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diff --git a/old/69958-h/69958-h.htm b/old/69958-h/69958-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 514c4f6..0000000 --- a/old/69958-h/69958-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3548 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html lang="en"> -<head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - The Factory | Project Gutenberg - </title> - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - <style> - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - h1,h2 { - text-align: center; /* all headings centered */ - clear: both; -} - -p { - margin-top: .51em; - text-align: justify; - text-indent: 1em; - margin-bottom: .49em; -} - - -hr { - width: 33%; - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - margin-left: 33.5%; - margin-right: 33.5%; - clear: both; -} - -hr.tb {width: 45%; margin-left: 27.5%; margin-right: 27.5%;} -hr.chap {width: 65%; margin-left: 17.5%; margin-right: 17.5%;} - -hr.r25 {width: 25%; margin-top: 0em; margin-bottom: 0em; margin-left: 37.5%; margin-right: 37.5%;} - -div.chapter {page-break-before: always;} -h2.nobreak {page-break-before: avoid;} - -.fs80 {font-size: 80%} -.fs120 {font-size: 120%} -.fs150 {font-size: 150%} -.fs200 {font-size: 200%} - -table { - margin-left: auto; - margin-right: auto; -} -table.autotable { border-collapse: collapse; } -.tdl {text-align: left; padding-left: .75em;} -.tdr {text-align: right;} - -.pagenum { /* uncomment the next line for invisible page numbers */ - /* visibility: hidden; */ - position: absolute; - left: 92%; - font-size: small; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; - font-weight: normal; - font-variant: normal; - text-indent: 0; - color: #A9A9A9; -} /* page numbers */ - -.blockquot { - margin-left: 5%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - - -.center {text-align: center;} - -.smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} - -/* Images */ - -img { - max-width: 100%; - height: auto; -} -img.w100 {width: 100%;} - - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; - page-break-inside: avoid; - max-width: 100%; -} - -/* Poetry */ -/* uncomment the next line for centered poetry */ -.poetry-container {display: flex; justify-content: center;} -.poetry-container {text-align: center;} -.poetry {text-align: left; margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 5%;} -.poetry .stanza {margin: 1em auto;} -.poetry .verse {text-indent: -3em; padding-left: 3em;} - -/* Transcriber's notes */ -.transnote {background-color: #E6E6FA; - color: black; - font-size:small; - padding:0.5em; - margin-bottom:5em; - font-family:sans-serif, serif; -} - -.no-indent {text-indent: 0em;} - -/* Poetry indents */ -.poetry .indent0 {text-indent: -2em;} - - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp20 {width: 20%;} - -.pageborder {width: 250px; border: 1px solid; padding: 10px; margin: auto;} - -h2 {font-size: 130%; font-weight: normal; line-height: 1.6em; word-spacing: .3em;} - -p.drop-cap { - text-indent: 0em; -} -p.drop-cap:first-letter -{ - float: left; - margin: 0em 0.1em 0em 0em; - font-size: 250%; - line-height:0.85em; -} - -.lh {line-height: 1em;} - - </style> -</head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The factory, by Jonathan Thayer Lincoln</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The factory</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Jonathan Thayer Lincoln</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: February 5, 2023 [eBook #69958]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Bob Taylor, and The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY ***</div> - -<div class="figcenter" style="width: 65%"> -<img src="images/cover.jpg" alt="Cover"> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="pageborder"> -<p>By Jonathan Thayer Lincoln</p> -<hr class="r25"> - -<p class="fs80 lh">THE FACTORY.</p> -<p class="fs80 lh">THE CITY OF THE DINNER-PAIL.</p> - -<p class="fs80 lh">HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY</p> -<p class="center fs80 no-indent"><span class="smcap">Boston and New York</span></p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak" id="THE_FACTORY">THE FACTORY</h1> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs200 no-indent">THE FACTORY</p> -<br> -<p class="center fs80 no-indent">BY</p> -<p class="center no-indent">JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN<br> -<br> -<br> -<figure class="figcenter illowp20" id="title" style="max-width: 21.6875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/title.jpg" alt="decoration"> -</figure> -<br> -<br> -<br> -<p class="center no-indent fs80">BOSTON AND NEW YORK<br> -HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY<br> -The Riverside Press Cambridge<br> -1912<br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="no-indent center fs80"> -COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN<br> -<br> -ALL RIGHTS RESERVED<br> -<br> -<em>Published January 1912</em><br> -</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center no-indent fs120">TO MY FATHER</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="NOTE">NOTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This essay is based upon a course of lectures -delivered before the Amos Tuck School of -Administration and Finance associated with -Dartmouth College. These lectures were subsequently -printed in <cite>The Mediator</cite>, a magazine -published in Cleveland, Ohio, and devoted to -establishing a better social understanding between -the man who buys and the man who sells -labor.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="BIBLIOGRAPHICAL_NOTE">BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>In preparing the historical part of this essay I have -consulted many authorities, and in particular I have -made free use of the following works.</p> - -<p>DEFOE, Daniel</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A plan for the English Commerce, London, 1728.</p> -</div> - -<p>BAINES, Edward</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great -Britain. London, 1835.</p> -</div> - -<p>GUEST, Richard</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture. -Manchester, 1823.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning. Glasgow, -1833.</p> - -<p>URE, Andrew, M.D.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Philosophy of Manufactures. London, 1835.</p> -</div> - -<p>BABBAGE, Charles</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. -London, 1822.</p> -</div> - -<p>CARLYLE, Thomas</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Essay on Chartism.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</span></p> - -<p>TAYLOR, Richard Whately Cooke-</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>The Modern Factory System. London, 1891.</p> -</div> - -<p>ABRAM, Annie</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Social England in the Fifteenth Century. London, -1909.</p> -</div> - -<p>Among the many articles printed in the periodical -press the following from the <cite>Quarterly Review</cite> are -especially helpful.</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>Vol. XLI, 1829. Condition of the English -Peasantry.</p> - -<p>Vol. LVII, 1836. The Factory System.</p> - -<p>Vol. LXVII, 1841. Infant Labour.</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="CONTENTS">CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - - -<table class="autotable"> -<tr> -<td class="tdr" style="width:10%">I.</td> -<td class="tdl" style="width:80%">The Industrial Revolution</td> -<td class="tdr" style="width:10%"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">II.</td> -<td class="tdl">Sir Richard Arkwright</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">III.</td> -<td class="tdl">Mechanical Inventions</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">IV.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory System</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">V.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory Towns</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VI.</td> -<td class="tdl">Chartism</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> -</tr> -<tr> -<td class="tdr">VII.</td> -<td class="tdl">The Factory and Social Progress</td> -<td class="tdr"><a href="#Page_99">99</a></td> -</tr> -</table> - - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="INTRODUCTION">INTRODUCTION</h2> -</div> - - -<p class="drop-cap">As you approach the City of the Dinner -Pail from the west, the blue -waters of the harbor lie between you and -the towering factories which line the opposite -shore. By day the factories are not -attractive to the eye, their massive granite -walls, prison-like and unlovely, suggest only -the sordid side of toil,—the long day’s confinement -of twenty-seven thousand men and -women amidst the monotonous roar of -grinding wheels. But should you thus approach -the city late on a winter afternoon -the scene is marvelously changed; the myriad -lights of the factories shine through the -early darkness, transforming prison-walls -into fairy palaces, castles of enchantment -reflected with mysterious beauty in the deep -waters of the bay. There is no suggestion -now of sordid toil, the factory walls have<span class="pagenum" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</span> -become ramparts of light and speak of some -romantic story.</p> - -<p>Realism and romance lie very near together, -and we shall find the factory, when -we come to study the history of it, something -more than granite walls and grinding -machinery; the factory, indeed, has been an -important instrument in the upward progress -of mankind. There is an ugly side to -the story, especially in the beginning, for -when the craftsmen of the world were transformed -into factory operatives, thousands -suffered a degree of poverty never known -before, and many perished in the transition -to the new system of manufacturing; but -in the end that system revolutionized the -whole social order, gave to toil its rightful -dignity, and, creating a new loyalty to -the cause of labor, became an element in -the development of modern democracy. -It is this brighter side of the story that -we have now to consider.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</span></p> -<p class="center no-indent fs120">THE FACTORY</p> -</div> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs150 no-indent">THE FACTORY</p> -</div> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2 class="nobreak" id="I">I<br> -THE INDUSTRIAL<br> -REVOLUTION</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">In the fifteenth century the wealth of -England, which until then had been -made up chiefly of raw products, was -greatly increased by the introduction of -manufactures, the most important being -the making of cloth. Previous to this first -extension of industry, it had been impossible -for the toiler to rise out of his class -except by becoming a priest or a soldier; -but with the increase of manufactures wealth -became a means of social advancement, and -thus industry not only tended to break down -the feudal order by tempting serfs away -from their masters, but the wealth created<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</span> -by manufactures became an important element -in the creation of the middle class.</p> - -<p>The sudden and extensive introduction -of machinery at the close of the eighteenth -century drove hand labor out of employment, -and, for a time, caused great suffering -among the masses; but in the end it -created an ever increasing demand for -labor—a new labor more skillful than the -old. Moreover, it concentrated the laboring -population in great centres of industry, -thus creating a class consciousness which -demanded that attention should be given -to the rights of labor, created a new ideal -of the dignity of toil and gave to the world -that vision of the inclusive cause of labor -which was destined to advance in a marvelous -way to the social progress of mankind.</p> - -<p>Slavery had been abolished in England -long before the Industrial Revolution, and -yet, in the first quarter of the last century -men in chains worked in the British coal-mines<span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</span> -and were bought and sold when the -property changed hands. For generations -before the Industrial Revolution, the lord -of the manor had ceased to demand the -labor of the villein as his due, but while serfdom -had been abolished, the traditions of it -still remained; and it was not until the establishment -of the factory that labor became -free in fact as for generations it had -been in name.</p> - -<p>The historical event, that great movement -which led in our generation to a -complete reconstruction of the social order, -we call the “Industrial Revolution -of the Eighteenth Century.” It was an -extremely complex event, originating in -economic, political, and social conditions; -but while it was the consequence of many -causes, it derived its chief influence in -the beginning from a series of remarkable -inventions in the art of making textile -fabrics.</p> - -<p>This art is as old as civilization, originating<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</span> -when men, advancing from barbarism, -put aside the skins of beasts for raiment of -their own making; but from the days of -the first rude distaff and the simple bamboo -loom until the time so recently past when, -by a series of the most brilliant inventions -known to any craft, the art was revolutionized, -the implements remained unchanged. -Up to the year 1769 the machines in use -in the manufacture of cotton cloth in -England were practically the same as those -which for centuries had been employed in -India. There were no factories as there -are to-day: the cotton was spun and woven -into cloth by hand, and both the spinning -and the weaving were done in the cottages -of the craftsmen.</p> - -<p>The first of these inventions was a simple -one, but it made necessary all that -followed. From the beginning of the art, -one man could weave into cloth all the -yarn that several spinners could produce. -Indeed, it was seldom that a weaver’s<span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</span> -family, his wife and children all working -at the spinning wheel, could supply sufficient -weft for his loom; and this difficulty -was increased by the invention of the fly-shuttle -in the year 1738. This invention, -made by John Kay, consisted in giving -motion to the shuttle by a mechanical device -which saved time and exertion to the -weaver and nearly doubled the daily product -of his loom. The increased demand -for yarn led to many experiments, and at -last a machine was produced upon which -many threads could be spun by a single -pair of hands: the water frame commonly -attributed to Richard Arkwright. With -this important invention came many others -in the same field, making famous the -names of Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright.</p> - -<p>The moment it became possible to accomplish -by machinery what formerly had -been done entirely by hand, the first effect -was to increase the productive power of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</span> -the workman and thus to add vastly to the -wealth of the nation, and secondly, to -gather into the factories the craftsmen who -had formerly worked in their homes.</p> - -<p>In the beginning of the eighteenth century -the textile manufacturing of England -was carried on by craftsmen dwelling in -the rural districts, the master clothiers living -in the greater towns, sending out wool -to be spun into yarn which, returned to -them prepared for the loom, was re-distributed -among other hand workers in -other cottages. The Lancashire weaver -worked in his cottage surrounded by a bit -of land, and generally combined small -farming with domestic manufacturing. -Sometimes a single family performed all -the labor, the wife and daughters working -at carding and spinning, the father operating -the loom; sometimes other craftsmen joined -the household and worked as members of -one family. The extent of mercantile establishments -and the modes of doing business<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</span> -were very different from what they -were soon to become. It is quite true that a -limited number of individuals had, in previous -ages, made fortunes by trade, but until -the very end of the seventeenth century the -capital in the hands of British merchants -was small. Because of the bad condition of -the roads and the lack of inland navigation, -goods were conveyed by pack horses with -which the Manchester chapmen traveled -through the principal towns, selling their -goods to the shopkeepers, or at the public -fairs, and bringing back sheep’s wool to be -sold to the clothiers of the manufacturing -districts.</p> - -<p>In the writings of modern socialists we -find the domestic system held up for admiration -as the ideal method of production. -The dreamers look back regretfully to the -days when manufactures were combined -with farming, and they quote from Goldsmith’s -<cite>Deserted Village</cite>. Let us, however, -turn to a more prosaic but more trustworthy<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</span> -account, which is to be found in Daniel -Defoe’s <cite>Plan of the English Commerce</cite>. The -author is writing enthusiastically in praise -of English manufactures, and, having -pointed out how in the unemployed counties -women and children are seen idle and -out of business, the women sitting at their -doors, the children playing in the street, he -continues: “Whereas, in the manufacturing -counties, you see the wheel going almost -at every door, the wool and yarn hanging -up at every window; the looms, the winders, -the combers, the carders, the dyers, the -dressers all busy; and the very children as -well as the women constantly employed -... indeed there is not a poor child in -the town above the age of four but can -earn his own bread.”</p> - -<p>When we come to study the brutalizing -social conditions which obtained in the -manufacturing towns following the establishment -of the factory, we shall do well -to keep in mind these words written by an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</span> -eighteenth century student in praise of the -domestic system; when we hear the socialists -declare that the factory created wage -slavery, let us remember this earlier and -more monstrous slavery.</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the -spinning-frame, was a man of great genius. -Endowed with the inventive faculty, and -even more with the ability to perfect the -inventions of others, he possessed as well -extraordinary executive ability, and having -brought his spinning machinery to the -point of practical efficiency, he organized -the modern factory system as the means of -obtaining the highest results from the new -mechanisms. The spinning frame was too -cumbersome to be operated in the cottage, -and, moreover, it required a greater power -to operate it than that of the human hand, -so Arkwright built his first factory which -was run by horse power, and from this beginning -was evolved the factory as we know -it to-day. But important as were the inventions<span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</span> -in cotton manufacture, the factory -would never have become the mighty -power that it is, except for the steam -engine; and it is interesting to note that in -the same year in which Arkwright took -out his patent for spinning by rollers, Watt -invented his device for lessening the consumption -of fuel in fire engines, that epoch-making -invention by means of which the -factory system as perfected by Arkwright -was to become the material basis of modern -life.</p> - -<p>Like the Renaissance, the Industrial -Revolution was a movement destined to -change the very course of human thought. -Mechanical invention contributed to the -force of the earlier movement—the invention -of printing and of the mariner’s -compass—so that side by side with the -scholars restoring to the world its lost heritage -of learning, craftsmen and sailors played -their parts in printing the books by which -the learning was disseminated, and in manning<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</span> -the ships that discovered new continents. -The Renaissance, however, was -essentially an intellectual movement to -which mechanical invention was merely -an aid, while the Industrial Revolution was -due in an important measure to machinery. -The movement began in the cotton industry, -but soon a similar expansion occurred -in all other manufactures. Machinery made -possible a vast production; and the steam -engine, first applied to manufacture, later -became the means of distributing the commodities.</p> - -<p>The Industrial Revolution, thus springing -from the sudden growth in the use of -machinery, occasioned not only economic -but political and social results. On the economic -side, the effect was to extend old industries -and to create new ones, as well as to -revolutionize the methods of the production -and distribution of wealth. On the social -side it created new classes of men, breaking -down the barriers of ancient feudalism, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</span> -on the political side it led to the enfranchisement -of the working classes. The Industrial -Revolution accomplished for England -what the political revolution did for -France, but by more peaceful means. Yet -not alone in France was the event achieved -in blood—for the Factory as well as the -Terror had its victims. The history of the -factory is no dry summary of patent rights -and inventions, inventories of cotton and -cotton goods, abstracts of ledgers, journals, -cash-books, and pay-rolls,—it is a human -story,—<i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</i>, over-production, -enlightened selfishness, were no abstract -terms, but vital human problems.</p> - -<p>Because the Industrial Revolution profoundly -influenced the social and political -life of England, and later of the whole -world, the history of the factory, which -contributed so much to its influence, becomes -of vast importance. The first chapter -relates to brilliant achievements in the -field of mechanical invention. Then follows<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</span> -the dismal story of how a multitude -of craftsmen were transformed into factory -operatives—the untold suffering of oppressed -workingmen. Later we see the English -yeoman replaced by the master manufacturer -who soon became a force in the -political life of the nation, finding his way -into Parliament and even into the Peerage. -For the common people the revolution began -with great suffering, but ended in opening -new avenues for their social and political -advancement. Antagonistic in the beginning -to the welfare of the masses, it aided -powerfully, in the end, the fulfillment of -those ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity -which at that moment had taken such -a mighty hold upon the thoughts of men.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="II">II<br> -SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The <em>Shaving of Shagpat</em>, that remarkable -allegory with the writing of -which George Meredith commenced his -literary career, has been given several interpretations; -without seriously venturing -another, it has seemed to me that this fanciful -story deals with the chief events in -the Industrial Revolution.</p> - -<p>“So there was feasting in the hall and in -the city, and over earth”: we read towards -the end of the tale, “great pledging the -sovereign of Barbers, who had mastered an -event and become the benefactor of his craft -and of his kind. ’Tis sure the race of Bagarags -endured for many centuries, and his -seed were the rulers of men, and the seal -of their empire stamped on mighty wax -the Tackle of Barbers.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</span></p> - -<p>Shibli Bagarag,—could he not well -have been Richard Arkwright, the barber, -inventor of the spinning-frame, master of -an event? In Shagpat the Clothier, we -discover the smug and comfortable British -aristocracy; in the Identical, that magic -hair in Shagpat’s beard which gave him -a position of power greater even than the -King, we observe Feudal Privilege; the -sword of Aklis, with the steel of which -the Identical was cut, may well stand for -the factory, a weapon gained after many -trials by Arkwright, so that of him it might -be written as it was of Shibli Bagarag: -“Thou, even thou will be master of the -event, so named in anecdotes, and histories, -and records, to all succeeding generations.”</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, who first saw the -light of day at Preston on the 23d of -December, 1732, was the youngest of thirteen -children born to humble parents, and -he grew to manhood without education, -being barely able to read and write. At an<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</span> -early age he was apprenticed to a Preston -barber and when he became a journeyman -he established himself in the same business.</p> - -<p>Fate was in a jesting mood when she -decreed that the chief actor in that remarkable -social drama, the Industrial Revolution, -should be a penny barber; and we -may wonder if the governing classes appreciated -the irony, when twenty years later, -in recognition of his genius, the barber was -raised to the honor of knighthood and his -lady privileged to walk before the wives of -the untitled gentry.</p> - -<p>Richard Arkwright, at the age of twenty-eight, -was not content day after day to -shave the stolid faces of lower class Englishmen, -but, having gained a knowledge -of a chemical process for dyeing human -hair, he commenced to make wigs for upper -class Englishmen—wigs dyed to suit -any complexion. This occupation took -him away from the barber’s chair and sent -him traveling about the country. On such<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</span> -a tour in 1761, he met a lady in the city -of Leigh,—Margaret Biggins was her -name,—and he married her; and in the -same city at a somewhat later date he heard -of certain experiments which had been -made by a man named High in constructing -a machine for spinning yarn. He gained -this secret from a clock-maker named Kay, -with whom he afterwards formed a partnership, -by getting Kay—so the gossips -said—loquaciously drunk at a public-house. -Concerning his wife, history has -little to say except that she quarreled with -him because of the interest he took in -High’s machine; and commencing to make -experiments on his own account he became -so absorbed in his workshop that his -lady, fearing that they might be thrown -upon the parish for support, begged him to -return to his razor, and because he refused -smashed the first model of the spinning-machine -and thus precipitated a tremendous -family row.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</span></p> - -<p>Arkwright is commonly credited with -the invention of spinning by rollers, but -while to him is undoubtedly due the success -of that invention he did not originate -it. The inventor of that ingenious process -was neither Arkwright nor High, but John -Wyatt of Birmingham, who in 1738 took -out a patent in the name of Lewis Paul. -In 1741 or 1742 these two men set up in -Birmingham a mill “turned by two asses -walking around an axis,” and in which ten -girls were employed; while later a larger -mill containing two hundred and fifty spindles -and giving employment to twenty-five -operatives was built. Wyatt wrote a pamphlet -entitled, <cite>A Systematic Essay on the -Business of Spinning</cite>, in which he showed -the great profits which would attend the -establishment of a plant of three hundred -spindles. Wyatt’s factory, however, did not -prosper and it seems probable that his machinery -also passed into the hands of Arkwright.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</span></p> - -<p>It was in the year 1767 that Hargreaves -invented the spinning-jenny, and two years -later Arkwright took out his patent claiming -that he had “by great study and long -application invented a new piece of machinery, -never before found out, practiced -or used, for the making of weft or yarn -from cotton, flax, and wool; which would -be of great utility to a great many manufacturers, -as well as to His Majesty’s subjects -in general, by employing a great number -of poor people in working the said -machinery and in making the said weft or -yarn much superior in quality to any heretofore -manufactured or made.” However -lacking in originality this famous invention -may have been, however great may have -been the debt which Arkwright owed to -Wyatt and Paul, to John Kay and to High, -nevertheless, to him belongs all the credit -of the first successful introduction of spinning -by machinery.</p> - -<p>Having obtained this patent, Arkwright<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</span> -found himself without the capital necessary -for carrying out his plans; and he returned -to his native city of Preston and there -applied to a friend, Mr. John Smalley, a -liquor merchant, for assistance. So reduced -were his circumstances at this time that -going to vote at a contested election, which -occurred during his visit to Preston, his -wardrobe was in so tattered a condition that -a number of his friends advanced the money -to purchase decent clothes in which he -might appear in the poll-room; and once -during this period he having applied for -pecuniary aid to a Mr. Atherton, that gentleman -refused to entertain Arkwright’s -plan because of the rags in which the inventor -was dressed.</p> - -<p>It was in Preston, then, that Arkwright -first fitted up his perfected spinning machine, -in the parlor of a house belonging to -the free grammar school. Here Arkwright -successfully demonstrated the utility of his -invention and first received financial support.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</span> -In consequence of the riots which had -taken place in the neighborhood of Blackburn -on the invention of Hargreaves’s spinning-jenny, -by which many of the machines -were destroyed and the inventor -driven from his native county to Nottingham, -Arkwright and Smalley, fearing similar -outrages, also went to Nottingham -accompanied by John Kay, the loquacious -clock-maker; so that Nottingham became -the cradle of the two great inventions in -cotton spinning. Here, Arkwright also -applied for aid to the Messrs. Wright, -Bankers, who made advances on the condition -that they should share in the profits -of the invention; but as the machine was -not perfected as soon as they had hoped -they withdrew their support and he turned -to Mr. Samuel Need, a partner of Jedidiah -Strutt, the inventor of the stocking frame. -Strutt examined Arkwright’s mechanism, -declared it to be an admirable invention, -and the two men of wealth agreed to a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</span> -partnership with the Preston barber; and -a mill was erected at Nottingham.</p> - -<p>It was an unpretentious establishment, -that first little cotton mill; it gave employment -to not more than a dozen operatives, -and the machinery was turned not -by a great steam engine, but by a pair of -patient horses harnessed to a treadmill,—yet -it contained the germ of the modern -factory and the modern factory system. -Later, Arkwright built another and larger -factory at Cromford in Derbyshire, driven -by water power—from which circumstance -his spinning-machine came to be -called the water-frame.</p> - -<p>The cotton industry of England which -Arkwright established developed slowly; -in the five years, ending with 1775, the -annual import of cotton into Great Britain -was only four times the average import at -the beginning of the century. But when -in the year 1785 Arkwright’s patent was -finally set aside and his spinning machinery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</span> -became public property, a great extension -of cotton manufacture followed, accompanied -by a marvelous national prosperity. -Arkwright, although deprived of his monopoly, -was by this time so firmly established -in the industry that he remained the -dominant figure in the yarn market, fixing -the price of the commodity for all -other spinners; and thus he accumulated a -great fortune.</p> - -<p>While Arkwright was without doubt -perfectly familiar with the experiments of -both Wyatt and High, nevertheless it was -the Preston barber and not the original -inventors who first produced yarn fit for -weaving. It is proverbial that inventors seldom -reap the harvest of wealth which they -sow; they are the dreamers and their reward -is in beholding a perfected mechanism—their -work of art. So it was -with Wyatt and High. They dreamed of -spindles turned by power and saw their -spindles turn; but Arkwright dreamed of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</span> -a nation made rich and powerful by these -same inventions, and he, too, lived to see -his dream come true.</p> - -<p>Sir Richard Arkwright possessed all the -qualities essential to success—tireless energy, -enthusiasm, perseverance, and self-confidence. -He believed in himself and so -he compelled others to believe in him. -His usual working day began at five o’clock -in the morning and did not end until nine -at night; when he was fifty years of age -he lengthened this day by two hours, -which he devoted to acquiring the education -denied him in his youth. He had unbounded -confidence in the success of his adventures -and was accustomed to say that he -would pay the national debt—an interesting -circumstance, for surely by his genius -the national debt was paid many times over.</p> - -<p>In the year 1786 he was appointed -high sheriff of Derbyshire, and when -about that time the King narrowly escaped -assassination at the hands of Margaret<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</span> -Nicholson, Arkwright, having presented -an address of congratulation from his -county to the King, received the honor -of knighthood. He died on the 3d of August, -1792, at the age of sixty. The <cite>Annual -Register</cite> recording that event says not so -much as a single word concerning Arkwright’s -masterful genius which even then -had set in motion a mighty social revolution. -It mentions only the great fortune -which he had acquired as a manufacturer -of cotton yarn,—so difficult it is for the -critic to place a true value on the life -work of a contemporary.</p> - -<p>As you approach the City of the Dinner -Pail from the west and gaze across the -blue waters of the harbor, the eye rests -upon the towering factories which line -the opposite shore. Within those walls -twenty-seven thousand men and women -living in a degree of comfort never -known before to the spinners and weavers -of the world, earn their daily bread.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</span> -Those towering factories are, every one, -monuments to the genius of Richard Arkwright, -the penny barber of Preston. If -he appropriated the inventions of others, -he perfected these inventions and made -them of permanent value to mankind; -and moreover, he arranged the machinery -into series, organized the factory system, -and revolutionized industry.</p> - -<p>Says Carlyle: “Richard Arkwright, it -would seem, was not a beautiful man; no -romance hero with haughty eyes, Apollo -lip, and gesture like the herald Mercury; -a plain, almost gross, bag-cheeked, pot-bellied -Lancashire man, with an air of -painful reflection, yet also of copious free -digestion;—a man stationed by the community -to shave certain dusty beards in the -northern parts of England at halfpenny -each.... Nevertheless, in strapping -razors, in lathering of dusty beards, and -the contradictions and confusions attendant -thereon the man had notions in that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</span> -rough head of his; spindles, shuttles, -wheels and contrivances plying ideally -within the same, rather hopeless looking, -which, however, he did at last bring to -bear. Not without great difficulty! his -townsfolk rose in mob against him, for -threatening to shorten labor, to shorten -wages; so that he had to fly, with broken -wash pots, scattered household, and seek -refuge elsewhere. Nay, his wife, too, rebelled; -burned his wooden model of his -spinning wheel; resolute that he should -stick to his razors, rather;—for which, -however, he decisively, as thou wilt rejoice -to understand, packed her out of doors. -Oh! reader, what a Historical Phenomenon -is that bag-cheeked, pot-bellied, -much-enduring, much-inventing barber! -French revolutions were a-brewing, to resist -the same in any measure, Imperial -Kaisers were impotent without the cotton -and cloth of England; and it was this man -who gave to England the power of cotton.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="III">III<br> -MECHANICAL INVENTIONS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">A distinction should be made between -the factory and the factory -system. The latter was not new to England, -having been employed during the Roman -occupation; and with the introduction of -the woolen industry under Edward III, we -again find the factory system established on -an extensive scale.</p> - -<p>John Winchcombe, commonly called -Jack of Newbury, who died about the year -1520, made use of the factory system on a -very extensive scale. In Fuller’s <cite>Worthies</cite> you -may read how he “was the most considerable -clothier without fancy or fiction England -ever beheld,” and how “his looms were -his lands, whereof he kept one hundred in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</span> -his house, each managed by a man and a -boy.” Jack of Newbury was celebrated in -a metrical romance, and the following lines -taken from it contain an interesting description -of his famous industrial establishment.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Within one room, being large and long,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">There stood two hundred looms full strong:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Two hundred men the truth is so,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wrought in these looms all in a row;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">By every one a pretty boy</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Sat making quills with mickle joy.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And in another place hard by</div> - <div class="verse indent0">A hundred women merily</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Were carding hard with joyful cheer</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Who, singing sat with voices clear;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And in a chamber close beside</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Two hundred maidens did abide,</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">These pretty maids did never lin</div> - <div class="verse indent0">But in their place all day did spin:</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">Then to another room came they</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where children were in poor array,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And every one sat picking wool,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The finest from the coarse to cull:</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</span> - <div class="verse indent0">The number was seven score and ten</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The children of poor silly men,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Within another place likewise</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Full fifty proper men he spied,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And these were sheer men every one,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Whose skill and cunning there was shown:</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0"> - -<hr class="tb"></div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">A dyehouse likewise he had then</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wherein he kept full forty men:</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And also in his fulling mill,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Full twenty persons kept he still.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Here, indeed, we have the factory system—in -which the division of labor is a -conspicuous feature—employed with all -its modern details; but not the steam-driven -factory, building great cities and changing -the whole social life of the kingdom.</p> - -<p>The original mode of converting cotton -into yarn was by the use of distaff and spindle, -a method still employed in the remote parts -of India. The distaff is a wooden rod to -which a bundle of cotton is tied loosely at -one end, and which the spinner holds between -the left arm and the body while with<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</span> -his right hand he draws out and twists the -cotton into a thread. This simple process -is the basis of all the complicated spinning -machinery in use at the present time.</p> - -<p>In a modern cotton factory there are -three departments of labor, carding, spinning, -and weaving; and we have now to -consider briefly these three processes. The -purpose of carding is to clean the cotton and -lay the fibres in a uniform direction. This -was at first accomplished by hand, the implement -employed being little different -from an ordinary comb; later an improved -device was used consisting of a pair of large -wire brushes. This, we must observe, was -a primitive operation, and the amount of -cotton which one person could thus prepare -for spinning was very small.</p> - -<p>We have already seen that the invention -of the fly-shuttle so increased the demand -for yarn that ingenious men were induced -to make mechanical experiments for the -purpose of supplying this demand—experiments<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</span> -which, in the end, led to the -invention of the spinning-frame. The spinning-frame, -in turn, increased the demand -for carded cotton and skillful mechanics -again set about to meet this new requirement, -and the result was the building of the -carding-engine. This invention was not -made at once, nor by any particular individual; -but was the result of a number of -improvements made at different times and -by different persons. One of these men -was Thomas High, the inventor of the -spinning-jenny; another was James Hargreaves -who so improved the jenny that he -is commonly called the inventor of it; and -finally, Richard Arkwright himself took the -crude machine devised by these men and perfected -it. Thus it came about that the modern -carding-engine as well as the spinning-frame, -was made of practical value by this -much-enduring, much-inventing barber.</p> - -<p>The invention of the fly-shuttle, as we -have seen, led to an increased demand for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</span> -yarn, and this demand was further augmented -about the year 1760 when the -Manchester merchants began to export -cotton goods in considerable quantities to -Italy, Germany, and the North American -colonies. It was then no uncommon thing -for a weaver to walk three or four miles -in the morning, and call on five or six spinners, -before he could collect yarn enough -to serve him for the remainder of the day.</p> - -<p>Ingenious mechanics set about the task -of producing more yarn. The first of these -was Thomas High, a reed maker, residing -in the town of Leigh, who engaged one -Kay, a clock-maker, and this is the same -Kay who was afterwards employed by Arkwright -to make the wheels and other apparatus -for a spinning-machine. This machine -was set up in the garret of High’s house. -Now, Thomas High had a daughter who -watched with keen interest the progress of -his experiments—her name was Jane—and -in honor of her he called the machine<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</span> -the spinning-jenny. It is commonly stated—even -in so authoritative a history as -Baines’s we find the error—that the credit -for the original invention of the spinning-jenny -is due to Hargreaves, he having made -the first machine in 1767. But Guest has -shown quite conclusively by the sworn statement -of one Thomas Leather, a neighbor -of High, that the latter completed a similar -machine in 1764.</p> - -<p>However this may be, James Hargreaves, -a weaver of Stand-Hill, near Blackburn, -perfected the original jenny and made it a -practical working machine so that history -has quite justly named him the author. -From the first Hargreaves was aware of -the value of his invention, but not having -the ambition to obtain a patent he kept the -machine as secret as possible, using it only -to spin yarn for his own weaving. An unprotected -invention of such importance, -however, could not remain long the private -property of a single weaver, and soon<span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</span> -a knowledge of his achievement spread -throughout the neighborhood; but instead -of gaining admiration and gratitude for -Hargreaves, the spinners raised the cry that -the invention would throw multitudes out -of employment and a mob broke into his -house and destroyed his jenny.</p> - -<p>After this, Hargreaves moved to Nottingham, -where, with a Mr. Thomas James, -he raised sufficient capital to erect a small -mill; here he took out a patent in 1770,—one -year after Arkwright had patented the -water-frame. Before leaving Lancashire, -Hargreaves made and sold to other weavers -a number of jennies; and in spite of all -opposition the importance of the invention -led to its general use.</p> - -<p>A desperate effort was made in 1779, -during a period of distress, to put down -the machine. A mob scoured the country -for miles around Blackburn demolishing -jennies and with them all carding-engines, -water-frames, and other machinery; but<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</span> -the rioters spared the jennies which had only -twenty spindles, as these were by this time -admitted to be useful to the craftsmen. Not -only the working classes, but the middle and -even the upper classes entertained at this -time a profound dread of machinery. The -result of these riots was to drive spinners and -other capitalists from the neighborhood of -Blackburn to Manchester, increasing the -importance of that rapidly growing town -which was destined to become the world -centre of the cotton industry.</p> - -<p>The story of this early opposition to the -introduction of machinery deserves attention -not only as an interesting episode in -the history of the factory, but because -even to-day a similar opposition comes to -the surface with each new improvement in -the method of manufacture. It is also an -interesting fact that Lord Byron made his -maiden speech in the House of Lords in -opposition to the Nottingham Riot Bills, -introduced into Parliament for the protection<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</span> -of owners of machinery. There were -two of these bills, one “for the more exemplary -punishment of persons destroying -or injurying any stocking- or lace-frames, -or other machines or engines used in the -frame-work knitting manufactory, or any -articles or goods in such frames or machines”; -the other “for the more effectual -preservation of the peace within the -county of Nottingham.”</p> - -<p>These two bills were the result of rioting -among the lacemakers of this county -and their object was to increase the -penalty for breaking machinery, from -transportation to death, to permit the -appointment of special constables in times -of disturbance, and to establish watch and -ward throughout the disturbed parts. These -bills and the debates upon them throw a -strong light upon the extent of the disturbances, -and indicate the attitude of the -government, at that time, toward the laboring -poor.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</span></p> - -<p>The important inventions in carding and -spinning led to a rapid advance in cotton -manufacture; the new machines not only -turned off a greater quantity of yarn than -had been produced by hand, but the yarn -was also of a superior quality. The water-frame -spun a hard, firm yarn, well adapted -for warps, while the jenny produced a soft -yarn suitable for spinning weft; but the -yarn produced on neither of these machines -could be advantageously used for making -the finer qualities of goods.</p> - -<p>This defect in the spinning-machinery -was remedied by still another device called -the mule jenny, but now termed simply -the mule, so named because it combined -the principles of both Arkwright’s water-frame -and Hargreaves’ jenny. The mule -was invented by Samuel Crompton, a -weaver living at Hall-in-the-Wood near -Bolton. He commenced his experiments -in 1774, but it was five years before he -completed the machine. Crompton took<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</span> -out no patent and only regretted that public -curiosity would not allow him to keep -his little invention for himself. The mule -was first known as the Hall-in-the-Wood -wheel, then as the muslin wheel because -it made yarn sufficiently fine for weaving -that fabric, and finally by its present name.</p> - -<p>As the inventor made no effort to secure -a patent, the mule became public property, -and was generally adopted by manufacturers, -but Crompton himself received no -other reward than a grant of five thousand -pounds voted him by Parliament in 1812. -Although his means were small, he was -always in easy circumstances, until the -latter part of his life, when, being no -longer able to work, he was reduced to -poverty. Certain manufacturers who had -profited by his invention then subscribed -for the purchase of a life annuity, to which -fund foreign as well as English spinners -contributed. Crompton died on January -26, 1827.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</span></p> - -<p>Having considered the inventions in the -art of spinning, we now turn to the power -loom built in 1785 by the Reverend Edmund -Cartwright, of Hollander House, -Kent. A loom moved by water power had -been contrived as early as the seventeenth -century by one De Gennes, and described -as “a new engine to make linen cloth -without the help of an artificer.” But the -machine never came into general use; -and in about the middle of the eighteenth -century there is record of another power -loom, also a French invention, which suffered -a similar fate. Describing his own -loom Cartwright says that in the summer -of 1784 he fell in company with some -gentlemen of Manchester who were discussing -Arkwright’s spinning-machinery. -One of the company observed that, as -soon as Arkwright’s patents expired, so -many mills would be erected and so much -cotton spun that hands could not be found -to weave it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</span></p> - -<p>To this observation the ingenious clergyman -replied that Arkwright should set his -wits to work to invent a weaving-mill. -But the Manchester gentlemen unanimously -agreed that the thing was impractical. -Cartwright argued, however, -that, having seen exhibited in London -an automaton figure which played at -chess, he did not believe it more difficult -to construct a machine which would -weave. He kept this conversation in mind -and later employed a carpenter and a -blacksmith to carry his ideas into effect. -Thus he built a loom which, to his own -delight, produced a piece of cloth. The -machine, however, required two powerful -men to work it, but Cartwright, who was -entirely unfamiliar with the art of weaving, -believed that he had accomplished all that -was required, and on the 4th of April, -1785, he secured a patent. It was only then -that he commenced to study the method -by which the craftsmen wove cloth, and he<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</span> -was astonished when he compared the easy -working of the hand loom with his own -ponderous engine. Profiting by his study, -however, he produced a loom which in its -general principles is precisely the same as -the looms used to-day.</p> - -<p>Thus was invented the machinery of -the cotton mill; but there remains to be -considered the one other contrivance without -which the vast extension of manufactures -would have been impossible and -the manufacturing towns, which we are -about to consider, would never have attained -the size and importance which enabled -them to become factors in the political -life of England. I refer to the steam -engine.</p> - -<p>In 1763, James Watt was employed in -repairing a model of Newcomen’s steam -engine, and, noting certain basic defects, -undertook to remedy them. He perceived -the vast possibilities of a properly constructed -engine and, after years of patient<span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</span> -labor he gave to the world the mighty -power of steam. Previous to this time, -and indeed until the year 1782, the steam -engine had been used almost exclusively -to pump water out of mines, but with -Watt’s improvements it became possible -for the engine to give rotary motion to -machinery.</p> - -<p>The first cotton mill to install a steam -engine made by Boulton and Watt was the -one owned by the Messrs. Robinson in -Nottinghamshire—this was about the -year 1785. Two years earlier, Arkwright -had made use of an atmospheric engine -in his Manchester factory, but it was not -until 1789 that an improved steam engine -was set up in that city and it was a year -later when Arkwright adopted the device.</p> - -<p>The invention of spinning-machinery -created the cotton manufacture of England, -but the industry would never have -reached the proportions which it presently -did except for the genius of Watt.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="IV">IV<br> -THE FACTORY SYSTEM</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">When the cotton manufacture was -in its infancy, all the operations, -from dressing the raw material to folding -the finished fabric, were completed under -the roof of the weaver’s cottage. With -Arkwright’s invention it became the custom -to spin the yarn in factories and weave -it by hand in cottages. With the invention -of the power loom, it again became the -practice to perform all the processes in a -single building.</p> - -<p>The weaver’s cottage, then, with its rude -apparatus of peg warping, hand cards, spinning-wheels, -and wooden looms, was the -steam factory in miniature; but the amount -of labor performed in a single factory was -as great as that which formerly gave occupation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</span> -to the inhabitants of an entire district. -A good hand-loom weaver could produce -two pieces of shirtings each week; by 1823, -a power-loom weaver produced seven such -pieces in the same time.</p> - -<p>A factory containing two hundred looms -was operated by one hundred persons who -wove seven hundred pieces a week, and it -was estimated that under the domestic system -at least eight hundred and seventy-five -looms would have been required to weave -this amount of cloth, because the women -of the household had their home duties to -perform while the men were required to -devote a considerable portion of their time -to farming. It was therefore further estimated -that the work done in a steam factory -containing two hundred looms would, -if performed by hand, give employment -and support to a population of more than -two thousand persons. It is interesting -here to note, that, whereas a hand-loom -weaver could produce two pieces of shirtings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</span> -a week, an ordinary weaver is now -able to turn off eight or ten pieces of equal -length every ten hours; so that a modern -weave room containing two hundred power -looms operated by twenty-five weavers -represents the labor of a community of -sixty thousand craftsmen, their wives and -their children. A population of thirty million -would be required to perform by hand -the work now produced by the Fall River -factories alone.</p> - -<p>“Watt,” said a celebrated French engineer, -“improves the steam engine, and -this single improvement causes the industry -of England to make an immense stride. -This machine, at the present time [about -1830], represents the power of three hundred -thousand horses or of two million men, -strong and well fitted for labor, who should -work night and day without an interruption -and without repose.... A hairdresser -invents, or at least brings into action, -a machine for spinning cotton; this<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</span> -alone gives the British industry immense -superiority. Fifty years only, after this -great discovery, more than one million of -the inhabitants of England are employed -in those operations which depend, directly -or indirectly, on the action of this -machine. Lastly, England exports cotton, -spun and woven by an admirable system -of machinery, to the value of four hundred -million francs yearly.... The British -navigator travels in quest of the cotton of -India, brings it from a distance of four -thousand leagues, commits it to an operation -of the machines of Arkwright, carries -back their products to the East, making -them again to travel four thousand leagues, -and in spite of the loss of time—in spite -of the enormous expense incurred by this -voyage of eight thousand leagues, the cotton -manufactured by the machinery of -England becomes less costly than the cotton -of India, spun and woven by hand near the -field that produced it, and sold at the nearest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</span> -market. So great is the power of the -progress of machinery.”</p> - -<p>Two distinct systems of production preceded -the factory. First, the system of -isolated handicraft labor, and second, the -system of cottage industry, which we have -already considered and in which the several -members of a family participated,—this, -too, was handicraft. The craftsman, as we -have seen, worked with his family in his own -cottage; he owned his loom and the other -simple machinery necessary for the production -of cloth, and either he owned his -raw material or received it from the master -manufacturer to be returned in the -form of finished fabric. But in either case, -the craftsman was his own master and -sold cloth not labor.</p> - -<p>With the establishment of the factory, -these conditions were completely changed. -The master manufacturer not only owned -the factory building and the machinery, -but he owned the raw material. Moreover<span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</span> -to him the operative sold his labor which -thereby became a commodity quite as completely -as the cotton he wove into cloth. -This latter circumstance is important because -it became the source of the vast social -discontent which, in the end, aided -powerfully in revolutionizing the structure -of British society.</p> - -<p>To the consideration of this event we -shall soon return. For the moment we must -consider briefly the most characteristic -distinction in the process of manufacture -under the new system—the extension of -the principle of division of labor.</p> - -<p>The principle itself was in no wise new, -for the first application of it was made in -a very early stage in the evolution of society. -At the very dawn of civilization it -must have become apparent that more comforts -and conveniences could be acquired -by one man restricting his occupation to a -single craft—and the development of independent -arts was in itself a division of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</span> -labor. The same principle was then carried -into the different trades, and at last we find -it fully developed in the cottage system of -industry. Thus we find carding, spinning, -and weaving carried on by separate members -of the family. Carding and spinning, -which required less bodily strength, was -performed by the women, while the more -laborious work of weaving was given over -to the men. With the establishment of the -factory and the introduction of machinery, -means were supplied by which this system -could attain its highest development.</p> - -<p>The advantages resulting from the division -of labor are evident. When the -whole work in any art is executed by one -person, that person must possess sufficient -skill to perform the most difficult, and sufficient -strength to perform the most laborious, -of the processes; but by employing -a division of labor several persons may be -kept at work executing that part of the -whole for which he is best fitted.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</span></p> - -<p>The further advantages may be most -briefly stated in the familiar words of Adam -Smith: “The great increase in the quantity -of work, which, in consequence of the division -of labor, the same number of people -are capable of performing, is owing to three -different circumstances: first, to the increase -of dexterity in every particular workingman; -secondly, to the saving of time, which -is commonly lost in passing from one species -of work to another, and, lastly, to the -invention of a great number of machines -which facilitate and abridge labor and enable -one man to do the work of many.”</p> - -<p>It should be noted that the factory was, -in the beginning, not the creation of capital, -but of labor. The early master manufacturers -were risen workingmen. Sir Richard -Arkwright, the creator of the factory, -the man who dominated industrial activities -in the first great period of expansion, -was a penny barber; but he died a Knight -Bachelor with an income greater than that<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</span> -of many a prince. The process of social -elevation by means of trade began back in -the fifteenth century with the first extension -of manufactures. By the beginning of -the eighteenth century it was possible to -name five hundred great estates within a -hundred miles of London, which, at no -remote time, had been possessions of the -ancient English gentry, but had later been -bought up by tradesmen and manufacturers. -The ancestors of these new landed proprietors -had been, less than three hundred years -before, not soldiers, but serfs.</p> - -<p>Moreover, generations before the establishment -of the factory, important towns -had been raised by manufactures—towns -of which Manchester and Birmingham -were examples, in which there were few or -no families of the gentry, yet which were -full of families richer by far than many a -noble house. And side by side with this process -of tradesmen rising to the gentry had -gone the other process of declining gentry<span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</span> -placing their sons in trade. So, as Defoe -pithily said, “Tradesmen became gentlemen -by gentlemen becoming tradesmen.”</p> - -<p>The successful artisan under the domestic -system became in time master clothier, -and when the factory became the means of -further increase to their fortunes the capital -which this class had already amassed -was utilized in building mills and machinery. -To this class belonged the grandfather -of Sir Robert Peel, a resident of -Blackburn, who supported himself from the -profits of a farm in the neighborhood and -devoted his spare time to mechanical experiments. -From this he came to operate -a print-works, and later commenced the -manufacture of cloth.</p> - -<p>His son, the first Sir Robert,—the father -of the Prime Minister,—was apprenticed -to the trade and came to manhood at the -time when the impulse given to manufactures -in England, through the introduction -of machinery, led to a more rapid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</span> -accumulation of wealth than had been -known in any previous period of history. -It is said that in his youth Robert Peel entertained -a presentiment that he would become -the founder of a family. By means of -the factory, he amassed a fortune, was raised -to the honor of knighthood, and realized -his presentiment—for in the next generation -no name is more famous in the annals -of government than that of Sir Robert Peel, -the grandson of a domestic manufacturer.</p> - -<p>As the number of factories increased it -became possible for operatives to rise, first -to positions of trust within the factory, and -later to the rank of master manufacturer—so -that many a bobbin boy became a -cotton lord.</p> - -<p>Within the factory the effect was to -intensify that spirit of discontent which -presently arose among the workers—for -risen workingmen are apt to prove the -hardest task masters. A graphic picture of -this aspect of factory life as it existed in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</span> -Manchester in the first half of the last century, -when discontent had become articulate -and the great Chartist movement -reached its height is to be found in Dickens’s -<cite>Hard Times</cite>. In that story Josiah -Bounderby of Coketown is typical of this -class of risen workingmen—the early employers -of labor under the factory system; -Josiah Bounderby, who learnt his letters -from the outside of shops and was first -able to tell time from studying the steeple -clock at St. Giles’s Church, London; Josiah -Bounderby, vagabond, errand boy, laborer, -porter, clerk, chief manager, small partner, -merchant, banker, manufacturer. There -was very little in the training of Josiah -Bounderby, or any of his class to make them -humane employers of labor—and among -the several causes which made the early relation -of employer and employee under the -factory system one of bitter strife, this cause, -so strictly social in its origin, is one of the -most important.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</span></p> - -<p>The establishment of the factory altered -completely the relation between employer -and employee. Indeed in the modern sense -these relations were then first established. -Labor became a commodity which the -master manufacturer, who was also the -capitalist, bought and which the workingman -sold. When in the year 1785 Arkwright’s -patents were set aside and the use -of his perfected spinning machinery became -free to all manufacturers, a great extension -of the cotton industry followed. -Factories were built throughout Lancashire -and about these factories important cities -sprang up in which the modern problem -of the relation of employer and employee -had its beginning.</p> - -<p>The factory produced cloth more cheaply -and in far greater quantity than was possible -under the domestic system. Hand -workers sought employment in the factories. -Vast numbers of purely agricultural -laborers left the rural districts for the manufacturing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</span> -towns. And, augmenting this -great supply of labor, came thousands of -children—for an eight-year-old child was -capable of operating a spinning-frame, in -which, for this very reason, the spindles -were set near to the floor. With an unlimited -supply of labor, the cotton masters had -only the cost of production to consider, and -so it came about that they thought only of -their profits and forgot the human hands -which operated the machinery. England -had fallen under the sway of a book—Adam -Smith’s <cite>Wealth of Nations</cite>, which, as Southey -said, “considers man as a manufacturing -animal, estimating his importance not by -the goodness and knowledge he possesses, -not by his virtues and charities, not by the -happiness of which he may be the source -and centre, not by the duties to which he -is called, not by the immortal destinies for -which he is created, but by the gain that -may be extracted from him or of which -he may be made the instrument.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</span></p> - -<p>The crowding of this vast laboring population -into great industrial centres, however, -gave rise to a class-consciousness which -demanded that attention should be paid to -the human element which distinguished -labor from all other commodities, demanded -that the cotton masters should -no longer regard the workingman as a -slave, or as merely a part of the machine, -but as a free man, and which demanded -further that this free man should be -recognized as a citizen and given the right -of suffrage.</p> - -<p>It would be interesting for us to follow -the history of the factory where we now -leave it, firmly established as the cornerstone -of Great Britain’s wealth, down to -the present time, and trace its development -not only in England and America but -throughout the civilized world. It is a surprising -story of industrial progress, an important -chapter in the social progress of -mankind. But enough has already been said<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</span> -to prepare us for the consideration of the -way in which the establishment of the factory -affected England’s laboring poor. The -actual development of the cotton industry -surpasses any dream that even the barber -of Preston could have imagined when he -exclaimed that he, unaided, would pay the -national debt.</p> - -<p>Less than a century and a half ago, -Richard Arkwright built his first little mill -at Nottingham which gave employment to -a dozen operatives. To-day there are one -hundred great cotton factories in the city -of Fall River alone, operating three and one -half million spindles, nearly one hundred -thousand looms, and giving employment to -twenty-seven thousand operatives. There -are more than twenty-five million spindles -in daily operation in the United States, and -even a greater number on the continent of -Europe, while Great Britain contains over -fifty million; and when to these we add -the spindles of India, Japan, and China, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</span> -have a total of one hundred and twenty million -spindles giving employment to an army -of workers as great as the entire population -of England when Arkwright took out -his patents for spinning by rollers. Nor is -this all. The factory system first applied to -the cotton industry has been applied to all -manufactures as well as to agriculture and -has become the central fact in modern industrial -life.</p> - -<p>We are now to take up the question -of how the establishment of the factory -affected England’s laboring poor, and to -study a little more in detail the social -effects of the Industrial Revolution. In -preparing the way for this discussion we -should remember that the factory was not -the sole cause of the Industrial Revolution, -although it was a very important -one. Other elements besides the introduction -of machinery had gradually made -possible production on a large scale. Chief -among these was the decline of state<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</span> -regulation of industry, the development -of rationalism quickening the scientific -spirit, the growth of the empire and -prestige of England which opened great -export markets for the goods of British -manufacture, the extension of banking facilities, -and the construction of roads and -canals. All these were elements in producing -the Industrial Revolution. But what -gave the movement force to revolutionize -the social life of the common people was -the factory, which gathered great masses -of the population into industrial centres in -which became possible the development -of class consciousness.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="V">V<br> -THE FACTORY TOWNS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">The dictionary contains the history -of the race, if you search deep into -its mysteries; every word tells its own story -and bears its present meaning because men, -at different times, thought precisely as they -did and not otherwise.</p> - -<p>Servius Tullius made six divisions of the -citizens of Rome for the purposes of taxation -and these divisions were called classes. -A seventh included the mass of the population, -those who were not possessed of -any taxable property—that is to say the -laboring poor. It is from this circumstance -that our word “class” derives its peculiar -meaning. Now it is significant that before -the great extension of manufactures occasioned -by the factory, we find no reference<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</span> -in our language to the working classes. -The laboring poor belonged to no class; -but when great cities grew up about the -factories, populated by toilers whose interests -in life were identical, the masses suddenly -became conscious of their common -life, their common needs, their common -hopes. Blindly at first, and then more -surely, they struggled for recognition as a -class, and at last the struggle found expression -in the language of their time. -The arousing of this class consciousness -amongst the workers I take to be the chief -contribution of the factory to the social -progress of mankind; and for this reason -the rise of the manufacturing towns becomes -a subject of great importance.</p> - -<p>In the town hall at Manchester there is -a fresco by Ford Maddox Brown which -bears the title of “The Establishment of -Flemish Weavers in Manchester,” and -shows Queen Philippa visiting the colony -which she founded in 1363. Mr. George<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</span> -Saintsbury, in his history of Manchester, -questions the historical accuracy of the event -portrayed; “but,” he adds, “Queen Philippa -did many things which we should all be sorry -to give up as art and literature and which, -yet, are somewhat dubious history.”</p> - -<p>No one knows when Manchester first -became a manufacturing town, and the introduction -of Flemish artificers in the reign -of Edward III is rather a probable than a -certain starting-point. Nothing is distinctly -known of the progress of woolen manufacture, -until the reign of Henry VIII, -at which time it had evidently grown into -considerable importance. In the statute -of the thirty-third year of his reign it appears -that the inhabitants of Manchester -carried on a considerable manufacture both -of linens and woolens by which they were -acquiring great wealth; but no mention has -yet been found of cotton manufacture in -that city earlier than the year 1641. By -this time, however, it had become well -established.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</span></p> - -<p>The labor was entirely handicraft; and -it was not until the establishment of the -factory by Arkwright that Manchester and -the other manufacturing towns of England -came into prominence in the political life -of the nation; indeed it was not until the -nineteenth century was well advanced that -the inhabitants of these cities were represented -in Parliament.</p> - -<p>It has been held that the factory is an -episode, not an element, in modern sociological -development, and in a strict sense -this is true. But because the factory led to -the growth of great manufacturing towns -and caused the migration thither of a vast -population from the agricultural districts, -and because it was among this population -that the social discontent, which for a -long period had existed in the lower classes, -first became articulate, the factory directly -contributed to the development of modern -democracy.</p> - -<p>The factory transformed not only craftsmen<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</span> -into operatives, but agricultural laborers -as well, the latter becoming for -the first time free to dispose of their own -labor; for while serfdom had been declared -illegal long before the establishment of the -factory, yet the peasant remained dependent, -in a large measure, upon the good -will of his employer and he was bound by -custom if not by law to the soil he tilled. -The migration of this vast laboring population -from the fields to the towns led to -far-reaching social results.</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Meanwhile, at social Industry’s command</div> - <div class="verse indent0">How quick and fast an increase! From the germ</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of some poor hamlet, rapidly produced,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Here a large town, continuous and compact,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hiding the face of earth for leagues—and there,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Where not a habitation stood before,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Abodes of men irregularly massed</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Like trees in forests—spread through spacious tracts,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">O’er which the smoke of unremitting fires</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hangs permanent, and plentiful as wreaths</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Of vapor glittering in the morning sun.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</span></p> -<p>Thus Wordsworth in <cite>The Excursion</cite> describes -the rise of the manufacturing -towns.</p> - -<p>Our first concern is with the social conditions -existing in these great manufacturing -cities. The factory system was first -applied to the spinning of yarn; but weaving -continued, for a time, as a handicraft. -This period was one of great prosperity to -the hand-loom weavers. Before the invention -of spinning-machinery, several spinners -were required to furnish one loom with -yarn; and one half of the weaver’s time -was spent in waiting for work. This time -was employed in farming. But with the -establishment of the spinning-mills the -situation was reversed, and the weaver, -plentifully supplied with yarn, ceased to -cultivate the soil and devoted his whole -time to the loom, a far more profitable -occupation.</p> - -<p>Villages of hand-loom weavers sprang -up throughout the country adjacent to the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</span> -manufacturing towns, and hither the master -spinners sent their yarn and received -back the finished cloth; while sometimes -the weaving was done in “dandy” shops -containing eight or ten and often as many -as twenty looms. These little factories -were usually owned by a single weaver who -hired others to assist him in his work; but -whatever the method, the profits from the -business were always great.</p> - -<p>“One of the happiest sights in Lancashire -life at this time,” writes a contemporary -historian, “was the home of a -family of weavers.... There could be -heard the merry song to the tune of the -clacking shuttles and the bumping of the -lathes; the cottage surrounded with a -garden filled with flowers and situated in -the midst of green fields where the larks -sang and the throstles whistled their -morning adoration to the rising sun. The -weaving thus carried on at home, where -several persons of the same family and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</span> -apprentices were employed, made them -prosperous small manufacturers and a proud -lot of people.” This was about 1800.</p> - -<p>“The trade of muslin weaver,” says a -Bolton manufacturer of the same period, -“was that of a gentleman. The weavers -brought home their work in top boots and -ruffled shirts; they had a cane and took a -coach in some instances, and appeared as -well as military officers of the first degree. -They used to walk about the streets with -a five-pound Bank of England note spread -out under their hat-bands; they would -smoke none but long churchwarden pipes, -and objected to the intrusion of any other -craftsman into the particular rooms of the -public-houses which they frequented.” -This abnormal prosperity, however, preceded -their downfall. Two events were -preparing it,—the invention of the power -loom and the application of steam power -to all the processes of manufacture.</p> - -<p>Before considering the condition of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</span> -laboring population after the establishment -of factories for weaving as well as for spinning, -we should glance backward into the -previous history of the laboring poor. -During the prevalence of the feudal system -the population of England was purely agricultural. -The chief landed proprietors -possessed a certain number of slaves who were -employed generally in domestic service, but -who also manufactured the wearing apparel -and household furniture. “Priests are set -apart for prayer,” says an ancient chronicle, -“but it is fit that noble chevaliers -should enjoy all ease, and taste all pleasures, -while the laborer toils, in order that -they may be nourished in abundance—they, -and their horse, and their dogs.” -This class of laborers, however, was never -very large.</p> - -<p>The great body of the peasantry was -composed, first, of persons who rented -small farms, and who paid their rent either -in kind or in agricultural labor; and secondly,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</span> -of cottagers, each of whom had a -small parcel of land attached to his dwelling, -and the privilege of turning out a -cow, or pigs, or a few sheep into the woods, -commons and wastes of the manor. During -this whole period the entire population -derived its subsistence immediately -from the land. The mechanics of each -village, not having time to cultivate a -sufficient quantity of land to yield them a -sustenance, received a fixed annual allowance -of produce from each tenant. The -peasantry worked hard and fared scantily -enough, but still there was never an absolute -want of food; the whole body was -poor, but it contained no paupers.</p> - -<p>During the fourteenth century the demand -for wool not only to supply the -markets of the Netherlands, but also the -newly established manufacture of England, -rapidly increased and the owners of the -land found sheep-feeding more profitable -than husbandry; and the sudden extension<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</span> -of manufacture in the fifteenth century -greatly increased the demand. This -circumstance led to an important change -in the distribution of the population and -the peasants previously employed in tillage -were turned adrift upon the world. -The allotments of arable land which had -formerly afforded them the means of subsistence -were converted into sheep walks -and this policy greatly accelerated a social -revolution which had already commenced. -It eventually led to a complete severance -between the English peasantry and the -English soil; and with the exception of -those employed in domestic manufacture, -the little farmers and cottiers of the country -were converted into day laborers depending -entirely upon wages for their subsistence.</p> - -<p>Thus when we come to consider the pitiable -condition of the working classes, following -the establishment of the factory, we -must remember this underlying cause of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</span> -the poverty and suffering, holding in mind -the fact that from the beginning the increase -of English poor rates kept pace visibly -with the progress of the enclosure of -the common land. Complaints against -vagrancy and idleness, and the difficulty of -providing for the poor increased proportionately -with the progress of the system of -consolidating farms, and abstracting from -the English cottager his crofts and rights -to the common lands. Upon the factory -has fallen the blame for social conditions -which had their source in causes long -antedating its establishment—but the -factory has sufficient misery for which to -answer.</p> - -<p>Arkwright’s inventions, as we have seen, -took manufactures out of the cottages -and farm houses of England and assembled -them in factories. Thousands of hands -were suddenly required especially in Lancashire, -which until then was comparatively -thinly populated. A great migration<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</span> -of population from the rural districts -to the manufacturing towns was set in -motion, thousands of families leaving the -quiet life of the country for the intenser -life of the city, but still the new demand -for labor was unsatisfied. The custom -sprang up of procuring apprentices from -the parish workhouses of London, Birmingham, -and elsewhere; and many thousand -children between the ages of seven -and fourteen years were thus sent to swell -the numbers of the laboring population. -Beside the factories stood apprentice houses -in which the children were lodged and -fed; and it was also the custom for the -master manufacturer to furnish the apprentice -with clothes.</p> - -<p>The work required of the children was -exacting. The pay of the overseers was -fixed in proportion to the work produced, -a circumstance which bore hard on the -apprentices. The greatest cruelties were -practiced to spur the children to excessive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</span> -labor; they were flogged, fettered, and -in many cases they were starved and some -were driven to commit suicide. We have -it on the authority of Mr. John Fielding, -himself, a master manufacturer and member -of Parliament for Oldham, that the -happiest moments in the lives of many of -these children were those passed in the -workhouse.</p> - -<p>The profits of manufacturing were enormous -and so was the greed of the newborn -manufacturing aristocracy. Night -work was begun, the day shift going to -sleep in the same beds that the night shift -had just quitted, so that it was a common -saying in Lancashire that the beds never got -cold. Although the master manufacturers -were unmoved by the dictates of humanity, -they were not proof against the malignant -fevers which broke out in the congested -districts and spread their ravages throughout -the manufacturing towns.</p> - -<p>Public opinion was soon aroused which<span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</span> -led to the institution in Manchester of a -board of health which in the year 1796 -made an interesting report. It appeared -that the children and others working in the -cotton factories were peculiarly disposed to -the contagion of fever; and that large factories -were generally injurious to those -employed in them even when no particular -disease prevailed, not only on account of -the close confinement and the debilitating -effect of the hot and impure air, but on -account of the untimely labor of the night -and the protracted hours of the working -day.</p> - -<p>These conditions with respect to the -children not only tended to diminish the -sum of life by destroying the health and -thus affecting the vital stamina of the rising -generation; but it also encouraged idleness -and profligacy in the parents, who, in many -instances, lived upon the labor of their -children. It further appeared that the children -employed in factories were debarred<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</span> -from all opportunities of education as well -as from moral and religious instruction. The -investigation produced this report and nothing -more—“when the dangers of infection -were removed the precautions of mercy -were forgotten.”</p> - -<p>Later, in the Parliamentary debate of -1815, Mr. Horner, one of the early factory -reformers, graphically described the practices -of the apprentice system. He told -how, with a bankrupt’s effects, a gang of -workhouse children were put up for sale -and publicly advertised as a part of the property; -how a number of boys apprenticed -by a parish in London to one manufacturer, -had been transferred to another and -in the process were left in a starving condition; -how an agreement had been made -between a London parish and a Lancashire -manufacturer by which it was stipulated -that with every twenty sound children one -idiot should be taken.</p> - -<p>Among the master manufacturers who<span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</span> -had been incredulous concerning these conditions -until the alarm of contagion arose, -was the first Sir Robert Peel. He made a -personal investigation and saw the abominations -of the system; he declared his -convictions and introduced into Parliament -the first legislative measure for the protection -of children. This was in the year -1802, and after many reverses he ultimately -obtained the act known as the 42d Geo. -III, “for the preservation of the Health -and Morals of Apprentices and others, employed -in Cotton and other mills.”</p> - -<p>This act is chiefly interesting because it -established the principle of factory legislation, -a principle which later in the century -was greatly to promote the welfare of the -masses. His first bill, however, referred only -to apprentices and after its enactment children -instead of being imported from the -workhouses as formerly were nevertheless -hired from their parents. Their services -were dignified by the name of free labor,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</span> -but because they were not accorded the -protection given to apprentices their condition -was little better than that of actual -slavery.</p> - -<p>The next step in the progress of factory -legislation was to extend the protection -to young persons engaged in manual -employment whether apprentices or not. -Time does not permit us to follow the -interesting history of factory legislation, -under the devoted leadership of Mr. Horner, -Sir John Hobhouse (afterwards Lord -Broughton), Mr. Saddler, and Lord Astley -(afterwards the Earl of Shaftesbury). But -the evidences of the social condition of the -toilers brought out by the Parliamentary -debates of 1816, 1818, 1819, and 1832, -are all of the same nature and reveal a -state of human misery without a parallel in -history.</p> - -<p>We turn now from child labor to the -sanitary conditions of the manufacturing -towns. The report printed by Doctor Kay<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</span> -in 1832, is an astounding document; it -shows that out of six hundred and eighty-seven -streets inspected, more than one half -contained heaps of refuse or stagnant pools; -and of nearly seven thousand houses inspected, -more than one third were out of repair, -damp, or ill-ventilated, and an equally -large proportion lacked all sanitary conveniences, -even of the most primitive kind.</p> - -<p>The population lived on the simplest -diet. Breakfast consisted of tea or coffee -with a little bread, while sometimes the -men had oatmeal porridge; dinner consisted -generally of boiled potatoes heaped -into one large dish over which melted lard -was poured and sometimes a few pieces of -fried fat bacon were added. Those who obtained -higher wages or families whose aggregate -income was large added a greater -portion of animal food to this meal at least -three times a week, but the quantity of -meat consumed by the laboring population -was not large.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</span></p> - -<p>The typical family sat around the table, -plunging their spoons into the common -dish and with animal eagerness satisfied the -cravings of their appetite. The evening -meal consisted of tea, often mingled with -spirits and accompanied by a little bread. -The population thus scantily nourished was -crowded in one dense mass in cottages, -separated by narrow, unpaved streets, in an -atmosphere loaded with smoke. Engaged -in an employment which unremittingly -exhausted their physical energies, these -men and women lacked every moral and -intellectual stimulus; living in squalid -wretchedness and on meagre food it was -small wonder that their superfluous gains -were spent in debauchery. With domestic -economy neglected, domestic comfort unknown, -home had no other relation to the -factory operative than that of a shelter. At -this period the number of operatives above -the age of forty was incredibly small.</p> - -<p>In a pamphlet printed during a great<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</span> -turnout in 1831, we find certain very interesting -statistics concerning 1665 persons -whose ages ranged between fifteen and -sixty. Of these 1584 were under forty-five -years of age, only fifty-one between forty-five -and fifty were counted as fit for work, -while only three had lived to be sixty years -old. Such figures make it evident that -large numbers of workers, prematurely unfitted -for labor, came to live upon the toil -of their own children. Nor was this all, -for “puny and sickly parents gave birth -to puny and sickly children, and thus the -mischief continued its progress, one generation -transmitting its accumulated evils to -the next.”</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VI">VI<br> -CHARTISM</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">Such was the condition of the manufacturing -population of England in the -early days of the factory system. It is evident -that these conditions must inevitably -give rise to a deep social discontent which -sooner or later must become articulate, and -we find from the very beginning of the -factory system the records of innumerable -riots.</p> - -<p>The history of these disturbances begins -with the opposition to the introduction -of new machinery. Rebellious craftsmen -bound themselves by fearful oaths into -secret organizations, the members of which -were known as Luddites, from the name of -their legendary leader—Ben Ludd. His<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</span> -name was the password to their secret meetings, -at which plans were made for the -destruction of property, plans afterwards -carried out with open violence. Then followed -innumerable riots arising from that -growing social discontent which led in the -beginning to factory legislation, and later -to Parliamentary reform. It must not be -thought that only the factory folk were -discontented. The unrest was general -throughout the lower classes; it was felt, -moreover, in the ranks of the rapidly growing -middle class, and the justice of the -demand for better conditions was admitted -now and then by individuals in the governing -class—men of the broader vision. I -have in my possession an interesting pamphlet -containing the proceedings in the trial -of indictment against Thomas Walker, a -merchant of Manchester, and others, for a -conspiracy to overthrow the constitution -and government and to assist the French, -the King’s enemies, should they invade<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</span> -the Kingdom. The case was tried at the Assizes -at Lancaster, in 1794, and the account -throws light upon the true state of -the public mind in Manchester at that -time.</p> - -<p>Thomas Walker, so it appeared to his -accusers, was a pernicious, seditious, and ill-disposed -person, greatly disaffected to the -King, and who did in the hearing of divers -liege subjects utter the words: “What are -kings! Damn the King!” Moreover, Mr. -Thomas Walker was a member of the -Manchester Reformation Society, a body -composed chiefly of working people. They -met at a public house—the Old Boar’s -Head, where the works of Tom Paine were -read aloud over innumerable pots of ale; -and a correspondence was carried on with -the Society of the Friends of the People -in London and with other more questionable -organizations. The publican, warned -by the magistrates that he must no longer -give entertainment to this society, turned<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</span> -the reformers into the streets, whereupon -they sought shelter in the warehouse of Mr. -Walker. Here it was alleged they were -trained in the use of firearms; and here one -night they were attacked by members of -the Church and King Club, and a riot ensued. -The Reformation Society, however, -maintained that the sole object of their -meetings was to obtain, by constitutional -means, an adequate representation of the -people in Parliament.</p> - -<p>Discontent continues rife in Manchester, -increasing with each year, and at last we -come to an event which typifies to all time -this upward struggle of toiling humanity—the -massacre on St. Peter’s Field which -occurred on the 16th of August, 1819. -Throughout the whole preceding summer, -on account of the distressed condition of -trade, discontent had been rife in the manufacturing -towns; agitation was at white -heat; and the voice of the demagogue was -heard with that of the conscientious reformer.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</span> -It was proposed to hold at Manchester -on the 9th of August an immense meeting to -consider the election by the unrepresented -inhabitants of Manchester of a Parliamentary -delegate; but the purpose of this meeting -was declared illegal and it was prohibited -by the authorities. Then another -meeting was advertised to take place on -the 16th of August, the stated object being -to consider the most legal and effectual -means of obtaining Parliamentary reform. -It was said that this meeting was attended -by over one hundred thousand persons.</p> - -<p>Several of the divisions that composed -the assembly came upon the field in regular -military formations, accompanied by -bands of music and preceded by banners -bearing such mottoes as “Equal Representation -or Death.” Many of the marchers -were armed with bludgeons. Most of the -columns, however, marched in silence; and -except for the loud shouts of defiance on -the appearance of the yeomen cavalry, sent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</span> -to disperse the meeting, there was no disturbance -on the part of the populace.</p> - -<p>The assembly was in charge of Henry -Hunt, the famous radical, who, mounting -the platform which had been erected upon -a cart had just commenced his opening -speech when the civil authorities attempted -to arrest him. This the mob resisted, -whereupon the yeoman cavalry shouting, -“Have down with their banners!” charged -upon the field, put the crowds to flight, and -in the disorder which followed, a number -were killed and many were wounded.</p> - -<p>Says Carlyle: “Who shall compute the -waste and loss, the obstruction of every sort, -that was produced in the Manchester region -by Peterloo alone. Some thirteen unarmed -men and women cut down—the number -of the slain and maimed is very countable; -but the treasury of rage, burning hidden -or visible in all hearts ever since, is of unknown -extent. ‘How ye came among us, in -your cruel armed blindness, ye unspeakable<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</span> -County Yeomanry, sabres flourishing, hoofs -prancing, and slashed us down at your brute -pleasure; deaf, blind to all our claims, and -woes and wrongs; of quick sight and sense -to your own claims only. There lie poor -sallow, workworn weavers, and complain -no more now; women themselves are -slashed and sabred, howling terror fills the -air; and ye ride prosperous, very victorious,—ye -unspeakable: Give us sabres too -and then come on a little!’”</p> - -<p>The treasury of rage burning hidden -became visible to all. Chartism—the demand -of the people for equal political -rights—sprang into being; the outward -and visible sign of inward suppressed discontent -filled the manufacturing towns -with unrestrained murmurings, and government -felt the castle of privilege trembling -at its foundation. Some days later Sidmouth, -writing from Whitehall, congratulated -the yeomanry in the name of the -Prince Regent for their effective services in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</span> -preserving public tranquillity. Public tranquillity -indeed! The cries of those stricken -weavers shall yet shake the empire of -Britain.</p> - -<p>Peterloo was typical of the discontent -which had spread throughout the laboring -population of England. Parliament -was assembled in special session to consider -the state of the country and to enact measures -for the suppression of disorder. Lord -Grenfell in a brilliant speech discussed sedition, -declaring that the whole nation -was inundated with inflammatory publications -intended to stimulate the multitude -to acts of savage violence against all who -were eminent for birth or rank, for talent -or virtue. Mr. Canning placed the blame -entirely upon discontented radicals, underrating -the wide-spread demand for parliamentary -reform, and advocated the acts -which were passed prohibiting meetings -like the one held in Manchester, and in -other ways restricting the liberties of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</span> -masses in discussing social conditions. All -of these acts tended to increase the discontent -and hasten forward that reform -which alone could save England from -revolution.</p> - -<p>All famous Englishmen, however, did -not view Peterloo with the eyes of Lord -Grenfell or Mr. Canning. Writing to -Thomas Love Peacock, Shelley said: -“Many thanks for your attention in sending -the papers which contained the terrible -and important news of Manchester. -These are, as it were, the distant thunders -of the terrible storm which is approaching. -The tyrants here, as in the French Revolution, -have first shed blood. May their -execrable lessons not be learnt with equal -docility.” Inspired by the Manchester -massacre, Shelley wrote “The Masque of -Anarchy,” the spirit of which is summed -up in these stanzas:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Men of England, heirs of Glory,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Heroes of unwritten story,</div><span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</span> - <div class="verse indent0">Nurselings of one mighty Mother,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Hopes of her, and one another;</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Rise like Lions after slumber</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In unvanquishable number,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shake your chains to earth like dew</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Which in sleep has fallen on you—</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Ye are many—they are few.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>And in the same year he wrote:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Men of England, wherefore plough</div> - <div class="verse indent0">For the Lords who lay ye low?</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Wherefore weave with toil and care</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The rich robes your tyrants wear?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">From the cradle to the grave,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Those ungrateful drones who would</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Drain your sweat—nay, drink your blood?</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“The seed ye sow, another reaps;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The wealth ye find, another keeps;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The robes ye weave, another wears;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">The arms ye forge, another bears.</div> - </div> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Sow seed,—but let no tyrant reap;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Find wealth,—let no impostor heap;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Weave robes,—let not the idle wear;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Forge arms,—in your defense to bear.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</span></p> -<p>Fortunately the appeal to arms was unnecessary. -The working classes of England -were destined to exemplify Shelley’s lesson,—but -by peaceful means,—were destined -to teach the world the great truth that the -many, if accordant and resolute, can always -control the few. And this peaceful conquest -is recorded in the history of Chartism.</p> - -<p>I have known many labor agitators living -in the City of the Dinner Pail, and -almost without exception these men were -the sons of English Chartists. From them -I had learned to honor the early British -labor agitator, and to give to the name of -pothouse politician something more than a -contemptuous meaning. At the Old Boar’s -Head, in Manchester, and at many another -less famous public house in the manufacturing -cities, groups of workingmen gathered, -evening after evening to discuss their -wrongs; and over many a pot of ale, and -through many a cloud of tobacco smoke,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</span> -there emerged at last certain definite demands -for reform.</p> - -<p>Workingmen and radicals joined hands; -liberal leaders combined with working-class -leaders, and presently there was issued the -famous Charter with its six points,—manhood -suffrage, annual parliaments, the ballot, -abolition of property qualifications, payment -of members, and equality of electoral -districts. A very sober programme this, but -popular leaders like Fergus O’Connor and -Ernest Jones with incendiary oratory gave -it a revolutionary aspect.</p> - -<p>So the discontent grew year by year, and -year by year it gathered force. Events in -France and elsewhere on the continent -excited the imagination of the governing -classes, and every meeting place of workingmen -appeared to be bristling with firearms, -but still the movement grew, and at -last the workingmen were ready with their -petition to Parliament. When, on the morning -of the 10th of April, 1848, bands of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</span> -Chartists began to gather on Kennington -Common, carrying red banners and tricolors, -all London was astir with excitement. -Government had taken precaution for its -defense; the guns of the Tower were manned -and loaded; the employees of the post-office -were supplied with two thousand rifles; the -bank was surrounded with artillery; and behind -sand-bags piled upon its roof stood a -regiment of infantry. The bridges and approaches -to Westminster were defended by -an army of ten thousand horse, foot, and -artillery, while the six thousand police of -London lined the streets, supported by an -army of special constables. And in command -of this elaborate defense of the city -against four thousand unarmed workingmen -assembled on Kennington Common -to bear a petition to Parliament, was none -other than the Iron Duke himself—Wellington. -Surely the voice of the pothouse -politicians had been heard throughout England; -it had penetrated the halls of government—what<span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</span> -need had the reformers for -powder and shot? And must we not believe -that when five years later the great -reform was enacted, credit for that event -was in some measure due to the resolute -and accordant factory folk? Yes, the wheels -and spindles of which Arkwright dreamed -brought something more than material -wealth to England; his vision made the nation -rich and powerful and his vision likewise -gave to the masses equal political -rights.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="VII">VII<br> -THE FACTORY AND SOCIAL<br> -PROGRESS</h2> -</div> - -<p class="drop-cap">We have now traced the history of the -factory, from its beginning with -the inventions of Arkwright down to its -permanent establishment in the first half -of the last century, and we have noted its -influence upon the social life of England. -We have seen how, as early as the fifteenth -century, the introduction of manufactures -assisted in breaking down the feudal system, -and how, by making possible the accumulation -of wealth by men of humble -birth, it contributed to the rise of the -middle class. We have further seen that at -the close of the eighteenth century the introduction -of machinery intensified these<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</span> -tendencies and exerted a powerful influence -on the development of our modern -democracy.</p> - -<p>We have, however, confined our attention -to a single industry as it developed in -a particular nation,—we have taken the -cotton factory as typical of all factories -and its growth in England as typical of -its growth throughout the Western world. -But the factory has developed differently -in each industry and its social influence -has never been quite alike in any two nations. -When, for instance, Samuel Slater -introduced cotton manufacturing into -America, he set up in Rhode Island an -exact counterpart of the English factory. -When, later, other factories were built in -New England there took place the same -transition of a vast laboring population -from the rural districts to the manufacturing -towns;—but this population was very -unlike the manufacturing population of -England. The American factories were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</span> -operated by the sons and daughters of -Yankee farmers, reared in the atmosphere -of democracy and springing from a race -unaffected by the traditions of feudalism; -for them political equality had been already -won, yet even in America the factory became -an instrument for social progress. In -the rapidly growing manufacturing towns -these country folk found a new life of opportunity -for social advancement; they did -not remain operatives long, but advanced -to higher callings; and to take the places -which they left, thousands of workers came -from Lancashire here to enjoy that civic -freedom for which their brothers in the -Old World were still contending. To-day -in our Southern States we see a similar process -at work,—another race of men advancing -in the social scale by means of the -factory; from the mountains of the Carolinas -thousands of young men and women, -reared in a civilization almost unbelievably -primitive, are flocking to the manufacturing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</span> -towns, there to enjoy the advantages -of modern life. But however varied -have been the phases of the development -of the factory in different parts of the world -there has always been this common phenomenon—the -concentration of the laboring -population in manufacturing cities and -the development of social discontent leading -to social progress.</p> - -<p>The nineteenth century was the age of -Power Discovered; mechanical inventions, -the concentration of industry, the extension -of the factory system, new means of -transportation destroyed the last vestige of -the feudal world and left the democratic -ideal triumphant but unfulfilled: a new -century dawns,—the age of Power Humanized. -The industrial world in which -we live, with all its peculiar characteristics, -has been built upon the ruins of the feudal -order, and in due time will give place to -a newer and better civilization. Radicals -of to-day see visions of to-morrow; reformers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</span> -fired by the visions seek to make -them real; while conservatives, clinging -to the traditions of a dead past, strive to -stay the inevitable progress of mankind. -Truth never changes, but the knowledge -of truth grows deeper with each age; no -political institution, no social institution -is sacred unless it is founded upon some -eternal truth, and all human institutions -must change with the increasing knowledge -of mankind. Everywhere in the -Western world the condition of the laboring -population is vastly better to-day than -when, a century and a half ago, the factory -was established; vastly better than when, -sixty years ago, the governments of Europe -trembled before a working-class revolt,—when -British Chartism triumphed in reform; -when Karl Marx, exiled from Prussia, -called upon the workingmen of the -world to unite; when Mazzini, another -exile in London, preached to the toilers of -Italy the gospel of God and humanity,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</span> -of progress through education. But the -evolution is incomplete, and the discontent -of the laboring population still remains -a vital force in the upward progress of -mankind.</p> - -<p>To-day we in America are confronted -by the amazing spread of Socialism; Socialism -which the radicals preach, the reformers -seek to establish, and the conservatives -fear. We cannot evade its issues, -for Socialism is something more than a -political creed,—it is the modern expression -of that same spirit of human progress -which destroyed slavery in the ancient -world, serfdom in the middle ages and, -creating modern democracy, cannot rest -until it has guaranteed to all men not only -equal political rights but equal social rights. -Two men, smoke-room companions of -mine during a Pacific voyage, stand for -the contending ideals of the feudal and the -modern world. One was a noble earl, the -other a British tea merchant; both were<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</span> -men of wealth,—the one of large but unproductive -estates, the other of a great -business giving employment to thousands -of men. Of the two, the tea merchant, -though lacking in fine manners, was the -more important person; yet he would not -have exchanged those hours of familiar -gossip with the noble earl for more chests -of tea than would fill the hold of the ship. -And there was a reason for this feeling, -because the Groom of the Bedchamber -stood for that aristocracy of culture and -good manners which has an important -value in any society. Under the militant -structure of society this value belonged to -the few; in our present democracy it has -become increasingly the privilege of the -many. Public education, public libraries, -public art galleries, the perfected art of -printing have opened the highest culture -to children of the humblest birth. May we -not, then, look forward to the time when -“the best that has anywhere been in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</span> -world shall be the lot of every man born -into it”—that is to say, the lot of every -man who desires the best?</p> - -<p>Every thinking man must admit that -there is something wrong in our present -industrial régime. The progress of avowed -Socialism and the more rapid progress of -particular socialistic ideas indicate quite -clearly that we Americans are alive to the -unequal social conditions which now exist -and are anxious to find a remedy. But -whatever may be the utopian dreams of -the reformers, all immediate progress must -be made in the industrial world as we find -it to-day; the industrial state of the Socialist -is too remote in time,—our task -is with social conditions as they now exist. -The splendid machinery of production -created during the last century must not -be destroyed, but utilized for the benefit -of mankind. The question which we have -now to ask ourselves is this: What is -the ultimate purpose for which the business<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</span> -of the world is conducted, what the -real purpose of all this planting and reaping, -this mining and manufacturing, this -exchanging of commodities? Is it not, -primarily, to furnish each human creature -with food, shelter, and clothing,—the -means of supporting life? Men require -something more than the mere means of -subsistence; but before the individual -can cultivate his mind and soul his body -must be made comfortable, and this, after -all, is the whole end of our complex commercial -régime. The test of right and -wrong conduct in business refers to this -fundamental purpose,—that conduct only -is praiseworthy which advances the time -when every man capable of industry shall -be rewarded for his labor, not only with -a loaf of bread, but with hours of fruitful -leisure.</p> - -<p>Captains of Industry! that was a noble -title Carlyle gave to the prosaic business -man, when gazing beyond the squalid<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</span> -turmoil of his day with its dominant -industrialism, triumphant mercantilism, -doctrines of <i lang="fr" xml:lang="fr">laissez-faire</i>, overproduction, -surplus population, he with clear vision -foresaw the future freedom of the masses -won through their own strength and the -ability of their leaders. Until Richard -Arkwright was born, the leaders of men in -their progress towards human freedom had -been soldiers; henceforward they were to -be men of affairs. Great soldiers won their -victory by the loyalty they inspired in -their followers; no adventurer seeking -personal glory ever won a lasting victory, -but only those heroes, forgetful of themselves -who consecrated their service to the -cause of freedom. In such wise must -Captains of Industry win their victories; -the adventurer can but for a time prevail; -fame is secure only to those leaders who -see in wealth accumulated a treasure held -in trust from which they are to feed and -clothe the armies that they lead to peaceful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</span> -conquests. Social reformers of sentimental -temper have deemed the comparison -between the modern employer of labor -and the feudal lord as ill-chosen, but -history seems to justify it. Yet we have, -indeed, gone far since the Middle Ages. -When the feudal lord demanded loyalty -from his retainers the demand was alone -sufficient, but the Captain of Industry, in -order to obtain the loyalty of the toilers, -must not only demand but deserve it; he -too must be loyal to the great cause he -serves—the eternal cause of human freedom.</p> - - -<p class="center">THE END</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</span></p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center fs80">The Riverside Press<br> -CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS<br> -U · S · A<br> -</p> -</div> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"></div> -<div class="transnote"> - -<h2>Transcriber’s Notes</h2> - -<ul> -<li>pg 54 Added period after: three hundred years before, not soldiers, but serfs</li> -<li>pg 72 Changed who paid their rent either in kind or in agicrultural to: agricultural</li> -<li>Many hyphenated and non-hyphenated word combinations left as written.</li> -</ul> - -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FACTORY ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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