minds of +others; and, when they condescended to the use of the organ of speech, +they spoke in enigmas and ambiguities, and in phrases better adapted +to produce wonder and perplexity, than to enlighten and instruct. When +the more consummate instructed the novice, it was by slow degrees only, +and through the medium of a long probation. In consequence of this +state of things the privileged few conceived of their own attainments +with an over-weening pride, and were puffed up with a sense of +superiority; while the mass of their fellow-creatures looked to them +with astonishment; and, agreeably to the Oriental creed of two +independent and contending principles of good and of evil, regarded +these select and supernaturally endowed beings anon as a source of the +most enviable blessings, and anon as objects of unmingled apprehension +and terror, before whom their understandings became prostrate, and +every thing that was most appalling and dreadful was most easily +believed. In this state superstition unavoidably grew infectious; and +the more the seniors inculcated and believed, the more the imagination +of the juniors became a pliant and unresisting slave. + +The Mantra, or charm, consisting of a few unintelligible words +repeated again and again, always accompanied, or rather preceded, the +supposed miraculous phenomenon that was imposed on the ignorant. Water +was flung over, or in the face of, the thing or person upon whom the +miraculous effect was to be produced. Incense was burned; and such +chemical substances were set on fire, the dazzling appearance of which +might confound the senses of the spectators. The whole consisted in +the art of the juggler. The first business was to act on the passions, +to excite awe and fear and curiosity in the parties; and next by a +sort of slight of hand, and by changes too rapid to be followed by an +unpractised eye, to produce phenomena, wholly unanticipated, and that +could not be accounted for. Superstition was further an essential +ingredient; and this is never perfect, but where the superior and more +active party regards himself as something more than human, and the +party acted upon beholds in the other an object of religious reverence, +or tingles with apprehension of he knows not what of fearful and +calamitous. The state of the party acted on, and indeed of either, is +never complete, till the senses are confounded, what is imagined is so +powerful as in a manner to exclude what is real, in a word, till, as +the poet expresses it, "function is smothered in surmise, and nothing +is, but what is not." + +It is in such a state of the faculties that it is entirely natural and +simple, that one should mistake a mere dumb animal for one's relative +or near connection in disguise. And, the delusion having once begun, +the deluded individual gives to every gesture and motion of limb and +eye an explanation that forwards the deception. It is in the same way +that in ignorant ages the notion of changeling has been produced. The +weak and fascinated mother sees every feature with a turn of +expression unknown before, all the habits of the child appear +different and strange, till the parent herself denies her offspring, +and sees in the object so lately cherished and doated on, a monster +uncouth and horrible of aspect. + + + +DARK AGES OF EUROPE + + +In Europe we are slenderly supplied with historians, and with +narratives exhibiting the manners and peculiarities of successive +races of men, from the time of Theodosius in the close of the fourth +century of the Christian era to the end of the tenth. Mankind during +that period were in an uncommon degree wrapped up in ignorance and +barbarism. We may be morally sure that this was an interval beyond all +others, in which superstition and an implicit faith in supernatural +phenomena predominated over this portion of the globe. The laws of +nature, and the everlasting chain of antecedents and consequents, were +little recognised. In proportion as illumination and science have +risen on the world, men have become aware that the succession of +events is universally operating, and that the frame of men and animals +is every where the same, modified only by causes not less unchangeable +in their influence than the internal constitution of the frame itself. +We have learned to explain much; we are able to predict and investigate +the course of things; and the contemplative and the wise are not less +intimately and profoundly persuaded that the process of natural events +is sure and simple and void of all just occasion for surprise and the +lifting up of hands in astonishment, where we are not yet familiarly +acquainted with the developement of the elements of things, as where +we are. What we have not yet mastered, we feel confidently persuaded +that the investigators that come after us will reduce to rules not +less obvious, familiar and comprehensible, than is to us the rising of +the sun, or the progress of animal and vegetable life from the first +bud and seed of existence to the last stage of decrepitude and decay. + +But in these ages of ignorance, when but few, and those only the most +obvious, laws of nature were acknowledged, every event that was not of +almost daily occurrence, was contemplated with more or less of awe and +alarm. These men "saw God in clouds, and heard him in the wind." +Instead of having regard only to that universal Providence, which acts +not by partial impulses, but by general laws, they beheld, as they +conceived, the immediate hand of the Creator, or rather, upon most +occasions, of some invisible intelligence, sometimes beneficent, but +perhaps oftener malignant and capricious, interfering, to baffle the +foresight of the sage, to humble the pride of the intelligent, and to +place the discernment of the most gifted upon a level with the +drivellings of the idiot, and the ravings of the insane. + +And, as in events men saw perpetually the supernatural and miraculous, +so in their fellow-creatures they continually sought, and therefore +frequently imagined that they found, a gifted race, that had command +over the elements, held commerce with the invisible world, and could +produce the most stupendous and terrific effects. In man, as we now +behold him, we can ascertain his nature, the strength and pliability +of his limbs, the accuracy of his eye, the extent of his intellectual +acquisitions, and the subtlety of his powers of thought, and can +therefore in a great measure anticipate what we have to hope or to +fear from him. Every thing is regulated by what we call natural means. +But, in the times I speak of, all was mysterious: the powers of men +were subject to no recognised laws: and therefore nothing that +imagination could suggest, exceeded the bounds of credibility. Some +men were supposed to be so rarely endowed that "a thousand liveried +angels" waited on them invisibly, to execute their behests for the +benefit of those they favoured; while, much oftener, the perverse and +crookedly disposed, who delighted in mischief, would bring on those to +whom, for whatever capricious reason, they were hostile, calamities, +which no sagacity could predict, and no merely human power could +baffle and resist. + +After the tenth century enough of credulity remained, to display in +glaring colours the aberrations of the human mind, and to furnish +forth tales which will supply abundant matter for the remainder of +this volume. But previously to this period, we may be morally sure, +reigned most eminently the sabbath of magic and sorcery, when nothing +was too wild, and remote from the reality of things, not to meet with +an eager welcome, when terror and astonishment united themselves with +a nameless delight, and the auditor was alarmed even to a sort of +madness, at the same time that he greedily demanded an ever-fresh +supply of congenial aliment. The more the known laws of the universe +and the natural possibility of things were violated, with the stronger +marks of approbation was the tale received: while the dextrous +impostor, aware of the temper of his age, and knowing how most +completely to blindfold and lead astray his prepared dupes, made a +rich harvest of the folly of his contemporaries. But I am wrong to +call him an impostor. He imposed upon himself, no less than on the +gaping crowd. His discourses, even in the act of being pronounced, won +upon his own ear; and the dexterity with which he baffled the +observation of others, bewildered his ready sense, and filled him with +astonishment at the magnitude of his achievements. The accomplished +adventurer was always ready to regard himself rather as a sublime +being endowed with great and stupendous attributes, than as a pitiful +trickster. He became the God of his own idolatry, and stood astonished, +as the witch of Endor in the English Bible is represented to have done, +at the success of his incantations. + +But all these things are passed away, and are buried in the gulf of +oblivion. A thousand tales, each more wonderful than the other, marked +the year as it glided away. Every valley had its fairies; and every +hill its giants. No solitary dwelling, unpeopled with human +inhabitants, was without its ghosts; and no church-yard in the absence +of day-light could be crossed with impunity. The gifted enchanter +"bedimmed + + The noon-tide sun, willed forth the mutinous winds, + And 'twixt the green sea and the azured vault + Set roaring war; to the dread, rattling thunder + He gave forth fire, and rifted Jove's stout oak + With his own bolt, the strong-based promontory + He made to shake, and by the spurs plucked up + The pine and cedar." + +It is but a small remnant of these marvellous adventures that has been +preserved. The greater part of them are swallowed up in that gulf of +oblivion, to which are successively consigned after a brief interval +all events as they occur, except so far as their memory is preserved +through the medium of writing and records. From the eleventh century +commences a stream of historical relation, which since that time never +entirely eludes the search of the diligent enquirer. Before this +period there occasionally appears an historian or miscellaneous writer: +but he seems to start up by chance; the eddy presently closes over him, +and all is again impenetrable darkness. + +When this succession of writers began, they were unavoidably induced +to look back upon the ages that had preceded them, and to collect here +and there from tradition any thing that appeared especially worthy of +notice. Of course any information they could glean was wild and +uncertain, deeply stamped with the credulity and wonder of an ignorant +period, and still increasing in marvellousness and absurdity from +every hand it passed through, and from every tongue which repeated it. + + +MERLIN. + +One of the most extraordinary personages whose story is thus delivered +to us, is Merlin. He appears to have been contemporary with the period +of the Saxon invasion of Britain in the latter part of the fifth +century; but probably the earliest mention of his name by any writer +that has come down to us is not previous to the eleventh. We may the +less wonder therefore at the incredible things that are reported of +him. He is first mentioned in connection with the fortune of Vortigern, +who is represented by Geoffrey of Monmouth as at that time king of +England. The Romans having withdrawn their legions from this island, +the unwarlike Britons found themselves incompetent to repel the +invasions of the uncivilised Scots and Picts, and Vortigern perceived +no remedy but in inviting the Saxons from the northern continent to +his aid. The Saxons successfully repelled the invader; but, having +done this, they refused to return home. They determined to settle here, +and, having taken various towns, are represented as at length inviting +Vortigern and his principal nobility to a feast near Salisbury under +pretence of a peace, where they treacherously slew three hundred of +the chief men of the island, and threw Vortigern into chains. Here, by +way of purchasing the restoration of his liberty, they induced him to +order the surrender of London, York, Winchester, and other principal +towns. Having lost all his strong holds, he consulted his magicians as +to how he was to secure himself from this terrible foe. They advised +him to build an impregnable tower, and pointed out the situation where +it was to be erected. But so unfortunately did their advice succeed, +that all the work that his engineers did in the building one day, the +earth swallowed, so that no vestige was to be found on the next. The +magicians were consulted again on this fresh calamity; and they told +the king that that there was no remedying this disaster, other than by +cementing the walls of his edifice with the blood of a human being, +who was born of no human father. + +Vortigern sent out his emissaries in every direction in search of this +victim; and at length by strange good fortune they lighted on Merlin +near the town of Caermarthen, who told them that his mother was the +daughter of a king, but that she had been got with child of him by a +being of an angelic nature, and not a man. No sooner had they received +this information, than they seized him, and hurried him away to +Vortigern as the victim required. But in presence of the king he +baffled the magicians; he told the king that the ground they had +chosen for his tower, had underneath it a lake, which being drained, +they would find at the bottom two dragons of inextinguishable +hostility, that under that form figured the Britons and Saxons, all of +which upon the experiment proved to be true. + +Vortigern died shortly after, and was succeeded first by Ambrosius, +and then by Uther Pendragon. Merlin was the confident of all these +kings. To Uther he exhibited a very criminal sort of compliance. Uther +became desperately enamoured of Igerna, wife of the duke of Cornwal, +and tried every means to seduce her in vain. Having consulted Merlin, +the magician contrived by an extraordinary unguent to metamorphose +Uther into the form of the duke. The duke had shut up his wife for +safety in a very strong tower; but Uther in his new form gained +unsuspected entrance; and the virtuous Igerna received him to her +embraces, by means of which he begot Arthur, afterwards the most +renowned sovereign of this island. Uther now contrived that the duke, +her husband, should be slain in battle, and immediately married the +fair Igerna, and made her his queen. + +The next exploit of Merlin was with the intent to erect a monument +that should last for ever, to the memory of the three hundred British +nobles that were massacred by the Saxons. This design produced the +extraordinary edifice called Stonehenge. These mighty stones, which by +no human power could be placed in the position in which we behold them, +had originally been set up in Africa, and afterwards by means unknown +were transported to Ireland. Merlin commanded that they should be +carried over the sea, and placed where they now are, on Salisbury +Plain. The workmen, having received his directions, exerted all their +power and skill, but could not move one of them. Merlin, having for +some time watched their exertions, at length applied his magic; and to +the amazement of every one, the stones spontaneously quitted the +situation in which they had been placed, rose to a great height in the +air, and then pursued the course which Merlin had prescribed, finally +settling themselves in Wiltshire, precisely in the position in which +we now find them, and which they will for ever retain. + +The last adventure recorded of Merlin proceeded from a project he +conceived for surrounding his native town of Caermarthen with a brazen +wall. He committed the execution of this project to a multitude of +fiends, who laboured upon the plan underground in a neighbouring +cavern. [150] In the mean while Merlin had become enamoured of a +supernatural being, called the Lady of the Lake. The lady had long +resisted his importunities, and in fact had no inclination to yield to +his suit. One day however she sent for him in great haste; and Merlin +was of course eager to comply with her invitation. Nevertheless, +before he set out, he gave it strictly in charge to the fiends, that +they should by no means suspend their labours till they saw him return. +The design of the lady was to make sport with him, and elude his +addresses. Merlin on the contrary, with the hope to melt her severity, +undertook to shew her the wonders of his art. Among the rest he +exhibited to her observation a tomb, formed to contain two bodies; at +the same time teaching her a charm, by means of which the sepulchre +would close, and never again be opened. The lady pretended not to +believe that the tomb was wide enough for its purpose, and inveigled +the credulous Merlin to enter it, and place himself as one dead. No +sooner had she so far succeeded, than she closed the lid of the +sepulchre, and pronouncing the charm, rendered it impossible that it +should ever be opened again till the day of judgment. Thus, according +to the story, Merlin was shut in, a corrupted and putrifying body with +a living soul, to which still inhered the faculty of returning in +audible sounds a prophetic answer to such as resorted to it as an +oracle. Meanwhile the fiends, at work in the cavern near Caermarthen, +mindful of the injunction of their taskmaster, not to suspend their +labours till his return, proceed for ever in their office; and the +traveller who passes that way, if he lays his ear close to the mouth +of the cavern, may hear a ghastly noise of iron chains and brazen +caldrons, the loud strokes of the hammer, and the ringing sound of the +anvil, intermixed with the pants and groans of the workmen, enough to +unsettle the brain and confound the faculties of him that for any time +shall listen to the din. + +As six hundred years elapsed between the time of Merlin and the +earliest known records of his achievements, it is impossible to +pronounce what he really pretended to perform, and how great were the +additions which successive reporters have annexed to the wonders of +his art, more than the prophet himself perhaps ever dreamed of. In +later times, when the historians were the contemporaries of the +persons by whom the supposed wonders were achieved, or the persons who +have for these causes been celebrated have bequeathed certain literary +productions to posterity, we may be able to form some conjecture as to +the degree in which the heroes of the tale were deluding or deluded, +and may exercise our sagacity in the question by what strange +peculiarity of mind adventures which we now hold to be impossible +obtained so general belief. But in a case like this of Merlin, who +lived in a time so remote from that in which his history is first +known to have been recorded, it is impracticable to determine at what +time the fiction which was afterwards generally received began to be +reported, or whether the person to whom the miracles were imputed ever +heard or dreamed of the extraordinary things he is represented as +having achieved. + + +ST. DUNSTAN. + +An individual scarcely less famous in the dark ages, and who, like +Merlin, lived in confidence with successive kings, was St. Dunstan. He +was born and died in the tenth century. It is not a little instructive +to employ our attention upon the recorded adventures, and incidents +occurring in the lives, of such men, since, though plentifully +interspersed with impossible tales, they serve to discover to us the +tastes and prepossessions of the times in which these men lived, and +the sort of accomplishments which were necessary to their success. + +St. Dunstan is said to have been a man of distinguished birth, and to +have spent the early years of his life in much licentiousness. He was +however doubtless a person of the most extraordinary endowments of +nature. Ambition early lighted its fire in his bosom; and he displayed +the greatest facility in acquiring any talent or art on which he fixed +his attention. His career of profligacy was speedily arrested by a +dangerous illness, in which he was given over by his physicians. While +he lay apparently at the point of death, an angel was suddenly seen, +bringing a medicine to him which effected his instant cure. The saint +immediately rose from his bed, and hastened to the nearest church to +give God thanks for his recovery. As he passed along, the devil, +surrounded with a pack of black dogs, interposed himself to obstruct +his way. Dunstan however intrepidly brandished a rod that he held in +his hand, and his opposers took to flight. When he came to the church, +he found the doors closed. But the same angel, who effected his cure, +was at hand, and, taking him up softly by the hair of his head, placed +him before the high altar, where he performed his devotions with +suitable fervour. + +That he might expiate the irregularities of his past life, St. Dunstan +now secluded himself entirely from the world, and constructed for his +habitation a cell in the abbey of Glastonbury, so narrow that he could +neither stand upright in it, nor stretch out his limbs in repose. He +took scarcely so much sustenance as would support life, and mortified +his flesh with frequent castigations. + +He did not however pass his time during this seclusion in vacuity and +indolence. He pursued his studies with the utmost ardour, and made a +great proficiency in philosophy, divinity, painting, sculpture and +music. Above all, he was an admirable chemist, excelled in manufactures +of gold and other metals, and was distinguished by a wonderful skill +in the art of magic. + +During all these mortifications and the severeness of his industry, he +appears to have become a prey to extraordinary visions and +imaginations. Among the rest, the devil visited him in his cell, and, +thrusting his head in at the window, disturbed the saint with obscene +and blasphemous speeches, and the most frightful contortions of the +features of his countenance. Dunstan at length, wearied out with his +perseverance, seized the red-hot tongs with which he was engaged in +some chemical experiment, and, catching the devil by the nose, held +him with the utmost firmness, while Satan filled the whole +neighbourhood for many miles round with his bellowings. Extraordinary +as this may appear, it constitutes one of the most prominent incidents +in the life of the saint; and the representations of it were for ever +repeated in ancient carvings, and in the illuminations of +church-windows. + +This was the precise period at which the pope and his adherents were +gaining the greatest ascendancy in the Christian world. The doctrine +of transubstantiation was now in the highest vogue; and along with it +a precept still more essential to the empire of the Catholic church, +the celibacy of the clergy. This was not at first established without +vehement struggles. The secular clergy, who were required at once to +cast off their wives as concubines, and their children as bastards, +found every impulse of nature rising in arms against the mandate. The +regular clergy, or monks, were in obvious rivalship with the seculars, +and engrossed to themselves, as much as possible, all promotions and +dignities, as well ecclesiastical as civil. St. Augustine, who first +planted Christianity in this island, was a Benedictine monk; and the +Benedictines were for a long time in the highest reputation in the +Catholic church. St. Dunstan was also a Benedictine. In his time the +question of the celibacy of the clergy was most vehemently agitated; +and Dunstan was the foremost of the champions of the new institution +in England. The contest was carried on with great vehemence. Many of +the most powerful nobility, impelled either by pity for the sufferers, +or induced by family affinities, supported the cause of the seculars. +Three successive synods were held on the subject; and the cause of +nature it is said would have prevailed, had not Dunstan and his +confederates called in the influence of miracles to their aid. In one +instance, a crucifix, fixed in a conspicuous part of the place of +assembly, uttered a voice at the critical moment, saying, "Be steady! +you have once decreed right; alter not your ordinances." At another +time the floor of the place of meeting partially gave way, +precipitating the ungodly opposers of celibacy into the place beneath, +while Dunstan and his party, who were in another part of the assembly, +were miraculously preserved unhurt. + +In these instances Dunstan seemed to be engaged in the cause of +religion, and might be considered as a zealous, though mistaken, +advocate of Christian simplicity and purity. But he was not contented +with figuring merely as a saint. He insinuated himself into the favour +of Edred, the grandson of Alfred, and who, after two or three short +reigns, succeeded to the throne. Edred was an inactive prince, but +greatly under the dominion of religious prejudices; and Dunstan, being +introduced to him, found him an apt subject for his machinations. +Edred first made him abbot of Glastonbury, one of the most powerful +ecclesiastical dignities in England, and then treasurer of the kingdom. +During the reign of this prince, Dunstan disposed of all ecclesiastical +affairs, and even of the treasures of the kingdom, at his pleasure. + +But Edred filled the throne only nine years, and was succeeded by Edwy +at the early age of seventeen, who is said to have been endowed with +every grace of form, and the utmost firmness and intrepidity of spirit. +Dunstan immediately conceived a jealousy of these qualities, and took +an early opportunity to endeavour to disarm them. Edwy entertained a +passion for a princess of the royal house, and even proceeded to marry +her, though within the degrees forbidden by the canon law. The rest of +the story exhibits a lively picture of the manners of these barbarous +times. Odo, archbishop of Canterbury, the obedient tool of Dunstan, on +the day of the coronation obtruded himself with his abettor into the +private apartment, to which the king had retired with his queen, only +accompanied by her mother; and here the ambitious abbot, after loading +Edwy with the bitterest reproaches for his shameless sensuality, +thrust him back by main force into the hall, where the nobles of the +kingdom were still engaged at their banquet. + +The spirited young prince conceived a deep resentment of this unworthy +treatment, and, seizing an opportunity, called Dunstan to account for +malversation in the treasury during the late king's life-time. The +priest refused to answer; and the issue was that he was banished the +realm. + +But he left behind him a faithful and implicit coadjutor in archbishop +Odo. This prelate is said actually to have forced his way with a party +of soldiers into the palace, and, having seized the queen, barbarously +to have seared her cheeks with a red-hot iron, and sent her off a +prisoner to Ireland. He then proceeded to institute all the forms of a +divorce, to which the unhappy king was obliged to submit. Meanwhile +the queen, having recovered her beauty, found means to escape, and, +crossing the Channel, hastened to join her husband. But here again the +priests manifested the same activity as before. They intercepted the +queen in her journey, and by the most cruel means undertook to make +her a cripple for life. The princess however sunk under the experiment, +and ended her existence and her woes together. + +A rebellion was now excited against the sacrilegious Edwy; and the +whole north of England, having rebelled, was placed under the dominion +of his brother, a boy of thirteen years of age. In the midst of these +adventures Dunstan returned from the continent, and fearlessly shewed +himself in his native country. His party was every where triumphant; +Odo being dead, he was installed archbishop of Canterbury, and Edwy, +oppressed with calamity on every side, sunk to an untimely grave. + +The rest of the life of Dunstan was passed in comparatively +tranquillity. He made and unmade kings as he pleased. Edgar, the +successor of Edwy, discovered the happy medium of energy and authority +as a sovereign, combined with a disposition to indulge the ambitious +policy of the priesthood. He was licentious in his amours, without +losing a particle of his ascendancy as a sovereign. He however reigned +only a few years; but Dunstan at his death found means to place his +eldest son on the throne under his special protection, in defiance of +the intrigues of the ambitious Elfrida, the king's second wife, who +moved heaven and earth to cause the crown to descend upon her own son, +as yet comparatively an infant. + +In this narrative we are presented with a lively picture of the means +by which ambition climbed to its purposes in the darkness of the tenth +century. Dunstan was enriched with all those endowments which might +seem in any age to lead to the highest distinction. Yet it would +appear to have been in vain that he was thus qualified, if he had not +stooped to arts that fell in with the gross prejudices of his +contemporaries. He had continual recourse to the aid of miracles. He +gave into practices of the most rigorous mortification. He studied, +and excelled in, all the learning and arts that were then known. But +his main dependence was on the art of magic. The story of his taking +the devil by the nose with a pair of red-hot tongs, seems to have been +of greater service to him than any other single adventure of his life. +In other times he might have succeeded in the schemes of his political +ambition by seemly and specious means. But it was necessary for him in +the times in which he lived, to proceed with eclat, and in a way that +should confound all opposers. The utmost resolution was required to +overwhelm those who might otherwise have been prompted to contend +against him. Hence it appears that he took a right measure of the +understanding of his contemporaries, when he dragged the young king +from the scene of his retirement, and brought him back by force into +the assembly of the nobles. And the inconceivable barbarity practised +to the queen, which would have rendered his name horrible in a more +civilised age, was exactly calculated to overwhelm the feelings and +subject the understandings of the men among whom he lived. The great +quality by which he was distinguished was confidence, a frame of +behaviour which shewed that he acted from the fullest conviction, and +never doubted that his proceedings had the immediate approbation of +heaven. + + + + +COMMUNICATION OF EUROPE AND THE SARACENS + + +It appears to have been about the close of the tenth century that the +more curious and inquisitive spirits of Europe first had recourse to +the East as a source of such information and art, as they found most +glaringly deficient among their countrymen. We have seen that in +Persia there was an uninterrupted succession of professors in the art +of magic: and, when the followers of Mahomet by their prowess had +gained the superiority over the greater part of Asia, over all that +was known of Africa, and a considerable tract of Europe, they +gradually became awake to the desire of cultivating the sciences, and +in particular of making themselves masters of whatever was most +liberal and eminent among the disciples of Zoroaster. To this they +added a curiosity respecting Greek learning, especially as it related +to medicine and the investigation of the powers of physical nature. +Bagdad became an eminent seat of learning; and perhaps, next to Bagdad, +Spain under the Saracens, or Moors, was a principal abode for the +professors of ingenuity and literature. + + +GERBERT, POPE SILVESTER II. + +As a consequence of this state of things the more curious men of +Europe by degrees adopted the practice of resorting to Spain for the +purpose of enlarging their sphere of observation and knowledge. Among +others Gerbert is reported to have been the first of the Christian +clergy, who strung themselves up to the resolution of mixing with the +followers of Mahomet, that they might learn from thence things, the +knowledge of which it was impossible for them to obtain at home. This +generous adventurer, prompted by an insatiable thirst for information, +is said to have secretly withdrawn himself from his monastery of +Fleury in Burgundy, and to have spent several years among the Saracens +of Cordova. Here he acquired a knowledge of the language and learning +of the Arabians, particularly of their astronomy, geometry and +arithmetic; and he is understood to have been the first that imparted +to the north and west of Europe a knowledge of the Arabic numerals, a +science, which at first sight might be despised for its simplicity, +but which in its consequences is no inconsiderable instrument in +subtilising the powers of human intellect. He likewise introduced the +use of clocks. He is also represented to have made an extraordinary +proficiency in the art of magic; and among other things is said to +have constructed a brazen head, which would answer when it was spoken +to, and oracularly resolve many difficult questions. [151] The same +historian assures us that Gerbert by the art of necromancy made +various discoveries of hidden treasures, and relates in all its +circumstances the spectacle of a magic palace he visited underground, +with the multiplied splendours of an Arabian tale, but distinguished +by this feature, that, though its magnificence was dazzling to the +sight, it would not abide the test of feeling, but vanished into air, +the moment it was attempted to be touched. + +It happened with Gerbert, as with St. Dunstan, that he united an +aspiring mind and a boundless spirit of ambition, with the +intellectual curiosity which has already been described. The first +step that he made into public life and the career for which he panted, +consisted in his being named preceptor, first to Robert, king of +France, the son of Hugh Capet, and next to Otho the Third, emperor of +Germany. Hugh Capet appointed him archbishop of Rheims; but, that +dignity being disputed with him, he retired into Germany, and, +becoming eminently a favourite with Otho the Third, he was by the +influence of that prince raised, first to be archbishop of Ravenna, +and afterwards to the papacy by the name of Silvester the Second. [152] + +Cardinal Benno, who was an adherent of the anti-popes, and for that +reason is supposed to have calumniated Gerbert and several of his +successors, affirms that he was habitually waited on by demons, that +by their aid he obtained the papal crown, and that the devil to whom +he had sold himself, faithfully promised him that he should live, till +he had celebrated high mass at Jerusalem. This however was merely a +juggle of the evil spirit; and Gerbert actually died, shortly after +having officially dispensed the sacrament at the church of the Holy +Cross in Jerusalem, which is one of the seven districts of the city of +Rome. This event occurred in the year 1008. [153] + + +BENEDICT THE NINTH. + +According to the same authority sorcery was at this time extensively +practised by some of the highest dignitaries of the church, and five +or six popes in succession were notorious for these sacrilegious +practices. About the same period the papal chair was at its lowest +state of degradation; this dignity was repeatedly exposed for sale; +and the reign of Gerbert, a man of consummate abilities and +attainments, is almost the only redeeming feature in the century in +which he lived. At length the tiara became the purchase of an +ambitious family, which had already furnished two popes, in behalf of +a boy of twelve years of age, who reigned by the name of Benedict the +Ninth. This youth, as he grew up, contaminated his rule with every +kind of profligacy and debauchery. But even he, according to Benno, +was a pupil in the school of Silvester, and became no mean proficient +in the arts of sorcery. Among other things he caused the matrons of +Rome by his incantations to follow him in troops among woods and +mountains, being bewitched and their souls subdued by the irresistible +charms of his magic. [154] + + +GREGORY THE SEVENTH. + +Benno presents us with a regular catalogue of the ecclesiastical +sorcerers of this period: Benedict the Ninth, and Laurence, archbishop +of Melfi, (each of whom, he says, learned the art of Silvester), +John XX and Gregory VI. But his most vehement accusations are directed +against Gregory VII, who, he affirms, was in the early part of his +career, the constant companion and assistant of these dignitaries in +unlawful practices of this sort. + +Gregory VII, whose original name was Hildebrand, is one of the great +champions of the Romish church, and did more than any other man to +establish the law of the celibacy of the clergy, and to take the +patronage of ecclesiastical dignities out of the hands of the laity. +He was eminently qualified for this undertaking by the severity of his +manners, and the inflexibility of his resolution to accomplish whatever +he undertook. + +His great adversary was Henry the Fourth, emperor of Germany, a young +prince of high spirit, and at that time (1075) twenty-four years of +age. Gregory sent to summon him to Rome, to answer an accusation, that +he, as all his predecessors had done, being a layman, had conferred +ecclesiastical dignities. Henry refused submission, and was immediately +declared excommunicated. In retaliation for this offence, the emperor, +it is said, gave his orders to a chief of brigands, who, watching his +opportunity, seized the pope in the act of saying mass in one of the +churches of Rome, and carried him prisoner to a tower in the city +which was in the possession of this adventurer. But no sooner was this +known, than the citizens of Rome, rose _en masse_, and rescued +their spiritual father. Meanwhile Henry, to follow up his blow, +assembled a synod at Worms, who pronounced on the pope, that for +manifold crimes he was fallen from his supreme dignity, and +accordingly fulminated a decree of deposition against him. But Henry +had no forces to carry this decree into execution; and Gregory on his +side emitted a sentence of degradation against the emperor, commanding +the Germans to elect a new emperor in his place. It then became +evident that, in this age of ignorance and religious subjugation, the +spiritual arm, at least in Germany, was more powerful than the +temporal; and Henry, having maturely considered the perils that +surrounded him, took the resolution to pass the Alps with a few +domestics only, and, repairing to the presence of the pope, submit +himself to such penance as the pontiff should impose. Gregory was at +this time at Canosa, a fortress beyond Naples, which was surrounded +with three walls. Henry, without any attendant, was admitted within +the first wall. Here he was required to cast off all the symbols of +royalty, to put on a hair-shirt, and to wait barefoot his holiness's +pleasure. He stood accordingly, fasting from morn to eve, without +receiving the smallest notice from the pontiff. It was in the month of +January. He passed through the same trial the second day, and the +third. On the fourth day in the morning he was admitted to the +presence of the holy father. They parted however more irreconcileable +in heart than ever, though each preserved the appearance of good will. +The pope insisted that Henry should abide the issue of the congress in +Germany, of which he constituted himself president; and the emperor, +exasperated at the treatment he had received, resolved to keep no +terms with Gregory. Henry proceeded to the election of an anti-pope, +Clement the Third, and Gregory patronised a new emperor, Rodolph, duke +of Suabia. Henry had however generally been successful in his military +enterprises; and he defeated Rodolph in two battles, in the last of +which his opponent was slain. In the synod of Brixen, in which Clement +the Third was elected, Gregory was sentenced as a magician and a +necromancer. The emperor, puffed up with his victories, marched +against Rome, and took it, with the exception of the castle of St. +Angelo, in which the pope shut himself up; and in the mean time Henry +caused the anti-pope, his creature, to be solemnly inaugurated in the +church of the Lateran. Gregory however, never dismayed, and never at +an end of his expedients, called in the Normans, who had recently +distinguished themselves by their victories in Naples and Sicily. +Robert Guiscard, a Norman chieftain, drove the Germans out of Rome; +but, some altercations ensuing between the pontiff and his deliverer, +the city was given up to pillage, and Gregory was glad to take refuge +in Salerno, the capital of his Norman ally, where he shortly after +expired, an exile and a fugitive. + +Gregory was no doubt a man of extraordinary resources and invincible +courage. He did not live to witness the triumph of his policy; but his +projects for the exaltation of the church finally met with every +success his most sanguine wishes could have aspired to. In addition to +all the rest it happened, that the countess Matilda, a princess who in +her own right possessed extensive sovereignties in Italy, nearly +commensurate with what has since been styled the ecclesiastical state, +transferred to the pope in her life-time, and confirmed by her +testament, all these territories, thus mainly contributing to render +him and his successors so considerable as temporal princes, as since +that time they have appeared. + +It is, however, as a sorcerer, that Gregory VII (Hildebrand) finds a +place in this volume. Benno relates that, coming one day from his +Alban villa, he found, just as he was entering the church of the +Lateran, that he had left behind him his magical book, which he was +ascustomed to carry about his person. He immediately sent two trusty +servants to fetch it, at the same time threatening them most fearfully +if they should attempt to look into the volume. Curiosity however got +the better of their fear. They opened the book, and began to read; +when presently a number of devils appeared, saying, "We are come to +obey your commands, but, if we find ourselves trifled with, we shall +certainly fall upon and destroy you." The servants, exceedingly +terrified, replied, "Our will is that you should immediately throw +down so much of the wall of the city as is now before us." The devils +obeyed; and the servants escaped the danger that hung over them. [155] +It is further said, that Gregory was so expert in the arts of magic, +that he would throw out lightning by shaking his arm, and dart thunder +from his sleeve. [156] + +But the most conspicuous circumstance in the life of Gregory that has +been made the foundation of a charge of necromancy against him, is +that, when Rodolph marched against Henry IV, the pope was so confident +of his success, as to venture publicly to prophesy, both in speech and +in writing, that his adversary should be conquered and perish in this +campaign. "Nay," he added, "this prophecy shall be accomplished before +St. Peter's day; nor do I desire any longer to be acknowledged for +pope, than on the condition that this comes to pass." It is added, +that Rodolph, relying on the prediction, six times renewed the battle, +in which finally he perished instead of his competitor. But this does +not go far enough to substantiate a charge of necromancy. It is +further remarked, that Gregory was deep in the pretended science of +judicial astrology; and this, without its being necessary to have +recourse to the solution of diabolical aid, may sufficiently account +for the undoubting certainty with which he counted on the event. + +In the mean time this statement is of great importance, as illustrative +of the spirit of the times in general, and the character of Gregory in +particular. Rodolph, the competitor for the empire, has his mind wrought +up to such a pitch by this prophetic assurance, that, five times +repulsed, he yet led on his forces a sixth time, and perished the +victim of his faith. Nor were his followers less animated than he, and +from the same cause. We see also from the same story, that Gregory was +not an artful and crafty impostor, but a man spurred on by a genuine +enthusiasm. And this indeed is necessary to account for the whole of +his conduct. The audacity with which he opposed the claims of Henry, +and the unheard-of severity with which he treated him at the fortress +of Canosa, are to be referred to the same feature of character. +Invincible perseverance, when united with great resources of intellect +and a lofty spirit, will enable a man thoroughly to effect, what a +person of inferior endowments would not have dared so much as to dream +of. And Gregory, like St. Dunstan, achieved incredible things, by +skilfully adapting himself to circumstances, and taking advantage of +the temper and weakness of his contemporaries. + + +DUFF, KING OF SCOTLAND. + +It is not to be wondered at, when such things occurred in Italy, the +principal seat of all the learning and refinement then existing in +Europe, that the extreme northerly and western districts should have +been given up to the blindest superstition. Among other instances we +have the following account in relation to Duff, king of Scotland, who +came to the crown about the year 968. He found his kingdom in the +greatest disorder from numerous bands of robbers, many of whom were +persons of high descent, but of no competent means of subsistence. +Duff resolved to put an end to their depredations, and to secure those +who sought a quiet support from cultivating the fruits of the earth +from forcible invasion. He executed the law against these disturbers +without respect of persons, and hence made himself many and powerful +enemies. In the midst of his activity however he suddenly fell sick, +and became confined to his bed. His physicians could no way account +for his distemper. They found no excess of any humour in his body to +which they could attribute his illness; his colour was fresh, and his +eyes lively; and he had a moderate and healthful appetite. But with +all this he was a total stranger to sleep; he burst out into +immoderate perspirations; and there was scarcely any thing that +remained of him, but skin and bone. In the meantime secret information +was brought that all this evil was the result of witchcraft. And, the +house being pointed out in which the sorcerers held their sabbath, a +band of soldiers was sent to surprise them. The doors being burst open, +they found one woman roasting upon a spit by the fire a waxen image of +the king, so like in every feature, that no doubt was entertained that +it was modelled by the art of the devil, while another sat by, busily +engaged in reciting certain verses of enchantment, by which means, as +the wax melted, the king was consumed with perspiration, and, as soon +as it was utterly dissolved, his death should immediately follow. The +witches were seized, and from their own confession burned alive. The +image was broken to pieces, and every fragment of it destroyed. And no +sooner was this effected, than Duff had all that night the most +refreshing and healthful sleep, and the next day rose without any +remains of his infirmity. [157] + +This reprieve however availed him but for a short time. He was no +sooner recovered, than he occupied himself as before with pursuing the +outlaws, whom he brought indiscriminately to condign punishment. Among +these there chanced to be two young men, near relations of the +governor of the castle of Fores, who had hitherto been the king's most +faithful adherents. These young men had been deluded by ill company: +and the governor most earnestly sued to Duff for their pardon. But the +king was inexorable. Meanwhile, as he had always placed the most +entire trust in their father, he continued to do so without the +smallest suspicion. The night after the execution, the king slept in +the castle of Fores, as he had often done before; but the governor, +conceiving the utmost rancour at the repulse he had sustained, and +moreover instigated by his wife, in the middle of the night murdered +Duff in his bed, as he slept. His reign lasted only four years. [158] + + +MACBETH. + +The seventh king of Scotland after Duff, with an interval of +sixty-eight years, was Macbeth. The historian begins his tale of +witchcraft, towards the end of the reign of Duncan, his predecessor, +with observing, "Shortly after happened a strange and uncouth wonder, +which afterward was the cause of much trouble in the realm of Scotland. +It fortuned, as Macbeth and Banquo journeyed towards Fores, where the +king as then lay, they went sporting by the way together, without +other company save only themselves, passing through the woods and +fields, when suddenly, in the midst of a laund, there met them three +women in strange and ferly apparel, resembling creatures of an elder +world, whom when they attentively beheld, wondering much at the sight, +the first of them spake and said, All hail, Macbeth, thane of Glamis +(for he had lately entered into that dignity and office by the death +of his father Synel). The second of them said, Hail, Macbeth, thane of +Cawdor. But the third said, All hail, Macbeth, that hereafter shall be +king of Scotland. Then Banquo, What sort of women, said he, are you, +that seem so little favourable unto me, whereas to my fellow here, +besides high offices, ye assign also the kingdom, appointing forth +nothing for me at all? Yes, saith the first of them, we promise +greater benefits unto thee than unto him, for he shall reign indeed, +but with an unlucky end, neither shall he leave any issue behind him +to succeed in his place; where contrarily thou indeed shall not reign +at all, but of thee those shall be born, which shall govern the +Scottish kingdom by long order of continual descent. Herewith the +foresaid women vanished immediately out of their sight. + +"This was reputed at the first but some vain fantastical illusion by +Macbeth and Banquo, insomuch that Banquo would call Macbeth in jest +king of Scotland, and Macbeth again would call him in sport likewise +the father of many kings. But afterwards the common opinion was, that +these women were either the weird sisters, that is (as you would say) +the goddesses of destiny, or else some nymphs or fairies, endued with +knowledge of prophecy by their necromantical science, because every +thing came to pass as they had spoken. + +"For shortly after, the thane of Cawdor, being condemned at Fores of +treason against the king committed, his lands, livings and offices +were given of the king's liberality unto Macbeth." [159] + +Malcolm, the preceding king of Scotland, had two daughters, one of +them the mother of Duncan, and the other of Macbeth; and in virtue of +this descent Duncan succeeded to the crown. The accession of Macbeth +therefore was not very remote, if he survived the present king. Of +consequence Macbeth, though he thought much of the prediction of the +weird sisters, yet resolved to wait his time, thinking that, as had +happened in his former preferment, this might come to pass without his +aid. But Duncan had two sons, Malcolm Cammore and Donald Bane. The law +of succession in Scotland was, that, if at the death of the reigning +sovereign he that should succeed were not of sufficient age to take on +him the government, he that was next of blood to him should be +admitted. Duncan however at this juncture created his eldest son +Malcolm prince of Cumberland, a title which was considered as +designating him heir to the throne. Macbeth was greatly troubled at +this, as cutting off the expectation he thought he had a right to +entertain: and, the words of the weird sisters still ringing in his +ears, and his wife with ambitious speeches urging him to the deed, he, +in conjunction with some trusty friends, among whom was Banquo, came +to a resolution to kill the king at Inverness. The deed being +perpetrated, Malcolm, the eldest son of Duncan, fled for safety into +Cumberland, and Donald, the second, into Ireland. [160] + +Macbeth, who became king of Scotland in the year 1010, reigned for ten +years with great popularity and applause, but at the end of that time +changed his manner of government, and became a tyrant. His first +action in this character was against Banquo. He remembered that the +weird sisters had promised to Banquo that he should be father to a +line of kings. Haunted with this recollection, Macbeth invited Banquo +and his son Fleance to a supper, and appointed assassins to murder +them both on their return. Banquo was slain accordingly; but Fleance, +under favour of the darkness of the night, escaped. [161] + +This murder brought Macbeth into great odium, since every man began to +doubt of the security of his life, and Macbeth at the same time to +fear the ill will of his subjects. He therefore proceeded to destroy +all against whom he entertained any suspicion, and every day more and +more to steep his hands in blood. Further to secure himself, he built +a castle on the top of a high hill, called Dunsinnan, which was placed +on such an elevation, that it seemed impossible to approach it in a +hostile manner. This work he carried on by means of requiring the +thanes of the kingdom, each one in turn, to come with a set of workmen +to help forward the edifice. When it came to the turn of Macduff, +thane of Fife, he sent workmen, but did not come himself, as the +others had done. Macbeth from that time regarded Macduff with an eye +of perpetual suspicion. [162] + +Meanwhile Macbeth, remembering that the origin of his present +greatness consisted in the prophecy of the weird sisters, addicted +himself continually to the consulting of wizards. Those he consulted +gave him a pointed warning to take heed of Macduff, who in time to +come would seek to destroy him. This warning would unquestionably have +proved fatal to Macduff; had not on the other hand Macbeth been buoyed +up in security, by the prediction of a certain witch in whom he had +great trust, that he should never be vanquished till the wood of +Bernane came to the castle of Dunsinnan, and that he should not be +slain by any man that was born of a woman; both which he judged to be +impossibilities. [163] + +This vain confidence however urged him to do many outrageous things; +at the same time that such was his perpetual uneasiness of mind, that +in every nobleman's house he had one servant or another in fee, that +he might be acquainted with every thing that was said or meditated +against him. About this time Macduff fled to Malcolm, who had now +taken refuge in the court of Edward the Confessor; and Macbeth came +with a strong party into Fife with the purpose of surprising him. The +master being safe, those within Macduff's castle threw open the gates, +thinking that no mischief would result from receiving the king. But +Macbeth, irritated that he missed of his prey, caused Macduff's wife +and children, and all persons who were found within the castle, to be +slain. [164] + +Shortly after, Malcolm and Macduff, reinforced by ten thousand English +under the command of Seyward, earl of Northumberland, marched into +Scotland. The subjects of Macbeth stole away daily from him to join +the invaders; but he had such confidence in the predictions that had +been delivered to him, that he still believed he should never be +vanquished. Malcolm meanwhile, as he approached to the castle of +Dunsinnan, commanded his men to cut down, each of them, a bough from +the wood of Bernane, as large as he could bear, that they might take +the tyrant the more by surprise. Macbeth saw, and thought the wood +approached him; but he remembered the prophecy, and led forth and +marshalled his men. When however the enemy threw down their boughs, +and their formidable numbers stood revealed, Macbeth and his forces +immediately betook themselves to flight. Macduff pursued him, and was +hard at his heels, when the tyrant turned his horse, and exclaimed, +"Why dost thou follow me? Know, that it is ordained that no creature +born of a woman can ever overcome me." Macduff instantly retorted, "I +am the man appointed to slay thee. I was not born of a woman, but was +untimely ripped from my mother's womb." And, saying this, he killed +him on the spot. Macbeth reigned in the whole seventeen years. [165] + + +VIRGIL. + +One of the most curious particulars, and which cannot be omitted in a +history of sorcery, is the various achievements in the art of magic +which have been related of the poet Virgil. I bring them in here, +because they cannot be traced further back than the eleventh or +twelfth century. The burial-place of this illustrious man was at +Pausilippo, near Naples; the Neapolitans had for many centuries +cherished a peculiar reverence for his memory; and it has been +supposed that the old ballads, and songs of the minstrels of the north +of Italy, first originated this idea respecting him. [166] The vulgar +of this city, full of imagination and poetry, conceived the idea of +treating him as the guardian genius of the place; and, in bodying +forth this conception, they represented him in his life-time as gifted +with supernatural powers, which he employed in various ways for the +advantage of a city that he so dearly loved. Be this as it will, it +appears that Gervais of Tilbury, chancellor to Otho the Fourth, +emperor of Germany, Helinandus, a Cisterian monk, and Alexander Neckam, +all of whom lived about this time, first recorded these particulars in +their works. + +They tell us, that Virgil placed a fly of brass over one of the gates +of the city, which, as long as it continued there, that is, for a +space of eight years, had the virtue of keeping Naples clear from +moskitoes and all noxious insects: that he built a set of shambles, +the meat in which was at all times free from putrefaction: that he +placed two images over the gates of the city, one of which was named +Joyful, and the other Sad, one of resplendent beauty, and the other +hideous and deformed, and that whoever entered the town under the +former image would succeed in all his undertakings, and under the +latter would as certainly miscarry: that he caused a brazen statue to +be erected on a mountain near Naples, with a trumpet in his mouth, +which when the north wind blew, sounded so shrill as to drive to the +sea the fire and smoke which issued from the neighbouring forges of +Vulcan: that he built different baths at Naples, specifically prepared +for the cure of every disease, which were afterwards demolished by the +malice of the physicians: and that he lighted a perpetual fire for the +refreshment of all travellers, close to which he placed an archer of +brass, with his bow bent, and this inscription, "Whoever strikes me, I +will let fly my arrow:" that a fool-hardy fellow notwithstanding +struck the statue, when the arrow was immediately shot into the fire, +and the fire was extinguished. It is added, that, Naples being +infested with a vast multitude of contagious leeches, Virgil made a +leech of gold, which he threw into a pit, and so delivered the city +from the infection: that he surrounded his garden with a wall of air, +within which the rain never fell: that he built a bridge of brass that +would transport him wherever he pleased: that he made a set of statues, +which were named the salvation of Rome, which had the property that, +if any one of the subject nations prepared to revolt, the statue, +which bore the name of, and was adored by that nation, rung a bell, +and pointed with its finger in the direction of the danger: that he +made a head, which had the virtue of predicting things future: and +lastly, amidst a world of other wonders, that he cut a subterranean +passage through mount Pausilippo, that travellers might pass with +perfect safety, the mountain having before been so infested with +serpents and dragons, that no one could venture to cross it. + + +ROBERT OF LINCOLN. + +The most eminent person next, after popes Silvester II and Gregory VII, +who labours under the imputation of magic, is Robert Grossetete, or +Robert of Lincoln, appointed bishop of that see in the year 1235. He +was, like those that have previously been mentioned, a man of the most +transcendant powers of mind, and extraordinary acquirements. His +parents are said to have been so poor, that he was compelled, when a +boy, to engage in the meanest offices for bread, and even to beg on +the highway. At length the mayor of Lincoln, struck with his +appearance, and the quickness of his answers to such questions as were +proposed to him, took him into his family, and put him to school. Here +his ardent love of learning, and admirable capacity for acquiring it, +soon procured him many patrons, by whose assistance he was enabled to +prosecute his studies, first at Cambridge, afterwards at Oxford, and +finally at Paris. He was master of the Greek and Hebrew languages, +then very rare accomplishments; and is pronounced by Roger Bacon, a +very competent judge, of whom we shall presently have occasion to +speak, to have spent much of his time, for nearly forty years, in the +study of geometry, astronomy, optics, and other branches of +mathematical learning, in all of which he much excelled. So that, as +we are informed from the same authority, this same Robert of Lincoln, +and his friend, Friar Adam de Marisco, were the two most learned men +in the world, and excelled the rest of mankind in both human and +divine knowledge. + +This great man especially distinguished himself by his firm and +undaunted opposition to the corruptions of the court of Rome. Pope +Innocent IV, who filled the papal chair upwards of eleven years, from +1243 to 1254, appears to have exceeded all his predecessors in the +shamelessness of his abuses. We are told, that the hierarchy of the +church of England was overwhelmed like a flood with an inundation of +foreign dignitaries, of whom not a few were mere boys, for the most +part without learning, ignorant of the language of the island, and +incapable of benefiting the people nominally under their care, the +more especially as they continued to dwell in their own countries, and +scarcely once in their lives visited the sees to which they had been +appointed. [167] Grossetete lifted up his voice against these scandals. +He said that it was impossible the genuine apostolic see, which +received its authority from the Lord Jesus for edification, and not +for destruction, could be guilty of such a crime, for that would +forfeit all its glory, and plunge it into the pains of hell. He did +not scruple therefore among his most intimate friends to pronounce the +reigning pope to be the true Antichrist; and he addressed the pontiff +himself in scarcely more measured terms. + +Among the other accomplishments of bishop Grossetete he is said to +have been profoundly skilled in the art of magic: and the old poet +Gower relates of him that he made a head of brass, expressly +constructed in such a manner as to be able to answer such questions as +were propounded to it, and to foretel future events. + + +MICHAEL SCOT. + +Michael Scot of Balwirie in the county of Fife, was nearly contemporary +with bishop Grossetete. He was eminent for his knowledge of the Greek +and Arabic languages. He was patronised by the emperor Frederic II, +who encouraged him to undertake a translation of the works of Aristotle +into Latin. He addicted himself to astrology, chemistry, and the still +more frivolous sciences of chiromancy and physiognomy. It does not +appear that he made any pretences to magic; but the vulgar, we are +told, generally regarded him as a sorcerer, and are said to have +carried their superstition so far as to have conceived a terror of so +much as touching his works. + + +THE DEAN OF BADAJOZ. + +There is a story related by this accomplished scholar, in a collection +of aphorisms and anecdotes entitled _Mensa Philosophica_, which +deserves to be cited as illustrating the ideas then current on the +subject of sorcery. A certain great necromancer, or nigromancer, had +once a pupil of considerable rank, who professed himself extremely +desirous for once to have the gratification of believing himself an +emperor. The necromancer, tired with his importunities, at length +assented to his prayer. He took measures accordingly, and by his +potent art caused his scholar to believe that one province and dignity +fell to him after another, till at length his utmost desires became +satisfied. The magician however appeared to be still at his elbow; and +one day, when the scholar was in the highest exultation at his good +fortune, the master humbly requested him to bestow upon him some +landed possession, as a reward for the extraordinary benefit he had +conferred. The imaginary emperor cast upon the necromancer a glance of +the utmost disdain and contempt. "Who are you?" said he, "I really +have not the smallest acquaintance with you." "I am he," replied the +magician, with withering severity of countenance and tone, "that gave +you all these things, and will take them away." And, saying this, the +illusion with which the poor scholar had been inebriated, immediately +vanished; and he became what he had before been, and no more. + +The story thus briefly told by Michael Scot, afterwards passed through +many hands, and was greatly dilated. In its last form by the abbe +Blanchet, it constituted the well known and agreeable tale of the dean +of Badajoz. This reverend divine comes to a sorcerer, and intreats a +specimen of his art. The magician replies that he had met with so many +specimens of ingratitude, that he was resolved to be deluded no more. +The dean persists, and at length overcomes the reluctance of the +master. He invites his guest into the parlour, and orders his cook to +put two partridges to the fire, for that the dean of Badajoz will sup +with him. Presently he begins his incantations; and the dean becomes +in imagination by turns a bishop, a cardinal, and a pope. The magician +then claims his reward. Meanwhile the dean, inflated with his supposed +elevation, turns to his benefactor, and says, "I have learned with +grief that, under pretence of secret science, you correspond with the +prince of darkness. I command you to repent and abjure; and in the +mean time I order you to quit the territory of the church in three +days, under pain of being delivered to the secular arm, and the rigour +of the flames." The sorcerer, having been thus treated, presently +dissolves the incantation, and calls aloud to his cook, "Put down but +one partridge, the dean of Badajoz does not sup with me to-night." + + +MIRACLE OF THE TUB OF WATER. + +This story affords an additional example of the affinity between the +ancient Asiatic and European legends, so as to convince us that it is +nearly impossible that the one should not be in some way borrowed from +the other. There is, in a compilation called the Turkish Tales, a +story of an infidel sultan of Egypt, who took the liberty before a +learned Mahometan doctor, of ridiculing some of the miracles ascribed +to the prophet, as for example his transportation into the seventh +heaven, and having ninety thousand conferences with God, while in the +mean time a pitcher of water, which had been thrown down in the first +step of his ascent, was found with the water not all spilled at his +return. + +The doctor, who had the gift of working miracles, told the sultan that, +with his consent, he would give him a practical proof of the +possibility of the circumstance related of Mahomet. The sultan agreed. +The doctor therefore directed that a huge tub of water should be +brought in, and, while the prince stood before it with his courtiers +around, the holy man bade him plunge his head into the water, and draw +it out again. The sultan immersed his head, and had no sooner done so, +than he found himself alone at the foot of a mountain on a desert +shore. The prince first began to rave against the doctor for this +piece of treachery and witchcraft. Perceiving however that all his +rage was vain, and submitting himself to the imperiousness of his +situation, he began to seek for some habitable tract. By and by he +discovered people cutting down wood in a forest, and, having no remedy, +he was glad to have recourse to the same employment. In process of +time he was brought to a town; and there by great good fortune, after +other adventures, he married a woman of beauty and wealth, and lived +long enough with her, for her to bear him seven sons and seven +daughters. He was afterwards reduced to want, so as to be obliged to +ply in the streets as a porter for his livelihood. One day, as he +walked alone on the sea-shore, ruminating on his hard fate, he was +seized with a fit of devotion, and threw off his clothes, that he +might wash himself, agreeably to the Mahometan custom, previously to +saying his prayers. He had no sooner however plunged into the sea, and +raised his head again above water, than he found himself standing by +the side of the tub that had been brought in, with all the great +persons of his court round him, and the holy man close at his side. He +found that the long series of imaginary adventures he had passed +through, had in reality occupied but one minute of time. + + +INSTITUTION OF FRIARS. + +About this time a great revolution took place in the state of +literature in Europe. The monks, who at one period considerably +contributed to preserve the monuments of ancient learning, memorably +fell off in reputation and industry. Their communities by the +donations of the pious grew wealthy; and the monks themselves +inhabited splendid palaces, and became luxurious, dissipated and idle. +Upon the ruins of their good fame rose a very extraordinary race of +men, called Friars. The monks professed celibacy, and to have no +individual property; but the friars abjured all property, both private +and in common. They had no place where to lay their heads, and +subsisted as mendicants upon the alms of their contemporaries. They +did not hide themselves in refectories and dormitories, but lived +perpetually before the public. In the sequel indeed they built +Friaries for their residence; but these were no less distinguished for +the simplicity and humbleness of their appearance, than the monasteries +were for their grandeur and almost regal magnificence. The Friars were +incessant in preaching and praying, voluntarily exposed themselves to +the severest hardships, and were distinguished by a fervour of devotion +and charitable activity that knew no bounds. We might figure them to +ourselves as swallowed up in these duties. But they added to their +merits an incessant earnestness in learning and science. A new era in +intellect and subtlety of mind began with them; and a set of the most +wonderful men in depth of application, logical acuteness, and +discoveries in science distinguished this period. They were few indeed, +in comparison of the world of ignorance that every where surrounded +them; but they were for that reason only the more conspicuous. They +divided themselves principally into two orders, the Dominicans and +Franciscans. And all that was most illustrious in intellect at this +period belonged either to the one or the other. + + +ALBERTUS MAGNUS. + +Albertus Magnus, a Dominican, was one of the most famous of these. He +was born according to some accounts in the year 1193, and according to +others in 1205. It is reported of him, that he was naturally very dull, +and so incapable of instruction, that he was on the point of quitting +the cloister from despair of learning what his vocation required, when +the blessed virgin appeared to him in a vision, and enquired of him in +which he desired to excel, philosophy or divinity. He chose philosophy; +and the virgin assured him that he should become incomparable in that, +but, as a punishment for not having chosen divinity, he should sink, +before he died, into his former stupidity. It is added that, after +this apparition, he had an infinite deal of wit, and advanced in +science with so rapid a progress as utterly to astonish the masters. +He afterwards became bishop of Ratisbon. + +It is related of Albertus, that he made an entire man of brass, +putting together its limbs under various constellations, and occupying +no less than thirty years in its formation. This man would answer all +sorts of questions, and was even employed by its maker as a domestic. +But what is more extraordinary, this machine is said to have become at +length so garrulous, that Thomas Aquinas, being a pupil of Albertus, +and finding himself perpetually disturbed in his abstrusest +speculations by its uncontrolable loquacity, in a rage caught up a +hammer, and beat it to pieces. According to other accounts the man of +Albertus Magnus was composed, not of metal, but of flesh and bones +like other men; but this being afterwards judged to be impossible, and +the virtue of images, rings, and planetary sigils being in great vogue, +it was conceived that this figure was formed of brass, and indebted +for its virtue to certain conjunctions and aspects of the planets. +[168] + +A further extraordinary story is told of Albertus Magnus, well +calculated to exemplify the ideas of magic with which these ages +abounded. William, earl of Holland, and king of the Romans, was +expected at a certain time to pass through Cologne. Albertus had set +his heart upon obtaining from this prince the cession of a certain +tract of land upon which to erect a convent. The better to succeed in +his application he conceived the following scheme. He invited the +prince on his journey to partake of a magnificent entertainment. To +the surprise of every body, when the prince arrived, he found the +preparations for the banquet spread in the open air. It was in the +depth of winter, when the earth was bound up in frost, and the whole +face of things was covered with snow. The attendants of the court were +mortified, and began to express their discontent in loud murmurs. No +sooner however was the king with Albertus and his courtiers seated at +table, than the snow instantly disappeared, the temperature of summer +shewed itself, and the sun burst forth with a dazzling splendour. The +ground became covered with the richest verdure; the trees were clothed +at once with foliage, flowers and fruits: and a vintage of the richest +grapes, accompanied with a ravishing odour, invited the spectators to +partake. A thousand birds sang on every branch. A train of pages +shewed themselves, fresh and graceful in person and attire, and were +ready diligently to supply the wants of all, while every one was +struck with astonishment as to who they were and from whence they came. +The guests were obliged to throw off their upper garments the better +to cool themselves. The whole assembly was delighted with their +entertainment, and Albertus easily gained his suit of the king. +Presently after, the banquet disappeared; all was wintry and solitary +as before; the snow lay thick upon the ground; and the guests in all +haste snatched up the garments they had laid aside, and hurried into +the apartments, that by numerous fires on the blazing hearth they +might counteract the dangerous chill which threatened to seize on +their limbs. [169] + + +ROGER BACON. + +Roger Bacon, of whom extraordinary stories of magic have been told, +and who was about twenty years younger than Albertus, was one of the +rarest geniuses that have existed on earth. He was a Franciscan friar. +He wrote grammars of the Latin, Greek and Hebrew languages. He was +profound in the science of optics. He explained the nature of +burning-glasses, and of glasses which magnify and diminish, the +microscope and the telescope. He discovered the composition of +gunpowder. He ascertained the true length of the solar year; and his +theory was afterwards brought into general use, but upon a narrow +scale, by Pope Gregory XIII, nearly three hundred years after his +death. [170] + +But for all these discoveries he underwent a series of the most bitter +persecutions. It was imputed to him by the superiors of his order that +the improvements he suggested in natural philosophy were the effects +of magic, and were suggested to him through an intercourse with +infernal spirits. They forbade him to communicate any of his +speculations. They wasted his frame with rigorous fasting, often +restricting him to a diet of bread and water, and prohibited all +strangers to have access to him. Yet he went on indefatigably in +pursuit of the secrets of nature. [171] At length Clement IV, to whom +he appealed, procured him a considerable degree of liberty. But, after +the death of that pontiff, he was again put under confinement, and +continued in that state for a further period of ten years. He was +liberated but a short time before his death. + +Freind says, [172] that, among other ingenious contrivances, he put +statues in motion, and drew articulate sounds from a brazen head, not +however by magic, but by an artificial application of the principles +of natural philosophy. This probably furnished a foundation for the +tale of Friar Bacon and Friar Bungy, which was one of the earliest +productions to which the art of printing was applied in England. These +two persons are said to have entertained the project of inclosing +England with a wall, so as to render it inaccessible to any invader. +They accordingly raised the devil, as the person best able to inform +them how this was to be done. The devil advised them to make a brazen +head, with all the internal structure and organs of a human head. The +construction would cost them much time; and they must then wait with +patience till the faculty of speech descended upon it. It would +finally however become an oracle, and, if the question were propounded +to it, would teach them the solution of their problem. The friars +spent seven years in bringing the structure to perfection, and then +waited day after day, in expectation that it would utter articulate +sounds. At length nature became exhausted in them, and they lay down +to sleep, having first given it strictly in charge to a servant of +theirs, clownish in nature, but of strict fidelity, that he should +awaken them the moment the image began to speak. That period arrived. +The head uttered sounds, but such as the clown judged unworthy of +notice. "Time is!" it said. No notice was taken; and a long pause +ensued. "Time was!" A similar pause, and no notice. "Time is passed!" +And the moment these words were uttered, a tremendous storm ensued, +with thunder and lightning, and the head was shivered into a thousand +pieces. Thus the experiment of friar Bacon and friar Bungy came to +nothing. + + +THOMAS AQUINAS. + +Thomas Aquinas, who has likewise been brought under the imputation of +magic, was one of the profoundest scholars and subtlest logicians of +his day. He also furnishes a remarkable instance of the ascendant +which the friars at that time obtained over the minds of ingenuous +young men smitten with the thirst of knowledge. He was a youth of +illustrious birth, and received the rudiments of his education under +the monks of Monte Cassino, and in the university of Naples. But, not +contented with these advantages, he secretly entered himself into the +society of Preaching Friars, or Dominicans, at seventeen years of age. +His mother, being indignant that he should thus take the vow of +poverty, and sequester himself from the world for life, employed every +means in her power to induce him to alter his purpose, but in vain. +The friars, to deliver him from her importunities, removed him from +Naples to Terracina, from Terracina to Anagnia, and from Anagnia to +Rome. His mother followed him in all these changes of residence, but +was not permitted so much as to see him. At length she spirited up his +two elder brothers to seize him by force. They waylaid him in his road +to Paris, whither he was sent to complete his course of instruction, +and carried him off to the castle of Aquino where he had been born. +Here he was confined for two years; but he found a way to correspond +with the superiors of his order, and finally escaped from a window in +the castle. St. Thomas Aquinas (for he was canonised after his death) +exceeded perhaps all men that ever existed in the severity and +strictness of his metaphysical disquisitions, and thus acquired the +name of the Seraphic Doctor. + +It was to be expected that a man, who thus immersed himself in the +depths of thought, should be an inexorable enemy to noise and +interruption. We have seen that he dashed to pieces the artificial man +of brass, that Albertus Magnus, who was his tutor, had spent thirty +years in bringing to perfection, being impelled to this violence by +its perpetual and unceasing garrulity. [173] It is further said, that +his study being placed in a great thoroughfare, where the grooms were +all day long exercising their horses, he found it necessary to apply a +remedy to this nuisance. He made by the laws of magic a small horse of +brass, which he buried two or three feet under ground in the midst of +this highway; and, having done so, no horse would any longer pass +along the road. It was in vain that the grooms with whip and spur +sought to conquer their repugnance. They were finally compelled to +give up the attempt, and to choose another place for their daily +exercise. [174] + +It has further been sought to fix the imputation of magic upon Thomas +Aquinas by imputing to him certain books written on that science; but +these are now acknowledged to be spurious. [175] + + +PETER OF APONO. + +Peter of Apono, so called from a village of that name in the vicinity +of Padua, where he was born in the year 1250, was an eminent +philosopher, mathematician and astrologer, but especially excelled in +physic. Finding that science at a low ebb in his native country, he +resorted to Paris, where it especially flourished; and after a time +returning home, exercised his art with extraordinary success, and by +this means accumulated great wealth. + +But all his fame and attainments were poisoned to him by the accusation +of magic. Among other things he was said to possess seven spirits, +each of them inclosed in a crystal vessel, from whom he received every +information he desired in the seven liberal arts. He was further +reported to have had the extraordinary faculty of causing the money he +expended in his disbursements, immediately to come back into his own +purse. He was besides of a hasty and revengeful temper. In consequence +of this it happened to him, that, having a neighbour, who had an +admirable spring of water in his garden, and who was accustomed to +suffer the physician to send for a daily supply, but who for some +displeasure or inconvenience withdrew his permission, Peter d'Apono, +by the aid of the devil, removed the spring from the garden in which +it had flowed, and turned it to waste in the public street. For some +of these accusations he was called to account by the tribunal of the +inquisition. While he was upon his trial however, the unfortunate man +died. But so unfavourable was the judgment of the inquisitors +respecting him, that they decreed that his bones should be dug up, and +publicly burned. Some of his friends got intimation of this, and saved +him from the impending disgrace by removing his remains. Disappointed +in this, the inquisitors proceeded to burn him in effigy. + + +ENGLISH LAW OF HIGH TREASON. + +It may seem strange that in a treatise concerning necromancy we should +have occasion to speak of the English law of high treason. But on +reflection perhaps it may appear not altogether alien to the subject. +This crime is ordinarily considered by our lawyers as limited and +defined by the statute of 25 Edward III. As Blackstone has observed, +"By the ancient common law there was a great latitude left in the +breast of the judges, to determine what was treason, or not so: +whereby the creatures of tyrannical power had opportunity to create +abundance of constructive treasons; that is, to raise, by forced and +arbitrary constructions, offences into the crime and punishment of +treason, which were never suspected to be such. To prevent these +inconveniences, the statute of 25 Edward III was made." [176] This +statute divides treason into seven distinct branches; and the first +and chief of these is, "when a man doth compass or imagine the death +of our lord the king." + +Now the first circumstance that strikes us in this affair is, why the +crime was not expressed in more perspicuous and appropriate language? +Why, for example, was it not said, that the first and chief branch of +treason was to "kill the king?" Or, if that limitation was not held to +be sufficiently ample, could it not have been added, it is treason to +"attempt, intend, or contrive to kill the king?" We are apt to make +much too large an allowance for what is considered as the vague and +obsolete language of our ancestors. Logic was the element in which the +scholars of what are called the dark ages were especially at home. It +was at that period that the description of human geniuses, called the +Schoolmen, principally flourished. The writers who preceded the +Christian era, possessed in an extraordinary degree the gift of +imagination and invention. But they had little to boast on the score +of arrangement, and discovered little skill in the strictness of an +accurate deduction. Meanwhile the Schoolmen had a surprising subtlety +in weaving the web of an argument, and arriving by a close deduction, +through a multitude of steps, to a sound and irresistible conclusion. +Our lawyers to a certain degree formed themselves on the discipline of +the Schoolmen. Nothing can be more forcibly contrasted, than the mode +of pleading among the ancients, and that which has characterised the +processes of the moderns. The pleadings of the ancients were praxises +of the art of oratorical persuasion; the pleadings of the moderns +sometimes, though rarely, deviate into oratory, but principally +consist in dextrous subtleties upon words, or a nice series of +deductions, the whole contexture of which is endeavoured to be woven +into one indissoluble substance. Several striking examples have been +preserved of the mode of pleading in the reign of Edward II, in which +the exceptions taken for the defendant, and the replies supporting the +mode of proceeding on behalf of the plaintiff, in no respect fall +short of the most admired shifts, quirks and subtleties of the great +lawyers of later times. [177] + +It would be certainly wrong therefore to consider the legal phrase, to +"compass or imagine the death of the king," as meaning the same thing +as to "kill, or intend to kill" him. At all events we may take it for +granted, that to "compass" does not mean to accomplish; but rather to +"take in hand, to go about to effect." There is therefore no form of +words here forbidding to "kill the king." The phrase, to "imagine," +does not appear less startling. What is, to a proverb, more lawless +than imagination? + + Evil into the mind of God or man + May come and go, so unapproved, and leave + No spot or blame behind. + +What can be more tyrannical, than an inquisition into the sports and +freaks of fancy? What more unsusceptible of detection or evidence? How +many imperceptible shades of distinction between the guilt and +innocence that characterise them!--Meanwhile the force and propriety +of these terms will strikingly appear, if we refer them to the popular +ideas of witchcraft. Witches were understood to have the power of +destroying life, without the necessity of approaching the person whose +life was to be destroyed, or producing any consciousness in him of the +crime about to be perpetrated. One method was by exposing an image of +wax to the action of fire; while, in proportion as the image wasted +away, the life of the individual who was the object contrived against, +was undermined and destroyed. Another was by incantations and spells. +Either of these might fitly be called the "compassing or imagining the +death." Imagination is, beside this, the peculiar province of +witchcraft. And in these pretended hags the faculty is no longer +desultory and erratic. Conscious of their power, they are supposed to +have subjected it to system and discipline. They apply its secret and +trackless energy with an intentness and a vigour, which ordinary +mortals may in vain attempt to emulate in an application of the force +of inert matter, or of the different physical powers by means of which +such stupendous effects have often been produced.--How universal and +familiar then must we consider the ideas of witchcraft to have been +before language which properly describes the secret practices of such +persons, and is not appropriate to any other, could have been found to +insinuate itself into the structure of the most solemn act of our +legislature, that act which beyond all others was intended to narrow +or shut out the subtle and dangerous inroads of arbitrary power! + + +ZIITO. + +Very extraordinary things are related of Ziito, a sorcerer, in the +court of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia and afterwards emperor of Germany, +in the latter part of the fourteenth century. This is perhaps, all +things considered, the most wonderful specimen of magical power any +where to be found. It is gravely recorded by Dubravius, bishop of +Olmutz, in his History of Bohemia. It was publicly exhibited on +occasion of the marriage of Wenceslaus with Sophia, daughter of the +elector Palatine of Bavaria, before a vast assembled multitude. + +The father-in-law of the king, well aware of the bridegroom's known +predilection for theatrical exhibitions and magical illusions, brought +with him to Prague, the capital of Wenceslaus, a whole waggon-load of +morrice-dancers and jugglers, who made their appearance among the +royal retinue. Meanwhile Ziito, the favourite magician of the king, +took his place obscurely among the ordinary spectators. He however +immediately arrested the attention of the strangers, being remarked +for his extraordinary deformity, and a mouth that stretched completely +from ear to ear. Ziito was for some time engaged in quietly observing +the tricks and sleights that were exhibited. At length, while the +chief magician of the elector Palatine was still busily employed in +shewing some of the most admired specimens of his art, the Bohemian, +indignant at what appeared to him the bungling exhibitions of his +brother-artist, came forward, and reproached him with the unskilfulness +of his performances. The two professors presently fell into warm +debate. Ziito, provoked at the insolence of his rival, made no more +ado but swallowed him whole before the multitude, attired as he was, +all but his shoes, which he objected to because they were dirty. He +then retired for a short while to a closet, and presently returned, +leading the magician along with him. + +Having thus disposed of his rival, Ziito proceeded to exhibit the +wonders of his art. He shewed himself first in his proper shape, and +then in those of different persons successively, with countenances and +a stature totally dissimilar to his own; at one time splendidly +attired in robes of purple and silk, and then in the twinkling of an +eye in coarse linen and a clownish coat of frieze. He would proceed +along the field with a smooth and undulating motion without changing +the posture of a limb, for all the world as if he were carried along +in a ship. He would keep pace with the king's chariot, in a car drawn +by barn-door fowls. He also amused the king's guests as they sat at +table, by causing, when they stretched out their hands to the different +dishes, sometimes their hands to turn into the cloven feet of an ox, +and at other times into the hoofs of a horse. He would clap on them +the antlers of a deer, so that, when they put their heads out at +window to see some sight that was going by, they could by no means +draw them back again; while he in the mean time feasted on the savoury +cates that had been spread before them, at his leisure. + +At one time he pretended to be in want of money, and to task his wits +to devise the means to procure it. On such an occasion he took up a +handful of grains of corn, and presently gave them the form and +appearance of thirty hogs well fatted for the market. He drove these +hogs to the residence of one Michael, a rich dealer, but who was +remarked for being penurious and thrifty in his bargains. He offered +them to Michael for whatever price he should judge reasonable. The +bargain was presently struck, Ziito at the same time warning the +purchaser, that he should on no account drive them to the river to +drink. Michael however paid no attention to this advice; and the hogs +no sooner arrived at the river, than they turned into grains of corn +as before. The dealer, greatly enraged at this trick, sought high and +low for the seller that he might be revenged on him. At length he +found him in a vintner's shop seemingly in a gloomy and absent frame +of mind, reposing himself, with his legs stretched out on a form. The +dealer called out to him, but he seemed not to hear. Finally he seized +Ziito by one foot, plucking at it with all his might. The foot came +away with the leg and thigh; and Ziito screamed out, apparently in +great agony. He seized Michael by the nape of the neck, and dragged +him before a judge. Here the two set up their separate complaints, +Michael for the fraud that had been committed on him, and Ziito for +the irreparable injury he had suffered in his person. From this +adventure came the proverb, frequent in the days of the historian, +speaking of a person who had made an improvident bargain, "He has made +just such a purchase as Michael did with his hogs." + + +TRANSMUTATION OF METALS. + +Among the different pursuits, which engaged the curiosity of active +minds in these unenlightened ages, was that of the transmutation of +the more ordinary metals into gold and silver. This art, though not +properly of necromantic nature, was however elevated by its professors, +by means of an imaginary connection between it and astrology, and even +between it and an intercourse with invisible spirits. They believed, +that their investigations could not be successfully prosecuted but +under favourable aspects of the planets, and that it was even +indispensible to them to obtain supernatural aid. + +In proportion as the pursuit of transmutation, and the search after +the elixir of immortality grew into vogue, the adepts became desirous +of investing them with the venerable garb of antiquity. They +endeavoured to carry up the study to the time of Solomon; and there +were not wanting some who imputed it to the first father of mankind. +They were desirous to track its footsteps in Ancient Egypt; and they +found a mythological representation of it in the expedition of Jason +after the golden fleece, and in the cauldron by which Medea restored +the father of Jason to his original youth. [178] But, as has already +been said, the first unquestionable mention of the subject is to be +referred to the time of Dioclesian. [179] From that period traces of +the studies of the alchemists from time to time regularly discover +themselves. + +The study of chemistry and its supposed invaluable results was +assiduously cultivated by Geber and the Arabians. + + +ARTEPHIUS. + +Artephius is one of the earliest names that occur among the students +who sought the philosopher's stone. Of him extraordinary things are +told. He lived about the year 1130, and wrote a book of the Art of +Prolonging Human Life, in which he professes to have already attained +the age of one thousand and twenty-five years. [180] He must by this +account have been born about one hundred years after our Saviour. He +professed to have visited the infernal regions, and there to have seen +Tantalus seated on a throne of gold. He is also said by some to be the +same person, whose life has been written by Philostratus under the +name of Apollonius of Tyana. [181] He wrote a book on the philosopher's +stone, which was published in Latin and French at Paris in the year +1612. + + +RAYMOND LULLI. + +Among the European students of these interesting secrets a foremost +place is to be assigned to Raymond Lulli and Arnold of Villeneuve. + +Lulli was undoubtedly a man endowed in a very eminent degree with the +powers of intellect. He was a native of the island of Majorca, and was +born in the year 1234. He is said to have passed his early years in +profligacy and dissipation, but to have been reclaimed by the accident +of falling in love with a young woman afflicted with a cancer. This +circumstance induced him to apply himself intently to the study of +chemistry and medicine, with a view to discover a cure for her +complaint, in which he succeeded. He afterwards entered into the +community of Franciscan friars. + +Edward the First was one of the most extraordinary princes that ever +sat on a throne. He revived the study of the Roman civil law with such +success as to have merited the title of the English Justinian. He was +no less distinguished as the patron of arts and letters. He invited to +England Guido dalla Colonna, the author of the Troy Book, and Raymond +Lulli. This latter was believed in his time to have prosecuted his +studies with such success as to have discovered the _elixir vitae_, +by means of which he could keep off the assaults of old age, at least +for centuries, and the philosopher's stone. He is affirmed by these +means to have supplied to Edward the First six millions of money, to +enable him to carry on war against the Turks. + +But he was not only indefatigable in the pursuit of natural science. +He was also seized with an invincible desire to convert the Mahometans +to the Christian faith. For this purpose he entered earnestly upon the +study of the Oriental languages. He endeavoured to prevail on different +princes of Europe to concur in his plan, and to erect colleges for the +purpose, but without success. He at length set out alone upon his +enterprise, but met with small encouragement. He penetrated into +Africa and Asia. He made few converts, and was with difficulty suffered +to depart, under a solemn injunction that he should not return. But +Lulli chose to obey God rather than man, and ventured a second time. +The Mahometans became exasperated with his obstinacy, and are said to +have stoned him to death at the age of eighty years. His body was +however transported to his native place; and miracles are reported to +have been worked at his tomb. [182] + +Raymond Lulli is beside famous for what he was pleased to style his +Great Art. The ordinary accounts however that are given of this art +assume a style of burlesque, rather than of philosophy. He is said to +have boasted that by means of it he could enable any one to argue +logically on any subject for a whole day together, independently of +any previous study of the subject in debate. To the details of the +process Swift seems to have been indebted for one of the humorous +projects described by him in his voyage to Laputa. Lulli recommended +that certain general terms of logic, metaphysics, ethics or theology +should first be collected. These were to be inscribed separately upon +square pieces of parchment. They were then to be placed on a frame so +constructed that by turning a handle they might revolve freely, and +form endless combinations. One term would stand for a subject, and +another for a predicate. The student was then diligently to inspect +the different combinations that fortuitously arose, and exercising the +subtlety of his faculties to select such as he should find best +calculated for his purposes. He would thus carry on the process of his +debate; and an extraordinary felicity would occasionally arise, +suggesting the most ingenious hints, and leading on to the most +important discoveries. [183]--If a man with the eminent faculties +which Lulli otherwise appeared to have possessed really laid down the +rules of such an art, all he intended by it must have been to satirize +the gravity with which the learned doctors of his time carried on +their grave disputations in mood and figure, having regard only to the +severity of the rule by which they debated, and holding themselves +totally indifferent whether they made any real advances in the +discovery of truth. + + +ARNOLD OF VILLENEUVE. + +Arnold of Villeneuve, who lived about the same time, was a man of +eminent attainments. He made a great proficiency in Greek, Hebrew, and +Arabic. He devoted himself in a high degree to astrology, and was so +confident in his art, as to venture to predict that the end of the +world would occur in a few years; but he lived to witness the +fallaciousness of his prophecy. He had much reputation as a physician. +He appears to have been a bold thinker. He maintained that deeds of +charity were of more avail than the sacrifice of the mass, and that no +one would be damned hereafter, but such as were proved to afford an +example of immoral conduct. Like all the men of these times who were +distinguished by the profoundness of their studies, he was accused of +magic. For this, or upon a charge of heresy, he was brought under the +prosecution of the inquisition. But he was alarmed by the fate of +Peter of Apono, and by recantation or some other mode of prudent +contrivance was fortunate enough to escape. He is one of the persons +to whom the writing of the book, _De Tribus Impostoribus_, Of the +Three Impostors (Moses, Jesus Christ and Mahomet) was imputed! [184] + + +ENGLISH LAWS RESPECTING TRANSMUTATION. + +So great an alarm was conceived about this time respecting the art of +transmutation, that an act of parliament was passed in the fifth year +of Henry IV, 1404, which lord Coke states as the shortest of our +statutes, determining that the making of gold or silver shall be +deemed felony. This law is said to have resulted from the fear at that +time entertained by the houses of lords and commons, lest the +executive power, finding itself by these means enabled to increase the +revenue of the crown to any degree it pleased, should disdain to ask +aid from the legislature; and in consequence should degenerate into +tyranny and arbitrary power. [185] + +George Ripley, of Ripley in the county of York, is mentioned, towards +the latter part of the fifteenth century, as having discovered the +philosopher's stone, and by its means contributed one hundred thousand +pounds to the knights of Rhodes, the better to enable them to carry on +their war against the Turks. [186] + +About this time however the tide appears to have turned, and the alarm +respecting the multiplication of the precious metals so greatly to +have abated, that patents were issued in the thirty-fifth year of +Henry VI, for the encouragement of such as were disposed to seek the +universal medicine, and to endeavour the transmutation of inferior +metals into gold. [187] + + + + +REVIVAL OF LETTERS. + + +While these things were going on in Europe, the period was gradually +approaching, when the energies of the human mind were to loosen its +shackles, and its independence was ultimately to extinguish those +delusions and that superstition which had so long enslaved it. +Petrarch, born in the year 1304, was deeply impregnated with a passion +for classical lore, was smitten with the love of republican +institutions, and especially distinguished himself for an adoration of +Homer. Dante, a more sublime and original genius than Petrarch, was +his contemporary. About the same time Boccaccio in his Decamerone gave +at once to Italian prose that purity and grace, which none of his +successors in the career of literature have ever been able to excel. +And in our own island Chaucer with a daring hand redeemed his native +tongue from the disuse and ignominy into which it had fallen, and +poured out the immortal strains that the genuine lovers of the English +tongue have ever since perused with delight, while those who are +discouraged by its apparent crabbedness, have yet grown familiar with +his thoughts in the smoother and more modern versification of Dryden +and Pope. From that time the principles of true taste have been more +or less cultivated, while with equal career independence of thought +and an ardent spirit of discovery have continually proceeded, and made +a rapid advance towards the perfect day. + +But the dawn of literature and intellectual freedom were still a long +time ere they produced their full effect. The remnant of the old woman +clung to the heart with a tenacious embrace. Three or four centuries +elapsed, while yet the belief in sorcery and witchcraft was alive in +certain classes of society. And then, as is apt to occur in such cases, +the expiring folly occasionally gave tokens of its existence with a +convulsive vehemence, and became only the more picturesque and +impressive through the strong contrast of lights and shadows that +attended its manifestations. + + +JOAN OF ARC. + +One of the most memorable stories on record is that of Joan of Arc, +commonly called the Maid of Orleans. Henry the Fifth of England won +the decisive battle of Agincourt in the year 1415, and some time after +concluded a treaty with the reigning king of France, by which he was +recognised, in case of that king's death, as heir to the throne. +Henry V died in the year 1422, and Charles VI of France in less than +two months after. Henry VI was only nine months old at the time of his +father's death; but such was the deplorable state of France, that he +was in the same year proclaimed king in Paris, and for some years +seemed to have every prospect of a fortunate reign. John duke of +Bedford, the king's uncle, was declared regent of France: the son of +Charles VI was reduced to the last extremity; Orleans was the last +strong town in the heart of the kingdom which held out in his favour; +and that place seemed on the point to surrender to the conqueror. + +In this fearful crisis appeared Joan of Arc, and in the most incredible +manner turned the whole tide of affairs. She was a servant in a poor +inn at Domremi, and was accustomed to perform the coarsest offices, +and in particular to ride the horses to a neighbouring stream to water. +Of course the situation of France and her hereditary king formed the +universal subject of conversation; and Joan became deeply impressed +with the lamentable state of her country and the misfortunes of her +king. By dint of perpetual meditation, and feeling in her breast the +promptings of energy and enterprise, she conceived the idea that she +was destined by heaven to be the deliverer of France. Agreeably to the +state of intellectual knowledge at that period, she persuaded herself +that she saw visions, and held communication with the saints. She had +conversations with St. Margaret, and St. Catherine of Fierbois. They +told her that she was commissioned by God to raise the siege of +Orleans, and to conduct Charles VII to his coronation at Rheims. St. +Catherine commanded her to demand a sword which was in her church at +Fierbois, which the Maid described by particular tokens, though she +had never seen it. She then presented herself to Baudricourt, governor +of the neighbouring town of Vaucouleurs, telling him her commission, +and requiring him to send her to the king at Chinon. Baudricourt at +first made light of her application; but her importunity and the +ardour she expressed at length excited him. He put on her a man's +attire, gave her arms, and sent her under an escort of two gentlemen +and their attendants to Chinon. Here she immediately addressed the +king in person, who had purposely hid himself behind his courtiers +that she might not know him. She then delivered her message, and +offered in the name of the Most High to raise the siege of Orleans, +and conduct king Charles to Rheims to be anointed. As a further +confirmation she is said to have revealed to the king before a few +select friends, a secret, which nothing but divine inspiration could +have discovered to her. + +Desperate as was then the state of affairs, Charles and his ministers +immediately resolved to seize the occasion that offered, and put +forward Joan as an instrument to revive the prostrate courage of his +subjects. He had no sooner determined on this, than he pretended to +submit the truth of her mission to the most rigorous trial. He called +together an assembly of theologians and doctors, who rigorously +examined Joan, and pronounced in her favour. He referred the question +to the parliament of Poitiers; and they, who met persuaded that she +was an impostor, became convinced of her inspiration. She was mounted +on a high-bred steed, furnished with a consecrated banner, and marched, +escorted by a body of five thousand men, to the relief of Orleans. The +French, strongly convinced by so plain an interposition of heaven, +resumed the courage to which they had long been strangers. Such a +phenomenon was exactly suited to the superstition and credulity of the +age. The English were staggered with the rumours that every where went +before her, and struck with a degree of apprehension and terror that +they could not shake off. The garrison, informed of her approach, made +a sally on the other side of the town; and Joan and her convoy entered +without opposition. She displayed her standard in the market-place, +and was received as a celestial deliverer. + +She appears to have been endowed with a prudence, not inferior to her +courage and spirit of enterprise. With great docility she caught the +hints of the commanders by whom she was surrounded; and, convinced of +her own want of experience and skill, delivered them to the forces as +the dictates of heaven. Thus the knowledge and discernment of the +generals were brought into play, at the same time that their +suggestions acquired new weight, when falling from the lips of the +heaven-instructed heroine. A second convoy arrived; the waggons and +troops passed between the redoubts of the English; while a dead +silence and astonishment reigned among the forces, so lately +enterprising and resistless. Joan now called on the garrison no longer +to stand upon the defensive, but boldly to attack the army of the +besiegers. She took one redoubt and then another. The English, +overwhelmed with amazement, scarcely dared to lift a hand against her. +Their veteran generals became spell-bound and powerless; and their +soldiers were driven before the prophetess like a flock of sheep. The +siege was raised. + +Joan followed the English garrison to a fortified town which they +fixed on as their place of retreat. The siege lasted ten days; the +place was taken; and all the English within it made prisoners. The +late victorious forces now concentred themselves at Patay in the +Orleanois; Joan advanced to meet them. The battle lasted not a moment; +it was rather a flight than a combat; Fastolfe, one of the bravest of +our commanders, threw down his arms, and ran for his life; Talbot and +Scales, the other generals, were made prisoners. The siege of Orleans +was raised on the eighth of May, 1429; the battle of Patay was fought +on the tenth of the following month. Joan was at this time twenty-two +years of age. + +This extraordinary turn having been given to the affairs of the +kingdom, Joan next insisted that the king should march to Rheims, in +order to his being crowned. Rheims lay in a direction expressly +through the midst of the enemies' garrisons. But every thing yielded +to the marvellous fortune that attended upon the heroine. Troyes +opened its gates; Chalons followed the example; Rheims sent a +deputation with the keys of the city, which met Charles on his march. +The proposed solemnity took place amidst the extacies and enthusiastic +shouts of his people. It was no sooner over, than Joan stept forward. +She said, she had now performed the whole of what God had commissioned +her to do; she was satisfied; she intreated the king to dismiss her to +the obscurity from which she had sprung. + +The ministers and generals of France however found Joan too useful an +instrument, to be willing to part with her thus early; and she yielded +to their earnest expostulations. Under her guidance they assailed Laon, +Soissons, Chateau Thierry, Provins, and many other places, and took +them one after another. She threw herself into Compiegne, which was +besieged by the Duke of Burgundy in conjunction with certain English +commanders. The day after her arrival she headed a sally against the +enemy; twice she repelled them; but, finding their numbers increase +every moment with fresh reinforcements, she directed a retreat. Twice +she returned upon her pursuers, and made them recoil, the third time +she was less fortunate. She found herself alone, surrounded with the +enemy; and after having enacted prodigies of valour, she was compelled +to surrender a prisoner. This happened on the twenty-fifth of May, +1430. + +It remained to be determined what should be the fate of this admirable +woman. Both friends and enemies agreed that her career had been +attended with a supernatural power. The French, who were so infinitely +indebted to her achievements, and who owed the sudden and glorious +reverse of their affairs to her alone, were convinced that she was +immediately commissioned by God, and vied with each other in reciting +the miraculous phenomena which marked every step in her progress. The +English, who saw all the victorious acquisitions of Henry V crumbling +from their grasp, were equally impressed with the manifest miracle, +but imputed all her good-fortune to a league with the prince of +darkness. They said that her boasted visions were so many delusions of +the devil. They determined to bring her to trial for the tremendous +crimes of sorcery and witchcraft. They believed that, if she were once +convicted and led out to execution, the prowess and valour which had +hitherto marked their progress would return to them, and that they +should obtain the same superiority over their disheartened foes. The +devil, who had hitherto been her constant ally, terrified at the +spectacle of the flames that consumed her, would instantly return to +the infernal regions, and leave the field open to English enterprise +and energy, and to the interposition of God and his saints. + +An accusation was prepared against her, and all the solemnities of a +public trial were observed. But the proofs were so weak and +unsatisfactory, and Joan, though oppressed and treated with the utmost +severity, displayed so much acuteness and presence of mind, that the +court, not venturing to proceed to the last extremity, contented +themselves with sentencing her to perpetual imprisonment, and to be +allowed no other nourishment than bread and water for life. Before +they yielded to this mitigation of punishment, they caused her to sign +with her mark a recantation of her offences. She acknowledged that the +enthusiasm that had guided her was an illusion, and promised never +more to listen to its suggestions. + +The hatred of her enemies however was not yet appeased. They +determined in some way to entrap her. They had clothed her in a female +garb; they insidiously laid in her way the habiliments of a man. The +fire smothered in the bosom of the maid, revived at the sight; she was +alone; she caught up the garments, and one by one adjusted them to her +person. Spies were set upon her to watch for this event; they burst +into the apartment. What she had done was construed into no less +offence than that of a relapsed heretic; there was no more pardon for +such confirmed delinquency; she was brought out to be burned alive in +the market-place of Rouen, and she died, embracing a crucifix, and in +her last moments calling upon the name of Jesus. A few days more than +twelve months, had elapsed between the period of her first captivity +and her execution. + + +ELEANOR COBHAM, DUCHESS OF GLOUCESTER. + +This was a period in which the ideas of witchcraft had caught fast +hold of the minds of mankind; and those accusations, which by the +enlightened part of the species would now be regarded as worthy only +of contempt, were then considered as charges of the most flatigious +[Errata: _read_ flagitious] nature. While John, duke of Bedford, +the eldest uncle of king Henry VI, was regent of France, Humphrey of +Gloucester, next brother to Bedford, was lord protector of the realm +of England. Though Henry was now nineteen years of age, yet, as he was +a prince of slender capacity, Humphrey still continued to discharge +the functions of sovereignty. He was eminently endowed with popular +qualities, and was a favourite with the majority of the nation. He had +however many enemies, one of the chief of whom was Henry Beaufort, +great-uncle to the king, and cardinal of Winchester. One of the means +employed by this prelate to undermine the power of Humphrey, consisted +in a charge of witchcraft brought against Eleanor Cobham, his wife. + +This woman had probably yielded to the delusions, which artful persons, +who saw into the weakness of her character, sought to practise upon +her. She was the second wife of Humphrey, and he was suspected to have +indulged in undue familiarity with her, before he was a widower. His +present duchess was reported to have had recourse to witchcraft in the +first instance, by way of securing his wayward inclinations. The duke +of Bedford had died in 1435; and Humphrey now, in addition to the +actual exercise of the powers of sovereigny, was next heir to the +crown in case of the king's decease. This weak and licentious woman, +being now duchess of Gloucester, and wife to the lord protector, +directed her ambition to the higher title and prerogatives of a queen, +and by way of feeding her evil passions, called to her counsels +Margery Jourdain, commonly called the witch of Eye, Roger Bolingbroke, +an astrologer and supposed magician, Thomas Southwel, canon of St. +Stephen's, and one John Hume, or Hun, a priest. These persons +frequently met the duchess in secret cabal. They were accused of +calling up spirits from the infernal world; and they made an image of +wax, which they slowly consumed before a fire, expecting that, as the +image gradually wasted away, so the constitution and life of the poor +king would decay and finally perish. + +Hume, or Hun, is supposed to have turned informer, and upon his +information several of these persons were taken into custody. After +previous examination, on the twenty-fifth of July, 1441, Bolingbroke +was placed upon a scaffold before the cross of St. Paul's, with a +chair curiously painted, which was supposed to be one of his +implements of necromancy, and dressed in mystical attire, and there, +before the archbishop of Canterbury, the cardinal of Winchester, and +several other bishops, made abjuration of all his unlawful arts. + +A short time after, the duchess of Gloucester, having fled to the +sanctuary at Westminster, her case was referred to the same high +persons, and Bolingbroke was brought forth to give evidence against +her. She was of consequence committed to custody in the castle of +Leeds near Maidstone, to take her trial in the month of October. A +commission was directed to the lord treasurer, several noblemen, and +certain judges of both benches, to enquire into all manner of treasons, +sorceries, and other things that might be hurtful to the king's person, +and Bolingbroke and Southwel as principals, and the duchess of +Gloucester as accessory, were brought before them. Margery Jourdain +was arraigned at the same time; and she, as a witch and relapsed +heretic, was condemned to be burned in Smithfield. The duchess of +Gloucester was sentenced to do penance on three several days, walking +through the streets of London, with a lighted taper in her hand, +attended by the lord mayor, the sheriffs, and a select body of the +livery, and then to be banished for life to the isle of Man. Thomas +Southwel died in prison; and Bolingbroke was hanged at Tyburn on the +eighteenth of November. + + +RICHARD III. + +An event occurred not very long after this, which deserves to be +mentioned, as being well calculated to shew how deep an impression +ideas of witchcraft had made on the public mind even in the gravest +affairs and the counsels of a nation. Richard duke of Gloucester, +afterwards Richard III, shortly before his usurpation of the crown in +1483, had recourse to this expedient for disarming the power of his +enemies, which he feared as an obstacle to his project. Being lord +protector, he came abruptly into the assembly of the council that he +had left but just before, and suddenly asked, what punishment they +deserved who should be found to have plotted against his life, being +the person, as nearest akin to the young king, intrusted in chief with +the affairs of the nation? And, a suitable answer being returned, he +said the persons he accused were the queen-dowager, and Jane Shore, +the favourite concubine of the late king, who by witchcraft and +forbidden arts had sought to destroy him. And, while he spoke, he laid +bare his left arm up to the elbow, which appeared shrivelled and +wasted in a pitiable manner. "To this condition," said he, "have these +abandoned women reduced me."--The historian adds, that it was well +known that his arm had been thus wasted from his birth. + +In January 1484, the parliament met which recognised the title of +Richard, and pronounced the marriage of Edward IV null, and its issue +illegitimate. [188] The same parliament passed an act of attainder +against Henry earl of Richmond, afterwards Henry VII, the countess of +Richmond, his mother, and a great number of other persons, many of +them the most considerable adherents of the house of Lancaster. Among +these persons are enumerated Thomas Nandick and William Knivet, +necromancers. In the first parliament of Henry VII this attainder was +reversed, and Thomas Nandick of Cambridge, conjurer, is specially +nominated as an object of free pardon. [189] + + + + +SANGUINARY PROCEEDINGS AGAINST WITCHCRAFT. + + +I am now led to the most painful part of my subject, but which does +not the less constitute one of its integral members, and which, though +painful, is deeply instructive, and constitutes a most essential +branch in the science of human nature. Wherever I could, I have +endeavoured to render the topics which offered themselves to my +examination, entertaining. When men pretended to invert the known laws +of nature, "murdering impossibility; to make what cannot be, slight +work;" I have been willing to consider the whole as an ingenious +fiction, and merely serving as an example how far credulity could go +in setting aside the deductions of our reason, and the evidence of +sense. The artists in these cases did not fail to excite admiration, +and gain some sort of applause from their contemporaries, though still +with a tingling feeling that all was not exactly as it should be, and +with a confession that the professors were exercising unhallowed arts. +It was like what has been known of the art of acting; those who +employed it were caressed and made every where welcome, but were not +allowed the distinction of Christian burial. + +But, particularly in the fifteenth century, things took a new turn. In +the dawn of the day of good sense, and when historical evidence at +length began to be weighed in the scales of judgment, men became less +careless of truth, and regarded prodigies and miracles with a different +temper. And, as it often happens, the crisis, the precise passage from +ill to better, shewed itself more calamitous, and more full of +enormities and atrocity, than the period when the understanding was +completely hood-winked, and men digested absurdities and impossibility +with as much ease as their every day food. They would not now forgive +the tampering with the axioms of eternal truth; they regarded cheat +and imposture with a very different eye; and they had recourse to the +stake and the faggot, for the purpose of proving that they would no +longer be trifled with. They treated the offenders as the most +atrocious of criminals, and thus, though by a very indirect and +circuitous method, led the way to the total dispersion of those clouds, +which hung, with most uneasy operation, on the human understanding. + +The university of Paris in the year 1398 promulgated an edict, in +which they complained that the practice of witchcraft was become more +frequent and general than at any former period. [190] + +A stratagem was at this time framed by the ecclesiastical persecutors, +of confounding together the crimes of heresy and witchcraft. The first +of these might seem to be enough in the days of bigotry and implicit +faith, to excite the horror of the vulgar; but the advocates of +religious uniformity held that they should be still more secure of +their object, if they could combine the sin of holding cheap the +authority of the recognised heads of Christian faith, with that of +men's enlisting under the banners of Satan, and becoming the avowed +and sworn vassals of his infernal empire. They accordingly seem to +have invented the ideas of a sabbath of witches, a numerous assembly +of persons who had cast off all sense of shame, and all regard for +those things which the rest of the human species held most sacred, +where the devil appeared among them in his most forbidding form, and, +by rites equally ridiculous and obscene, the persons present +acknowledged themselves his subjects. And, having invented this scene, +these cunning and mischievous persecutors found means, as we shall +presently see, of compelling their unfortunate victims to confess that +they had personally assisted at the ceremony, and performed all the +degrading offices which should consign them in the world to come to +everlasting fire. + +While I express myself thus, I by no means intend to encourage the +idea that the ecclesiastical authorities of these times were generally +hypocrites. They fully partook of the narrowness of thought of the +period in which they lived. They believed that the sin of heretical +pravity was "as the sin of witchcraft;" [191] they regarded them alike +with horror, and were persuaded that there was a natural consent and +alliance between them. Fully impressed with this conception, they +employed means from which our genuine and undebauched nature revolts, +to extort from their deluded victims a confession of what their +examiners apprehended to be true; they asked them leading questions; +they suggested the answers they desired to receive; and led the +ignorant and friendless to imagine that, if these answers were adopted, +they might expect immediately to be relieved from insupportable +tortures. The delusion went round. These unhappy wretches, finding +themselves the objects of universal abhorrence, and the hatred of +mankind, at length many of them believed that they had entered into a +league with the devil, that they had been transported by him through +the air to an assembly of souls consigned to everlasting reprobation, +that they had bound themselves in acts of fealty to their infernal +taskmasters [Errata: _read_ taskmaster], and had received from +him in return the gift of performing superhuman and supernatural feats. +This is a tremendous state of degradation of what Milton called the +"the faultless proprieties of nature," [192] which cooler thinking and +more enlightened times would lead us to regard as impossible, but to +which the uncontradicted and authentic voice of history compels us to +subscribe. + +The Albigenses and Waldenses were a set of men, who, in the +flourishing provinces of Languedoc, in the darkest ages, and when the +understandings of human creatures by a force not less memorable than +that of Procrustes were reduced to an uniform stature, shook off by +some strange and unaccountable freak, the chains that were universally +imposed, and arrived at a boldness of thinking similar to that which +Luther and Calvin after a lapse of centuries advocated with happier +auspices. With these manly and generous sentiments however they +combined a considerable portion of wild enthusiasm. They preached the +necessity of a community of goods, taught that it was necessary to +wear sandals, because sandals only had been worn by the apostles, and +devoted themselves to lives of rigorous abstinence and the most severe +self-denial. + +The Catholic church knew no other way in those days of converting +heretics, but by fire and sword; and accordingly pope Innocent the +Third published a crusade against them. The inquisition was expressly +appointed in its origin to bring back these stray sheep into the flock +of Christ; and, to support this institution in its operations, Simon +Montfort marched a numerous army for the extermination of the +offenders. One hundred thousand are said to have perished. They +disappeared from the country which had witnessed their commencement, +and dispersed themselves in the vallies of Piedmont, in Artois, and in +various other places. This crusade occurred in the commencement of the +thirteenth century; and they do not again attract the notice of +history till the middle of the fifteenth. + +Monstrelet, in his Chronicle, gives one of the earliest accounts of +the proceedings at this time instituted against these unfortunate +people, under the date of the year 1459. "In this year," says he, "in +the town of Arras, there occurred a miserable and inhuman scene, to +which, I know not why, was given the name of _Vaudoisie_. There +were taken up and imprisoned a number of considerable persons +inhabitants of this town, and others of a very inferior class. These +latter were so cruelly put to the torture, that they confessed, that +they had been transported by supernatural means to a solitary place +among woods, where the devil appeared before them in the form of a man, +though they saw not his face. He instructed them in the way in which +they should do his bidding, and exacted from them acts of homage and +obedience. He feasted them, and after, having put out the lights, they +proceeded to acts of the grossest licentiousness." These accounts, +according to Monstrelet, were dictated to the victims by their +tormentors; and they then added, under the same suggestion, the names +of divers lords, prelates, and governors of towns and bailliages, whom +they affirmed they had seen at these meetings, and who joined in the +same unholy ceremonies. The historian adds, that it cannot be +concealed that these accusations were brought by certain malicious +persons, either to gratify an ancient hatred, or to extort from the +rich sums of money, by means of which they might purchase their escape +from further prosecution. The persons apprehended were many of them +put to the torture so severely, and for so long a time, and were +tortured again and again, that they were obliged to confess what was +laid to their charge. Some however shewed so great constancy, that +they could by no means be induced to depart from the protestation of +their innocence. In fine, many of the poorer victims were inhumanly +burned; while the richer with great sums of money procured their +discharge, but at the same time were compelled to banish themselves to +distant places, remote from the scene of this cruel outrage.--Balduinus +of Artois gives a similar account, and adds that the sentence of the +judges was brought, by appeal under the revision of the parliament of +Paris, and was reversed by that judicature in the year 1491. [193] + +I have not succeeded in tracing to my satisfaction from the original +authorities the dates of the following examples, and therefore shall +refer them to the periods assigned them in Hutchinson on Witchcraft. +The facts themselves rest for the most part on the most unquestionable +authority. + +Innocent VIII published about the year 1484 a bull, in which he +affirms: "It has come to our ears, that numbers of both sexes do not +avoid to have intercourse with the infernal fiends, and that by their +sorceries they afflict both man and beast; they blight the +marriage-bed, destroy the births of women, and the increase of cattle; +they blast the corn on the ground, the grapes of the vineyard, the +fruits of the trees, and the grass and herbs of the field." For these +reasons he arms the inquisitors with apostolic power to "imprison, +convict and punish" all such as may be charged with these +offences.--The consequences of this edict were dreadful all over the +continent, particularly in Italy, Germany and France. + +Alciatus, an eminent lawyer of this period, relates, that a certain +inquisitor came about this time into the vallies of the Alps, being +commissioned to enquire out and proceed against heretical women with +whom those parts were infested. He accordingly consigned more than one +hundred to the flames, every day, like a new holocaust, sacrificing +such persons to Vulcan, as, in the judgment of the historian, were +subjects demanding rather hellebore than fire; till at length the +peasantry of the vicinity rose in arms, and drove the merciless judge +out of the country. The culprits were accused of having dishonoured +the crucifix, and denying Christ for their God. They were asserted to +have solemnised after a detestable way the devil's sabbath, in which +the fiend appeared personally among them, and instructed them in the +ceremonies of his worship. Meanwhile a question was raised whether +they personally assisted on the occasion, or only saw the solemnities +in a vision, credible witnesses having sworn that they were at home in +their beds, at the very time that they were accused of having taken +part in these blasphemies. [194] + +In 1515, more than five hundred persons are said to have suffered +capitally for the crime of witchcraft in the city of Geneva in the +course of three months. [195] + +In 1524, one thousand persons were burned on this accusation in the +territory of Como, and one hundred per annum for several year after. +[196] + +Danaeus commences his Dialogue of Witches with this observation. "Within +three months of the present time (1575) an almost infinite number of +witches have been taken, on whom the parliament of Paris has passed +judgment: and the same tribunal fails not to sit daily, as malefactors +accused of this crime are continually brought before them out of all +the provinces." + +In the year 1595 Nicholas Remi, otherwise Remigius, printed a very +curious work, entitled Demonolatreia, in which he elaborately expounds +the principles of the compact into which the devil enters with his +mortal allies, and the modes of conduct specially observed by both +parties. He boasts that his exposition is founded on an exact +observation of the judicial proceedings which had taken place under +his eye in the duchy of Lorraine, where for the preceding fifteen +years nine hundred persons, more or less, had suffered the extreme +penalty of the law for the crime of sorcery. Most of the persons tried +seem to have been sufficiently communicative as to the different kinds +of menace and compulsion by which the devil had brought them into his +terms, and the various appearances he had exhibited, and feats he had +performed: but others, says the author, had, "by preserving an +obstinate silence, shewn themselves invincible to every species of +torture that could be inflicted on them." + +But the most memorable record that remains to us on the subject of +witchcraft, is contained in an ample quarto volume, entitled A +Representation (_Tableau_) of the Ill Faith of Evil Spirits and +Demons, by Pierre De Lancre, Royal Counsellor in the Parliament of +Bordeaux. This man was appointed with one coadjutor, to enquire into +certain acts of sorcery, reported to have been committed in the +district of Labourt, near the foot of the Pyrenees; and his commission +bears date in May, 1609, and by consequence twelve months before the +death of Henry the Fourth. + +The book is dedicated to M. de Silleri, chancellor of France; and in +the dedication the author observes, that formerly those who practised +sorcery were well known for persons of obscure station and narrow +intellect; but that now the sorcerers who confess their misdemeanours, +depose, that there are seen in the customary meetings held by such +persons a great number of individuals of quality, whom Satan keeps +veiled from ordinary gaze, and who are allowed to approach near to him, +while those of a poorer and more vulgar class are thrust back to the +furthest part of the assembly. The whole narrative assumes the form of +a regular warfare between Satan on the one side, and the royal +commissioners on the other. + +At first the devil endeavoured to supply the accused with strength to +support the tortures by which it was sought to extort confession from +them, insomuch that, in an intermission of the torture, the wretches +declared that, presently falling asleep, they seemed to be in paradise, +and to enjoy the most beautiful visions. The commissioners however, +observing this, took care to grant them scarcely any remission, till +they had drawn from them, if possible, an ample confession. The devil +next proceeded to stop the mouths of the accused that they might not +confess. He leaped on their throats, and evidently caused an +obstruction of the organs of speech, so that in vain they endeavoured +to relieve themselves by disclosing all that was demanded of them. + +The historian proceeds to say that, at these sacrilegious assemblings, +they now began to murmur against the devil, as wanting power to +relieve them in their extremity. The children, the daughters, and +other relatives of the victims reproached him, not scrupling to say, +"Out upon you! you promised that our mothers who were prisoners should +not die; and look how you have kept your word with us! They have been +burned, and are a heap of ashes." In answer to this charge the devil +stoutly affirmed, that their parents, who seemed to have suffered, +were not dead, but were safe in a foreign country, assuring the +malcontents that, if they called on them, they would receive an answer. +The children called accordingly, and by an infernal illusion an answer +came, exactly in the several voices of the deceased, declaring that +they were in a state of happiness and security. + +Further to satisfy the complainers, the devil produced illusory fires, +and encouraged the dissatisfied to walk through them, assuring them +that the fires lighted by a judicial decree were as harmless and +inoffensive as these. The demon further threatened that he would cause +the prosecutors to be burned in their own fire, and even proceeded to +make them in semblance hover and alight on the branches of the +neighbouring trees. He further caused a swarm of toads to appear like +a garland to crown the heads of the sufferers, at which when in one +instance the bystanders threw stones to drive them away, one monstrous +black toad remained to the last uninjured, and finally mounted aloft, +and vanished from sight. De Lancre goes on to describe the ceremonies +of the sabbath of the devil; and a plate is inserted, presenting the +assembly in the midst of their solemnities. He describes in several +chapters the sort of contract entered into between the devil and the +sorcerers, the marks by which they may be known, the feast with which +the demon regaled them, their distorted and monstrous dance, the +copulation between the fiend and the witch, and its issue.--It is easy +to imagine with what sort of fairness the trials were conducted, when +such is the description the judge affords us of what passed at these +assemblies. Six hundred were burned under this prosecution. + +The last chapter is devoted to an accurate account of what took place +at an _auto da fe_ in the month of November 1610 at Logrogno on +the Ebro in Spain, the victims being for the greater part the unhappy +wretches, who had escaped through the Pyrenees from the merciless +prosecution that had been exercised against them by the historian of +the whole. + + +SAVONAROLA. + +Jerome Savonarola was one of the most remarkable men of his time, and +his fortunes are well adapted to illustrate the peculiarities of that +period. He was born in the year 1452 at Ferrara in Italy. He became a +Dominican Friar at Bologna without the knowledge of his parents in the +twenty-second year of his age. He was first employed by his superiors +in elucidating the principles of physics and metaphysics. But, after +having occupied some years in this way, he professed to take a lasting +leave of these subtleties, and to devote himself exclusively to the +study of the Scriptures. In no long time he became an eminent preacher, +by the elegance and purity of his style acquiring the applause of +hearers of taste, and by the unequalled fervour of his eloquence +securing the hearts of the many. It was soon obvious, that, by his +power gained in this mode, he could do any thing he pleased with the +people of Florence among whom he resided. Possessed of such an +ascendancy, he was not contented to be the spiritual guide of the +souls of men, but further devoted himself to the temporal prosperity +and grandeur of his country. The house of Medici was at this time +masters of the state, and the celebrated Lorenzo de Medici possessed +the administration of affairs. But the political maxims of Lorenzo +were in discord with those of our preacher. Lorenzo sought to +concentre all authority in the opulent few; but Savonarola, proceeding +on the model of the best times of ancient Rome, endeavoured to vest +the sovereign power in the hands of the people. + +He had settled at Florence in the thirty-fourth year of his age, being +invited to become prior of the convent of St. Mark in that city: and +such was his popularity, that, four years after, Lorenzo on his +death-bed sent for Savonarola to administer to him spiritual +consolation. Meanwhile, so stern did this republican shew himself, +that he insisted on Lorenzo's renunciation of his absolute power, +before he would administer to him the sacrament and absolution: and +Lorenzo complied with these terms. + +The prince being dead, Savonarola stepped immediately into the highest +authority. He reconstituted the state upon pure republican principles, +and enjoined four things especially in all his public preachings, the +fear of God, the love of the republic, oblivion of all past injuries, +and equal rights to all for the future. + +But Savonarola was not contented with the delivery of Florence, where +he is said to have produced a total revolution of manners, from +libertinism to the most exemplary purity and integrity; he likewise +aspired to produce an equal effect on the entire of Italy. +Alexander VI, the most profligate of popes, then filled the chair at +Rome; and Savonarola thundered against him in the cathedral at +Florence the most fearful denunciations. The pope did not hesitate a +moment to proceed to extremities against the friar. He cited him to +Rome, under pain, if disobeyed, of excommunication to the priest, and +an interdict to the republic that harboured him. The Florentines +several times succeeded in causing the citation to be revoked, and, +making terms with the sovereign pontiff, Jerome again and again +suspending his preachings, which were however continued by other +friars, his colleagues and confederates. Savonarola meanwhile could +not long be silent; he resumed his philippics as fiercely as ever. + +At this time faction raged strongly at Florence. Jerome had many +partisans; all the Dominicans, and the greater part of the populace. +But he had various enemies leagued against him; the adherents of the +house of Medici, those of the pope, the libertines, and all orders of +monks and friars except the Dominicans, The violence proceeded so far, +that the preacher was not unfrequently insulted in his pulpit, and the +cathedral echoed with the dissentions of the parties. At length a +conspiracy was organized against Savonarola; and, his adherents having +got the better, the friar did not dare to trust the punishment of his +enemies to the general assembly, where the question would have led to +a scene of warfare, but referred it to a more limited tribunal, and +finally proceeded to the infliction of death on its sole authority. + +This extremity rendered his enemies more furious against him. The pope +directed absolution, the communion, and the rites of sepulture, to be +refused to his followers. He was now expelled from the cathedral at +Florence, and removed his preachings to the chapel of his convent, +which was enlarged in its accommodations to adapt itself to his +numerous auditors. In this interim a most extraordinary scene took +place. One Francis de Pouille offered himself to the trial of fire, in +favour of the validity of the excommunication of the pope against the +pretended inspiration and miracles of the prophet. He said he did not +doubt to perish in the experiment, but that he should have the +satisfaction of seeing Savonarola perish along with him. Dominic de +Pescia however and another Dominican presented themselves to the +flames instead of Jerome, alledging that he was reserved for higher +things. De Pouille at first declined the substitution, but was +afterwards prevailed on to submit. A vast fire was lighted in the +marketplace for the trial; and a low and narrow gallery of iron passed +over the middle, on which the challenger and the challenged were to +attempt to effect their passage. But a furious deluge of rain was said +to have occurred at the instant every thing was ready; the fire was +extinguished; and the trial for the present was thus rendered +impossible. + +Savonarola in the earnestness of his preachings pretended to turn +prophet, and confidently to predict future events. He spoke of +Charles VIII of France as the Cyrus who should deliver Italy, and +subdue the nations before him; and even named the spring of the year +1498 as the period that should see all these things performed. + +But it was not in prophecy alone that Savonarola laid claim to +supernatural aid. He described various contests that he had maintained +against a multitude of devils at once in his convent. They tormented +in different ways the friars of St. Mark, but ever shrank with awe +from his personal interposition. They attempted to call upon him by +name; but the spirit of God overruled them, so that they could never +pronounce his name aright, but still misplaced syllables and letters +in a ludicrous fashion. They uttered terrific threatenings against him, +but immediately after shrank away with fear, awed by the holy words +and warnings which he denounced against them. Savonarola besides +undertook to expel them by night, by sprinkling holy water, and the +singing of hymns in a solemn chorus. While however he was engaged in +these sacred offices, and pacing the cloister of his convent, the +devils would arrest his steps, and suddenly render the air before him +so thick, that it was impossible for him to advance further. On +another occasion one of his colleagues assured Francis Picus of +Mirandola, the writer of his Life, that he had himself seen the Holy +Ghost in the form of a dove more than once, sitting on Savonarola's +shoulder, fluttering his feathers, which were sprinkled with silver +and gold, and, putting his beak to his ear, whispering to him his +divine suggestions. The prior besides relates in a book of his own +composition at great length a dialogue that he held with the devil, +appearing like, and having been mistaken by the writer for, a hermit. + +The life of Savonarola however came to a speedy and tragical close. +The multitude, who are always fickle in their impulses, conceiving an +unfavourable impression in consequence of his personally declining the +trial by fire, turned against him. The same evening they besieged the +convent where he resided, and in which he had taken refuge. The +signory, seeing the urgency of the case, sent to the brotherhood, +commanding them to surrender the prior, and the two Dominicans who had +presented themselves in his stead to the trial by fire. The pope sent +two judges to try them on the spot. They were presently put to the +torture. Savonarola, who we are told was of a delicate habit of body, +speedily confessed and expressed contrition for what he had done. But +no sooner was he delivered from the strappado, than he retracted all +that he had before confessed. The experiment was repeated several +times, and always with the same success. + +At length he and the other two were adjudged to perish in the flames. +This sentence was no sooner pronounced than Savonarola resumed all the +constancy of a martyr. He advanced to the place of execution with a +steady pace and a serene countenance, and in the midst of the flames +resignedly commended his soul into the hands of his maker. His +adherents regarded him as a witness to the truth, and piously +collected his relics; but his judges, to counteract this defiance of +authority, commanded his remains and his ashes to be cast into the +river. [197] + + +TRITHEMIUS. + +A name that has in some way become famous in the annals of magic, is +that of John Trithemius, abbot of Spanheim, or Sponheim, in the circle +of the Upper Rhine. He was born in the year 1462. He early +distinguished himself by his devotion to literature; insomuch that, +according to the common chronology, he was chosen in the year 1482, +being about twenty years of age, abbot of the Benedictine monastery of +St. Martin at Spanheim. He has written a great number of works, and +has left some memorials of his life. Learning was at a low ebb when he +was chosen to this dignity. The library of the convent consisted of +little more than forty volumes. But, shortly after, under his +superintendence it amounted to many hundreds. He insisted upon his +monks diligently employing themselves in the multiplication of +manuscripts. The monks, who had hitherto spent their days in luxurious +idleness, were greatly dissatisfied with this revolution, and led +their abbot a very uneasy life. He was in consequence removed to +preside over the abbey of St. Jacques in Wurtzburg in 1506, where he +died in tranquillity and peace in 1516. + +Trithemius has been accused of necromancy and a commerce with demons. +The principal ground of this accusation lies in a story that has been +told of his intercourse with the emperor Maximilian. Maximilian's +first wife was Mary of Burgundy, whom he lost in the prime of her life. +The emperor was inconsolable upon the occasion; and Trithemius, who +was called in as singularly qualified to comfort him, having tried all +other expedients in vain, at length told Maximilian that he would +undertake to place his late consort before him precisely in the state +in which she had lived. After suitable preparations, Mary of Burgundy +accordingly appeared. The emperor was struck with astonishment. He +found the figure before him in all respects like the consort he had +lost. At length he exclaimed, "There is one mark by which I shall +infallibly know whether this is the same person. Mary, my wife, had a +wart in the nape of her neck, to the existence of which no one was +privy but myself." He examined, and found the wart there, in all +respects as it had been during her life. The story goes on to say, +that Maximilian was so disgusted and shocked with what he saw, that he +banished Trithemius his presence for ever. + +This tale has been discredited, partly on the score of the period of +the death of Mary of Burgundy, which happened in 1481, when Trithemius +was only nineteen years of age. He himself expressly disclaims all +imputation of sorcery. One ground of the charge has been placed upon +the existence of a work of his, entitled Steganographia, or the art, +by means of a secret writing, of communicating our thoughts to a +person absent. He says however, that in this work he had merely used +the language of magic, without in any degree having had recourse to +their modes of proceeding. Trithemius appears to have been the first +writer who has made mention of the extraordinary feats of John Faust +of Wittenburg, and that in a way that shews he considered these +enchantments as the work of a supernatural power. [198] + + +LUTHER. + +It is particularly proper to introduce some mention of Luther in this +place; not that he is in any way implicated in the question of +necromancy, but that there are passages in his writings in which he +talks of the devil in what we should now think a very extraordinary +way. And it is curious, and not a little instructive, to see how a +person of so masculine an intellect, and who in many respects so far +outran the illumination of his age, was accustomed to judge respecting +the intercourse of mortals with the inhabitants of the infernal world. +Luther was born in the year 1483. + +It appears from his Treatise on the Abuses attendant on Private Masses, +that he had a conference with the devil on the subject. He says, that +this supernatural personage caused him by his visits "many bitter +nights and much restless and wearisome repose." Once in particular he +came to Luther, "in the dead of the night, when he was just awaked out +of sleep. The devil," he goes on to say, "knows well how to construct +his arguments, and to urge them with the skill of a master. He +delivers himself with a grave, and yet a shrill voice. Nor does he use +circumlocutions, and beat about the bush, but excels in forcible +statements and quick rejoinders. I no longer wonder," he adds, "that +the persons whom he assails in this way, are occasionally found dead +in their beds. He is able to compress and throttle, and more than once +he has so assaulted me and driven my soul into a corner, that I felt +as if the next moment it must leave my body. I am of opinion that +Gesner and Oecolampadius and others in that manner came by their +deaths. The devil's manner of opening a debate is pleasant enough; but +he urges things so peremptorily, that the respondent in a short time +knows not how to acquit himself." [199] He elsewhere says, "The +reasons why the sacramentarians understood so little of the Scriptures, +is that they do not encounter the true opponent, that is, the devil, +who presently drives one up in a corner, and thus makes one perceive +the just interpretation. For my part I am thoroughly acquainted with +him, and have eaten a bushel of salt with him. He sleeps with me more +frequently, and lies nearer to me in bed, than my own wife does." [200] + + +CORNELIUS AGRIPPA. + +Henry Cornelius Agrippa was born in the year 1486. He was one of the +most celebrated men of his time. His talents were remarkably great; +and he had a surprising facility in the acquisition of languages. He +is spoken of with the highest commendations by Trithemius, Erasmus, +Melancthon, and others, the greatest men of his times. But he was a +man of the most violent passions, and of great instability of temper. +He was of consequence exposed to memorable vicissitudes. He had great +reputation as an astrologer, and was assiduous in the cultivation of +chemistry. He had the reputation of possessing the philosopher's stone, +and was incessantly experiencing the privations of poverty. He was +subject to great persecutions, and was repeatedly imprisoned. He +received invitations at the same time from Henry VIII, from the +chancellor of the emperor, from a distinguished Italian marquis, and +from Margaret of Austria, governess of the Low Countries. He made his +election in favour of the last, and could find no way so obvious of +showing his gratitude for her patronage, as composing an elaborate +treatise on the Superiority of the Female Sex, which he dedicated to +her. Shortly after, he produced a work not less remarkable, to +demonstrate the Vanity and Emptiness of Scientifical Acquirements. +Margaret of Austria being dead, he was subsequently appointed physician +to Louisa of Savoy, mother to Francis I. This lady however having +assigned him a task disagreeable to his inclination, a calculation +according to the rules of astrology, he made no scruple of turning +against her, and affirming that he should henceforth hold her for a +cruel and perfidious Jezebel. After a life of storms and perpetual +vicissitude, he died in 1534, aged 48 years. + +He enters however into the work I am writing, principally on account +of the extraordinary stories that have been told of him on the subject +of magic. He says of himself, in his Treatise on the Vanity of +Sciences, "Being then a very young man, I wrote in three books of a +considerable size Disquisitions concerning Magic." + +The first of the stories I am about to relate is chiefly interesting, +inasmuch as it is connected with the history of one of the most +illustrious ornaments of our early English poetry, Henry Howard earl +of Surrey, who suffered death at the close of the reign of King +Henry VIII. The earl of Surrey, we are told, became acquainted with +Cornelius Agrippa at the court of John George elector of Saxony. On +this occasion were present, beside the English nobleman, Erasmus, and +many other persons eminent in the republic of letters. These persons +shewed themselves enamoured of the reports that had been spread of +Agrippa, and desired him before the elector to exhibit something +memorable. One intreated him to call up Plautus, and shew him as he +appeared in garb and countenance, when he ground corn in the mill. +Another before all things desired to see Ovid. But Erasmus earnestly +requested to behold Tully in the act of delivering his oration for +Roscius. This proposal carried the most votes. And, after marshalling +the concourse of spectators, Tully appeared, at the command of Agrippa, +and from the rostrum pronounced the oration, precisely in the words in +which it has been handed down to us, "with such astonishing animation, +so fervent an exaltation of spirit, and such soul-stirring gestures, +that all the persons present were ready, like the Romans of old, to +pronounce his client innocent of every charge that had been brought +against him." The story adds, that, when sir Thomas More was at the +same place, Agrippa shewed him the whole destruction of Troy in a +dream. To Thomas Lord Cromwel he exhibited in a perspective glass King +Henry VIII and all his lords hunting in his forest at Windsor. To +Charles V he shewed David, Solomon, Gideon, and the rest, with the +Nine Worthies, in their habits and similitude as they had lived. + +Lord Surrey, in the mean time having gotten into familiarity with +Agrippa, requested him by the way side as they travelled, to set +before him his mistress, the fair Geraldine, shewing at the same time +what she did, and with whom she talked. Agrippa accordingly exhibited +his magic glass, in which the noble poet saw this beautiful dame, sick, +weeping upon her bed, and inconsolable for the absence of her +admirer.--It is now known, that the sole authority for this tale is +Thomas Nash, the dramatist, in his Adventures of Jack Wilton, printed +in the year 1593. + +Paulus Jovius relates that Agrippa always kept a devil attendant upon +him, who accompanied him in all his travels in the shape of a black +dog. When he lay on his death-bed, he was earnestly exhorted to repent +of his sins. Being in consequence struck with a deep contrition, he +took hold of the dog, and removed from him a collar studded with nails, +which formed a necromantic inscription, at the same time saying to him, +"Begone, wretched animal, which hast been the cause of my entire +destruction!"--It is added, that the dog immediately ran away, and +plunged itself in the river Soane, after which it was seen no more. +[201] It is further related of Agrippa, as of many other magicians, +that he was in the habit, when he regaled himself at an inn, of paying +his bill in counterfeit money, which at the time of payment appeared +of sterling value, but in a few days after became pieces of horn and +worthless shells. [202] + +But the most extraordinary story of Agrippa is told by Delrio, and is +as follows. Agrippa had occasion one time to be absent for a few days +from his residence at Louvain. During his absence he intrusted his +wife with the key of his Museum, but with an earnest injunction that +no one on any account should be allowed to enter. Agrippa happened at +that time to have a boarder in his house, a young fellow of insatiable +curiosity, who would never give over importuning his hostess, till at +length he obtained from her the forbidden key. The first thing in the +Museum that attracted his attention, was a book of spells and +incantations. He spread this book upon a desk, and, thinking no harm, +began to read aloud. He had not long continued this occupation, when a +knock was heard at the door of the chamber. The youth took no notice, +but continued reading. Presently followed a second knock, which +somewhat alarmed the reader. The space of a minute having elapsed, and +no answer made, the door was opened, and a demon entered. "For what +purpose am I called?" said the stranger sternly. "What is it you +demand to have done?" The youth was seized with the greatest alarm, +and struck speechless. The demon advanced towards him, seized him by +the throat, and strangled him, indignant that his presence should thus +be invoked from pure thoughtlessness and presumption. + +At the expected time Agrippa came home, and to his great surprise +found a number of devils capering and playing strange antics about, +and on the roof of his house. By his art he caused them to desist from +their sport, and with authority demanded what was the cause of this +novel appearance. The chief of them answered. He told how they had +been invoked, and insulted, and what revenge they had taken. Agrippa +became exceedingly alarmed for the consequences to himself of this +unfortunate adventure. He ordered the demon without loss of time to +reanimate the body of his victim, then to go forth, and to walk the +boarder three or four times up and down the market-place in the sight +of the people. The infernal spirit did as he was ordered, shewed the +student publicly alive, and having done this, suffered the body to +fall down, the marks of conscious existence being plainly no more. For +a time it was thought that the student had been killed by a sudden +attack of disease. But, presently after, the marks of strangulation +were plainly discerned, and the truth came out. Agrippa was then +obliged suddenly to withdraw himself, and to take up his residence in +a distant province. [203] + +Wierus in his well known book, _De Praestigiis Demonum_, informs +us that he had lived for years in daily attendance on Cornelius +Agrippa, and that the black dog respecting which such strange surmises +had been circulated, was a perfectly innocent animal that he had often +led in a string. He adds, that the sole foundation for the story lay +in the fact, that Agrippa had been much attached to the dog, which he +was accustomed to permit to eat off the table with its master, and +even to lie of nights in his bed. He further remarks, that Agrippa was +accustomed often not to go out of his room for a week together, and +that people accordingly wondered that he could have such accurate +information of what was going on in all parts of the world, and would +have it that his intelligence was communicated to him by his dog. He +subjoins however, that Agrippa had in fact correspondents in every +quarter of the globe, and received letters from them daily, and that +this was the real source of his extraordinary intelligence. [204] + +Naude, in his Apology for Great Men accused of Magic, mentions, that +Agrippa composed a book of the Rules and Precepts of the Art of Magic, +and that, if such a work could entitle a man to the character of a +magician, Agrippa indeed well deserved it. But he gives it as his +opinion that this was the only ground for fastening the imputation on +this illustrious character. + +Without believing however any of the tales of the magic practices of +Cornelius Agrippa, and even perhaps without supposing that he +seriously pretended to such arts, we are here presented with a +striking picture of the temper and credulity of the times in which he +lived. We plainly see from the contemporary evidence of Wierus, that +such things were believed of him by his neighbours; and at that period +it was sufficiently common for any man of deep study, of recluse +habits, and a certain sententious and magisterial air to undergo these +imputations. It is more than probable that Agrippa was willing by a +general silence and mystery to give encouragement to the wonder of the +vulgar mind. He was flattered by the terror and awe which his +appearance inspired. He did not wish to come down to the ordinary +level. And if to this we add his pursuits of alchemy and astrology, +with the formidable and various apparatus supposed to be required in +these pursuits, we shall no longer wonder at the results which +followed. He loved to wander on the brink of danger, and was contented +to take his chance of being molested, rather than not possess that +ascendancy over the ordinary race of mankind which was evidently +gratifying to his vanity. + + +FAUSTUS. + +Next in respect of time to Cornelius Agrippa comes the celebrated Dr. +Faustus. Little in point of fact is known respecting this eminent +personage in the annals of necromancy. His pretended history does not +seem to have been written till about the year 1587, perhaps half a +century after his death. This work is apparently in its principal +features altogether fictitious. We have no reason however to deny the +early statements as to his life. He is asserted by Camerarius and +Wierus to have been born at Cundling near Cracow in the kingdom of +Poland, and is understood to have passed the principal part of his +life at the university of Wittenberg. He was probably well known to +Cornelius Agrippa and Paracelsus. Melancthon mentions him in his +Letters; and Conrad Gessner refers to him as a contemporary. The +author of his Life cites the opinions entertained respecting him by +Luther. Philip Camerarius speaks of him in his Horae Subsecivae as a +celebrated name among magicians, apparently without reference to the +Life that has come down to us; [205] and Wierus does the same thing. +[206] He was probably nothing more than an accomplished juggler, who +appears to have practised his art with great success in several towns +of Germany. He was also no doubt a pretender to necromancy. + +On this basis the well known History of his Life has been built. The +author has with great art expanded very slender materials, and +rendered his work in a striking degree a code and receptacle of all +the most approved ideas respecting necromancy and a profane and +sacrilegious dealing with the devil. He has woven into it with much +skill the pretended arts of the sorcerers, and has transcribed or +closely imitated the stories that have been handed down to us of many +of the extraordinary feats they were said to have performed. It is +therefore suitable to our purpose to dwell at some length upon the +successive features of this history. + +The life has been said to have been originally written in Spain by +Franciscus Schottus of Toledo, in the Latin language. [207] But this +biographical work is assigned to the date of 1594, previously to which +the Life is known to have existed in German. It is improbable that a +Spanish writer should have chosen a German for the hero of his romance, +whereas nothing can be more natural than for a German to have conceived +the idea of giving fame and notoriety to his countryman. The mistake +seems to be the same, though for an opposite reason, as that which +appears to have been made in representing the Gil Blas of Le Sage as a +translation. + +The biographical account professes to have been begun by Faustus +himself, though written in the third person, and to have been +continued by Wagner, his confidential servant, to whom the doctor is +affirmed to have bequeathed his memoirs, letters and manuscripts, +together with his house and its furniture. + +Faustus then, according to his history, was the son of a peasant, +residing on the banks of the Roda in the duchy of Weimar, and was +early adopted by an uncle, dwelling in the city of Wittenberg, who had +no children. Here he was sent to college, and was soon distinguished +by the greatness of his talents, and the rapid progress he made in +every species of learning that was put before him. He was destined by +his relative to the profession of theology. But singularly enough, +considering that he is represented as furnishing materials for his +own Memoirs, he is said ungraciously to have set at nought his uncle's +pious intentions by deriding God's word, and thus to have resembled +Cain, Reuben and Absalom, who, having sprung from godly parents, +afflicted their fathers' hearts by their apostasy. He went through his +examinations with applause, and carried off all the first prizes among +sixteen competitors. He therefore obtained the degree of doctor in +divinity; but his success only made him the more proud and headstrong. +He disdained his theological eminence, and sighed for distinction as a +man of the world. He took his degree as a doctor of medicine, and +aspired to celebrity as a practitioner of physic. About the same time +he fell in with certain contemporaries, of tastes similar to his own, +and associated with them in the study of Chaldean, Greek and Arabic +science, of strange incantations and supernatural influences, in short, +of all the arts of a sorcerer. + +Having made such progress as he could by dint of study and intense +application, he at length resolved to prosecute his purposes still +further by actually raising the devil. He happened one evening to walk +in a thick, dark wood, within a short distance from Wittenberg, when +it occurred to him that that was a fit place for executing his design. +He stopped at a solitary spot where four roads met, and made use of +his wand to mark out a large circle, and then two small ones within +the larger. In one of these he fixed himself, appropriating the other +for the use of his expected visitor. He went over the precise range of +charms and incantations, omitting nothing. It was now dark night +between the ninth and tenth hour. The devil manifested himself by the +usual signs of his appearance. "Wherefore am I called?" said he, "and +what is it that you demand?" "I require," rejoined Faustus, "that you +should sedulously attend upon me, answer my enquiries, and fulfil my +behests." + +Immediately upon Faustus pronouncing these words, there followed a +tumult over head, as if heaven and earth were coming together. The +trees in their topmost branches bended to their very roots. It seemed +as if the whole forest were peopled with devils, making a crash like a +thousand waggons, hurrying to the right and the left, before and +behind, in every possible direction, with thunder and lightning, and +the continual discharge of great cannon. Hell appeared to have emptied +itself, to have furnished the din. There succeeded the most charming +music from all sorts of instruments, and sounds of hilarity and +dancing. Next came a report as of a tournament, and the clashing of +innumerable lances. This lasted so long, that Faustus was many times +about to rush out of the circle in which he had inclosed himself, and +to abandon his preparations. His courage and resolution however got +the better; and he remained immoveable. He pursued his incantations +without intermission. Then came to the very edge of the circle a +griffin first, and next a dragon, which in the midst of his +enchantments grinned at him horribly with his teeth, but finally fell +down at his feet, and extended his length to many a rood. Faustus +persisted. Then succeeded a sort of fireworks, a pillar of fire, and a +man on fire at the top, who leaped down; and there immediately +appeared a number of globes here and there red-hot, while the man on +fire went and came to every part of the circle for a quarter of an +hour. At length the devil came forward in the shape of a grey monk, +and asked Faustus what he wanted. Faustus adjourned their further +conference, and appointed the devil to come to him at his lodgings. + +He in the mean time busied himself in the necessary preparations. He +entered his study at the appointed time, and found the devil waiting +for him. Faustus told him that he had prepared certain articles, to +which it was necessary that the demon should fully accord,--that he +should attend him at all times, when required, for all the days of his +life, that he should bring him every thing he wanted, that he should +come to him in any shape that Faustus required, or be invisible, and +Faustus should be invisible too, whenever he desired it, that he +should deny him nothing, and answer him with perfect veracity to every +thing he demanded. To some of these requisitions the spirit could not +consent, without authority from his master, the chief of devils. At +length all these concessions were adjusted. The devil on his part also +prescribed his conditions. That Faustus should abjure the Christian +religion and all reverence for the supreme God; that he should enjoy +the entire command of his attendant demon for a certain term of years, +and that at the end of that period the devil should dispose of him +body and soul at his pleasure [the term was fixed for twenty-four +years]; that he should at all times stedfastly refuse to listen to any +one who should desire to convert him, or convince him of the error of +his ways, and lead him to repentance; that Faustus should draw up a +writing containing these particulars, and sign it with his blood, that +he should deliver this writing to the devil, and keep a duplicate of +it for himself, that so there might be no misunderstanding. It was +further appointed by Faustus that the devil should usually attend him +in the habit of cordelier, with a pleasing countenance and an +insinuating demeanour. Faustus also asked the devil his name, who +answered that he was usually called Mephostophiles (perhaps more +accurately Nephostophiles, a lover of clouds). + +Previously to this deplorable transaction, in which Faustus sold +himself, soul and body, to the devil, he had consumed his inheritance, +and was reduced to great poverty. But he was now no longer subjected +to any straits. The establishments of the prince of Chutz, the duke of +Bavaria, and the archbishop of Saltzburgh were daily put under +contribution for his more convenient supply. By the diligence of +Mephostophiles provisions of all kinds continually flew in at his +windows; and the choicest wines were perpetually found at his board to +the annoyance and discredit of the cellarers and butlers of these +eminent personages, who were extremely blamed for defalcations in +which they had no share. He also brought him a monthly supply of money, +sufficient for the support of his establishment. Besides, he supplied +him with a succession of mistresses, such as his heart desired, which +were in truth nothing but devils disguised under the semblance of +beautiful women. He further gave to Faustus a book, in which were +amply detailed the processes of sorcery and witchcraft, by means of +which the doctor could obtain whatever he desired. + +One of the earliest indulgences which Faustus proposed to himself from +the command he possessed over his servant-demon, was the gratification +of his curiosity in surveying the various nations of the world. +Accordingly Mephostophiles converted himself into a horse, with two +hunches on his back like a dromedary, between which he conveyed +Faustus through the air where-ever he desired. They consumed fifteen +months in their travels. Among the countries they visited the history +mentions Pannonia, Austria, Germany, Bohemia, Silesia, Saxony, Misnia, +Thuringia, Franconia, Suabia, Bavaria, Lithuania, Livonia, Prussia, +Muscovy, Friseland, Holland, Westphalia, Zealand, Brabant, Flanders, +France, Spain, Italy, Poland, and Hungary; and afterwards Turkey, +Egypt, England, Sweden, Denmark, India, Africa and Persia. In most of +these countries Mephostophiles points out to his fellow-traveller +their principal curiosities and antiquities. In Rome they sojourned +three days and three nights, and, being themselves invisible, visited +the residence of the pope and the other principal palaces. + +At Constantinople Faustus visited the emperor of the Turks, assuming +to himself the figure of the prophet Mahomet. His approach was +preceded by a splendid illumination, not less than that of the sun in +all his glory. He said to the emperor, "Happy art thou, oh sultan, who +art found worthy to be visited by the great prophet." And the emperor +in return fell prostrate before him, thanking Mahomet for his +condescension in this visit. The doctor also entered the seraglio, +where he remained six days under the same figure, the building and its +gardens being all the time environed with a thick darkness, so that no +one, not the emperor himself, dared to enter. At the end of this time +the doctor, still under the figure of Mahomet, was publicly seen, +ascending, as it seemed, to heaven. The sultan afterwards enquired of +the women of his seraglio what had occurred to them during the period +of the darkness; and they answered, that the God Mahomet had been with +them, that he had enjoyed them corporeally, and had told them that +from his seed should arise a great people, capable of irresistible +exploits. + +Faustus had conceived a plan of making his way into the terrestrial +paradise, without awakening suspicion in his demon-conductor. For this +purpose he ordered him to ascend the highest mountains of Asia. At +length they came so near, that they saw the angel with the flaming +sword forbidding approach to the garden. Faustus, perceiving this, +asked Mephostophiles what it meant. His conductor told him, but added +that it was in vain for them, or any one but the angels of the Lord, +to think of entering within. + +Having gratified his curiosity in other ways, Faustus was seized with +a vehement desire to visit the infernal regions. He proposed the +question to Mephostophiles, who told him that this was a matter out of +his department, and that on that journey he could have no other +conductor than Beelzebub. Accordingly, every thing being previously +arranged, one day at midnight Beelzebub appeared, being already +equipped with a saddle made of dead men's bones. Faustus speedily +mounted. They in a short time came to an abyss, and encountered a +multitude of enormous serpents; but a bear with wings came to their +aid, and drove the serpents away. A flying bull next came with a +hideous roar, so fierce that Beelzebub appeared to give way, and +Faustus tumbled at once heels-over-head into the pit. After having +fallen to a considerable depth, two dragons with a chariot came to his +aid, and an ape helped him to get into the vehicle. Presently however +came on a storm with thunder and lightning, so dreadful that the +doctor was thrown out, and sunk in a tempestuous sea to a vast depth. +He contrived however to lay hold of a rock, and here to secure himself +a footing. He looked down, and perceived a great gulph, in which lay +floating many of the vulgar, and not a few emperors, kings, princes, +and such as had been mighty lords. Faustus with a sudden impulse cast +himself into the midst of the flames with which they were surrounded, +with the desire to snatch one of the damned souls from the pit. But, +just as he thought he had caught him by the hand, the miserable wretch +slided from between his fingers, and sank again. + +At length the doctor became wholly exhausted with the fatigue he had +undergone, with the smoke and the fog, with the stifling, sulphureous +air, with the tempestuous blasts, with the alternate extremes of heat +and cold, and with the clamours, the lamentations, the agonies, and +the howlings of the damned everywhere around him,--when, just in the +nick of time, Beelzebub appeared to him again, and invited him once +more to ascend the saddle, which he had occupied during his infernal +journey. Here he fell asleep, and, when he awoke, found himself in his +own bed in his house. He then set himself seriously to reflect on what +had passed. At one time he believed that he had been really in hell, +and had witnessed all its secrets. At another he became persuaded that +he had been subject to an illusion only, and that the devil had led +him through an imaginary scene, which was truly the case; for the +devil had taken care not to shew him the real hell, fearing that it +might have caused too great a terror, and have induced him to repent +him of his misdeeds perhaps before it was too late. + +It so happened that, once upon a time, the emperor Charles V was at +Inspruck, at a time when Faustus also resided there. His courtiers +informed the emperor that Faustus was in the town, and Charles +expressed a desire to see him. He was introduced. Charles asked him +whether he could really perform such wondrous feats as were reported +of him. Faustus modestly replied, inviting the emperor to make trial +of his skill. "Then," said Charles, "of all the eminent personages I +have ever read of, Alexander the Great is the man who most excites my +curiosity, and whom it would most gratify my wishes to see in the very +form in which he lived." Faustus rejoined, that it was out of his +power truly to raise the dead, but that he had spirits at his command +who had often seen that great conqueror, and that Faustus would +willingly place him before the emperor as he required. He conditioned +that Charles should not speak to him, nor attempt to touch him. The +emperor promised compliance. After a few ceremonies therefore, Faustus +opened a door, and brought in Alexander exactly in the form in which +he had lived, with the same garments, and every circumstance +corresponding. Alexander made his obeisance to the emperor, and walked +several times round him. The queen of Alexander was then introduced in +the same manner. Charles just then recollected, he had read that +Alexander had a wart on the nape of his neck; and with proper +precautions Faustus allowed the emperor to examine the apparition by +this test. Alexander then vanished. + +As doctor Faustus waited in court, he perceived a certain knight, who +had fallen asleep in a bow-window, with his head out at window. The +whim took the doctor, to fasten on his brow the antlers of a stag. +Presently the knight was roused from his nap, when with all his +efforts he could not draw in his head on account of the antlers which +grew upon it. The courtiers laughed exceedingly at the distress of the +knight, and, when they had sufficiently diverted themselves, Faustus +took off his conjuration, and set the knight at liberty. + +Soon after Faustus retired from Inspruck. Meanwhile the knight, having +conceived a high resentment against the conjuror, waylaid him with +seven horsemen on the road by which he had to pass. Faustus however +perceived them, and immediately made himself invisible. Meanwhile the +knight spied on every side to discover the conjuror; but, as he was +thus employed, he heard a sudden noise of drums and trumpets and +cymbals, and saw a regiment of horse advancing against him. He +immediately turned off in another direction; but was encountered by a +second regiment of horse. This occurred no less than six times; and +the knight and his companions were compelled to surrender at +discretion. These regiments were so many devils; and Faustus now +appeared in a new form as the general of this army. He obliged the +knight and his party to dismount, and give up their swords. Then with +a seeming generosity he gave them new horses and new swords, But this +was all enchantment. The swords presently turned into switches; and +the horses, plunging into a river on their road, vanished from beneath +their riders, who were thoroughly drenched in the stream, and scarcely +escaped with their lives. + +Many of Faustus's delusions are rather remarkable as tricks of merry +vexation, than as partaking of those serious injuries which we might +look for in an implement of hell. In one instance he inquired of a +countryman who was driving a load of hay, what compensation he would +judge reasonable for the doctor's eating as much of his hay as he +should be inclined to. The waggoner replied, that for half a stiver +(one farthing) he should be welcome to eat as much as he pleased. The +doctor presently fell to, and ate at such a rate, that the peasant was +frightened lest his whole load should be consumed. He therefore +offered Faustus a gold coin, value twenty-seven shillings, to be off +his bargain. The doctor took it; and, when the countryman came to his +journey's end, he found his cargo undiminished even by a single blade. + +Another time, as Faustus was walking along the road near Brunswick, +the whim took him of asking a waggoner who was driving by, to treat +him with a ride in his vehicle. "No, I will not," replied the boor; +"my horses will have enough to do to drag their proper load." "You +churl," said the doctor, "since you will not let your wheels carry me, +you shall carry them yourself as far as from the gates of the city." +The wheels then detached themselves, and flew through the air, to the +gates of the town from which they came. At the same time the horses +fell to the ground, and were utterly unable to raise themselves up. +The countryman, frightened, fell on his knees to the doctor, and +promised, if he would forgive him, never to offend in like manner +again. Faustus now, relenting a little, bade the waggoner take a +handful of sand from the road, and scatter on his horses, and they +would be well. At the same time he directed the man to go to the four +gates of Brunswick, and he would find his wheels, one at each gate. + +In another instance, Faustus went into a fair, mounted on a noble +beast, richly caparisoned, the sight of which presently brought all +the horse-fanciers about him. After considerable haggling, he at last +disposed of his horse to a dealer for a handsome price, only cautioning +him at parting, how he rode the horse to water. The dealer, despising +the caution that had been given him, turned his horse the first thing +towards the river. He had however no sooner plunged in, than the horse +vanished, and the rider found himself seated on a saddle of straw, in +the middle of the stream. With difficulty he waded to the shore, and +immediately, enquiring out the doctor's inn, went to him to complain +of the cheat. He was directed to Faustus's room, and entering found +the conjuror on his bed, apparently asleep. He called to him lustily, +but the doctor took no notice. Worked up beyond his patience, he next +laid hold of Faustus's foot, that he might rouse him the more +effectually. What was his surprise, to find the doctor's leg and foot +come off in his hand! Faustus screamed, apparently in agony of pain, +and the dealer ran out of the room as fast as he could, thinking that +he had the devil behind him. + +In one instance three young noblemen applied to Faustus, having been +very desirous to be present at the marriage of the son of the duke of +Bavaria at Mentz, but having overstaid the time, in which it would +have been possible by human means to accomplish the journey. Faustus, +to oblige them, led them into his garden, and, spreading a large +mantle upon a grass-plot, desired them to step on it, and placed +himself in the midst. He then recited a certain form of conjuration. +At the same time he conditioned with them, that they should on no +account speak to any one at the marriage, and, if spoken to, should +not answer again. They were carried invisibly through the air, and +arrived in excellent time. At a certain moment they became visible, +but were still bound to silence. One of them however broke the +injunction, and amused himself with the courtiers. The consequence was +that, when the other two were summoned by the doctor to return, he was +left behind. There was something so extraordinary in their sudden +appearance, and the subsequent disappearance of the others, that he +who remained was put in prison, and threatened with the torture the +next day, if he would not make a full disclosure. Faustus however +returned before break of day, opened the gates of the prison, laid all +the guards asleep, and carried off the delinquent in triumph. + +On one occasion Faustus, having resolved to pass a jovial evening, +took some of his old college-companions, and invited them to make free +with the archbishop of Saltzburgh's cellar. They took a ladder, and +scaled the wall. They seated themselves round, and placed a +three-legged stool, with bottles and glasses in the middle. They were +in the heart of their mirth, when the butler made his appearance, and +began to cry thieves with all his might. The doctor at once conjured +him, so that he could neither speak nor move. There he was obliged to +sit, while Faustus and his companions tapped every vat in the cellar. +They then carried him along with them in triumph. At length they came +to a lofty tree, where Faustus ordered them to stop; and the butler +was in the greatest fright, apprehending that they would do no less +than hang him. The doctor however was contented, by his art to place +him on the topmost branch, where he was obliged to remain trembling +and almost dead with the cold, till certain peasants came out to their +work, whom he hailed, and finally with great difficulty they rescued +him from his painful eminence, and placed him safely on the ground. + +On another occasion Faustus entertained several of the junior members +of the university of Wittenberg at his chambers. One of them, +referring to the exhibition the doctor had made of Alexander the Great +to the emperor Charles V, said it would gratify him above all things, +if he could once behold the famous Helen of Greece, whose beauty was +so great as to have roused all the princes of her country to arms, and +to have occasioned a ten years' war. Faustus consented to indulge his +curiosity, provided all the company would engage to be merely mute +spectators of the scene. This being promised, he left the room, and +presently brought in Helen. She was precisely as Homer has described +her, when she stood by the side of Priam on the walls of Troy, looking +on the Grecian chiefs. Her features were irresistibly attractive; and +her full, moist lips were redder than the summer cherries. Faustus +shortly after obliged his guests with her bust in marble, from which +several copies were taken, no one knowing the name of the original +artist. + +No long time elapsed after this, when the doctor was engaged in +delivering a course of lectures on Homer at Erfurth, one of the +principal cities of Germany. It having been suggested to him that it +would very much enhance the interest of his lectures, if he would +exhibit to the company the heroes of Greece exactly as they appeared +to their contemporaries, Faustus obligingly yielded to the proposal. +The heroes of the Trojan war walked in procession before the +astonished auditors, no less lively in the representation than Helen +had been shewn before, and each of them with some characteristic +attitude and striking expression of countenance. + +When the doctor happened to be at Frankfort, there came there four +conjurors, who obtained vast applause by the trick of cutting off one +another's heads, and fastening them on again. Faustus was exasperated +at this proceeding, and regarded them as laying claim to a skill +superior to his own. He went, and was invisibly present at their +exhibition. They placed beside them a vessel with liquor which they +pretended was the elixir of life, into which at each time they threw a +plant resembling the lily, which no sooner touched the liquor than its +buds began to unfold, and shortly it appeared in full blossom. The +chief conjuror watched his opportunity; and, when the charm was +complete, made no more ado but struck off the head of his fellow that +was next to him, and dipping it in the liquor, adjusted it to the +shoulders, where it became as securely fixed as before the operation. +This was repeated a second and a third time. At length it came to the +turn of the chief conjuror to have his head smitten off. Faustus stood +by invisibly, and at the proper time broke off the flower of the lily +without any one being aware of it. The head therefore of the principal +conjuror was struck off; but in vain was it steeped in the liquor. The +other conjurors were at a loss to account for the disappearance of the +lily, and fumbled for a long time with the old sorcerer's head, which +would not stick on in any position in which it could be placed. + +Faustus was in great favour with the Prince of Anhalt. On one occasion, +after residing some days in his court, he said to the prince, "Will +your highness do me the favour to partake of a small collation at a +castle which belongs to me out at your city-gates?" The prince +graciously consented. The prince and princess accompanied the doctor, +and found a castle which Faustus had erected by magic during the +preceding night. The castle, with five lofty towers, and two great +gates, inclosing a spacious court, stood in the midst of a beautiful +lake, stocked with all kinds of fish, and every variety of water-fowl. +The court exhibited all sorts of animals, beside birds of every colour +and song, which flitted from tree to tree. The doctor then ushered his +guests into the hall, with an ample suite of apartments, branching off +on each side. In one of the largest they found a banquet prepared, +with the pope's plate of gold, which Mephostophiles had borrowed for +the day. The viands were of the most delicious nature, with the +choicest wines in the world. The banquet being over, Faustus conducted +the prince and princess back to the palace. But, before they had gone +far, happening to turn their heads, they saw the whole castle blown up, +and all that had been prepared for the occasion vanish at once in a +vast volume of fire. + +One Christmas-time Faustus gave a grand entertainment to certain +distinguished persons of both sexes at Wittenberg. To render the scene +more splendid, he contrived to exhibit a memorable inversion of the +seasons. As the company approached the doctor's house, they were +surprised to find, though there was a heavy snow through the +neighbouring fields, that Faustus's court and garden bore not the +least marks of the season, but on the contrary were green and blooming +as in the height of summer. There was an appearance of the freshest +vegetation, together with a beautiful vineyard, abounding with grapes, +figs, raspberries, and an exuberance of the finest fruits. The large, +red Provence roses, were as sweet to the scent as the eye, and looked +perfectly fresh and sparkling with dew. + +As Faustus was now approaching the last year of his term, he seemed to +resolve to pamper his appetite with every species of luxury. He +carefully accumulated all the materials of voluptuousness and +magnificence. He was particularly anxious in the selection of women +who should serve for his pleasures. He had one Englishwoman, one +Hungarian, one French, two of Germany, and two from different parts of +Italy, all of them eminent for the perfections which characterised +their different countries. + +As Faustus's demeanour was particularly engaging, there were many +respectable persons in the city in which he lived, that became +interested in his welfare. These applied to a certain monk of +exemplary purity of life and devotion, and urged him to do every thing +he could to rescue the doctor from impending destruction. The monk +began with him with tender and pathetic remonstrances. He then drew a +fearful picture of the wrath of God, and the eternal damnation which +would certainly ensue. He reminded the doctor of his extraordinary +gifts and graces, and told him how different an issue might reasonably +have been expected from him. Faustus listened attentively to all the +good monk said, but replied mournfully that it was too late, that he +had despised and insulted the Lord, that he had deliberately sealed a +solemn compact to the devil, and that there was no possibility of +going back. The monk answered, "You are mistaken. Cry to the Lord for +grace; and it shall still be given. Shew true remorse; confess your +sins; abstain for the future from all acts of sorcery and diabolical +interference; and you may rely on final salvation." The doctor however +felt that all endeavours would be hopeless, He found in himself an +incapacity, for true repentance. And finally the devil came to him, +reproached him for breach of contract in listening to the pious +expostulations of a saint, threatened that in case of infidelity he +would take him away to hell even before his time, and frightened the +doctor into the act of signing a fresh contract in ratification of +that which he had signed before. + +At length Faustus ultimately arrived at the end of the term for which +he had contracted with the devil. For two or three years before it +expired, his character gradually altered. He became subject to fits of +despondency, was no longer susceptible of mirth and amusement, and +reflected with bitter agony on the close in which the whole must +terminate. During the last month of his period, he no longer sought +the services of his infernal ally, but with the utmost unwillingness +saw his arrival. But Mephostophiles now attended him unbidden, and +treated him with biting scoffs and reproaches. "You have well studied +the Scriptures," he said, "and ought to have known that your safety +lay in worshipping God alone. You sinned with your eyes open, and can +by no means plead ignorance. You thought that twenty-four years was a +term that would have no end; and you now see how rapidly it is +flitting away. The term for which you sold yourself to the devil is a +very different thing; and, after the lapse of thousands of ages, the +prospect before you will be still as unbounded as ever. You were +warned; you were earnestly pressed to repent; but now it is too late." + +After the demon, Mephostophiles, had long tormented Faustus in this +manner, he suddenly disappeared, consigning him over to wretchedness, +vexation and despair. + +The whole twenty-four years were now expired. The day before, +Mephostophiles again made his appearance, holding in his hand the bond +which the doctor had signed with his blood, giving him notice that the +next day, the devil, his master, would come for him, and advising him +to hold himself in readiness. Faustus, it seems, had earned himself +much good will among the younger members of the university by his +agreeable manners, by his willingness to oblige them, and by the +extraordinary spectacles with which he occasionally diverted them. +This day he resolved to pass in a friendly farewel. He invited a +number of them to meet him at a house of public reception, in a hamlet +adjoining to the city. He bespoke a large room in the house for a +banqueting room, another apartment overhead for his guests to sleep in, +and a smaller chamber at a little distance for himself. He furnished +his table with abundance of delicacies and wines. He endeavoured to +appear among them in high spirits; but his heart was inwardly sad. + +When the entertainment was over, Faustus addressed them, telling them +that this was the last day of his life, reminding them of the wonders +with which he had frequently astonished them, and informing them of +the condition upon which he had held this power. They, one and all, +expressed the deepest sorrow at the intelligence. They had had the +idea of something unlawful in his proceedings; but their notions had +been very far from coming up to the truth. They regretted exceedingly +that he had not been unreserved in his communications at an earlier +period. They would have had recourse in his behalf to the means of +religion, and have applied to pious men, desiring them to employ their +power to intercede with heaven in his favour. Prayer and penitence +might have done much for him; and the mercy of heaven was unbounded. +They advised him still to call upon God, and endeavour to secure an +interest in the merits of the Saviour. + +Faustus assured them that it was all in vain, and that his tragical +fate was inevitable. He led them to their sleeping apartment, and +recommended to them to pass the night as they could, but by no means, +whatever they might happen to hear, to come out of it; as their +interference could in no way be beneficial to him, and might be +attended with the most serious injury to themselves. They lay still +therefore, as he had enjoined them; but not one of them could close +his eyes. + +Between twelve and one in the night they heard first a furious storm +of wind round all sides of the house, as if it would have torn away +the walls from their foundations. This no sooner somewhat abated, than +a noise was heard of discordant and violent hissing, as if the house +was full of all sorts of venomous reptiles, but which plainly +proceeded from Faustus's chamber. Next they heard the doctor's +room-door vehemently burst open, and cries for help uttered with +dreadful agony, but a half-suppressed voice, which presently grew +fainter and fainter. Then every thing became still, as if the +everlasting motion of the world was suspended. + +When at length it became broad day, the students went in a body into +the doctor's apartment. But he was no where to be seen. Only the walls +were found smeared with his blood, and marks as if his brains had been +dashed out. His body was finally discovered at some distance from the +house, his limbs dismembered, and marks of great violence about the +features of his face. The students gathered up the mutilated parts of +his body, and afforded them private burial at the temple of Mars in +the village where he died. + +A ludicrous confusion of ideas has been produced by some persons from +the similarity of names of Faustus, the supposed magician of +Wittenberg, and Faust or Fust of Mentz, the inventor, or first +establisher of the art of printing. It has been alleged that the exact +resemblance of the copies of books published by the latter, when no +other mode of multiplying copies was known but by the act of +transcribing, was found to be such, as could no way be accounted for +by natural means, and that therefore it was imputed to the person who +presented these copies, that he must necessarily be assisted by the +devil. It has further been stated, that Faust, the printer, swore the +craftsmen he employed at his press to inviolable secrecy, that he +might the more securely keep up the price of his books. But this +notion of the identity of the two persons is entirely groundless. +Faustus, the magician, is described in the romance as having been born +in 1491, twenty-five years after the period at which the printer is +understood to have died, and there is no one coincidence between the +histories of the two persons, beyond the similarity of names, and a +certain mystery (or magical appearance) that inevitably adheres to the +practice of an art hitherto unknown. If any secret reference had been +intended in the romance to the real character of the illustrious +introducer of an art which has been productive of such incalculable +benefits to mankind, it would be impossible to account for such a +marvellous inconsistence in the chronology. + +Others have carried their scepticism so far, as to have started a +doubt whether there was ever really such a person as Faustus of +Wittenberg, the alleged magician. But the testimony of Wierus, Philip +Camerarius, Melancthon and others, his contemporaries, sufficiently +refutes this supposition. The fact is, that there was undoubtedly such +a man, who, by sleights of dexterity, made himself a reputation as if +there was something supernatural in his performances, and that he was +probably also regarded with a degree of terror and abhorrence by the +superstitious. On this theme was constructed a romance, which once +possessed the highest popularity, and furnished a subject to the +dramatical genius of Marlow, Leasing, Goethe, and others.--It is +sufficiently remarkable, that the notoriety of this romance seems to +have suggested to Shakespear the idea of sending the grand conception +of his brain, Hamlet, prince of Denmark, to finish his education at +the university of Wittenberg. + +And here it may not be uninstructive to remark the different tone +of the record of the acts of Ziito, the Bohemian, and Faustus of +Wittenburg, though little more than half a century elapsed between +the periods at which they were written. Dubravius, bishop of Olmutz +in Moravia, to whose pen we are indebted for what we know of Ziito, +died in the year 1553. He has deemed it not unbecoming to record in +his national history of Bohemia, the achievements of this magician, +who, he says, exhibited them before Wenceslaus, king of the country, +at the celebration of his marriage. A waggon-load of sorcerers arrived +at Prague on that occasion for the entertainment of the company. But, +at the close of that century, the exploits of Faustus were no longer +deemed entitled to a place in national history, but were more +appropriately taken for the theme of a romance. Faustus and his +performances were certainly contemplated with at least as much horror +as the deeds of Ziito. But popular credulity was no longer wound to +so high a pitch: the marvels effected by Faustus are not represented +as challenging the observation of thousands at a public court, and +on the occasion of a royal festival. They "hid their diminished heads," +and were performed comparatively in a corner. + + +SABELLICUS. + +A pretended magician is recorded by Naude, as living about this time, +named Georgius Sabellicus, who, he says, if loftiness and arrogance +of assumption were enough to establish a claim to the possession of +supernatural gifts, would beyond all controversy be recognised for +a chief and consummate sorcerer. It was his ambition by the most +sounding appellations of this nature to advance his claim to immortal +reputation. He called himself, "The most accomplished Georgius +Sabellicus, a second Faustus, the spring and centre of necromantic +art, an astrologer, a magician, consummate in chiromancy, and in +agromancy, pyromancy and hydromancy inferior to none that ever lived." +I mention this the rather, as affording an additional proof how highly +Faustus was rated at the time in which he is said to have flourished. + +It is specially worthy of notice, that Naude, whose book is a sort +of register of all the most distinguished names in the annals of +necromancy, drawn up for the purpose of vindicating their honour, +now here [Errata: _read_ no where] mentions Faustus, except once +in this slight and cursory way. + + +PARACELSUS + +Paracelsus, or, as he styled himself, Philippus Aureolus Theophrastus +Bombastus Paracelsus de Hohenheim, was a man of great notoriety and +eminence, about the same time as Dr. Faustus. He was born in the year +1493, and died in 1541. His father is said to have lived in some +repute; but the son early became a wanderer in the world, passing +his youth in the occupation of foretelling future events by the stars +and by chiromancy, invoking the dead, and performing various operations +of alchemy and magic. He states Trithemius to have been his instructor +in the science of metals. He was superficial in literature, and says +of himself that at one time he did not open a book for ten years +together. He visited the mines of Bohemia, Sweden and the East to +perfect himself in metallic knowledge. He travelled through Prussia, +Lithuania, Poland, Transylvania and Illyria, conversing indifferently +with physicians and old women, that he might extract from them the +practical secrets of their art. He visited Egypt, Tartary and +Constantinople, at which last place, as he says, he learned the +transmutation of metals and the philosopher's stone. He boasts also +of the elixir of life, by means of which he could prolong the life +of man to the age of the antediluvians. He certainly possessed +considerable sagacity and a happy spirit of daring, which induced +him to have recourse to the application of mercury and opium in the +cure of diseases, when the regular physicians did not venture on the +use of them. He therefore was successfully employed by certain eminent +persons in desperate cases, and was consulted by Erasmus. He gradually +increased in fame, and in the year 1526 was chosen professor of natural +philosophy and surgery in the university of Bale. Here he delivered +lectures in a very bold and presumptuous style. He proclaimed himself +the monarch of medicine, and publicly burned the writings of Galen +and Avicenna as pretenders and impostors. + +This however was the acme of his prosperity. His system was extremely +popular for one year; but then he lost himself by brutality and +intemperance. He had drunk water only for the first five-and-twenty +years of his life; but now indulged himself in beastly crapulence +with the dregs of society, and scarcely ever took off his clothes +by day or night. After one year therefore spent at Bale, he resumed +his former vagabond life, and, having passed through many vicissitudes, +some of them of the most abject poverty, he died at the age of +forty-eight. + +Paracelsus in fact exhibited in his person the union of a quack, a +boastful and impudent pretender, with a considerable degree of natural +sagacity and shrewdness. Such an union is not uncommon in the present +day; but it was more properly in its place, when the cultivation of +the faculties of the mind was more restricted than now, and the law +of criticism of facts and evidence was nearly unknown. He took +advantage of the credulity and love of wonder incident to the +generality of our species; and, by dint of imposing on others, +succeeded in no small degree in imposing on himself. His intemperance +and arrogance of demeanour gave the suitable finish to his character. +He therefore carefully cherished in those about him the idea that +there was in him a kind of supernatural virtue, and that he had the +agents of an invisible world at his command. In particular he gave +out that he held conferences with a familiar or demon, whom for the +convenience of consulting he was in the habit of carrying about with +him in the hilt of his sword. + + +CARDAN. + +Jerome Cardan, who was only a few years younger than Paracelsus, was +a man of a very different character. He had considerable refinement +and discrimination, and ranked among the first scholars of his day. +He is however most of all distinguished for the Memoirs he has left +us of his life, which are characterised by a frankness and unreserve +which are almost without a parallel. He had undoubtedly a considerable +spice of madness in his composition. He says of himself, that he was +liable to extraordinary fits of abstraction and elevation of mind, +which by their intenseness became so intolerable, that he gladly had +recourse to very severe bodily pain by way of getting rid of them. +That in such cases he would bite his lips till they bled, twist his +fingers almost to dislocation, and whip his legs with rods, which +he found a great relief to him. That he would talk purposely of +subjects which he knew were particularly offensive to the company +he was in; that he argued on any side of a subject, without caring +whether he was right or wrong; and that he would spend whole nights +in gaming, often venturing as the stake he played for, the furniture +of his house, and his wife's jewels. + +Cardan describes three things of himself, which he habitually +experienced, but respecting which he had never unbosomed himself to +any of his friends. The first was, a capacity which he felt in himself +of abandoning his body in a sort of extacy whenever he pleased. He +felt in these cases a sort of splitting of the heart, as if his soul +was about to withdraw, the sensation spreading over his whole frame, +like the opening of a door for the dismissal of its guest. His +apprehension was, that he was out of his body, and that by an +energetic exertion he still retained a small hold of his corporeal +figure. The second of his peculiarities was, that he saw, when he +pleased, whatever he desired to see, not through the force of +imagination, but with his material organs: he saw groves, animals, +orbs, as he willed. When he was a child, he saw these things, as they +occurred, without any previous volition or anticipation that such +a thing was about to happen. But, after he had arrived at years of +maturity, he saw them only when he desired, and such things as he +desired. These images were in perpetual succession, one after another. +The thing incidental to him which he mentions in the third place was, +that he could not recollect any thing that ever happened to him, +whether good, ill, or indifferent, of which he had not been admonished, +and that a very short time before, in a dream. These things serve +to shew of what importance he was in his own eyes, and also, which +is the matter he principally brings it to prove, the subtlety and +delicacy of his animal nature. + +Cardan speaks uncertainly and contradictorily as to his having a +genius or demon perpetually attending him, advising him of what was +to happen, and forewarning him of sinister events. He concludes +however that he had no such attendant, but that it was the excellence +of his nature, approaching to immortality. He was much addicted to +the study of astrology, and laid claim to great skill as a physician. +He visited the court of London, and calculated the nativity of king +Edward VI. He was sent for as a physician by cardinal Beaton, +archbishop of St Andrews, whom, according to Melvile, [208] he +recovered to speech and health, and the historian appears to attribute +the cure to magic. He calculated the nativity of Jesus Christ, which +was imputed to him as an impious undertaking, inasmuch as it supposed +the creator of the world to be subject to the influence of the stars. +He also predicted his own death, and is supposed by some to have +forwarded that event, by abstinence from food at the age of +seventy-five, that he might not bely his prediction. + + +QUACKS, WHO IN COOL BLOOD UNDERTOOK TO OVERREACH MANKIND. + +Hitherto we have principally passed such persons in review, as seem +to have been in part at least the victims of their own delusions. +But beside these there has always been a numerous class of men, who, +with minds perfectly disengaged and free, have applied themselves +to concert the means of overreaching the simplicity, or baffling the +penetration, of those who were merely spectators, and uninitiated +in the mystery of the arts that were practised upon them. Such was +no doubt the case with the speaking heads and statues, which were +sometimes exhibited in the ancient oracles. Such was the case with +certain optical delusions, which were practised on the unsuspecting, +and were contrived to produce on them the effect of supernatural +revelations. Such is the story of Bel and the Dragon in the book of +Apocrypha, where the priests daily placed before the idol twelve +measures of flour, and forty sheep, and six vessels of wine, +pretending that the idol consumed all these provisions, when in fact +they entered the temple by night, by a door under the altar, and +removed them. + + +BENVENUTO CELLINI. + +We have a story minutely related by Benvenuto Cellini in his Life, +which it is now known was produced by optical delusion, but which +was imposed upon the artist and his companions as altogether +supernatural. It occurred a very short time before the death of pope +Clement the Seventh in 1534, and is thus detailed. It took place in +the Coliseum at Rome. + +"It came to pass through a variety of odd accidents, that I made +acquaintance with a Sicilian priest, who was a man of genius, and +well versed in the Greek and Latin languages. Happening one day to +have some conversation with him, where the subject turned upon the +art of necromancy, I, who had a great desire to know something of +the matter, told him, that I had all my life had a curiosity to be +acquainted with the mysteries of this art. The priest made answer, +that the man must be of a resolute and steady temper, who entered +on that study. I replied, that I had fortitude and resolution enough +to desire to be initiated in it. The priest subjoined, 'If you think +you have the heart to venture, I will give you all the satisfaction +you can desire.' Thus we agreed to enter upon a scheme of necromancy. + +"The priest one evening prepared to satisfy me, and desired me to +look for a companion or two. I invited one Vincenzio Romoli, who was +my intimate acquaintance, and he brought with him a native of Pistoia +who cultivated the art of necromancy himself. We repaired to the +Coliseum; and the priest, according to the custom of conjurors, began +to draw circles on the ground, with the most impressive ceremonies +imaginable. He likewise brought with him all sorts of precious +perfumes and fire, with some compositions which diffused noisome and +bad odours. As soon as he was in readiness, he made an opening to +the circle, and took us by the hand, and ordered the other +necromancer, his partner, to throw perfumes into the fire at a proper +time, intrusting the care of the fire and the perfumes to the rest; +and then he began his incantations. + +"This ceremony lasted above an hour and a half, when there appeared +several legions of devils, so that the amphitheatre was quite filled +with them. I was busy about the perfumes, when the priest, who knew +that there was a sufficient number of infernal spirits, turned about +to me, and said, 'Benvenuto, ask them something.' I answered, 'Let +them bring me into company with my Sicilian mistress, Angelica.' That +night we obtained no answer of any sort; but I received great +satisfaction in having my curiosity so far indulged. + +"The necromancer told me that it was requisite we should go a second +time, assuring me that I should be satisfied in whatever I asked; but +that I must bring with me a boy that had never known woman. I took +with me my apprentice, who was about twelve years of age; with the +same Vincenzio Romoli, who had been my companion the first time, and +one Agnolino Gaddi, an intimate acquaintance, whom I likewise +prevailed on to assist at the ceremony. When we came to the place +appointed, the priest, having made his preparations as before with the +same and even more striking ceremonies, placed us within the circle, +which he had drawn with a more wonderful art and in a more solemn +manner, than at our former meeting. Thus having committed the care of +the perfumes and the fire to my friend Vincenzio, who was assisted by +Gaddi, he put into my hands a pintacolo, or magical chart, and bid me +turn it towards the places to which he should direct me; and under the +pintacolo I held my apprentice. The necromancer, having begun to make +his most tremendous invocations, called by their names a multitude of +demons who were the leaders of the several legions, and questioned +them, by the virtue and power of the eternal, uncreated God, who lives +for ever, in the Hebrew language, as also in Latin and Greek; insomuch +that the amphitheatre was filled, almost in an instant, with demons a +hundred times more numerous than at the former conjuration. Vincenzio +meanwhile was busied in making a fire with the assistance of Gaddi, +and burning a great quantity of precious perfumes. I, by the direction +of the necromancer, again desired to be in company with my Angelica. +He then turning upon me said, 'Know, they have declared that in the +space of a month you shall be in her company.' + +"He then requested me to stand by him resolutely, because the legions +were now above a thousand more in number than he had designed; and +besides these were the most dangerous; so that, after they had +answered my question, it behoved him to be civil to them, and dismiss +them quietly. At the same time the boy under the pintacolo was in a +terrible fright, saying, that there were in the place a million of +fierce men who threatened to destroy us; and that, besides, there were +four armed giants of enormous stature, who endeavoured to break into +our circle. During this time, while the necromancer, trembling with +fear, endeavoured by mild means to dismiss them in the best way he +could, Vincenzio, who quivered like an aspen leaf, took care of the +perfumes. Though I was as much afraid as any of them, I did my utmost +to conceal it; so that I greatly contributed to inspire the rest with +resolution; but the truth is, I gave myself over for a dead man, +seeing the horrid fright the necromancer was in. + +"The boy had placed his head between his knees; and said, 'In this +attitude will I die; for we shall all surely perish.' I told him that +those demons were under us, and what he saw was smoke and shadow; so +bid him hold up his head and take courage. No sooner did he look up, +than he cried out, 'The whole amphitheatre is burning, and the fire is +just falling on us.' So, covering his eyes with his hands, he again +exclaimed, that destruction was inevitable, and he desired to see no +more. The necromancer intreated me to have a good heart, and to take +care to burn proper perfumes; upon which I turned to Vincenzio, and +bade him burn all the most precious perfumes he had. At the same time +I cast my eyes upon Gaddi, who was terrified to such a degree, that he +could scarcely distinguish objects, and seemed to be half dead. Seeing +him in this condition, I said to him, 'Gaddi, upon these occasions a +man should not yield to fear, but stir about to give some assistance; +so come directly, and put on more of these perfumes.' Gaddi accordingly +attempted to move; but the effect was annoying both to our sense of +hearing and smell, and overcame the perfumes. + +"The boy perceiving this, once more ventured to raise his head, and, +seeing me laugh, began to take courage, and said, 'The devils are +flying away with a vengeance.' In this condition we staid, till the +bell rang for morning prayers. The boy again told us, that there +remained but few devils, and those were at a great distance. When the +magician had performed the rest of his ceremonies, he stripped off his +gown, and took up a wallet full of books, which he had brought with +him. We all went out of the circle together, keeping as close to each +other as we possibly could, especially the boy, who placed himself in +the middle, holding the necromancer by the coat, and me by the cloak. + +"As we were going to our houses in the quarter of Banchi, the boy told +us, that two of the demons whom we had seen at the amphitheatre, went +on before us leaping and skipping, sometimes running upon the roofs of +the houses, and sometimes on the ground. The priest declared that, as +often as he had entered magic circles, nothing so extraordinary had +ever happened to him. As we went along, he would fain have persuaded +me to assist at the consecrating a book, from which he said we should +derive immense riches. We should then ask the demons to discover to us +the various treasures with which the earth abounds, which would raise +us to opulence and power; but that those love-affairs were mere +follies from which no good could be expected. I made answer, that I +would readily have accepted his proposal if I had understood Latin. He +assured me that the knowledge of Latin was nowise material; but that +he could never meet with a partner of resolution and intrepidity equal +to mine, and that that would be to him an invaluable acquisition." +Immediately subsequent to this scene, Cellini got into one of those +scrapes, in which he was so frequently involved by his own violence +and ferocity; and the connection was never again renewed. + +The first remark that arises out of this narrative is, that nothing is +actually done by the supernatural personages which are exhibited. The +magician reports certain answers as given by the demons; but these +answers do not appear to have been heard from any lips but those of +him who was the creator or cause of the scene. The whole of the demons +therefore were merely figures, produced by the magic lantern (which is +said to have been invented by Roger Bacon), or by something of that +nature. The burning of the perfumes served to produce a dense +atmosphere, that was calculated to exaggerate, and render more +formidable and terrific, the figures which were exhibited. The magic +lantern, which is now the amusement only of servant-maids, and boys at +school in their holidays, served at this remote period, and when the +power of optical delusions was unknown, to terrify men of wisdom and +penetration, and make them believe that legions of devils from the +infernal regions were come among them, to produce the most horrible +effects, and suspend and invert the laws of nature. It is probable, +that the magician, who carried home with him a "wallet full of books," +also carried at the same time the magic lantern or mirror, with its +lights, which had served him for his exhibition, and that this was the +cause of the phenomenon, that they observed two of the demons which +they had seen at the amphitheatre, going before them on their return, +"leaping and skipping, sometimes running on the roofs of the houses, +and sometimes on the ground." [209] + + +NOSTRADAMUS. + +Michael Nostradamus, a celebrated astrologer, was born at St. Remi in +Provence in the year 1503. He published a Century of Prophecies in +obscure and oracular terms and barbarous verse, and other works. In +the period in which he lived the pretended art of astrological +prediction was in the highest repute; and its professors were sought +for by emperors and kings, and entertained with the greatest +distinction and honour. Henry the Second of France, moved with his +great renown, sent for Nostradamus to court, received much +gratification from his visit, and afterward ordered him to Blois, that +he might see the princes, his sons, calculate their horoscopes, and +predict their future fortunes. He was no less in favour afterwards +with Charles the Ninth. He died in the year 1566. + + +DOCTOR DEE. + +Dr. John Dee was a man who made a conspicuous figure in the sixteenth +century. He was born at London in the year 1527. He was an eminent +mathematician, and an indefatigable scholar. He says of himself, that, +having been sent to Cambridge when he was fifteen, he persisted for +several years in allowing himself only four hours for sleep in the +twenty-four, and two for food and refreshment, and that he constantly +occupied the remaining eighteen (the time for divine service only +excepted) in study. At Cambridge he superintended the exhibition of a +Greek play of Aristophanes, among the machinery of which he introduced +an artificial scarabaeus, or beetle, which flew up to the palace of +Jupiter, with a man on his back, and a basket of provisions. The +ignorant and astonished spectators ascribed this feat to the arts of +the magician; and Dee, annoyed by these suspicions, found it expedient +to withdraw to the continent. Here he resided first at the university +of Louvaine, at which place, his acquaintance was courted by the dukes +of Mantua and Medina, and from thence proceeded to Paris, where he +gave lectures on Euclid with singular applause. + +In 1551 he returned to England, and was received with distinction by +sir John Check, and introduced to secretary Cecil, and even to king +Edward, from whom he received a pension of one hundred crowns _per +annum_, which he speedily after exchanged for a small living in the +church. In the reign of queen Mary he was for some time kindly +treated; but afterwards came into great trouble, and even into danger +of his life. He entered into correspondence with several of the +servants of queen Elizabeth at Woodstock, and was charged with +practising against Mary's life by enchantments. Upon this accusation, +he was seized and confined; and, being after several examinations +discharged of the indictment, was turned over to bishop Bonner to see +if any heresy could be found in him. After a tedious persecution he +was set at liberty in 1555, and was so little subdued by what he had +suffered, that in the following year he presented a petition to the +queen, requesting her co-operation in a plan for preserving and +recovering certain monuments of classical antiquity. + +The principal study of Dee however at this time lay in astrology; and +accordingly, upon the accession of Elizabeth, Robert Dudley, her chief +favourite, was sent to consult the doctor as to the aspect of the +stars, that they might fix on an auspicious day for celebrating her +coronation. Some years after we find him again on the continent; and +in 1571, being taken ill at Louvaine, we are told the queen sent over +two physicians to accomplish his cure. Elizabeth afterwards visited +him at his house at Mortlake, that she might view his magazine of +mathematical instruments and curiosities; and about this time employed +him to defend her title to countries discovered in different parts of +the globe. He says of himself, that he received the most advantageous +offers from Charles V, Ferdinand, Maximilian II, and Rodolph II, +emperors of Germany, and from the czar of Muscovy an offer of L.2000 +sterling _per annum_, upon condition that he would reside in his +dominions. All these circumstances were solemnly attested by Dee in a +Compendious Rehearsal of his Life and Studies for half-a-century, +composed at a later period, and read by him at his house at Mortlake +to two commissioners appointed by Elizabeth to enquire into his +circumstances, accompanied with evidences and documents to establish +the particulars. [210] + +Had Dee gone no further than this, he would undoubtedly have ranked +among the profoundest scholars and most eminent geniuses that adorned +the reign of the maiden queen. But he was unfortunately cursed with an +ambition that nothing could satisfy; and, having accustomed his mind +to the wildest reveries, and wrought himself up to an extravagant +pitch of enthusiasm, he pursued a course that involved him in much +calamity, and clouded all his latter days with misery and ruin. He +dreamed perpetually of the philosopher's stone, and was haunted with +the belief of intercourse of a supramundane character. It is almost +impossible to decide among these things, how much was illusion, and +how much was forgery. Both were inextricably mixed in his proceedings; +and this extraordinary victim probably could not in his most +dispassionate moments precisely distinguish what belonged to the one, +and what to the other. + +As Dee was an enthusiast, so he perpetually interposed in his +meditations prayers of the greatest emphasis and fervour. As he was +one day in November 1582, engaged in these devout exercises, he says +that there appeared to him the angel Uriel at the west window of his +Museum, who gave him a translucent stone, or chrystal, of a convex +form, that had the quality, when intently surveyed, of presenting +apparitions, and even emitting sounds, in consequence of which the +observer could hold conversations, ask questions and receive answers +from the figures he saw in the mirror. It was often necessary that the +stone should be turned one way and another in different positions, +before the person who consulted it gained the right focus; and then +the objects to be observed would sometimes shew themselves on the +surface of the stone, and sometime in different parts of the room by +virtue of the action of the stone. It had also this peculiarity, that +only one person, having been named as seer, could see the figures +exhibited, and hear the voices that spoke, though there might be +various persons in the room. It appears that the person who discerned +these visions must have his eyes and his ears uninterruptedly engaged +in the affair, so that, as Dee experienced, to render the communication +effectual, there must be two human beings concerned in the scene, one +of them to describe what he saw, and to recite the dialogue that took +place, and the other immediately to commit to paper all that his +partner dictated. Dee for some reason chose for himself the part of +the amanuensis, and had to seek for a companion, who was to watch the +stone, and repeat to him whatever he saw and heard. + +It happened opportunely that, a short time before Dee received this +gift from on high, he contracted a familiar intercourse with one +Edward Kelly of Worcestershire, whom he found specially qualified to +perform the part which it was necessary to Dee to have adequately +filled. Kelly was an extraordinary character, and in some respects +exactly such a person as Dee wanted. He was just twenty-eight years +younger than the memorable personage, who now received him as an +inmate, and was engaged in his service at a stipulated salary of fifty +pounds a year. + +Kelly entered upon life with a somewhat unfortunate adventure. He was +accused, when a young man, of forgery, brought to trial, convicted, +and lost his ears in the pillory. This misfortune however by no means +daunted him. He was assiduously engaged in the search for the +philosopher's stone. He had an active mind, great enterprise, and a +very domineering temper. Another adventure in which he had been +engaged previously to his knowledge of Dee, was in digging up the body +of a man, who had been buried only the day before, that he might +compel him by incantations, to answer questions, and discover future +events. There was this difference therefore between the two persons +previously to their league. Dee was a man of regular manners and +unspotted life, honoured by the great, and favourably noticed by +crowned heads in different parts of the world; while Kelly was a +notorious profligate, accustomed to the most licentious actions, and +under no restraint from morals or principle. + +One circumstance that occurred early in the acquaintance of Kelly and +Dee it is necessary to mention. It serves strikingly to illustrate the +ascendancy of the junior and impetuous party over his more gifted +senior. Kelly led Dee, we are not told under what pretence, to visit +the celebrated ruins of Glastonbury Abbey in Somersetshire. Here, as +these curious travellers searched into every corner of the scene, they +met by some rare accident with a vase containing a certain portion of +the actual _elixir vitae_, that rare and precious liquid, so much +sought after, which has the virtue of converting the baser metals into +gold and silver. It had remained here perhaps ever since the time of +the highly-gifted St. Dunstan in the tenth century. This they carried +off in triumph: but we are not told of any special use to which they +applied it, till a few years after, when they were both on the +continent. + +The first record of their consultations with the supramundane spirits, +was of the date of December 2, 1581, at Lexden Heath in the county of +Essex; and from this time they went on in a regular series of +consultations with and enquiries from these miraculous visitors, a +great part of which will appear to the uninitiated extremely puerile +and ludicrous, but which were committed to writing with the most +scrupulous exactness by Dee, the first part still existing in +manuscript, but the greater portion from 28 May 1583 to 1608, with +some interruptions, having been committed to the press by Dr. Meric +Casaubon in a well-sized folio in 1659, under the title of "A True and +Faithful Relation of what passed between Dr. John Dee and some +Spirits, tending, had it succeeded, to a general alteration of most +states and kingdoms of the world." + +Kelly and Dee had not long been engaged in these supernatural +colloquies, before an event occurred which gave an entirely new turn +to their proceedings. Albert Alaski, a Polish nobleman, lord palatine +of the principality of Siradia, came over at this time into England, +urged, as he said, by a desire personally to acquaint himself with the +glories of the reign of Elizabeth, and the evidences of her unrivalled +talents. The queen and her favourite, the earl of Leicester, received +him with every mark of courtesy and attention, and, having shewn him +all the wonders of her court at Westminster and Greenwich, sent him to +Oxford, with a command to the dignitaries and heads of colleges, to +pay him every attention, and to lay open to his view all their rarest +curiosities. Among other things worthy of notice, Alaski enquired for +the celebrated Dr. Dee, and expressed the greatest impatience to be +acquainted with him. + +Just at this juncture the earl of Leicester happened to spy Dr. Dee +among the crowd who attended at a royal levee. The earl immediately +advanced towards him; and, in his frank manner, having introduced him +to Alaski, expressed his intention of bringing the Pole to dine with +the doctor at his house at Mortlake. Embarrassed with this unexpected +honour, Dee no sooner got home, than he dispatched an express to the +earl, honestly confessing that he should be unable to entertain such +guests in a suitable manner, without being reduced to the expedient of +selling or pawning his plate, to procure him the means of doing so. +Leicester communicated the doctor's perplexity to Elizabeth; and the +queen immediately dispatched a messenger with a present of forty +angels, or twenty pounds, to enable him to receive his guests as +became him. + +A great intimacy immediately commenced between Dee and the stranger. +Alaski, though possessing an extensive territory, was reduced by the +prodigality of himself or his ancestors to much embarrassment; and on +the other hand this nobleman appeared to Dee an instrument well +qualified to accomplish his ambitious purposes. Alaski was extremely +desirous to look into the womb of time; and Dee, it is likely, +suggested repeated hints of his extraordinary power from his +possession of the philosopher's stone. After two or three interviews, +and much seeming importunity on the part of the Pole, Dee and Kelly +graciously condescended to admit Alaski as a third party to their +secret meetings with their supernatural visitors, from which the rest +of the world were carefully excluded. Here the two Englishmen made use +of the vulgar artifice, of promising extraordinary good fortune to the +person of whom they purposed to make use. By the intervention of the +miraculous stone they told the wondering traveller, that he should +shortly become king of Poland, with the accession of several other +kingdoms, that he should overcome many armies of Saracens and Paynims, +and prove a mighty conqueror. Dee at the same time complained of the +disagreeable condition in which he was at home, and that Burleigh and +Walsingham were his malicious enemies. At length they concerted among +themselves, that they, Alaski, and Dee and Kelly with their wives and +families, should clandestinely withdraw out of England, and proceed +with all practicable rapidity to Alaski's territory in the kingdom of +Poland. They embarked on this voyage 21 September, and arrived at +Siradia the third of February following. + +At this place however the strangers remained little more than a month. +Alaski found his finances in such disorder, that it was scarcely +possible for him to feed the numerous guests he had brought along with +him. The promises of splendid conquests which Dee and Kelly profusely +heaped upon him, were of no avail to supply the deficiency of his +present income. And the elixir they brought from Glastonbury was, as +they said, so incredibly rich in virtue, that they were compelled to +lose much time in making projection by way of trial, before they could +hope to arrive at the proper temperament for producing the effect they +desired. + +In the following month Alaski with his visitors passed to Cracow, the +residence of the kings of Poland. Here they remained five months, Dee +and Kelly perpetually amusing the Pole with the extraordinary virtue +of the stone, which had been brought from heaven by an angel, and +busied in a thousand experiments with the elixir, and many tedious +preparations which they pronounced to be necessary, before the +compound could have the proper effect. The prophecies were uttered +with extreme confidence; but no external indications were afforded, to +shew that in any way they were likely to be realised. The experiments +and exertions of the laboratory were incessant; but no transmutation +was produced. At length Alaski found himself unable to sustain the +train of followers he had brought out of England. With mountains of +wealth, the treasures of the world promised, they were reduced to the +most grievous straits for the means of daily subsistence. Finally the +zeal of Alaski diminished; he had no longer the same faith in the +projectors that had deluded him; and he devised a way of sending them +forward with letters of recommendation to Rodolph II, emperor of +Germany, at his imperial seat of Prague, where they arrived on the +ninth of August. + +Rodolph was a man, whose character and habits of life they judged +excellently adapted to their purpose. Dee had a long conference with +the emperor, in which he explained to him what wonderful things the +spirits promised to this prince, in case he proved exemplary of life, +and obedient to their suggestions, that he should be the greatest +conqueror in the world, and should take captive the Turk in his city +of Constantinople. Rodolph was extremely courteous in his reception, +and sent away Dee with the highest hopes that he had at length found +a personage with whom he should infallibly succeed to the extent of +his wishes. He sought however a second interview, and was baffled. At +one time the emperor was going to his country palace near Prague, and +at another was engaged in the pleasures of the chace. + +He also complained that he was not sufficiently familiar with the +Latin tongue, to manage the conferences with Dee in a satisfactory +manner in person. He therefore deputed Curtzius, a man high in his +confidence, to enter into the necessary details with his learned +visitor. Dee also contrived to have Spinola, the ambassador from +Madrid to the court of the emperor, to urge his suit. The final result +was that Rodolph declined any further intercourse with Dee. He turned +a deaf ear to his prophecies, and professed to be altogether void of +faith as to his promises respecting the philosopher's stone. Dee +however was led on perpetually with hopes of better things from the +emperor, till the spring of the year 1585. At length he was obliged to +fly from Prague, the bishop of Placentia, the pope's nuncio, having it +in command from his holiness to represent to Rodolph how discreditable +it was for him to harbour English magicians, heretics, at his court. + +From Prague Dee and his followers proceeded to Cracow. Here he found +means of introduction to Stephen, king of Poland, to whom immediately +he insinuated as intelligence from heaven, that Rodolph, the emperor, +would speedily be assassinated, and that Stephen would succeed him in +the throne of Germany. Stephen appears to have received Dee with more +condescension than Rodolph had done, and was once present at his +incantation and interview with the invisible spirits. Dee also lured +him on with promises respecting the philosopher's stone. Meanwhile the +magician was himself reduced to the strangest expedients for +subsistence. He appears to have daily expected great riches from the +transmutation of metals, and was unwilling to confess that he and his +family were in the mean time almost starving. + +When king Stephen at length became wearied with fruitless expectation, +Dee was fortunate enough to meet with another and more patient dupe in +Rosenburg, a nobleman of considerable wealth at Trebona in the kingdom +of Bohemia. Here Dee appears to have remained till 1589, when he was +sent for home by Elizabeth. In what manner he proceeded during this +interval, and from whence he drew his supplies, we are only left to +conjecture. He lured on his victim with the usual temptation, +promising him that he should be king of Poland. In the mean time it is +recorded by him, that, on the ninth of December, 1586, he arrived at +the point of projection, having cut a piece of metal out of a brass +warming-pan; and merely heating it by the fire, and pouring on it a +portion of the elixir, it was presently converted into pure silver. We +are told that he sent the warming-pan and the piece of silver to queen +Elizabeth, that she might be convinced by her own eyes how exactly +they tallied, and that the one had unquestionably been a portion of +the other. About the same time it is said, that Dee and his associate +became more free in their expenditure; and in one instance it is +stated as an example, that Kelly gave away to the value of four +thousand pounds sterling in gold rings on occasion of the celebration +of the marriage of one of his maid-servants. On the twenty-seventh and +thirtieth of July, 1587, Dee has recorded in his journal his gratitude +to God for his unspeakable mercies on those days imparted, which has +been interpreted to mean further acquisitions of wealth by means of +the elixir. + +Meanwhile perpetual occasions of dissention occurred between the two +great confederates, Kelly and Dee. They were in many respects unfitted +for each other's society. Dee was a man, who from his youth upward had +been indefatigable in study and research, had the consciousness of +great talents and intellect, and had been universally recognised as +such, and had possessed a high character for fervent piety and +blameless morals. Kelly was an impudent adventurer, a man of no +principles and of blasted reputation; yet fertile in resources, full +of self-confidence, and of no small degree of ingenuity. In their +mutual intercourse the audacious adventurer often had the upper hand +of the man who had lately possessed a well-earned reputation. Kelly +frequently professed himself tired of enacting the character of +interpreter of the Gods under Dee. He found Dee in all cases running +away with the superior consideration; while he in his own opinion best +deserved to possess it. The straitness of their circumstances, and the +misery they were occasionally called on to endure, we may be sure did +not improve their good understanding. Kelly once and again threatened +to abandon his leader. Dee continually soothed him, and prevailed on +him to stay. + +Kelly at length started a very extraordinary proposition. Kelly, as +interpreter to the spirits, and being the only person who heard and +saw any thing, we may presume made them say whatever he pleased. Kelly +and Dee had both of them wives. Kelly did not always live harmoniously +with the partner of his bed. He sometimes went so far as to say that +he hated her. Dee was more fortunate. His wife was a person of good +family, and had hitherto been irreproachable in her demeanour. The +spirits one day revealed to Kelly, that they must henceforth have +their wives in common. The wife of Kelly was barren, and this curse +could no otherwise be removed. Having started the proposition, Kelly +played the reluctant party. Dee, who was pious and enthusiastic, +inclined to submit. He first indeed started the notion, that it could +only be meant that they should live in mutual harmony and good +understanding. The spirits protested against this, and insisted upon +the literal interpretation. Dee yielded, and compared his case to that +of Abraham, who at the divine command consented to sacrifice his son +Isaac. Kelly alleged that these spirits, which Dee had hitherto +regarded as messengers from God, could be no other than servants of +Satan. He persisted in his disobedience; and the spirits declared that +he was no longer worthy to be their interpreter, and that another +mediator must be found. + +They named Arthur Dee, the son of the possessor of the stone, a +promising and well-disposed boy of only eight years of age. Dee +consecrated the youth accordingly to his high function by prayers and +religious rites for several days together. Kelly took horse and rode +away, protesting that they should meet no more. Arthur entered upon +his office, April 15, 1587. The experiment proved abortive. He saw +something; but not to the purpose. He heard no voices. At length +Kelly, on the third day, entered the room unexpectedly, "by miraculous +fortune," as Dee says, "or a divine fate," sate down between them, and +immediately saw figures, and heard voices, which the little Arthur was +not enabled to perceive. In particular he saw four heads inclosed in +an obelisk, which he perceived to represent the two magicians and +their wives, and interpreted to signify that unlimited communion in +which they were destined to engage. The matter however being still an +occasion of scruple, a spirit appeared, who by the language he used +was plainly no other than the Saviour of the world, and took away from +them the larger stone; for now it appears there were two stones. This +miracle at length induced all parties to submit; and the divine +command was no sooner obeyed, than the stone which had been +abstracted, was found again under the pillow of the wife of Dee. + +It is not easy to imagine a state of greater degradation than that +into which this person had now fallen. During all the prime and vigour +of his intellect, he had sustained an eminent part among the learned +and the great, distinguished and honoured by Elizabeth and her +favourite. But his unbounded arrogance and self-opinion could never be +satisfied. And seduced, partly by his own weakness, and partly by the +insinuations of a crafty adventurer, he became a mystic of the most +dishonourable sort. He was induced to believe in a series of +miraculous communications without common sense, engaged in the pursuit +of the philosopher's stone, and no doubt imagined that he was +possessed of the great secret. Stirred up by these conceptions, he +left his native country, and became a wanderer, preying upon the +credulity of one prince and eminent man after another, and no sooner +was he discarded by one victim of credulity, than he sought another, +a vagabond on the earth, reduced from time to time to the greatest +distress, persecuted, dishonoured and despised by every party in their +turn. At length by incessant degrees he became dead to all moral +distinctions, and all sense of honour and self-respect. "Professing +himself to be wise he became a fool, walked in the vanity of his +imagination," and had his understanding under total eclipse. The +immoral system of conduct in which he engaged, and the strange and +shocking blasphemy that he mixed with it, render him at this time a +sort of character that it is painful to contemplate. + +Led on as Dee at this time was by the ascendancy and consummate art of +Kelly, there was far from existing any genuine harmony between them; +and, after many squabbles and heart-burnings, they appear finally to +have parted in January 1589, Dee having, according to his own account, +at that time delivered up to Kelly, the elixir and the different +implements by which the transmutation of metals was to be effected. + +Various overtures appear to have passed now for some years between Dee +and queen Elizabeth, intended to lead to his restoration to his native +country. Dee had upon different occasions expressed a wish to that +effect; and Elizabeth in the spring of 1589 sent him a message, that +removed from him all further thought of hesitation and delay. He set +out from Trebona with three coaches, and a baggage train correspondent, +and had an audience of the queen at Richmond towards the close of that +year. Upon the whole it is impossible perhaps not to believe, that +Elizabeth was influenced in this proceeding by the various reports +that had reached her of his extraordinary success with the +philosopher's stone, and the boundless wealth he had it in his power +to bestow. Many princes at this time contended with each other, as to +who should be happy enough by fair means or by force to have under his +control the fortunate possessor of the great secret, and thus to have +in his possession the means of inexhaustible wealth. Shortly after +this time the emperor Rodolph seized and committed to prison Kelly, +the partner of Dee in this inestimable faculty, and, having once +enlarged him, placed him in custody a second time. Meanwhile Elizabeth +is said to have made him pressing overtures of so flattering a nature +that he determined to escape and return to his native country. For +this purpose he is said to have torn the sheets of his bed, and +twisted them into a rope, that by that means he might descend from +the tower in which he was confined. But, being a corpulent man of +considerable weight, the rope broke with him before he was half way +down, and, having fractured one or both his legs, and being otherwise +considerably bruised, he died shortly afterwards. This happened in +the year 1595. + +Dee (according to his own account, delivered to commissioners +appointed by queen Elizabeth to enquire into his circumstances) came +from Trebona to England in a state little inferior to that of an +ambassador. He had three coaches, with four horses harnessed to each +coach, two or three loaded waggons, and a guard, sometimes of six, +and sometimes of twenty-four soldiers, to defend him from enemies, +who were supposed to lie in wait to intercept his passage. Immediately +on his arrival he had an audience of the queen at Richmond, by whom +he was most graciously received. She gave special orders, that he +should do what he would in chemistry and philosophy, and that no one +should on any account molest him. + +But here end the prosperity and greatness of this extraordinary man. +If he possessed the power of turning all baser metals into gold, he +certainly acted unadvisedly in surrendering this power to his +confederate, immediately before his return to his native country. +He parted at the same time with his gift of prophecy, since, though +he brought away with him his miraculous stone, and at one time +appointed one Bartholomew, and another one Hickman, his interpreters +to look into the stone, to see the marvellous sights it was expected +to disclose, and to hear the voices and report the words that issued +from it, the experiments proved in both instances abortive. They +wanted the finer sense, or the unparalleled effrontery and +inexhaustible invention, which Kelly alone possessed. + +The remainder of the voyage of the life of Dee was "bound in shallows +and in miseries." Queen Elizabeth we may suppose soon found that her +dreams of immense wealth to be obtained through his intervention were +nugatory. Yet would she not desert the favourite of her former years. +He presently began to complain of poverty and difficulties. He +represented that the revenue of two livings he held in the church +had been withheld from him from the time of his going abroad. He +stated that, shortly after that period, his house had been broken +into and spoiled by a lawless mob, instigated by his ill fame as a +dealer in prohibited and unlawful arts. They destroyed or dispersed +his library, consisting of four thousand volumes, seven hundred of +which were manuscripts, and of inestimable rarity. They ravaged his +collection of curious implements and machines. He enumerated the +expences of his journey home by Elizabeth's command, for which he +seemed to consider the queen as his debtor. Elizabeth in consequence +ordered him at several times two or three small sums. But this being +insufficient, she was prevailed upon in 1592 to appoint two members +of her privy council to repair to his house at Mortlake to enquire +into particulars, to whom he made a Compendious Rehearsal of half +a hundred years of his life, accompanied with documents and vouchers. + +It is remarkable that in this Rehearsal no mention occurs of the +miraculous stone brought down to him by an angel, or of his +pretensions respecting the transmutation of metals. He merely rests, +his claims to public support upon his literary labours, and the +acknowledged eminence of his intellectual faculties. He passes over +the years he had lately spent in foreign countries, in entire silence, +unless we except his account of the particulars of his journey home. +His representation to Elizabeth not being immediately productive of +all the effects he expected, he wrote a letter to archbishop Whitgift +two years after, lamenting the delay of the expected relief, and +complaining of the "untrue reports, opinions and fables, which had +for so many years been spread of his studies." He represents these +studies purely as literary, frank, and wholly divested of mystery. +If the "True Relation of what passed for many years between Dr. Dee +and certain Spirits" had not been preserved, and afterwards printed, +we might have been disposed to consider all that was said on this +subject as a calumny. + +The promotion which Dee had set his heart on, was to the office of +master of St. Cross's Hospital near Winchester, which the queen had +promised him when the present holder should be made a bishop. But +this never happened. He obtained however in lieu of it the +chancellorship of St. Paul's cathedral, 8 December 1594, which in +the following year he exchanged for the wardenship of the college +at Manchester. In this last office he continued till the year 1602 +(according to other accounts 1604), during which time he complained +of great dissention and refractoriness on the part of the fellows; +though it may perhaps be doubted whether equal blame may not fairly +be imputed to the arrogance and restlessness of the warden. At length +he receded altogether from public life, and retired to his ancient +domicile at Mortlake. He made one attempt to propitiate the favour +of king James; but it was ineffectual. Elizabeth had known him in +the flower and vigour of his days; he had boasted the uniform +patronage of her chief favourite; he had been recognised by the +philosophical and the learned as inferior to none of their body, +and he had finally excited the regard of his ancient mistress by +his pretence to revelations, and the promises he held out of the +philosopher's stone. She could not shake off her ingrafted prejudice +in his favour; she could not find in her heart to cast him aside in +his old age and decay. But then came a king, to whom in his prosperity +and sunshine he had been a stranger. He wasted his latter days in +dotage, obscurity and universal neglect. No one has told us how he +contrived to subsist. We may be sure that his constant companions +were mortification and the most humiliating privations. He lingered +on till the year 1608; and the ancient people in the time of Antony +Wood, nearly a century afterwards, pointed to his grave in the chancel +of the church at Mortlake, and professed to know the very spot where +his remains were desposited. + +The history of Dee is exceedingly interesting, not only on its own +account; not only for the eminence of his talents and attainments, +and the incredible sottishness and blindness of understanding which +marked his maturer years; but as strikingly illustrative of the +credulity and superstitious faith of the time in which he lived. At +a later period his miraculous stone which displayed such wonders, +and was attended with so long a series of supernatural vocal +communications would have deceived nobody: it was scarcely more +ingenious than the idle tricks of the most ordinary conjurer. But +at this period the crust of long ages of darkness had not yet been +fully worn away. Men did not trust to the powers of human +understanding, and were not familiarised with the main canons of +evidence and belief. Dee passed six years on the continent, proceeding +from the court of one prince or potent nobleman to another, listened +to for a time by each, each regarding his oracular communications +with astonishment and alarm, and at length irresolutely casting him +off, when he found little or no difficulty in running a like career +with another. + +It is not the least curious circumstance respecting the life of Dee, +that in 1659, half a century after his death, there remained still +such an interest respecting practices of this sort, as to authorise +the printing a folio volume, in a complex and elaborate form, of his +communications with spirits. The book was brought out by Dr. Meric +Casaubon, no contemptible name in the republic of letters. The editor +observes respecting the hero and his achievements in the Preface, +that, "though his carriage in certain respects seemed to lay in works +of darkness, yet all was tendered by him to kings and princes, and +by all (England alone excepted) was listened to for a good while with +good respect, and by some for a long time embraced and entertained." +He goes on to say, that "the fame of it made the pope bestir himself, +and filled all, both learned and unlearned, with great wonder and +astonishment." He adds, that, "as a whole it is undoubtedly not to +be paralleled in its kind in any age or country." In a word the +editor, though disavowing an entire belief in Dee's pretensions, yet +plainly considers them with some degree of deference, and insinuates +to how much more regard such undue and exaggerated pretensions are +entitled, than the impious incredulity of certain modern Sadducees, +who say that "there is no resurrection; neither angel, nor spirit." +The belief in witchcraft and sorcery has undoutedly met with some +degree of favour from this consideration, inasmuch as, by recognising +the correspondence of human beings with the invisible world, it has +one principle in common with the believers in revelation, of which +the more daring infidel is destitute. + + +EARL OF DERBY. + +The circumstances of the death of Ferdinand, fifth earl of Derby, +in 1594, have particularly engaged the attention of the contemporary +historians. Hesket, an emissary of the Jesuits and English Catholics +abroad, was importunate with this nobleman to press his title to the +crown, as the legal representative of his great-grandmother Mary, +youngest daughter to king Henry the Seventh. But the earl, fearing, +as it is said, that this was only a trap to ensnare him, gave +information against Hesket to the government, in consequence of which +he was apprehended, tried and executed. Hesket had threatened the +earl that, if he did not comply with his suggestion, he should live +only a short time. Accordingly, four months afterwards, the earl was +seized with a very uncommon disease. A waxen image was at the same +time found in his chamber with hairs in its belly exactly of the same +colour as those of the earl. [211] The image was, by some zealous +friend of lord Derby, burned; but the earl grew worse. He was himself +thoroughly persuaded that he was bewitched. Stow has inserted in his +Annals a minute account of his disease from day to day, with a +description of all the symptoms. + + +KING JAMES'S VOYAGE TO NORWAY. + +While Elizabeth amused herself with the supernatural gifts to which +Dee advanced his claim, and consoled the adversity and destitution +to which the old man, once so extensively honoured, was now reduced, +a scene of a very different complexion was played in the northern +part of the island. Trials for sorcery were numerous in the reign +of Mary queen of Scots; the comparative darkness and ignorance of +the sister kingdom rendered it a soil still more favourable than +England to the growth of these gloomy superstitions. But the mind +of James, at once inquisitive, pedantic and self-sufficient, +peculiarly fitted him for the pursuit of these narrow-minded and +obscure speculations. One combination of circumstances wrought up +this propensity within him to the greatest height. + +James was born in the year 1566. He was the only direct heir to the +crown of Scotland; and he was in near prospect of succession to that +of England. The zeal of the Protestant Reformation had wrought up +the anxiety of men's minds to a fever of anticipation and forecast. +Consequently, towards the end of the reign of Elizabeth, a point which +greatly arrested the general attention was the expected marriage of +the king of Scotland. Elizabeth, with that petty jealousy which +obscured the otherwise noble qualities of her spirit, sought to +countermine this marriage, that her rival and expected successor might +not be additionally graced with the honours of offspring. James fixed +his mind upon a daughter of the king of Denmark. By the successful +cabals of Elizabeth he was baffled in this suit; and the lady was +finally married to the duke of Bavaria. The king of Denmark had +another daughter; and James made proposals to this princess. Still +he was counteracted; till at length he sent a splendid embassy, with +ample powers and instructions, and the treaty was concluded. The +princess embarked; but, when she had now for some time been expected +in Scotland, news was brought instead, that she had been driven back +by tempests on the coast of Norway. The young king felt keenly his +disappointment, and gallantly resolved to sail in person for the port, +where his intended consort was detained by the shattered condition +of her fleet. James arrived on the twenty-second of October 1589, +and having consummated his marriage, was induced by the invitation +of his father-in-law to pass the winter at Copenhagen, from whence +he did not sail till the spring, and, after having encountered a +variety of contrary winds and some danger, reached Edinburgh on the +first of May in the following year. + +It was to be expected that variable weather and storms should +characterise the winter-season in these seas. But the storms were +of longer continuance and of more frequent succession, than was +usually known. And at this period, when the proposed consort of James +first, then the king himself, and finally both of them, and the hope +of Protestant succession, were committed to the mercy of the waves, +it is not wonderful that the process of the seasons should be +accurately marked, and that those varieties, which are commonly +ascribed to second causes, should have been imputed to extraordinary +and supernatural interference. It was affirmed that, in the king's +return from Denmark, his ship was impelled by a different wind from +that which acted on the rest of his fleet. + +It happened that, soon after James's return to Scotland, one Geillis +Duncan, a servant-maid, for the extraordinary circumstances that +attended certain cures which she performed, became suspected of +witchcraft. Her master questioned her on the subject; but she would +own nothing. Perceiving her obstinacy, the master took upon himself +of his own authority, to extort confession from her by torture. In +this he succeeded; and, having related divers particulars of +witchcraft of herself, she proceeded to accuse others. The persons +she accused were cast into the public prison. + +One of these, Agnes Sampson by name, at first stoutly resisted the +torture. But, it being more strenuously applied, she by and by became +extremely communicative. It was at this period that James personally +engaged in the examinations. We are told that he "took great delight +in being present," and putting the proper questions. The unhappy +victim was introduced into a room plentifully furnished with +implements of torture, while the king waited in an apartment at a +convenient distance, till the patient was found to be in a suitable +frame of mind to make the desired communications. No sooner did he +or she signify that they were ready, and should no longer refuse to +answer, than they were introduced, fainting, sinking under recent +sufferings which they had no longer strength to resist, into the royal +presence. And here sat James, in envied ease and conscious "delight," +wrapped up in the thought of his own sagacity, framing the enquiries +that might best extort the desired evidence, and calculating with +a judgment by no means to be despised, from the bearing, the turn +of features, and the complexion of the victim, the probability whether +he was making a frank and artless confession, or had still the secret +desire to impose on the royal examiner, or from a different motive +was disposed to make use of the treacherous authority which the +situation afforded, to gratify his revenge upon some person towards +whom he might be inspired with latent hatred and malice. + +Agnes Sampson related with what solicitude she had sought to possess +some fragment of the linen belonging to the king. If he had worn it, +and it had contracted any soil from his royal person, this would be +enough: she would infallibly, by applying her incantations to this +fragment, have been able to undermine the life of the sovereign. She +told how she with two hundred other witches had sailed in sieves from +Leith to North Berwick church, how they had there encountered the +devil in person, how they had feasted with him, and what obscenities +had been practised. She related that in this voyage they had drowned +a cat, having first baptised him, and that immediately a dreadful +storm had arisen, and in this very storm the king's ship had been +separated from the rest of his fleet. She took James aside, and, the +better to convince him, undertook to repeat to him the conversation, +the dialogue which had passed from the one to the other, between the +king and queen in their bedchamber on the wedding-night. Agnes Sampson +was condemned to the flames. + + +JOHN FIAN. + +Another of the miserable victims on this occasion was John Fian, a +schoolmaster at Tranent near Edinburgh, a young man, whom the ignorant +populace had decorated with the style of doctor. He was tortured by +means of a rope strongly twisted about his head, and by the boots. +He was at length brought to confession. He told of a young girl, the +sister of one of his scholars, with whom he had been deeply enamoured. +He had proposed to the boy to bring him three hairs from the most +secret part of his sister's body, possessing which he should be +enabled by certain incantations to procure himself the love of the +girl. The boy at his mother's instigation brought to Fian three hairs +from a virgin heifer instead; and, applying his conjuration to them, +the consequence had been that the heifer forced her way into his +school, leaped upon him in amorous fashion, and would not be +restrained from following him about the neighbourhood. + +This same Fian acted an important part in the scene at North Berwick +church. As being best fitted for the office, he was appointed recorder +or clerk to the devil, to write down the names, and administer the +oaths to the witches. He was actively concerned in the enchantment, +by means of which the king's ship had nearly been lost on his return +from Denmark. This part of his proceeding however does not appear +in his own confession, but in that of the witches who were his +fellow-conspirators. + +He further said, that, the night after he made his confession, the +devil appeared to him, and was in a furious rage against him for his +disloyalty to his service, telling him that he should severely repent +his infidelity. According to his own account, he stood firm, and +defied the devil to do his worst. Meanwhile the next night he escaped +out of prison, and was with some difficulty retaken. He however +finally denied all his former confessions, said that they were +falshoods forced from him by mere dint of torture, and, though he +was now once more subjected to the same treatment to such an excess +as must necessarily have crippled him of his limbs for ever, he proved +inflexible to the last. At length by the king's order he was +strangled, and his body cast into the flames. Multitudes of unhappy +men and women perished in this cruel persecution. [212] + + +KING JAMES'S DEMONOLOGY. + +It was by a train of observations and experience like this, that James +was prompted seven years after to compose and publish his Dialogues +on Demonology in Three Books. In the Preface to this book he says, +"The fearfull abounding at this time in this countrey, of these +detestable slaves of the Diuel, the Witches or enchaunters, hath moved +me (beloued Reader) to dispatch in post this following Treatise of +mine, not in any wise (as I protest) to serue for a shew of my +learning and ingine, but onely (moued of conscience) to preasse +thereby, so farre as I can, to resolue the doubting hearts of many, +both that such assaults of Satan are most certainely practised, and +that the instruments thereof merits most seuerely to be punished." + +In the course of the treatise he affirms, "that barnes, or wiues, +or neuer so diffamed persons, may serue for sufficient witnesses and +proofes in such trialls; for who but Witches can be prooves, and so +witnesses of the doings of Witches?" [213] But, lest innocent persons +should be accused, and suffer falsely, he tells us, "There are two +other good helps that may be used for their trial: the one is, the +finding of their marke [a mark that the devil was supposed to impress +upon some part of their persons], and the trying the insensibleness +thereof: the other is their fleeting on the water: for, as in a secret +murther, if the dead carkasse be at any time thereafter handled by +the murtherer, it will gush out of bloud, as if the bloud were crying +to the heauen for revenge of the murtherer, God hauing appointed that +secret supernaturall signe, for triall of that secret unnaturall +crime, so it appears that God hath appointed (for a supernaturall +signe of the monstrous impietie of Witches) that the water shall +refuse to receive them in her bosome, that haue shaken off them the +sacred water of Baptisme, and wilfully refused the benefite thereof: +No, not so much as their eyes are able to shed teares (threaten and +torture them as ye please) while first they repent (God not permitting +them to dissemble their obstinacie in so horrible a crime.)" [214] + + +STATUTE, 1 JAMES I. + +In consequence of the strong conviction James entertained on the +subject, the English parliament was induced, in the first year of +his reign, to supersede the milder proceedings of Elizabeth, and to +enact that "if any person shall use, practice, or exercise any +invocation or conjuration of any evil and wicked spirit, or shall +consult, covenant with, entertain, employ, feed or reward any evil +and wicked spirit, to or for any intent and purpose; or take up any +dead man, woman, or child out of their grave, or the skin, bone, or +any part of any dead person, to be used in any manner of witchcraft, +sorcery or enchantment, or shall use any witchcraft, sorcery or +enchantment, whereby any person shall be killed, destroyed, wasted, +consumed, pined or lamed in his or her body, or any part thereof; +that then every such offender, their aiders, abettors and counsellors +shall suffer the pains of death." And upon this statute great numbers +were condemned and executed. + + +FORMAN AND OTHERS. + +There is a story of necromancy which unfortunately makes too prominent +a figure in the history of the court and character of king James the +First. Robert earl of Essex, son of queen Elizabeth's favourite, and +who afterwards became commander in chief of the parliamentary forces +in the civil wars, married lady Frances Howard, a younger daughter +of the earl of Suffolk, the bride and bridegroom being the one +thirteen, the other fourteen years old at the time of the marriage. +The relatives of the countess however, who had brought about the +match, thought it most decorous to separate them for some time, and, +while she remained at home with her friends, the bridegroom travelled +for three or four years on the continent. The lady proved the greatest +beauty of her time, but along with this had the most libertine and +unprincipled dispositions. + +The very circumstance that she had vowed her faith at the altar when +she was not properly capable of choice, inspired into the wayward +mind of the countess a repugnance to her husband. He came from the +continent, replete with accomplishments; and we may conclude, from +the figure he afterwards made in the most perilous times, not without +a competent share of intellectual abilities. But the countess shrank +from all advances on his part. He loved retirement, and woed the lady +to scenes most favourable to the development of the affections: she +had been bred in court, and was melancholy and repined in any other +scene. So capricious was her temper, that she is said at the same +time to have repelled the overtures of the accomplished and popular +prince Henry, the heir to the throne. + +It happened about this period that a beautiful young man, twenty years +of age, and full of all martial graces, appeared on the stage. King +James was singularly partial to young men who were distinguished for +personal attractions. By an extraordinary accident this person, Robert +Carr by name, in the midst of a court-spectacle, just when it was +his cue to present a buckler with a device to the king, was thrown +from his horse, and broke his leg. This was enough: James naturally +became interested in the misfortune, attached himself to Carr, and +even favoured him again and again with a royal visit during his cure. +Presently the young man became an exclusive favourite; and no honours +and graces could be obtained of the sovereign but by his interference. + +This circumstance fixed the wavering mind of the countess of Essex. +Voluptuous and self-willed in her disposition, she would hear of no +one but Carr. But her opportunities of seeing him were both short +and rare. In this emergency she applied to Mrs. Turner, a woman whose +profession it was to study and to accommodate the fancies of such +persons as the countess. Mrs. Turner introduced her to Dr. Forman, +a noted astrologer and magician, and he, by images made of wax, and +various uncouth figures and devices, undertook to procure the love +of Carr to the lady. At the same time he practised against the earl, +that he might become impotent, at least towards his wife. This however +did not satisfy the lady; and having gone the utmost lengths towards +her innamorato, she insisted on a divorce in all the forms, and a +legal marriage with the youth she loved. Carr appears originally to +have had good dispositions; and, while that was the case, had +assiduously cultivated the friendship of Sir Thomas Overbury, one +of the most promising young courtiers of the time. Sir Thomas +earnestly sought to break off the intimacy of Carr with lady Essex, +and told him how utterly ruinous to his reputation and prospects it +would prove, if he married her. But Carr, instead of feeling how much +obliged he was to Overbury for this example of disinterested +friendship, went immediately and told the countess what the young +man said. + +From this time the destruction of Overbury was resolved on between +them. He was first committed to the Tower by an arbitrary mandate +of James for refusing an embassage to Russia, next sequestered from +all visitors, and finally attacked with poison, which, after several +abortive attempts, was at length brought to effect. Meanwhile a +divorce was sued for by the countess upon an allegation of impotence; +and another female was said to have been substituted in her room, +to be subjected to the inspection of a jury of matrons in proof of +her virginity. After a lapse of two years the murder was brought to +light, the inferior criminals, Mrs. Turner and the rest, convicted +and executed, and Carr, now earl of Somerset, and his countess, found +guilty, but received the royal pardon.--It is proper to add, in order +to give a just idea of the state of human credulity at this period, +that, Forman having died at the time that his services were deemed +most necessary, one Gresham first, and then a third astrologer and +enchanter were brought forward, to consummate the atrocious projects +of the infamous countess. It is said that she and her second husband +were ultimately so thoroughly alienated from each other, that they +resided for years under the same roof, with the most careful +precautions that they might not by any chance come into each other's +presence. [215] + + +LATEST IDEAS OF JAMES ON THE SUBJECT. + +It is worthy of remark however that king James lived to alter his +mind extremely on the question of witchcraft. He was active in his +observations on the subject; and we are told that "the frequency of +forged possessions which were detected by him wrought such an +alteration in his judgment, that he, receding from what he had written +in his early life, grew first diffident of, and then flatly to deny, +the working of witches and devils, as but falshoods and delusions." +[216] + + +LANCASHIRE WITCHES. + +A more melancholy tale does not occur in the annals of necromancy +than that of the Lancashire witches in 1612. The scene of this story +is in Pendlebury Forest, four or five miles from Manchester, +remarkable for its picturesque and gloomy situation. Such places were +not sought then as now, that they might afford food for the +imagination, and gratify the refined taste of the traveller. They +were rather shunned as infamous for scenes of depredation and murder, +or as the consecrated haunts of diabolical intercourse. Pendlebury +had been long of ill repute on this latter account, when a country +magistrate, Roger Nowel by name, conceived about this time that he +should do a public service, by rooting out a nest of witches, who +rendered the place a terror to all the neighbouring vulgar. The first +persons he seized on were Elizabeth Demdike and Ann Chattox, the +former of whom was eighty years of age, and had for some years been +blind, who subsisted principally by begging, though she had a +miserable hovel on the spot, which she called her own. Ann Chattox +was of the same age, and had for some time been threatened with the +calamity of blindness. Demdike was held to be so hardened a witch, +that she had trained all her family to the mystery; namely, Elizabeth +Device, her daughter, and James and Alison Device, her grandchildren. +In the accusation of Chattox was also involved Ann Redferne, her +daughter. These, together with John Bulcock, and Jane his mother, +Alice Nutter, Catherine Hewit, and Isabel Roby, were successively +apprehended by the diligence of Nowel and one or two neighbouring +magistrates, and were all of them by some means induced, some to make +a more liberal, and others a more restricted confession of their +misdeeds in witchcraft, and were afterwards hurried away to Lancaster +Castle, fifty miles off, to prison. Their crimes were said to have +universally proceeded from malignity and resentment; and it was +reported to have repeatedly happened for poor old Demdike to be led +by night from her habitation into the open air by some member of her +family, when she was left alone for an hour to curse her victim, and +pursue her unholy incantations, and was then sought, and brought again +to her hovel. Her curses never failed to produce the desired effect. + +These poor wretches had been but a short time in prison, when +information was given, that a meeting of witches was held on Good +Friday, at Malkin's Tower, the habitation of Elizabeth Device, to +the number of twenty persons, to consult how by infernal machinations +to kill one Covel, an officer, to blow up Lancaster Castle, and +deliver the prisoners, and to kill another man of the name of Lister. +The last was effected. The other plans by some means, we are not told +how, were prevented. + +The prisoners were kept in jail till the summer assizes; and in the +mean time it fortunately happened that the poor blind Demdike died +in confinement, and was never brought up to trial. + +The other prisoners were severally indicted for killing by witchcraft +certain persons who were named, and were all found guilty. The +principal witnesses against Elizabeth Device were James Device and +Jennet Device, her grandchildren, the latter only nine years of age. +When this girl was put into the witness-box, the grandmother, on +seeing her, set up so dreadful a yell, intermixed with bitter curses, +that the child declared that she could not go on with her evidence, +unless the prisoner was removed. This was agreed to; and both brother +and sister swore, that they had been present, when the devil came +to their grandmother in the shape of a black dog, and asked her what +she desired. She said, the death of John Robinson; when the dog told +her to make an image of Robinson in clay, and after crumble it into +dust, and as fast as the image perished, the life of the victim should +waste away, and in conclusion the man should die. This evidence was +received; and upon such testimony, and testimony like this, ten +persons were led to the gallows, on the twentieth of August, Ann +Chattox of eighty years of age among the rest, the day after the +trials, which lasted two days, were finished. The judges who presided +on these trials were sir James Altham and sir Edward Bromley, barons +of the exchequer. [217] + +From the whole of this story it is fair to infer, that these old women +had played at the game of commerce with the devil. It had flattered +their vanity, to make their simpler neighbours afraid of them. To +observe the symptoms of their rustic terror, even of their hatred +and detestation, had been gratifying to them. They played the game +so long, that in an imperfect degree they deceived themselves. Human +passions are always to a certain degree infectious. Perceiving the +hatred of their neighbours, they began to think that they were worthy +objects of detestation and terror, that their imprecations had a real +effect, and their curses killed. The brown horrors of the forest were +favourable to visions; and they sometimes almost believed, that they +met the foe of mankind in the night.--But, when Elizabeth Device +actually saw her grandchild of nine years old placed in the +witness-box, with the intention of consigning her to a public and +an ignominious end, then the reveries of the imagination vanished, +and she deeply felt the reality, that, where she had been somewhat +imposing on the child in devilish sport, she had been whetting the +dagger that was to take her own life, and digging her own grave. It +was then no wonder that she uttered a preternatural yell, and poured +curses from the bottom of her heart. It must have been almost beyond +human endurance, to hear the cry of her despair, and to witness the +curses and the agony in which it vented itself. + +Twenty-two years elapsed after this scene, when a wretched man, of +the name of Edmund Robinson, conceived on the same spot the scheme +of making himself a profitable speculation from a similar source. +He trained his son, eleven years of age, and furnished him with the +necessary instructions. He taught him to say that one day in the +fields he had met with two dogs, which he urged on to hunt a hare. +They would not budge; and he in revenge tied them to a bush and +whipped them; when suddenly one of them was transformed into an old +woman and the other into a child, a witch and her imp. This story +succeeded so well, that the father soon after gave out that his son +had an eye that could distinguish a witch by sight, and took him round +to the neighbouring churches, where he placed him standing on a bench +after service, and bade him look round and see what he could observe. +The device, however clumsy, succeeded, and no less than seventeen +persons were apprehended at the boy's selection, and conducted to +Lancaster Castle. These seventeen persons were tried at the assizes, +and found guilty; but the judge, whose name has unfortunately been +lost, unlike sir James Altham and sir Edward Bromley, saw something +in the case that excited his suspicion, and, though the juries had +not hesitated in any one instance, respited the convicts, and sent +up a report of the affair to the government. Twenty-two years on this +occasion had not elapsed in vain. Four of the prisoners were by the +judge's recommendation sent for to the metropolis, and were examined +first by the king's physicians, and then by Charles the First in +person. The boy's story was strictly scrutinised. In fine he confessed +that it was all an imposture; and the whole seventeen received the +royal pardon. [218] + + +LADY DAVIES. + +Eleanor Tuchet, daughter of George lord Audley, married sir John +Davies, an eminent lawyer in the time of James the First, and author +of a poem of considerable merit on the Immortality of the Soul. This +lady was a person of no contemptible talents; but what she seems most +to have valued herself upon, was her gift of prophecy; and she +accordingly printed a book of Strange and Wonderful Predictions. She +professed to receive her prophecies from a spirit, who communicated +to her audibly things about to come to pass, though the voice could +be heard by no other person. Sir John Davies was nominated lord chief +justice of the king's bench in 1626. Before he was inducted into the +office, lady Eleanor, sitting with him on Sunday at dinner, suddenly +burst into a passion of tears. Sir John asked her what made her weep. +To which she replied, "These are your funeral tears." Sir John turned +off the prediction with a merry answer. But in a very few days he +was seized with an apoplexy, of which he presently died. [219]--She +also predicted the death of the duke of Buckingham in the same year. +For this assumption of the gift of prophecy, she was cited before +the high-commission-court and examined in 1634. [220] + + +EDWARD FAIRFAX. + +It is a painful task to record, that Edward Fairfax, the harmonious +and elegant translator of Tasso, prosecuted six of his neighbours +at York assizes in the year 1622, for witchcraft on his children. +"The common facts of imps, fits, and the apparition of the witches, +were deposed against the prisoners." The grand jury found the bill, +and the accused were arraigned. But, we are told, "the judge, having +a certificate of the sober behaviour of the prisoners, directed the +jury so well as to induce them to bring in a verdict of acquittal." +[221] The poet afterwards drew up a bulky argument and narrative in +vindication of his conduct. + + +DOCTOR LAMB. + +Dr. Lamb was a noted sorcerer in the time of Charles the First. The +famous Richard Baxter, in his Certainty of the World of Spirits, +printed in 1691, has recorded an appropriate instance of the +miraculous performances of this man. Meeting two of his acquaintance +in the street, and they having intimated a desire to witness some +example of his skill, he invited them home with him. He then conducted +them into an inner room, when presently, to their no small surprise, +they saw a tree spring up in the middle of the apartment. They had +scarcely ceased wondering at this phenomenon, when in a moment there +appeared three diminutive men, with little axes in their hands for +the purpose of cutting down this tree. The tree was felled; and the +doctor dismissed his guests, fully satisfied of the solidity of his +pretensions. That very night however a tremendous hurricane arose, +causing the house of one of the guests to rock from side to side, +with every appearance that the building would come down, and bury +him and his wife in the ruins. The wife in great terror asked, "Were +you not at Dr. Lamb's to-day?" The husband confessed it was true. +"And did you not bring away something from his house?" The husband +owned that, when the little men felled the tree, he had been idle +enough to pick up some of the chips, and put them in his pocket. +Nothing now remained to be done, but to produce the chips, and get +rid of them as fast as they could. This ceremony performed, the +whirlwind immediately ceased, and the remainder of the night became +perfectly calm and serene. + +Dr. Lamb at length became so odious by his reputation for these +infernal practices, that the populace rose upon him in 1640, and tore +him to pieces in the streets.--Nor did the effects of his ill fame +terminate here. Thirteen years after, a woman, who had been his +servant-maid, was apprehended on a charge of witchcraft, was tried, +and in expiation of her crime was executed at Tyburn. + + +URBAIN GRANDIER. + +A few years previously to the catastrophe of Dr. Lamb, there occurred +a scene in France which it is eminently to the purpose of this work +to record. Urbain Grandier, a canon of the church, and a popular +preacher of the town of Loudun in the district of Poitiers, was in +the year 1634 brought to trial upon the accusation of magic. The first +cause of his being thus called in question was the envy of his rival +preachers, whose fame was eclipsed by his superior talents. The second +cause was a libel falsely imputed to him upon cardinal Richelieu, +who with all his eminent qualities had the infirmity of being +inexorable upon the question of any personal attack that was made +upon him. Grandier, beside his eloquence, was distinguished for his +courage and resolution, for the gracefulness of his figure, and the +extraordinary attention he paid to the neatness of his dress and the +decoration of his person, which last circumstance brought upon him +the imputation of being too much devoted to the service of the fair. + +About this time certain nuns of the convent of Ursulines at Loudun +were attacked with a disease which manifested itself by very +extraordinary symptoms, suggesting to many the idea that they were +possessed with devils. A rumour was immediately spread that Grandier, +urged by some offence he had conceived against these nuns, was the +author, by the skill he had in the arts of sorcery, of these +possessions. It unfortunately happened, that the same capuchin friar +who assured cardinal Richelieu that Grandier was the writer of the +libel against him, also communicated to him the story of the possessed +nuns, and the suspicion which had fallen on the priest on their +account. The cardinal seized with avidity on this occasion of private +vengeance, wrote to a counsellor of state at Loudun, one of his +creatures, to cause a strict investigation to be made into the charge, +and in such terms as plainly implied that what he aimed at was the +destruction of Grandier. + +The trial took place in the month of August 1634; and, according to +the authorised copy of the trial, Grandier was convicted upon the +evidence of Astaroth, a devil of the order of Seraphims, and chief +of the possessing devils, of Easas, of Celsus, of Acaos, of Cedon, +of Asmodeus of the order of thrones, of Alex, of Zabulon, of +Naphthalim, of Cham, of Uriel, and of Achas of the order of +principalities, and sentenced to be burned alive. In other words, +he was convicted upon the evidence of twelve nuns, who, being asked +who they were, gave in these names, and professed to be devils, that, +compelled by the order of the court, delivered a constrained +testimony. The sentence was accordingly executed, and Grandier met +his fate with heroic constancy. At his death an enormous drone fly +was seen buzzing about his head; and a monk, who was present at the +execution, attested that, whereas the devils are accustomed to present +themselves in the article of death to tempt men to deny God their +Saviour, this was Beelzebub, which in Hebrew signifies the God of +flies, come to carry away to hell the soul of the victim. [222] + + +ASTROLOGY. + +The supposed science of astrology is of a nature less tremendous, +and less appalling to the imagination, than the commerce with devils +and evil spirits, or the raising of the dead from the peace of the +tomb to effect certain magical operations, or to instruct the living +as to the events that are speedily to befal them. Yet it is well +worthy of attention in a work of this sort, if for no other reason, +because it has prevailed in almost all nations and ages of the world, +and has been assiduously cultivated by men, frequently of great +talent, and who were otherwise distinguished for the soundness of +their reasoning powers, and for the steadiness and perseverance of +their application to the pursuits in which they engaged. + +The whole of the question was built upon the supposed necessary +connection of certain aspects and conjunctions or oppositions of the +stars and heavenly bodies, with the events of the world and the +characters and actions of men. The human mind has ever confessed an +anxiety to pry into the future, and to deal in omens and prophetic +suggestions, and, certain coincidences having occurred however +fortuitously, to deduce from them rules and maxims upon which to build +an anticipation of things to come. + +Add to which, it is flattering to the pride of man, to suppose all +nature concerned with and interested in what is of importance to +ourselves. Of this we have an early example in the song of Deborah +in the Old Testament, where, in a fit of pious fervour and exaltation, +the poet exclaims, "They fought from heaven; the stars in their +courses fought against Sisera." [223] + +The general belief in astrology had a memorable effect on the history +of the human mind. All men in the first instance have an intuitive +feeling of freedom in the acts they perform, and of consequence of +praise or blame due to them in just proportion to the integrity or +baseness of the motives by which they are actuated. This is in reality +the most precious endowment of man. Hence it comes that the good man +feels a pride and self-complacency in acts of virtue, takes credit +to himself for the independence of his mind, and is conscious of the +worth and honour to which he feels that he has a rightful claim. But, +if all our acts are predetermined by something out of ourselves, if, +however virtuous and honourable are our dispositions, we are overruled +by our stars, and compelled to the acts, which, left to ourselves, +we should most resolutely disapprove, our condition becomes slavery, +and we are left in a state the most abject and hopeless. And, though +our situation in this respect is merely imaginary, it does not the +less fail to have very pernicious results to our characters. Men, +so far as they are believers in astrology, look to the stars, and +not to themselves, for an account of what they shall do, and resign +themselves to the omnipotence of a fate which they feel it in vain +to resist. Of consequence, a belief in astrology has the most +unfavourable tendency as to the morality of man; and, were it not +that the sense of the liberty of our actions is so strong that all +the reasonings in the world cannot subvert it, there would be a fatal +close to all human dignity and all human virtue. + + +WILLIAM LILLY. + +One of the most striking examples of the ascendancy of astrological +faith is in the instance of William Lilly. This man has fortunately +left us a narrative of his own life; and he comes sufficiently near +to our time, to give us a feeling of reality in the transactions in +which he was engaged, and to bring the scenes home to our business +and bosoms. + +Before he enters expressly upon the history of his life, he gives +us incidentally an anecdote which merits our attention, as tending +strongly to illustrate the credulity of man at the periods of which +we treat. + +Lilly was born in the year 1602. When certain circumstances led his +yet undetermined thoughts to the study of astrology as his principal +pursuit, he put himself in the year 1632 under the tuition of one +Evans, whom he describes as poor, ignorant, drunken, presumptuous +and knavish, but who had a character, as the phrase was, for erecting +a figure, predicting future events, discovering secrets, restoring +stolen goods, and even for raising a spirit when he pleased. Sir +Kenelm Digby was one of the most promising characters of these times, +extremely handsome and graceful in his person, accomplished in all +military exercises, endowed with high intellectual powers, and +indefatigably inquisitive after knowledge. To render him the more +remarkable, he was the eldest son of Everard Digby, who was the most +eminent sufferer for the conspiracy of the Gunpowder Treason. + +It was, as it seems, some time before Lilly became acquainted with +Evans, that lord Bothwel and sir Kenelm Digby came to Evans at his +lodgings in the Minories, for the express purpose of desiring him +to shew them a spirit. Sir Kenelm was born in the year 1603; he must +have been therefore at this time a young man, but sufficiently old +to know what he sought, and to choose the subjects of his enquiry +with a certain discretion. Evans consented to gratify the curiosity +of his illustrious visitors. He drew a circle, and placed himself +and the two strangers within the circle. He began his invocations. +On a sudden, Evans was taken away from the others, and found himself, +he knew not how, in Battersea Fields near the Thames. The next morning +a countryman discovered him asleep, and, having awaked him, in answer +to his enquiries told him where he was. Evans in the afternoon sent +a messenger to his wife, to inform her of his safety, and to calm +the apprehensions she might reasonably entertain. Just as the +messenger arrived, sir Kenelm Digby came to the house, curious to +enquire respecting the issue of the adventure of yesterday. Lilly +received this story from Evans; and, having asked him how such an +event came to attend on the experiment, was answered that, in +practising the invocation, he had heedlessly omitted the necessary +suffumigation, at which omission the spirit had taken offence. + +Lilly made some progress in astrology under Evans, and practised the +art in minor matters with a certain success; but his ambition led +him to aspire to the highest place in his profession. He made an +experiment to discover a hidden treasure in Westminster Abbey; and, +having obtained leave for that purpose from the bishop of Lincoln, +dean of Westminster, he resorted to the spot with about thirty persons +more, with divining rods. He fixed on the place according to the +rules, and began to dig; but he had not proceeded far, before a +furious storm came on, and he judged it advisable to "dismiss the +demons," and desist. These supernatural assistants, he says, had taken +offence at the number and levity of the persons present; and, if he +had not left off when he did, he had no doubt that the storm would +have grown more and more violent, till the whole structure would have +been laid level with the ground. + +He purchased himself a house to which to retire in 1636 at Hersham +near Walton on Thames, having, though originally bred in the lowest +obscurity, twice enriched himself in some degree by marriage. He came +to London with a view to practise his favourite art in 1641; but, +having received a secret monition warning him that he was not yet +sufficiently an adept, he retired again into the country for two +years, and did not finally commence his career till 1644, when he +published a Prophetical Almanac, which he continued to do till about +the time of his death. He then immediately began to rise into +considerable notice. Mrs. Lisle, the wife of one of the commissioners +of the great seal, took to him the urine of Whitlocke, one of the +most eminent lawyers of the time, to consult him respecting the health +of the party, when he informed the lady that the person would recover +from his present disease, but about a month after would be very +dangerously ill of a surfeit, which accordingly happened. He was +protected by the great Selden, who interested himself in his favour; +and he tells us that Lenthal, speaker of the house of commons, was +at all times his friend. He further says of himself that he was +originally partial to king Charles and to monarchy: but, when the +parliament had apparently the upper hand, he had the skill to play +his cards accordingly, and secured his favour with the ruling powers. +Whitlocke, in his Memorials of Affairs in his Own Times, takes +repeated notice of him, says that, meeting him in the street in the +spring of 1645, he enquired of Lilly as to what was likely speedily +to happen, who predicted to him the battle of Naseby, and notes in +1648 that some of his prognostications "fell out very strangely, +particularly as to the king's fall from his horse about this time." +Lilly applied to Whitlocke in favour of his rival, Wharton, the +astrologer, and his prayer was granted, and again in behalf of +Oughtred, the celebrated mathematician. + +Lilly and Booker, a brother-astrologer, were sent for in great form, +with a coach and four horses, to the head-quarters of Fairfax at +Windsor, towards the end of the year 1647, when they told the general, +that they were "confident that God would go along with him and his +army, till the great work for which they were ordained was perfected, +which they hoped would be the conquering their and the parliament's +enemies, and a quiet settlement and firm peace over the whole nation." +The two astrologers were sent for in the same state in the following +year to the siege of Colchester, which they predicted would soon fall +into possession of the parliament. + +Lilly in the mean while retained in secret his partiality to Charles +the First. Mrs. Whorwood, a lady who was fully in the king's +confidence, came to consult him, as to the place to which Charles +should retire when he escaped from Hampton Court. Lilly prescribed +accordingly; but Ashburnham disconcerted all his measures, and the +king made his inauspicious retreat to the isle of Wight. Afterwards +he was consulted by the same lady, as to the way in which Charles +should proceed respecting the negociations with the parliamentary +commissioners at Newport, when Lilly advised that the king should +sign all the propositions, and come up immediately with the +commissioners to London, in which case Lilly did not doubt that the +popular tide would turn in his favour, and the royal cause prove +triumphant. Finally, he tells us that he furnished the saw and _aqua +fortis_, with which the king had nearly removed the bars of the +window of his prison in Carisbrook Castle, and escaped. But Charles +manifested the same irresolution at the critical moment in this case, +which had before proved fatal to his success. In the year 1649 Lilly +received a pension of one hundred pounds _per annum_ from the +council of state, which, after having been paid him for two years, +he declined to accept any longer. In 1659 he received a present of +a gold chain and medal from Charles X king of Sweden, in acknowledgment +of the respectful mention he had made of that monarch in his almanacs. + +Lilly lived to a considerable age, not having died till the year 1681. +In the year 1666 he was summoned before a committee of the house of +commons, on the frivolous ground that, in his Monarchy or No Monarchy +published fifteen years before, he had introduced sixteen plates, +among which was one, the eighth, representing persons digging graves, +with coffins, and other emblems significative of mortality, and, in +the thirteenth, a city in flames. He was asked whether these things +referred to the late plague and fire of London. Lilly replied in a +manner to intimate that they did; but he ingenuously confessed that +he had not known in what year they would happen. He said, that he +had given these emblematical representations without any comment, +that those who were competent might apprehend their meaning, whilst +the rest of the world remained in the ignorance which was their +appointed portion. + + +MATTHEW HOPKINS. + +Nothing can place the credulity of the English nation on the subject +of witchcraft about this time, in a more striking point of view, than +the history of Matthew Hopkins, who, in a pamphlet published in 1647 +in his own vindication, assumes to himself the surname of the +Witch-finder. He fell by accident, in his native county of Suffolk, +into contact with one or two reputed witches, and, being a man of +an observing turn and an ingenious invention, struck out for himself +a trade, which brought him such moderate returns as sufficed to +maintain him, and at the same time gratified his ambition by making +him a terror to many, and the object of admiration and gratitude to +more, who felt themselves indebted to him for ridding them of secret +and intestine enemies, against whom, as long as they proceeded in +ways that left no footsteps behind, they felt they had no possibility +of guarding themselves. Hopkins's career was something like that of +Titus Oates in the following reign, but apparently much safer for +the adventurer, since Oates armed against himself a very formidable +party, while Hopkins seemed to assail a few only here and there, who +were poor, debilitated, impotent and helpless. + +After two or three successful experiments, Hopkins engaged in a +regular tour of the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Essex and +Huntingdonshire. He united to him two confederates, a man named John +Stern, and a woman whose name has not been handed down to us. They +visited every town in their route that invited them, and secured to +them the moderate remuneration of twenty shillings and their expences, +leaving what was more than this to the spontaneous gratitude of those +who should deem themselves indebted to the exertions of Hopkins and +his party. By this expedient they secured to themselves a favourable +reception; and a set of credulous persons who would listen to their +dictates as so many oracles. Being three of them, they were enabled +to play the game into one another's hands, and were sufficiently +strong to overawe all timid and irresolute opposition. In every town +to which they came, they enquired for reputed witches, and having +taken them into custody, were secure for the most part of a certain +number of zealous abettors, who took care that they should have a +clear stage for their experiments. They overawed their helpless +victims with a certain air of authority, as if they had received a +commission from heaven for the discovery of misdeeds. They assailed +the poor creatures with a multitude of questions constructed in the +most artful manner. They stripped them naked, in search for the +devil's marks in different parts of their bodies, which were +ascertained by running pins to the head into those parts, that, if +they were genuine marks, would prove themselves such by their +insensibility. They swam their victims in rivers and ponds, it being +an undoubted fact, that, if the persons accused were true witches, +the water, which was the symbol of admission into the Christian +church, would not receive them into its bosom. If the persons examined +continued obstinate, they seated them in constrained and uneasy +attitudes, occasionally binding them with cords, and compelling them +to remain so without food or sleep for twenty-four hours. They walked +them up and down the room, two taking them under each arm, till they +dropped down with fatigue. They carefully swept the room in which +the experiment was made, that they might keep away spiders and flies, +which were supposed to be devils or their imps in that disguise. + +The most plentiful inquisition of Hopkins and his confederates was +in the years 1644, 1645 and 1646. At length there were so many persons +committed to prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, that the government +was compelled to take in hand the affair. The rural magistrates before +whom Hopkins and his confederates brought their victims, were obliged, +willingly or unwillingly, to commit them for trial. A commission was +granted to the earl of Warwick and others to hold a sessions of +jail-delivery against them for Essex at Chelmsford, Lord Warwick was +at this time the most popular nobleman in England. He was appointed +by the parliament lord high admiral during the civil war. He was much +courted by the independent clergy, was shrewd, penetrating and active, +and exhibited a singular mixture of pious demeanour with a vein of +facetiousness and jocularity. With him was sent Dr. Calamy, the most +eminent divine of the period of the Commonwealth, to see (says Baxter +[224]) that no fraud was committed, or wrong done to the parties +accused. It may well be doubted however whether the presence of this +clergyman did not operate unfavourably to the persons suspected. He +preached before the judges. It may readily be believed, considering +the temper of the times, that he insisted much upon the horrible +nature of the sin of witchcraft, which could expect no pardon, either +in this world or the world to come. He sat on the bench with the +judges, and participated in their deliberations. In the result of +this inquisition sixteen persons were hanged at Yarmouth in Norfolk, +fifteen at Chelmsford, and sixty at various places in the county of +Suffolk. + +Whitlocke in his Memorials of English Affairs, under the date of 1649, +speaks of many witches being apprehended about Newcastle, upon the +information of a person whom he calls the Witch-finder, who, as his +experiments were nearly the same, though he is not named, we may +reasonably suppose to be Hopkins; and in the following year about +Boston in Lincolnshire. In 1652 and 1653 the same author speaks of +women in Scotland, who were put to incredible torture to extort from +them a confession of what their adversaries imputed to them. + +The fate of Hopkins was such us might be expected in similar cases. +The multitude are at first impressed with horror at the monstrous +charges that are advanced. They are seized, as by contagion, with +terror at the mischiefs which seem to impend over them, and from +which no innocence and no precaution appear to afford them sufficient +protection. They hasten, as with an unanimous effort, to avenge +themselves upon these malignant enemies, whom God and man alike +combine to expel from society. But, after a time, they begin to +reflect, and to apprehend that they have acted with too much +precipitation, that they have been led on with uncertain appearances. +They see one victim led to the gallows after another, without stint +or limitation. They see one dying with the most solemn asseverations +of innocence, and another confessing apparently she knows not what, +what is put into her mouth by her relentless persecutors. They see +these victims, old, crazy and impotent, harassed beyond endurance +by the ingenious cruelties that are practised against them. They were +first urged on by implacable hostility and fury, to be satisfied with +nothing but blood. But humanity and remorse also have their turn. +Dissatisfied with themselves, they are glad to point their resentment +against another. The man that at first they hailed as a public +benefactor, they presently come to regard with jealous eyes, and begin +to consider as a cunning impostor, dealing in cool blood with the +lives of his fellow-creatures for a paltry gain, and, still more +horrible, for the lure of a perishable and short-lived fame. The +multitude, we are told, after a few seasons, rose upon Hopkins, and +resolved to subject him to one of his own criterions. They dragged +him to a pond, and threw him into the water for a witch. It seems +he floated on the surface, as a witch ought to do. They then pursued +him with hootings and revilings, and drove him for ever into that +obscurity and ignominy which he had amply merited. + + +CROMWEL. + +There is a story of Cromwel recorded by Echard, the historian, which +well deserves to be mentioned, as strikingly illustrative of the +credulity which prevailed about this period. It takes its date from +the morning of the third of September, 1651, when Cromwel gained the +battle of Worcester against Charles the Second, which he was +accustomed to call by a name sufficiently significant, his "crowning +victory." It is told on the authority of a colonel Lindsey, who is +said to have been an intimate friend of the usurper, and to have been +commonly known by that name, as being in reality the senior captain +in Cromwel's own regiment. "On this memorable morning the general," +it seems, "took this officer with him to a woodside not far from the +army, and bade him alight, and follow him into that wood, and to take +particular notice of what he saw and heard. After having alighted, +and secured their horses, and walked some little way into the wood, +Lindsey began to turn pale, and to be seized with horror from some +unknown cause. Upon which Cromwel asked him how he did, or how he +felt himself. He answered, that he was in such a trembling and +consternation, that he had never felt the like in all the conflicts +and battles he had ever been engaged in: but whether it proceeded +from the gloominess of the place, or the temperature of his body, +he knew not. 'How now?' said Cromwel, 'What, troubled with the +vapours? Come forward, man.' They had not gone above twenty yards +further, before Lindsey on a sudden stood still, and cried out, 'By +all that is good I am seized with such unaccountable terror and +astonishment, that it is impossible for me to stir one step further.' +Upon which Cromwel called him, 'Fainthearted fool!' and bade him, +'stand there, and observe, or be witness.' And then the general, +advancing to some distance from him, met a grave, elderly man with +a roll of parchment in his hand, who delivered it to Cromwel, and +he eagerly perused it, Lindsey, a little recovered from his fear, +heard several loud words between them: particularly Cromwel said, +'This is but for seven years; I was to have had it for one-and-twenty; +and it must, and shall be so.' The other told him positively, it could +not be for more than seven. Upon which Cromwel cried with great +fierceness, 'It shall however be for fourteen years.' But the other +peremptorily declared, 'It could not possibly be for any longer time; +and, if he would not take it so, there were others that would.' Upon +which Cromwel at last took the parchment: and, returning to Lindsey +with great joy in his countenance, he cried, 'Now, Lindsey, the battle +is our own! I long to be engaged.' Returning out of the wood, they +rode to the army, Cromwel with a resolution to engage as soon as +possible, and the other with a design to leave the army as soon. After +the first charge, Lindsey deserted his post, and rode away with all +possible speed day and night, till he came into the county of Norfolk, +to the house of an intimate friend, one Mr. Thoroughgood, minister +of the parish of Grimstone. Cromwel, as soon as he missed him, sent +all ways after him, with a promise of a great reward to any that +should bring him alive or dead. When Mr. Thoroughgood saw his friend +Lindsey come into his yard, his horse and himself much tired, in a +sort of a maze, he said, 'How now, colonel? We hear there is likely +to be a battle shortly: what, fled from your colours?' 'A battle,' +said the other; 'yes there has been a battle, and I am sure the king +is beaten. But, if ever I strike a stroke for Cromwel again, may I +perish eternally! For I am sure he has made a league with the devil, +and the devil will have him in due time.' Then, desiring his +protection from Cromwel's inquisitors, he went in, and related to +him the story in all its circumstances." It is scarcely necessary +to remind the reader, that Cromwel died on that day seven years, +September the third, 1658. + +Echard adds, to prove his impartiality as an historian, "How far +Lindsey is to be believed, and how far the story is to be accounted +incredible, is left to the reader's faith and judgment, and not to +any determination of our own." + + +DOROTHY MATELEY. + +I find a story dated about this period, which, though it does not +strictly belong to the subject of necromancy or dealings with the +devil, seems well to deserve to be inserted in this work. The topic +of which I treat is properly of human credulity; and this infirmity +of our nature can scarcely be more forcibly illustrated than in the +following example. It is recorded by the well-known John Bunyan, in +a fugitive tract of his, entitled the Life and Death of Mr. Badman, +but which has since been inserted in the works of the author in two +volumes folio. In minuteness of particularity and detail it may vie +with almost any story which human industry has collected, and human +simplicity has ever placed upon record. + +"There was," says my author, "a poor woman, by name Dorothy Mateley, +who lived at a small village, called Ashover, in the county of Derby. +The way in which she earned her subsistence, was by washing the +rubbish that came from the lead-mines in that neighbourhood through +a sieve, which labour she performed till the earth had passed the +sieve, and what remained was particles and small portions of genuine +ore. This woman was of exceedingly low and coarse habits, and was +noted to be a profane swearer, curser, liar and thief; and her usual +way of asserting things was with an imprecation, as, 'I would I might +sink into the earth, if it be not so,' or, 'I would that God would +make the earth open and swallow me up, if I tell an untruth.' + +"Now it happened on the 23rd of March, 1660, [according to our +computation 1661], that she was washing ore on the top of a steep +hill about a quarter of a mile from Ashover, when a lad who was +working on the spot missed two-pence out of his pocket, and +immediately bethought himself of charging Dorothy with the theft. +He had thrown off his breeches, and was working in his drawers. +Dorothy with much seeming indignation denied the charge, and added, +as was usual with her, that she wished the ground might open and +swallow her up, if she had the boy's money. + +"One George Hopkinson, a man of good report in Ashover, happened to +pass at no great distance at the time. He stood a while to talk to +the woman. There stood also near the tub a little child, who was +called to by her elder sister to come away. Hopkinson therefore took +the little girl by the hand to lead her to her that called her. But +he had not gone ten yards from Dorothy, when he heard her crying out +for help, and turning back, to his great astonishment he saw the +woman, with her tub and her sieve, twirling round and round, and +sinking at the same time in the earth. She sunk about three yards, +and then stopped, at the same time calling lustily for assistance. +But at that very moment a great stone fell upon her head, and broke +her skull, and the earth fell in and covered her. She was afterwards +digged up, and found about four yards under ground, and the boy's +two pennies were discovered on her person, but the tub and the sieve +had altogether disappeared." + + +WITCHES HANGED BY SIR MATTHEW HALE. + +One of the most remarkable trials that occur in the history of +criminal jurisprudence, was that of Amy Duny and Rose Cullender at +Bury St. Edmund's in the year 1664. Not for the circumstances that +occasioned it; for they were of the coarsest and most vulgar +materials. The victims were two poor, solitary women of the town of +Lowestoft in Suffolk, who had by temper and demeanour rendered +themselves particularly obnoxious to their whole neighbourhood. +Whenever they were offended with any one, and this frequently +happened, they vented their wrath in curses and ill language, +muttered between their teeth, and the sense of which could scarcely +be collected; and ever and anon they proceeded to utter dark +predictions of evil, which should happen in revenge for the ill +treatment they received. The fishermen would not sell them fish; and +the boys in the street were taught to fly from them with horror, or +to pursue them with hootings and scurrilous abuse. The principal +charges against them were, that the children of two families were +many times seized with fits, in which they exclaimed that they saw +Amy Duny and Rose Cullender coming to torment them. They vomited, +and in their vomit were often found pins, and once or twice a +two-penny nail. One or two of the children died; for the accusations +spread over a period of eight years, from 1656 to the time of the +trial. To back these allegations, a waggoner appeared, whose waggon +had been twice overturned in one morning, in consequence of the curses +of one of the witches, the waggon having first run against her hovel, +and materially injured it. Another time the waggon stuck fast in a +gate-way, though the posts on neither side came in contact with the +wheels; and, one of the posts being cut down, the waggon passed easily +along. + +This trial, as I have said, was no way memorable for the circumstances +that occasioned it, but for the importance of the persons who were +present, and had a share in the conduct of it. The judge who presided +was sir Matthew Hale, then chief baron of the exchequer, and who had +before rendered himself remarkable for his undaunted resistance to +one of the arbitrary mandates of Cromwel, then in the height of his +power, which was addressed to Hale in his capacity of judge. Hale +was also an eminent author, who had treated upon the abstrusest +subjects, and was equally distinguished for his piety and inflexible +integrity. Another person, who was present, and accidentally took +part in the proceedings, was sir Thomas Browne, the superlatively +eloquent and able author of the Religio Medici. (He likewise took +a part on the side of superstition in the trial of the Lancashire +witches in 1634.) A judge also who assisted at the trial was Keeling, +who afterwards occupied the seat of chief justice. + +Sir Matthew Hale apparently paid deep attention to the trial, and +felt much perplexed by the evidence. Seeing sir Thomas Browne in +court, and knowing him for a man of extensive information and vast +powers of intellect, Hale appealed to him, somewhat extrajudicially, +for his thoughts on what had transpired. Sir Thomas gave it as his +opinion that the children were bewitched, and inforced his position +by something that had lately occured in Denmark. Keeling dissented +from this, and inclined to the belief that it might all be practice, +and that there was nothing supernatural in the affair. + +The chief judge was cautious in his proceeding. He even refused to +sum up the evidence, lest he might unawares put a gloss of his own +upon any thing that had been sworn, but left it all to the jury. He +told them that the Scriptures left no doubt that there was such a +thing as witchcraft, and instructed them that all they had to do was, +first, to consider whether the children were really bewitched, and +secondly, whether the witchcraft was sufficiently brought home to +the prisoners at the bar. The jury returned a verdict of guilty; and +the two women were hanged on the seventeenth of March 1664, one week +after their trial. The women shewed very little activity during the +trial, and died protesting their innocence. [225] + +This trial is particularly memorable for the circumstances that +attended it. It has none of the rust of ages: no obscurity arises +from a long vista of years interposed between. Sir Matthew Hale and +sir Thomas Browne are eminent authors; and there is something in such +men, that in a manner renders them the contemporaries of all times, +the living acquaintance of successive ages of the world. Names +generally stand on the page of history as mere abstract idealities; +but in the case of these men we are familiar with their tempers and +prejudices, their virtues and vices, their strength and their +weakness. + +They proceed in the first place upon the assumption that there is +such a thing as witchcraft, and therefore have nothing to do but with +the cogency or weakness of evidence as applied to this particular +case. Now what are the premises on which they proceed in this +question? They believe in a God, omniscient, all wise, all powerful, +and whose "tender mercies are over all his works." They believe in +a devil, awful almost as God himself, for he has power nearly +unlimited, and a will to work all evil, with subtlety, deep reach +of thought, vigilant, "walking about, seeking whom he may devour." +This they believe, for they refer to "the Scriptures, as confirming +beyond doubt that there is such a thing as witchcraft." Now what +office do they assign to the devil, "the prince of the power of the +air," at whose mighty attributes, combined with his insatiable +malignity, the wisest of us might well stand aghast? It is the first +law of sound sense and just judgment, + + --_servetur ad imum, + Qualis ab incoepto processerit, et sibi constet_; + +that every character which we place on the scene of things should +demean himself as his beginning promises, and preserve a consistency +that, to a mind sufficiently sagacious, should almost serve us in +lieu of the gift of prophecy. And how is this devil employed according +to sir Matthew Hale and sir Thomas Browne? Why in proffering himself +as the willing tool of the malice of two doting old women. In +afflicting with fits, in causing them to vomit pins and nails, the +children of the parents who had treated the old women with barbarity +and cruelty. In judgment upon these women sit two men, in some +respects the most enlightened of an age that produced Paradise Lost, +and in confirmation of this blessed creed two women are executed in +cool blood, in a country which had just achieved its liberties under +the guidance and the virtues of Hampden. + +What right we have in any case to take away the life of a human being +already in our power, and under the forms of justice, is a problem, +one of the hardest that can be proposed for the wit of man to solve. +But to see some of the wisest of men, sitting in judgment upon the +lives of two human creatures in consequence of the forgery and tricks +of a set of malicious children, as in this case undoubtedly it was, +is beyond conception deplorable. Let us think for a moment of the +inexpressible evils which a man encounters when dragged from his +peaceful home under a capital accusation, of his arraignment in open +court, of the orderly course of the evidence, and of the sentence +awarded against him, of the "damned minutes and days he counts over" +from that time to his execution, of his being finally brought forth +before a multitude exasperated by his supposed crimes, and his being +cast out from off the earth as unworthy so much as to exist among +men, and all this being wholly innocent. The consciousness of +innocence a hundred fold embitters the pang. And, if these poor women +were too obtuse of soul entirely to feel the pang, did that give their +superiors a right to overwhelm and to crush them? + + +WITCHCRAFT IN SWEDEN. + +The story of witchcraft, as it is reported to have passed in Sweden +in the year 1670, and has many times been reprinted in this country, +is on several accounts one of the most interesting and deplorable +that has ever been recorded. The scene lies in Dalecarlia, a country +for ever memorable as having witnessed some of the earliest adventures +of Gustavus Vasa, his deepest humiliation, and the first commencement +of his prosperous fortune. The Dalecarlians are represented to us +as the simplest, the most faithful, and the bravest of the sons of +men, men undebauched and unsuspicious, but who devoted themselves +in the most disinterested manner for a cause that appeared to them +worthy of support, the cause of liberty and independence against the +cruelest of tyrants. At least such they were in 1520, one hundred +and fifty years before the date of the story we are going to +recount.--The site of these events was at Mohra and Elfdale in the +province that has just been mentioned. + +The Dalecarlians, simple and ignorant, but of exemplary integrity +and honesty, who dwelt amidst impracticable mountains and spacious +mines of copper and iron, were distinguished for superstition among +the countries of the north, where all were superstitious. They were +probably subject at intervals to the periodical visitation of alarms +of witches, when whole races of men became wild with the infection +without any one's being well able to account for it. + +In the year 1670, and one or two preceding years, there was a great +alarm of witches in the town of Mohra. There were always two or three +witches existing in some of the obscure quarters of this place. But +now they increased in number, and shewed their faces with the utmost +audacity. Their mode on the present occasion was to make a journey +through the air to Blockula, an imaginary scene of retirement, which +none but the witches and their dupes had ever seen. Here they met +with feasts and various entertainments, which it seems had particular +charms for the persons who partook of them. The witches used to go +into a field in the environs of Mohra, and cry aloud to the devil +in a peculiar sort of recitation, "Antecessor, come and carry us to +Blockula!" Then appeared a multitude of strange beasts, men, spits, +posts, and goats with spits run through their entrails and projecting +behind that all might have room. The witches mounted these beasts +of burthen or vehicles, and were conveyed through the air over high +walls and mountains, and through churches and chimneys, without +perceptible impediment, till they arrived at the place of their +destination. Here the devil feasted them with various compounds and +confections, and, having eaten to their hearts' content, they danced, +and then fought. The devil made them ride on spits, from which they +were thrown; and the devil beat them with the spits, and laughed at +them. He then caused them to build a house to protect them against +the day of judgment, and presently overturned the walls of the house, +and derided them again. All sorts of obscenities were reported to +follow upon these scenes. The devil begot on the witches sons and +daughters: this new generation intermarried again, and the issue of +this further conjunction appears to have been toads and serpents. +How all this pedigree proceeded in the two or three years in which +Blockula had ever been heard of, I know not that the witches were +ever called on to explain. + +But what was most of all to be deplored, the devil was not content +with seducing the witches to go and celebrate this infernal sabbath; +he further insisted that they should bring the children of Mohra along +with them. At first he was satisfied, if each witch brought one; but +now he demanded that each witch should bring six or seven for her +quota. How the witches managed with the minds of the children we are +at a loss to guess. These poor, harmless innocents, steeped to the +very lips in ignorance and superstition, were by some means kept in +continual alarm by the wicked, or, to speak more truly, the insane +old women, and said as their prompters said. It does not appear that +the children ever left their beds, at the time they reported they +had been to Blockula. Their parents watched them with fearful anxiety. +At a certain time of the night the children were seized with a strange +shuddering, their limbs were agitated, and their skins covered with +a profuse perspiration. When they came to themselves, they related +that they had been to Blockula, and the strange things they had seen, +similar to what had already been described by the women. Three hundred +children of various ages are said to have been seized with this +epidemic. + +The whole town of Mohra became subject to the infection, and were +overcome with the deepest affliction. They consulted together, and +drew up a petition to the royal council at Stockholm, intreating that +they would discover some remedy, and that the government would +interpose its authority to put an end to a calamity to which otherwise +they could find no limit. The king of Sweden was at that time Charles +the Eleventh, father of Charles the Twelfth, and was only fourteen +years of age. His council in their wisdom deputed two commissioners +to Mohra, and furnished them with powers to examine witnesses, and +to take whatever proceedings they might judge necessary to put an +end to so unspeakable a calamity. + +They entered on the business of their commission on the thirteenth +of August, the ceremony having been begun with two sermons in the +great church of Mohra, in which we may be sure the damnable sin of +witchcraft was fully dilated on, and concluding with prayers to +Almighty God that in his mercy he would speedily bring to an end the +tremendous misfortune, with which for their sins he had seen fit to +afflict the poor people of Mohra. The next day they opened their +commission. Seventy witches were brought before them. They were all +at first stedfast in their denial, alleging that the charges were +wantonly brought against them, solely from malice and ill will. But +the judges were earnest in pressing them, till at length first one, +and then another; burst into tears, and confessed all. Twenty-three +were prevailed on thus to disburthen their consciences; but nearly +the whole, as well those who owned the justice of their sentence, +as those who protested their innocence to the last, were executed. +Fifteen children confessed their guilt, and were also executed. +Thirty-six other children (who we may infer did not confess), between +the ages of nine and sixteen, were condemned to run the gauntlet, +and to be whipped on their hands at the church-door every Sunday for +a year together. Twenty others were whipped on their hands for three +Sundays. [226] + +This is certainly a very deplorable scene, and is made the more so +by the previous character which history has impressed on us, of the +simplicity, integrity, and generous love of liberty of the +Dalecarlians. For the children and their parents we can feel nothing +but unmingled pity. The case of the witches is different. That three +hundred children should have been made the victims of this imaginary +witchcraft is doubtless a grievous calamity. And that a number of +women should have been found so depraved and so barbarous, as by their +incessant suggestions to have practised on the minds of these +children, so as to have robbed them of sober sense, to have frightened +them into fits and disease, and made them believe the most odious +impossibilities, argued a most degenerate character, and well merited +severe reprobation, but not death. Add to which, many of these women +may be believed innocent, otherwise a great majority of those who +were executed, would not have died protesting their entire freedom +from what was imputed to them. Some of the parents no doubt, from +folly and ill judgment, aided the alienation of mind in their children +which they afterwards so deeply deplored, and gratified their +senseless aversion to the old women, when they were themselves in +many cases more the real authors of the evil than those who suffered. + + +WITCHCRAFT IN NEW ENGLAND. + +As a story of witchcraft, without any poetry in it, without any thing +to amuse the imagination, or interest the fancy, but hard, prosy, +and accompanied with all that is wretched, pitiful and withering, +perhaps the well known story of the New England witchcraft surpasses +every thing else upon record. The New Englanders were at this time, +towards the close of the seventeenth century, rigorous Calvinists, +with long sermons and tedious monotonous prayers, with hell before +them for ever on one side, and a tyrannical, sour and austere God +on the other, jealous of an arbitrary sovereignty, who hath "mercy +on whom he will have mercy, and whom he will he hardeneth." These +men, with long and melancholy faces, with a drawling and sanctified +tone, and a carriage that would "at once make the most severely +disposed merry, and the most cheerful spectators sad," constituted +nearly the entire population of the province of Massachuset's Bay. + +The prosecutions for witchcraft continued with little intermission +principally at Salem, during the greater part of the year 1692. The +accusations were of the most vulgar and contemptible sort, invisible +pinchings and blows, fits, with the blastings and mortality of cattle, +and wains stuck fast in the ground, or losing their wheels. A +conspicuous feature in nearly the whole of these stories was what +they named the "spectral sight;" in other words, that the profligate +accusers first feigned for the most part the injuries they received, +and next saw the figures and action of the persons who inflicted them, +when they were invisible to every one else. Hence the miserable +prosecutors gained the power of gratifying the wantonness of their +malice, by pretending that they suffered by the hand of any one whose +name first presented itself, or against whom they bore an ill will. +The persons so charged, though unseen by any but the accuser, and +who in their corporal presence were at a distance of miles, and were +doubtless wholly unconscious of the mischief that was hatching against +them, were immediately taken up, and cast into prison. And what was +more monstrous and incredible, there stood at the bar the prisoner +on trial for his life, while the witnesses were permitted to swear +that his spectre had haunted them, and afflicted them with all manner +of injuries. That the poor prosecuted wretch stood astonished at what +was alleged against him, was utterly overwhelmed with the charges, +and knew not what to answer, was all of it interpreted as so many +presumptions of his guilt. Ignorant as they were, they were unhappy +and unskilful in their defence; and, if they spoke of the devil, as +was but natural, it was instantly caught at as a proof how familiar +they were with the fiend that had seduced them to their damnation. + +The first specimen of this sort of accusation in the present instance +was given by one Paris, minister of a church at Salem, in the end +of the year 1691, who had two daughters, one nine years old, the other +eleven, that were afflicted with fits and convulsions. The first +person fixed on as the mysterious author of what was seen, was Tituba, +a female slave in the family, and she was harassed by her master into +a confession of unlawful practices and spells. The girls then fixed +on Sarah Good, a female known to be the victim of a morbid melancholy, +and Osborne, a poor man that had for a considerable time been bed-rid, +as persons whose spectres had perpetually haunted and tormented them: +and Good was twelve months after hanged on this accusation. + +A person, who was one of the first to fall under the imputation, was +one George Burroughs, also a minister of Salem. He had, it seems, +buried two wives, both of whom the busy gossips said he had used ill +in their life-time, and consequently, it was whispered, had murdered +them. This man was accustomed foolishly to vaunt that he knew what +people said of him in his absence; and this was brought as a proof +that he dealt with the devil. Two women, who were witnesses against +him, interrupted their testimony with exclaiming that they saw the +ghosts of the murdered wives present (who had promised them they would +come), though no one else in the court saw them; and this was taken +in evidence. Burroughs conducted himself in a very injudicious way +on his trial; but, when he came to be hanged, made so impressive a +speech on the ladder, with fervent protestations of innocence, as +melted many of the spectators into tears. + +The nature of accusations of this sort is ever found to operate like +an epidemic. Fits and convulsions are communicated from one subject +to another. The "spectral sight," as it was called, is obviously a +theme for the vanity of ignorance. "Love of fame," as the poet +teaches, is an "universal passion." Fame is placed indeed on a height +beyond the hope of ordinary mortals. But in occasional instances it +is brought unexpectedly within the reach of persons of the coarsest +mould; and many times they will be apt to seize it with proportionable +avidity. When too such things are talked of, when the devil and +spirits of hell are made familiar conversation, when stories of this +sort are among the daily news, and one person and another, who had +a little before nothing extraordinary about them, become subjects +of wonder, these topics enter into the thoughts of many, sleeping +and waking: "their young men see visions, and their old men dream +dreams." + +In such a town as Salem, the second in point of importance in the +colony, such accusations spread with wonderful rapidity. Many were +seized with fits, exhibited frightful contortions of their limbs and +features, and became a fearful spectacle to the bystander. They were +asked to assign the cause of all this; and they supposed, or pretended +to suppose, some neighbour, already solitary and afflicted, and on +that account in ill odour with the townspeople, scowling upon, +threatening, and tormenting them. Presently persons, specially gifted +with the "spectral sight," formed a class by themselves, and were +sent about at the public expence from place to place, that they might +see what no one else could see. The prisons were filled with the +persons accused. The utmost horror was entertained, as of a calamity +which in such a degree had never visited that part of the world. It +happened, most unfortunately, that Baxter's Certainty of the World +of Spirits had been published but the year before, and a number of +copies had been sent out to New England. There seemed a strange +coincidence and sympathy between vital Christianity in its most +honourable sense, and the fear of the devil, who appeared to be "come +down unto them, with great wrath." Mr. Increase Mather, and Mr. Cotton +Mather, his son, two clergymen of highest reputation in the +neighbourhood, by the solemnity and awe with which they treated the +subject, and the earnestness and zeal which they displayed, gave a +sanction to the lowest superstition and virulence of the ignorant. + +All the forms of justice were brought forward on this occasion. There +was no lack of judges, and grand juries, and petty juries, and +executioners, and still less of prosecutors and witnesses. The first +person that was hanged was on the tenth of June, five more on the +nineteenth of July, five on the nineteenth of August, and eight on +the twenty-second of September. Multitudes confessed that they were +witches; for this appeared the only way for the accused to save their +lives. Husbands and children fell down on their knees, and implored +their wives and mothers to own their guilt. Many were tortured by +being tied neck and heels together, till they confessed whatever was +suggested to them. It is remarkable however that not one persisted +in her confession at the place of execution. + +The most interesting story that occurred in this affair was of Giles +Cory, and Martha, his wife. The woman was tried on the ninth of +September, and hanged on the twenty-second. In the interval, on the +sixteenth, the husband was brought up for trial. He said, he was not +guilty; but, being asked how he would be tried? he refused to go +through the customary form, and say, "By God and my country." He +observed that, of all that had been tried, not one had as yet been +pronounced not guilty; and he resolutely refused in that mode to +undergo a trial. The judge directed therefore that, according to the +barbarous mode prescribed in the mother-country, he should be laid +on his back, and pressed to death with weights gradually accumulated +on the upper surface of his body, a proceeding which had never yet +been resorted to by the English in North America. The man persisted +in his resolution, and remained mute till he expired. + +The whole of this dreadful tragedy was kept together by a thread. +The spectre-seers for a considerable time prudently restricted their +accusations to persons of ill repute, or otherwise of no consequence +in the community. By and by however they lost sight of this caution, +and pretended they saw the figures of some persons well connected, +and of unquestioned honour and reputation, engaged in acts of +witchcraft. Immediately the whole fell through in a moment. The +leading inhabitants presently saw how unsafe it would be to trust +their reputations and their lives to the mercy of these profligate +accusers. Of fifty-six bills of indictment that were offered to the +grand-jury on the third of January, 1693, twenty-six only were found +true bills, and thirty thrown out. On the twenty-six bills that were +found, three persons only were pronounced guilty by the petty jury, +and these three received their pardon from the government. The prisons +were thrown open; fifty confessed witches, together with two hundred +persons imprisoned on suspicion, were set at liberty, and no more +accusations were heard of. The "afflicted," as they were technically +termed, recovered their health; the "spectral sight" was universally +scouted; and men began to wonder how they could ever have been the +victims of so horrible a delusion. [227] + + + + +CONCLUSION. + + +The volume of records of supposed necromancy and witchcraft is +sufficiently copious, without its being in any way necessary to trace +it through its latest relics and fragments. Superstition is so +congenial to the mind of man, that, even in the early years of the +author of the present volume, scarcely a village was unfurnished with +an old man or woman who laboured under an ill repute on this score; +and I doubt not many remain to this very day. I remember, when a +child, that I had an old woman pointed out to me by an ignorant +servant-maid, as being unquestionably possessed of the ominous gift +of the "evil eye," and that my impulse was to remove myself as quickly +as might be from the range of her observation. + +But witchcraft, as it appears to me, is by no means so desirable a +subject as to make one unwilling to drop it. It has its uses. It is +perhaps right that we should be somewhat acquainted with this +repulsive chapter in the annals of human nature. As the wise man says +in the Bible, "It is good for us to resort to the house of those that +mourn;" for there is a melancholy which is attended with beneficial +effects, and "by the sadness of the countenance the heart is made +better." But I feel no propensity to linger in these dreary abodes, +and would rather make a speedy exchange for the dwellings of +healthfulness and a certain hilarity. We will therefore with the +reader's permission at length shut the book, and say, "Lo, it is +enough." + +There is no time perhaps at which we can more fairly quit the subject, +than when the more enlightened governments of Europe have called for +the code of their laws, and have obliterated the statute which annexed +the penalty of death to this imaginary crime. + +So early as the year 1672, Louis XIV promulgated an order of the +council of state, forbidding the tribunals from proceeding to judgment +in cases where the accusation was of sorcery only. [228] + +In England we paid a much later tribute to the progress of +illumination and knowledge; and it was not till the year 1736 that +a statute was passed, repealing the law made in the first year of +James I, and enacting that no capital prosecution should for the +future take place for conjuration, sorcery and enchantment, but +restricting the punishment of persons pretending to tell fortunes +and discover stolen goods by witchcraft, to that appertaining to a +misdemeanour. + +As long as death could by law be awarded against those who were +charged with a commerce with evil spirits, and by their means +inflicting mischief on their species, it is a subject not unworthy +of grave argument and true philanthropy, to endeavour to detect the +fallacy of such pretences, and expose the incalculable evils and the +dreadful tragedies that have grown out of accusations and prosecutions +for such imaginary crimes. But the effect of perpetuating the silly +and superstitious tales that have survived this mortal blow, is +exactly opposite. It only serves to keep alive the lingering folly +of imbecile minds, and still to feed with pestiferous clouds the +thoughts of the ignorant. Let us rather hail with heart-felt gladness +the light which has, though late, broken in upon us, and weep over +the calamity of our forefathers, who, in addition to the inevitable +ills of our sublunary state, were harassed with imaginary terrors, +and haunted by suggestions, + + Whose horrid image did unfix their hair, + And make their seated hearts knock at their ribs, + Against the use of nature. + + + + +THE END. + + + + +FOOTNOTES + + +[1] Joshua, vii. 16, _et seq_. + +[2] De Arte Poetica, v. 150. + +[3] Romans, xi. 32. + +[4] Comte de Gabalis. + +[5] Genesis xli, 8, 25, &c. + +[6] Exodus, vii. 11; viii. 19. + +[7] Ibid, xxii. 18. + +[8] Deuteronomy, xviii. 10,11. + +[9] Leviticus, xx. 27. + +[10] Numbers, xxii. 5,6,7. + +[11] Numbers, xxiv, 1. + +[12] Ibid, xxiii. 23. + +[13] 1 Sam. xxviii. 6, _et seq_. + +[14] 2 Kings, xxi. 6. + +[15] 1 Kings, xxii. 20, _et seqq_. + +[16] 1 Chron. xxi. 1,7,14. + +[17] 2 Kings, i. 2,3,4. + +[18] Matthew, xii. 24. + +[19] Genesis, xliv. 5. + +[20] Genesis, xliv. 15. + +[21] Brewster on Natural Magic, Letter IX. + +[22] De Natura Deorum, Lib. I, c. 38. + +[23] Plato, De Republica, Lib. X, _sub finem_. + +[24] Batrachos, v. 1032. + +[25] De Arte Poetica, v.391. + +[26] Memoires de l'Academie des Inscriptions, Tom. V, p. 117. + +[27] De Arte Poetica, v. 391, 2, 3. + +[28] Virgil, Georgiea, Lib. IV. v. 461, _et seqq_. + +[29] Georgiea, iv, 525. + +[30] Metamorphoses, xi, 55. + +[31] Philostratus, Heroica, cap. v. + +[32] Horat, de Arte Poetica, v. 394. Pausanias. + +[33] Odyssey, Lib. XI, v. 262. + +[34] Statius, Thebais, Lib. X. v. 599. + +[35] Ibid, Lib. IV, v. 599. + +[36] Ibid, Lib. IV, v. 409, _et seqq_. + +[37] Lib. IV, c. 36. + +[38] Iamblichus. + +[39] Julius Firmicus, _apud_ Scaliger, in Eusebium. + +[40] Iamblichus, Vita Pythagorae. + +[41] Pluto, Charmides. + +[42] Chronological Account of Pythagoras and his Contemporaries. + +[43] Laertius, Lib. VIII, c. 3. + +[44] Lloyd, _ubi supra_. + +[45] Iamblichus, c. 17. + +[46] Iamblichus, c. 29. + +[47] Ibid, c. 7. + +[48] Laertius, c. 15. + +[49] Ibid, c. 11. + +[50] Plutarchus, Symposiaca, Lib. VIII, Quaestio 2. + +[51] Aulus Gellius, Lib. I, c. 1, from Plutarch. + +[52] Laertius, c.19. + +[53] Bailly, Histoire de l'Astronomie, Lib VIII, S.3. + +[54] Plutarchus, de Esu Carnium. Ovidius, Metamorphoses, Lib. XV. +Laertius, c. 12. + +[55] Iamblichus, c. 16. + +[56] Laertius, c. 6. + +[57] Clemens Alexandrinus, Stromata, Lib. I, p. 302. + +[58] Iamblichus, c.17. + +[59] Laertius, c. 8. Iamblichus, c. 17. + +[60] Cicero de Natura Deorum, Lib. I, c. 5. + +[61] Laertius, c. 9. + +[62] Ibid. + +[63] Iamblichus, c. 19. + +[64] Laertius, c.1. + +[65] Ibid, c. 18. + +[66] Iamblichus, c. 8. + +[67] Ibid, c. 13. + +[68] Laertius, c. 9. Iamblichus, c. 28. + +[69] Laertius, c. 9. Iamblichus, c. 18. + +[70] Ibid, c. 28. + +[71] Laertius, c.21. + +[72] Iamblichus, c.17. + +[73] Iamblichus, c. 35. Laertius, c. 21. + +[74] Laertius, c. 21. + +[75] Laertius, Lib. I, c. 109. Plinius, Lib. VII, c. 52. + +[76] Laertius, c. 113. + +[77] Ibid. + +[78] Ibid. c. 111. + +[79] Plutarch, Vita Solonis. Laertius, Lib. I, c. 109. + +[80] Plutarch, Vita Solonis. Laertius, Lib. I, c. 110. + +[81] Ibid. + +[82] Laertius, Lib. VIII, c. 51, 64. + +[83] Ibid, c. 57. + +[84] Ibid, c. 66. + +[85] Ibid, c. 73. + +[86] Plinius, Lib. VII, c. 52. Laertius, c. 61. + +[87] Laertius, c. 77. + +[88] Ibid, c. 59. + +[89] Ibid, c. 62. + +[90] Laertias, c. 69. Horat, De Arte Poetica, v. 463. + +[91] Herodotus, Lib. III, c. 14, 15. Plinius, Lib. VII, c. 52. + +[92] Plutarch, De Genio Socratis. Lucian, Muscae Encomium. Plinius, +Lib. VII, c. 52. [Errata: _dele_ Plinius] + +[93] Plinius, Lib. III, c, 61, 62. + +[94] Herodotus, Lib. VIII, c. 36, 37, 38, 39. + +[95] Herodotus, Lib. VIII, c. 140, _et seqq_. + +[96] Historia Naturalis, Lib. X, c. 40. + +[97] Plinius, Lib. XXVIII. c. 8. + +[98] Pseudomantis, c. 17. See also Philopseudes, c. 32. + +[99] Theages. + +[100] Plutarch, De Genio Socratis. + +[101] Xenophon, Memorabilia, Lib. I, c. 1. + +[102] Plutarch, _ubi supra_. + +[103] Plato, Theages. + +[104] Ibid. + +[105] Livius, Lib. I, c. 16. + +[106] Dionysius Halicarnassensis. + +[107] Livius, Lib. I, c. 19, 21. + +[108] Livius, Lib. I, c. 31. + +[109] Ibid. + +[110] Livius, Lib. I, c. 36. + +[111] Livius, Lib. I, c. 39. + +[112] Livius, Lib. III, c. 6, _et seqq_. + +[113] Epod. V. + +[114] Metamorphoses, Lib. VII. + +[115] Lib. VI. + +[116] Horat., de Arte Poetica, v. 150. + +[117] Plutarch, North's Translation. + +[118] Matt. c. xii, v. 24, 27. + +[119] Acts, c. viii. + +[120] Clemens Romanus, Recognitiones, Lib. II, cap. 9. Anastasius +Sinaita, Quaestiones; Quaestio 20. + +[121] Clemens Romanus, Constitutiones Apostolici, Lib. VI, cap. 7. + +[122] Acts, c. xiii. + +[123] Ibid, c. xix. + +[124] Suetonius, Lib. VI, cap. 14. + +[125] Tacitus, Historiae, Lib. IV, cap. 81. Suetonius, Lib. VIII, +cap. 7. + +[126] Hume, Essays, Part III, Section X. + +[127] Philostratus, Vita Apollonii, Lib. I, cap. 5, 6. + +[128] Philostratus, Vita Apollonii, Lib. I, c. 10. + +[129] Ibid, c.13. + +[130] Ibid, c. 13, 14. + +[131] Philostratus, Lib. IV, c. 10. + +[132] Philostratus, Lib. IV, c. 25. + +[133] Philostratus, Lib. IV, c. 45. + +[134] Philostratus, Lib. VIII, c. 5. + +[135] Ibid, c. 26. + +[136] Philostratus, Lib. VIII, c. 29, 30. + +[137] Ibid, c. 29. + +[138] Lampridius, in Vita Alex. Severi, c. 29. + +[139] C. 24. + +[140] Philostratus, Lib. I, c. 3. + +[141] Zosimus, Lib, IV, cap. 13. Gibbon observes, that the name of +Theodosius, who actually succeeded, begins with the same letters which +were indicated in this magic trial. + +[142] Zosimus, Lib. IV, cap. 14. + +[143] Gibbon, Chap. VIII. + +[144] This word is of Sanscrit original. + +[145] "They cut themselves with knives and lancets, till the blood +gushed out upon them." I Kings, xviii, 28. + +[146] Otherwise, Deeves. + +[147] D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale. + +[148] D'Herbelot, Bibliotheque Orientale. + +[149] It is in Selden's Collection of Ballads in the Bodleian Library. +See Letters from the Bodleian, Vol. I, p. 120 to 126. + +[150] Spenser, Fairy Queen, Book III, Canto III, stanza 9, _et seqq_. + +[151] William of Malmesbury, Lib. II, c. 10. + +[152] William of Malmesbury, Lib. II, c. 10. + +[153] Naude, Apologie des Grands Hommes Accuses de Magie. Malmesbury, +_ubi supra_. + +[154] Naude, Apologie des Grands Hommes Accuses de Magie, chap. 19. + +[155] Mornay, Mysterium Iniquitalis, p. 258. Coeffeteau, Reponse a +ditto, p. 274. + +[156] Ibid. + +[157] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 206, 207. + +[158] Ibid. p. 207, 208. + +[159] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 243, 244. + +[160] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 244, 245. + +[161] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 246. + +[162] Ibid, p. 248, 249. + +[163] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 249. + +[164] Ibid. + +[165] Hollinshed, History of Scotland, p. 251. + +[166] Naude. + +[167] Godwin, Praesulibus, art. Gronthead. + +[168] Naude c. 18. + +[169] Johannes de Becka, _apud_ Trithemii Chronica, ann. 1254. + +[170] Freind, History of Physick, Vol. II, p. 234 to 239. + +[171] Bacon, Epist. ad Clement. IV. + +[172] Ubi supra. + +[173] See page 261. + +[174] Naude, Cap. 17. + +[175] Ibid. + +[176] Commentaries, Book IV. chap. vi. + +[177] Life of Chaucer, c. xviii. + +[178] Wotton, Reflections on Learning, Chap. X. + +[179] See above, p. 29. + +[180] Biographic Universelle. + +[181] Naude. + +[182] Moreri. + +[183] Enfield, History of Philosophy, Book VIII, chapter i. + +[184] Moreri. + +[185] Watson, Chemical Essays, Vol. I. + +[186] Fuller, Worthies of England. + +[187] Watson, _ubi supra_. + +[188] Sir Thomas More, History of Edward the Fifth. + +[189] Buck, Life and Reign of Richard III. + +[190] Hutchinson on Witchcraft. + +[191] I Samuel, xv, 23. + +[192] Doctrine of Divorce, Preface. + +[193] Delrio, Disquisitiones Magicae, p. 746. + +[194] Alciatus, Parergon Juris, L. VIII, cap. 22. + +[195] Danaeus, _apud_ Delrio, Proloquium. + +[196] Bartholomaeus de Spina, De Strigibus, c. 13. + +[197] Biographie Universelle. + +[198] Biographie Universelle. + +[199] Hospinian, Historia Sacramentaria, Part II, fol. 131. + +[200] Bayle. + +[201] Paulus Jovius, Elogia Doctorum Virorum, c.101. + +[202] Delrio, Disquisitiones Magicae, Lib. II, Quaestio xi, S. 18. + +[203] Delrio, Lib. II, Quaestio xxix. S. 7. + +[204] Wierus, Lib. II, c.v. S. 11, 12. + +[205] Cent. I, cap. 70. + +[206] De Praestigiis Demonum, Lib. II, cap. iv, sect. 8. + +[207] Durrius, _apud_ Schelhorn, Amoenitates Literariae, Tom. V, +p.50, _et seqq_. + +[208] Memoirs, p. 14. + +[209] Brewster, Letters on Natural Magic, Letter IV. + +[210] Appendix to Johannes Glastoniensis, edited by Hearne. + +[211] Camden, anno 1693, 1694. + +[212] Pitcairn, Trials in Scotland in Five Volumes, 4to. + +[213] King James's Works, p. 135. + +[214] King James's Works, p. 135, 136. + +[215] Truth brought to Light by Time. Wilson, History of James I. + +[216] Fuller, Church History of Britain, Book X, p. 74. See also +Osborn's Works, Essay I: where the author says, he "gave charge to +his judges, to be circumspect in condemning those, committed by +ignorant justices for diabolical compacts. Nor had he concluded his +advice in a narrower circle, as I have heard, than the denial of any +such operations, but out of reason of state, and to gratify the +church, which hath in no age thought fit to explode out of the common +people's minds an apprehension of witchcraft." The author adds, that +he "must confess James to have been the promptest man living in his +dexterity to discover an imposture," and subjoins a remarkable story +in confirmation of this assertion. + +[217] Discovery of the Witches, 1612, printed by order of the Court. + +[218] History of Whalley, by Thomas Dunham Whitaker, p. 215. + +[219] Wood, Athenae Oxonienses, Vol. II, p. 507. + +[220] Heylyn, Life of Laud. + +[221] Hutchinson on Witchcraft. + +[222] Menagiana, Tom. II, p. 252, _et seqq_. + +[223] Judges, v, 20. + +[224] Certainty of the World of Spirits. + +[225] Trial of the Witches executed at Bury St. Edmund's. + +[226] Narrative translated by Dr. Horneck, _apud_ Satan's +Invisible World by Sinclair, and Sadducismus Triumphatus by +Glanville. + +[227] Cotton Mather, Wonders of the Invisible World; Calef, More +Wonders of the Invisible World; Neal, History of New England. + +[228] Menagiana, Tom II, p. 264. Voltaire, Siecle de Louis XIV, Chap. +xxxi. + + + + + + + + + +End of Project Gutenberg's Lives of the Necromancers, by William Godwin + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK LIVES OF THE NECROMANCERS *** + +***** This file should be named 7082.txt or 7082.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/7/0/8/7082/ + +Produced by Wendy Crockett, Carlo Traverso, Charles Franks +and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team, from images +generously made available by the Bibliotheque nationale +de France (BnF/Gallica) at http://gallica.bnf.fr. + + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. 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