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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..d7b82bc --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,4 @@ +*.txt text eol=lf +*.htm text eol=lf +*.html text eol=lf +*.md text eol=lf diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..ebd0850 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #69895 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/69895) diff --git a/old/69895-0.txt b/old/69895-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index a916353..0000000 --- a/old/69895-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,1133 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The farm and the woodlot, by J. E. -Barton - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The farm and the woodlot - -Author: J. E. Barton - -Release Date: January 29, 2023 [eBook #69895] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed Proofreading - Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from - images generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARM AND THE -WOODLOT *** - - - - - -[Illustration: Black locust grove in pasture on poor soil. Seed sown -in plowed land, in rows four feet apart. Nine years ago cultivated one -year, and since thinned twice. 197 trees on one-half acre will make 514 -posts (7′-3″). Photo by U. S. Forest Service.] - - - - - The Farm and the Woodlot - - By J. E. BARTON, - State Forester of Kentucky. - - Published by the direction of the State Board of - Forestry. - - GOVERNOR JAMES B. MCCREARY, - Chairman. - - JOHN W. NEWMAN, - Commissioner of Agriculture. - - JOSEPH H. KASTLE, - Director, Kentucky Experiment Station. - - HON. JOHNSON N. CAMDEN, - Versailles. - - HON. W. H. MACKOY, - Covington. - - MRS. MASON MAURY, - Louisville. - - - - - THE FARM AND THE WOODLOT - - - INTRODUCTION. - -Undoubtedly, one of the most important phases of the forestry work, -so far as the individual States are concerned, is the question of the -woodlot and its improvement. In the Eastern States――that is, those east -of the Mississippi River――a very considerable portion of the forested -areas within each State is in the form of woodlots which are a part -of and an adjunct to the farm so that in any comprehensive forest -policy for the Eastern United States a great deal of attention must be -focused upon this phase of the work. This is, undoubtedly, true so far -as Kentucky is concerned where, as a whole, the land is held in fee -simple by the citizens of the State as farms from a few acres in size -up to several thousand acres. By the majority of the owners of these -farms, the value and importance of the woodlot is little understood -nor has the practice of forestry as it applies to these woodlots any -significance whatsoever. The object of this bulletin is to make clear -just what forestry is, the relation of scientific forestry to the -improvement of the woodlot and the economical part which the farm -woodlot plays in the industrial and social welfare of the State. As a -matter of fact, this is one of the most difficult features of the work -to present properly, because it is a hard matter to make clear to the -average individual just why a woodlot is an asset in connection with -his property and how the improvement and care of his woodlot concerns -him closely and means a proportional increase directly in the actual -money value of the material on hand and indirectly in ways which do not -present themselves readily unless the attention is focused on them――as -for example, the value of a woodlot as a wind-break in connection with -an orchard or in connection with the farm as a whole, or the value of -a wooded area on an easily eroded hillside as a fixative for the soil -and a preventative against the deterioration of the cultivated areas -below it. The effort then of this bulletin will be――first, to show -how the average woodlot may be brought to a standard of productivity -compatible with the complete utilization of the ground, and second, to -show in detail what the direct and indirect benefits of a woodlot in -connection with any farm will be under the best circumstances. In the -preparation of this bulletin, free use has been made of all bulletins -and publications on this subject, which the writer has been able to get -hold of and acknowledgment is made to these as a whole, since it would -be impracticable to make complete individual acknowledgement. - - - WHAT IS FORESTRY? - -To the average individual, forestry as a science does not mean -very much. The impression is that it has to do with the trees, but -to what extent and how it deals with this question is by no means -thoroughly understood. In the first place, forestry deals with trees -as a community and not as an individual――that is, it deals with them -in the bulk and in this respect differs from kindred sciences where -the individual tree is a matter of concern. The forester is often -called upon to answer questions and discuss matters with relation to -shade trees or ornamental trees, but this is not a matter within his -province properly, but is a matter for the landscape architect or -horticulturist. Forestry primarily concerns itself with the planting -and growing of trees for sale at a profit. Occasionally forestry may -concern itself with the growing and raising of trees for purposes -where the money value of the crop, while it may not be as evident as -where the trees are placed on the market and sold, is nevertheless, a -real money consideration. This is the case, where certain areas are -planted for the purification and conservation of a city water supply. -Here the actual worth of the forest is the value to the people of the -city or community of pure drinking water. This will be the case in -the Catskill Mountains where enormous expenditures are being made for -supplying New York City with pure water and where the purity of this -water supply depends upon the maintenance of certain areas in forest -growth. Forestry then, so far as it relates to the farm and woodlot, -may be defined as dealing with trees as communities and the growing and -marketing of these trees for a profit. It is a simple proposition, the -same as raising corn. In raising corn, the ground is prepared, the seed -is planted at a certain time in the spring, the necessary attention is -given during the growing season and in the fall it is harvested and -sold. A certain price is obtained for the grain and a certain price for -the stalks, usually in the form of fodder for stock. The chief value -of the corn crop depends upon the number of bushels per acre of corn -(grain) that have been produced and the kind and quality of corn there -is to market. The kind and quality of the corn crop depends on the -selection of seed. All this is accomplished within a year’s time――the -planting, the harvesting, the cultivation and the sale of the product. -Forestry is exactly the same proposition. The stock is selected, the -trees are planted, the necessary attention is given them during the -growing period, and eventually the crop is harvested and marketed for -the best price obtainable. The value of the timber crop depends on -how much material you raise to the acre, the kind and quality of the -product you have to market and the demand in the market for the class -of material to which the timber crop is particularly adapted. The chief -difference is this: that, whereas, the corn crop has been planted, -harvested and marketed within one growing season, a forest crop takes -a period of growing seasons before it is ready to market. The precise -length of this period depends on the kind of material you are to raise, -as fence posts, ties, lumber, etc. - - - IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT. - -What then can be done to show the man most concerned, the farmer, the -importance of the improvement of his woodlot? First, an attempt will be -made to set forth the matter as clearly as possible in print, which is -the object of this bulletin; and the necessary steps will then be taken -to furnish an ocular demonstration of the facts herein set forth by -the establishment of nurseries and the maintenance of model woodlots. -On the big majority of farms in Kentucky, there are certain areas which -are not good farm land and never will be for a variety of reasons -(inferior soil, rocky soil, too steep a slope, etc.); but these lands -in most cases can produce timber crops and should be producing them, -since they are a commercial adjunct to the farm and bring in a revenue. -As Mr. W. F. Cook, of Hickman County, says, “It is a great deal more -valuable than giving the land over to weeds and wild briars.” - -Ordinarily, there is little or no attention paid to the woodlot on a -farm, and without attention a woodlot is in much the same condition -as a corn field in which no attention was paid to the kind of corn -planted, and which was not cultivated during the growing season. You -commonly find in a woodlot a great variety of trees, some of a valuable -species and some of more or less worthless species. You also find -crooked and defective and diseased trees, and further you ordinarily do -not find in any particular woodlot one-half the trees that the ground -will support, which is about the worst feature of all, since here is an -economic waste. - - - PURPOSES OF THE WOODLOT. - -When the improvement of the woodlot is seriously under consideration, -one of the first propositions is to determine just what purpose the -woodlot will serve in the economy of the farm. Ordinarily a woodlot -will be maintained for the following reasons: 1. To furnish fence -posts; 2. To furnish fuel; 3. As a shelter belt for certain areas -or for the whole farm; 4. As a protection on steep up-lands against -erosion; 5. As a means of regeneration of worn out land; 6. As an -investment pure and simple, without regard to immediate returns; 7. -For the aesthetic value. Any combination of these reasons may prevail -for the maintenance of a woodlot; however, each one of them will be -discussed in its turn as separate propositions. - -1. Probably one of the chief reasons for maintaining the woodlot on -farms in Kentucky from the purely utilitarian standpoint will be to -obtain fence posts. These are a commodity on the farm which cannot be -dispensed with and for which the demand is staple. Concrete may and -will at some future date, supersede wood as fence posts, especially -in rich easily accessible agricultural regions where farming is very -profitable and conducted as a business, but it will do this only -slowly in remote regions, and at the present time concrete posts are -not extensively used in any locality. A woodlot can then be reasonably -maintained for the production of fence posts. Ordinarily the posts -are largely consumed on the home farm, since they are more valuable -to the producer at this point than if he should sell them; however, -if there is a surplus, a market for this will not be lacking and the -price obtained will more than justify the cost of the establishment of -the woodlot and its maintenance up to the time of harvesting the crop. -In considering the species which lend themselves most readily to the -production of this class of products in Kentucky, undoubtedly, black -locust (Robinia pseudacacia) sometimes locally called yellow locust, -lends itself most readily to this purpose. It is indigenous to the -State, grows fairly rapidly and lasts a long time in contact with the -soil, three prime requisites of any species which is to be used in the -growing of this class of material. Other species which may be used are -catalpa (Catalpa speciosa), walnut, osage orange, chestnut and juniper -(also known locally as cedar or red cedar). - -2. As a general proposition, it appears that the maintenance of a -woodlot for the growing of fuel, so far as Kentucky is concerned, -is not an important consideration. So far as my observation goes -throughout the State――even in the rural districts――coal is the general -fuel in use on account of the abundance of supply and is in a large -number of ways cheaper and preferable to wood as a fuel. On this -account the woodlot will supply only a very small amount of fuel and -consideration of this matter is not important. If it does happen that a -supply of fuel wood is desirable or necessary on the farm, undoubtedly, -hickory and oak lend themselves most readily for this purpose. Any -species of hickory grows fairly rapidly, and certain species of oak, as -for instance red oak, makes a reasonably rapid growth. A woodlot for -this purpose would be managed as a sprout forest. - -3. The removal of forests and wooded areas of Kentucky has undoubtedly -resulted in certain climatic changes. These are principally to be -noticed in the prevalence of high winds which formerly did not exist, -and such winds have a marked effect on certain farm activities, as for -instance the handling of an orchard or the handling of stock. A shelter -belt, therefore, offers protection to the farm house and surrounding -buildings. To be of use, the shelter belt or wind break must be in the -direction of the prevailing winds. Further, since in all probability -a shelter belt is of most use and is most desirable in the winter -time, the component species in the shelter belt should be, to a large -extent, evergreens, so that the effectiveness may be as great in winter -as in summer. In connection with an orchard, a shelter belt or wind -break, undoubtedly, protects against cold and destructive currents of -air which injure the orchard in various ways either by injuring the -blossoms of the fruit, or at a later period, by injuring the fruit, -which is blown from the trees by the wind and left in bad condition for -shipping. - -The species then which should compose a shelter belt should, as far as -possible, have these characteristics. They should grow fast to furnish -the maximum amount of protection in the shortest space of time, and -should have as wide a usefulness as possible. So far as the majority -of instances are concerned, the shelter belt might have two objects. -The production of useful material for the farm as fence posts as well -as a wind break. In this case, it would be well to plant black locust -in conjunction with some evergreens, as white pine or Norway spruce, -hemlock or yellow pine. The number of evergreens which may be utilized -for this purpose in Kentucky are limited, but the number of hardwoods -which lend themselves to this purpose is very great, as for instance, -the hickories, ashes, black locust, poplars, tulip poplar, osage orange -and others. Beech also makes a good tree for the composition of a -shelter belt. - -[Illustration: Chestnut plantation, thirty years old. Photo by U. S. -Forest Service.] - -4. As a protection on a steep up-lands against erosion, the chief thing -is to establish a forest cover. The composition of the stand is more or -less immaterial although it is always desirable that the most readily -marketable species shall be used so that the woodlands in addition to -performing their protective function may also supply an actual revenue. -Therefore, as far as possible, the trees to be used should be the -ashes, oak, chestnut, hickories, maples and other species, whose value -in the lumber market is standard. The chief feature in regard to this -protective woodland is that the forest cover shall remain unbroken. - -5. As a means of regeneration of worn out land, especially hillsides, -which are liable to erosion and do not lend themselves easily to a -scientific rotation of crops, a forest cover is a very important factor -since it furnishes to the soil the essential humus and, when such -species as the black locust or honey locust are planted, it furnishes -the nitrogenous elements to the soil, since the locusts are legumes and -produce on their roots nodules of nitrifying organisms similar to those -found on the roots of alfalfa, cow-peas or soy beans. - -6. As a general proposition, the raising of lumber or timber by an -individual is out of the question on account of the length of time -which it takes to grow the better grades of this material. Ordinarily, -a tree fifty years old will furnish only the poorest grades of lumber -and usually only small dimension stock. Generally speaking, one hundred -years is not too small a calculation for the length of rotation when -lumber is the aim. In the event that any individual plants trees for -the production of the lumber, such planting is done as an investment -purely and simply since he can not expect to see the crop harvested -within his life time. The only monetary benefit that could possibly -accrue to the owner is from the material which may have to be thinned -out or in the event that he should desire to sell his farm when the -existence of a grove or woodland of healthy young trees would represent -an actual money value to the purchaser. In case planting for this -reason is made, the trees should be those which are the most valuable -lumber producing species, as for instance, the oaks, the ashes, -hickory, sweet gum, tulip poplar, white and yellow pines, basswood and -a few others. - -7. It may be that in connection with the farm the presence of a -grove of trees thereon will represent a value from the aesthetic and -science standpoint where the beauty of the landscape is a matter of -consideration to the owner of the land, or to any one who might desire -to purchase it. In this event the kind of tree is not so important as -the actual presence of trees of some kind. The general effect is the -main consideration, without regard to the individual features which -compose this effect. - - - FOREST TAXATION. - -One of the most important factors in connection with the consideration -of woodlots is the matter of taxation, and this is a matter which -so far as Kentucky is concerned, has had little attention. In the -first place, there is no classification of land within the State for -taxation purposes. It is a generally accepted theory among experts in -this matter at the present time that there is only one fair method -of taxation which may be applied to land maintained by the owner in -forest growth and that is that there should be a tax placed on the land -which shall be an annual tax, and another tax placed on the forest -crop =when it is harvested=. In no other manner does it seem probable -that reforestation of suitable areas throughout the State may be -accomplished, since in the first place, on account of the character of -the investment the owner of the land must be assured before hand just -what his taxes on the land are to be, and in the second place the risks -attendant upon the raising of a forest crop, because of the long period -of years before it reaches maturity, make it essential that the crop of -forest products shall be taxed at maturity when it is harvested, rather -than that an annual tax shall be imposed. Certain States have already -gone a long ways in this direction and Pennsylvania has recently -passed three laws dealing with the matter of forest taxation and the -classification of forest land which embrace the best features of recent -thought on this subject. The essentials of the recent Pennsylvania laws -are as follows: - -1. Classification of suitable land set aside by the owner for forest -purposes as auxiliary forest reserves. - -2. Agreement with the State to maintain such land in forest growth and -penalties for failure to carry out agreement. - -3. Assessment of land classified as auxiliary forest reserves at $1.00 -per acre annual tax. - -4. Payment by owner of 10 per cent of the value of the forest products -when harvested to the county to be distributed among the proper county -funds. - -5. Fixed charge on auxiliary forest reserve land of two cents per acre -for schools and two cents per acre for roads. - -Under these provisions it is obvious that the growing of timber on -suitable areas would be reduced to a practical business basis. - -Providing the tax question is sufficiently settled and definite for a -period of years the regeneration of the woodlot or the establishment -of one may be undertaken as a safe investment. So far as Kentucky -is concerned, the present tax laws and the manner of handling the -assessments in the counties are not such as to bear heavily on timbered -or wooded areas. In the event that a new classification of land is made -and new tax laws enacted every effort should be made to bring about -such a classification of forest land and such a system of taxation as -will encourage the reforestation of suitable areas and the regeneration -of the present woodlands. - - - REGENERATION OF THE WOODLOT. - -When the question of the regeneration of the woodlot is seriously -considered there are several points which stand out prominently as -follows: - - 1. Protection. - 2. Taking of stock. - 3. Removal of undesirable species. - 4. Selection of desirable species. - 5. Method of regeneration. - 6. Care and management. - -1. =Protection.= It is essential that a woodlot shall be protected if -it is to be an asset to the owner and brings him financial returns. -There are two destructive agencies against which he must make -special efforts, fire and stock. It may seem unnecessary to point -out the various bad effects which fire and stock have on woodlands, -but they are nevertheless here set forth in brief. =Fire= destroys -timber utterly, injures it so that it is subject to insect and fungi -attacks, lowers the grade of the timber, destroys or seriously injures -reproduction, destroys humus and lowers the productive capacity of the -soil. There is no way in which burning over a woodland improves the -character of the forest. =Stock= have a very injurious effect on trees, -especially young growth. Some stock eat up the nuts and berries and -seeds which are the means of reproducing the forest. Other stock browse -on the young trees which have started, destroying the young growth -altogether or seriously gnawing other trees thereby leaving them badly -malformed and depleted in vitality. By rubbing against small trees -stock also do a great deal of harm. So stock should be rigidly excluded -from the woodlot, or at least until all the trees are well developed -and even then no good is accomplished. If possible, the woodlot should -be well fenced. The other destructive agencies against which protection -may become necessary are insects and disease. If fire and stock are -excluded, the chances of insects and disease doing serious damage is -materially decreased. Diseases and insects are best kept in check by -keeping the wooded area clean of dead and decaying material. In case of -serious insect infestation it may in some cases pay to spray the trees, -but under ordinary conditions this is not practical. The common way of -fighting disease and insects is to cut down and burn all affected trees. - -2. =Taking of Stock.= The next step in the regeneration of our woodland -is to find out the extent and character of the stock on hand, for we -can not proceed intelligently without this knowledge. This taking of -stock may be a purely ocular process or it may be a detailed estimate -and description, depending on the extent of the woodland and the -desires of the owner. All reproduction should be accounted for as -well as the older stock on hand. The taking of stock should also -involve the division of species into desirable and undesirable species, -by desirable species being meant such species as it is desired to -encourage because of the demand for it in the local market or because -of the use which may be made of it by the owner on his farm. The -desirable species will usually include the fast growing species. - -3. =Removal of Undesirable Species and Trees.= The first actual work -in connection with the regeneration of the woodlot is the removal of -undesirable species. When this is undertaken the local market and other -markets should be carefully studied in order that, if possible, a sale -may be found for the material which is removed, so that the work may -pay for itself. In determining what are undesirable species there are -several factors which will govern and no specific list of trees can be -cited. The desire of the owner, the market for the material, rapidity -of growth and other features are among the important considerations. -Such trees as blue beach, horn beam, red bud, service berry and others -have no rightful place in a woodlot since they take up space without -furnishing any product of value, unless the wooded area is desired for -its aesthetic features. In a woodlot which is maintained for fence -posts and fuel it would be poor policy to retain any but those species -which make good fence post material and fuel and grow rapidly. In this -matter, common sense will go a long way. Also badly suppressed trees, -malformed and diseased or infected individuals should be removed as far -as practicable. - -4. =Selection of Desirable Species.= In the selection of desirable -species there are a large number of considerations, and the first of -these is the purpose of the owner in maintaining the woodlot. For -instance, if the owner desires fence posts, and fencing material, his -woodlot will, in Kentucky, be confined to those species which produce -such material =quickly=, as for example black locust, catalpa, chestnut -and walnut, also it will be well to have a percentage of red cedar -(juniper) in the mixture, for since red cedar grows comparatively -slowly, it may be reserved to be cut as the second crop and will serve -to shade the ground and prevent erosion when the faster growing -species have been cut and during the restocking of the area. If fuel as -well as fence post material is desired, a mixture including hickory, -oak and chestnut would be desirable. If ties, posts, poles or other -products are an object, certain species are desirable and are easily -grown. A list of trees suitable for various purposes is herewith given. -No species are included in this list which will not produce marketable -material repeatedly within the lifetime of a single individual. Only -in unusual cases is the raising of trees for lumber recommended as a -feasible or profitable venture for the individual farm owner. - -Fence posts and fencing material――Black locust, catalpa, chestnut, -walnut, oak, red cedar (juniper). - -Fuel――Oak, hickory, maple, chestnut. - -Poles――Chestnut, catalpa, red cedar. - -Ties――Black locust, catalpa, chestnut, walnut, oak. - -Vehicle material and handle stock――Hickory. - -5. =Methods of Regeneration.= There are several things which must be -done to secure a good forest over the area. If natural seeding is to -be depended upon for reproduction, the ground must be prepared to -receive the seed. Sometimes the sod will be so thick over the area -that seeds get no chance to generate. In this case, the sod should -be plowed up, if possible, or harrowed so that the seeds may have a -suitable opportunity to start. To do well, it is necessary that the -seeds and seedlings have easy access to the mineral soil. It may -be that the ground is so shaded that seedlings do not receive the -necessary sunlight. If this be so, sufficiently large openings should -be made in the forest cover to admit the required light. It may be that -natural seeding does not proceed rapidly enough and that this must be -supplemented by the sowing of seed artificially. When artificial sowing -is resorted to it will be found that there are several methods of -sowing which recommend themselves: broadcast, sowing in prepared rows, -sowing in prepared seed spots and sowing with a corn planter either in -rows or spots. This last method is recommended as being usually most -satisfactory and economical. Sowing with a corn planter can be resorted -to only in the case of small seeds. Large seeds, such as walnuts, -hickory nuts, etc., must be planted by hand, but when this is done they -are liable to be eaten by squirrels or other rodents, in which case it -may be necessary to plant such seeds in small protected seed beds and -then transplant the seedlings to the place where they are desired. - -If planting is to be depended upon for reforesting, the nursery stock -obtained should be small seedlings not over one or two years old or -transplants two to three years old. If the amount of planting to be -done is large, it may be wise to start seed beds close to the ground -where the planting is to be done and not to depend on commercial -nurseries for stock. - -6. =Care and Management.= It will be found that the care and management -of the woodlot is relatively a simple matter after the forest is -well established and that the character of the stock and the amount -and quality of the products will improve materially with management. -There are certain systems of management which recommend themselves -for woodlots such as the (1) simple coppice (2) pole wood coppice (3) -coppice with standards or variations of these. The three methods here -cited are briefly described. - -=Simple Coppice.= This is a system of management wherein all the stand -is cut and the restocking of the area is secured by sprouts from the -old stumps. Under this system the stand should be cut at an age not to -exceed twenty-five years and preferably about fifteen years, although -this is usually impossible from a commercial standpoint. The cutting -should be done in the late fall, winter or early spring. The stumps -should be cut low, smooth and slanting so as to shed water and prevent -decay. After a time under this system the sprouting capacity of the -stump is greatly reduced and arrangement must be made to secure new -individuals either by direct seeding or by planting. - -=Pole Wood Coppice.= This system involves the leaving of certain trees -until they reach the pole wood stage and are suitable for such products -as ties, poles, etc. It is a favorite method of handling woodlots. - -=Pole Wood Standards.= This system involves the leaving of a certain -few trees until they are of large size. Such trees should usually be -from the seed. - -In the management of the woodland, it will be necessary to make several -cuttings before the final cutting at the end of the rotation, usually -one or two. A thinning may early become necessary to give the best -specimens a better chance for growth. Sometimes two thinnings may be -required. Often a thinning may be required to secure reproduction by -opening up the forest cover and exposing the ground so that young -growth may have the opportunity to get started. - -In the final cutting, when all or the major part of the crop is cut, -the material should be removed from the ground as rapidly as possible -and the brush disposed of when practical. The disposal of brush will -usually take the form of lopping the limbs from the tops and scattering -them, so as to secure early decay of the waste material. Sometimes the -brush may be advantageously piled and burned. - - - CONCLUSION. - -No attempt has been made in this bulletin to deal exhaustively with -the woodlot problem. The desire has been to point the way for the -improvement of the woodlots in Kentucky. Individual cases deserve -specific consideration, and only the main features of the proposition -have been touched upon. The State Forester will cheerfully answer by -mail all questions relating to this subject so far as it is possible to -do so, and will give such personal advice and direction as the time at -his disposal and the circumstances warrant. A list of books, bulletins -and articles treating this subject is appended for those who desire to -go more deeply into the matter than is possible in a publication of -this character. The illustrations are from photographs loaned by the -Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture. - - -Akerman, A. Practical protection and improvement of the farm woodlot, -illustrated. (Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 1907, -v. 2: 330–33.) - -Akerman, Alfred. Spring work in the woodlot; planting white pine -seedlings. (New England Farmer, Montpelier, Vt., April 7, 1906, v. 85, -No. 14: 4.) - -Akerman, Alfred. Spring work in the woodlot. (New England Farmer, -Montpelier, Vt., April 28, 1906, v. 85, No. 17: 6.) - -Akerman, Alfred. Winter work in the woodlot. (New England Farmer, -Montpelier, Vt., March 3, 1906, v. 85, No. 9: 6.) - -Akerman, Alfred. Farm forestry. 22 p. Athens. Ga., 1909. (Georgia -Forest Association. Publication.) - -Ames, G. W. Practical forestry for farmers. (Society for Protection of -New Hampshire Forests. 7th annual report, 1909, p. 42–6.) - -Atkeson, T. C. The farmer’s woodlot. (West Virginia State Board of -Agriculture Report, 1908, p. 97–103.) - -Ayres, P. W. The care of the woodlot. (Society for the protection of -New Hampshire Forests. Fourth annual report, 1905–6, p. 50–1.) - -Baker, H. P. The farm woodlot in Pennsylvania. (Forest Leaves, -Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 1908, v. 11: 163–7.) - -Baker, J. Fred. The Michigan woodlot. 14 p., illustrated. East Lansing, -Mich., 1912. (Michigan Agricultural Experiment Station. Circular 17.) - -Balderson, R. W. The farm woodlot. (Forest Leaves, Philadelphia, Pa., -April 1905, v. 10: 25.) - -Besley, F. W. Woodlot forestry for Maryland farmers. 7 p. Baltimore, -Md. (Maryland State Board of Forestry leaflet No. 5.) - -Bogue, E. E. The farm woodlot. (Garfield, C. W. The Michigan forestry -commission and its work, 1905, p. 10–14.) - -Bogue, E. E. Woodlot thinning, illustrated. (Forestry and Irrigation, -Aug. 1906, v. 12: 385–8.) - -Bradfield, W. Standing timber in woodlots. (National Conservation -Commission. Report, 1909, p. 181–7.) - -Bryner, H. E. The improvement of farm woodlots. (Forest Leaves, -Philadelphia, Pa., June 1910, v. 12, No. 9: 133–5.) - -Campbell, M. E. The farm woodlot. (Michigan Forestry Commission. -Report, 1905–6, p. 87–90.) - -The care of the woodlot. (School World, Farmington, Me., Sept. 1908, p. -21–4.) - -The care of the farmers’ woodlot. (Michigan State Board of Agriculture. -Farmers’ Institutes, 1903–4, p. 80–6.) - -Clark, Judson F. Defects in the woodlot and how they may be remedied. -(Ontario Agricultural Experiment Union. Twenty-sixth annual report, -1904, p. 63–8.) - -Clark, J. F. The farmers’ woodlot, illustrated. (Ontario Forestry -Bureau. Annual report, 1904, p. 51–8.) - -Clark, J. F. The propagation of trees by farmers. (Ontario Bureau of -Forestry. Annual report, 1904, p. 334–50.) - -Clark, J. F. Woodlot forestry. (Michigan Forestry Commission. Report, -1903–4, p. 47–56.) - -Coulter, Stanley. Suggestions for the improvement of Indiana woodlots, -illustrated. (Indiana State Board of Forestry. Twelfth annual report, -1912, p. 85–106.) - -Coulter, Stanley. Woodlot conditions and possibilities. (Indiana State -Board of Forestry. Ninth and tenth annual report, 1909: 37–46; 1910: -126–35.) - -Davis, C. A. Woodlot studies. 16 p. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1906. - -Defebaugh, J. E. Relation of the lumber tariff to the value of farmers’ -woodlots. (American Lumberman, Chicago, Feb. 27, 1909, No. 1762: 39–40.) - -Every farmer his own forester. (Craftsman, June 1912, v. 22: 348–50.) - -Farm forestry. (Forest Fish and Game, N. Y., June 1909, v. 3, No. 1: -1–22.) - -Farmer and the forest. (Independent, N. Y., July 16, 1908, v. 65: -165–7.) - -Faville, E. E., and Reeves, E. The farmer and the woodlot. (Iowa Park -and Forestry Association. Proceedings, 1904, p. 25–30.) - -Ferguson, J. A. The importance of the farm woodlot. (Pennsylvania State -College, May 1911, v. 4, No. 1: 18–21.) - -Ferguson, Meade. The forest and the farmer. (Southern Planter, Richmond, -March 1913, v. 74: 315–21.) - -Fernow, B. E. Farm woodlot, illustrated. (Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of -American Agriculture, 1907, v. 2: 313–23.) - -Fisher, R. T. Forestry for Southern New England woodlots. (Forestry and -Irrigation, Washington, D. C., March 1903, v. 9, No. 3: 120–1.) - -Foster, J. H. Improving the farm woodlot. 1 p. Durham, N. H., 1912. -(New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station. Press bulletin 11.) - -Foster, J. H. Suggestions for cutting waste pine lots. 1 p. Durham, N. -H. (New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment Station. Press bulletin 22.) - -Fyles, Thos. W. The farmer’s woodlot. (Ontario Entomological Society. -Thirty-ninth annual report, 1908, p. 138–45.) - -Gaskill, Alfred. Let’s not overlook the woodlots. (Forestry Quarterly, -Washington, D. C., March 1913, v. 11: 58–61.) - -Gifford, John. The forest in relation to the farm, illustrated. (New -Jersey State Board of Agriculture, twenty-third annual report, 1895, p. -170–178.) - -Gifford, John. Forestry for the farm. (Connecticut Board of Agriculture. -Thirty-sixth annual report, 1902, p. 85–95.) - -Goetz, C. H. Need of farm woodlots in the Central States. (Forest -Leaves, April 1911, v. 13, No. 2: 21–3.) - -Goetz, C. H. Practical work on the woodlot. (Forest Leaves, -Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 1912, v. 13: 107–8.) - -Graves, Henry Solon and Fisher, R. T. The woodlot. 89 p. pl. Washington, -D. C., 1903. (United States Agricultural Department of Forest Service. -Bulletin 42.) - -Haines, A. S. A study of the chestnut woodlot. (9 Forest Leaves, -Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 1901, v. 8, No. 10: 150–1.) - -Hawes, A. F. The farmers’ woodlot. (Vermont State Forester. Annual -report, first, 1908–9, p. 166–72.) - -Hazard, James O. An example of woodlot forestry. 23 p. pl. Trenton, N. -J., 1912. - -House, H. D. Improvement of the woodlot. 14 p., illustrated. Columbia, -S. C., 1907. (South Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station. Bulletin -129.) - -Hutt, W. N. Management of the farmers’ woodlot, illustrated. (Cornell -Countryman, 1907, v. 4, No. 5: 128–34.) - -The importance of the farm woodlot. (Pennsylvania State Farmer, -Pennsylvania State College, May 1910, v. 333, No. 4: 82–85.) - -Jackson, E. R. Forestry and the farmer. (University of Virginia. Alumni -Bulletin. Aug. 1911, ser. 3, v. 4, No. 4: 417–25.) - -Kellogg, R. S. Farm forestry in Michigan, illustrated. (Michigan State -Board of Agriculture of Michigan Farmers’ Institutes, 1907–8, p. 61–70.) - -Knechtel, A. Making a woodlot from seed. 7 p. Albany, N. Y., 1907. - -Meller, C. L. The prairie farmer’s tree problem, illustrated. (Country -Gentleman, Dec. 14, 1912, v. 77, No. 50: 3–32.) - -Miller, F. G. The farm woodlot in Michigan. (Forestry and Irrigation, -Washington, D. C., April 1903, v. 9, No. 4: 187–9.) - -Mulford, Walter. The improvement of the woodlot. 24 p., illustrated. -Ithaca, N. Y., 1912. (Cornell Reading Courses, v. 1, No. 12; Farm -Forestry Series, No. 1.) - -Payne, W. F. Value to a farm of a woodlot, illustrated. (Canadian -Forestry Journal, Ottawa, March, April 1912, v. 8: 51–53.) - -Price, O. W. First principles of woodlot management, illustrated. -(Farming, Toronto, Oct. 1906, v. 2: 93–4.) - -Records, P. C. The value of a woodlot. (Northwoods, St. Paul, April -1913, v. 2: 7–14.) - -Record, Samuel James. What is the woodlot worth? illustrated. (Country -Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 7, 1912, p. 5–8.) - -Reynolds, L. C. Protect the farm woodlot. (New York Tribune Farmer, -July 16, 1908, p. 9.) - -Schwartz, G. F. Productive possibilities, common deficiencies and how -to improve the woodlot, illustrated. (In United States Department of -Agriculture, Forest Service. Bulletin 44, p. 21–7.) - - - * * * * * - - - Transcriber’s Notes: - - ――Text in bold is enclosed by equals signs (=bold=). - - ――Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected. - - ――Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved. - - ――Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved. - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARM AND THE WOODLOT *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. 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E. Barton</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The farm and the woodlot</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: J. E. Barton</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 29, 2023 [eBook #69895]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Donald Cummings and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARM AND THE WOODLOT ***</div> - - -<div class="figcenter" id="cover_sm"> - <img src="images/cover_sm.jpg" alt="cover" title="cover"> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<div class="figcenter" id="i_frontis"> - <img src="images/i_frontis.jpg" alt="" title=""> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">Black locust grove in pasture on poor soil. Seed sown in plowed land, in rows four feet apart. Nine -years ago cultivated one year, and since thinned twice. 197 trees on one-half acre -will make 514 posts (7′-3″). Photo by U. S. Forest Service.</p> - </div> -</div> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h1 class="nobreak">The Farm and the Woodlot</h1> - -<p class="p2 noic">By J. E. BARTON,<br> -State Forester of Kentucky.</p> - -<p class="p2 noic">Published by the direction of the State Board of -Forestry.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">Governor James B. McCreary</span>,<br> -Chairman.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">John W. Newman</span>,<br> -Commissioner of Agriculture.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">Joseph H. Kastle</span>,<br> -Director, Kentucky Experiment Station.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">Hon. Johnson N. Camden</span>,<br> -Versailles.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">Hon. W. H. Mackoy</span>,<br> -Covington.</p> - -<p class="noic"><span class="smcap">Mrs. Mason Maury</span>,<br> -Louisville.</p> -</div> - - - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">THE FARM AND THE WOODLOT</h2> - - -<h3 class="nobreak">INTRODUCTION.</h3> -</div> - -<p>Undoubtedly, one of the most important phases of the -forestry work, so far as the individual States are concerned, -is the question of the woodlot and its improvement. In the -Eastern States—that is, those east of the Mississippi River—a -very considerable portion of the forested areas within each -State is in the form of woodlots which are a part of and an -adjunct to the farm so that in any comprehensive forest policy -for the Eastern United States a great deal of attention must -be focused upon this phase of the work. This is, undoubtedly, -true so far as Kentucky is concerned where, as a whole, the -land is held in fee simple by the citizens of the State as farms -from a few acres in size up to several thousand acres. By the -majority of the owners of these farms, the value and importance -of the woodlot is little understood nor has the practice -of forestry as it applies to these woodlots any significance -whatsoever. The object of this bulletin is to make clear just -what forestry is, the relation of scientific forestry to the improvement -of the woodlot and the economical part which the -farm woodlot plays in the industrial and social welfare of the -State. As a matter of fact, this is one of the most difficult -features of the work to present properly, because it is a hard -matter to make clear to the average individual just why a -woodlot is an asset in connection with his property and how -the improvement and care of his woodlot concerns him closely -and means a proportional increase directly in the actual money -value of the material on hand and indirectly in ways which -do not present themselves readily unless the attention is -focused on them—as for example, the value of a woodlot as -a wind-break in connection with an orchard or in connection -with the farm as a whole, or the value of a wooded area on an<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -easily eroded hillside as a fixative for the soil and a preventative -against the deterioration of the cultivated areas below -it. The effort then of this bulletin will be—first, to show how -the average woodlot may be brought to a standard of productivity -compatible with the complete utilization of the -ground, and second, to show in detail what the direct and indirect -benefits of a woodlot in connection with any farm will be -under the best circumstances. In the preparation of this bulletin, -free use has been made of all bulletins and publications -on this subject, which the writer has been able to get hold of -and acknowledgment is made to these as a whole, since it -would be impracticable to make complete individual acknowledgement.</p> - - -<h3>WHAT IS FORESTRY?</h3> - -<p>To the average individual, forestry as a science does not -mean very much. The impression is that it has to do with the -trees, but to what extent and how it deals with this question -is by no means thoroughly understood. In the first place, forestry -deals with trees as a community and not as an individual—that -is, it deals with them in the bulk and in this respect -differs from kindred sciences where the individual tree is a -matter of concern. The forester is often called upon to answer -questions and discuss matters with relation to shade trees or -ornamental trees, but this is not a matter within his province -properly, but is a matter for the landscape architect or horticulturist. -Forestry primarily concerns itself with the planting -and growing of trees for sale at a profit. Occasionally -forestry may concern itself with the growing and raising of -trees for purposes where the money value of the crop, while it -may not be as evident as where the trees are placed on the -market and sold, is nevertheless, a real money consideration. -This is the case, where certain areas are planted for the purification -and conservation of a city water supply. Here the -actual worth of the forest is the value to the people of the -city or community of pure drinking water. This will be the -case in the Catskill Mountains where enormous expenditures -are being made for supplying New York City with pure water<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -and where the purity of this water supply depends upon the -maintenance of certain areas in forest growth. Forestry then, -so far as it relates to the farm and woodlot, may be defined -as dealing with trees as communities and the growing and -marketing of these trees for a profit. It is a simple proposition, -the same as raising corn. In raising corn, the ground -is prepared, the seed is planted at a certain time in the spring, -the necessary attention is given during the growing season -and in the fall it is harvested and sold. A certain price is -obtained for the grain and a certain price for the stalks, -usually in the form of fodder for stock. The chief value of the -corn crop depends upon the number of bushels per acre of -corn (grain) that have been produced and the kind and quality -of corn there is to market. The kind and quality of the corn -crop depends on the selection of seed. All this is accomplished -within a year’s time—the planting, the harvesting, the cultivation -and the sale of the product. Forestry is exactly the -same proposition. The stock is selected, the trees are planted, -the necessary attention is given them during the growing -period, and eventually the crop is harvested and marketed for -the best price obtainable. The value of the timber crop depends -on how much material you raise to the acre, the kind -and quality of the product you have to market and the demand -in the market for the class of material to which the -timber crop is particularly adapted. The chief difference is -this: that, whereas, the corn crop has been planted, harvested -and marketed within one growing season, a forest crop takes -a period of growing seasons before it is ready to market. The -precise length of this period depends on the kind of material -you are to raise, as fence posts, ties, lumber, etc.</p> - - -<h3>IMPROVEMENT OF THE WOODLOT.</h3> - -<p>What then can be done to show the man most concerned, -the farmer, the importance of the improvement of his woodlot? -First, an attempt will be made to set forth the matter -as clearly as possible in print, which is the object of this -bulletin; and the necessary steps will then be taken to furnish -an ocular demonstration of the facts herein set forth by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -establishment of nurseries and the maintenance of model -woodlots. On the big majority of farms in Kentucky, there -are certain areas which are not good farm land and never will -be for a variety of reasons (inferior soil, rocky soil, too steep -a slope, etc.); but these lands in most cases can produce timber -crops and should be producing them, since they are a commercial -adjunct to the farm and bring in a revenue. As Mr. W. -F. Cook, of Hickman County, says, “It is a great deal more -valuable than giving the land over to weeds and wild briars.”</p> - -<p>Ordinarily, there is little or no attention paid to the woodlot -on a farm, and without attention a woodlot is in much the -same condition as a corn field in which no attention was paid -to the kind of corn planted, and which was not cultivated -during the growing season. You commonly find in a woodlot -a great variety of trees, some of a valuable species and some -of more or less worthless species. You also find crooked and -defective and diseased trees, and further you ordinarily do -not find in any particular woodlot one-half the trees that the -ground will support, which is about the worst feature of all, -since here is an economic waste.</p> - - -<h3>PURPOSES OF THE WOODLOT.</h3> - -<p>When the improvement of the woodlot is seriously under -consideration, one of the first propositions is to determine just -what purpose the woodlot will serve in the economy of the -farm. Ordinarily a woodlot will be maintained for the following -reasons: 1. To furnish fence posts; 2. To furnish fuel; -3. As a shelter belt for certain areas or for the whole farm; -4. As a protection on steep up-lands against erosion; 5. As a -means of regeneration of worn out land; 6. As an investment -pure and simple, without regard to immediate returns; 7. For -the aesthetic value. Any combination of these reasons may -prevail for the maintenance of a woodlot; however, each one -of them will be discussed in its turn as separate propositions.</p> - -<p>1. Probably one of the chief reasons for maintaining the -woodlot on farms in Kentucky from the purely utilitarian -standpoint will be to obtain fence posts. These are a commodity<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -on the farm which cannot be dispensed with and for which -the demand is staple. Concrete may and will at some future -date, supersede wood as fence posts, especially in rich easily -accessible agricultural regions where farming is very profitable -and conducted as a business, but it will do this only -slowly in remote regions, and at the present time concrete -posts are not extensively used in any locality. A woodlot -can then be reasonably maintained for the production of fence -posts. Ordinarily the posts are largely consumed on the -home farm, since they are more valuable to the producer at -this point than if he should sell them; however, if there is a -surplus, a market for this will not be lacking and the price -obtained will more than justify the cost of the establishment -of the woodlot and its maintenance up to the time of harvesting -the crop. In considering the species which lend themselves -most readily to the production of this class of products -in Kentucky, undoubtedly, black locust (Robinia pseudacacia) -sometimes locally called yellow locust, lends itself most readily -to this purpose. It is indigenous to the State, grows -fairly rapidly and lasts a long time in contact with the soil, -three prime requisites of any species which is to be used in -the growing of this class of material. Other species which may -be used are catalpa (Catalpa speciosa), walnut, osage orange, -chestnut and juniper (also known locally as cedar or red -cedar).</p> - -<p>2. As a general proposition, it appears that the maintenance -of a woodlot for the growing of fuel, so far as Kentucky -is concerned, is not an important consideration. So far -as my observation goes throughout the State—even in the -rural districts—coal is the general fuel in use on account of -the abundance of supply and is in a large number of ways -cheaper and preferable to wood as a fuel. On this account -the woodlot will supply only a very small amount of fuel -and consideration of this matter is not important. If it does -happen that a supply of fuel wood is desirable or necessary -on the farm, undoubtedly, hickory and oak lend themselves -most readily for this purpose. Any species of hickory grows -fairly rapidly, and certain species of oak, as for instance red<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -oak, makes a reasonably rapid growth. A woodlot for this -purpose would be managed as a sprout forest.</p> - -<p>3. The removal of forests and wooded areas of Kentucky -has undoubtedly resulted in certain climatic changes. These -are principally to be noticed in the prevalence of high winds -which formerly did not exist, and such winds have a marked -effect on certain farm activities, as for instance the handling -of an orchard or the handling of stock. A shelter belt, therefore, -offers protection to the farm house and surrounding -buildings. To be of use, the shelter belt or wind break must -be in the direction of the prevailing winds. Further, since -in all probability a shelter belt is of most use and is most desirable -in the winter time, the component species in the shelter -belt should be, to a large extent, evergreens, so that the effectiveness -may be as great in winter as in summer. In connection -with an orchard, a shelter belt or wind break, undoubtedly, -protects against cold and destructive currents of -air which injure the orchard in various ways either by injuring -the blossoms of the fruit, or at a later period, by injuring -the fruit, which is blown from the trees by the wind -and left in bad condition for shipping.</p> - -<p>The species then which should compose a shelter belt -should, as far as possible, have these characteristics. They -should grow fast to furnish the maximum amount of protection -in the shortest space of time, and should have as wide a usefulness -as possible. So far as the majority of instances are -concerned, the shelter belt might have two objects. The production -of useful material for the farm as fence posts as well -as a wind break. In this case, it would be well to plant black -locust in conjunction with some evergreens, as white pine or -Norway spruce, hemlock or yellow pine. The number of -evergreens which may be utilized for this purpose in Kentucky -are limited, but the number of hardwoods which lend themselves -to this purpose is very great, as for instance, the hickories, -ashes, black locust, poplars, tulip poplar, osage orange -and others. Beech also makes a good tree for the composition -of a shelter belt.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter" id="i_p009"> - <img src="images/i_p009.jpg" alt="" title=""> - <div class="caption"> - <p class="noic">Chestnut plantation, thirty years old. Photo by U. S. Forest Service.</p> - </div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p> - -<p>4. As a protection on a steep up-lands against erosion, -the chief thing is to establish a forest cover. The composition -of the stand is more or less immaterial although it is -always desirable that the most readily marketable species -shall be used so that the woodlands in addition to performing -their protective function may also supply an actual revenue. -Therefore, as far as possible, the trees to be used should be -the ashes, oak, chestnut, hickories, maples and other species, -whose value in the lumber market is standard. The chief -feature in regard to this protective woodland is that the -forest cover shall remain unbroken.</p> - -<p>5. As a means of regeneration of worn out land, especially -hillsides, which are liable to erosion and do not lend -themselves easily to a scientific rotation of crops, a forest -cover is a very important factor since it furnishes to the soil -the essential humus and, when such species as the black locust -or honey locust are planted, it furnishes the nitrogenous elements -to the soil, since the locusts are legumes and produce -on their roots nodules of nitrifying organisms similar to those -found on the roots of alfalfa, cow-peas or soy beans.</p> - -<p>6. As a general proposition, the raising of lumber or timber -by an individual is out of the question on account of the -length of time which it takes to grow the better grades of -this material. Ordinarily, a tree fifty years old will furnish -only the poorest grades of lumber and usually only small -dimension stock. Generally speaking, one hundred years is -not too small a calculation for the length of rotation when -lumber is the aim. In the event that any individual plants -trees for the production of the lumber, such planting is done -as an investment purely and simply since he can not expect -to see the crop harvested within his life time. The only monetary -benefit that could possibly accrue to the owner is from -the material which may have to be thinned out or in the event -that he should desire to sell his farm when the existence of a -grove or woodland of healthy young trees would represent an -actual money value to the purchaser. In case planting for this -reason is made, the trees should be those which are the most -valuable lumber producing species, as for instance, the oaks,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -the ashes, hickory, sweet gum, tulip poplar, white and yellow -pines, basswood and a few others.</p> - -<p>7. It may be that in connection with the farm the presence -of a grove of trees thereon will represent a value from the -aesthetic and science standpoint where the beauty of the landscape -is a matter of consideration to the owner of the land, or -to any one who might desire to purchase it. In this event -the kind of tree is not so important as the actual presence of -trees of some kind. The general effect is the main consideration, -without regard to the individual features which compose -this effect.</p> - - -<h3>FOREST TAXATION.</h3> - -<p>One of the most important factors in connection with the -consideration of woodlots is the matter of taxation, and this -is a matter which so far as Kentucky is concerned, has had -little attention. In the first place, there is no classification of -land within the State for taxation purposes. It is a generally -accepted theory among experts in this matter at the present -time that there is only one fair method of taxation which may -be applied to land maintained by the owner in forest growth -and that is that there should be a tax placed on the land which -shall be an annual tax, and another tax placed on the forest -crop <b>when it is harvested</b>. In no other manner does it seem -probable that reforestation of suitable areas throughout the -State may be accomplished, since in the first place, on account -of the character of the investment the owner of the land must -be assured before hand just what his taxes on the land are to -be, and in the second place the risks attendant upon the raising -of a forest crop, because of the long period of years before -it reaches maturity, make it essential that the crop of forest -products shall be taxed at maturity when it is harvested, rather -than that an annual tax shall be imposed. Certain States -have already gone a long ways in this direction and Pennsylvania -has recently passed three laws dealing with the matter -of forest taxation and the classification of forest land which -embrace the best features of recent thought on this subject. -The essentials of the recent Pennsylvania laws are as follows:</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - -<p>1. Classification of suitable land set aside by the owner -for forest purposes as auxiliary forest reserves.</p> - -<p>2. Agreement with the State to maintain such land in -forest growth and penalties for failure to carry out agreement.</p> - -<p>3. Assessment of land classified as auxiliary forest reserves -at $1.00 per acre annual tax.</p> - -<p>4. Payment by owner of 10 per cent of the value of the -forest products when harvested to the county to be distributed -among the proper county funds.</p> - -<p>5. Fixed charge on auxiliary forest reserve land of two -cents per acre for schools and two cents per acre for roads.</p> - -<p>Under these provisions it is obvious that the growing of -timber on suitable areas would be reduced to a practical business -basis.</p> - -<p>Providing the tax question is sufficiently settled and definite -for a period of years the regeneration of the woodlot or -the establishment of one may be undertaken as a safe investment. -So far as Kentucky is concerned, the present tax laws -and the manner of handling the assessments in the counties -are not such as to bear heavily on timbered or wooded areas. -In the event that a new classification of land is made and new -tax laws enacted every effort should be made to bring about -such a classification of forest land and such a system of taxation -as will encourage the reforestation of suitable areas and -the regeneration of the present woodlands.</p> - - -<h3>REGENERATION OF THE WOODLOT.</h3> - -<p>When the question of the regeneration of the woodlot -is seriously considered there are several points which stand -out prominently as follows:</p> - -<ol> -<li>Protection.</li> -<li>Taking of stock.</li> -<li>Removal of undesirable species.</li> -<li>Selection of desirable species.</li> -<li>Method of regeneration.</li> -<li>Care and management.</li> -</ol> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span></p> - -<p>1. <b>Protection.</b> It is essential that a woodlot shall be protected -if it is to be an asset to the owner and brings him -financial returns. There are two destructive agencies against -which he must make special efforts, fire and stock. It may -seem unnecessary to point out the various bad effects which -fire and stock have on woodlands, but they are nevertheless -here set forth in brief. <b>Fire</b> destroys timber utterly, injures -it so that it is subject to insect and fungi attacks, lowers the -grade of the timber, destroys or seriously injures reproduction, -destroys humus and lowers the productive capacity of the -soil. There is no way in which burning over a woodland improves -the character of the forest. <b>Stock</b> have a very injurious -effect on trees, especially young growth. Some stock -eat up the nuts and berries and seeds which are the means of -reproducing the forest. Other stock browse on the young -trees which have started, destroying the young growth altogether -or seriously gnawing other trees thereby leaving them -badly malformed and depleted in vitality. By rubbing against -small trees stock also do a great deal of harm. So stock should -be rigidly excluded from the woodlot, or at least until all -the trees are well developed and even then no good is accomplished. -If possible, the woodlot should be well fenced. The -other destructive agencies against which protection may become -necessary are insects and disease. If fire and stock are -excluded, the chances of insects and disease doing serious -damage is materially decreased. Diseases and insects are -best kept in check by keeping the wooded area clean of dead -and decaying material. In case of serious insect infestation it -may in some cases pay to spray the trees, but under ordinary -conditions this is not practical. The common way of fighting -disease and insects is to cut down and burn all affected trees.</p> - -<p>2. <b>Taking of Stock.</b> The next step in the regeneration -of our woodland is to find out the extent and character of -the stock on hand, for we can not proceed intelligently without -this knowledge. This taking of stock may be a purely -ocular process or it may be a detailed estimate and description, -depending on the extent of the woodland and the desires -of the owner. All reproduction should be accounted for as well<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -as the older stock on hand. The taking of stock should also -involve the division of species into desirable and undesirable -species, by desirable species being meant such species as it is -desired to encourage because of the demand for it in the local -market or because of the use which may be made of it by -the owner on his farm. The desirable species will usually include -the fast growing species.</p> - -<p>3. <b>Removal of Undesirable Species and Trees.</b> The first -actual work in connection with the regeneration of the woodlot -is the removal of undesirable species. When this is undertaken -the local market and other markets should be carefully -studied in order that, if possible, a sale may be found for the -material which is removed, so that the work may pay for itself. -In determining what are undesirable species there are several -factors which will govern and no specific list of trees can be -cited. The desire of the owner, the market for the material, -rapidity of growth and other features are among the important -considerations. Such trees as blue beach, horn beam, red -bud, service berry and others have no rightful place in a -woodlot since they take up space without furnishing any product -of value, unless the wooded area is desired for its aesthetic -features. In a woodlot which is maintained for fence -posts and fuel it would be poor policy to retain any but those -species which make good fence post material and fuel and grow -rapidly. In this matter, common sense will go a long way. -Also badly suppressed trees, malformed and diseased or infected -individuals should be removed as far as practicable.</p> - -<p>4. <b>Selection of Desirable Species.</b> In the selection of desirable -species there are a large number of considerations, and -the first of these is the purpose of the owner in maintaining -the woodlot. For instance, if the owner desires fence posts, -and fencing material, his woodlot will, in Kentucky, be confined -to those species which produce such material <b>quickly</b>, -as for example black locust, catalpa, chestnut and walnut, -also it will be well to have a percentage of red cedar (juniper) -in the mixture, for since red cedar grows comparatively -slowly, it may be reserved to be cut as the second crop and will -serve to shade the ground and prevent erosion when the faster<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -growing species have been cut and during the restocking -of the area. If fuel as well as fence post material is desired, -a mixture including hickory, oak and chestnut would -be desirable. If ties, posts, poles or other products are an -object, certain species are desirable and are easily grown. A -list of trees suitable for various purposes is herewith given. -No species are included in this list which will not produce -marketable material repeatedly within the lifetime of a single -individual. Only in unusual cases is the raising of trees for -lumber recommended as a feasible or profitable venture for -the individual farm owner.</p> - -<p>Fence posts and fencing material—Black locust, catalpa, -chestnut, walnut, oak, red cedar (juniper).</p> - -<p>Fuel—Oak, hickory, maple, chestnut.</p> - -<p>Poles—Chestnut, catalpa, red cedar.</p> - -<p>Ties—Black locust, catalpa, chestnut, walnut, oak.</p> - -<p>Vehicle material and handle stock—Hickory.</p> - -<p>5. <b>Methods of Regeneration.</b> There are several things -which must be done to secure a good forest over the area. If -natural seeding is to be depended upon for reproduction, the -ground must be prepared to receive the seed. Sometimes the -sod will be so thick over the area that seeds get no chance -to generate. In this case, the sod should be plowed up, if possible, -or harrowed so that the seeds may have a suitable opportunity -to start. To do well, it is necessary that the seeds and -seedlings have easy access to the mineral soil. It may be that -the ground is so shaded that seedlings do not receive the necessary -sunlight. If this be so, sufficiently large openings -should be made in the forest cover to admit the required -light. It may be that natural seeding does not proceed rapidly -enough and that this must be supplemented by the sowing -of seed artificially. When artificial sowing is resorted to -it will be found that there are several methods of sowing -which recommend themselves: broadcast, sowing in prepared -rows, sowing in prepared seed spots and sowing with a corn -planter either in rows or spots. This last method is recommended -as being usually most satisfactory and economical. -Sowing with a corn planter can be resorted to only in the case<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -of small seeds. Large seeds, such as walnuts, hickory nuts, -etc., must be planted by hand, but when this is done they are -liable to be eaten by squirrels or other rodents, in which case -it may be necessary to plant such seeds in small protected -seed beds and then transplant the seedlings to the place -where they are desired.</p> - -<p>If planting is to be depended upon for reforesting, the -nursery stock obtained should be small seedlings not over one -or two years old or transplants two to three years old. If the -amount of planting to be done is large, it may be wise to -start seed beds close to the ground where the planting is to be -done and not to depend on commercial nurseries for stock.</p> - -<p>6. <b>Care and Management.</b> It will be found that the care -and management of the woodlot is relatively a simple matter -after the forest is well established and that the character of -the stock and the amount and quality of the products will -improve materially with management. There are certain -systems of management which recommend themselves for -woodlots such as the (1) simple coppice (2) pole wood coppice -(3) coppice with standards or variations of these. The three -methods here cited are briefly described.</p> - -<p><b>Simple Coppice.</b> This is a system of management wherein -all the stand is cut and the restocking of the area is secured by -sprouts from the old stumps. Under this system the stand -should be cut at an age not to exceed twenty-five years and -preferably about fifteen years, although this is usually impossible -from a commercial standpoint. The cutting should -be done in the late fall, winter or early spring. The stumps -should be cut low, smooth and slanting so as to shed water -and prevent decay. After a time under this system the sprouting -capacity of the stump is greatly reduced and arrangement -must be made to secure new individuals either by direct seeding -or by planting.</p> - -<p><b>Pole Wood Coppice.</b> This system involves the leaving of -certain trees until they reach the pole wood stage and are -suitable for such products as ties, poles, etc. It is a favorite -method of handling woodlots.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span></p> - -<p><b>Pole Wood Standards.</b> This system involves the leaving -of a certain few trees until they are of large size. Such -trees should usually be from the seed.</p> - -<p>In the management of the woodland, it will be necessary -to make several cuttings before the final cutting at the end of -the rotation, usually one or two. A thinning may early become -necessary to give the best specimens a better chance -for growth. Sometimes two thinnings may be required. Often -a thinning may be required to secure reproduction by opening -up the forest cover and exposing the ground so that young -growth may have the opportunity to get started.</p> - -<p>In the final cutting, when all or the major part of the crop -is cut, the material should be removed from the ground as -rapidly as possible and the brush disposed of when practical. -The disposal of brush will usually take the form of lopping -the limbs from the tops and scattering them, so as to secure -early decay of the waste material. Sometimes the brush -may be advantageously piled and burned.</p> - - -<h3>CONCLUSION.</h3> - -<p>No attempt has been made in this bulletin to deal exhaustively -with the woodlot problem. The desire has been to -point the way for the improvement of the woodlots in Kentucky. -Individual cases deserve specific consideration, and -only the main features of the proposition have been touched -upon. The State Forester will cheerfully answer by mail all -questions relating to this subject so far as it is possible to do -so, and will give such personal advice and direction as the time -at his disposal and the circumstances warrant. A list of books, -bulletins and articles treating this subject is appended for -those who desire to go more deeply into the matter than is -possible in a publication of this character. The illustrations -are from photographs loaned by the Forest Service, United -States Department of Agriculture.</p> - - -<p class="p2 hang">Akerman, A. Practical protection and improvement of the -farm woodlot, illustrated. (Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of -American Agriculture, 1907, v. 2: 330–33.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span></p> - -<p class="hang">Akerman, Alfred. Spring work in the woodlot; planting -white pine seedlings. (New England Farmer, Montpelier, -Vt., April 7, 1906, v. 85, No. 14: 4.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Akerman, Alfred. Spring work in the woodlot. (New England -Farmer, Montpelier, Vt., April 28, 1906, v. 85, No. -17: 6.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Akerman, Alfred. Winter work in the woodlot. (New England -Farmer, Montpelier, Vt., March 3, 1906, v. 85, No. -9: 6.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Akerman, Alfred. Farm forestry. 22 p. Athens. Ga., 1909. -(Georgia Forest Association. Publication.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Ames, G. W. Practical forestry for farmers. (Society for -Protection of New Hampshire Forests. 7th annual report, -1909, p. 42–6.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Atkeson, T. C. The farmer’s woodlot. (West Virginia State -Board of Agriculture Report, 1908, p. 97–103.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Ayres, P. W. The care of the woodlot. (Society for the protection -of New Hampshire Forests. Fourth annual report, -1905–6, p. 50–1.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Baker, H. P. The farm woodlot in Pennsylvania. (Forest -Leaves, Philadelphia, Pa., Oct. 1908, v. 11: 163–7.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Baker, J. Fred. The Michigan woodlot. 14 p., illustrated. -East Lansing, Mich., 1912. (Michigan Agricultural Experiment -Station. Circular 17.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Balderson, R. W. The farm woodlot. (Forest Leaves, Philadelphia, -Pa., April 1905, v. 10: 25.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Besley, F. W. Woodlot forestry for Maryland farmers. 7 p. -Baltimore, Md. (Maryland State Board of Forestry -leaflet No. 5.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Bogue, E. E. The farm woodlot. (Garfield, C. W. The Michigan -forestry commission and its work, 1905, p. 10–14.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Bogue, E. E. Woodlot thinning, illustrated. (Forestry and -Irrigation, Aug. 1906, v. 12: 385–8.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Bradfield, W. Standing timber in woodlots. (National Conservation -Commission. Report, 1909, p. 181–7.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Bryner, H. E. The improvement of farm woodlots. (Forest -Leaves, Philadelphia, Pa., June 1910, v. 12, No. 9: 133–5.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<p class="hang">Campbell, M. E. The farm woodlot. (Michigan Forestry -Commission. Report, 1905–6, p. 87–90.)</p> - -<p class="hang">The care of the woodlot. (School World, Farmington, Me., -Sept. 1908, p. 21–4.)</p> - -<p class="hang">The care of the farmers’ woodlot. (Michigan State Board of -Agriculture. Farmers’ Institutes, 1903–4, p. 80–6.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Clark, Judson F. Defects in the woodlot and how they may -be remedied. (Ontario Agricultural Experiment Union. -Twenty-sixth annual report, 1904, p. 63–8.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Clark, J. F. The farmers’ woodlot, illustrated. (Ontario Forestry -Bureau. Annual report, 1904, p. 51–8.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Clark, J. F. The propagation of trees by farmers. (Ontario -Bureau of Forestry. Annual report, 1904, p. 334–50.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Clark, J. F. Woodlot forestry. (Michigan Forestry Commission. -Report, 1903–4, p. 47–56.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Coulter, Stanley. Suggestions for the improvement of Indiana -woodlots, illustrated. (Indiana State Board of Forestry. -Twelfth annual report, 1912, p. 85–106.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Coulter, Stanley. Woodlot conditions and possibilities. (Indiana -State Board of Forestry. Ninth and tenth annual -report, 1909: 37–46; 1910: 126–35.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Davis, C. A. Woodlot studies. 16 p. Ann Arbor, Mich., 1906.</p> - -<p class="hang">Defebaugh, J. E. Relation of the lumber tariff to the value -of farmers’ woodlots. (American Lumberman, Chicago, -Feb. 27, 1909, No. 1762: 39–40.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Every farmer his own forester. (Craftsman, June 1912, v. 22: -348–50.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Farm forestry. (Forest Fish and Game, N. Y., June 1909, v. -3, No. 1: 1–22.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Farmer and the forest. (Independent, N. Y., July 16, 1908, -v. 65: 165–7.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Faville, E. E., and Reeves, E. The farmer and the woodlot. -(Iowa Park and Forestry Association. Proceedings, 1904, -p. 25–30.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Ferguson, J. A. The importance of the farm woodlot. (Pennsylvania -State College, May 1911, v. 4, No. 1: 18–21.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Ferguson, Meade. The forest and the farmer. (Southern -Planter, Richmond, March 1913, v. 74: 315–21.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span></p> - -<p class="hang">Fernow, B. E. Farm woodlot, illustrated. (Bailey, L. H. -Cyclopedia of American Agriculture, 1907, v. 2: 313–23.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Fisher, R. T. Forestry for Southern New England woodlots. -(Forestry and Irrigation, Washington, D. C., March 1903, -v. 9, No. 3: 120–1.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Foster, J. H. Improving the farm woodlot. 1 p. Durham, -N. H., 1912. (New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment -Station. Press bulletin 11.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Foster, J. H. Suggestions for cutting waste pine lots. 1 p. -Durham, N. H. (New Hampshire Agricultural Experiment -Station. Press bulletin 22.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Fyles, Thos. W. The farmer’s woodlot. (Ontario Entomological -Society. Thirty-ninth annual report, 1908, p. -138–45.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Gaskill, Alfred. Let’s not overlook the woodlots. (Forestry -Quarterly, Washington, D. C., March 1913, v. 11: 58–61.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Gifford, John. The forest in relation to the farm, illustrated. -(New Jersey State Board of Agriculture, twenty-third -annual report, 1895, p. 170–178.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Gifford, John. Forestry for the farm. (Connecticut Board of -Agriculture. Thirty-sixth annual report, 1902, p. 85–95.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Goetz, C. H. Need of farm woodlots in the Central States. -(Forest Leaves, April 1911, v. 13, No. 2: 21–3.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Goetz, C. H. Practical work on the woodlot. (Forest Leaves, -Philadelphia, Pa., Feb. 1912, v. 13: 107–8.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Graves, Henry Solon and Fisher, R. T. The woodlot. 89 p. -pl. Washington, D. C., 1903. (United States Agricultural -Department of Forest Service. Bulletin 42.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Haines, A. S. A study of the chestnut woodlot. (9 Forest -Leaves, Philadelphia, Pa., Aug. 1901, v. 8, No. 10: 150–1.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Hawes, A. F. The farmers’ woodlot. (Vermont State Forester. -Annual report, first, 1908–9, p. 166–72.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Hazard, James O. An example of woodlot forestry. 23 p. pl. -Trenton, N. J., 1912.</p> - -<p class="hang">House, H. D. Improvement of the woodlot. 14 p., illustrated. -Columbia, S. C., 1907. (South Carolina Agricultural Experiment -Station. Bulletin 129.)</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span></p> - -<p class="hang">Hutt, W. N. Management of the farmers’ woodlot, illustrated. -(Cornell Countryman, 1907, v. 4, No. 5: 128–34.)</p> - -<p class="hang">The importance of the farm woodlot. (Pennsylvania State -Farmer, Pennsylvania State College, May 1910, v. 333, No. -4: 82–85.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Jackson, E. R. Forestry and the farmer. (University of Virginia. -Alumni Bulletin. Aug. 1911, ser. 3, v. 4, No. 4: -417–25.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Kellogg, R. S. Farm forestry in Michigan, illustrated. (Michigan -State Board of Agriculture of Michigan Farmers’ -Institutes, 1907–8, p. 61–70.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Knechtel, A. Making a woodlot from seed. 7 p. Albany, -N. Y., 1907.</p> - -<p class="hang">Meller, C. L. The prairie farmer’s tree problem, illustrated. -(Country Gentleman, Dec. 14, 1912, v. 77, No. 50: 3–32.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Miller, F. G. The farm woodlot in Michigan. (Forestry and -Irrigation, Washington, D. C., April 1903, v. 9, No. 4: -187–9.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Mulford, Walter. The improvement of the woodlot. 24 p., -illustrated. Ithaca, N. Y., 1912. (Cornell Reading -Courses, v. 1, No. 12; Farm Forestry Series, No. 1.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Payne, W. F. Value to a farm of a woodlot, illustrated. (Canadian -Forestry Journal, Ottawa, March, April 1912, v. 8: -51–53.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Price, O. W. First principles of woodlot management, illustrated. -(Farming, Toronto, Oct. 1906, v. 2: 93–4.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Records, P. C. The value of a woodlot. (Northwoods, St. -Paul, April 1913, v. 2: 7–14.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Record, Samuel James. What is the woodlot worth? illustrated. -(Country Gentleman, Philadelphia, Pa., Sept. 7, -1912, p. 5–8.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Reynolds, L. C. Protect the farm woodlot. (New York Tribune -Farmer, July 16, 1908, p. 9.)</p> - -<p class="hang">Schwartz, G. F. Productive possibilities, common deficiencies -and how to improve the woodlot, illustrated. (In -United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Bulletin -44, p. 21–7.)</p> - - - - -<hr class="chap"> -<div class="tnote"> -<p class="noi tntitle">Transcriber’s Notes:</p> - -<p class="smfont">Punctuation and spelling inaccuracies were silently corrected.</p> - -<p class="smfont">Archaic and variable spelling has been preserved.</p> - -<p class="smfont">Variations in hyphenation and compound words have been preserved.</p> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE FARM AND THE WOODLOT ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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