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diff --git a/old/8rome10.txt b/old/8rome10.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..49432ab --- /dev/null +++ b/old/8rome10.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9579 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest times +down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6989] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on February 20, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: Latin-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME TO 476 AD. *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by Lynn Bonnett and especially to Teresa Thomason +of the Special Collections Department, Milner Library, Illinois State +University, Normal, IL, who helped to clarify a portion of the text. + + + + + +ANCIENT ROME + +FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES +DOWN TO 476 A.D. + +BY ROBERT F. PENNELL + +_REVISED EDITION_ WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP + + + + +PREFACE. + +This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History +of Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high +schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and +fall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her +institutions, manners, and religion. + +For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional +matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to +meet recent requirements. + +The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the +text and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to +indicate the present range of requirement in leading colleges. + +The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this +book. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; +consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a +rule, been omitted. + +ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + +[Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.] + + + + +ANCIENT ROME. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + + +Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, +between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles +long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in +its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north +of Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that +of the State of Nevada. + +The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest of +Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least +difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this +pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. +The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through +the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend +easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging +the coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country +causes the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into +the Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + +Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the +Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaul +this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. +The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. +Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and the +Trebia on the south, are of historical interest. + +The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a +mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the +coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, +between the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which +comes the name Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, +and Forum Julii. + +Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus +were Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and +Vercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta +Taurinórum (Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The +Rubicon, a little stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia +Cisalpína on the southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the +southern boundary on the other side of Italy. + +CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of +the peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In +this division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which +empty into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, +which empty into the Adriatic. + +The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering +on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and +to the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM, +and SAMNIUM. + +The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, +near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was +Veii, an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba +Longa. Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, +was Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to +Alba Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were +near the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near +Rome. + +In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, +Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, +Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, +Pompeii, Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of +Vesuvius was here, and also Lake Avernus. + +In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior +were Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat +of Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + +In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + +SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA +and BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + +Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its +only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought +a famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + +In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + +The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. +Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; +and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + +The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about +10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the +poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many +important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were +Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta +(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, +the chief of which is Aetna. + +SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably +smaller. ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is +off Etruria; CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) +and LIPARA are north of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west of +it. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + + +So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into three +races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS +were the first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and +were pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into +the southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were +mostly absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh +centuries all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were +more highly civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the +Etruscans and Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the +former of whom settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. + +The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful +and warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the +arts of life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled +in the plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading +Gauls, they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a +confederation of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of +these cities the most noted were Volsinii, the head of the +confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. This people also +formed scattering settlements in other parts of Italy, but gained no +firm foothold. At one time, in the sixth century, they were in power +at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this time under their control. Their +commerce was considerable. Many well preserved monuments of their art +have been discovered, but no one has yet been able to decipher any of +the inscriptions upon them. The power of these people was gradually +lessened by the Romans, and after the fall of Veii, in 396, became +practically extinct. + +The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belonged to +the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in +Scandinavia. While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italians +entered Italy. + +At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in +civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; +the building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in +preparing food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various +weapons and ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were +recognized, and the people were divided into clans (tribes). + +That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain +which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by +the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + +This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square +miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty +miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, +and its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in +the northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum +near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern +_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first +settlements were made on the hills, which also could be easily +fortified. + +The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other +towns, as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, +Roma, and Lavinium. + +These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN +CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was +celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, +called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered +sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). + +[Illustration: Latium] + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + + +We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled in +Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more +particularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to +outstrip all her sisters in prosperity and power. + +Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of +the plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of +hills [Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, +Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, +Quirínal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the +Tiber, and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the +Etruscans. It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons +Sublicius_).] rising to a considerable height, around one of which, +the PALATINE, first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a name +gradually changed to ROMANS. + +When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. +It may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were +possibly a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they +united themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them +on the QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. +A third tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, +was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. + +All early communities, to which the Romans were no exception, were +composed of several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups +GENTES, and a single group was called a GENS. All the members of a +_gens_ were descended from a common ancestor, after whom the +_gens_ received its name. + +The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute +authority [Footnote: Called _patria potestas_.] over his household, +even in the matter of life and death. + +The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the +families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding +office for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform +certain sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly +of the Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an +assembly of old men (_Senex_). + +This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the +families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED +members, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by +the king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later +by the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all +persons who had held certain offices were thereby vested with the +right of seats in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the +number of Senators was greatly in excess of three hundred. The +Senators, when addressed, were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for they +were Fathers of the families. + +The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, +_Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into +ten districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES +(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, therefore, +belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a _pater- +familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, named +after a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_; +and every curia to a particular _tribe_. + +We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, +and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an +assembly composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. +[Footnote: We must remember that at this time no one was a Roman +citizen who did not belong to some family. All other residents were +either slaves or had no political rights, i.e. had no voice in the +government.] This assembly of Roman citizens met, from time to time, +in an enclosed space called the COMITIUM, which means a place of +gathering or coming together. This was between the Palatine and +Quirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. This assembly itself +was called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly composed of the 30 +curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the existing laws; +of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election of kings +made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by each +curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + + +The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the +Latin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, +she naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and +grew wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, +easily held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most +powerful of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with +theirs, she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing +their territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus +Hostilius, and his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities +along the river, and at its mouth founded a colony which was named +OSTIA, the seaport of Rome. + +At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Románus_) +comprised nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying +mostly along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or +twelve miles from the river. It was not materially increased during +the next two centuries. + +The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called +PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the +families. They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously +protecting their rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians +was a class called CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, +i. e. they had no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in +every way the Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In +return, the latter gave them his support, and looked after their +interests. These clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the +fields of their patrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which +their patron belonged. Their origin is uncertain; but they may have +come from foreign towns conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants +had not been made slaves. + +In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the +property of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. +Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS +(freedman) and became the client of his former master. + +As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people +flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called +resident foreigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at +Athens. Such were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all +were supposed to be under the protection of some patrician who acted +as their patron. + +These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were +all of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly +borne in mind. + +We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the +Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of +these towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed +any of their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. +Many of them were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager +Romanus_, or in Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs, +multitude). Their very name shows that they must have been numerous. +They belonged to no gens or curia, but were free, and allowed to +engage in trade and to own property. In later times (from about 350) +all who were not Patricians or slaves were called Plebeians. + + +THE ARMY. + +Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed +entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning +_levy_), and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, +from _mille_, a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. +The cavalry numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each +tribe, and was divided into three companies called Centuries. + +During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now +become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN +reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been +required to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. +To accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned +two acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There +were five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193 +subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the same +amount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries in +active service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries of +reserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. + +In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries +each, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had +thirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + +The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from +the first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, +breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank +was composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, +without breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, +who had neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth +class, armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only +slings. + +Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, +however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + +This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally +only for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and the +expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. +But gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be +felt, the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, +and all the people were called together to vote under it. It was +called the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The +place of meeting was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the +city. + +In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided +by the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system +was to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century +represented the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or +richer classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer +classes, so that a majority of the centuries might represent a small +minority of the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome +were still patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by +them. In this assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war +declared, and judgment passed in all criminal cases. + +[Illustration: CAMPANIA] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + + +Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were +undoubtedly of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many +traces of Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and +the only buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much +later period, were erected under this dynasty. The names of these +kings are said to have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS +TULLIUS, his son-in-law, and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. + +Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER +CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and +MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from it +we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman +religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + +During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to +drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer +was so well built that it is still used. + +Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was +surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal, +Coelian, and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the +opposite side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge +(_pons sublicius_). + +The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the +previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + +The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius +and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus +early was the Greek influence felt at Rome. + +During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected on +the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + +Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the +city of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were +afterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow +of this king, and a Republic was established, which lasted until the +death of Julius Caesar. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + + +At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of +government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for +life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the +PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a +salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his +power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century +before Christ. + +In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be +appointed by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; +but his tenure of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a +patrician. He exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. +It was at this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to be +the more important assembly, superseding in a great measure the +COMITIA CURIÁTA. + +We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, +magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not +forget that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the +control of the patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. +Still there were many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a +gain for this party. + +About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of +Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some +of the richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. +[Footnote: This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers +addressing the Senate, viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_"] These, +however, could take no part in debates, nor could they hold +magistracies. + +In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates +made in the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this way +it controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must +remember, were those of generals and supreme judges, though every +Roman citizen had the privilege of appealing from their decision in +cases which involved life. + +Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed +by the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed the +finances of the state, under the direction of the Senate. + +The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century +preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the +state and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but +especially by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been +devastated. They were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the +taxes, and, when unable to meet the demands of their creditors, +according to the laws they could be imprisoned, or even put to death. + +The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by +"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, +for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other +duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would extort +all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves +unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and +the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + +The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to +serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for +the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, +and naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry +service was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while +the older ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of +military duty fell on the plebeians. + +This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for +rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the +plebeians were not slow in accepting it. + +The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and +Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls +liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was +averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set +free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were +again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally +persuaded by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their +return to the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, +marching to a hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new +city unless their wrongs were redressed. This is called the First +Secession of the Plebs, and is said to have been in 494. + +The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, +for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were +released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right +to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called +TRIBÚNI PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the +power of VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This +power, however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be +exercised outside of them. + +The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent +interference with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any +one attempted to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if +the Consuls or Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to +extremes, or to be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could +step in, and by their VETO stop the matter at once. + +This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in +giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + +The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still +later to ten. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + + +The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from +their own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. [Footnote: The word +"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple.] These officers +held nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the +Quaestors did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the +performance of their various duties, and also had special charge of +the temple of Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, +all the decrees of the Senate. + +These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the +first secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia +Centuriáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, which +met sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + +This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" +(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being +entitled to one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of +its individual voters. [Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial +division, corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time +there were probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The +plebeians in the city lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine +Hill.] + +The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and +Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. By +it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first +measures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it +presently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, +who were felt to be a power in the state. + +The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; +that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the +influence of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand +contests occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in +neighboring places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the +government withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. + +The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had +reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a +large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. +This land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. + +Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it +became AGER PRIVÁTUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was +occupied by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually +rich patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This +land, so occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or _possessio_; but +it really was still the property of the state. The rent paid was a +certain per cent (from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for +cattle on pasture land. Although the state had the undoubted right to +claim this land at any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to +retain it, and were often lenient about collecting dues. In course of +time, this land, which was handed down from father to son, and +frequently sold, began to be regarded by the occupants as their own +property. Also the land tax (TRIBÚTUM), which was levied on all +_ager privátus_, and which was especially hard upon the small +plebeian land-owners, could not legally be levied upon the _ager +occupátus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, not owned, this land +were naturally regarded as usurpers by the plebeians. + +The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + +SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law +that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and +distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The +law was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his +life, and was never enforced. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + + +The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if +not more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of +their leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition +of their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and +political rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The +struggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, +Gnarus Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the +Consuls. + +VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, +notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the +effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _Comitia +Tribúta_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriáta_. Thus the plebeians +gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW +(_Plebiscítum Publilium_). [Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia +Tribúta were called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarily +binding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have been +recognized as a law.] + +For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The +plebeians demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + +We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the +unwritten ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, +had been interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the +patricians only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the +TERENTILIAN ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius +Harsa, a Tribune, to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. +The patrician families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter +opposition. Kaeso himself, son of the famous Cincinnátus, was +impeached by the Tribune and fled from the city. + +Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select from +the people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office +for one year, to direct the government and supersede all other +magistrates, and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted +to the people for approval. A commission of three patricians was sent +to Athens to examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the +height of its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and +upon their return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was +appointed. + +The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables +of copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two +more tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the +only Roman code. + +The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were +approved, but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and +tyrannical manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, +finally rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a +sentence that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. +Her father, Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to +the heart, and fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put +down such wicked government. + +A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED +MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into +the city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + +The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we +know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor +was apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the +_pater familias_ over his family was abolished. The close +connection heretofore existing between the clients and patrons was +gradually relaxed, the former became less dependent upon the latter, +and finally were absorbed into the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ +among the plebeians now began to be recognized; previously only the +patricians had been divided into _gentes_. + +Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and +nearer. + +In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were +instrumental in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the +substance of which was as follows:-- + +I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta against +the sentence of any magistrate. + +II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribúta (_plebiscita_), if +sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta, were made binding +upon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal +importance with the other two. + +III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian +officers, were to be considered sacred. + +IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and +veto any of its decisions. + +Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still +be patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore they +had been appointed by the Consuls. + +In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, and +called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of +intermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting +that all issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. + +Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that +the consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was +made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, +and to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta, +the office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year +whether they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom +continued for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so +influential, that for a long time no plebeian was elected. + +As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 +obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own +ranks every five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen +months. + +The duties of the Censors were:- + +I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + +II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members +who were guilty of offences against public morals. + +III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works +of the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at +Rome. + +A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by +obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There +were now four Quaestors. + +Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, +sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto +often found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joined +the farmers or lower classes. + +Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed +the following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + +I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as +formerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the +plebeians. + +II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 +acres) of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or +500 sheep. + +III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain +number of free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + +IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be +deducted from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly +instalments. + +These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them +an opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly by +slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of +becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open +to them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be +protected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by +Camillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that these +rogations promised. + +The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except +that of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained +that of Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in +286, by the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all +the people without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta. +After 200 the sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be +filled by plebeians. + +Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; +and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, +yet their rights as citizens were no greater than those of the +plebeians. + +To recapitulate:-- + +Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and +holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of +intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + +The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second +they obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third +by the CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent +bills. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +EXTERNAL HISTORY. + + +The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then +possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The +number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became +thirty-five. + +In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into Etruria +and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman +ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, +were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, +marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river +about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The +Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the +foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. +Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which +lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were +induced to withdraw. + +During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, +and we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to +390. + +The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 +the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military colonies + were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and +also at Circeii and Setia. [Footnote: These military colonies, of which +the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to +protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and +equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives +and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government +similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as +Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.] +The neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a +faithful ally, was annexed to Rome. + +The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring +up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until +finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and +gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. +The town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + +The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed +the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern +their own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were +subsequently made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE +SUFFRAGIO, "citizens without suffrage." + +During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland +countries as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber, +she had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. + +In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty +with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the +mountainous districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over +the southern half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of +CAPUA, and three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they +had been practically masters of the whole of Campania. + +After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites +had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The +Samnites went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania, +which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before +Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + +Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse +to break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering +their city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the +Samnites, she would simply be defending her subjects. + +Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with +varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual +to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite +Wars. + + +THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + +The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear +idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage +to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a +_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. + + +THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + +The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking with +jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights +had been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or +lose everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the +Consuls and half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war +followed, in the third year of which was fought the battle of +Trigánum, near Mount Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, +were victorious through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS +TORQUÁTUS, one of the illustrious names of this still doubtful period. +The remainder of the operations was rather a series of expeditions +against individual cities than a general war. + +In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The +Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of the +Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left +independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their +territory became part of the _Ager Románus_, and the inhabitants +Roman plebeians. + +Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, +three more towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town. + +LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the +Volturnus. + +Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, +which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the +colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the +military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The +first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established +TARRACÍNA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards +founded. + +Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was +destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to +Rome, and placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the +Senate-House. Hence the name ROSTRA. + +At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of +all kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for +political discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and +brokers had their offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near +the river, as the _Forum Boarium_ (cattle market) and the +_Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). + +Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing +about these improvements. + + +THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + +The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we +have seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain +of Rome. + +There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the +Romans, the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the +weakest, and had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans +of Veii in 396, and of Caere in 353. + +In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the +combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact +and concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but +were more scattered. They were both equally brave. + +During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were +usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. In +this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of +military posts in the enemy's country. + +The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again +renewed. By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius +Pontius, by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned +against the Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans +into a small plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae +Caudinae). On reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted +to oppose them. After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to +retreat, the Romans themselves were compelled to give way. But +meanwhile Pontius had also occupied the defile in their rear, and they +were obliged to surrender. + +A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius +Postumius, according to which peace was to be made, and everything +restored to its former condition. + +Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most +humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made +to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck +into the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above +them,--and then suffered to depart. + +Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in +mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was +devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the +treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless +sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the +Consuls who had signed it to the enemy. + +Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and +the war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the +Samnites were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, +at LAKE VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any +effective resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their +sea-coast, their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the +supremacy of Rome. + +During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against +the Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military +colony of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. +The Consul Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove +the Etruscans into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated +them. + +Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR +(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to +unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and +ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + +The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the +sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by +Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS +MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + +In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were +assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match +for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by +Decius. Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul +vowed his life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, +rushing into the midst of the enemy, was slain. [Footnote: It is said +that the father of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the +Latin war.] His soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, +rallied and pushed back the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for +the Samnites were already fleeing before that part of the army which +was under Fabius. + +The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS +DENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had +recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, +and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens +(_sine suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the +_Ager Románus_. This territory now reached across Italy from the +Tuscan to the Adriatic Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations +on the south from the Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. + +In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian +Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + +In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had +been the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the +pressure of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia +Minor, and especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country +became so thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. +Here were many flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and +Thurii. These had, at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly +fallen from their former grandeur, owing partly to the inroads of +barbarians from the north, partly to civil dissensions, and still more +to their jealousy of each other; so that they were unable to oppose +any firm and united resistance to the progress of Rome. It had been +their custom to rely largely upon strangers for the recruiting and +management of their armies,--a fact which explains in part the ease +with which they were overcome. + +Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been +made by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which +their fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to +allow their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the +Lacinian promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in +evading their treaty whenever it should profit them. + +Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from +Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic +affairs permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the +wedge was entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and +deliver the former over to Rome. + +Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to +ignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of +Tarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the +theatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was +determined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of +the Roman squadron were destroyed. + +An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was +treated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the +Tarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year +one of the Consuls was ordered south. + +Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young +and ambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, +and, since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests +of this great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West +that would surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. + +Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 +cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the +effeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of +amusement were closed; the people were forced to perform military +duty; disturbers of the public safety were put to death; and other +reforms were made which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. +Meanwhile the Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him +to battle. The armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLÉA, on the +banks of the Liris, where the level nature of the country was in favor +of the Greek method of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most +perfect instrument of warfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman +legions had never yet been brought into collision with it. + +The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a +charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they +retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by +the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory +will send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior +qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A +trusted messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his +eloquence, which was said to have gained more for his master than the +sword. Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was +guaranteed to his allies in Italy. + +The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; +and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, +when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, +and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + +Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared +that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + +Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared +within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The +defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and +the armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite +against him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, +where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to +propose an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and +threats were employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the +Senate; and, on his part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired +exchange. + +Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. +The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but +though the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic +victories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. + +The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the +Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the +island three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the +last time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul +MANIUS CURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed +to the elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded +beasts became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into +disorder. With this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He +returned home, and two years later was accidentally killed by a woman +at Argos. + +The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two +years later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city +walls were demolished, and the fleet given up. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.--NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. + + +Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This +country was divided into two parts. + +I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded +on the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the +APENNINES. + +II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + +The _Ager Románus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial +purposes, into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts +(tribes), four of which were in Rome. The elections were all held at +Rome. + +These districts were made up,-- + +a. Of ROME. + +b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but +finally increased to thirty-five. + +c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + +d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent +from Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + +The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,-- + +a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, +afterwards increased to thirty-five. + +b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining +territory composed more than one half of the country controlled by +Rome. + +These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay +tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops +for the Roman army. + +The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.-- + +a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, +i. e. FULL RIGHTS. [Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus +suffragii_ (right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of +holding office), and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). +Private rights were _jus connubii_ (right of intermarriage); and +_jus commercii_ (right of trading and holding property). Full +rights were acquired either by birth or gift. A child born of parents, +both of whom enjoyed the _jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with +full rights. Foreigners were sometimes presented with citizenship +(_civitas_)] + +b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + +c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). + +d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + +e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of +trading. + +To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman +colonies, and of some of the Municipia. + +To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who +possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefectúrae_, +and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + +ROADS. + +Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the +capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every +direction,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched or +intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her +possessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a +monument of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonder +and admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten +together the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not +even the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of +fidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + + +NOTED MEN. + +The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding +chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius +Curius Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + +We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one +of the tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tribúta_; this, +however, shut out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and +also the freedmen, who were generally educated and professional men, +such as doctors, teachers, etc. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the +exclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tribúta_, and gave +to property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later +this law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes +alone, and the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed +property only. + +During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water +supply by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, +was built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as +far as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are +today in good condition. The road was afterward extended to +Brundisium, through Venusia and Tarentum. + +MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and +his opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He +obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager +Publicus_. He drained the low and swampy country near Reáte by a +canal. He was the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, +frugal and unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his +farm and spent the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple +peasant. + +GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was a +Hernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was +incorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battle +of Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, +and, failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant +behind a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, +though immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + +In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not +flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The +great mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal +habits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates +as yet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A +century later, when most of the available land in the peninsula was +held by the wealthy and farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + +The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large +treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern +Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. +Greed for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the +Romans. From now on the moral tone of the people continued to +degenerate in proportion as their empire increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +FOREIGN CONQUEST. + + +ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) [Footnote: The +word "Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were +said to have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of +the Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of +course familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.] + +While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the +Straits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite +Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through +industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + +Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, +it required centuries to gain her power. + +It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her +subdued allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in +the support of her immense population and the equipment of her +numerous fleets and armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once +wandering nomads, were forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with +colonies sent out by herself, they formed the so called Libyo- +Phoenician population, open to the attack of all, and incapable of +defence. Thus the country around Carthage was weak, and the moment a +foreign enemy landed in Africa the war was merely a siege of its chief +city. + +The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed +the gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, +slaves, and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of +Cyprus; and the iron of Elba. + +But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel +religion, which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the +rights of others, their well known treachery, all shut them off from +the higher civilization of Rome and Greece. + +The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a +few of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed +the state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people +summoned and consulted. + +Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the +establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these +treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and +Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the +Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + +In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field +for Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome +would be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, +"the commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of +one night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + +At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king of +Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands +who came from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head- +quarters, had been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. +Being shut up in Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the +ground that they were from Campania. Although Rome was in alliance +with Hiero, and had but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in +Rhegium what the Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aid +them, for Sicily was a rich and tempting prey. + +Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a +truce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of +Messána was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and +garrison of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the +Mamertines no longer needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodged +the Carthaginians, + +Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double +alliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of the +eastern coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of +Italy. + +The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the +Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under +HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were +themselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa in +their rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a +battle was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to +their superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds +on the coast were left to the Carthaginians. + +The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage +ruled the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the +seaports of Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual +energy, the Romans began the work. [Footnote: In 259, three years +previous to the battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio +captured Blesia, a seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval +station.] A wrecked Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by +the spring of 260 a navy of 120 sail was ready for sea. + +The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the +purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of +hanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be +lowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides +with parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to close +quarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened +to the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman +marines were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and +fight as if on land. + +Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE +(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + +In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged +under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander +was captured. + +In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS +DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of +Gisco. The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans +were found to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near +without these bridges descending with their grappling irons and +holding them fast to the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with +the loss of nearly half their fleet. + +A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, +was erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal +of it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest +inscriptions in the Latin language. + +The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + +In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 sail. +Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and +sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the +coast of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another +battle. But the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula +which helps to form the bay, and there landed without opposition. + +MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in +Africa. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians +became disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and +the capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms +offered were too humiliating to be accepted. + +Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at +Tunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to +his fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, +his army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently +died a captive at Carthage. + +The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to +relieve their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, +it gained a victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméan +promontory, sinking 114 of the enemy's ships. + +It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa +was now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly +destroyed in a storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + +Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. +Panormus was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; +Thermae and the island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + +DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by +Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city +was blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as +much as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the +cavalry of the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by +disease. + +The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined +to surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana +(249). He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. +Another fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent +storm. + +The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. +Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. +They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily were +still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on +(249-243). + +A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile +took the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military +talent, and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a +fair way to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, +that at last some private citizens built and manned at their own +expense a fleet of 200 sail. + +GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and +occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian +fleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTES +INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and +supplies. He saw that peace must be made. + +Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the war,-- +about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annual +payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (241-218). + + +Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. +The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in +crushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + +Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, +seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, +threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one +million dollars as a fine (237). + +The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the +government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + +Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had +exercised their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily +was made what the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. +Sardinia and Corsica formed another province (235). + +Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For +this purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. +The power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, +chief magistrate, and supreme judge. + +The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. +All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth of +their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and +exports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the +dependants of Rome in Italy. + +The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the +morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without +mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + +The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who +did much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but +to no purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was +cleared of the pirates in 229. + +"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the +means of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations +between Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the +suppression of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. +Alliances were concluded with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and +embassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into +Greece were sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. +The admission of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally +acknowledged them as the allies of the Greek states." + +The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA. +The appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with +the Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The _ager +publicus_, taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. +In 232 the Tribune Gaius Flaminius [Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his +agrarian laws gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first +Governor of Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and +honesty, a great contrast to many who succeeded him.] carried an agrarian +law, to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer +classes. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls this +seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of their +country. They all rose in arms except the Cenománi. + +This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded +by an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, +miscarried, and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near +TELAMON in 222, and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the +hands of the Consul MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now +mistress of the whole peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in +Liguria, who resisted a short time longer. + +Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls +in check; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, and +MUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great +northern road, was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. [Footnote: +During this period the _Comitia Centuriáta_ was reorganized on the +basis of tribes (35) instead of money.] + +Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the +mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as +compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar +Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in +Southern and Southeastern Spain. + +At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many +towns were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The +discovery of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of +enriching the treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, +the ablest leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man +of but twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy +he had shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He +was a fine athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and +could endure long privation of sleep and food. For the last few years +he had been in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself +for personal bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. + +Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. +He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In +eight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + +When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and +declared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the +challenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO THE BATTLE +OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + +In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invade +Italy. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 +elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the +opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a +part of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all +veterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along the +coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celtic +territory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on the +banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans were +astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + +The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had +been in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal +in Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade +Africa. Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end +of June. Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already +left Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes +of the neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from +these were stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained +at Massilia. It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio +arrived with his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and +constructed numerous rafts to transport his main body of troops. A +detachment of soldiers was sent up the river with orders to cross at +the first available place, and, returning on the opposite bank, to +surprise the Celtic forces in the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts +fled in confusion, and the road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio +was outgeneralled in the very beginning. + +His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all +his forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he +sent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and +himself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + +Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the +Isara, through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in +sixteen days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont +du Chat). Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of +the country and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through +the country of the Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As he +was leaving this river and approaching the pass of the Little St. +Bernard, he was again attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the +ascent amidst continual and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and +a night, however, the army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a +table-land, his troops were allowed a brief rest. + +The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile +valley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and +exhausted soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited +their wearied energies. + +This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, +and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + +The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in +Spain under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, +under the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available +were a few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to +restrain the Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. + +Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command +of these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river +Ticinus, a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which +he was wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards +the famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable +loss. + +They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the +bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched +along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, +opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + +Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the +disabled Scipio. + +Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the +Carthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any +resistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were +drawn up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, +they should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in +the trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut to +pieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they +spent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. + +The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in +the valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry +and 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near +Placentia, the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways +leading north from Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The +Consuls for this year were GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The +former occupied Arretium, the latter Ariminum. Here they were joined +by the troops that had wintered at Placentia. + +In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by +either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by +turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and +unhealthy country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost +an eye from ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of +his course first reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and +endeavored to intercept his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, +and was now near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS. + +Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the +other. Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. +His light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on +either side. + +The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the +unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the +position of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, +Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the +entrance to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, +revealing the Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a +battle, but a mere rout. The main body of the Romans was cut to +pieces, with scarcely any resistance, and the Consul himself was +killed. Fifteen thousand Romans fell, and as many more were captured. +The loss of the Carthaginians was but 1,500, and was confined mostly +to the Gallic allies. All Etruria was lost, and Hannibal could march +without hindrance upon Rome, whose citizens, expecting the enemy +daily, tore down the bridges over the Tiber and prepared for a siege. +QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed Dictator. + +Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, +devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted +on the shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army a +rest, he proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + +The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised +another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of +determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to +avoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing +him and cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + +Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of Italy +to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city +dependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to +the melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's +cavalry plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what +he considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, +disappointed in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, +and not being prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards +the Adriatic. Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on +the left bank of the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right +bank of the river were occupied by his main army; and the road itself, +which led across the river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + +Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the +heights over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with +burning fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army +marching by torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned +the road and marched for the heights, along which they supposed the +enemy were going. Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued +his march with the bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his +light-armed troops, which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. +Their engagement with the Romans had resulted in a severe loss to +Fabius. + +Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly +direction, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with +much booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he +encamped in a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his +army. + +At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent +inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator +(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared +by one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into +two corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the +first opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his +former tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his +rashness, and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not +Fabius come to his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed +the winter of 217-216 unmolested. + +The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the +spring campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was +raised and put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS +PAULLUS and GAIUS TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's +strength once more in open battle. His army was only half as strong as +the Roman in infantry, but was much superior in cavalry. + +In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at +CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in +June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, +with their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the +left under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + +The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by +cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The +onset was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage +increased by the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at +stake, they were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on +the field, among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and +eighty men of senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever +experienced by the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin +colonies and the Greek cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA (216-202). + + +ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the +Latin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old +men alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they +would join the ranks. + +Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the +second city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that +other cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into +winter quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their +luxurious and effeminate habits, are said to have injured his +soldiers. But Hannibal's superiority as a general is unquestionable, +and his want of success after this was due to insufficient aid from +home, and to the fact that the resources of Rome were greater than +those of Carthage. The Latin allies of Rome had remained true to their +allegiance, and only one city of importance was under his control. It +was an easy matter to conquer the enemy in open battle, but to support +his own army was more difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On +the other hand, the Romans were well supplied with food from their +possessions in Sicily. + +Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already +employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He +formed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged +Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. +He hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and +reinforcements from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain +from Macedonia, to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her +into submission. + +The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they +could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and +Gnaeus. With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the +enemy from that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern +Greece effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years +(214-212) passed without any material change in the situation of +affairs in Italy. + +In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, +besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover +Campania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched +rapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed +the city, resolved to advance on Rome itself. + +Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through +the heart of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, +and with his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no +ally joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals +of peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of the +enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his head- +quarters in the South. + +Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, +was removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon +Capua was severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred +of her chief citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. +The city and its territory were declared to be Roman territory, and +the place was afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + +Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as +Rome itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, +renowned for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the +highest arts and culture. + + +AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of +more than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome +in her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor +of Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, +who was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few +months. + +The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian +faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the +leaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to +arouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome +and the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and +stormed Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against +him. A siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various +devices adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMÉDES [Footnote: +Archimédes was a great investigator in the science of mathematics. He +discovered the ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of +his famous sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the +world." He exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines +for the defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in +existence. He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, +who would have spared his life had he not been too intent on a +mathematical problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his +tombstone, it is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.] to +defeat the movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a +Spanish officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which +it was so rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time +(212) the city became a part of the province of Sicily and the head- +quarters of the Roman Governor. + + +THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO +CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO and +HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the +location of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over +to Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large +reinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, +surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain +was lost to Rome. + +Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter +Italy, and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but +twenty-four years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He +had previously made himself very popular as Aedile, and was +unanimously elected to the command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he +found the whole country west of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + +Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL +and MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not +act in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring +(209), to capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A +good harbor was gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three +transports, $600,000, and 10,000 captives fell into the hands of the +Romans. + +Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at +BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the +battle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the +Pyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the +winter (209-208) in Gaul. + +The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the +son of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the +Baleares, to wait for reinforcements from home. + +The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in the +total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the +southwestern part of Spain. + +The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed the +straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and +MASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, +after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about +their pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where he +intended to become a candidate for the consulship. + + +OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + +The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. +Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The +Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, and +MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of +keeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting +Hasdrubal was given to the latter. + +The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river +Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent +messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of +march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of +their despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, +joined Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and +defeated his army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal +himself. Nero returned south without delay, and the first intimation +that Hannibal had of this battle was the sight of his brother's head +thrown into the camp by the victorious foe. + +The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four +years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was +powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout +Italy. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the +ground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. + + +INVASION OF AFRICA. + +Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of +Africa. He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his +province, with permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him +wise. He was so popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, +and supplies poured in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, +however, did not like him, as his taste for splendid living and Greek +culture was particularly offensive to them; and a party in the Senate +would have recalled him, had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor +been too strong to be resisted. + +In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was +welcomed by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous +visit to Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but +in 203 Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage +prevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle +with Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of +Carthage. The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who +loved their commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first +and only defeat, and Scipio won his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle was +a hard one. After all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been +killed or put to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in +Italy, although surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering +their own, fought on, and were killed one by one around their beloved +chief. The army was fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, +managed to escape to Hadrumétum. + +The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage +was broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to +retain her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, +were given up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about +$200,000, for fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and +she could carry on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was +rewarded by an increase in territory, and was enrolled among the +"allies and friends of the Roman people." + +Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great +Mediterranean power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the +north of Africa was under her protection. + +Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was +welcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never +before equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned +with laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which +he had the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no +part in politics. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ROME IN THE EAST. + + +ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. +The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast +empire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the +limits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece +proper. + +EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the +valley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a +number of towns in Thrace. + +SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of +various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent +rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. +Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + +MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of +Northern Greece. + +GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, +the former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the +greater part of Central Greece. + +Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into +closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in +273. From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the +Second Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of +the Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + +The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into +closer relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to +open the Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage +had left her no time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern +politics, until she was forced to take action by the alliance of +Philip V. of Macedonia and Hannibal, and by the former's threatened +invasion of Italy in 214. A small force was sent into Greece, which +was soon largely increased by the dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + +The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was to +prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was +partially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but +four thousand of them were at Zama. + +The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus +Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so +hard that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to +sail for Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus +assisted the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to +think of operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to +concentrate their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + +Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their +return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have +it. + +There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN +WAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, +to attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable +that the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years +old, would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers +of Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman +envoys sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with +Philip. + +In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that +the people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was +driven to seek alliances which would protect her against him. + +Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced +to vote for one, on the representation that the only means of +preventing an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + +This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a +considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the +Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive +results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man of +different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on +the Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year +utterly defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + +The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he +broke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in +around him with but little loss. The other division was attacked by +the Romans, while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The +victory of the Romans was decisive. + +About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the +Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + +Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of +Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, +Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to +wage war without Rome's consent. + +The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" +was proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later +Flamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of +Greece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks to +show themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned +home to enjoy a well earned triumph. + +The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm +establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge +had been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was +assured. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE SYRIAN WAR. + + +Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, +had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not +hear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he +claimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip +had previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. +He crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to +enter Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, +until after Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). + +Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the +power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his +defeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the +chief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the +moral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. +Under him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with +Antiochus, with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an +opportunity to interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, +after wandering from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the +Syrian king. + +Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could +have accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he +disregarded the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor +matters. The Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae +drove back the intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The +Aetolians were punished for their infidelity. + +In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command +of the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be +accompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his +military skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed +the Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + +Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the +king. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in +190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 +being slain. The loss of the victors was slight. + +On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all +pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus +mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all +surrendered. + +Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his +name, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of +his victory. + +Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign +against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, +and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse +for the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the +reason was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + +The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they +themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is +noticeable chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without +the authority of the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a +precedent which was too frequently followed in later times. On his +return to Rome he was allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as +legal. + +These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid the +foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally +undermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced +learning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The +vigor and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than +in the length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous +exotics. + +Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the +ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained +during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his +account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, +tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, +however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated +that his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies +that their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of +Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges +were made. + +Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, +on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. +His wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, +and the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. +His daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous +GRACCHI. + +Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the +campaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In +the conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered +Alexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself +conquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. + +Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically +the mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and +as conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a +charm which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of +Greece were not so courted at Rome as in later days. + +Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, +but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, +King of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to +arrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring +and swallowed the poison which it contained (183). + +Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim +of his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was so +marked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon the +tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near +accomplishing. + +This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the +Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. [Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (I71-146.) + + +Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against +Antiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in +additions to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but +he labored patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to +stir up among the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He +placed his army on the best footing possible, and soon began to +enlarge his boundaries. Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was +compelled to give up his conquests, and confine himself to the limits +of Macedonia. In 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son +PERSEUS. + +The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of +subjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a +marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse +among the Greeks memories of their former greatness. + +The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check +him. War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at +first led by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until +LICIUS AEMILIUS PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in +168. + +Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was +killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE +AEDILE, [Footnote: See page 225] in 192, he prosecuted persons who had +made an illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior +Spain in 191 as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all +insurrections. He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a +tribe of marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + +He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. +The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the +Thermáic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasures +and family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with +kindness by the Consul. + +Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by +commissioners, he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was +divided into four small republics, independent of each other, but +prohibited from intermarriage and commerce with one another. + +On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced +by Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four +years later. + +Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted +by Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus the +elder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of +perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat +superstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his +sons the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his +popularity is the fact that his body was carried to its last resting +place by volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. + +Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is +alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + +After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the +conquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests +there. All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, +and among these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more +than twenty years, and became a great friend of the younger Africánus, +whom he accompanied to the siege of Carthage. + +Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of each +other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utter +demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all +alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + +Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating +in what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under +the leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the +people rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice +defeated in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained +the agnomen of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, +with a Roman magistrate at its head. + +At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus +warned them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he +easily defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + +Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an +illustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in +115 three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was +a candidate for the consulship. + +Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh +leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. +The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 was +marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; +beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold +in abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty +vanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of +ACHAIA. + +Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, +when it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a +colony of veterans and freedmen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + + +Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial +prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the +quarrels of conflicting factions. + +MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual +source of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, +and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of +Rome, her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an +embassy was sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, +the chief of the embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of +the city, and from that time never ceased to urge its destruction. The +embassy did not reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as +they might. Finally, when some sympathizers with Masinissa were +banished from the city, he attacked and defeated the Carthaginians, +compelled their army to pass under the yoke, and afterwards +treacherously destroyed it (150). Carthage was compelled to give up +some of her territory, and pay $5,000,000 indemnity. + +After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be +disciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to +close any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel +words, _Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed." The +people of Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken- +hearted, they sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was +obscure. They were requested to make reparation to Rome, and at the +same time they were assured that nothing should be undertaken against +Carthage herself. But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army +into Sicily, where the troops were organized, and Carthaginian +ambassadors were expected. + +When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish +to encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some +security; for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three +hundred children of the noblest families should be delivered into +their hands as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly +crossed over to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were +ready to treat with them on any question not previously settled. + +When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told +that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they +said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage +possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were +then told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome +had no control over the city so long as it was fortified. The +preservation of peace, therefore, required that the people should quit +the city, give up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a +distance of ten miles from the sea. The indignation and fury which +this demand excited were intense. The gates were instantly closed, and +all the Romans and Italians who happened to be within the city were +massacred. + +The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined +that the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair +had suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every +direction. All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and +night in the manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending +than this last struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored +to the uttermost for the defence of the city with a furious +enthusiasm. + +Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, +the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the +legal age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. +After two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part +of the defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + +Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen +days. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given +to Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + +The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most +bitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,-- +MASINISSA and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + +Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get +the promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given +to his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the +possessions of Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same +Sophonisba, whom he married. Scipio, however, fearing her influence +over him, demanded her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. +Masinissa was a courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the +Romans. + +CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149,) whose long public career was +a constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the +fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Roman +character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the +interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as +Censor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old- +fashioned principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All +innovations were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the +author of several works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has +been preserved. + +Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year +discoursing about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, a +friend of the latter. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + + +Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government +of nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, +separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a +praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought +into a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests +were a formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla +warfare, which makes conquest slow and laborious. + +The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who occupied +the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and +intractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the +elder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the +Roman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this +part of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir +to pull down their fortifications. + +Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, +sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the +father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the +troublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns, +but tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself +greater in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands +on favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the +natives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and +in Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + +In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was +Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged +the Celtibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with +a massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS +MARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the +country humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, +were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another +open rebellion, headed by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During +seven years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent +against him. The Celtibéri joined his standards, and Spain seemed +likely to slip from the Romans. The only check to these successes was +during the command of METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was +recalled, matters returned to their former condition. + +In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save +himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to +sanction. + +Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the +Consul Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was +ably conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + + +THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + +The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city of +NUMANTIA, the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one +defeat of a Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent +out her best general, Africanus the younger. + +After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he +began (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the +utmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of +famine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and +the town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the +title of NUMANTÍNUS. + +The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, +which was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its +northern coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were +established with Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on +the whole, order was maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean +there sprang up many thriving and populous towns, which became centres +of civilization to the neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome +rather as allies than as subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin +the silver money of Rome. The civilizing process, due to Roman +influence, went on rapidly in these parts, while the interior remained +in barbarism. + +In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from +the north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave +Celtibéri, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). + +While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves +broke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special +barbarity. + +For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of +freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the +regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and +Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + +The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a +wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, +who pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were +suffered by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS +captured the strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus +closed the war. For his success he was allowed an ovation. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +INTERNAL HISTORY.--THE GRACCHI. + + +We have seen how the long struggle between the patricians and +plebeians terminated in a nominal victory for the latter. From about +275, the outward form of the old constitution had undergone little +change. It was nominally that of a "moderate democracy." The Senate +and offices of state were, in law, open to all alike. In practice, +however, the constitution became an oligarchy. The Senate, not the +Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the Senate was controlled by a class +who claimed all the privileges of a nobility. The Comitias were rarely +called upon to decide a question. Most matters were settled by a +DECREE OF THE SENATE (_Senatus Consultum_). To be sure the +Comitia declared for war or peace, but the Senate conducted the war +and settled the conditions of peace. It also usually assigned the +commands, organized the provinces, and managed the finances. + +The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It +was a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be +convened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were +scattered over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to +decide questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign +policy. + +The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All +patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The +patricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. +The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of the +following six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, +Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right +to place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of +this ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held +a curule office. + +A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, +or "new man." + +The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time +the monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. +The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only +wanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal +rights, and urge the exercise of them. + +Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him +was ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and +brought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. On +one side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and +POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until the +glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor +of the Empire. + +Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to +the nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the +daughter of Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all +but three died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The +daughter, SEMPRONIA, married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS +and GAIUS, grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, +who was left a widow when they were mere boys. + +Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in- +law during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor +in Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the +mild policy which his father had previously followed. His popular +measures here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a +favorite with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where +he was astonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see +Chapter VII.) cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens +of the Republic were wandering in towns without employment, and +deprived of the land which, according to law (see the Licinian +Rogations), should have been divided among them, and not held in large +quantities by the rich land-owners. + +Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself +as candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began +boldly the battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian +Law, now a dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 +acres of the _ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had +fenced this land and improved it were to be compensated therefor. + +The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against +Tiberius, and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS +CAECÍNA, who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his +authority as Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the +question. + +Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, +contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, +and passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, +himself, his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry +it into effect. + +It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of +Tribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry +out his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as +candidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it became +evident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned +out in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed +slaves and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three +hundred of his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). +Thus was shed the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led +by SCIPIO NASÍCA, the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard of +the murder of his brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain." + +The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to +be openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their +work, until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts +of the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But +the commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were +not always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were +enraged. The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + +The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his +brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in +Africa and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and +justice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with +suspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re- +elected. He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the +avowed enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, +he endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Roman +citizenship, and to limit the price of bread. + +Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial +class, by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial +functions were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. +Heretofore all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried +before a jury chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal +and corrupt, and it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be +bought. + +The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time +very powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that +no Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an +appeal to the assembly of the people. + +But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians +ruined his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their +rights with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten +years before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of +his friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master +of the situation. + +However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty +thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in +force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless +the state was held to be in danger. + +Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the +Gracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were +noble, and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + +A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). His +remark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the +popular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, +probably "a victim of political assassination." + +Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of +scholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets +LUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age +towards luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a +general. The one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of +Carthage, which he possibly might have averted had he shown firm +opposition to it. + +SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though +Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +EXTERNAL HISTORY.--PERGAMUM.--JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). + + +Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen miles +from the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. +Its first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the +city. He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their +firm friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in +Asia Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, +and its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome +his kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. +It was made a province under the name of ASIA. + +THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + +After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in +Africa was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which +were centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom +to his son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. +The nephew was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in +the Numantine war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was +named joint heir with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa +dying soon after, Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, +claimed the whole kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, +who appealed to Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They +were bought off by Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing +anything. Adherbal was afterwards captured, savagely tortured, and +finally killed. + +The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an +investigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused +of accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign +languished, and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince +that it was evident his money had again been freely used. The +scandalous transaction was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. +Jugurtha then repaired to the city in person, and bought up all the +authorities except Memmius, whom he found incorruptible. He had +another cousin in the city, whom he caused to be murdered. After this +the Senate ordered him to leave, and as he departed, it is said he +exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to perish, if a purchaser be +found!" + +War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat +of the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by the +defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS +METELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. +He was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a +rigid aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as +his lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + +Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was +himself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and +soon attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and +his strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, +and his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. +He soon rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of +the People, and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was +respected and valued in high circles is shown by his subsequent +marriage into the family of the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, +the aunt of Julius Caesar, he became a person of social distinction. + +The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the +river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his +stronghold, Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as +unconditional surrender was demanded, he still held out. The popular +party at Rome, irritated that such a petty prince should give so much +trouble, demanded that Marius should be made Consul and have charge of +the war. When the lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to +enable him to be present at the elections, as was necessary according +to the law, his general ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait +another twenty years. He went, however, and was elected in 107, being +the first plebeian chosen to that office for more than a century. + +Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of +NUMIDICUS. + +Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be +reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other +occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of +rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a +young patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested +from Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was +over. By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed +(106) into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of +Marius. + +The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of +his treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native +princes, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius +returned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a +dungeon, and there starved to death. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--POLITICAL QUARRELS. + + +The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a +struggle requiring all his talents. + +The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were +threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met +with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. +Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to +have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen +to enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certain +result. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over +the mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. + +Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to +forming and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of +the Rhone in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he +drilled his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible +exertions. Many perished under the strain, but the survivors became +hardened soldiers. Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, +and the soldiers were taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At +length, in his fourth consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the +enemy. + +The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, +the Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards +Noricum, with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while +the Teutones remained in Gaul. + +As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified +camp near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, +and then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to +fall upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no +match for the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest +lasted two days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces +(20 July, 102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius +that he had been elected Consul for the fifth time. + +Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the +fertile fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from +Catulus, the other Consul. + +The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met +the same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + +No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political +quarrels broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul +for the sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two +demagogues, the Tribune SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They +carried corn laws and land laws,[Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN +LAWS (100):--I. Any Roman citizen could buy corn of the state at a +nominal price. II. The land in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had +occupied, should be divided among the Italian and Roman citizens. +III. Colonies from the veterans of Marius were to be founded in +Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.] and compelled the Senators to take an +oath to execute their laws. Metellus Numidicus refusing to comply with +their wishes, Saturnínus sent a guard to the Senate-House, dragged him +out, and expelled him from the city. + +During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. +He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all +parties he pleased none. + +On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by +MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and +the radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia +both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be +successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínus +and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the +Senate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches were +stoned to death. + +The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall of +Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was +suspected that he was a victim of treachery. + +Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his +vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, +travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, +King of Pontus. + +For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative +quiet. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + + +At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the +equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen the +governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers +(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will +help us to understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the +composition of the Senate and the Equites. + +The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was +increased to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies +occurred from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by +the Censor, [Footnote: See the duties of Censor] who appointed a +person that had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, +Praetor, Curule Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All +persons who had held these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed +to join in debate in the Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could +engage in business. Hence he must be wealthy. + +We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six +classes according to their property, and that these classes were +subdivided into one hundred and ninety-three other classes called +centuries. About 225, the number was increased to three hundred and +seventy-three. Eighteen of the centuries of the first class were +called EQUITES, and must have property worth twenty thousand dollars +or more. This name was given to them because at first they served in +the army as horsemen, though in later times the cavalry was composed +only of allied troops. The Equites were originally from the +aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians increased in wealth, many of +them became rich enough to be included in this class. + +There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in +123, Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed +that the jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, +and not the Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two +classes, and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the +nobles, represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian +order. Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of +the courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, +especially in those courts which were established to try governors for +extortion in the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum +repetundarum)_. From the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers +of the provinces. They pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if +a governor had the courage to interfere with them, a threat of +prosecution was held over his head. The average governor preferred to +connive at their exactions; the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles +for their courage. Another trouble was threatening the commonwealth. +The Italian allies of Rome did not possess the franchise belonging to +a Roman citizen. For nearly two centuries they had shared dangers and +victories with the Romans; they now eagerly demanded all their +privileges. + +In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. +He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the +question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the +courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him +many enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of +Roman citizenship aroused great opposition. + +His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. He +was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an +assassin in the same year. + +The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations +entered into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian +Apennines, as their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which +they gave the name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of +Corfinium, and here was to be the place of assembly and the Senate- +House. + +Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. +The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both +took the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were +Marius and Sulla. + +This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies +(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran +Campania, defeated the Romans several times, and entered into +negotiations with the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to +waver. + +It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned +in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make +concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar +carried the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to +all who had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented +by the PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an +Italian town the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at +Rome within sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, +the CALPURNIAN, which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to +bestow the franchise on all who wished it. These laws resulted in +disorganizing the rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the +longest, but were finally put down by Marius. + +The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly +enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn +asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected +by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was +empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes, +King of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were +eager to have the command. + +At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward +the following bills:-- + +1. That the command of the war against Mithradátes be given to Marius. + +2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + +3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be +deprived of his seat. + +4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian +revolt be recalled. + +In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the +triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops +had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and +for the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + + +With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS +SULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited +a moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, +lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was a +poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was +naturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under +Marius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful +officer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to win +the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole +subsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to have +been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held well +under control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder and +license. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Marius +owed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in +the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient help +towards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising +power, and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. + +After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part +in politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are +almost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was +elected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a +hundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he +went as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first +met MITHRADÁTES. + +This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He +spoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless +ambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to +enlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's +interference. + +Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was +ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. This +country Mithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the +throne his own nephew. + +Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He +accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to +Rome with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, +eclipsing the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized +leader of the conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between +the rivals was more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by +no means lost his prestige with the popular party. + +It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War, +thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend +his realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded +Bithynia. With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the +Archipelago. The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, +that Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, +gladly revolted from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman +residents with their families were massacred on a single day. It is +said that 80,000 persons perished. Mithradátes himself next crossed +the Bosphorus, and marched into Northern Greece, which received him +with open arms. + +Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the +bills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that +Marius have charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not to +Sulla's liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in +the Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow +him anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, +marched into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; +Sulpicius was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, +where he lived for a time, watching the course of events. + +Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East +called him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil +war burst out anew (87). + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He +tried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven +from the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He +invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to +follow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and +Marius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They +marched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged +Consul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius +was revoked. + +The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna +for the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a +body-guard of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. +The houses of the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families +was exposed to the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died +sixteen days after he entered office, and the shedding of blood +ceased. + +For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government +was practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a +trusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In +84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in +Asia. + +Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against +Athens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched. +After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. +The same year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and the +next year at ORCHOMENOS. + +Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two +victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready +to negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal +interview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as +follows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and +Cappadocia, and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay +an indemnity amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships +of war. + +Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians +and Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by +compelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now +ready to return to Rome. + +The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 +troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every +preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no +sooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert +to him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of +all Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young +POMPEY, then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts +that Sulla's success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian +party was joined by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than +ever. At length, however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of +Rome. The city lay at his mercy. His first act, an order for the +slaughter of 6,000 Samnite prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct +in the city. Every effort was made to eradicate the last trace of +Marian blood and sympathy from the city. A list of men, declared to be +outlaws and public enemies, was exhibited in the Forum, and a +succession of wholesale murders and confiscations throughout Rome and +Italy, made the name of Sulla forever infamous. + +Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid +triumph for the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political +measures. The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the +thinned ranks of which he filled with his own creatures, with full +control over the state, over every magistrate and every province. + +In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died +the next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + + +THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + +Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the +Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no +former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor +without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the +praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at +least thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six +to eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and +Praetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and +then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + +Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and +all who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + +The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the +Senate. + +On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; +but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to +raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his +oath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, +marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by +Crassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +SERTORIUS.--SPARTACUS.--LUCULLUS.--POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + + +Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of +Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served +under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he +served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his +fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. +He was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on +Sulla's return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the +lead of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased +the Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He +defeated one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania +(Portugal) METELLUS PIUS,[Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He +received the agnomen of Pius on account of the love which he displayed +for his father, whom he begged the people to recall from banishment in +99.] who had been specially sent against him from Rome. + +The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after +the Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and +founded at Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe +towards his soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his +favorite pet and constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In +77 he was joined by PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, +then a young man, was sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius +proved more than a match for both of these generals, and defeated them +near Saguntum. + +The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now +formed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered +into negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with the +slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. + +But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these +was that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, +and with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + +Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own +borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of +their number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at +Capua and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were +joined by large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, +and were soon in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent +against them. + +The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself +at the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were +defeated; and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even +threatened Rome. But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; +his lieutenants grew jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + +In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in +six months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, +returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those +who had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. +Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road +from Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + +Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was +again in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against +him. + +Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social +War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as +Quaestor, in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he was +chosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned +to him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeated +Cotta, and besieged him at Chalcédon. + +Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the +aid of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at +Cabíra in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take +refuge with his son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. + +Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of +provincial governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were +farmed out, and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the +tax-payers against the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms +met with bitter opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose +chief source of income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues +against him by persons sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction +among his troops. He had been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was +all the easier to turn the soldiers against him. + +In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the river +Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was +obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next +year his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + +Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, +dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious +dinners which he gave. + + +POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + +The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as it +had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a +favorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws +laid down by his general. + +GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood +to his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side +in the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of +the latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. +He defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 +was allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally +qualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he +ever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success we +have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS +CRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. + +Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense +wealth by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. +Avarice is said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large +sums to the people for political effect. + +Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was +eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and +was only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and +ought to have waited two years. + +The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained their +prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was +transferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body +was cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed by +Sulla. + +For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey +remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition +against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had +been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. +During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that the +city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had +paralyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy +were not safe from their raids. + +GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command for +three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman +magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over +the coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, +all ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + +In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + +The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the +MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire +control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His +appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by +CATULUS, the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but +CICERO with his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came +to Pompey's assistance, and to him was given the command by which he +became virtually dictator in the East. His operations there were +thoroughly successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the +previous victories of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. +Mithradátes was obliged to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum +(Kertch). + +In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in +the name of Rome, and made it a province. + +Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, +two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to the +wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army against +Jerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He +installed Hyrcánus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. + +Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of +his old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman +arms, that even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn +affairs had taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, +after a reign of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all +formidable opposition to Rome in Asia. + +Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were +now made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the +addition of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor +not yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; +Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + +After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, +January 1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five +years old, had accomplished a really great work, had founded several +cities which afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, +and was hailed as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + +The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. +His wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations +between the two men had been friendly. + +Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to +political importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of +CATILINE. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +CAESAR.--CICERO.--VERRES. + + +The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which +claimed descent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations of +Caesars had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been +Consuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the +moderate wing. The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be +traced no further back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the +same name as the great Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent +from Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome. They had three children, +Gaius Julius, the father of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, +who became the wife of Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than +Praetor. He was married to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and +severe tastes. Their son Gaius was born on July 12th, 100. + +During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, +tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, +and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the +proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, +must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate +companions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + +Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and +determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely +fifteen, a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred +office carried with it a handsome income. + +Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, +the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely +with the popular party, whose champion he remained. + +When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but +eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was +ruined, his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet +free from proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young +man to his own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife +and marry one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then +tried. His priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His +estate was confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself +declared an outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential +friends, however, interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was +finally persuaded to pardon him; but with reluctance, and with the +remark that in Caesar was the making of many a Marius. The youth then +left Italy, and joined the army in Asia. + +Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the +forces of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates +that were making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding +his troops insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to +Nicomédes, a Roman ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional +forces. He was successful in his mission, and, upon his return to +Lesbos, distinguished himself for his bravery in the attack upon +Mityléne, and was awarded the oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving +the life of a fellow-soldier. + +Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign +against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that +country. While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left +the army and returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle +with the nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former +Governor of Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his +cause was theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and +Caesar lost the case. + +Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied +rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property +and priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he +was captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some +$50,000 was raised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once got +together some vessels, returned to the island where he had been in +captivity, seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had +them tried, convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to +Rhodes, where he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. +Then the report of the uprisal of Mithradátes reached him, and he at +once crossed over to the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and +saved Caria to Rome. + +Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly +for a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + +While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in +which he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion +of his youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged +to the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek +teachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party +opposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to +gain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one of +its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during the +troubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literary +pursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who +was falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, and +guaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few +years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his +return, in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of +the Senate. His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance +of his duties. There he obtained an insight into the corrupt +extortions of the Roman governors. Five years later, he conducted his +famous case against Verres. + +VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had +amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece +and Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. +With the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the +praetorship, became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern +Sicily. His government there may have been no worse than that of many +other proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller +account of it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches +against Verres are preserved. + +Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official +position, he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit +brought before him he gave to the party that could pay him best. +Property was confiscated on false charges, and works of art of great +value were stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, +property to the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected to +spend in silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, +but Cicero's eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire +into exile. + +It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies +abroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward +for what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was +elected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time +his aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he +delivered the funeral oration. + +Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests +were common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a +great man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, +and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When +sent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun +by Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task +which he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular +party, of which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +TROUBLES AT ROME.--CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + + +While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming +worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. +There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were +anxious to regain what they had lost, and there were many who, +enriched by the Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and +now only waited a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The +Senate was jealous of the power of the people, and the people +distrusted the Senate. + +Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS +SERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, +and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year +Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough +money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On his +return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted +through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. + +He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year +(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark +Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the +struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was +elected, owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of +Verres and his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the +goal for which he had been so long striving. + +Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had been +Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the +Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). But +what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish +display at the public games and exhibitions. + +Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 the +office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became +vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a +candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than +both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence +of the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + +Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his +fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected +caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had +many followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former +Consul Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the +Censors, and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to +regain a fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of +Sulla, starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and +outlaws of every description. The conspirators were divided into two +parties; those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose +head-quarters were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army +of trained soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. +Here secret meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an +uprising, kill the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite +with the army in Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by +spies, and just before the plans for the uprising were matured, he +disclosed them to the Senate. + +Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and +Cethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious +difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus +was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were +sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any +Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. +Too many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + +In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, +and Cicero. + +Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for +life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a +complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and +selfish, weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people +and of his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would +become dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of +the state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, +forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, +unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. + +Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance +with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was +more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero +was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, +with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + +A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused +the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The +suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat +of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell +fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of +soldiers near Pistoria. + +The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the +vigilance shown in this affair. + +The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar had +expected. It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the +Senate, and it was felt that by it the constitution was still more +endangered. The people demanded that Pompey return. In him they +thought to have a deliverer from internal strifes. + +Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second +Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the +retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing +the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade +his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman +citizens without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the +uproar Cicero could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus +threatened to impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever +heat. The Tribune moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. +The Senate feared his coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), +favored it, and earnestly seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who +was also Tribune, ordered Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his +manuscript from his hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke +up the meeting. Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all +sides. The Senate was riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus +and Caesar were declared deposed from their offices. The people, +however, believed in Caesar. He was followed to his home by crowds, +who begged him to be their leader, and make an example of the law- +breakers in the Senate. But Caesar refused. He would have nothing to +do with lawlessness; he let his opponents play that _rôle_, and +awaited the results. The Senate soon saw its mistake, and requested +him to resume his official duties. + +The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He +had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of +the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were +held by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed +the subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized +the government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. +His administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it +would, he hoped, be the consulship. + +Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium +in December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes +and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the +greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted +to wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + +Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. +Though feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the +people, and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army +behind him. He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend +in all his career. + +Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his +side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS +was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three +then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of +shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to +great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater +wealth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + +THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + + +Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in +return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus +was to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was +elected without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was +Marcus Bibulus. + +Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political +offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in +keeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself +in political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. +Now he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the +aristocracy of what stuff he was made. + +It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the +orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was +too vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his +superiors, and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would +shine there more, and be more likely to redound to his own personal +fame. + +Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the +aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was +bitterly opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, +and by Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager +publicus_, then held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be +distributed among the veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the +holders a reasonable sum for their loss, though legally they had no +claim whatever on the land. Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, +and the Tribunes vetoed, still the Assembly passed the law, and voted +in addition that the Senate be obliged to take an oath to observe it. + +The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his +year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many +crimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining +the state. + +The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the +abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a +double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open +for inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + +When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the +reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. +He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work +would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year +(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could +rely, were elected. + +There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for +Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him +bitterly. Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only +too willing to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's +good fortune, or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, +that both these men were put temporarily out of the way. + +CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At +one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance +to the festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by +women. He was discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but +acquitted by means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in +bringing him to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted +into a plebeian family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, +and was successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person +who had put to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to +the people be considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal +was carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to +Macedonia. His property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, +and his palace in the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + +The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, +had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. +The Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island +was ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + +Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the +Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. +He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were +satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to +increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the +city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in +Caesar's absence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + +CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. + + +Caesar was now in the prime of manhood, in the full vigor of mind and +body. His previous experience in camp life had been comparatively +small. His early service in Asia, and his more recent campaigns in +Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for military life. + +The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the +southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman +province, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which +the Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, +and a part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were +all of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine +and settled in the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwest +and who are represented by the Basques of to-day. + +The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact +with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, +like the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, +which were mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into +factions among themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the +factions were frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes +were the AEDUI and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the +protection of Rome; the latter, impatient of control and Roman +influence, had invited a tribe of Germans under Ariovistus to come +into Gaul and settle, and be their allies. These Germans had attacked +and conquered the Aeduans, taken from them hostages, and with the +Sequanians were in the ascendency. + +In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers +that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to +emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered +on those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through +their country. + +Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling +that the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through +Gaul would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he +determined to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near +Autun, and after a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, +were defeated with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one +third, were treated kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + +Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of +the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during +which the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came +together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the +drilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few +of the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + +The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into +winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant of +Caesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as +administrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + + +THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + +While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that the +BELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people +occupied the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, +of which the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and +NERVII. The last were the fiercest and least civilized. + +Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched +against the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach +alarmed the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they +immediately put themselves under his protection. From them he learned +that the Belgae could muster about 300,000 men. + +By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly +annihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his +protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six +legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii +and their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the +woods on the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and +so quick was the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on +their helmets, to remove the covering from their shields, or to find +their proper places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they +became almost panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched +a shield from a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived +their courage. The Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But +the enemy fought on with a bravery that excited the admiration of +Caesar. Of sixty thousand men scarcely five hundred survived. The +women and children were cared for kindly by Caesar, and settled in +their own territory. + +The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were +conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + +Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter +quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. +In his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + + +THE VENETI.--INVASION OF GERMANY. + +All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except the +VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and +lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, +inducing others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among +them by Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed +against these people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with +villages built on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. +In a naval engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet +was destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their +treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into +slavery. + +The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, +among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + +During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into +Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called +the SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and +advanced to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the +invaders twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration +of the time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, +and two men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that +followed, the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + +Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus +to inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his +famous bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, +thinking his object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the +bridge behind him. + + +INVASION OF BRITAIN. + +It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by +crossing the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but +little resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country +for a short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near +and the weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters +among the Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + +During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, +as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all +preparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next +day landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leader +CASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. +Many thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + + +FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + +In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several +tribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commanded +by the lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampment +that there was an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break up +camp, and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest +companions. On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. +Only a few stragglers carried the news to Labiénus, who was wintering +with a legion among the Remi. + +This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant +who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, +who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, +raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + +In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previous +winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, +Ambiorix, escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar +again crossed the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to +Cisalpine Gaul, supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was +mistaken. The patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The +chiefs of all the tribes secretly established communication with each +other. A day was settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman +inhabitants of Genabum, on the Liger, were massacred. The leading +spirit in this last struggle of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of +the Averni. + +Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of +crossing the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his +legions, marched upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + +Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. +He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all +the towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum +alone was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods +and a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well +defended siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, +excepting eight hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. +Large quantities of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his +soldiers. He then marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. +As the town was on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he +laid siege to it. A part of the army, contrary to instructions, one +day attempted to assault the place. The battle which followed was +disastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. +Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. The siege was raised. +It was a serious position for Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. +Retreating at once, he formed a junction with Labiénus at Agendicum, +and with all his troops started for Gallia Narbonensis to protect it +from invasion. + +On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with eighty +thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill and +considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). +Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress +been invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of +Gauls that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and +genius. But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five +times as large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. + +Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs +and advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded +unconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into +slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. +Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and +afterwards died in a dungeon. + +With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically +completed. + +The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some +of the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the +Senate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces +were formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of +these was subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was +introduced, and Latin became the official language. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. + +CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRASSUS. + + +During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great +confusion prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, +which would stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person +and property. Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had +failed. There were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the +other by MILO. + +"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary +period. He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for +speech; he had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person +which for the moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years +this man was the leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, +insult the Consuls, beat the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang +of armed slaves, killing persons disagreeable to him; and in the +Senate itself he had high friends and connections, who threw a shield +over him when his audacity had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as +disreputable as Clodius. His chief fame had been gained in the schools +of the gladiators. Gangs of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, +and there were constant collisions between his retainers and those of +Clodius. + +In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was +demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, +led by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties +met in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till +Milo's party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, +and the recall voted. + +For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard +lot. He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. +Outside the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were +waiting to receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and +to rebuild his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the +public expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted +the workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down +the walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + +At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long +struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a +candidate for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two +meeting by accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was +murdered, 20 January, 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, +who was nominated sole Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was +evident, and he went into exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an +elaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to deliver it. + +During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar +renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were +held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, +that of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. + +CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was +accompanied by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in +Gaul. They arrived at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; and +the Romans, seven legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew +themselves up along the river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of +ability, proposed to Crassus a plan of the campaign, which consisted +in following the river as far as Seleucia, in order not to be +separated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid being surrounded +by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus allowed himself to be +deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the sandy plains of +Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + +The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed +upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted +a charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians +yielded, but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after +great deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was +borne before the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and +despair, gave the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave +orders for a general retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army +to continual losses, and Crassus himself was killed in a conference +(53). + +In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand +Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as +slaves in the army of the Parthians. + +The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had +sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married +Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus +Scipio. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + +CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + + +Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off +all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the +interests of the Senate and aristocracy. + +The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound +impression upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the +northern barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for +himself distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, +or Pompey. "He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province +larger than Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a +nation of warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The +nobility had watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were +forced to vote a thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made +sixty." + +Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a +second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and +on this account would not disband his army; for, according to the +custom, he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, +however, he must disband it before he could offer himself as a +candidate for the consulship. But he asked permission to set aside +this custom, and to become a candidate while he was in the province in +command of the army. + +The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been +suspended several times before this; so that Caesar's request was +reasonable. His enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he +felt that, if he returned as a private citizen, his personal safety +would be in danger; whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would +be considered sacred. + +The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the +days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, +was to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a +force in Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a +legion which had been loaned him, and also should send another legion +back to Italy. The vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the +troops were needed in Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they +reached Italy they were placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The +Consuls chosen for the year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He +had taken up his winter quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his +province bordering on Italy. From here he sent a messenger with +letters to the Senate, stating that he was ready to resign his +command, if Pompey did the same. The messenger arrived at Rome, +January 1, 49, on the day in which the new Consuls entered upon their +duties. + +The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited +discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his +command. The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, +they were compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + +When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called +together his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and +my army have served our country loyally and with some degree of +success. We have driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made +Gaul a province; and the Senate, for answer, has broken the +constitution in setting aside the Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It +has voted the state in danger, and has called Italy to arms, when no +single act of mine can justify it in this course." The soldiers became +enthusiastic, and were eager to follow their leader without pay. +Contributions were offered him by both men and officers. LABIENUS, his +trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole away, and joined +Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across the Alps. With +these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and marched to +Ariminum. + +Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy +had imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would +desert. Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving +wives, children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to +seek safety with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the +money from the treasury, but left it locked. + +Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that +he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province +in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing +to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by +the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, +that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, +and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give +security that he would dismiss his army. + +These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. +Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains +to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna, +before Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw +open their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers +fled. Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until +when he reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand +troops. + +This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats +and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius +endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him +over to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its +garrison filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to +Brundisium, where ships were in readiness for them to depart. + +Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his +arrival outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had +already gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve +thousand troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused +to see Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, +he was unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. + +Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the +Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a +fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his +attention. + +In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way to +Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but he +preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and +assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius +Longínus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with +Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own +forbearance and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their +violent suppression of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still +willing to send envoys to treat with Pompey, but no one was found +willing to go. After three days spent in useless discussion, Caesar +decided to act for himself. By his own edict, he restored the children +of the victims of Sulla's proscription to their rights and property. +The money in the treasury was voted him by the Assembly of the people. +He took as much of it as he needed, and started at once for Gaul to +join his troops on his way to Spain. + +He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's +lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and +allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain +supplies of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To +Sicily he sent Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge +of Sicily, immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia +received Caesar's troops with open arms. + +Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of +Massilia had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius +whom he had sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the +city, and, leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued +his journey to Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly +intrenched at ILERDA in Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days +he brought them to terms, and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was +eager to surrender. All Spain was at his feet. + +Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans +to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. +He then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legions +and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to +surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was +allowed to escape a second time. + +Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived +at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. +Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not +succeeded, however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, +and he had lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been +surprised and killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato +and Pompey's followers. + +During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual +course. He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius +Lepidus, and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at +Massilia, when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him +Dictator. Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. +Public credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war +began. Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time +estimates were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the +interest was remitted and the principal declared still due. This +measure relieved the debtors somewhat. + +It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, +during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from +Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here had +gathered many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial +families of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the +renegade Labiénus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and +auxiliaries, amounting in all to 100,000 men. + +Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were +fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more +than 15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all +veterans, inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man +was devoted to his leader. + +On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after an +uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards +Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and +intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country +was well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. + +Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his +remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and +many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself +to trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit +out a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When +Antony finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. +Pompey's forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full +of danger; but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him +before Pompey knew of his movements. + +The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of +strongly fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. +He turned the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as +possible to the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + +Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At this +point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were +surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them +to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, +and a few hundred soldiers were captured. + +This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was +exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically +over; and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected +to follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to +recover from the blow. + +The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey +followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused +themselves with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and +Cicero remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions +of the degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + +The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, +only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS, +which gave name to the battle which followed. + +"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place +in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their +own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons +of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman +families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of +the political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present +on the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble +multitude whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of +Pharsalia were watered by the precious blood of the elect of the +earth." + +For several days the armies watched each other without decisive +action. One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) +Caesar noticed a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected +attack was coming. + +The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing +rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey +himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken +from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the +cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. His +left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and +Cassius Longínus. + +At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw +their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's +cavalry charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back +the opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they +advanced flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held +in reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, +appeared in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians +wavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw +themselves upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This +wing, composed of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to +fight its former comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. +Pompey himself mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the +battle ended in a rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while +fifteen thousand of the enemy lay dead on the field. + +The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians +had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to +protect their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were +stretched out ready for them to take repose after their expected +victory, and tables were spread with dainty food and wines on which to +feast. As he saw these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the +men who accused my suffering, patient army, which needed the common +necessaries of life, of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar +could not delay. Leaving a portion of his forces in camp, by rapid +marching he cut off the retreat of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand +surrendered, all of whom were pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at +Corfinium and Massilia, was killed trying to escape. Labiénus, +Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away by night. Thus ended the +battle of Pharsalia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + +CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + + +Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way to +the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few +companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne, +and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young +PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 +September, 48. + +Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. +"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the +surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to have +excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being a first- +class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more especially in +the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted to what +others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman, he +had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and +stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could not but +fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he never +used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." + +Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, +set sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought +to him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers +now saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his +sister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants +of Alexandría revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a +handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire to +the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he +returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing +CLEOPÁTRA upon the throne (47). + +Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, +where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt against +Rome. Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity +rendered proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I +SAW, I CONQUERED. + +He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy +before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from +the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of +the citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the +genius and fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he +had been made Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + +Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He +insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property +respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months +prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, +but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected +privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain +promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open +revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. +Caesar collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state +their grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, +citizens" (_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had +always addressed them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was +so keen, that a reaction at once began, and they all begged to be +received again into his service. He accepted them, telling them that +lands had been allotted to each soldier out of the _ager +publicus_, or out of his own estates. + +Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King +JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied +all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, +Afranius, Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and +Gnaeus Pompeius. + +Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen +legions of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon +Sicily, Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if +captured, were put to death without mercy. + +Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such +cruelties. He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, +and charged with currying favor of the Dictator. + +Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near +Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed +useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the +province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba +to give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also +came in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in +councils of war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits +sent from Utica by Cato. + +For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; +Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. +Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, +46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed +to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a +slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was +intercepted in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, +but, finding their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal +combat; when the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his +own sword. Labiénus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to +Spain. Afranius was captured and executed. + +Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, +and committed suicide. + +Thus ended the African campaign. + +On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four +successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one +over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers +with liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. +They were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two +thousand tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three +persons. Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of +wild beasts and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + +Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of +forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another +was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to +him in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) +of the Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was +appointed Dictator for two years, and later for life. He received for +three years the office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint +Senators, and to be guardian of manners and morals. He had +already been made Tribune (48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In +a word, he was king in everything excepting name. + +Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the +REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been +so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months +behind. Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is +still in use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed +Sosigenes, an Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + +While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the +Senate. Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were +expelled, and the vacancies filled with persons of merit. + +Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of +Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus +had been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The +soldiers became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied +with Roman affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there +in its wanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed to +collect an army as numerous as that which had been defeated at +Thapsus. There were thirteen legions in all. + +Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the +province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor +AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The +struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive +battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near +Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was +on the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it +hand to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so +doubtful at one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his +horse, seized a standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, +Labiénus was seen to gallop across the field. It was thought he was +fleeing. Panic seized his troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand +were slain, including three thousand Roman Knights, and Labiénus +himself. + +Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a +number of years. + +Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, +when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians +(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and +festivals, which kept the populace in a fever of delight and +admiration. + + +CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + +MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS [Footnote: Cato the Younger, called +UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.] (95-46) was the great- +grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the old +school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in +his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a +fanatic, who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any +subject. As a general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor +genius for military exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as +Quaestor and Praetor; but when candidate for the consulship he was +defeated, because he declined to win votes by bribery and other +questionable methods then in vogue. + +QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of +the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was +one of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed +Caesar. He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a +pliant tool against the great conqueror. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. + +MURDER OF CAESAR. + + +Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had +fought against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, +MARCUS BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to +nine hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in +idleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. He +rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of +Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits were +marked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to be +carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were +formed. Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in +Rome. The harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from +the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to +Mars was built, and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of +the Tarpeian Rock. + +In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + +CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the +conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of +Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At +Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned +by Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew +and son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, +and also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, +and Brutus tyranny. + +These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men +who had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. +Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all +who knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking +the life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + +On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the +Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, +headed by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled +brother; and while the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping +Caesar's hand, kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to +rise, Cimber dragged his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was +standing behind his chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was +struck, and the whole pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius +stabbed him in the face, and Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made no +further resistance; but, wrapping his gown over his head and the lower +part of his body, he fell at the base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was +drenched with the martyr's blood. + +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the +crowd. They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's +toga, and disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to +be carried to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral +pile in the Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in +troops, broke into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. +Brutus and Cassius fled from the city for their lives, followed by the +other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a pre- +eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As a +historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. + +THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + + +Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his +sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other +relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + +Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. He +went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, +Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a +large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's +writings and memoranda. + +Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and +showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome was +disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's +property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public +purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly +out of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the +people. He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn +and winter of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent +Cicero, who was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen +PHILIPPICS,--so called from their resemblance to the great orations of +Demosthenes against Philip. + +During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at +Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then +appointed Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the +Senate, made friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 +November, 43) the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to +govern and reorganize the state, and to hold office for five years. + +The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and +Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and +Gallia Cisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody +prescription followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was +surrendered to please Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + + +PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + +The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, +whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These +two had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to +80,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering +various towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, +assembled their forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. +After marching through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony +and Octavius opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 +troops. There were two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the +first, Brutus defeated Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, +and, unaware of his colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the +second battle, three weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united +armies of the Triumvirs, and, following the example of Cassius, put an +end to his life. With Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute +ascendency of individuals, which is monarchy, was then established. + +The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman +world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took +Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + +Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to +be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in +command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the +Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, +exposed the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to +raise a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by +Pompey, but later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in +Sicily, the rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, +but was taken prisoner at Milétus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, +and put to death. + +Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal +share in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. +But his soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to +surrender to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his +power and provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but +ceased to be a factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all +rivals, Octavius and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking +the West, the latter the East. + +Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to the +fascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dress +of an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his +friends and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, +and finally divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of +Octavius, disregarding his good name and the wishes of his friends. +Thus gradually he became more and more estranged from Octavius, until +finally the rupture resulted in open war. + +The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in +Greece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the +East a large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by +that of Cleopátra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but +Cleopátra insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of +Octavius was commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea- +fight off Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still +undecided, when Cleopátra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels +hastened to leave the line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, +however, continued until his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his +army, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered. + +Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter +in Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was +occupied in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to +satisfy the demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At +length he turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the +key of the country, he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing of +success, committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. The +queen, disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his +example, and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her +two faithful attendants also dead at her feet. + +Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital +to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled +disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He +arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. +The gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and +had been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once +between the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at +peace with all the world. + + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + +CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the +dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by +nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, +and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not +sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to +play a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. +Thus it happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and +repelled, deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of +his adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between +which he tried to steer his course. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. + +AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + + +After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the +precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but +he allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give +him that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. +In this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next +the Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the +authority of Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, +and to restore to this body something of its ancient respectability. +By judicious pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and +required a property qualification for membership. He placed himself at +its head as PRINCEPS (prince), a title which implied that the Emperor +was the _first_ citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, +thus lulling any suspicions of the populace. + +The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had +jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. +It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), +and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + +The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it +made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), +and Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of +sitting in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular +Consuls, of course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, +he was made Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + +Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was +practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all +voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, +however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 +A. D.). + +As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as +Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself +resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee +them. The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by +Proconsuls appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, +Africa, Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, +and Gallia Narbonensis. + +The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was +assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, +a second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body +guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These +Praefects soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through +them Augustus reigned supreme. + +The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on +the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper +Euphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and +west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, +and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign +Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the +territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + +Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory +between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy +mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two step- +sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. They +were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new +provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + +Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the +province of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + +Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a +campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished +the conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, +B.C.), and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his +work. + +Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in +Germany. His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had +two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards +Emperor. + +In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired +territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently +conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, +they rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful +chief. + +Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the +Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. +After three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his +way through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the +enemy in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus +killed himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became +again the Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and +the Emperor is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, +give me back my legions!" + +Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he +asked his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of +life. + +Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 +B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her +beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married +three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by +whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She +was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. + +OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and +accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her son +MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). The +famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. 869- +887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to +tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. + +After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark +Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the +ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + +AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend +and counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the +fleet of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, +and had three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died +before him; the third was murdered by Tiberius. + +Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in +his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold +and ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather +in the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by +fortune, than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the +will. His success depended on the temper of the people and the +peculiar circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is +found in the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live +in peace for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one +will, and the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the +legitimate result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He +formed his empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the +future. Thus it would seem that the part he played was that of a +shrewd politician, rather than that of a wise statesman. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. + +THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + + +In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose +names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the +AUGUSTAN AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. +Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign +a brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than +diminished by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, +and that of Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong +to an epoch in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which +pertains to the arts of peace. + +In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. +Born at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona +and Mediolánum. After completing his education he retired to his +paternal estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the +battle of Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was +subsequently restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, +partly in Campania. His health was never good, and he died in his +fifty-second year (22 September, 19 B. C.). + +Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly +imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone +inspiring and elevating. + +In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, a +faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal +interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and +difficulties of practical life. + +In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage +gave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the +friendship of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was +Horace, who entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which +was established in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an +inheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works became +school-books even before the death of Augustus, and have continued +such ever since. + +HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at +Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where +he fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his +_Satires_. These he read to his friends, and their merit was at +once recognized. His great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him to +the Emperor, and gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the +Sabine Mountains. He died the same year as his patron, and was buried +beside him at the Esquiline Gate. + +The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in +the Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and +felicity of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read +and quoted more than those of any other ancient writer. + +OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil +and Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for +narration. + +"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, +partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of +nature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations of +this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other +poets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character +and rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished +by Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing +verses were written during this period. + +One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, the warm +friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the +literature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his +magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He +helped both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter +is constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) +childless, and left his fortune to Augustus. + +The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and +Nepos. + +LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man +of rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The +historical value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of +the scarcity, and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical +documents on the times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and +always interesting. His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with +that of Caesar. Only thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two +books that he wrote are preserved. + +NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, +_De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither +accurate nor interesting, and of little value. + +SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of +Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. +He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to +be obscure. + +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments +of this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican +institutions, a man of great independence of character, and a poet of +no mean merit, as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of +his writings are preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two +that had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of +justice (_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The +most famous of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar +and finished by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north +of the great Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, +finished by the Emperor of that name. + +The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was +the PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. +Here are buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a +mausoleum for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--the +first stone theatre of Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. + +THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + + +Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. +C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained +a divorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + +Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, +and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in +Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his +campaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 +B. C., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the +dissolute daughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of +Tiberius, developing everything that was bad in his character, and +making him jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. + +Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to +Rhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's +influence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards +appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the +age of fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and +ambitions were locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said but +once to have taken counsel with his officers. He was a master of +dissimulation, and on this account an object of dislike and suspicion. +But until his later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, +penetrating all disguises. + +Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at +large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which +had been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were +made. First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in +small bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the +walls. By this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, +the old COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was +treated with great deference. + +Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, +that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, +governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread +of punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in +public expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his +reign on the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + +Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the +slightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but +it is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was +effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one +who had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the +application of this offence even to words or conduct which could in +any way be considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of +informers (_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered +unsafe. The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially +prominent by ancient historians; but their statements are beginning to +be taken with much allowance. + +After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a +fainting fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + +LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. +She exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. +She had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She +managed to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of +Augustus, until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the +palace with Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the +Empress, and her son feared and hated her. She survived Augustus +fifteen years, and died in 29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her +death-bed, and was not present at her funeral. + +SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was +trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He +persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her +husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry +her. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of +Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and +Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of +Capreae, and he himself became the real master of Rome. + +Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrested +and executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in +pieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + + +CALIGULA (37-41). + +Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son +of Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of +Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nickname +given him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five +years of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject +to fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, +and confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and +is said to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one +neck, that he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond +of adulation, and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise +of a god, and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was +enough. He was murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + + +THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +CLAUDIUS (41-54). + + +A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of +government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the +Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + +Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was +a man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his +two wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was so +notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. +His second wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearly +as bad. This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom +she induced the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless +wife then caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be +proclaimed Emperor. + +At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In +the government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He +undertook the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days +he laid the foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about +forty years later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a +Roman province for four hundred years, but the people never +assimilated Roman customs, as did the Gauls, and when the Roman +garrisons were withdrawn, they quickly returned to their former +condition. However, many remains of Roman buildings in the island show +that it was for the time well under subjection. + +The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a +new harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct +called the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to +this day. He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by +draining the Fucine Lake. + + +NERO (54-68). + +NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or +three years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the +author, and BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his +government was during this period the most respectable of any since +the time of Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and +removed from the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an +unscrupulous woman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finally +killed his wife, Octavia. + +It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this +time. A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the real +ruler of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and +wickedness. Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; +Burrhus was disposed of; Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir to +the throne, were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the +feelings of his subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The +Emperor appeared in public, contending first as a musician, and +afterwards in the sports of the circus. + +The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the +city, was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the +stories of his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure +fictions. It was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so +the CHRISTIANS, then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer +people, were accused of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They +were often enclosed in fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. + +In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence +of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding +alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard +stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply +was also carefully regulated. + +In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the +magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. +Its walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of +art from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, +lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of +Nero himself, one hundred and ten feet high. + +Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were +implicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life +after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he +conducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, +and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither +Spain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. +Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the +insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned +him to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June +9, 68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, +his name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him +ended the Claudian line of Emperors. + +LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, +of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a +teacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca +began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable +reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later +he was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. +He was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he +shared the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His +influence over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often +maintained by doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike +him, and when Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's +command he committed suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, +he discoursed with his friends on the brevity of life till death +ensued. + +Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral +essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of +the last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + + +GALBA (68-69).--OTHO (69).--VITELLIUS (69). + +GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on +account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and +was murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached +Rome. He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was +sincerely regretted by the better element in the city. + +OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection +against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his +accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the +Rhine, revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and +committed suicide after a reign of three months. + +VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and +incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during +which he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. + +THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + +VESPASIAN (69-79). + + +The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the +soldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea +proclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. He +left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at +Rome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the +course of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, +rebuilding also a large part of the city. + +In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and +extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the +general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper +members, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he +put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus +returned from the capture of Jerusalem, [Footnote: Jerusalem was taken +in 70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have been +graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was present +in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold +into slavery.] they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was +closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. + +Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A +new Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous +COLOSSÉUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of +Nero, which had stood near by. + +On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, +frugal and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was +marked by peace and general prosperity. + +One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum +Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. +Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, +which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, +increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their +civilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. +His life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + + +TITUS (79-81). + +Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of +his father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built a +triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, +called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via +Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred +candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + +It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed +by an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, +the most noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, +the only one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a +true student. His passion for investigation led him to approach too +near the volcano, and caused his death. + + +DOMITIAN (81-96). + +DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate, +and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, +during which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his +crimes and inconsistencies. + +In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added +to the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden +and Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the +Rhine to Ratisbon on the Danube. + +With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the +last of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the +historian Suetonius. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. + +THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + +NERVA (96-98). + + +NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the +first Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or +influence. He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in +command of the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but +during that time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring +happiness and prosperity upon every class. + + +TRAJAN (98-117). + +Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty +in the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long +afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was +that he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." +Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful +life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. + +He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube +and the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became +so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is +founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. It +was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF +TRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. + +Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an +important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, +however, resulted in no permanent advantage. + +During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS +POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the +financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free +peasantry, until in the next century they were reduced to a condition +of practical serfdom. + +The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the +Augustan age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose +writers were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior +to its poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE +YOUNGER, and QUINTILIAN. + +The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and +STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + + +HADRIAN (117-138). + +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. +One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent +conquests of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. +The reasons for this were that they had reached the utmost limits +which could lend strength to the power of Rome, or be held in +subjection without constant and expensive military operations. The +people occupying the new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered +over a country easy of defence, and certain to strive constantly +against a foreign yoke. + +Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, to +overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited +Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a +fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea +to sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, +corresponding nearly to the modern boundary between England and +Scotland. He also visited the East, where the Jews were making serious +trouble, and completed their overthrow. + +On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its +adornment. Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. +The most famous of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known +as the Castle of San Angelo. + +Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases +from which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure +a proper succession, he associated with himself in the government +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius +Verus and Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, +Hadrian died, leaving the Empire to Titus. + + +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161). + +ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded +to the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate +on account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. +He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the +affairs of state moved smoothly. + + +MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180). + +On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the +title of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus. + +The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into Gaul; +the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the +Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, +however, ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by +ceding Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a +pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The +Christians were charged with being the cause of the plague, and were +cruelly persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and +Polycarp at Smyrna. + +The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague +who attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The +Emperor was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have +become his greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was +scarcely less unhappy. + +The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. +Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability +even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was +engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring to +check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the +fifty-ninth year of his life (180). + +Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought +with money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked +the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + +Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were +quiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His +faults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His +_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes and +thoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his +death, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. + + +THE CHRISTIANS. + +The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were +persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for +these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse +to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had +flourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the +Emperor's statue, as an act of adoration. The Christians not only +refused homage to the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense +as sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general +persecution this sect had yet suffered. The last combined effort to +suppress them was under DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the +EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which famous decree gave the imperial license +to the religion of Christ. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. + +PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.--DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +COMMODUS (180-192). + + +On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was +received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His character +was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and +vindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of +unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid +himself of the best members of the Senate. His government became so +corrupt, he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. +His proudest boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of +his ability to kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign +of twelve years his servants rid the Empire of his presence. + + +PERTINAX (192-193). + +PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, +followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it +was not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted +reforms were stopped by his murder. + + +JULIANUS (193).--SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + +The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who +proved to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a +thousand dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in +number. After enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and +executed. + +In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their +respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African, +belonging to the army of the Danube. + +Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished +them from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand +legionaries, who acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in +command of this guard was made to rank next to himself, with +legislative, judicial, and financial powers. The Senate he reduced to +a nonentity. + +After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against the +Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and +Arabia. In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a +magnificent arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died +at Eboracum (York), in Britain, while making preparations for a +campaign against the Caledonians. + + +CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + +Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in +the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the +elder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence +of their mother. + +Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) +he was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous +baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. +Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, and was +followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a true +Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of his +predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. + + +FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + +ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored +in vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become all +powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign +(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + +Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for +three years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + +GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers +in his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249- +251) both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the +Christians severer than any that preceded it. + +The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. +Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The +Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of +territory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is +often called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + + + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered +strength of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); +TACITUS (275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian +undertook a campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In +her he found a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered +more brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she +fortified herself in Palmýra, which was taken after a siege and +destroyed. Zenobia was carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph +of her conqueror, but was afterwards permitted to live in retirement. +Aurelian was the first who built the walls of Rome in their present +position. + + +DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + +With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of +government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost +the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more +united country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself +MAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing +a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS +and CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of the +East, and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he +crushed all revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and +imposed peace and good order upon the world. + +Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two +Caesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn +appointed Caesars as assistants. + +Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE +was proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle +followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and +was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + + +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + +Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which +should be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering +the greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea +and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while +as a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in the +least shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the +city was built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of +government was permanently removed thither, and every inducement was +offered to immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to +drag out a miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome +had fallen a prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign +of thirty years, in his sixty-fourth year (337). + +Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with +which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, +HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this +mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had +kept on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite +influential body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was +issued, in 313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; +and also in this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), +met to settle questions of creed. + +In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all +warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient +and prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition +alone led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy +marked his course after his success. He was filial in his affection +towards his mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put +to death his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. +If he was great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. + + +DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., +CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves +(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the +possession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death of +the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, +because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while +Constans was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. +Constans was murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He +died ten years later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360- +363) + +JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and +respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus +gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, +had too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being +shaken. The failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. +After a reign of three years, he was killed in an expedition against +the Persians. His successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the +army, died after a reign of only seven months. + +VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the +throne was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his +brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with +Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN +the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her +ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever +visited the city during his reign. [Footnote: Since the building of +Constantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be +mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a +provincial city.] He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son +GRATIAN (375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under +him Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a +battle against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and +Western Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make +himself sole ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. +Gratian, like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His +successors, MAXIMUS (383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS +(392-394), were either deposed or assassinated, and again there was, +for a short time, one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom +Gratian had made Emperor of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year +(394-395). On his death his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS +(395-423) taking the West, and Arcadius the East. + +Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed +under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by +marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven +from the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was +suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate +to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he +was wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was +besieged, captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When +this evil was past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of +the Empire, each eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so +obviously crumbling to pieces. + +Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the +imperial line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a +relic of its former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically +lost; Illyria and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa +was soon after seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in +the possession of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld +the Roman name, winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. +He was assassinated by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in +455, the Emperor himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who +succeeded him, but for only three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a +noble of Gaul, became Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a +Sueve, of considerable ability, who for some time managed the affairs +of the Empire, making and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the +removal of Avítus, ten months were allowed to elapse before a +successor was appointed; and then the crown was bestowed upon +MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, a man too weak to interfere +with the plans of Ricimer. + +After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the +people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who +attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of +Ricimer; but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a +horde of barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and +sacked Rome, and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself +died. + +Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid +succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the +office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of +the DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII. + +INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + + +The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a +separate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, because +by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; and +especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive +conception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces the +Roman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. + +The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western +Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they +moved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and +defeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the +Danube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + +The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern +Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were +the more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged +to submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in +overrunning the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the +hideous appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the +Danube, and besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and +take refuge in their territory. The favor was granted, but the +refugees were treated with indignity, and compelled to undergo every +privation. + +Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also +desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized +shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They +found the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that +they united with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent +against them, and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in +person, and was defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and +westward into Greece, everywhere pillaging the country. + +When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong +points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment for +an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete +victory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the +first chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a +close. + +We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, +ALARIC and STILICHO. + +Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year +the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens +was compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken +and plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual +resistance. At this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, +hastened to the scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but +Alaric burst through his lines and escaped. He then made peace with +Constantinople, and the office of Master-General of Illyricum was +bestowed upon him. How sincere the barbarian was in his offers of +peace may be seen from the fact that in two years he invaded Italy +(400). + +Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that +even the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear +of the approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for +himself, leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from +Britain, Gaul, and the other provinces far and near, leaving their +places vacant and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape +to Gaul, was surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified +town of Asta, was there besieged until the arrival of the brave +Stilicho, who attacked the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly +routed them. In his retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he +was again defeated, and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. +Honorius returned home (404), and enjoyed a triumph. + +Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from +the Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + +The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of +Germany who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, +Vandals, and Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these +tribes invaded Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were +met near Florence by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus +himself was killed. The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, +ravaged the lower portion of the country, and finally separated. One +portion, the Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their +descendants comes the name of Burgundy. + +The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they +established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of +the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves +settled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. +The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to +Africa, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at +one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome +itself. + +Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, +no longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting +for the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + +With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaric +again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into +submission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally +peace was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon +returned. The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries +became the second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + +The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to +ravage the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were +almost spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after +his army marched into France, where they established a kingdom +reaching from the Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + +The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the +Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to +enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves +firmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the +name of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + +Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder +appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + +The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The +portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark +of his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, +small deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a +beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength +though disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an +army of over half a million troops. + +At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to +interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an +invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of +an ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy +from the west, was too favorable to be neglected. + +A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing +this, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever +cities lay in their route. + +The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met +the Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in +451, was fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of +Western Europe. Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the +Romans; and a charge of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of +the savages. Aetius did not push his victory, but allowed the Huns to +retreat in the direction of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, +captured, and rased to the ground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole +country, sparing only those who preserved their lives by the surrender +of their wealth. + +It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, +who fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the +lagoons at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + +Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, +and with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The +VANDALS, we have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were +now ruled by GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were +continually ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their +fleets. + +Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the +widow of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in +revenge sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once +set sail for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into +his hands on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, +455), and for fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. +Genseric then left Rome, taking with him Eudoxia. + +This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years +elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. + +ROMAN LITERATURE. + +PLAUTUS (254-184). + + +PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. +Born at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on +the stage at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some +time he worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by +translating Greek comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come +down to us. They are lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a +mixture of Greek and Roman life. + + +TERENCE (195-159). + +TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early +age as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and +liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of +Plautus, they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same +general character. + + +ENNIUS (139-69). + +QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the +Younger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, +the _Annàles_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the +arrival of Aenéas to the poet's own day. + + +CICERO (106-43). + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prose +writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy +natural talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively +imagination, his great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of +expression, which was never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any +circumstances or mood, his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and +impressive figure, all contributed to render him a powerful speaker. +He himself left nothing undone to attain perfection. Not until he had +spent a long time in laborious study and preparation did he make his +_début_ as an orator; nor did he ever rest and think himself +perfect, but, always working, made the most careful preparation for +every case. Each success was to him only a step to another still +higher achievement; and by continual meditation and study he kept +himself fully equipped for his task. Hence he succeeded, as is +universally admitted, in gaining a place beside Demosthenes, or at all +events second only to him. + +There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of +twenty more. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his +proscription by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa +at Formiae, in December, 43. + +His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de Claris +Oratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover of +philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most +read are _De Senectute, De Amicitia,_ and _De Officiis_. + +Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they +furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + + +CAESAR (100-44). + +Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his +_Commentarii_, containing the history of the first seven years of +the Gallic war, and the history of the civil strife down to the +Alexandrine war. The account of his last year in Gaul was written +probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of the Alexandrine, African, and +Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an orator, Caesar ranks next to +Cicero. + + +NEPOS (94-24). + +CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both +Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De Viris +Illustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor +good style. + + +LUCRETIUS (98-55). + +TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum +Natura_. The tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + + +CATULLUS (87-47). + +GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet of +Roman literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + + +VIRGIL (70-19). + +The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aenéis_, in twelve +books, gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, +and his struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised +when Virgil died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + +Besides the _Aenéis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten +Eclogues imitated and partially translated from the Greek poet +Theocritus. The _Georgica_, a poem of four books on agriculture +in its different branches, is considered his most finished work, and +the most perfect production of Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + + +HORACE (65-8). + +QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two +of Satires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page +180.) + + +TIBULLUS (54-29). + +ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems +the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + + +PROPERTIUS (49-15). + +SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and +wrote mostly on love. + + +OVID (43 B.C.--18 A.D.) + +PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of +_Heroides_; the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the +_Metamorphoses_ (fifteen books); the _Tristia_; and the +_Fasti_. (See page 181.) + + +LIVY (59 B.C.--17 A.D.). + +TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have +been preserved. (See page 181.) + + +PHAEDRUS. + +PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius (14- +37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in number, +and are written in iambic verse. + + +SENECA (8 B.C.--65 A.D.) + +For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, +page 189. + + +CURTIUS. + +QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of +Claudius (50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander +the Great. + + +PERSIUS (34-62). + +PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He +wrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + + +LUCAN (39-65). + +LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called +_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + + +PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + +GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in +history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on +_Natural History_ has come down to us. + + +STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. + +STATIUS (45-96), a native of Naples, had considerable poetical talent. +He wrote the _Thebaid_, the _Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the +_Silvae_. + +MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen +books are extant. He was a native of Spain. + +QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of +eloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of an +Orator_, is preserved. + +JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described and +attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires +are still in existence. + +TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his +age. His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a +high tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He +wrote,-- + +1. A dialogue on orators. +2. A biography of his father-in-law, +Agricola. +3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. +4. A history of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and +Domitian (_Historiae_). +5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + + +PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of +Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books +of his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting +vivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent +and smooth. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. + +ROMAN ROADS.--PROVINCES. + + +The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen +to fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, +placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large +polygonal blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so +as to make an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths +strewn with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at +regular distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. + +There were four main public roads:-- + +1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and +Brundisium. + +2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Aquínum and Teánum, joining the Via Appia +at Beneventum. + +3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum +and Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main +line at Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and +Nuceria, where it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on +the Adriatic, the other to Ancóna, and from there along the coast to +Fanum Fortúnae, where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to +Ariminum through Pisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name +of VIA AEMILIA, into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, +Mutina, Parma, and Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolánum. + +4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at +Alsium, following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by +Genua, as far as Forum Julii, in Gaul. + + +PROVINCES. + +After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were +divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first +Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards +persons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration +of their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls +also, at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern +provinces, with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called +_Provinciae Consuláres_. The provinces were generally distributed +by lot, but their distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement +among those entitled to them. The tenure of office was usually a year, +but it was frequently prolonged. When a new governor arrived in the +province, his predecessor was expected to leave within thirty days. + +The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the +financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was +obliged to account at Rome for his administration, from his own books +and those of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to +deposit two copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his +province, and to forward a third to Rome. + +If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his +official duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the +Senate, and to influential Romans who were their patrons. + +The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain +contributions from the people of the province for the support of +himself and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, +notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme +in military and civil matters, and he could not be removed from +office. But after his term had ended, he could be tried for +mismanagement. + +Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast +sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these +was Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + +At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; +viz. Sicilia (227 [Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the +date at which the province was established.]), Sardinia and Corsica +(227), Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum +(167), Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia +Citerior (80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), +Bithynia and Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), +Numidia (46), and Mauritania (46). + +Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, +Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, +Galatia, Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and +Assyria. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV. + + +[Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered +in different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it +into one chapter for readier reference.] + + +ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + +The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or +higher, and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the +Censor, had the _Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former +class belonged the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all +elected in the Comitia Centuriáta. The magistrates were also divided +into two other classes, viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices +were those of Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and +Curule Aedile. These officers had the right to sit in the _sella +curúlis_, chair of state. This chair was displayed upon all public +occasions, especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat +of the Praetor when he administered justice. In shape it was plain, +resembling a common folding camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was +ornamented with ivory, and later overlaid with gold. + +The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, +and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral +processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other +deceased members of the family of curule rank. + +A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never +held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most +famous new men were Marius and Cicero. + +The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early +republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. +The plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian +Aediles and the Tribúni Plebis. + +All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and +all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on +January 1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the +Quaestor, December 5th. + +The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which +one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for +holding each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the +aedileship, thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the +consulship, forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only +the wealthy could afford to hold office. + + +THE CONSULS. + +The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator +was appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power +was equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the +Senate and the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided. +"When both Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in +performing the official duties, each acting a month; and during this +time the Consul was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, +who preceded him in single file, each carrying on his shoulders a +bundle of rods (_fasces_), to signify the power of the magistrate +to scourge criminals. Outside the city, these fasces showed an axe +projecting from each bundle, signifying the power of the magistrate to +behead criminals." + +At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern +a province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He +was chief in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + + +PRAETORS. + +There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice +(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, as +_Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor +was called _Praetor Urbánus_. He had charge of all civil suits +between Roman citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, +he acted in their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in +the city, and by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrínus_ had charge +of civil cases in which one or both parties were aliens. The other six +Praetors presided over the permanent criminal courts. + + +AEDILES. + +The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of +the police of the city, and the care of the public games and +buildings. Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, +called Curule Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might +be patricians. They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their +supervision of the public games gave them great opportunities for +gaining favor with the populace, who then, as now, delighted in +circuses and contests. A small sum was appropriated from the public +treasury for these games; but an Aedile usually expended much from his +own purse to make the show magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the +next office, that of Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to +hold this office. + + +QUAESTORS. + +There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having +charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different +governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their +clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, +and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor +always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his +quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia +Tribúta. + + +TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + +There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They were +always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any +decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of a +magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could +hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty of +death. They called together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also had +authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla +succeeded in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The +Tribunes did not possess the _imperium_. + + +CENSORS. + +There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office +for eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this +period being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates +without possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were: + +(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of +property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. +(2) To have a general oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of +the Treasury; to contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for +the making or repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the +privilege of collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest +bidder.[Footnote: In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under +(2) fell to the Aediles. ] +(3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty parties from the +Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. + + +DICTATOR. + +In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint +a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of +office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were +not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was +thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but +changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. + + +MAGISTER EQUITUM. + +This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in +authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + + +PONTIFICES. + +The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at +the head of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure +of office was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the +discharge of their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + + +IMPERIUM. + +This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial +functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) +by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The _Imperium_ +could be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), +except by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of +celebrating a triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was +called IMPERATOR. + + +POTESTAS. + +This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates +possessed. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. + +HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + + +The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the +conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many +houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, +paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are +said to have cost as much as two million dollars. + +The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, +_Ostium_, _Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablínum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. +The VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, +and open on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in +general to our front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which +was a large room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which +the rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the +opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the +ALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages +from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. The +PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court +surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was +somewhat larger than the Atrium. + +The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were +lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either +bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, +gold, and frescoing. + +The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their +light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The +windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until +the time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered +with lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally +used, in which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the +smoke passed out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + +The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls +were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In +the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors +ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive +rugs from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained +likely to add to the attractiveness of the room. + +Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, +which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat +on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more +round holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were +suspended by chains from the ceiling. + + +MEALS. + +The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our +breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four +o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium +was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between +three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course +consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, +which was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with +condiments; the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, +and cakes. + +At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and +full dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil +the couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who +reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported +by pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was +served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the +dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to +change with every course. + + +DRESS.--BATHING. + +The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The +former was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a +long tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The +tunic was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly +a Roman garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was +also the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was +worn by soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly +semicircular, but being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in +later times to wear it only on state occasions. The poor wore only the +tunic, others wore, in place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an +open cloak, fastened to the right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until +about sixteen, wore a toga with a purple hem. + +The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose +garment, gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce +extending to the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the +whole figure, and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their +fancy for ornaments as freely as their purses would allow. + +Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The +former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter +were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The +poor used wooden shoes. + +Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, +with elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, +and vapor baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places +of popular resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, +with seats for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before +dinner. Upon leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body +with oil. + + +FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + +The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants of +Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of +civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, +corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted +seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, +the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were +relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to +pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. + +The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, +was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient +festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were +said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of +Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their +tenure of office is not known. On the day of the festival these +priests met at the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a +meal, with plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats +which they had sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of +their bodies, and with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in +their hands, ran through the streets of Rome, striking with them all +whom they met, especially women, as it was believed this would render +them fruitful. + +The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus +(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + +Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and +other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first +exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; +but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men +of rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement +increased to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in +schools (_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. +The person who gave an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published +(_edere_), some time before the show, a list of the combatants. +In the show the fights began with wooden swords, but at the sound of +the trumpet these were exchanged for steel weapons. When a combatant +was wounded, if the spectators wished him spared, they held their +thumbs down, but turned them up if they wanted him killed. Gladiators +who had served a long time, were often discharged and presented with a +wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they were called _rudiarii_. + + +THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + +The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, +combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of +an ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word +Amphitheatre was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. +Augustus built one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most +celebrated amphitheatre was built by Vespasian and Titus, and +dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still standing, though partly in ruins, +covers nearly six acres, and could seat ninety thousand people. The +name given to it to-day is the COLOSSÉUM. The open space in the centre +was called the ARÉNA, and was surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet +high to protect the spectators from the wild beasts. Before the time +of Caesar the shows were held in the Forum and in the Circus. + +The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. +The plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden +stages. The first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near +the Campus Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of +forty thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at +present, the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other +distinguished persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the +Equites, and behind these sat the ordinary crowd. + +The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built +for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense +structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called +Eurípus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the +centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, +brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six +kinds of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight +between young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and +cavalry; 4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild +beasts, such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let +into the canal to float ships. The combatants were captives, or +criminals condemned to death, who fought until one party was killed, +unless saved by the kindness of the Emperor. + + +A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + +The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was +sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had +been Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever +entered the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved +one. When a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all +thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and +incense smoked on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal +car and entered a city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the +Senate, headed by the magistrates. + +The procession then proceeded in the following order:-- + +1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. +Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of +flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and +rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia of +the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with +their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator in +single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator +himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in +a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough +in his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled +with a laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the +Imperator. 12. The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with +laurel. + +The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the +city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a +purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep +(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a +triumph. + + +POMOERIUM. + +The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no +person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not +always run parallel to the city walls. + + +NAMES. + +Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), +as Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as +Cornelius, Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognómen_), +as Scipio, Cicero, Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, +the _agnomen_, given for some exploit, or to show that the person +was adopted from some other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called +AFRICÁNUS, and all his descendants had the right to the name. +Africánus the younger was adopted from the Cornelian gens into the +Aemilian gens; therefore he added to his other names AEMILIÁNUS. + +The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of +Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from +others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of +Scipio. If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the +eldest was added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ +(second), etc. + + +MARRIAGE. + +Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was +forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such +marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, +to marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was +given, the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. +The wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the +Kalends, Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or +February. The bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal +veil, and shoes of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the +evening to her future husband's home by three boys, one of whom +carried before her a torch, the other two supporting her by the arm. +They were accompanied by friends of both parties. The groom received +the bride at the door, which she entered with distaff and spindle in +hand. The keys of the house were then delivered to her. The day ended +with a feast given by the husband, after which the bride was conducted +to the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with flowers. On +the following day another feast was given by the husband, and the wife +performed certain religious rites. + +The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from +that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her +children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and +shared the honors and respect shown to her husband. + + +FUNERALS. + +When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present +endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was +removed from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his +eyes and mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon +the deceased by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, +and anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small +coin was placed in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) +in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with +its feet toward the door. In early times all funerals were held at +night; but in later times only the poor followed this custom, mainly +because they could not afford display. The funeral, held the ninth day +after the death, was headed by musicians playing mournful strains, and +mourning women hired to lament and sing the funeral song. These were +sometimes followed by players and buffoons, one of whom represented +the character of the deceased, and imitated his words and actions. +Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated, each wearing the +cap of liberty. Before the body were carried the images of the dead +and of his ancestors, and also the crown and military rewards which he +had gained. The couch on which the body was carried was sometimes made +of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. Following it were the +relatives in mourning, often uttering loud lamentations, the women +beating their breasts and tearing their hair. + +The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, +and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was +delivered. From here the body was carried to its place of burial, +which must be outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in +the later times of the Republic this became quite common. + + +EDUCATION. + +In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, +writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a +taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_) +were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and +to teach them to converse in Greek. + +A full course of instruction included the elementary branches +mentioned above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and +Latin writers, besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some +well known professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + + +BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING. + +The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind +of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often +used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form one +sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from +_volvere_, to roll). + +Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were +usually written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a +pencil in size and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with +wax, and folded together with the writing on the inside. The slips +were tied together by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and +stamped with a signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment +with ink. Special messengers were employed to carry letters, as there +was no regular mail service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly +in the opening and close. The writer always began by sending +"greeting" to the person addressed, and closed with a simple" +farewell," without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. += sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter from Cicero +to Pompey. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. + +PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + + +_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the +Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, +and the Coelian. + +There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). +Some were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned +with porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum +Románum_, or simply _The Forum_. There were also the _Forum +Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajáni_. Some served as markets; as +_Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum Suarium_, the hog +market, etc. + +Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), +built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It +was situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now +used as a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by +Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was +founded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the +Tiber; that of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was +dedicated in 377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus +was an arched passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open +during war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three +times, once in Numa's reign, again at the close of the [Illustration: ROME + AND ENVIRONS K. D. Servoss, Eng'r, N. Y.] Second Punic War, and +after the battle of Actium. Janus was one of the oldest Latin divinities, +and was represented with a face in front and another on the back of his +head. From him is named the month of January. + +There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was +that of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the +dynasty of the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) +There were also numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other +deities. + +The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome. + +There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of +Balbus; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus +Maximus. + +The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important +was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, +which was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations +of which can still be seen. + +The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty +curiae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were +discussed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, or +religion. + +The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of +Nero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which +still exist. + +Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by +fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three +of which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built +about 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + +SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense +size. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is +still in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + +There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now +remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of +Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine +Hill, built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas- +reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at +Jerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS +SEVERUS, built by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via +Sacra, in honor of the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of +the Parthians and Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF +CONSTANTINE. + +There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and +that of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle +of San Angelo. + +The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most +remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called +COLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at +Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to +each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of +Trajan is perhaps best known. + +The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, +from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. +It was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. + +COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION. + + +Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They +were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress +hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; +a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + +No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscítum_, or +_senatus consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied +their foundation, and the anniversary was observed. + +The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin or +military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman +citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. +The _Latíni_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt +equal to them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the +Julian law, passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at +Rome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + + +THE CALENDAR. + +The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each +month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends +fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, +July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight +days after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was +said to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it +happened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many +days _before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was +reckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the +names of the Consuls of that year were added. + + +RELIGION. + +The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: +JUPITER and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of +seed-sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the +goddess of growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; +PALES, the god of the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. +Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as the +Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and +Palilia (Pales), in April; and the Lupercalia, in February. + +VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar +erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, +had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were +also worshipped the Penátes and Lares. + +The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected +fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in +dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on +the Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with +flowers, and by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of +their meals upon plates. + +The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of +houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were +also kept in the inner hall. + +The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL +VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose +twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot +to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The +Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private +seats in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from +punishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white +dresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire +always burning on the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. +They could not marry. + + +FLAMINES. + +The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular +god. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia +Curiáta, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most +distinguished of all the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He +had the right to a lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat +in the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chains +were at once removed. This priest, however, could not be away from the +city a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for +three consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or even +to touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls. + + +THE SALII. + +These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen from +the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of +March, and for several successive days. + + +THE AUGURES. + +This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in +the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to +interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were +favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, +no election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first +consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the +Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, +and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. +C. + + +THE FETIALES. + +This was another body of priests holding office for life, and +numbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute +arose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether +hostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of +peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. + +THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + + +The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded +to our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each +cohort into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two +centuries (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six +thousand, in practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle +was to draw up each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the +first consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each. +The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or +leather, a shield (four feet by two and a half), greaves, and +corselets of various material. The outer garment was a woollen +blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore a +long purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight two-edged +sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, worn by privates on the +right side, so as not to interfere with the shield, but on the left +side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a heavy wooden shaft +with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fully +ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. The +auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed. +The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from the +different provinces. + +The officers were:-- +1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. +2. The LEGÁTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. +3. The QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. +4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, numbering six in each legion, and assisting + the Imperator in his duties. +5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. +6. The CENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in +rank for good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six +in each cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the +ranks, but rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the +officers, except the centurions, came from either senatorial or +equestrian families. + +The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body +guard to the Imperator. + +The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with +outstretched wings, perched upon a pole. + +The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They +made it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in +the same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary +soldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of the +fortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the +general and his staff. The general's tent was called the +_Praetorium_, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tent +was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the +Decuman Gate. + + + + +CHAPTER L. + +LEGENDARY ROME. + + +AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture by +the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son +IÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of the +district where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his +daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he named +LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also called +ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which he +called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. + +Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was +SILVIUS PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. +They divided the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter +the crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, +fearing that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and +made the daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to +prevent her marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, +however, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named +ROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their +mother into prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. + +At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its +banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, +and, the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, +hearing their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a +shepherd who was near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared +them. When they grew up and learned who they were, they killed +Amulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Numitor. Then +(753) they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, which they called ROME, +after Romulus. While they were building a wall around this city, Remus +was killed in a quarrel with his brother. + +Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). +He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he +opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. +To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring +people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in +looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine +virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a +compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then +chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the +people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he +disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. + +One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), +a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great +lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his +barbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to +the god Janus. TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was +noted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), +the grandson of Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered +the Latins, enlarged the city, and built new walls around it. He was +the first to build a prison, and to bridge the Tiber. [Footnote: This +bridge was called the _pons sublicius_ i. e. a bridge resting on +piles.] He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. + +The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS +PRISCUS (616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, +becoming a favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After +the death of Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became +king himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on +many wars successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. +He built the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. +Tarquin also began the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the +Capitoline Hill. He was killed in the thirty-eighth year of his reign +by the sons of Ancus, from whom he had snatched the kingdom. + +His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who +enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a +census of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained +83,000 souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her +husband, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. + +TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was +energetic in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which +was Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, +begun by his father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman +from Cumae, a Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine +books of oracles and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and +he refused to purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, +returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king again +refused. She burned three more, and obtained from the monarch for her +last three the original price. These books were preserved in the +Capitol, and held in great respect. They were destroyed with the +temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who were +called _duoviri sacrórum_. The worship of the Greek deities, +Apollo and Latóna, among others, was introduced through these books. + +In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, +and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. +[Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by +Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bear +the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, +having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs] A Republic was +then formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. + +Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all +unsuccessful. [Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been +painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in +509.] In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of +the Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS +COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans +sublicius_) over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He +then swam the river in safety to his friends. [Footnote: See +Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome."] + +During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous +youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing +King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was +seized and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of +burning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the +burning altar until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic +act, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three +hundred other men as brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena +was so alarmed, that he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius +received his name Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of +his right hand. + +Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in +retirement. + +In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by +taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and +crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent +MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions [Footnote: +Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the +belly and members.] the people were induced to return to the city, and +for the first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own +ranks to represent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni +Plebis. + +Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and +defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he +received the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that +grain should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they +relinquished their right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was +banished. Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched +against Rome, and came within five miles of the city. Here he was met +by a deputation of his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. +He refused; but, when his wife and mother added their tears, he was +induced to withdraw the army. He was afterwards killed by the +Volscians as a traitor. [Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus."] + +After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most +distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven +consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian +gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and +the whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven +from Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the +Veientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus +Fabius Vibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the +Fabii. + +In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory had +been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were in +imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was +appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of +this period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment +found him working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his +wife to throw over him his mantle, that he might receive the +messengers of the state with proper respect. Such was the simplicity +of his character, and yet so deeply did he reverence authority. The +Aequi could not withstand his vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon +to surrender, and made to pass under the yoke as a sign of +humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph. + +In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the +beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, [Footnote: See Macaulay's +"Lays of Ancient Rome."] a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the +betrothed of Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an +infamous plot to obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that +she was a slave. When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's +father and lover, the Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged +her to be the slave of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his +daughter's bosom, in presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged +populace compelled the Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape +worse punishment, put an end to his own life. + +MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He +was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he +captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated +the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards +impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, +and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls +under Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the +head of forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, +and in the battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was +Dictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and +enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. + +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia +(July 18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he +besieged for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, +the Gauls were defeated. + + + + +CHRONOLOGY. + +[The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.] + +B.C. +753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. +753-510. REGAL PERIOD. +753-716. Romulus. +716-673. Numa Pompilius. +673-641. Tullus Hostilius. +640-616. Ancus Marcius. +616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. +578-534. Servius Tullius. +534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. +510-30. THE REPUBLIC. +509. Battle of Lake Regillus. +508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. +494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. +492. Corioli. Coriolánus. +477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. +458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus. +451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. +396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. +390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). +387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. +367. The Licinian Rogations. +353. Caere: the first Municipium. +343-341. First Samnite War. +340-338. The Latin War. +338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. +326-304, The Second Samnite War. +321. The Caudine Forks. +298-290. The Third Samnite War. +295. Sentínum. +283. Lake Vadimónis. +281-272. Pyrrhus. +280. Heracléa. Cineas. +279. Asculum. +274. Beneventum. +272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. +264. Period of foreign conquest begins. +264-241. First Punic War. +260. Lipara; Mylae. +257. Tyndaris. +256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. +249. Drepana. +241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. +237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. +229. Illyrican War. Important results. +222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon. +220. Hannibal in Spain. +219. Saguntum. +218-202. Second Punic War. +218. Ticinus. Trebia. +217. Trasiménus. Casilínum. +216. Cannae. +212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes. +207. Baecula. Metaurus. +202. Zama. +214-205. First Macedonian War. +200-197. Second Macedonian War. +198. Cynoscephalae. +190. Magnesia. +183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. +171-168. Third Macedonian War. +168. Pydna. +149-146. Third Punic War. +149., Death of Cato the elder. +146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. +143-133. The Numantine War. +134-132. The Servile War. +133. Tiberius Gracchus. +129. Death of Africánus the younger. +123-121. Gaius Gracchus. +118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. +102. Aquae Sextiae. +101. Vercellae. +90-89. The Italian or Social War. +86. Death of Marius. +86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. +84. Death of Cinna. +80. Reforms of Sulla. +78. Death of Sulla. +80-72. Sertorius in Spain. +73-71. Spartacus. +72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. +67. Pompey conquers the pirates. +67-61. Pompey in the East. +63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. +59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. +59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. +58-49. Caesar in Gaul. +57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. +53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and +52 separation from Caesar. +49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. +49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. +48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. +48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. +48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. +47. Battle of Zela. +47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. +46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. +45 (Mar. 17). Munda. +44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. +43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. +43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. +42 (Nov.). Philippi. +36. Naulochus. +31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + +THE EMPIRE. + +B.C. / A.D. +30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. +30-14. Augustus. + +A.D. +14-37. Tiberius. +37-41. Caligula. +41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. +41-54. Claudius. +54-68. Nero. +68-69. Galba. +69. Otho. +69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. +69-79. Vespasian. +79. Destruction of Jerusalem. +79-81. Titus. +80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. +81-96. Domitian. +96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. +96-98. Nerva. +98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. +117-138. Hadrian. +138-161. Antonínus Pius. +161-180. Marcus Aurelius. +180-192. Commodus. +192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. +284-305. Diocletian. +306-337. Constantine the Great. +312. Edict of Milan. +325. Council of Nice. +337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. + + + + +SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + +HARVARD COLLEGE. + +JUNE, 1889. + +1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus; +Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important +events was each connected? [Omit one; answer very briefly.] + +2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + +3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + +4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + +5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. +[Take one] + +1888. + +1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman +citizen,--what were they? [Take four.] + +2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) +The reign of Hadrian; (_c_) The first Punic war. [Take one.] + +3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, +[Take one] + +4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + +5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. [4 and 5 +are for "additional readings."] + + + + +1887. + +(a) [Take five.] The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, +Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events +connected with four of these places. [Take any two.] + +1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + +2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + +3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, +Curia, Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + +_Questions on the "additional reading."_ + +[Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading +may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first +three in this group.] + +4. [TIGHE.] How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ +from its theoretical powers? + +5. [BEESLEY.] What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of +Gaius Gracchus? + +September, 1886. + +1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the +founding of Rome. + +2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the +Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + +3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace +the development of the _comitia tributa_. + +4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? +The effect of this victory upon Italy? + +5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, +_municipium_, _ager Romanus_, _equites_. + + + + +YALE COLLEGE. + +EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + +June, 1889. + +1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. +Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. +Licinian Laws. + +2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at +what times introduced? + +3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles +in Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did +Hannibal fail? + +4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + +5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. +First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. +Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + + +1887. + +[Time allowed, 30 minutes.] + +1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change +did he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine +make? + +2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the +causes of each extension, and dates. + +3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian +era? How were they acquired, and when? + +4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; +comitia centuriata_. + +5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were +they? what happened there, and when? + + +1886. + +1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was +established. + +2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between +the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + +3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + +4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential +points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + +5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the +provinces? + +6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + + +June, 1885. + +1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + +2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. + +3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under +the Empire? + +4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + +5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of +Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over +Pyrrhus; the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first +Roman province? + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + +35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to +12 M., only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + +2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization +of the world. (1) + +3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state +the result in each contest. (4) + +4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and +state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine +Forks; Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + +5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of +Jugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of +Antony, or death of Cicero? (3) + +6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which +occur in Roman history. (3) + +7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + +8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; +Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + +9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + +10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the +Christian era. (3) + +11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + +12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + +13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what +ground were the Christians punished? (2) + +14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. +Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + +15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + +16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + +17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + +18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + +19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + +20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + + +34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before +the founding of Rome.(2) + +2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. (4) + +3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first +elected. (1) + +4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in +connection with them? (2) + +5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had +he for hoping to succeed? (3) + +6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he +fail? (3) + +7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following +dates: B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + +8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the +Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the +Rubicon"? (3) + +9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances +of this. (3) + +10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one +of them. (4) + +11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by +Diocletian? (1) + +12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was +so called. (2) + +13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to +a stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + +14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character +of the writings of each. (6) + +15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of +Rome. (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + +16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + +17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + +18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour +of his Country"? (1) + +19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + +20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of +Marius and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + + +33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + +44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. + +1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + +2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) +Plebeians, (_c_) Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4) + +3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + +4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + +5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + +6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + +7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their +effect upon the Republic. (2) + +8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its +result? (2) + +9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + +10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What +Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) + +11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + +12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of +the Roman people? (2) + +13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this +war. (2) + +14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the +cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + +15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the +Emperor Augustus? (1) + +16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, +(_b_) Seneca, (_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, +(_e_) Caligula? (5) + + +THE GRACCHI. + +17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the Gracchi form a +part? (1) + +18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by +Caius Gracchus? (2) + +19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + +20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by +birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) + +21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great +significance? (2) + + +31st Advanced Academic Examination, + +June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of +Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + +2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ +from the _comitia curiata_? (2) + +3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + +4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was +the result of the war? (2) + +5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of +the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the +circumstances of his death. (4) + +6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of +conquest, 266-133 B.C. (5) + +7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to +literature and morals. (2) + +8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + +9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + +10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and +Caesar? (1) + +11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain +in their proscription? (4) + +12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + +13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the +Christians? (1) + +14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + +15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + + +THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + +16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + +17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of +the treaty made there. (4) + +18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of +the final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + +19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for +herself? (3) + +20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ +(_or Latins_) (2) + + +30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of +Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + +2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first +Consuls? (3) + +3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two +conditions of the return? (3) + +4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers +intrusted to them. (2) + +5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + +6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause +of the First Samnite War? (2) + +7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which +direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + +8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic +War? (1) + + +ANCIENT ROME. + +9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct +of the First Punic War. (2) + +10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the +battle.(2) + +11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + +12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + +13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did +each contribute to it? (3) + +14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + +15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: +Nero; Trajan. (2) + + +THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + +16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, +and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + +17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + +18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was +it modelled? (2) + +19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its +membership? (2) + +20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate +perform? (2) + +21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + + +_29th Advanced Academic Examination._ + +November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36._ + +1. When was Rome founded? (1) + +2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the +basis of the new constitution? (2) + +3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings +overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + +4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how +long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + +5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + +6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they +contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + +7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and +wealth, and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in +arms? (3) + +8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what +policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + +9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and +habits. (2) + +10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was +it defeated, and in what manner? (3) + +11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + +12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its +result? (2) + +13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, +and the character of his reign. (2) + +14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + +15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some +articles used by them for food. (2) + + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + +16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, +and the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + +17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, +Naples, Tarentum. (3) + +18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what +part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins +descended? (7) + + + + +INDEX. + +Achaeans +Achaia +Acroceraunia +Actium +Adherbal +Aduatuci +Aediles +Aedui +Aegátes Islands +Aegyptus +Aemilian Way +Aemilius +Aenéas +Aequians +Aesis, R. +Aetius +Aetna +Aetolians +Afranius +Africa +Africánus +Agendicum +Ager occupátus +Ager privátus +Ager publicus +Ager Románus +Agrarian Laws +Agricola +Agrigentum +Agrippa +Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa +Agrippína, sister of Caligula +Alae +Alans +Alaric +Alba Longa +Alban Lake +Alban Mts. +Alesia +Alexander the Great +Alexandría +Allia +Allies +Alsium +Ambiorix +Amphitheatres +Amulius +Anchíses +Ancóna +Ancus Marcius +Andes +Andriscus +Anio, R. +Anthemius +Antiochus III. +Antiochus IV. +Antium +Antonia +Antonius +Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius +Antonínus Pius +Antony +Aóus, R. +Apennines +Apollo, worship of +Apollonia +Apollonius +Appeal, right of +Appian Way +Appius Claudius, Decemvir +Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus +Appius Claudius Caecus +Appuleian Laws +Apsus, R. +Apulia +Aqua Claudia +Aquae Sextiae +Aqueducts +Aquileia +Aquínum +Aquitáni +Arabia +Arabia Petraea +Arcadius +Archeláus +Arches +Archimédes +Ardea +Argos +Aricia +Ariminum +Ariobarzánes +Ariovistus +Aristobúlus +Armenia +Arminius +Armor +Army +Arnus +Arpi +Arpínum +Arretium +Arsanias, R. +Aryan Race +Ascanius +Asculum in Apulia +Asia +Assyria +Aternus +Athens +Athesis +Atrium +Attalus II. +Attalus III. +Attila +Aufidus, R. +Augurs +Augustan Age +Augusta Taurinórum +Augusti +Augustus +Aulerci +Aurelia +Aurelian +Aurelian Way +Aurelius, M. Antonínus +Avaricum +Averni +Avernus, Lake + +Baeculae +Baetis, R. +Baiae +Basilicae +Basilica Julia +Bathing +Baths +Bellovaci +Beneventum +Bibracte +Bibulus +Bithynia +Bocchus +Boian Gauls +Bononia +Books +Bovillae +Brennus +Bridge, Rhine +Bridge, Tiber +Britain +Britannia +Britannicus +Brittany +Brundisium +Bruttium +Brutus, nephew of Tarquin +Brutus +Brutus, Decimus Junius +Brutus, Marcus +Burgundians +Burrhus +Byzantium + +Cabíra +Caecína +Caepio +Caere +Caesar, Gaius Julius +Caesar, Lucius Julius +Caesars +Caícus +Calabria +Calceus +Caledonians +Calendar +Caligula +Calpurnia +Calpurnian Law +Camarína +Camerínum +Camillus +Campania +Campus Martius +Candles +Cannae +Canuleian Law +Canuleius +Canusium +Capéna +Capitoline Hill +Capitolium +Cappadocia +Capreae +Capua +Caracalla +Carrhae +Carthage +Carthaginians +Carthágo Nova +Carus +Casca +Casilínum +Cassius. +Cassivelaunus +Catalonia +Catana +Catiline +Cato, the elder +Cato, the younger +Catullus +Catulus, father of the Senate +Catulus, Gaius Lutatius +Caudine Forks +Caudium +Celtibéri +Celts +Cenománi +Censors +Centuries +Centurions +Ceres +Cerialia +Cethégus +Chaeronéa +Chalcédon +Chalons +Christians +Cicero, Marcus Tullius +Cicero, Quintus Tullius +Cilicia +Cimber +Cimbri +Cincinnátus +Cineas +Cinna +Circeii +Circeium, Promontory +Circus +Circus Maximus +Citizenship +City walls +Claudian Emperors +Claudius, Emperor +Claudius, Publius +Cleopátra +Clients +Cloáca Maxima +Clodion +Clodius +Clupea +Clusium +Coena +Cohors Praetoria +Collatínus +Colonies, Latin +Colonies, Maritime +Colonies, Military. +Comitia Centuriáta +Comitia Curiáta +Comitia Tribúta +Comitium +Colosséum +Colossus +Column of Trajan +Columna Milliaria +Columns +Commodus +Constans +Constantine the Great +Constantine II. +Constantinople +Constantius I. +Constantius II. +Conscripti, Patres +Consuls +Consus +Cora +Corcýra +Corduba +Corfinium +Corinth +Coriolánus +Corioli +Corn laws +Cornelia, daughter of Cinna +Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio +Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africánus +Corsica +Cotta +Council of Nice +Court-houses +Courts +Crassus, the Triumvir +Crassus, son of the Triumvir +Cremóna +Crete +Croton +Cumae +Cures +Curia +Curiae +Curio. +Curtius +Curule Aedile +Curule chair +Curule offices +Cynoscephalae +Cyprus +Cyrenaica + +Dacia +Damophilus +Deal +Debts, Debtors +Decemvirs +Decius, Emperor +Decius, Publius +Decree of the Senate +Deiotarus +Dentátus +Dependent Communities +Dictator +Diocletian +Dolabella +Domitian +Domitius. +Drepana +Dress +Drusus, Germanicus +Drusus, Marcus Livius +Duilius +Duoviri Sacrórum +Dyrrachium + +Eburónes +Ecnomus +Edict of Milan +Editor. +Education +Egesta +Egnatius +Egypt +Elba +Elections +Enipeus, R. +Enna +Ennius +Epidamnus +Epiphanes +Epírus +Equites +Eryx +Etruria +Etruscans +Eudoxia +Eugenius +Eunus +Euphrátes +Examination Papers + +Fabii +Fabius, Cunctátor +Fabius Quintus +Fabius Vibulánus +Fabricius +Faesulae +Farming the revenues +Fauces +Faustulus +Festivals +Fetiales +Five Good Emperors +Flamen Diális +Flamines +Flaminian Way +Flaminínus +Flaminius +Flavian Emperors +Floors +Florentia +Foreigners resident at Rome +Formiae +Forum +Forum Boarium +Forum Caesaris +Forum Holitorium +Forum Julii, in Gaul +Forum Julii, in Venetia +Forum Suarium +Forum of Trajan +Forum of Vespasian +Franks +Freedmen +Fundi +Funerals +Furniture + +Gabii +Gabinius +Gabínus +Gades +Galatia +Galba, Emperor +Galba, Servius +Galerius +Gallia Cisalpína +Gallia Narbonensis +Gaul +Gauls +Games +Gela +Genabum +Gens, Gentes +Genseric +Genua +Genucius +Gergovia +Germanicus, Drusus +Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. +Germans +Glabrio +Gladiators +Glass +Glaucia +Golden House of Nero +Good Emperors +Gordian +Goths +Gracchi +Gracchus, Gains +Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) +Gracchus, Tiberius +Gratian +Greece +Greek Empire + +Hadrian +Hadrumétum +Hamilcar Barca +Hannibal, son of Gisco +Hannibal, son of Hamilcar +Hanno +Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar +Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal +Hasdrubal, son of Gisco +Helena +Heliogabalus +Helvetii +Heracléa +Herculaneum +Herméan Promontory +Hiempsal +Hiero II. +Hieronymus +Hirtius +Hispania Citerior +Hispania Ulterior +Honorius +Horace +Horatius Codes +Hortensius, Quintus +Hortensius, the Orator +Homesteads +Houses +Huns +Hyrcánus + +Iapygia +Iapygians +Ibérus, R. +Icilius +Igilium +Ilerda +Illyrican War +Illyricum +Ilva +Imperator +Imperium +Intermarriage +Interest +Interrex +Isara, R. +Isauria +Isthmian Games +Italians +Italy +Iúlus + +Janiculum +Janus +Jentaculum +Jerusalem +Jews +Joséphus +Jovian +Juba +Judaea +Jugurtha +Julia, daughter of Caesar +Julia, daughter of Augustus +Julian Emperors +Julian the Apostate +Julian Law +Juliánus +Juno +Jupiter +Juries +Justin Martyr +Juvenal + +Kaeso, Quinctius +King of Rome +Knights. + +Labiénus +Lacerna +Lacinian Promontory +Laevínus +Laevínus, Marcus +Lamps +Land-owners, classes of +Lanistae +Lanuvium +Lares +Last of the Romans +Latin Confederacy +Latínus +Latium +Latóna +Laurentum +Lavinia +Lavinium +Legáti +Leges Juliae +Legion +Lentulus +Leontíni +Lepidus, Consul +Lepidus, Triumvir +Leptis +Lesbos +Letter-writing +Lex de Repetundis +Licinian Rogations +Licinius +Liger +Lights +Liguria +Lilybaeum +Lipara Islands +Liris, R. +Literature +Livia +Livilla +Livius +Locri +Longínus +Luca +Lucan +Lucania +Luceres +Luceria +Lucilius +Lucretia +Lucretius +Lucullus +Lupercalia +Luperci +Lupercus +Lupus +Lycia + +Macedonia +Macedonian War +Macrínus +Maecénas +Maenius +Magister Equitum +Magna Graecia +Magnesia +Mago +Majestas +Majorian +Mamertines +Mancínus +Manilian Law +Manilius +Manlius, Marcus +Manlius Capitolínus +Mantua +Marcellus +Marcellus, nephew of Augustus +Marius, +Marriage +Mars +Martial +Masinissa. +Massilia +Mauretania +Mausoléum of Augustus +Mausoléum of Hadrian +Maximian +Maximin +Maximus I. +Maximus II. +Meals +Mediolánum +Memmius +Menenius Agrippa +Mesopotamia +Messalína +Messána +Metapontum +Metaurus, R. +Metellus Macedonicus +Metellus Nepos +Metellus Numidicus +Metellus Pius +Micipsa +Milan, Edict of +Milétus +Military Tribunes +Milliarium Aureum +Milo +Minerva +Minturnae +Minucius +Mithradátes +Mityléne +Moesia +Money brokers +Mons Sacer +Moors +Mucra, R. +Mummius +Munda +Municipia +Muthul +Mutina +Mylae +Mysia + +Names +Naples +Naulochus +Navy +Nepos +Nero, Consul +Nero, Emperor +Nerva +Nervii +Nicaea +Nicomédes +Nobles +Nola +Noricum +Novus Homo +Numantia +Numantian War +Numa Pompilius +Numidia +Numitor +Nursia + +Octavia, sister of Augustus +Octavia, wife of Nero +Octavius +Odoácer +Offices and officers +Ops +Orchomenos +Osca +Ostia +Ostium +Ostrogoths +Otho +Ovation +Ovid + +Padua (Patavium) +Palatine +Pales, Palilia +Palmýra +Pannonia +Panormus +Pantheon +Parma +Parthia, Parthians +Pater-familias +Patres +Patrician +Patricians +Patrons +Paullus +Pelusium +Penátes +Pergamum +Peristylium +Perperna +Perseus +Persius +Pertinax +Petreius +Phaedrus +Pharnaces +Pharsalia, Pharsálus +Philip, Emperor +Philip of Macedonia +Philippi +Philippics +Philopoemen +Phoenicia +Picénum +Picts' +Pirates +Pisae +Pisaurum +Piso +Placentia +Plautian-Papirian Law +Plautus +Plebeians +Plebiscita +Pliny, the elder +Pliny, the younger +Pollio +Polybius +Polycarp +Pomoerium +Pompeia +Pompeii +Pompeius, Gnaeus +Pompeius, Sextus +Pompey the Great +Pomptine Marshes +Pontifices +Pontius +Pontus +Poppaea Sabína +Porsena +Postumius +Potestas +Praefect +Praefectúrae +Praeneste +Praetor +Praetorian Guard +Praetorium +Prandium +Private Lands +Private Rights +Probus +Proconsul +Propertius +Propraetor +Provinces +Provincial System +Prusias +Ptolemy, brother of Cleopátra +Ptolemy of Cyprus +Ptolemy V., Epiphanes +Ptolemy Alexander +Publicani +Public Lands +Public Rights +Publilian Law, Publilius +Punic Wars +Puteoli +Pydna +Pyrrhus + +Quaestors +Quinctius Cincinnátus +Quinctius, Kaeso +Quintilian +Quirínal +Quirinalia + +Radagaisus +Ramnes +Ravenna +Reáte +Reforms of Caesar +Reforms of Sulla +Regillus, Lake +Regulus +Remi +Remus +Rents +Republic +Rhaetia +Rhea Silvia +Rhegium +Rhodes +Ricimer +Roads +Roman Empire +Romans +Rome +Rome, Hills of +Romulus +Roscius +Rostra +Rubicon +Rutilius + +Sabines +Sabis, R. +Sacred Mount +Sacredness of Officials +Sagum +Saguntum +Salernum +Salii +Sallust +Samnites +Samnite Wars +Samnium +Samos +Sardinia +Sardis +Saturn +Saturnalia +Saturnínus +Scaevola +Scarpheia +Scipio, Gnaeus +Scipio, Consul 218 B. C. +Scipio Africánus, the elder +Scipio Africánus, the younger +Scipio Asiaticus +Scipio, Metellus +Scipio Nasíca +Scribonia +Segesta +Sejánus +Seleucia +Selínus +Sempronia +Sempronius +Sena Gallica +Senate +Senones +Sentínum +Sequani +Sertorius +Servian Reform +Servile War +Servilius +Servius Tullius +Setia +Sevérus, Alexander +Sevérus, Septimius +Sevérus III. +Sewers +Sextus Lateránus +Sextus, son of Tarquin +Ships +Sibylline Books +Sicily +Silver Age +Silvius Procas +Sinuessa +Slaves. +Social War +Soleae +Solon +Sophonisba +Soracte, Mt. +Sosigenes +Spain +Sparta +Spartacus +Spoletium +Spurius Cassius +Standards +Statius +Stilicho +Stola +Strongyle Islands +Suessiónes +Sueves, Suevi +Sulla +Sulmo +Sulpicius Galba +Sulpicius Rufus +Sutrium +Sybaris +Syphax +Syracuse +Syria + +Tablinum +Tacitus, Emperor +Tacitus, Historian +Tarentum. +Tarquinii +Tarquinius Priscus +Tarquinius Superbus +Tarracína +Tarragóna +Tauromenium +Tax-gatherers +Teánum +Telamon +Tellilia, Tellus +Temple of Aesculapius +Temple of Apollo Palatínus +Temple of Ceres +Temple of Concordia +Temple of Diána +Temple of Janus +Temple of Juno +Temple of Jupiter +Temple of Mars +Temple of Peace +Tenth Legion, revolt of +Terence +Terentilius, Terentilian Rogations +Teutoberger Forest +Teutones +Thala +Thapsus +Theatre +Theatre of Balbus +Theatre of Marcellus +Theatre of Pompey +Theodosius +Thermae +Thermus +Thessaly +Thirty Tyrants +Thurii +Tibullus +Tibur +Tiberius +Ticínus, R. +Tigellínus +Tigránes +Time, mode of reckoning +Tities +Titus +Tivoli +Toga +Torquátus +Trajan +Trasiménus, Lake +Trebia, R. +Trebonius +Tribes +Tribunes +Tribúni Militum +Tribútum +Triclinium +Trigánum +Trinacria +Triumphal Arches +Triumphal Procession +Triumvirate, First +Triumvirate, Second, +Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius +Tullus Hostilius +Tunica +Tunis +Tusculum +Twelve Caesars +Twelve Tables +Tyndaris + +Umbria, Umbrians +Utica + +Vadimónis, Lake +Valens +Valentinian I. +Valentinian II. +Valentinian III. +Valerius, Valerio-Horatian Laws +Valerius, Caesar's Lieutenant +Valero Publilius +Vandals +Varro, Consul at Cannae +Varro, Pompey's Lieutenant +Varus +Veii, Veientes +Velítrae +Veneti +Venetia +Venice +Venusia +Vercellae +Vercingetorix +Verginius +Veróna +Verres +Verus, Annius +Verus, Lucius +Vespasian +Vesta. +Vestal Virgins +Vestibulum +Vesuvius, Mt. +Veto +Veturius +Via Aemilia +Via Appia +Via Aurelia +Via Flaminia +Via Latína +Via Sacra +Vienna +Villius +Virgil +Virginia, Virginius +Viriáthus +Visigoths +Vitellius +Volaterrae +Volsci +Volsinii +Volturnus +Voting +Vulso + +Windows +Writing +Written Code of Laws + +York + +Zama +Zela +Zeno +Zenobia +Zeugma +Zeugma + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest +times down to 476 AD, by Robert F. 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