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diff --git a/old/69934-0.txt b/old/69934-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index c9ecac8..0000000 --- a/old/69934-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3452 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Early British Trackways, Moats, -Mounds, Camps, and Sites, by Alfred Watkins - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Early British Trackways, Moats, Mounds, Camps, and Sites - -Author: Alfred Watkins - -Release Date: February 2, 2023 [eBook #69934] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive/Canadian Libraries) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK EARLY BRITISH TRACKWAYS, -MOATS, MOUNDS, CAMPS, AND SITES *** - - - [Illustration: FRONTISPIECE. - - 1. Castle Tomen, Radnor Forest. - 2. A Glade on a Ley. - 3. Four Stones, New Radnor.] - - - - - Early British - Trackways, Moats, - Mounds, Camps, - and Sites. - - - A Lecture given to the Woolhope Naturalists’ Field Club, at Hereford, - September, 1921, by ALFRED WATKINS, Fellow and Progress Medallist - (for 1910), of the Royal Photographic Society; Past President (1919) - of the Woolhope Club. With illustrations by the Author, and much - added matter. - - - 1922: - HEREFORD: THE WATKINS METER CO. - LONDON: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, HAMILTON, KENT & CO., LTD. - - - - - TABLE OF CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS 4 - - FOREWORD 7 - - INTRODUCTION 9 - - OUTLINE OF CONCLUSIONS 10 - - PROOF 11 - - THE LEY 12 - - ANTIQUITY OF THE LEY 13 - - INDIVIDUALITY OF A LEY 13 - - MOUNDS 14 - - EARTH-CUTTINGS 15 - - WATER SIGHTING-POINTS 15 - - MARK-STONES 16 - - SIGHTING STONES 17 - - TREES 19 - - CAMPS 20 - - CHURCHES 21 - - CASTLES 22 - - TRADERS’ ROADS 22 - - HEREFORD TRACKWAYS 23 - - TRADITIONAL WELLS 24 - - PREVIOUS DATA 25 - - ROMAN ROADS 26 - - PLACE NAMES 26 - - DISCOVERY BY PLACE NAME 30 - - THE LEY-MEN 30 - - HINTS TO LEY-HUNTERS 31 - - A FEW LEYS 33 - - ENDWORD 34 - - INDEX 35 - - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 41 - - - - - TABLE OF ILLUSTRATIONS. - - - FRONTISPIECE. Top. Castle Tomen, Radnor Forest, 1,250 feet - above the sea, and is supposed to be the Cruger Castle of the - Itinerary of Giraldus. Background. A glade on a ley. Bottom. The - Four Stones, New Radnor, the easterly pair lined up for sighting - over. - - PLATE I. PRIMARY PEAK. Titterstone Clee Hill, and Park Hall, - Bitterley. - - PLATE II. MOUNDS. 1, Tre-fedw, Pandy. The Skirrid, a primary - peak, in distance. 2, Didley. With homestead alongside. - - PLATE III. MOUND and MOAT. 1, Houghton Mound. 2, Lemore Moat. - Note how slight is the dividing line between this type of mound - and a moat. - - PLATE IV. THREE-POINT PROOFS. 1 (a telephotograph), Hereford - Cathedral and Pen-y-Beacon. Here the camera stood on a known ley - in gateway near top of Hafod Hill, and the line runs through - pond at foot (marked by sheet of paper), tower of Cathedral, and - the 20 mile distant mountain point or bluff. Another ley is seen - crossing the meadow in a straight line just where “the lowing - herd winds slowly o’er the lea.” 2, Tre-fedw Mound (see Plate - II.), shown at top of sighting line down present road to ancient - Monnow ford (alongside present bridge) at Llanvihangel Mill. - - PLATE V. SIGHTING CUTTINGS (all telephotographs). 1, Notch with - earthwork at Trewyn Camp above Pandy (Black Mountains). 2, - Cutting through top of ridge at Marstow, a bridge now spans it, - and the sighting line down to a ford on the Garron is indicated. - The road beyond the cutting is on the ley. 3, Black Darren, - Longtown (Black Mountains). This is taken from the Tan House, - Longtown, and only 100 yards to right or left the notch begins - to lessen and then disappear. - - PLATE VI. CAUSEWAYS. 1, Through pond near Ten Houses (now Priory - Terrace), Holmer. Note the unmistakable direction, confirmed on - map. 2, Through the River Monnow, behind Tan House, Longtown. A - piece of fine engineering, the below-stream edge of large stones - embedded in grouting or concrete. This ley is over the notch in - Plate V. - - PLATE VII. CAUSEWAYS. 1, Over a ford of Olchon Brook, Longtown. - 2, Ingestone, Ross. Through the “fold” and straight to the - centre of the pond against the house. I cannot assign a period - to any of these. - - PLATE VIII. LEYS DISPLAYED. 1, Rhiw (mountain track) south of - Llanthony Abbey, Mon. This is sighted for Balmawr on the ridge, - and shows that where possible even mountain side tracks were - kept straight. Taken in evening light and shows (on left) the - triple tracks down which it is surmised the tile stones for - roofing the Abbey to have been slid from the quarry on the top. - 2, Stones at base of ancient Wye-side causeway at Bartonsham - (formerly Bassam) Farm, Hereford City. The stones continue in a - “wash-out” in bed of river to right, and the ley is sighted over - tumps at Hoggs Mount and Holmer Lane. Note on bank to right the - mark-stone for the ford (see Plate IX.). - - PLATE IX. MARK-STONES. 1, Red Lion, Madley. On a “red line” - ley from the Whitney pottery. Note subsequent boundary stone - alongside. 2, Credenhill. 3, Wye Street, Hereford, marking the - Palace Ford; there are a pair of these stones. Bartonsham Farm, - Hereford (see Plate VIII.). - - PLATE X. TRANSITION OF MARK-STONE TO CROSS. - - 1, Wergin’s Stone, Sutton. With flat face suited for sighting. - A cavity for payments (or offerings) on the flat base. Early - example of “shaft and base.” 2, Pedlars Cross above Llanigon. A - menhir chipped into rude semblance of a cross. 3, In churchyard, - Vowchurch, unworked base. A ley runs through it. Inset, Sighting - hole in shaft of Bitterley Cross. 4, In Capel-y-fin churchyard - (Black Mountains). - - PLATE XI. CHURCHYARD CROSS. Bitterley (see Inset Plate X.). - - PLATE XII. TREE. Eastwood Oak, Tarrington, on a ley. - - PLATE XIII. TREES. 1, A “One Tree Hill” near - Llanvihangel-nant-Melan. 2, Monnington Walks, an avenue of - Scotch Firs (Scots Pines) on a ley sighted on Scar Rock, - Brobury, seen in distance. See Map, Plate XIX. - - PLATE XIV. CAMPS. 1, Sutton Walls. One of the sighting mounds, - there being four, a pair at eastern end, a pair at this the - western end. 2, Herefordshire Beacon. Winds Point to the left. - - PLATE XV. CHURCH. Church Lane, Ledbury. The detached tower of - Ledbury Church is shown on the ley. - - PLATE XVI. CASTLE. Wigmore Castle. The keep is on a sighting - mound, the ley passing also through the church, as is almost - invariable where castle and church are near together. - - PLATE XVII. CASTLE. Brampton Bryan Castle (on a sighting mound) - with Coxall Knoll, another mound, in the distance on the right. - - PLATE XVIII. HOUSE IN MOAT. Gillow. - - PLATE XIX. MAP. TWO LEYS. A, Consecutive strips - containing the straight ley from Glascwm Hill to Birley Hill - _via_ four mounds; Turret Tump, The Camp, Batch Twt, - Almeley, Moat, Sarnesfield Coppice; and Weobley Church. - B, Little Mountain to Holy Well Malvern, through Moccas - “Castle” Tump, Preston-on-Wye Church, Byford Ford, Holmer - Church, Palmer’s Court, Moat, Shucknell, Walsopthorne. Portions - of two interesting leys are also shown. C, Scar Rock, - Brobury, through Monnington Walks to Monnington Church (see - Plate XIII.); and D, Little Mountain (Westbrook), - through Arthur’s Stone (dolmen), Cross End, Moccas Church, - Monnington Church, St. Ann’s Well, and Priory Church, Malvern. - - PLATE XX. MAP. Portions of eight leys passing through - Capel-y-tair-ywen (Chapel of the three yew trees), a chapel - site, originally a mound, described in Woolhope Transactions, - 1898, p. 38, on the high plateau below the great northern - escarpment of the Black Mountains. A, Hay Tump (near - church ford) to Pen-y-Beacon, on to Castle Tump, Rhos-goch. - B, Mouse Castle to Tumpa, passes through Maes-coch - (red field), Priory Wood, and the ancient “red” pottery, - Whitney. C, Merbach to Llanelieu Church. D, - Mynydd-brith Tump to Talgarth Church. E, Castle Tump, - Dorstone, to Moat at Felin-fach. F, Snodhill Castle - to Aberllynfi Gaer; beyond Snodhill it passes to or through - Holy Well, near Blakemere. G, Michaelchurch Escley to - Llanigon Mound. H, Black Hill (Olchon) to Painscastle - Mound. - - - - - FOREWORD. - - _To the Average Reader._ - - -I judge that you pick up this booklet with much the same ideas on the -subject that I had a few months ago. The antiquarians had not helped -you or me very much, but had left us with vague ideas and many notes of -interrogation. - -On early trackways they alternated between a misty appreciation -of hill-tracks and ridgeways, and an implied depreciation of all -track-makers before the Romans came. To learn the meaning of mounds -they did not go beyond the child’s investigation of a drum, cut it -open to see; and, if nothing was there, quite failed to profit by such -valuable negative evidence. In perhaps one moat in five they found a -dwelling, and argued finely on the defensive importance of a ring of -water; but as to the other four, with no dwelling, and in unexplained -positions, they closed their eyes. - -I do not know, dear reader, whether you will be as much astonished -in reading the new facts which I disclose, and the deductions I feel -obliged to make, as I have been in the disclosure. Frankly, if another -person told them to me, I should want to verify before acceptance. And -I try to aid you to verify. But do note this--that the important point -in this booklet is the previously undiscovered string of facts, which -make it necessary to revise former conclusions. My deductions may be -faulty. But the facts are physical ones, and anyone can test in their -own district whether moats, mounds and churches do not line up in -straight lines with a hill peak at one end, and with bits of old tracks -and antiquarian objects on the line. - -So please do not begin with the false--as being inapplicable--word -“theory.” I had no theory when, out of what appeared to be a tangle, -I got hold of the one right end of this string of facts, and found to -my amazement that it unwound in orderly fashion and complete logical -sequence. - -Make your own deductions when you have verified, and I have tried to -help you. - - [Illustration: - - Plate I. PRIMARY PEAK. - - Titterstone Clee Hill and Park Hall, Bitterley.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE II. MOUNDS. - - 1. Tre-Fedw, Pandy. Skirrid in Distance. - 2. Didley.] - - - - - EARLY BRITISH TRACKWAYS. - - MOATS, MOUNDS, CAMPS AND SITES. - - - - - INTRODUCTION. - - -I have read of a lad who, idly probing a hill-side rabbit hole, saw -a gleam of gold, then more, and in short had found a royal treasury. -And he could not show all to those interested, but only samples, and -he made mistakes in describing the dates and workmanship of the coins, -vessels and jewels. But the treasure was there all the same. - -I knew nothing on June 30th last of what I now communicate, and had no -theories. A visit to Blackwardine led me to note on the map a straight -line starting from Croft Ambury, lying on parts of Croft Lane past -the Broad, over hill points, through Blackwardine, over Risbury Camp, -and through the high ground at Stretton Grandison, where I surmise -a Roman station. I followed up the clue of sighting from hill top, -unhampered by other theories, found it yielding astounding results in -all districts, the straight lines to my amazement passing over and over -again through the same class of objects, which I soon found to be (or -to have been) practical sighting points. - -For the sake of clearness I will give an outline of the whole method -before furnishing proofs and examples. - -It is necessary first to clear the mind of present ideas of roads from -town to town, or with enclosed hedges, also of any assumption that -orderly road planning was introduced by the Romans, and that my paper -is to explain the Roman roads. - -Presume a primitive people, with few or no enclosures, wanting a few -necessities (as salt, flint flakes, and, later on, metals) only to -be had from a distance. The shortest way to such a distant point was -a straight line, the human way of attaining a straight line is by -sighting, and accordingly all these early trackways were straight, and -laid out in much the same way that a marksman gets the back and fore -sights of his rifle in line with the target. - - - - - OUTLINE OF CONCLUSIONS. - - -During a long period, the limits of which remain to be discovered, -but apparently from the Neolithic (later flint) age on past the Roman -occupation into a period of decay, all trackways were in straight lines -marked out by experts on a sighting system. - -Such sighting lines were (in earlier examples) from natural mountain -peak to mountain peak, usually not less than 1,000 ft., in this -district, probably lower heights in flat districts, such points being -terminals. - -Such a sighting line (or ley) would be useless unless some further -marking points on the lower ground between were made. Therefore -secondary sighting points were made, easily to be seen by the ordinary -user standing at the preceding sighting point, all being planned on one -straight line. These secondary, and artificial, sighting points still -remain in many cases, either as originally made, or modified to other -uses, and a large number are marked on maps, and are the basis of my -discovery. - -They were constructed either of earth, water or stone, trees being also -planted on the line. Sacred wells were sometimes terminals in the line, -and sometimes included as secondary points. - -Between the sighting points the trackway ran straight, except in cases -of physical impossibility, but did not of necessity go as far as the -primary hill tops. - -Earth sighting points were chiefly on higher ground, and now bear the -name of tump, tumulus, mound, twt, castle, bury, cairn, garn, tomen, -low, barrow, knoll, knap, moat and camp. Another form of earth sighting -point was in the form of a notch or cutting in a bank or mountain ridge -which had to be crossed by the sighting line. - -Water sighting points seem to have evolved from the excavations made -for the tumps or moats. Almost all are on low ground, to form a point -or ring of reflection from higher ground, and are now known as moats -and ponds. - -Stone sighting or marking points were natural (not dressed) blocks. - -Sighting lines were (in earliest examples) up to 50 or 60 miles in -length, later on rather shorter, down to a few miles. - -Sighting points were used for commerce and for assemblies of the -people. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE III. MOUND AND MOAT. - - 1. Houghton Mound. - 2. Lemore Moat.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE IV. THREE-POINT PROOFS. - - 1. Sighting Pond, Hereford Cathedral, Pen-y-Beacon. - 2. Ford at Llanvihangel Mill, Road, Tre-Fedw Mound. (See Plate II.)] - -When troublesome times came and stronger defences wanted, the groups of -two or three sighting tumps which came near together (especially on the -top of a hill) often had defensive earthworks added to make a fortified -enclosed camp. - -These trackways of successive ages grew so thick on the ground as to -vie in number with present day roads and by-ways. - -All forms of sighting points became objects of interest, superstition, -and genuine veneration, and as such were utilized on the introduction -of Christianity. - -Practically all ancient churches are on the site of these sighting -points (tumps or stones), usually at a cross of tracks, and there is -evidence that in some cases the churchyard cross is on the exact spot -of the ancient sighting or marking stone. - -In time, homesteads clustered round the sighting points, especially the -ponds. - -The moats and tumps were often adopted in after ages as sites for the -defensive houses or castles of wealthy owners. - -Hundreds of place names give support to these propositions. - - - - - PROOF. - - -The facts I have discovered, which lead up to the conclusions, can be -verified for the most part on an inch to mile ordnance map with aid of -a straight edge. - -Taking all the earthworks mentioned, add to them all ancient churches, -all moats and ponds, all castles (even castle farms), all wayside -crosses, all cross roads or junctions which bear a place name, all -ancient stones bearing a name, all traditional trees (such as gospel -oaks), marked on maps, and all legendary wells. Make a small ring -round each on a map. Stick a steel pin on the site of an undoubted -sighting point, place a straight edge against it, and move it round -until several (not less than four) of the objects named and marked come -exactly in line. - -You will then find on that line fragments here and there of ancient -roads and footpaths, also small bits of modern roads conforming to it. -Extend the line into adjoining maps, and you will find new sighting -points on it, and it will usually terminate at both ends in a natural -hill or mountain peak, or sometimes (in the later examples) in a -legendary well or other objective. - -If you travel along the actual sighting line you will find fragments of -the road showing as a straight trench in untilled land, although these -are few and far between, as the plough obliterates it all. The line -usually crosses a river at a known ford or ferry. Sighting tumps not -marked on the map are also to be found. - -Two specific proofs are illustrated in Plate IV. and explained in the -Table of Illustrations. Also from the highest point of the earthworks -of Dinedor Camp the spire of All Saints’ Church can be seen precisely -between the pinnacles of Hereford Cathedral, thus showing a sighting -tump and two churches on one ley. The Offa Street example (see under -Churches) is another three-point proof. - - - - - THE LEY. - - -The sighting line was called the ley or lay. Numbers of farms and -places on sighting lines bear this first name, viz., the Ley Farms, -Weobley, Grafton, Stoke Edith, and many other places. Wyaston Leys, -Monmouth, Tumpey Ley and Red Lay, near Letton, and Redley in Cusop -parish. - -There were cleverly planned high level mountain tracks which, although -on an average sighting line, could not (being on the side of a mountain -ridge) keep straight, but took a serpentine course, in round the cwms, -and out round the headlands. But viewed edgeways they are a straight -line (see Plate VIII.) as keeping a uniform level or slope. Such are -found high on the Malvern ridge, the road (on three leys) through -Oldcastle to Blaen Olchon, the lovely Bicknor Walks near Symonds Yat, -the Precipice Walk near Dolgelly. - -There are signs of parallel trackways quite close together, whether one -to take the place of an older one I do not know. And between Malvern -Wells and Hanley Swan are three symmetrical triangular woods (see Map, -Plate XIX.), which I find indicate parallel roads, one-sixth mile -apart, running northwards, and with a collecting road here at right -angles, which comes over the ridge and through Mainstone Court. There -are six of these equidistant parallel roads. - -The fact of the ley is embedded in the rural mind. A country man in -directing your path will invariably bring in the now misleading, but -once correct, “keep straight on.” It was once absolutely necessary to -“keep straight on” in the ley, for if you did not you would be de-leyed -on your journey. This is not said as a pun, but as in some succeeding -sentences, to point out the place of the ley in the evolution of our -language. - -Where the ley laid in a wood became a glade (see Frontispiece). We -came through one over Worsell Wood in a Club excursion on our way to -Gladestree. Where the ley had lain for a time often became a lane. -This last noun became a verb used in the 18th century enclosure acts, -where ground was “laned out.” Where it was so laned out it became land. -There is a Laynes Farm near Huntley. - -It is still a common phrase to go out to see “the lay (or lie) of the -land.” - -The trackways are chiefly 6 feet 6 in. to 9 feet wide. I illustrate two -pitched causeways at Longtown, a fine one through the Monnow near the -Tan House, and the other close to a ford over Olchon Brook (Plate VI.). -Another through the farm yard at Ingestone (Ross) going to the centre -of the sighting pond (Plate VII.). - - - - - ANTIQUITY OF THE LEY. - - -The word “ancient” covers a vast period. If--as I have proved--the -tumps or burys are sighting tumps, excavations also prove that they -usually date back to the Neolithic age, which, according to Mr. Ault’s -recent “Early Life in Britain,” cannot be later than 2,000 B.C., and -may be 4,000 B.C. A prehistoric trackway might, therefore, be planned -and made more than three thousand years before the Old Road (which is a -route rather than a road) was devised or evolved--as Mr. Belloc so well -describes--as a Pilgrim’s Way from Winchester to Canterbury. - -I have found that the persistent things down the ages are not the -courses of the roads or tracks, but their sighting points, and -that cross roads with a place name are such. Place names are also -persistent, some of them going back to prehistoric times, but others -evidently mediæval. But the real dating of the leys and when the system -fell into decay is for future investigation. - - - - - INDIVIDUALITY OF A LEY. - - -Each ley or track was as separate and distinct from other leys as each -animal or tree is an organism distinct from other animals or trees. -As they crossed each other, no doubt users often transferred from one -to the other at the crossing, and struck out in an altered direction, -hence the place name element “turn.” But the way thus travelled was a -route, not a road. It is an absurdity to speak of a sighted road having -branches, or bending. Each individual track was “a long lane that has -no turning.” - -Previous writers, treating, say, of Roman or of mediæval roads, not -knowing of the existence of the ley, assume that they are speaking of -original primary structures, when they are only describing a route -evolved from a number of the leys I describe, retaining the sighted -structure in the case of Roman roads, but losing most of it by mediæval -times. - -Many leys acquired in after ages individual names from the use they -were put to, and such names were transferred to the sighting points. - -I find in several cases a group of leys with sighting points passing -quite close to, and taking no notice of, quite a distinct group of leys -with other sighting points, the two sets being either of two different -periods, or part of separate systems made by different sets of ley-men -living in different districts. - -A most surprising fact is the enormous number of leys. - - - - - MOUNDS. - - -The mounds whose many names I have mentioned are artificial. I do not -question the fact that they were often used as burial mounds, and -perhaps even built with that end in view; but the straight leys on -which I find practically all in this district line up (in connection -with other sighting points) prove their primary purpose to be sighting -tumps. Arthur’s Stone, a dolmen, which was probably the core of a -burial tump, is on two sighting lines. - -I find various stages of evolution of the tump. The small tump at a -road junction for the local road construction, examples at Cross in -Hand, Belmont, Hungerstone, Shelwick old Turnpike, near Bowley Town -(called the Stocks). With most of these the pond from which the earth -was dug adjoins. When much larger tumps were wanted the trench of -earth to make them was dug in the form of a ring, and a moated tump -resulted, as at Eardisland (with water), Pont Hendre, Longtown (dry). -The water in these excavations proved to be splendid sighting points -by reflection from higher ground, and the moats with no tump but a -flat plateau within a ring of water evolved. Many tumps on banks, as -at Tre-Fedw, near Pandy, show no excavations. Many tumps were at the -junction of leys, showing the technical skill of the early surveyors, -who must have moved a temporary sighting point on one ley until it fell -in the line of a second ley. A sighting tump always commanded a fine, -clear view in at least two directions, and in after ages was coveted -as a dwelling spot. At Didley is an instance of the simple homestead -against it. Thus sighting produced the sites, this being only one of -many instances where the record of the ley is embedded in the English -tongue. The generic name of Merry Hill applied (as near Hereford) to -many tumps gives a clue to their use as assembly points for recreation, -confirmed by folk lore and surviving customs of dancing in a circle -with hands linked. The folk-mote was held at a tump with a dry moat, so -admirably adapted for seating. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE V. - - SIGHTING CUTTINGS. - - 1. Trewyn Camp, Black Mountains. - - 2. Marstow, Road Spanned by Bridge. - - 3. Black Darren, Longtown.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE VI. - - CAUSEWAYS. - - 1. Through Pond, Ten Houses, Holmer. - - 2. Through River Monnow, Longtown.] - - - - - EARTH CUTTINGS. - - -Where a mountain ridge stood in the path of a ley, the surveyor, -instead of building a tump on the ridge as a sighting point, often cut -a trench at the right angle and in the path of the ley. This shows as -a notch against the sky and makes a most efficient sighting point from -below. I have counted eight such artificial notches in the mountain -ridge when on the road from Llanvihangel Crucorney to Longtown. Each -notch can only be seen on the line of sight, and disappears when a -quarter of a mile right or left. They are sometimes emphasised (as at -Trewyn Camp) by an earth work thrown up on one side. The Wych on the -Malvern ridge is an instance. - -The two fine gaps near Flansford (Goodrich) and Marstow (Plate V.), -both with bridges over them, are also ancient sighting cuttings. - -The sighting cuttings were also used in passing over banks in lower -ground. Cullis is one of the names for such an earth cutting, as -Portcullis between Withington and Preston Wynne, and High Cullis above -Gatley Park, recently visited by the Club. - -There is a very neat example of such a cutting at Hungerstone, near -Allensmore, where the cutting in the bank allows the ley to be sighted -on to a pond on its way to the next tump, the one close to the church -at Thruxton. - -The word hunger (a common place-name element) indicates, I think, a -cutting through a bank, not the bank itself, as now surmised. There are -cuttings at most fords, which permit the water to be seen from above -and serve as sighting points. The cutting near Charing Cross, which -gives the name to the present Hungerford foot-bridge, probably came -down through Inigo Jones’ beautiful Water Gate. - -Mr. Codrington in his book on Roman Roads describes the method used -by Roman engineers “well known to surveyors for laying out a straight -line between extreme points not visible from each other, from two or -more intermediate points from which the extreme points are visible. By -shifting the intermediate points alternately all are brought to lie in -a straight line.” This method was evidently used for all the leys. - - - - - WATER SIGHTING POINTS. - - -I have suggested how these might have developed from the tump, and -shown where pond and tump were used together. Moats are a similar -arrangement on a larger scale. The trackways go straight for the island -part of the moat. It is not the least amazing part of this revelation -that I find practically all the small horse or cattle ponds in field -or homestead which are marked on a 6in. ordnance map have leys running -through them, and that examination in dry seasons shows signs of the -road passing through them. “And when we cleaned the pond out we found -it cobbled at the bottom” is a frequent report made by a farmer. I show -a photograph of one of these at Bridge Sollars, with the trench of the -road beyond. - -A beautifully constructed causeway of even pitched stones is to be seen -at the foot of Holmer Hill (Plate VI.). It has well defined edges, and -lies at the bottom of a small sighting pond. In the crevices of its -stones I found fragments of crude red pottery, with a bit of early -(Anglo-Saxon) ornament, a bit of iron slag, and a bit of iron. This ley -is sighted on the North Hill, Malvern. - -I cannot say that passengers walked through the bottom of these ponds -(most of them have one shelving edge, with the opposite bank steep), -but to this day an ancient road (at Harley Court, Hereford) does go -through the bottom of a small pond, being sighted through the Cathedral. - -When there is a large central island on a moat I surmise early dwelling -houses--a subject for spade research. There evidently came a wish for -roads not running through the water, and a pair of ponds or lakes with -a causeway between, such as we find at Holmer fish ponds, is frequently -found on the map, and is the sure indication of an ancient trackway. -Probably the square moats are later than the circular ones. I saw in -the grass the track of a 15-foot road (probably Roman construction) -making straight for the centre of Yarkhill Moat. - -Many ponds (as at Belmont, The Burcot, and adjoining Ledbury -Churchyard) not known as moats are really such, their islands being -sighting points. - -The causeway to the centre of the moat evidently suggested their use -(many ages after they were made) as a defensive ring of the house of a -rich owner, as at Brinsop, Badesley Clinton, Gillow, etc. - -I think that the word lake, now used for large sheets of water, was -originally applied to small reflecting sighting ponds as well. The -place names of Sutton Lakes, Withington Lakes, Letton Lakes, and Tumpy -Lakes are explained by this theory. - - - - - MARK STONES. - - -These (Plate IX.) were used to mark the way. They were of all sizes, -from the Whetstone on Hargest Ridge to a small stone not much larger -than a football. Some were long stones or menhirs, but few remain -upright in this district. I know of three lying fallen on leys, namely -on the wall at the south gate of Madley Churchyard, near the inn at -Bush Bank (cross road from Weobley), and used as a bridge over a ditch -near the Field Farm on the Litley-Carrots path. - -I show photographs of a fine stone at Red Lion, Madley, having a flat -top, and of the type which developed into market stones. The market -stone at Grosmont Town Hall (on which the first market basket placed -on market day paid no toll) is the successor of such a mark stone. Two -marking stones (with ancient brick houses built partly on them) stand -unnoticed in the short Wye Street, just over Wye Bridge at Hereford. -They mark the Palace Ford, and a ley from Castle Hill to Hunderton. -They are of the same peculiar stone (not “old red”) as at Madley, -Colwall, etc. - -Wergin’s Stone (Plate X.) is a late type of mark stone which was the -prototype of the churchyard and wayside crosses, all of which I think -are on the sites of original mark stones, as I find leys passing -through them. - -In studying such crosses, I was puzzled to find several (as at -Vowchurch, Hentland, Capel-y-fin) with ancient rough unworked stones -as a base. I am now certain that these bases are the original stones -marking a ley. The Pedlar’s Cross near Pen-y-lan Farm above Llanigon -(mentioned in Miss Jacob’s fine story, “The Sheep Stealers”) has been -chipped into a rude suggestion of a cross without taking down, and a -flat mark stone on which Archbishop Baldwin is said (by tradition) to -have preached when on his tour with Giraldus in 1188, has had a cross -inscribed on it. It stands close to St. Ishaw’s Well at Partricio. - -There is a striking marking stone on the Rhiw Wen route in the Black -Mountains. - -Other stones on leys are:--White Stone, Withington (with original -stone at the base of an inverted fragment of its successor--a wayside -cross); Queen Stone, Huntsham, at Credenhill cross-roads, at the foot -of Froom’s Hill, on the road near Turnaston Church, marking a ford at -Bartonsham Farm, Hereford, and Crossways, Bollingham. The stone that -all the Kings of England are crowned on is certainly a mark stone. - - - - - SIGHTING STONES. - - -Mark stones may be on one side of the track, as are the whitewashed -stones which mark a coastguard’s cliff walk to-day. But there also -appear to have been sighting points of stone exactly on the ley, so -constructed as to indicate its direction. - -The Four Stones near Harpton, New Radnor, are four upright boulders -(see Frontispiece) in an irregular quadrangle, and no one has explained -their purpose. - -I took sighting lines over successive pairs of stones, five lines being -possible, and although the work on the map is not yet completed, I can -definitely say that the “Four Stones” are directing posts which point -out at least two leys, proved by passing through other good points. The -first goes to the highest point in Deerfold Forest (The Camp, 940ft.) -in one direction, and in the other through The Folly and on the main -road at Llanvihangel-nant-Melan, over Bryn-y-Maen Hill, here appearing -to strike another “four stones,” and through Llansaintfraed in Elvel -Church to some peak beyond. - -The second ley starts from Bach Hill (one of the highest parts of the -Radnor Forest); through the Four Stones, dead on main road through -Walton village, dead on main road past Eccles Green, through Upperton -Farm and Kenchester Church, and dead on the present road which is the -S.W. boundary of the Roman station of Magna; then going over the Wye -through Breinton Church. - -Bitterley Churchyard Cross has a circular hole through its shaft at a -convenient height for sighting. Mr. J. C. Mackay kindly had the exact -direction of this taken for me by sighting compass. It is 28½° E. of -Magnetic N., and this on the map exactly strikes Abdon Burf (or Barf), -the high point (1,790ft.) of the Brown Clee. Southwards the line runs -through Stoke Prior and Hope-under-Dinmore Churches, is confirmed in -other ways, and goes over the Wye at Belmont House. - -Bitterley Cross is of 14th century date; it must be the successor of a -sighting stone which in some way pointed the direction of the ley, and -it suggests that sighting along a ley had not quite died out by the -14th century. - -These two proved instances of sighting stones, together with the cases -of stone rows on Dartmoor, and sighting columns on Sutton Walls, will -give the clue to the hitherto unknown purpose of many important ancient -stone monuments. - -It is probable that the flat face of a mark stone, as in Wergin’s Stone -(Plate X.), pointed out a ley. There is a Dial Post near Tewkesbury -which, with the Dial Carreg near Cwm-yoy, seems to denote the above -purpose, and the last stone is an upright shaft of rectilinear shape -like the supposed cross at Capel-y-fin (Plate X.). - - [Illustration: - - PLATE VII. - - CAUSEWAYS. - - 1. Over Olchon Brook, Longtown. - - 2. To Centre of Pond, Ingestow, Ross.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE VIII. - - LEYS DISPLAYED. - - 1. Track Climbing Ridge, Llanthony Abbey. - - 2. Straight Wye-side Causeway, Bartonsham, Hereford.] - - - - - TREES. - - -I find that practically all the named historic trees (including Gospel -Oaks) stand on leys. Such as King’s Acre Elm, Eastwood Oak, Great Oak -at Eardisley, Oak near Moreton-on-Lugg Bridge, etc. Place names (which -in my previous articles on Crosses I too hastily held to signify the -site of a cross) also indicate trees as marks. Such are Lyde Cross -Tree, Cross of the Tree at Deerfold, Cross Oak, Cross Ash, Cross Colloe -(hazel tree cross), and two leys cross at these points. Actual trees -are shown at the cross roads in two of the above in Taylor’s fine -county map of 1757. - -The Oak in the horse-shoe meadow at Ross is on the ley passing over -Over Ross (the place name indicates it) and Wilton Castle. The steep -little street coming down to the river from the Swan Hotel is dead on -this ley. - -Where a natural hill came under a ley it was often made a sighting -point by the planting of a single tree, hence the numerous “one tree” -hills, as at Backbury and on the Holmer Golf Links. All places called -“The Grove” seem to be on a ley, and a small group of trees (as at -Ladylift) was also used to mark a sighting point. Existing trees are -probably successors of original ones. - -I see evidence that at one time such trees were called the “stock.” The -site of the wayside cross at Winforton is known as the Stocks, and a -marking tump in the lane for Bowley Town (or Court) has an ash on it, -and is called by the same name, as are farms at Wellington, Almeley -Woonton, etc. The highest point (a hill near the Three Elms on the -“Roman” road from Kenchester to Lugg Bridge) is marked on the map as -Bobblestock Hill. I have known it as Bubblestock, but have no doubt -it was Baublestock, the tree or stock (we still buy apple stocks in -the market) where men who peddled necklaces and other baubles met the -buyers. To-day, if you ask in a shop whether they keep such goods, you -will, perhaps, be told that they have a good stock of them. - -I think that the pole (Layster’s Pole, Yarpole, Lyepole, etc.) was a -form of sighting point, lingering on to recent times as the May pole. - -Every considerable avenue of trees (as in parks of country seats) which -I have tested has a ley down its centre. - -Monnington Walks, a Scotch Fir avenue a mile long (Plate XIII.), is -sighted through Monnington Church and the Scar Rock, Brobury, which -last can be seen central in the picture. I found the ancient track -still on the ley at the Scar, and alongside appeared to be an enclosed -camp with defences of a mild type, such as seem to be alongside many -other sighting points, as Longtown and Bridge Sollars Churches. Other -avenues on leys are at Trewyn (two), where the house, central with -the Scotch Fir avenue, has been proved to be on a burial mound, at -Llanvihangel Court, where tradition also asserts the house (central -again) to be on a burial mound; at Oakley Park, Ludlow (The Duchess -Walk); and at Longworth. A feature in most of these avenues is that, -as far as present roads or tracks go, they “lead to nowhere,” and the -discovery of the ley solves this puzzle. A striking instance can be -seen from the Castle Mound at New Radnor, from which Harpton Court and -Old Radnor Church are in line, and the eye looks up the centre of an -avenue of trees climbing to the church. That beautiful avenue (half its -beauty gone since two recent gales) with the ancient name Green Crise, -which lines a public road out of Hereford, is on a ley which comes down -the County College Road, over Putson Ford, and passes through Aconbury -Church. - -One sure sign of a ley is a long straight strip of wood marked on the -map, as from Franchise-stone to Litley, and towards Breinton Church. - -The word “park” had a meaning different to its present usage, but was -probably connected with woodland, and certainly with leys, which pass -through each of the innumerable Park Woods and Park Farms. - -The Scotch Fir or Pine is the tree which seems most characteristic of -a ley, for a group of them are almost always (I notice) signs of a -sighting point, as at Constable’s Firs, Hampstead Heath. - -At the present time it is impracticable to sight from point to point -(especially on water points) on account of intervening trees. It is -certain that for many centuries the sighting points were used, and -that trees did not then intervene. This throws a doubt on the usual -glib statement that ancient Britain was one dense forest. Perhaps the -increase of trees was a cause of the decay of the system. - - - - - CAMPS. - - -I find that every camp seems to have several leys over it, and that -these usually come over the earthworks, not the camp centre, as with -moats. Also that camps almost always show signs of part of their -earthworks being tumps. At Sutton Walls are four unmistakable tumps, -in one of which an interment was found, and in another (Plate XIV.) -the Club at its visit saw the bases of two masonry columns of Roman -construction, the use of which seemed a mystery. I feel certain they -were columns built by Roman surveyors for exact sighting. - -Standing on the highest part of Dinedor Camp earthworks, the towers of -Hereford Cathedral and All Saints’ Church can be seen exactly in a line -to the stand point. - -The camp plans in past Transactions show signs of tumps in most camps. -It is impossible to assume that leys (sighted between two mountains) -should in the scores of instances exactly fall upon the earthworks of -camps previously built on sites selected solely for defence. The leys -came first, and the present camp was then merely the site of two or -more tumps. There came a period of organised raids and war, and where -a group of tumps gave the first elements of defensive works, they were -joined by earthworks into a complete enclosure for defence. Here again -sighting settled the sites of camps. Hereford Castle Green with Hogg’s -Mount the only remaining sighting tump, others (as at the Russian -gun) being now levelled, is an example. Many groups of tumps, never -developed into camps but sufficiently near to be so, are to be found on -the map. - -I found Caplar Camp to have so many leys over it as to seem the Clapham -Junction of ancient trackways in that district. It may be that in a few -cases of lofty camps (as Croft Ambury and Herefordshire Beacon) they -form terminals of sighting lines, but in almost all cases the leys pass -over them. - - - - - CHURCHES. - - -These--if ancient--seem to be invariably on (not merely alongside) -a ley, and in many cases are at the crossing of two leys, thus -appropriating the sighting point to a new use. A ley often passes -through a tump adjacent to the church, and a cross ley through both -church and tump. In other cases a mark stone site became the churchyard -cross, and a cross ley comes through both church and cross. In many -cases one of the leys went through the tower only, and it is possible -that tower and steeple were built to be used as sighting points, -although on the other hand a large church did in fact block the road. I -will make no surmises on these interesting points. The sighting system -may have been in decay or the tracks abandoned when the churches were -first built on the sighting points. I do not think it probable that -leys were made to provide sites for churches. In almost every old town -or village will be found examples of a church built on and blocking an -ancient road although new roads (as at Weobley) are often made on one -or both sides. I show examples of a number. Broad Street blocked by All -Saints, Offa Street (a striking example) with St. Peter’s Tower dead on -one end, and the Cathedral Tower dead on the other end. Other examples: -Ledbury, Wigmore, Shrewsbury (Fish Street), Kington, and Madley, where -tower, churchyard cross and village cross are on one ley, and tower, -nave, chancel, and a mark stone in the village on a lengthwise ley. - -At Warwick a chapel is over a town gateway, and in Exeter an ancient -lane is also allowed to continue as a tunnel under the altar of a small -church, two curious instances of the right of way being continued and -the desire of the clergy to use the site also attained. Kenderchurch -is a striking instance of a church perched on the apex of a sighting -mound, and in other districts I can think of Bren Tor (Dartmoor), -Harrow, Churchdown (Gloucester), and the two St. Michael’s Mounts, -these last obviously terminals of leys, as is St. Tecla’s Chapel out -in the channel below Chepstow, the termination of the beach ley which -gives its name to Beachley Village. - -In London St. Paul’s blocks the Watling Street and Ludgate Hill leys, -and St. Clement Danes, St. Mary le Strand, and St. Martin’s in the -Fields are all on another ley with subsidiary roads evolved on each -side of the churches. - - - - - CASTLES. - - -Every castle in this district has a ley passing over it, and originated -in a sighting tump, upon which the keep was afterwards built when some -lord selected this as a desirable site for a defensive home. If a large -tump, there were usually some excavations which were developed and -extended into real defensive works. - -The word castle is applied to many tumps (as in Moccas Park), where no -building has ever existed, and to farms (as Castle Farm, Madley), where -there are signs of a tump, but merely a homestead round it. - -Where the word castle is part of a genuine place name, there was a -sighting mound. - - - - - TRADERS’ ROADS. - - -Salt was an early necessity, and “Doomsday Book” records Herefordshire -Manors owning salt pans at “Wick,” namely Droitwich. The salt ley -for Hereford came from Droitwich through the White House, Suckley, -Whitwick Manor, Whitestone, Withington (site of present chapel), White -House, Tupsley, Hogg’s Mount, Hereford, and on to its terminal on -Mynydd Ferddin Hill through Whitfield mansion. Another salt ley passes -through Henwick and Rushwick (Worcester), over the Storridge pass -through Whitman’s Wood, and ultimately gets to White Castle (Mon.), -passing over the White Rocks at Garway. Similar leys pass through such -places as Saltmarshe Castle, Whitewell House, the two White Crosses, -Whitcliffe, Whiteway Head, the Wych pass over the Malverns. It is plain -what the “white” man carried. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE IX. - - MARK-STONES. - - 1. Red Lion, Madley. - - 2. Credenhill. - - 3. Wye Street, Hereford. - - 4. Bartonsham (see Plate VIII.).] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE X. - - TRANSITION OF MARK-STONE TO CROSS. - - 1. Pedlars Cross, Llanigon. - - 2. Wergins Stone. - - 3. Churchyard Cross, Vowchurch (Inset, Hole in Shaft, Bitterley). - - 4. Churchyard Cross, Capel-y-Fin.] - -A knowledge of the ancient pottery in the Kiln Ground Wood at Whitney -enables me to show the meaning of the numerous red banks, barns, and -houses. A ley through this pottery is sighted on Newchurch Hill and -passes through Redborough, Red Lay (a cottage on main road this side of -Letton); the ley is then dead on two miles of the present high road as -far as the Portway, and passing through the Home Farm, Garnons (where -the ancient road exists), it ultimately reaches the little Red House, -the old Tannery House at The Friars, Hereford; the ley goes on through -Woolhope Church, but the small local potter had come to his limit and -the reds cease on this road. Another ley from this pottery runs through -the Red Gates and Eardisley Park. - -What the “black” man carried is indicated by the name still given to -the smith who works in iron. Whoever carried to or from the local -forges, whether it was ore, charcoal, or iron, would be black. - -The earliest trade (before metals were worked) must have been in -flints, and as a man who wanted such would not have gone across -Gloucestershire to the nearest chalk districts to fetch them, the -flint chippers, or knappers, would come on the road to sell them. The -sighting tumps called the Knap are common, and if I wanted to search -for flint flakes, I should go to the base of the Knaps, their earliest -market. Tin Hill, Tinker’s Hill, and Tinker’s Cross have a similar -meaning. - - - - - HEREFORD TRACKWAYS. - - -More than a score come through Hereford. There are sighting tumps at -Hogg’s Mount (Castle Green), Mouse Castle (also marked as Scots Hole), -Gallows Tump (Belmont Road), Holmer Golf Links, Holmer Lane (top of old -brick field), and an important one, Merryhill (in Haywood Forest), now -marked as Beachwood. There also have been (now demolished) sighting -tumps or points at Castle Hill, Palace Courtyard, Overbury (Aylestone -Hill), The Knoll, Tupsley. And remains of one for the Castle ferry is -on the line of earthwork bounding the Bishop’s Meadow. - -A riverside track sighted over Hogg’s Mount and Holmer Lane Tump is -illustrated in Plate VIII. - -I have found trackways through the sites of each of the ancient -churches. St. John’s Street extended passes exactly through the chancel -of the chapel of the Knights of St. John of Jerusalem at Widemarsh. -Barrol Street through the site of St. Guthlac’s. In evening light a -trackway can be seen from the Castle Green terrace, running through -the large elm stump in the Bishop’s Meadow to certain railings on the -river bank, it runs by Vaga House, Quay Street, site of Blackfriars -Church, northwards to Brimfield Church, and southwards through a moat -this side of the rectory at Upper Bullingham. Other straight trackways -are visible through an orchard behind Kilburn (Aylestone Hill), on this -year’s show-ground near the Three Elms, through Litley orchard, and -descending the meadow on the north slope of Aylestone Hill to pass by -the Burcott Pool, and on to Tenbury. - - - - - TRADITIONAL WELLS. - - -The ley brings to mind or discovers many of these, for a straight track -went to or past all of them. There are Holy Wells at Dinedor, between -Blakemere and Preston, and under Herrock Hill. As children, living -close by, we used to call the Coldwell at Holmer the Holywell, and -found our way by stepping stones to the ancient stone built well now -destroyed. It was much like the Chamber well near the mill at Weobley. -The Golden Well near Dorstone is on a ley running through Arthur’s -Stone, the Gold Post (a mountain cot), and terminating in Pen-y-Beacon. -The two “golds” on one track indicate a trader’s way. Leys go straight -to, and not beyond, many wells in the Malvern ridge--St. Ann’s, Holy -Well, Walms (there is a Walmer Street named from a ley in Hereford -and a surname Walmsley), St. Pewtress, and one (whose name I do not -find) near the Chase Inn, above Colwall, which village itself is the -Cole’s--or magic man’s--well. - -I have photographed in Cornwall the pointed “beehive” stone structure -covering a Holywell, surmounted by a cross; the whole obviously suited -for a sighting point. Here and there, as at the Flintshire Holywell, a -chapel has been built over the well. Our local example is at Marden, -where the well, in the west end of the church, central with the nave -(and the ley), is connected with the tradition of St. Ethelbert. - -There is an ancient well in Goodrich Churchyard, with a trackway -obviously passing over it, but not through the church. - - - - - PREVIOUS DATA. - - -A number of observers have recorded confirmatory facts. - -Mr. G. H. Piper (“Woolhope Club Transactions, 1882,” p. 176) says: “A -line drawn from the Skerrid-fawr (mountain) northwards to Arthur’s -Stone would pass over the camp and the southernmost point of the -Hatterill Hill, Old Castle, Longtown Castle, and Urishay and Snodhill -Castles.” - -Mr. Thos. Codrington (“Roman Roads in Britain,” 1903) says: “Between -the extreme points there are many straight pieces not quite in the same -line, generally pointing to some landmark. There are several instances -where a barrow or tumulus was the landmark, the road passing round it -on nearing it. Silbury affords one example, and Brinklow, on the Foss, -another.” - -Mr. James G. Wood (“Woolhope Club Transactions, 1910,” p. 146) says: -“The origin and purposes of these tumps associated with Roman roads -will well repay investigation. I have traced a line of such works -across South Monmouthshire and West Gloucestershire from Caerleon -through Caerwent into the Forest. All of these are so placed that each -is in sight of the next in either direction. Again, we find that such -roads were in many cases ranged or laid out in line with small camps or -such tumuli--being, in fact, surveying stations.” - -The Rev. S. Baring-Gould (“Book of Dartmoor,” 1900) says: “The stone -row is almost invariably associated with cairns and kistvaens. They -do not always run parallel; they start from a cairn and end with a -blocking stone set across the line.” - -The Rev. S. Bentley (“History of Bosbury,” 1891) says: “Under the cross -in the churchyard, at its removal to its present site in 1796, a huge -shapeless mass of rock weighing upwards of two tons was found. This -stone now lies in the churchyard close to the tower on the south side.” -Another writer refers to it as “this large unhewn mass of Silurian -rock.” - -Mr. Hillaire Belloc (“The Old Road,” 1904), writing of the Pilgrim’s -Way, says: “Now on its way from Winchester to Canterbury the Old Road -passes, not in the mere proximity of, but right up against, thirteen -ruined or existing churches.” - -Mr. Belloc also says: “The sacredness of wells is commingled all -through Christendom with that of altars”; and giving Continental -instances, also refers to the one under the altar at Winchester. - - - - - ROMAN ROADS. - - -The exact relation of Roman roads to the earlier leys is a matter for -future investigation, but our co-member Mr. Jack is on the right lines -when investigating the surface construction to find whether a road can -be called Roman. It is not easy to realise that many British roads were -as ancient to the Roman invaders as the Roman remains are to us. - -My general impressions from observed facts are that the Roman surveyors -used the sighting system; that they utilized the old trackways, -imposing greater width and their far superior road surface and -foundations; also that working during the degeneration of the ley -system, they did not appreciate the long distance primary points, but -working on short distance hills and points their roads are not so -consistent and individual. I find evidence that they established their -stations on the original leys, and that these were then so numerous -as to form the boundaries of stations or towns, and thus decide their -polygonal shape. It is also probable that a great many Roman roads -of which portions remain were never completed, although the sighting -points of the original ley continue on the line. - -The road from Aymestry to Mortimer’s Cross comes down to the Wye in the -cutting at Bridge Sollars. - -The “Roman” straight road from Leintwardine through Paytoe and Wigmore -Moor (the subject of recent digging) continues as a ley through Lucton -and Kingsland Churches. - -I consider the existing maps of Roman roads to have little value as -being based on the assumption that there were no straight sighted -roads before the Romans came, and that (quite illogically) such a road -could go round corners, and had to follow the tracks over which some -old writer had travelled. I find the so-called straight Roman roads, -as from Kenchester to Lugg Bridge, to be really on several slightly -diverging leys, three in this case. - - - - - PLACE NAMES. - - -The ley and its sighting points were earlier than homesteads, hamlets, -or towns, and as the latter evolved on the tracks, place names -naturally bear traces of their origin. - -It is no reflection on philologists that, not knowing of the ley, they -have made misinterpretations, and have a huge mass of corrections -to make. In particular they will find a past neglect in translating -place names in the light of traders coming along the road and meeting -the buyers at settled points. The man who brought the long-coveted -gold ornaments might only come once a year, but to the women of the -community the Gold Hill, Gold Post, or Golden Cross (roads), where they -met him, or the Golden Valley, along which he came, would be likely to -take their names from his wares. There are two of each of the above -Gold place names in the county. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XI. - - CHURCHYARD CROSS. - - Bitterley.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XII. - - TREE. - - Eastwood Oak, Tarrington.] - -The notes which follow must be taken rather as suggestions than as -final conclusions. - -The common suffix--ley--indicates a ley of the character denoted by -the first element in the name, and “meadow” is not, I think, the right -interpretation. The numerous Leys Hills are not likely to be so called -from meadows. - -The suffix--ton originated by a mark stone on the ley becoming the -nucleus of a homestead, and perhaps later a town. - -The suffix--bury clearly indicates a mound which was a sighting tump. -It is a strange development that these tumps were coveted both as -places to be buried in and to live on. Mrs. Gillespie (who lived at -Trewyn, Pandy, for 17 years) writes me: “I suppose you know that Trewyn -was built on a burial mound,” and goes on to describe the discovery of -a cist with human remains which they dug up under one of the rooms. -I had told her how Trewyn was on two leys (therefore on a sighting -point), one being down the avenue of ancient pine trees straight for -Alt-y-Ynis. - -Barrow (another mound name) occurs at Cradley, Pembridge, and -Wheelbarrow Castle, Leominster; Canon Bannister shows that Coldborough -was formerly Colbarwe, and he also associates borough and bury as from -the same root. A variation is berrow as in Broomsberrow. Just as the -sighting stone--ton became the site of our modern town, so the mound -evolved into the borough. - -Low--the universal name for the mound in Derbyshire--is not so common -here. But Wormlow Tump, Ludlow, Warslow, and Bradlow indicate sighting -points. - -Bury is used alone as the name for a tump, as in the many Bury Farms, -or as at Ivington Bury. A farmer still calls the earth covered tump in -which he winters his roots a bury. Towns like Ledbury first grew round -a sighting mound. - -“Broom” occurs with great persistence on leys, with its variations brom -and bram. Bromley and Bramley, Bromton and Bramton, Bromfield (where is -the Old Field with a number of tumuli), Broomsgreen, Broomsberrow, and -the many Broomy Hills are examples. It is not confined to one form of -sighting point, and I surmise (from a faint line of evidence) that a -component part of our modern broom was an essential working implement -of the skilled ley man, and was continued as the staff of the mediæval -pilgrim. Whether the plant broom was the original root word or a -derivative I cannot say. - -Lady Lift (a hill-point mound) is on a ley with Lady Harbour Farm, and -the prefix Lady is applied to court, grove, ridge, oak, and meadow in -the county. The Lady Harbour of Hereford Cathedral is on one of the -leys which form Church Street, and had the name before any church was -built there. It might possibly indicate a woman’s shelter on the road. - -The suffix--tree, probably originated in a single tree planted as a -sighting point, either as at “Cross of the Tree” in Deerfold Forest, or -to mark the apex of a natural hill as illustrated in Plate XII. Webtree -is on such a hill with two leys passing through it. Its name signifies -that it is the spot where the webbe or weaver met his buyers. He -travelled along the webbe-ley, and there are three Weobleys (formerly -Webbeley) in the county, at Weobley Ash, and Weobley Cross, also the -better known townlet. He also met others at a mark-stone now known as -Webton. The surnames Webb, Webber, and Webster still survive. - -In the same way another first word element gave the place names (and -surnames from them) of Bosley (Cattle-ley), Boston, Bosbury, Boswell, -Bostock, and Boscastle. Again, Stanley, Stanwell, Stanton, Stanbury, -and Stanbatch. And I have shown how the white (salt) man gave the first -element to innumerable place names on his route. There is a Silver Tump -and a Brass Knoll in the Olchon Valley, both proved sighting tumps. - -The names Bowley, Bowling Green (farm, also a quarry near Ewias -Harold), Bolitree, Bolstone, Bollingham, Bal Mawr, Balls Cross, -Ballgate, Bellgate, Bellimore, and Belmont, all seem akin to the -rounded outline of an inverted bowl, or to boils, bowels, and belly of -animal life, and indicate the rounded tump. - -The house at Bolitree is built on a tump with signs of a moat, and as I -found a ley through Bollingham (house and chapel) I went there to find -the bol, and there it was, a fine tump with an old summerhouse on its -summit. - -Gate in a place name (as in Hill Gate, Three Gates, Ballgate, England’s -Gate, Burley Gate, etc.) did not mean, as now, something which stopped -a way (that was called a lid-yatt), but the way itself. It is much the -same as the word pass. The same element (modified) is in such names as -Gatley, Gatsford, Yatton, Symonds Yat, Woodyatt’s Cross. - -Lee Line and Timberline Wood are place names clearly describing leys. -There is a Linton and a Linley at Stanford Bishop--the mark stone and -the ley. I think that Lyonshall, Lynhales, Lion Farm, and Hobby Lyons -are variations. - -Such names as Winslow, Preston Wynne, Winsley, and Winyard (Radnor -Forest) indicate the road by which wine was brought. Totnor, -Totteridge, Tothill, and Twt indicate (as Mr. J. G. Wood has pointed -out) tumps, and they are all sighting tumps on leys. Mr. Wood (who has -come very near discovering the ley) also--in Woolhope Transactions for -1919--connects Titterstone, Clee Hill (Plate I.) with the word Tot or -Toot. Tooting and Tottenham are London forms of the word. Rosemary -Topping (English Bicknor) is a much prettier name for a sighting tump. - -Bur or Burl seems to be descriptive of some form of sighting point. -Leys pass through Burley, Burlton, Burton (many of this name), Burford, -and The Burcot; and there is a Burl Hill in Radnorshire. - -Although a ley ran from peak to peak there must have been an earlier -termination to its useful part, or a still more restricted part used -by traders. Hence--in London--Finsbury; Capel-y-fin in the Black -Mountains; and Fine Street, near Letton, have probably the same -meaning, which, however, seems to be locally more often expressed by -the word end, as in New End (Canon Pyon), Red Wych End (Cowarne), -Nupend, etc. - -As regards the place name element “broad” (also brad and bred), a ley -passes through Broad Green (Orleton), The Broad, north of Leominster, -Broadward, south of Leominster (dead on the main road at each of these -two), and on to Broadlands at Aylestone Hill, Hereford. It was the -road, not the place, which was broad, constructed for wheel traffic, -for which the previous pack-horse tracks were too narrow. Mr. Allan -Bright, of Barton Court, Colwall, wrote me, pointing out that a ley -from the Wych through his house to Ledbury Church, also ran through a -meadow of his called Broadley Meadow. Such names as Bradley, Bradlow, -Bradford, Broadmoor, Broad Oak, and Bredwardine are thus explained. - -Probably most instances of the word elements, little and long, apply -to the roads which pass through the places. Hereford is (no doubt -correctly) said to mean “army road.” Little Hereford is not a small -edition of the town, but of the road. Litley is the small ley, Longley -is the long ley, and so with the stone, grove, land, and ford (there -have been two Longfords). Long in old spelling was often lange; and -little, lutel or luttel--these from Canon Bannister’s list. Hence come -the (places and surnames) Langstone, Langford, Langland, Langton, -Lutley, Luton. The two Leinthalls--Earles and Starkes--are seldom -called by these second names locally, but are Little Leinthall and -Long Leinthall respectively, the element leint (occurring also in -Leintwardine) being I surmise derived from ley. Little Leynthale, to -quote an old spelling, would be the meadow traversed by the short ley. - - - - - DISCOVERY BY PLACE NAME. - - -I have experienced this in several cases, and will detail one. A local -antiquarian (Mr. W. Pilley) always maintained that there had been -an ancient spring--the Bewell spring--close to Bewell House and the -Hereford Brewery within the City. When I lived there with my father -we knew nothing of it. But about a year ago the present owners in -sinking a new deep well and building a new engine house, uncovered the -following inscription cut in stone in the base of the brewery wall, but -covered by a rockery in my time:-- - - WELL, 71 FEET, 1724. - -I had always felt that the derivation given for the place name Bewell -Street as Behind-the-wall Street was an error. - -There is a hill on the Canon Pyon road called Bewley or Bewdley Pitch. -Solely on account of my surmise that the Bewley might lead to the -Bew-well, I tried a line on the map and found a ley exactly falling on -this “pitch” (or steep road) passing from the north through Bishops -Moat (west of Bishops Castle), Meer Oak, Bucknell Church, Street Court, -Stretford Churchyard, and Birley Churchyard, and exactly over the site -of the well. Southwards over Palace Ford, Dinedor Camp, Caradock, Picts -Cross, Hom Green Cross, Walford Church, Leys Hill, Speech House; there -being numerous confirmations in fragments of road. - - - - - THE LEY-MEN. - - -The fact of the ley, with its highly skilled technical methods, being -established, it must also be a fact that such work required skilled -men, carefully trained. Men of knowledge they would be, and therefore -men of power over the common people. And now comes surmise. Did they -make their craft a mystery to others as ages rolled by. Were they -a learned and priestly class, not admitted until completing a long -training--as Cæsar describes the Druids. Or did they--as Diodorus and -Strabo says of Druids--become also bards and soothsayers. Did they, -as the ley decayed, degenerate into the witches of the middle ages. -Folk-lore provides the witches with the power of riding through the air -on a broomstick, the power of overlooking, that of the evil eye. They -(in imagination) flew over the Broomy Hills and the Brom-leys. It may -be that the ancient sighting methods were condemned as sorcery by the -early Christian missionaries. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XIII. - - TREES. - - 1. A One-tree Hill, Llanvihangel-nant-Melan. - - 2. Scotch-Fir (or Scots Pine) Avenue, Monnington (See Plate - XVII.).] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XIV. - - CAMPS. - - 1. One of the Four Mounds, Sutton Walls. - - 2. Herefordshire Beacon.] - -Were they the laity or lay-men of Beowulf? - -In later days our first English poet was one Layamon, and in his time -were men called Ley-cester, Leye, and Ley-land. - -In the Oxford Dictionary is given the obsolete word cole as meaning -in the 16th century a false magician, a juggler, and cole-prophet (or -cold-prophet) with a similar meaning, and there is a cole-staff or -cowl-staff also mentioned, which, although then meaning a carrying -stick, was--I surmise--originally the working sighting staff of the -cole-man, who was the magician of the ley. The word still survives in -colporter, a walking seller of books, who carries his wares slung over -his shoulder on a stick. - -We have in our district Coldman’s Hill, Coldstone Common, Coles Tump -(Orcop), and Coles Mountain (Presteign). In other parts of England are -Coley, Colbury, Colebatch, Colestock, Coleshill, Coleford, Coleham, -Colchester, and Coleridge, which last has an alternate name Coldridge, -confirming other instances of the intrusion of the d. I surmise Cold -Harbour (Kentchurch) to have been Cole Harbour. - -Colmanswell in Ireland possesses to-day a “sacred” well, and this name, -together with our own ancient Colewelle in Herefordshire, now altered -to Colwall, is probably nearer the original root meaning than is the -case of the three Coldwells at Holmer, Kingston, and English Bicknor. - -A Bishop’s name Colman is mentioned in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, and -Cole is also a common surname to-day. - -There are other names for a ley-man indicated in the two Derbyshire -place names, Totmans Low and Laidmans Low, the Low being a sighting -mound. - - - - - HINTS TO LEY HUNTERS. - - -Keep to the discovery of lines through undoubted sighting points, as -artificial mounds (including castle keeps), moats and islands in ponds -or lakes. In practice churches can be treated as sighting points, but -in some cases a ley passes through a tump or well close to the church. -Avoid for a time the temptation of taking every bit of narrow straight -road and extending it into a ley. Scrap every ley you think you have -discovered if it does not pass through at least four undoubted sighting -points exclusive of roads. - -You must use Government ordnance maps. One mile to the inch is the -working scale. Other maps of two or four miles to the inch are quite -useless, save for checking long leys. - -The (B) “Popular edition, mounted and folded in covers for the pocket,” -is the most convenient for field work and is the cheapest, as it -contains over double the area of the older (C) 18 x 12 edition; but -I have found the latter (uncoloured, in flat sheets) necessary for -transferring leys from one map to the next on drawing boards in the -office. - -Maps cut in sections are useless for this exact work. - -About four drawing boards, a light 24-inch straight edge, a T square -for pinning down the maps accurately to line with the boards, a -moveable head T square to adjust to the angle of the ley, so as to -transfer to the next map, and a box of the glass headed pins used by -photographers (in addition to the usual drawing pins) are the minimum -essentials for real work. A sighting compass for field work used in -conjunction with a special divided quadrant on the moveable head of -square are aids I have found valuable. - -Remember that the entire course of a ley can be found from two -undoubted sighting points on it if marked on the map. Therefore stick a -glass headed pin in these two points, apply the straight edge, and rule -the line, pencil it at first, ink afterwards. - -When you get a “good ley” on the map, go over it in the field, and -fragments and traces of the trackways will be found, always in straight -lines, once seen recognised with greater ease in future. - -Where close detail is required, as in villages and towns, the 1´´scale -is far too small, and the 6´´ scale is necessary. The angle of the ley -is transferred to it from the 1´´ map with the aid of the moveable head -square. Maps must be pinned square on the board by the T square passing -through identical degree marks on the edges, latitude for leys running -E. and W., but longitude for leys N. and S. The edges of the maps are -not truly in line with the degree lines, and must not be the guide. - -Ley hunting gives a new zest to field rambles, and the knowledge of the -straight ley provides new eyes to an eager observer. - -I have a mental vision of a Scout Master of the future, out ley hunting -with the elder boys of his troup, instructing them as they look out -from a high sighting point. “Now, Harold! if you only take that pole -out of your eye, you will see better to pick out that distant moat that -Cyril has in his eye. He’s got it, right enough, just a speck of light -from the ring of water round the island. When I told you to use your -pole as a sighting staff, I didn’t tell you to see nothing else. Now -we have found the ley, I think we shall see a bit of the old track in -that far grassy field this side the moat; it’s narrow and straight, and -there are many who never find it because they look for a broad way like -our present wheel tracks.” - - - - - A FEW LEYS. - - (_Additional to others detailed in text and maps_). - - -Colva Hill to Birdlip Hill, via Parton Cross, Breinton Camp and Ford, -Red Hill, Holme Lacy House, Caplar Camp, Yatton Church, Moat and Camp -beyond Newent, and dead on “Ermin Street” for five miles. - -Gwaun Ceste Hill to Brimpsfield Castle, via Michaelchurch, Eaton Camp, -Perry Hill, Dinedor Cross, Tump, Brockhampton Old Church, Cross in -Hand, Upton Court, The Conigree, Rudford Church, Gloucester Cathedral, -Castle Hill, Witcombe Park, and Blacklains. - -Gwaun Ceste Hill to West Tump, via Colva Church, Brilley Green, The -Scar Rock (Brobury), down Monnington Walks (central), Monnington -Church, The Chantry, Perrystone, Mullhampton, Anthony’s Cross, -Tibberton Court, Llanthony (Glos.) Abbey, and dead on a Gloucester -street. - -Little Mountain (Westbrook) to St. Ann’s Well and Priory Church, -Malvern, via Arthur’s Stone, Cross End, Moccas Church, Monnington -Church, Credenhill (old) Court, Pipe and Lyde Church, and Beacon Hill. - -Pen-y-Beacon to North Hill, Malvern, via Sugwas Park, Ten Houses Pond -(Plate VI.), Burcot Pool, White Stone Chapel, Shucknell Hill, Stretton -Grandison Church, Moat at Birchend, and Mathon Church. - -Croft Ambury to Y-Fan-Drongarth (2,410 peak in Brecon Beacon group), -via Hill Barn, Easthampton, Milton House, Court of Noke, Elsdon, -Bollingham Chapel Tump, Clyro Church, Llowes Church, Bryn-Rhydd, and -Slwch Camp, Brecon. - -Bailey Hill (Knighton) to May Hill (Longhope), via The Warden, -Presteign, Golf Course Tump, Holmer, Holmer House, Holmer Lane Tump, -Venn’s Lane, The Prospect and Tupsley Hospital Road, Main Street and -Church, Fownhope, Caplar Camp, How Caple Church, Old Gore Cross, and -Linton Church. - - - - - ENDWORD. - - -I close up my patchwork pages for this booklet, and a tired brain finds -relief in two memories. The one of the day, just on half a century ago, -when, a lad on a trader’s route for my father’s brewery, I pulled up my -horse to look with wonder at the Four Stones, standing like sentinels -in a field corner. Later in the same day, the steep slope of the -Radnor Forest surmounted, came the first view of Castle Tomen at the -summit of the Forest road, with its background of Wye and Irfon Valley -(Breconshire) Mountains. And the note of unsatisfied wonder struck -that day has lingered through nearly fifty years’ unusually intimate -knowledge of our beautiful West Country border land, and I know now -that my sub-conscious self had prepared the ground and worked at the -problem I now see solved. - -The second memory is the vivid one of the rush of revelations in the -gorgeous year of sunshine just finished. And I can scarcely realize -that half the year had gone, the clear smoke-free distances of early -summer a thing of the past, and midsummer day over, before I got the -first clue. Once started, I found no halt in the sequence of new facts -revealed by active search on the tracks. - -It is a mere framework for a new knowledge that I offer, but I know -that it has solid foundations, and that good wholesome field work by -others--for it may not be granted to me to do very much more--will fill -in many gaps. That is why I write. - -POSTSCRIPT. In some districts--as Salisbury Plain and the -Yorkshire Wolds--there are groups of adjacent barrows so numerous that -it is probable that most of them were built as burial mounds only, not -sighting mounds. This is not the case in the district investigated. - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XV. - - CHURCH. - - Ledbury, the Spire sighted up Church Lane.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XVI. - - CASTLE. - - Wigmore Castle, showing the sighting mound.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XVII. - - CASTLE. - - Brampton Bryan Castle with Coxall Knoll on right.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XVIII. - - HOUSE IN MOAT. - - Gillow.] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XIX. - - MAP OF TWO LEYS (A. & B.) AND PARTS OF C. & D. SEE CONTENTS TABLE - - (Based upon the Ordnance Survey with the sanction of the Controller - of H.M. Stationery Office).] - - [Illustration: - - PLATE XX. - - MAP OF EIGHT LEYS THROUGH CAPEL-Y-TAIR-YWEN, HAY. SEE CONTENTS TABLE - - (Based upon the Ordnance Survey with the sanction of the Controller - of H.M. Stationery Office).] - - - - - INDEX. - -_Most of the Places indexed are in Herefordshire; those in adjoining -counties are, if necessary, indicated by the initial of the county (as -R. for Radnor) following the name._ - - - Abdon Burf (S.), 18 - - Aberllynfi-Gaer (B.), 6 - - Aconbury Church, 20 - - Almeley Batch Twt, 6 - - Almeley Woonton, 19 - - Altars, 25 - - Alt-y-ynis, 27 - - Anthony’s Cross (G.), 33 - - Arthur’s Stone, 6, 14, 24, 25, 33 - - Assemblies, 10, 14 - - Avenues (trees), 5, 20 - - Avenues of Pines, 27 - - Aylestone Hill, 24 - - Aymestrey, 26 - - - Bach Hill (R.), 18 - - Backbury, 19 - - Badesley Clinton (Warwick.), 16 - - Bailey Hill (R.), 34 - - Baldwin (Archbishop), 17 - - Bal-Mawr (B.), Balls Cross, Ballgate, 5, 28 - - Bannister, Rev. A. J., 27, 30 - - Baring-Gould, Rev. S., 25 - - Barrow, 10, 27 - - Barton Court, 29 - - Bartonsham Farm, 5, 17 - - Bassam, 5, 17 - - Batch, 6, 10 - - Beachley (G.), 22 - - Beachwood Mound, 23 - - Beacon Hill, 33 - - Bellgate, Bellimore, Belmont, 28 - - Belloc, Hillaire, 25 - - Belmont, 16, 18 - - Bentley, Rev. S., 25 - - Beowulf, 31 - - Bewell Spring, 30 - - Bewley or Bewdley, 30 - - Bible parallels, 33 - - Bicknor Walks (G.), 12 - - Birchend Moat, 33 - - Birdlip Hill (G.), 33 - - Birley Church, 30 - - Birley Hill, 6 - - Bitterley Cross (S.), 5 - - Bitterley (S.), 4, 18 - - Bishop’s Moat (S.), 30 - - Black Darren, 4 - - Black Hill, Olchon, 6 - - Blackfriars, Hereford, 24 - - Blacklains (G.), 33 - - Black Mountains, 5, 17 - - Black Traders road, 23 - - Blackwardine, 9 - - Bobblestock Hill, 19 - - Bolitree, Bolstone, Bollingham, 28 - - Bollingham, 17, 33 - - Borough, 27 - - Bosbury, Boston, Bosley, 28 - - Bosbury Cross, 25 - - Boswell (Staff.), Bostock (Staff.), Boscastle (Cornwall), 28 - - Bowley Bowling Green, 19, 28 - - Bowley Town, 14 - - Boy Scouting, 33 - - Bradley, Bradlow, 27, 29 - - Bramley, 27 - - Brampton Bryan, 6 - - Bramton, 27 - - Brass Knoll, 28 - - Bredwardine, 29 - - Breinton, 20, 33 - - Bren Tor (Devon), 22 - - Bridge Sollars, 16, 20, 26 - - Brilley Green, 33 - - Brinsop, 16 - - Brimpsfield Castle (G.), 33 - - Brinklow (Wilts.), 25 - - Brimfield, 24 - - Broad Green, 29 - - Broad (The), 9, 29 - - Broadlands, Broadley, Broadward, 29 - - Brobury Scar, 5, 6, 19, 33 - - Brockhampton Church, 33 - - Bromton, 27 - - Bromfield, 27 - - Bromley (Kent), 27 - - Broom, 27, 28 - - Broomsgreen (G.), 27 - - Broomsberrow (G.), 27 - - Broomstick, 31 - - Broomy Hill, 27, 31 - - Brown Clee (S.), 18 - - Bryn-y-Maen (R.), 18 - - Bryn-Rhydd (R.), 33 - - Bucknell Church (S.), 30 - - Bullingham, 24 - - Burcot Pool, 16, 24, 33 - - Bury, 10 - - Burial Mound, 14, 20, 27 - - Bur, Burton, Burford, Burcot, 29 - - Burl, Burley, Burlton, 29 - - Burley Gate, 28 - - Bury, 27 - - Bush Bank, 17 - - Byford Ford, 6 - - - Caerleon (M.), 25 - - Caerwent (M.), 25 - - Cairn, 10 - - Camps--6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 15, 20, 21, 22, 25, 33, 34 - - Canterbury, 13, 25 - - Capel-y-fin (B.), 5, 17, 18, 29 - - Capel-y-tair-ywen (B.), 6 - - Caplar Camp, 21, 33, 34 - - Caradock, 30 - - Castles--4, 6, 10, 11, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 28, 31, 33 - - Castle Hill (Glos.), 33 - - Castle Hill (Hereford), 14, 23 - - Castle Farms, 22 - - Castle Tumps, 6 - - Castle Tomen, 4, 34 - - Causeways, 4, 5, 13, 16, 24 - - Chamber Well, 24 - - Chantry, Perrystone, 33 - - Christian Era, 11 - - Churchdown (G.), 22 - - Churches--6, 7, 11, 12, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 33, - 34 - - Cist, 27 - - Clee Hill (S.), 4, 18 - - Clifford, 6 - - Clyro Church (R.), 33 - - Codrington, Thos., 15, 25 - - Colchester, Coleham, Coleridge, 31 - - Coldborough, 27 - - Cold Harbour, Coldridge, 31 - - Coldman’s Hill, Coldstone, 31 - - Coldwell, 24, 31 - - Cole, Coleman, 24, 31 - - Cole-prophet, Cold-prophet, 31 - - Cole-staff, 31 - - Coleshill, Colestock, Coleford, 31 - - Colewelle, Colmanswell, 31 - - Coles Tump, Coles Mountain, 31 - - Coley, Colebury, Colebatch, 31 - - Colva Church (R.), 33 - - Colporter, 31 - - Colva Hill (R.), 32 - - Colwall, 24, 31 - - Commerce, 10 - - Concrete in Causeways, 4 - - Conigree (G.), 33 - - Constable’s Firs, 20 - - Coronation Stone, 17 - - Coxall Knoll, 6 - - Court of Noke, 33 - - Craft of the Ley-men, 30 - - Cradley, 27 - - Credenhill, 5, 17, 33 - - Croft Ambury, 9, 21, 33 - - Croft Lane, 9 - - Crosses, 5, 17 - - Cross Ash (M.), 19 - - Cross Colloe, 19 - - Cross End Farm, 6, 33 - - Cross in Hand, 14, 33 - - Cross Oak (S.), 19 - - Cross Roads, 11, 13 - - Cross of the Tree, 19, 28 - - Cruger Castle (R.), 4 - - Cullis, 15 - - Cusop, 12 - - Cuttings, 15 - - - D, intrusion of letter, 27 - - Dancing in Circle, 14 - - Dartmoor, 18, 25 - - Deerfold Forest, 28 - - Duchess Walk (S.), 20 - - Dial Carreg (M.), 18 - - Dial Post (W.), 18 - - Didley, 4, 14 - - Dinedor Camp, 12, 21, 30 - - Dinedor Cross, 33 - - Dinedor Holy Well, 24 - - Dolmen, 14 - - Domestic Camp, 20 - - Doomsday Book, 22 - - Dorstone Castle Tump, 6 - - Droitwich (W.), 22 - - Druids, 31 - - - Eardisland, 14 - - Eardisley Park, 23 - - Earthworks, 10, 11, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23 - - Eastwood Oak, 5, 19 - - Easthampton, 33 - - Eaton Bishop Camp, 33 - - Eccles Green, 18 - - Elsdon, 33 - - Enclosures, 9 - - England’s Gate, 28 - - Ermin Street (G.), 33 - - Exeter, church over ley, 22 - - Evolution of Moats, 4, 10, 15 - - Evolution of Mounds, 4, 14 - - Evolution of Crosses, 5, 11 - - - Felin-fach Moat (B.), 6 - - Ferries, 12, 18, 23 - - Field Work, 32, 33, 34 - - Fine Street and Finsbury, 29 - - Flansford, 15 - - Flint Age, 10 - - Flint Flakes, 9 - - Flint Traders road, 23 - - Folly, The (R.), 18 - - Folk-mote, 14 - - Fords--4, 5, 6, 12, 13, 15, 17, 29, 30, 33 - - Forest, 20, 25 - - Foss (Glos. and Wilts.), 25 - - Four Stones (R.), 4, 18, 34 - - Fownhope, 34 - - Franchise-stone, 20 - - Froom’s Hill, 17 - - - Gallows Tump, 23 - - Garn, 10 - - Garnons, 23 - - Garron River, 4 - - Gate, 28 - - Gatley, 15, 28 - - Gatsford, 28 - - Gillespie, Mrs., 27 - - Gillow, 6, 16 - - Giraldus, 4, 17 - - Glade, 12 - - Gladestree (R.), 12 - - Glascwm Hill (R.), 6 - - Gloucester, 33 - - Golden Cross, 27 - - Golden Well, 24 - - Gold Hill, 27 - - Gold Post, 24, 27 - - Gold Traders road, 24, 27 - - Golden Valley, 27 - - Goodrich, 24 - - Gospel Oaks, 11, 19 - - Great Oak, 19 - - Green Crise, 20 - - Grosmont (M.), 17 - - Grove, 19 - - Gwaun ceste Hill (R.), 33 - - - Hampstead Heath (Mid.), 20 - - Hargest Ridge, 16 - - Harrow (Mid.), 22 - - Harpton Court (R.), 20 - - Hatterill Hill, 25 - - Hay Tump, 6 - - Haywood Forest, 23 - - Hell Moat, Sarnesfield, 6 - - Hentland Cross, 17 - - Henwick, 23 - - Hereford, 5, 20, 23, 29 - - ---- All Saints, 12, 21, 22 - - ---- Barrol Street, 24 - - ---- Bishop’s Meadow, 23 - - ---- Broad Street, 22 - - ---- Chapel of Hospitallers, 24 - - ---- Cathedral, 4, 12, 16, 21, 22 - - ---- Castle Green, 21, 23 - - ---- Castle Hill, 17, 23 - - ---- Church Street, 28 - - ---- Harley Court, 16 - - ---- The Knoll, 23 - - ---- Offa Street, 12, 22 - - ---- Overbury, 23 - - ---- Palace, 23 - - ---- Prospect, 34 - - ---- St. John Street, 24 - - ---- St. Peter’s, 22 - - ---- Quay Street, 24 - - ---- Venn’s Lane, 34 - - ---- Wye Street, 17 - - Herefordshire Beacon, 6, 21 - - Herrock Hill, Holy Well, 24 - - High Cullis, 15 - - Hill Barn, 33 - - Hill Gate, 28 - - Hill-tracks, 7 - - Hobby Lyons, 29 - - Hoggs Mount, 5, 21, 22, 23, 24 - - Holme Lacy House, 33 - - Holmer, 5, 6, 16, 19, 24, 33, 34 - - Holmer Tumps, 5, 23, 24, 34 - - Hom Green Cross, 30 - - Homesteads, 4, 11, 22, 26, 27 - - Holy Wells, 6, 24 - - Hope-under-Dinmore, 18 - - Houghton Mound, 4 - - How Caple Church, 34 - - Hunderton, 17 - - Hungerstone, 14, 15 - - Hungerford (Mid.), 15 - - - Implements for mapping, 32 - - Ingestone, 5, 13 - - Iron, 16, 23 - - Irfon Valley (B.), 34 - - Island on moat, 15, 16 - - Ivington Bury, 27 - - - Jack, G. H., 26 - - - Kenchester, 18, 19, 26 - - Kenderchurch, 22 - - Kiln Ground Wood, 23 - - King’s Acre Elm, 19 - - Kingsland Church, 26 - - Kington Church, 22 - - Kistvaens, 25 - - Knap, 10, 23 - - Knoll, 10, 23 - - - Lady Harbour, 28 - - Ladylift--court, grove, meadow, 19, 28 - - Laidmans Low, 31 - - Laity, lay-men, 31 - - Lakes, 15, 32 - - Lane, 12 - - Lay _see_ Ley - - Layamon, 31 - - Laynes Farm (G.), 13 - - Laysters Pole, 19 - - Ledbury, 6, 16, 22, 27, 29 - - Lee Line, 29 - - Leintwardine, 26, 30 - - Leinthall, 29 - - Lemore, 4 - - Letton Lakes, 16 - - Leys, 3 to 34 - - Leycester, 31 - - Ley Farms, 12 - - Leys Hill (G.), 27, 30 - - Ley hunting--9, 11, 30, 31, 32, 33 - - Ley-men, 10, 12, 14, 15, 30, 31, 33 - - Leys, route of--6, 10, 11, 12, 13, 20, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 30, - 33, 34 - - Lidyatt, 28 - - Linton, 29, 34 - - Linley, 29 - - Lion Farm, 29 - - Litley, 17, 20, 24, 29 - - Little Hereford, 29 - - Little Mountain (R.), 6 - - ---- (Westbrook), 33 - - Llanelieu Church (B.), 6 - - Llanigon (B.), 5 - - Llanigon Mound (B.), 6 - - Llansaintfraed-in-Elvel (B.), 18 - - Llanthony (Mon.), 5 - - Llanthony (Glos.), 33 - - Llanvihangel Court (M.), 20 - - Llanvihangel Crucorney (M.), 4, 15 - - Llanvihangel-nant-Melan (M.), 18 - - Llowes Church (R.), 33 - - Longtown, 4, 5, 13, 15, 20, 25 - - Longford, 30 - - Longworth, 20 - - Low, 10, 27, 31 - - Lucton Church, 26 - - Ludgate Hill, London, 22 - - Ludlow (S.), 27 - - Lugg Bridge, 26 - - Lyde Cross Tree, 19 - - Lyepole, 19 - - Lyonshall, Lynhales, 29 - - - Mackay, J. C., 18 - - Madley, 5, 17, 22 - - Maescoch, 6 - - Magna, 18 - - Magician, 31 - - Mainstone Court, 12 - - Malvern Hills, 6, 12, 15, 23, 24 - - Malvern Priory Church, 6, 33 - - Marden Church, 24 - - Mark Stones--5, 10, 16, 17, 18, 21, 23, 24 - - Marstow, 4, 15 - - Mathon Church, 33 - - May Hill (G.), 34 - - Maypole, 19 - - Meer Oak (S.), 30 - - Menhirs, 5, 17 - - Merbach, 6 - - Merry Hill, 14, 23 - - Michaelchurch Escley, 6, 33 - - Milton, 33 - - Moats--4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 14, 15, 16, 24, 33 - - Moccas, 6, 22, 33 - - Monnington Church, 6, 33 - - Monnington Walks, 5, 6, 19, 33 - - Monnow, 4, 13 - - Moreton-on-Lugg, 19 - - Mortimer’s Cross, 26 - - Mote and Moat, 33 - - Mouse Castle, Hay, 6 - - Mouse Castle, Hereford, 23 - - Mounds--4, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, - 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34 - - Mound--evolution of, 14 - - Mound (various names for), 10 - - Mountain Tracks, 5, 12 - - Mullhampton, 33 - - Mynydd-Brith Tump, 6 - - Mynydd Ferddin Hill (B.), 23 - - - Neolithic Age, 10, 13 - - Newchurch Hill (R.), 23 - - New End, 29 - - New Radnor Castle (R.), 20 - - North Hill Malvern, 33 - - Notches--sighting, 4, 15 - - Nupend, 29 - - - Oakley Park (S.), 20 - - Oaks, 5, 11, 19 - - Olchon, 5, 12, 13, 28 - - Oldcastle, 12, 25 - - Old Gore Cross, 34 - - Old Radnor Church, 20 - - One Tree Hill, 5, 19 - - Ordnance Maps, 11, 32 - - Over Ross, 19 - - - Pains Castle Mound (R.), 6 - - Palmer’s Court, 6 - - Palace Ford, Hereford, 30 - - Parallel Roads, 12 - - Parks, 20 - - Park Hall (S.), 4 - - Partricio (M.), 17 - - Parton Cross, 33 - - Paytoe, 26 - - Pedlar’s Cross, 5, 17 - - Pen-y-Beacon, 4, 6, 24, 33 - - Perry Hill, 33 - - Perrystone, 33 - - Philology, 26 - - Picts Cross, 30 - - Pilgrim’s Way, Kent, 13, 25 - - Pilgrim’s Staff, 28 - - Pine (Scotch or Scots), 20 - - Piper, G. H., 25 - - Pipe and Lyde Church, 33 - - Ponds, 4, 5, 10, 11, 13, 14, 16, 32 - - Portcullis, 15 - - Pottery, Ancient, 5, 6, 23 - - Precipice Walk, 12 - - Preston-on-Wye Church, 6 - - Preston Wynne, 15, 29 - - Primary Peaks, 10 - - Priory Wood, Clifford, 6 - - Putson Ford, 20 - - - Queen’s Stone, 17 - - - Radnor Forest, 4, 34 - - Redborough (R.), 23 - - Red Gates, 23 - - Red Hill, 33 - - Red House, 23 - - Red Ley, 12, 23 - - Red Lion, 5, 17 - - Red Pottery, 5, 6, 16 - - Red Traders road, 5, 6, 23 - - Red Wych End, 29 - - Redley, 12 - - Rhiw Wen, 17 - - Rhiw, 5 - - Rhos-goch Castle Tump (R.), 6 - - Ridge-ways, 7 - - Risbury Camp, 9 - - Roman Roads, 9, 10, 13, 16, 25, 26 - - Roman Stations, 9, 18, 26 - - Roman Surveyors, 15, 18, 20, 21, 26 - - Roofing Tile-stones, 5 - - Rosemary Topping (G.), 29 - - Ross, 19 - - Rudford Church (G.), 33 - - Rushwick (W.), 23 - - - Salt, 22 - - Saltmarshe Castle, 23 - - Saltways, 9, 22, 23 - - Sarnesfield Moat, 6 - - Scotch (or Scots) Fir, 5, 19, 20 - - Scots Hole, 23 - - Shelwick, 14 - - Shrewsbury, 22 - - Shucknell Hill, 6, 33 - - Sighting Columns, 21 - - Sighting Cuttings, 4, 15 - - Sighting Methods, 9 to 34 - - Sights, rifle, 9 - - Sighting Stones, 4, 5, 6, 11, 17, 18, 21 - - Silbury (Wilts.), 25 - - Silver Tump, 28 - - Sites and Sighting--11, 14, 16, 21, 22, 24 - - Skirrid (M.), 4, 25 - - Slwch Camp (B.), 33 - - Snodhill Castle, 25 - - Soothsayers, 31 - - Speech House (G.), 30 - - St. Ann’s Well (W.), 6, 24, 33 - - St. Clement Danes, London, 22 - - St. Ethelbert, 24 - - St. Guthlac Church, 24 - - St. Ishaw’s Well (M.), 17 - - St. Martin’s in the Fields, 22 - - St. Mary le Strand, 22 - - St. Michael’s Mount, 22 - - St. Paul’s Cathedral, 22 - - St. Pewtress Well, 24 - - St. Tecla’s Chapel (G.), 22 - - Stanbatch, Stanbury, 28 - - Stanton, Stanley, Stanwell, 28 - - Stock, 14, 19 - - Stoke Prior, 18 - - Storridge, 23 - - Stone Rows, 25 - - Street Court, 30 - - Stretford Church, 30 - - Stretton Grandison, 9, 33 - - Suffix, 27 - - Sugwas Park, 33 - - Surveyors, early, 14 - - Surveyors, ley-men, 30 - - Surveyors, Roman, 15, 21 - - Sutton Lakes, 16 - - Sutton Walls, 6, 18, 20 - - Symonds Yat, 28 - - - Talgarth Church (B.), 6 - - Tan House, 13 - - Tarrington, 5 - - Tenbury (W.), 24 - - Ten Houses, 4 - - Terminal Hills, 10, 11, 21 - - Three Elms, 19, 24 - - Three Gates, 28 - - Thruxton, 15 - - Timber Line Wood, 29 - - Tibberton Court (G.), 33 - - Tin Hill, 23 - - Tin Traders road, 23 - - Tinkers Hill and Cross (W.), 23 - - Titterstone Clee Hill (S.), 4 - - Tomen, 4, 10 - - Totnor, Tothill, Toot, 29 - - Totmans Low (Derby), 31 - - Totteridge, Tottenham, 29 - - Traders’ roads--9, 10, 17, 22, 23, 24, 27, 28, 29 - - Trees, 5, 10, 12, 19, 20 - - Tre-fedw Mound (M.), 4, 14 - - Trewyn House (M.), 20, 27 - - Trewyn Camp (M.), 4, 15 - - Triangular Woods, 12 - - Tumps--6, 10, 12, 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27, 31, 33, 34 - - Tumpa (B.), 6 - - Tumpy Lakes, 16 - - Tumpey Ley, 12 - - Tumulus, 10 - - Tupsley, 34 - - Turnaston, 17 - - Turrett Tump, 6 - - Twt, Tooting, 10, 29 - - - Upperton, 18 - - Upton (Bishop) Court, 33 - - Urishay Castle, 25 - - - Vowchurch Cross, 5, 17 - - - Walmer Street, 24 - - Walmsley, 24 - - Walm’s Well, 24 - - Walford Church, 30 - - Walton (R.), 18 - - Walsopthorne, 6 - - Warden The (R.), 34 - - Warslow, 27 - - Warwick, Chapel over ley, 22 - - Water Gate (Inigo Jones’), 15 - - Watling Street, London, 22 - - Webtree, 28 - - Webton, 28 - - Wellington, 19 - - Wells--6, 10, 11, 24, 25, 28, 30, 31, 33 - - Weobley, 6, 22, 24 - - Weobley, Ash and Cross, 28 - - Wergin’s Stone, 5, 17, 18 - - Wheelbarrow Castle, 27 - - Whitcliffe, 23 - - Whitfield, 23 - - Whitney, pottery at, 5, 6, 23 - - Whitman’s Wood, 23 - - Whitwick Manor, 22 - - Whitecastle (M.), 23 - - White Cross, 23 - - White House, 22 - - White Rocks, 23 - - White Stone, 17, 22, 33 - - White Traders’ road, 23 - - Whiteway Head, 23 - - Whitewell House, 23 - - Whetstone, 16 - - Wick (W.), 22 - - Widemarsh, 24 - - Wigmore, 6, 22, 26 - - Wilton Castle, 19 - - Winchester, 25 - - Wind’s Point, 6 - - Winforton, 19 - - Winslow, Winsley, Winyard, 29 - - Witcombe Park (G.), 33 - - Witches, 31 - - Withington, 15 - - Withington Lakes, 16 - - Wood, Jas. G., 25, 29 - - Woodyatts Cross, 28 - - Woolhope Church, 23 - - Wormelow Tump, 27 - - Worsell, 12 - - Wyaston Leys, 12 - - Wych, 14, 23, 29 - - Wye, 26, 34 - - Wye Street, 5 - - - Yarkhill, 16 - - Y-Fan-Drongarth (B.), 33 - - Yarpole, 19 - - Yat, 28 - - Yatton, 28, 33 - - - - - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. - - -Six of the photographs are by Mr. W. M. McKaig, helper in many miles of -ley-hunting. - -This page is King 8vo. in the Ideal series of paper sizes, wherein -octavo and quarto have the same proportion, and three master sizes give -a full series of uniform shape. - -The letterpress printed by the “Hereford Times,” Ltd., of Hereford. - -The half-tone blocks by Messrs. Emery Walker, Ltd., London, except six -kindly lent by the Woolhope Club. - -The illustrations and maps printed by Messrs. Ebenezer Baylis, -Worcester. - -The two-colour title by Mr. W. E. 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