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diff --git a/6989.txt b/6989.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6209b7d --- /dev/null +++ b/6989.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9305 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest times +down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6989] +Posting Date: March 20, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME *** + + + + +Produced by Lynn Bonnett and Teresa Thomason + + + + + + + + +ANCIENT ROME + +FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D. + +By Robert F. Pennell + +_Revised Edition_ + + + + +PREFACE. + +This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History +of Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high +schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and +fall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her +institutions, manners, and religion. + +For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional +matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to +meet recent requirements. + +The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the text +and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate the +present range of requirement in leading colleges. + +The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this +book. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; +consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a +rule, been omitted. + +ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + +(Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.) + + + + +ANCIENT ROME. + + + +CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + + +Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, +between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles +long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in +its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north of +Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that of +the State of Nevada. + +The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest +of Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least +difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this +pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. +The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through +the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend +easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging the +coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causes +the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into the +Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + +Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the +Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPINA (Gaul +this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. +The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. +Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticinus on the north, and the +Trebia on the south, are of historical interest. + +The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a +mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the +coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, between +the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the name +Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. + +Gallia Cisalpina contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus +were Verona, Mediolanum (Milan), Cremona, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, +a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinorum +(Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little +stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpina on the +southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundary +on the other side of Italy. + +CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of the +peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In this +division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which empty +into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, which +empty into the Adriatic. + +The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering +on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and to +the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICENUM, and +SAMNIUM. + +The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, +near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, +an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. +Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, was +Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to Alba +Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were near +the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome. + +In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, +Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasimenus. In Campania were Capua, +Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Caudium, Salernum, Casilinum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuvius +was here, and also Lake Avernus. + +In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior +were Sentinum and Camerinum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat of +Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + +In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + +SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and +BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + +Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its +only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought a +famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + +In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + +The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. +Among them were Heraclea, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; +and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + +The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about +10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the +poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many +important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were +Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messana, Catana, Camarina, Gela, Selinus, Egesta +(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontini, and Enna. There are many mountains, +the chief of which is Aetna. + +SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. +ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria; +CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Stromboli) and LIPARA are +north of Sicily, and the AEGATES INSULAE are west of it. + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + + +So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into +three races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS were the +first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and were +pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into the +southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostly +absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuries +all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highly +civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans and +Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whom +settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. + +The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful and +warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts of +life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled in the +plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, +they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a confederation +of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities the +most noted were Volsinii, the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, +Caere, and Clusium. This people also formed scattering settlements in +other parts of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in the +sixth century, they were in power at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this +time under their control. Their commerce was considerable. Many well +preserved monuments of their art have been discovered, but no one has +yet been able to decipher any of the inscriptions upon them. The power +of these people was gradually lessened by the Romans, and after the fall +of Veii, in 396, became practically extinct. + +The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellenes, and belonged +to the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in +Scandinavia. While the Hellenes were settling in Greece, the Italians +entered Italy. + +At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in +civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; the +building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in preparing +food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons and +ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, +and the people were divided into clans (tribes). + +That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain +which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by the +Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + +This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square +miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty +miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, and +its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in the +northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum +near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern +_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first settlements +were made on the hills, which also could be easily fortified. + +The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, +as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, Roma, and +Lavinium. + +These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN +CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was +celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, +called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered +sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). + +(Illustration: Latium) + + + + +CHAPTER III. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + + +We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled +in Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more +particularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to outstrip +all her sisters in prosperity and power. + +Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of +the plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of +hills (Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, +Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, +Quirinal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the Tiber, +and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the Etruscans. +It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons Sublicius_).) +rising to a considerable height, around one of which, the PALATINE, +first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a name gradually changed +to ROMANS. + +When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. It +may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were possibly +a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they united +themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them on the +QUIRINAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. A third +tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, +was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. All early +communities, to which the Romans were no exception, were composed of +several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups GENTES, and +a single group was called a GENS. All the members of a _gens_ were +descended from a common ancestor, after whom the _gens_ received its +name. + +The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute +authority (Footnote: Called _patria potestas_.) over his household, even +in the matter of life and death. + +The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the +families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding +office for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform certain +sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly of the +Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an assembly +of old men (_Senex_). + +This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the +families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED +members, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by +the king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later by +the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all persons +who had held certain offices were thereby vested with the right of seats +in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the number of Senators +was greatly in excess of three hundred. The Senators, when addressed, +were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for they were Fathers of the families. + +The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, +_Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into ten +districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES +(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, +therefore, belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a +_pater-familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, named +after a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_; +and every curia to a particular _tribe_. + +We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, +and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an assembly +composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. (Footnote: We must +remember that at this time no one was a Roman citizen who did not +belong to some family. All other residents were either slaves or had no +political rights, i.e. had no voice in the government.) This assembly of +Roman citizens met, from time to time, in an enclosed space called the +COMITIUM, which means a place of gathering or coming together. This was +between the Palatine and Quirinal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. +This assembly itself was called the COMITIA CURIATA, i.e. an assembly +composed of the 30 curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the +existing laws; of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election +of kings made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by +each curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + + +The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the +Latin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, she +naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and grew +wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, easily +held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most powerful +of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with theirs, +she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing their +territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and +his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities along the river, +and at its mouth founded a colony which was named OSTIA, the seaport of +Rome. + +At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Romanus_) comprised +nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying mostly +along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or twelve +miles from the river. It was not materially increased during the next +two centuries. + +The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called +PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the families. +They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously protecting their +rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians was a class called +CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. e. they had +no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in every way the +Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In return, the +latter gave them his support, and looked after their interests. These +clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the fields of their +patrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which their patron belonged. +Their origin is uncertain; but they may have come from foreign towns +conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants had not been made slaves. + +In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the +property of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. +Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS +(freedman) and became the client of his former master. + +As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people +flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called resident +foreigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at Athens. Such +were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all were supposed +to be under the protection of some patrician who acted as their patron. + +These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were all +of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly borne in +mind. + +We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the +Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of these +towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed any of +their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of them +were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager Romanus_, or in +Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs_, multitude). Their very name +shows that they must have been numerous. They belonged to no gens +or curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to own +property. In later times (from about 350) all who were not Patricians or +slaves were called Plebeians. + + +THE ARMY. + +Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed +entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning _levy_), +and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, from _mille_, +a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalry +numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each tribe, and was +divided into three companies called Centuries. + +During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now +become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN +reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been +required to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. To +accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned two +acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There were +five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193 +subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the same +amount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries in +active service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries of +reserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. + +In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries +each, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had +thirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + +The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from +the first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, +breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank was +composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, without +breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, who had +neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth class, +armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only slings. + +Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, +however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + +This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally +only for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and the +expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. But +gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be felt, +the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, and +all the people were called together to vote under it. It was called the +COMITIA CENTURIATA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The place of meeting +was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the city. + +In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided by +the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system was +to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century represented +the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richer +classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, so +that a majority of the centuries might represent a small minority of +the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome were still +patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by them. In this +assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war declared, and judgment +passed in all criminal cases. + +(Illustration: CAMPANIA) + + + + +CHAPTER V. THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + + +Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were undoubtedly +of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many traces of +Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and the only +buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much later period, +were erected under this dynasty. The names of these kings are said to +have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS, his son-in-law, +and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. + +Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER +CAPITOLINUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and +MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from +it we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman +religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + +During this reign the famous CLOACA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to +drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer +was so well built that it is still used. + +Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was +surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirinal, Coelian, +and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the opposite +side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge (_pons +sublicius_). + +The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the +previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + +The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius +and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus early +was the Greek influence felt at Rome. + +During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIANA was erected on +the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + +Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMANUS the territory of the city +of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. +The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a +Republic was established, which lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + + +At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of +government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for +life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the +PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a +salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his +power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century +before Christ. + +In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointed +by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenure +of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. He +exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. It was at +this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIATA came to be the more +important assembly, superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIATA. + +We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, +magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forget +that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of the +patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were +many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for this +party. + +About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of +Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some of the +richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. (Footnote: +This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing the Senate, +viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_") These, however, could take no part in +debates, nor could they hold magistracies. + +In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates made +in the Comitia Centuriata was confirmed or rejected. In this way it +controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember, +were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizen +had the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases which +involved life. + +Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed by +the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTORES, managed the finances of +the state, under the direction of the Senate. + +The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century +preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the state +and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especially +by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. They +were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, when +unable to meet the demands of their creditors, according to the laws +they could be imprisoned, or even put to death. + +The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by +"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, +for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other +duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would +extort all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves +unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and +the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + +The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to +serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for +the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, and +naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry service +was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the older +ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fell +on the plebeians. + +This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for +rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the +plebeians were not slow in accepting it. + +The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and +Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls +liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was +averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set +free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were +again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally persuaded +by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their return to +the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, marching to a +hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new city unless their +wrongs were redressed. This is called the First Secession of the Plebs, +and is said to have been in 494. + +The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, +for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were +released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right +to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBUNI +PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power of +VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power, +however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be +exercised outside of them. + +The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interference +with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attempted +to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls or +Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to +be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by +their VETO stop the matter at once. + +This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in +giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + +The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later +to ten. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + + +The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from +their own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. (Footnote: The word +"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple.) These officers held +nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the Quaestors +did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the performance of +their various duties, and also had special charge of the temple of +Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, all the decrees +of the Senate. + +These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the +first secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia +Centuriata, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBUTA, which +met sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + +This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" +(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being entitled to +one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of its individual +voters. (Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial division, +corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time there were +probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The plebeians in the +city lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine Hill.) + +The Comitia Tributa was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and +Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. +By it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first +measures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it +presently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, who +were felt to be a power in the state. + +The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; +that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the influence +of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand contests +occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in neighboring +places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the government +withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. + +The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had +reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a +large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. This +land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. + +Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it +became AGER PRIVATUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was occupied +by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually rich +patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This land, so +occupied, was called AGER OCCUPATUS, or _possessio_; but it really was +still the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent +(from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pasture +land. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land at +any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and were +often lenient about collecting dues. In course of time, this land, which +was handed down from father to son, and frequently sold, began to be +regarded by the occupants as their own property. Also the land tax +(TRIBUTUM), which was levied on all _ager privatus_, and which was +especially hard upon the small plebeian land-owners, could not legally +be levied upon the _ager occupatus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, +not owned, this land were naturally regarded as usurpers by the +plebeians. + +The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + +SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law +that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and +distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The law +was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his life, and +was never enforced. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + + +The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if +not more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of their +leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition +of their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and +political rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The +struggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, Gnarus +Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. + +VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, +notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the +effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _Comitia +Tributa_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriata_. Thus the plebeians +gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW +(_Plebiscitum Publilium_). (Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia +Tributa were called Plebiscita, and until 286 were not necessarily +binding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have been +recognized as a law.) + +For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The plebeians +demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + +We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the unwritten +ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, had been +interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the patricians +only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the TERENTILIAN +ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, +to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. The patrician +families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter opposition. Kaeso +himself, son of the famous Cincinnatus, was impeached by the Tribune and +fled from the city. + +Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriata should select from +the people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office for +one year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, +and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted to the people +for approval. A commission of three patricians was sent to Athens to +examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height of +its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and upon their +return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was appointed. + +The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables of +copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more +tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the only Roman +code. + +The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, +but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannical +manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, finally +rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentence +that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. Her father, +Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to the heart, and +fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put down such wicked +government. + +A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED +MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into the +city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + +The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we +know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor +was apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the _pater +familias_ over his family was abolished. The close connection heretofore +existing between the clients and patrons was gradually relaxed, the +former became less dependent upon the latter, and finally were absorbed +into the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ among the plebeians now began +to be recognized; previously only the patricians had been divided into +_gentes_. + +Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and +nearer. + +In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were instrumental +in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the substance of which +was as follows:-- + +I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriata against +the sentence of any magistrate. + +II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tributa (_plebiscita_), if +sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriata, were made binding +upon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal +importance with the other two. + +III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian officers, +were to be considered sacred. + +IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and veto +any of its decisions. + +Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still be +patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tributa. Heretofore they had +been appointed by the Consuls. + +In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, +and called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of +intermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting that all +issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. + +Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that +the consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was +made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, and +to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriata, the +office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year whether +they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continued +for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so influential, +that for a long time no plebeian was elected. + +As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 +obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own ranks +every five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen months. + +The duties of the Censors were:-- + +I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + +II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members who +were guilty of offences against public morals. + +III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works of +the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at Rome. + +A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by +obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There +were now four Quaestors. + +Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, +sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto +often found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joined +the farmers or lower classes. + +Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed +the following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + +I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as +formerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the plebeians. + +II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 acres) +of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or 500 sheep. + +III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain number +of free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + +IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be deducted +from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly instalments. + +These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them +an opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly +by slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of +becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open +to them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be +protected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by +Camillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that these +rogations promised. + +The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except +that of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained that of +Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in 286, by +the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all the people +without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriata. After 200 the +sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be filled by plebeians. + +Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; +and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, yet +their rights as citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians. + +To recapitulate:-- + +Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and +holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of +intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + +The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second they +obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBUTA; the third by the +CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. EXTERNAL HISTORY. + + +The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then +possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The +number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became +thirty-five. + +In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into +Etruria and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman +ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, +were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, +marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river +about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The +Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the +foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. +Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which +lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were +induced to withdraw. + +During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, and +we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390. + +The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 +the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military +colonies were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and +also at Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of which +the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to +protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and +equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives +and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government +similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as +Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.) The +neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithful +ally, was annexed to Rome. + +The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring +up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until +finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and +gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. The +town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + +The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed +the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern their +own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequently +made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO, +"citizens without suffrage." + +During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland +countries as far south as TARRACINA. To the north, across the Tiber, she +had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPENA. + +In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty +with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainous +districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southern +half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, and +three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had been +practically masters of the whole of Campania. + +After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites +had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The +Samnites went so far as to attack Teanum, a city of Northern Campania, +which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before +Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + +Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse to +break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering their +city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, she +would simply be defending her subjects. + +Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with +varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual +to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite +Wars. + + +THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + +The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear +idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage +to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a +_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. + + +THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + +The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking +with jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights had +been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or lose +everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls and +half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, in +the third year of which was fought the battle of Triganum, near Mount +Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victorious +through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, one of the +illustrious names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of the +operations was rather a series of expeditions against individual cities +than a general war. + +In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The +Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of +the Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left +independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their +territory became part of the _Ager Romanus_, and the inhabitants Roman +plebeians. + +Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, three more +towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velitrae, a Volscian town. + +LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the +Volturnus. + +Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, +which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the +colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the +military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The +first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established +TARRACINA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards +founded. + +Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was +destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to Rome, and +placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House. +Hence the name ROSTRA. + +At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of all +kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for political +discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had their +offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near the river, as the _Forum +Boarium_ (cattle market) and the _Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). + +Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing about +these improvements. + + +THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + +The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we have +seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome. + +There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans, +the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, and +had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396, +and of Caere in 353. + +In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the +combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact and +concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were more +scattered. They were both equally brave. + +During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were +usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. +In this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of +military posts in the enemy's country. + +The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed. +By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius, +by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against the +Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a small +plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). On +reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them. +After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romans +themselves were compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had also +occupied the defile in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender. + +A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, +according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its +former condition. + +Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most +humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made +to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck into +the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them,--and +then suffered to depart. + +Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in +mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was +devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the +treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless +sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the +Consuls who had signed it to the enemy. + +Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and the +war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samnites +were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE +VADIMONIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effective +resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast, +their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. + +During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against the +Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colony +of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The Consul +Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscans +into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them. + +Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR +(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to +unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and +ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + +The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the +sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by +Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS +MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + +In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were +assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match +for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius. +Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed his +life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into the +midst of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the father +of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war.) His +soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed back +the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were already +fleeing before that part of the army which was under Fabius. + +The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS +DENTATUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had +recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, +and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (_sine +suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the _Ager Romanus_. This +territory now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the Adriatic +Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations on the south from the +Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. + +In 283, at Lake Vadimonis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian +Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + + + + +CHAPTER X. WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + +In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had been +the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the pressure +of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia Minor, and +especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country became so +thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. Here were many +flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and Thurii. These had, +at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly fallen from their former +grandeur, owing partly to the inroads of barbarians from the north, +partly to civil dissensions, and still more to their jealousy of each +other; so that they were unable to oppose any firm and united resistance +to the progress of Rome. It had been their custom to rely largely upon +strangers for the recruiting and management of their armies,--a fact +which explains in part the ease with which they were overcome. + +Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been +made by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which their +fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to allow +their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the Lacinian +promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in evading their +treaty whenever it should profit them. + +Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from +Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic affairs +permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the wedge was +entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver the +former over to Rome. + +Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to +ignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of +Tarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the +theatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was +determined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of the +Roman squadron were destroyed. + +An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was +treated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the +Tarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year +one of the Consuls was ordered south. + +Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young and +ambitious KING OF EPIRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, and, +since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests of this +great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West that would +surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. + +Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, +3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the +effeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of amusement +were closed; the people were forced to perform military duty; disturbers +of the public safety were put to death; and other reforms were made +which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. Meanwhile the +Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him to battle. The +armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLEA, on the banks of the Liris, +where the level nature of the country was in favor of the Greek method +of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most perfect instrument of +warfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman legions had never yet been +brought into collision with it. + +The Romans, under LAEVINUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a +charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they +retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by +the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory +will send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior +qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A trusted +messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloquence, +which was said to have gained more for his master than the sword. +Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was +guaranteed to his allies in Italy. + +The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; +and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, +when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, +and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + +Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared +that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + +Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared +within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The +defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and +the armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite +against him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, +where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to propose +an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and threats were +employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the Senate; and, on his +part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired exchange. + +Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. +The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but +though the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic +victories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. + +The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the +Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the island +three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the last +time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul MANIUS +CURIOUS DENTATUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed to the +elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded beasts +became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into disorder. With +this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned home, and +two years later was accidentally killed by a woman at Argos. + +The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two years +later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city walls were +demolished, and the fleet given up. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.--NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. + + +Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This +country was divided into two parts. + +I. The AGER ROMANUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded +on the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the +APENNINES. + +II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + +The _Ager Romanus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial purposes, +into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts (tribes), four of +which were in Rome. The elections were all held at Rome. + +These districts were made up,-- + +a. Of ROME. + +b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but +finally increased to thirty-five. + +c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + +d. Of the PRAEFECTURAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent from +Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + +The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,-- + +a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, +afterwards increased to thirty-five. + +b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining territory +composed more than one half of the country controlled by Rome. + +These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay +tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops for +the Roman army. + +The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.-- + +a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. e. +FULL RIGHTS. (Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus suffragii_ +(right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of holding office), +and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). Private rights were _jus +connubii_ (right of intermarriage); and _jus commercii_ (right of +trading and holding property). Full rights were acquired either by +birth or gift. A child born of parents, both of whom enjoyed the +_jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with full rights. Foreigners were +sometimes presented with citizenship (_civitas_)) + +b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + +c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). + +d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + +e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of +trading. + +To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman colonies, and +of some of the Municipia. + +To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who +possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefecturae_, +and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + +ROADS. + +Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the +capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every +direction,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched +or intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her +possessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a monument +of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonder and +admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten +together the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not +even the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of +fidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + + +NOTED MEN. + +The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding +chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius +Curius Dentatus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + +We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one of +the tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tributa_; this, however, shut +out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and also the freedmen, +who were generally educated and professional men, such as doctors, +teachers, etc. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the +exclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tributa_, and gave to +property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later this +law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes alone, and +the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed property only. + +During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water supply +by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, was +built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as far +as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are today in +good condition. The road was afterward extended to Brundisium, through +Venusia and Tarentum. + +MANIUS CURIUS DENTATUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and +his opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He +obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager Publicus_. He +drained the low and swampy country near Reate by a canal. He was +the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, frugal and +unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his farm and spent +the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple peasant. + +GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentatus, was from the peasants. He was a +Hernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was +incorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battle +of Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, and, +failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behind +a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, though +immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + +In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not +flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The +great mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal +habits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates as +yet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A century later, +when most of the available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthy +and farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + +The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large +treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern +Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greed +for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. +From now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate in +proportion as their empire increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. FOREIGN CONQUEST. + + +ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) (Footnote: The word +"Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were said to +have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of the +Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of +course familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aeneas.) + +While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the +Straits of Messana, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite +Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through +industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + +Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, it +required centuries to gain her power. + +It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her subdued +allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in the support +of her immense population and the equipment of her numerous fleets and +armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once wandering nomads, were +forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colonies sent out by +herself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, open +to the attack of all, and incapable of defence. Thus the country around +Carthage was weak, and the moment a foreign enemy landed in Africa the +war was merely a siege of its chief city. + +The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed the +gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, slaves, +and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and +the iron of Elba. + +But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel religion, +which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the rights of +others, their well known treachery, all shut them off from the higher +civilization of Rome and Greece. + +The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a +few of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed the +state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people summoned +and consulted. + +Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the +establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these +treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and +Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the +Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + +In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field for +Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome would +be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, "the +commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of one +night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + +At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king of +Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands who +came from Campania. The latter, making Messana their head-quarters, had +been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Being shut up +in Messana by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the ground that they were +from Campania. Although Rome was in alliance with Hiero, and had +but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in Rhegium what the +Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aid them, for Sicily +was a rich and tempting prey. + +Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a +truce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of +Messana was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and garrison +of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the Mamertines +no longer needed their aid, landed at Messana and dislodged the +Carthaginians. + +Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double +alliance with Syracuse and Messana, thus gaining control of the eastern +coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of Italy. + +The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the +Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under +HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were +themselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heraclea in +their rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battle +was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to their +superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds on the +coast were left to the Carthaginians. + +The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage ruled +the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the seaports of +Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual energy, the +Romans began the work. (Footnote: In 259, three years previous to the +battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, a +seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval station.) A wrecked +Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by the spring of 260 a +navy of 120 sail was ready for sea. + +The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the +purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of +hanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be +lowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides +with parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to close +quarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened to +the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman marines +were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and fight as if +on land. + +Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE +(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + +In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged +under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander +was captured. + +In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS +DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of Gisco. +The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans were found +to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without these +bridges descending with their grappling irons and holding them fast to +the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of nearly +half their fleet. + +A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, was +erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal of +it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest +inscriptions in the Latin language. + +The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + +In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 +sail. Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and +sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the coast +of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another battle. But +the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula which helps to +form the bay, and there landed without opposition. + +MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in +Africa. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians became +disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and the +capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms offered +were too humiliating to be accepted. + +Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at +Tunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to his +fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, his +army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently died +a captive at Carthage. + +The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to relieve +their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, it gained a +victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Hermean promontory, sinking +114 of the enemy's ships. + +It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa was +now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly destroyed in +a storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + +Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. Panormus +was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Thermae and the +island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + +DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by +Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city +was blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as much +as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the cavalry of +the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by disease. + +The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined to +surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana (249). +He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Another +fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent storm. + +The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. +Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. +They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily +were still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on +(249-243). + +A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile took +the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military talent, +and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair way +to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, that at +last some private citizens built and manned at their own expense a fleet +of 200 sail. + +GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and +occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian +fleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGATES +INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and +supplies. He saw that peace must be made. + +Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the +war,--about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annual +payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS +(241-218). + + +Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. +The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in +crushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + +Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, +seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, +threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one +million dollars as a fine (237). + +The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the +government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + +Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercised +their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily was made +what the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. Sardinia and Corsica +formed another province (235). + +Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For +this purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. The +power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, chief +magistrate, and supreme judge. + +The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. +All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth +of their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and +exports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the dependants +of Rome in Italy. + +The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the +morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without +mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + +The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who did +much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but to no +purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was cleared of +the pirates in 229. + +"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the +means of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations +between Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the suppression +of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances +were concluded with CORCYRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and embassies +explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were +sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. The admission +of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally acknowledged them as +the allies of the Greek states." + +The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPINA. The +appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with the +Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimonis in 283. The _ager publicus_, +taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. In 232 the +Tribune Gaius Flaminius (Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his agrarian laws +gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first Governor of +Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and honesty, +a great contrast to many who succeeded him.) carried an agrarian law, +to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer +classes. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls +this seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of their +country. They all rose in arms except the Cenomani. + +This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded by +an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, miscarried, +and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near TELAMON in 222, +and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the hands of the Consul +MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now mistress of the whole +peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in Liguria, who resisted a +short time longer. + +Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls in +check; PLACENTIA and CREMONA in the territory of the Insubres, and +MUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great northern road, +was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. (Footnote: During this period +the _Comitia Centuriata_ was reorganized on the basis of tribes (35) +instead of money.) + +Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the +mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as +compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar +Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in +Southern and Southeastern Spain. + +At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many towns +were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The discovery +of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of enriching the +treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablest +leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man of but +twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he had +shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He was a fine +athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and could endure +long privation of sleep and food. For the last few years he had been +in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself for personal +bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. + +Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. +He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In +eight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + +When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and +declared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the +challenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO +THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + +In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthago Nova to invade +Italy. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 +elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the +opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a +part of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all +veterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along the +coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nimes), through the Celtic +territory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on +the banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans were +astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + +The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had been +in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal in +Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade Africa. +Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end of June. +Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already left +Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes of the +neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from these were +stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained at Massilia. +It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived with +his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and constructed numerous +rafts to transport his main body of troops. A detachment of soldiers +was sent up the river with orders to cross at the first available place, +and, returning on the opposite bank, to surprise the Celtic forces in +the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts fled in confusion, and the +road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio was outgeneralled in the very +beginning. + +His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all his +forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he +sent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and +himself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + +Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the Isara, +through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in sixteen +days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat). +Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of the country +and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through the country of +the Centrones, along the north bank of the Isara. As he was leaving this +river and approaching the pass of the Little St. Bernard, he was again +attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the ascent amidst continual +and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, the +army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a table-land, his troops +were allowed a brief rest. + +The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile +valley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and exhausted +soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited their wearied +energies. + +This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, +and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + +The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in Spain +under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, under +the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available were a +few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to restrain the +Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. + +Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command of +these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river Ticinus, +a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which he was +wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards the +famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable loss. + +They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the +bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched +along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, +opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + +Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the +disabled Scipio. + +Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the +Carthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any +resistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were drawn +up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, they +should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in the +trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut to +pieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they +spent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. + +The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in +the valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry +and 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near Placentia, +the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways leading north from +Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The Consuls for this year were +GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The former occupied Arretium, the +latter Ariminum. Here they were joined by the troops that had wintered +at Placentia. + +In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by +either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by +turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and unhealthy +country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost an eye from +ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of his course first +reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and endeavored to intercept +his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, and was now near LAKE +TRASIMENUS. + +Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the other. +Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. His +light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on either +side. + +The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the +unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the +position of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, +Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the entrance +to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, revealing the +Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a battle, but a mere +rout. The main body of the Romans was cut to pieces, with scarcely any +resistance, and the Consul himself was killed. Fifteen thousand Romans +fell, and as many more were captured. The loss of the Carthaginians was +but 1,500, and was confined mostly to the Gallic allies. All Etruria +was lost, and Hannibal could march without hindrance upon Rome, whose +citizens, expecting the enemy daily, tore down the bridges over the +Tiber and prepared for a siege. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed +Dictator. + +Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, +devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted on +the shores of the Adriatic, in Picenum. After giving his army a rest, he +proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + +The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised +another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of +determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to +avoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing him +and cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + +Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of +Italy to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city +dependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to +the melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's cavalry +plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what he +considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, disappointed +in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, and not being +prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. +Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on the left bank of +the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right bank of the river +were occupied by his main army; and the road itself, which led across +the river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + +Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the heights +over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with burning +fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army marching by +torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned the road and +marched for the heights, along which they supposed the enemy were going. +Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued his march with the +bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his light-armed troops, +which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. Their engagement with +the Romans had resulted in a severe loss to Fabius. + +Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly +direction, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with much +booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he encamped in +a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his army. + +At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent +inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator +(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared +by one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into +two corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the +first opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his +former tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his rashness, +and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not Fabius come to +his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed the winter of +217-216 unmolested. + +The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the spring +campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was raised and +put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS AEMILIUS PAULLUS and GAIUS +TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's strength once more in +open battle. His army was only half as strong as the Roman in infantry, +but was much superior in cavalry. + +In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at +CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in +June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, with +their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the left +under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + +The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by +cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onset +was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased by +the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, they +were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, +among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men of +senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced by +the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greek +cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA +(216-202). + + +ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the +Latin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old men +alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they would +join the ranks. + +Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the second +city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that other +cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into winter +quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxurious and +effeminate habits, are said to have injured his soldiers. But Hannibal's +superiority as a general is unquestionable, and his want of success +after this was due to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact that +the resources of Rome were greater than those of Carthage. The Latin +allies of Rome had remained true to their allegiance, and only one city +of importance was under his control. It was an easy matter to conquer +the enemy in open battle, but to support his own army was more +difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On the other hand, the +Romans were well supplied with food from their possessions in Sicily. + +Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already +employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He +formed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged +Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. He +hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and reinforcements +from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, +to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her into submission. + +The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they +could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and Gnaeus. +With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the enemy +from that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern Greece +effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years (214-212) +passed without any material change in the situation of affairs in Italy. + +In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, +besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover +Campania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched +rapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed the +city, resolved to advance on Rome itself. + +Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through the heart +of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, and with +his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no ally +joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals of +peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of +the enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his +head-quarters in the South. + +Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, was +removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon Capua was +severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred of her chief +citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. The city and +its territory were declared to be Roman territory, and the place was +afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + +Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as Rome +itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, renowned +for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the highest arts +and culture. + + +AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of +more than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome in +her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of +Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, who +was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few months. + +The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian +faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the +leaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to +arouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome +and the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and stormed +Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against him. A +siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various devices +adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMEDES (Footnote: Archimedes was +a great investigator in the science of mathematics. He discovered the +ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of his famous +sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the world." He +exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines for the +defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in existence. +He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, who would +have spared his life had he not been too intent on a mathematical +problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his tombstone, it +is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.) to defeat the +movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a Spanish +officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which it was so +rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time (212) the city +became a part of the province of Sicily and the head-quarters of the +Roman Governor. + + +THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO +CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO +and HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the +location of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over +to Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large +reinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, +surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain was +lost to Rome. + +Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter Italy, +and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. PUBLIUS +CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but twenty-four +years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He had previously +made himself very popular as Aedile, and was unanimously elected to the +command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he found the whole country west +of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + +Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL +and MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not act +in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring (209), to +capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor was +gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three transports, $600,000, and +10,000 captives fell into the hands of the Romans. + +Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at +BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the +battle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the +Pyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the +winter (209-208) in Gaul. + +The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the son +of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the Baleares, +to wait for reinforcements from home. + +The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in +the total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the +southwestern part of Spain. + +The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed +the straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and +MASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, +after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about +their pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where he +intended to become a candidate for the consulship. + + +OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + +The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. +Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The +Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, +and MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of +keeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting +Hasdrubal was given to the latter. + +The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river +Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent +messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of +march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of their +despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, joined +Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and defeated his +army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal himself. Nero +returned south without delay, and the first intimation that Hannibal had +of this battle was the sight of his brother's head thrown into the camp +by the victorious foe. + +The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four +years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was +powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout +Italy. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the +ground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. + + +INVASION OF AFRICA. + +Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of Africa. +He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his province, with +permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him wise. He was so +popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies poured +in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however, did not like +him, as his taste for splendid living and Greek culture was particularly +offensive to them; and a party in the Senate would have recalled him, +had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor been too strong to be +resisted. + +In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was welcomed +by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous visit to +Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but in 203 +Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage +prevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle +with Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of Carthage. +The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who loved their +commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first and only defeat, +and Scipio won his title of AFRICANUS. The battle was a hard one. After +all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been killed or put +to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in Italy, although +surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering their own, fought +on, and were killed one by one around their beloved chief. The army was +fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape to +Hadrumetum. + +The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage +was broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to retain +her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, were given +up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about $200,000, for +fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carry +on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by an +increase in territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends of +the Roman people." + +Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterranean +power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa was +under her protection. + +Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was +welcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never before +equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned with +laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which he had +the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no part in +politics. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. ROME IN THE EAST. + + +ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. +The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast +empire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the +limits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece +proper. + +EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the +valley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a +number of towns in Thrace. + +SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of +various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent +rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. +Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + +MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of +Northern Greece. + +GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, the +former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the greater +part of Central Greece. + +Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into +closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in 273. +From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the Second +Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of the +Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + +The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into closer +relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to open the +Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage had left her +no time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern politics, until she +was forced to take action by the alliance of Philip V. of Macedonia and +Hannibal, and by the former's threatened invasion of Italy in 214. A +small force was sent into Greece, which was soon largely increased by +the dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + +The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was +to prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was +partially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but +four thousand of them were at Zama. + +The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus +Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so hard +that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to sail for +Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus assisted +the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to think of +operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to concentrate +their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + +Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their +return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. + +There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN +WAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, to +attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable that +the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years old, +would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers of +Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman envoys +sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with Philip. + +In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that the +people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was driven to +seek alliances which would protect her against him. + +Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced +to vote for one, on the representation that the only means of preventing +an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + +This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a +considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the +Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive +results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMININUS, a man of +different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on +the Aous, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year utterly +defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + +The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he +broke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in around +him with but little loss. The other division was attacked by the Romans, +while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The victory of the +Romans was decisive. + +About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the +Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + +Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of +Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, +Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wage +war without Rome's consent. + +The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" was +proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later +Flamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of +Greece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks to +show themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned home +to enjoy a well earned triumph. + +The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm +establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge +had been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was +assured. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN WAR. + + +Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, +had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not +hear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he +claimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip had +previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. He +crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to enter +Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, until after +Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). + +Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the +power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his +defeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the +chief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the +moral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. Under +him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with Antiochus, +with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an opportunity to +interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, after wandering +from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the Syrian king. + +Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could have +accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he disregarded +the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor matters. The +Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae drove back the +intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The Aetolians were punished +for their infidelity. + +In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command +of the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be +accompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his +military skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed the +Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + +Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the +king. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in +190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 being +slain. The loss of the victors was slight. + +On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all +pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus +mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all +surrendered. + +Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his +name, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of his +victory. + +Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign +against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, +and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse for +the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the reason +was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + +The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they +themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeable +chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without the authority +of the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent which +was too frequently followed in later times. On his return to Rome he was +allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. + +These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid +the foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally +undermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced +learning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The vigor +and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than in the +length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. + +Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the +ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained +during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his +account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, +tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, +however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated +that his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies +that their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of +Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges were +made. + +Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, +on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. His +wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, and +the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. His +daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous GRACCHI. +Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the +campaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In +the conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered +Alexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself +conquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. + +Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically +the mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and +as conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a charm +which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greece +were not so courted at Rome as in later days. + +Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, +but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, King +of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to +arrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring and +swallowed the poison which it contained (183). + +Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim +of his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was +so marked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon +the tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near +accomplishing. + +This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the +Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. (Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146.) + + +Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against +Antiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in additions +to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but he labored +patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir up among +the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He placed his army +on the best footing possible, and soon began to enlarge his boundaries. +Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give up his +conquests, and confine himself to the limits of Macedonia. In 179 Philip +died, and was succeeded by his son PERSEUS. + +The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of +subjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a +marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse +among the Greeks memories of their former greatness. + +The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check him. +War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at first led +by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until LICIUS AEMILIUS +PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in 168. + +Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was +killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE AEDILE, +(Footnote: See page 225) in 192, he prosecuted persons who had made an +illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191 +as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all insurrections. +He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a tribe of +marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + +He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. +The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the +Thermaic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothrace with his treasures +and family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with +kindness by the Consul. + +Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by commissioners, +he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was divided into +four small republics, independent of each other, but prohibited from +intermarriage and commerce with one another. + +On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced +by Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four +years later. + +Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted +by Fabius Maximus Cunctator, the younger by the son of Africanus the +elder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of +perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat +superstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his sons +the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularity +is the fact that his body was carried to its last resting place by +volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. + +Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is +alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + +After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the +conquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests there. +All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, and among +these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more than twenty +years, and became a great friend of the younger Africanus, whom he +accompanied to the siege of Carthage. + +Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of +each other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utter +demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all +alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + +Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating +in what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under +the leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the +people rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice defeated +in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained the agnomen +of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, with a Roman +magistrate at its head. + +At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus warned +them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he easily +defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + +Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an +illustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in 115 +three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was a +candidate for the consulship. + +Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh +leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. +The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 +was marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; +beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold +in abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty +vanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of ACHAIA. + +Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, when +it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a colony +of veterans and freedmen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + + +Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial +prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the quarrels +of conflicting factions. + +MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual +source of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, +and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of Rome, +her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an embassy was +sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, the chief of the +embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of the city, and from +that time never ceased to urge its destruction. The embassy did not +reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as they might. Finally, +when some sympathizers with Masinissa were banished from the city, he +attacked and defeated the Carthaginians, compelled their army to +pass under the yoke, and afterwards treacherously destroyed it (150). +Carthage was compelled to give up some of her territory, and pay +$5,000,000 indemnity. + +After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be +disciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to +close any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel words, +_Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed." The people of +Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, they +sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was obscure. They were +requested to make reparation to Rome, and at the same time they were +assured that nothing should be undertaken against Carthage herself. +But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army into Sicily, where the +troops were organized, and Carthaginian ambassadors were expected. + +When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish to +encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some security; +for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three hundred +children of the noblest families should be delivered into their hands +as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly crossed over +to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were ready to treat +with them on any question not previously settled. + +When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told +that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they +said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage +possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were then +told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome had no +control over the city so long as it was fortified. The preservation of +peace, therefore, required that the people should quit the city, give +up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a distance of ten +miles from the sea. The indignation and fury which this demand excited +were intense. The gates were instantly closed, and all the Romans and +Italians who happened to be within the city were massacred. + +The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined +that the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair had +suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every direction. +All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and night in the +manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending than this last +struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored to the uttermost +for the defence of the city with a furious enthusiasm. + +Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS, +the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legal +age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. After +two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the +defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + +Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen +days. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given to +Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + +The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most +bitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,--MASINISSA +and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + +Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get the +promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given to +his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the possessions of +Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same Sophonisba, whom he +married. Scipio, however, fearing her influence over him, demanded +her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was a +courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the Romans. + +CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149,) whose long public career was a +constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the +fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Roman +character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the +interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as +Censor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashioned +principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All innovations +were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the author of several +works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has been preserved. + +Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year +discoursing about old age with Africanus the younger, and Laelius, a +friend of the latter. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + + +Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government +of nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, +separated by the IBERUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a +praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought into +a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests were a +formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla warfare, +which makes conquest slow and laborious. + +The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBERI, who +occupied the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and +intractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the +elder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the +Roman power east of the Iberus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this part +of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir to +pull down their fortifications. + +Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, +sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, +the father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the +troublesome Celtiberi. He captured over one hundred of their towns, but +tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself greater +in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands on +favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the +natives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and in +Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + +In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was +Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged the +Celtiberi to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with +a massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS +MARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the +country humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, +were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another open +rebellion, headed by VIRIATHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During seven +years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent against him. +The Celtiberi joined his standards, and Spain seemed likely to slip from +the Romans. The only check to these successes was during the command of +METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was recalled, matters returned to +their former condition. + +In 140, the Consul Mancinus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save +himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to +sanction. + +Viriathus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the Consul +Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was ably +conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + + +THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + +The Celtiberi, however, were still in arms. The strong city of NUMANTIA, +the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one defeat of a +Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent out her best +general, Africanus the younger. + +After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he +began (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the +utmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of +famine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and +the town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the +title of NUMANTINUS. + +The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, which +was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its northern +coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were established +with Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on the whole, order was +maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean there sprang up many +thriving and populous towns, which became centres of civilization to the +neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome rather as allies than +as subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin the silver money of Rome. +The civilizing process, due to Roman influence, went on rapidly in these +parts, while the interior remained in barbarism. + +In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from +the north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave +Celtiberi, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). + +While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves +broke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special barbarity. + +For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of +freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the +regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and +Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + +The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a +wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, who +pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were suffered +by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS captured the +strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus closed the +war. For his success he was allowed an ovation. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. INTERNAL HISTORY.--THE GRACCHI. We have seen how the long +struggle between the patricians and plebeians terminated in a nominal +victory for the latter. From about 275, the outward form of the old +constitution had undergone little change. It was nominally that of a +"moderate democracy." The Senate and offices of state were, in law, +open to all alike. In practice, however, the constitution became an +oligarchy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the +Senate was controlled by a class who claimed all the privileges of a +nobility. The Comitias were rarely called upon to decide a question. +Most matters were settled by a DECREE OF THE SENATE (_Senatus +Consultum_). To be sure the Comitia declared for war or peace, but the +Senate conducted the war and settled the conditions of peace. It also +usually assigned the commands, organized the provinces, and managed the +finances. + +The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It +was a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be +convened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were scattered +over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to decide +questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign policy. + +The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All +patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The +patricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. +The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of the +following six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, +Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right to +place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of +this ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held a +curule office. + +A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, or "new +man." + +The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time the +monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. +The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only +wanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal +rights, and urge the exercise of them. + +Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him +was ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and +brought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. +On one side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and +POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until the +glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor of +the Empire. + +Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to the +nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the daughter +of Africanus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all but three +died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The daughter, +SEMPRONIA, married Africanus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, +grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left a +widow when they were mere boys. + +Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-law +during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor in +Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the mild +policy which his father had previously followed. His popular measures +here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a favorite +with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where he was +astonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see Chapter VII.) +cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens of the Republic +were wandering in towns without employment, and deprived of the land +which, according to law (see the Licinian Rogations), should have +been divided among them, and not held in large quantities by the rich +land-owners. + +Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself as +candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began boldly the +battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now a +dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 acres of the +_ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had fenced this land +and improved it were to be compensated therefor. + +The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, +and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECINA, +who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his authority as +Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the question. + +Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, +contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, and +passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, +his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry it into +effect. + +It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of +Tribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry +out his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as +candidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it became +evident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned out +in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed slaves +and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three hundred of +his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shed +the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led by SCIPIO NASICA, +the uncle of Tiberius. Africanus, when he heard of the murder of his +brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain." + +The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to +be openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their work, +until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts of +the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But the +commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were not +always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were enraged. +The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + +The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his +brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in +Africa and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and +justice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with +suspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. +He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the avowed +enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, he +endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Roman +citizenship, and to limit the price of bread. + +Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial class, +by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial functions +were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. Heretofore +all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried before a jury +chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal and corrupt, and +it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be bought. + +The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time +very powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that no +Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an appeal +to the assembly of the people. + +But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians ruined +his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their rights +with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten years +before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of his +friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master of the +situation. + +However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty +thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in +force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless the +state was held to be in danger. + +Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the +Gracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were noble, +and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + +A few years previous to this, the younger Africanus died (129). His +remark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the +popular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, +probably "a victim of political assassination." + +Africanus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of +scholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets +LUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age towards +luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a general. The +one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which he +possibly might have averted had he shown firm opposition to it. + +SCIPIO NASICA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though +Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. EXTERNAL HISTORY.--PERGAMUM.--JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). + + +Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caicus, fifteen miles from +the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. Its +first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. +He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their firm +friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in Asia +Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, and +its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome his +kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It was +made a province under the name of ASIA. + +THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + +After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in Africa +was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which were +centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom to his +son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. The nephew +was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in the Numantine +war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was named joint heir +with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa dying soon after, +Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed the whole +kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed to +Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They were bought off by +Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal was +afterwards captured, savagely tortured, and finally killed. + +The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an +investigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused of +accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign languished, +and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince that it was +evident his money had again been freely used. The scandalous transaction +was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha then repaired to +the city in person, and bought up all the authorities except Memmius, +whom he found incorruptible. He had another cousin in the city, whom he +caused to be murdered. After this the Senate ordered him to leave, and +as he departed, it is said he exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to +perish, if a purchaser be found!" + +War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat +of the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by +the defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS +METELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. He +was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigid +aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as his +lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + +Marius, born at Arpinum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was +himself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and soon +attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and his +strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, and +his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. He soon +rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the People, +and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was respected and valued +in high circles is shown by his subsequent marriage into the family of +the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, he +became a person of social distinction. + +The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the +river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his stronghold, +Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrender +was demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritated +that such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded that +Marius should be made Consul and have charge of the war. When the +lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to enable him to be +present at the elections, as was necessary according to the law, his +general ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait another twenty years. +He went, however, and was elected in 107, being the first plebeian +chosen to that office for more than a century. + +Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of +NUMIDICUS. + +Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be +reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other +occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of +rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a young +patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested from +Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. +By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106) +into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius. + +The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of +his treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native +princes, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius +returned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a +dungeon, and there starved to death. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--POLITICAL QUARRELS. + + +The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a +struggle requiring all his talents. + +The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were +threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met +with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. +Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to +have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen +to enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certain +result. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over the +mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. + +Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to forming +and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of the Rhone +in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he drilled +his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible exertions. Many +perished under the strain, but the survivors became hardened soldiers. +Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, and the soldiers were +taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his fourth +consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the enemy. + +The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, the +Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards Noricum, +with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while the +Teutones remained in Gaul. + +As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified camp +near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, and +then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fall +upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match for +the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest lasted two +days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces (20 July, +102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius that he had +been elected Consul for the fifth time. + +Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the fertile +fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulus, the +other Consul. + +The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met +the same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + +No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrels +broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul for the +sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two demagogues, the +Tribune SATURNINUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn laws and +land laws,(Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN LAWS (100):--I. Any Roman +citizen could buy corn of the state at a nominal price. II. The land +in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had occupied, should be divided +among the Italian and Roman citizens. III. Colonies from the veterans +of Marius were to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.) and +compelled the Senators to take an oath to execute their laws. Metellus +Numidicus refusing to comply with their wishes, Saturninus sent a guard +to the Senate-House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. + +During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. +He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all +parties he pleased none. + +On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by +MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and +the radical one, led by Saturninus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia +both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be +successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturninus +and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the +Senate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches were +stoned to death. + +The fall of Saturninus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall +of Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was +suspected that he was a victim of treachery. + +Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his +vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, +travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradates, +King of Pontus. + +For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative +quiet. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + + +At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the +equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen +the governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers +(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will help us to +understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the composition +of the Senate and the Equites. + +The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increased +to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurred +from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by the +Censor, (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person that +had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule +Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had held +these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in the +Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence he +must be wealthy. + +We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six classes +according to their property, and that these classes were subdivided into +one hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225, +the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen +of the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must have +property worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given to +them because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though in +later times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equites +were originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians +increased in wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included in +this class. + +There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123, +Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed that the +jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, and not the +Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, +and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles, +represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order. +Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of the +courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, especially in +those courts which were established to try governors for extortion in +the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)_. From +the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They +pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if a governor had the +courage to interfere with them, a threat of prosecution was held over +his head. The average governor preferred to connive at their exactions; +the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for their courage. Another +trouble was threatening the commonwealth. The Italian allies of Rome did +not possess the franchise belonging to a Roman citizen. For nearly two +centuries they had shared dangers and victories with the Romans; they +now eagerly demanded all their privileges. + +In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. +He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the +question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the +courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many +enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Roman +citizenship aroused great opposition. + +His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. +He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an +assassin in the same year. + +The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered +into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, as +their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the +name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was +to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House. + +Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. +The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both took +the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and +Sulla. + +This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies +(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, +defeated the Romans several times, and entered into negotiations with +the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to waver. + +It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned +in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make +concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried +the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all who +had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by the +PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town +the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome within +sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN, +which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise +on all who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing the +rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were +finally put down by Marius. + +The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly +enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn +asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected +by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was +empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradates, King +of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager to +have the command. + +At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward +the following bills:-- + +1. That the command of the war against Mithradates be given to Marius. + +2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + +3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprived +of his seat. + +4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revolt +be recalled. + +In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the +triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops +had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and for +the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + + +With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS +SULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited +a moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, +lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was +a poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was +naturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under +Marius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful +officer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to +win the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole +subsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to have +been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held well +under control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder and +license. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Marius +owed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in +the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient help +towards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising power, +and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. + +After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part +in politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are +almost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was +elected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a +hundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he +went as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first met +MITHRADATES. + +This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He +spoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless +ambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to +enlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's interference. + +Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was +ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZANES, that Rome had recognized. This country +Mithradates attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the throne his +own nephew. + +Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He +accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to Rome +with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, eclipsing +the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized leader of the +conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between the rivals was +more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by no means lost his +prestige with the popular party. + +It was at this time that Mithradates, learning of the Social War, +thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend +his realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. +With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. +The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, that Ionia, +Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, gladly revolted +from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman residents with +their families were massacred on a single day. It is said that 80,000 +persons perished. Mithradates himself next crossed the Bosphorus, and +marched into Northern Greece, which received him with open arms. + +Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the +bills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Marius +have charge of the war against Mithradates. This was not to Sulla's +liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in the +Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow him +anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, marched +into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; Sulpicius +was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, where he +lived for a time, watching the course of events. + +Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East +called him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil war +burst out anew (87). + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He +tried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven +from the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He +invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to +follow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and +Marius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They +marched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged +Consul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius was +revoked. + +The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna for +the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a body-guard +of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. The houses of +the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families was exposed to +the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after he +entered office, and the shedding of blood ceased. + +For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government +was practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a +trusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In +84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in +Asia. + +Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against +Athens, where Archelaus, the general of Mithradates, was intrenched. +After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. The +same year he defeated Archelaus at CHAERONEA in Boeotia, and the next +year at ORCHOMENOS. + +Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two +victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready +to negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal +interview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as +follows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, +and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay an indemnity +amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships of war. + +Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians +and Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by +compelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now ready +to return to Rome. + +The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 +troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every +preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no +sooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert to +him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of all +Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young POMPEY, +then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts that Sulla's +success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian party was joined +by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than ever. At length, +however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of Rome. The city lay at +his mercy. His first act, an order for the slaughter of 6,000 Samnite +prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct in the city. Every effort +was made to eradicate the last trace of Marian blood and sympathy from +the city. A list of men, declared to be outlaws and public enemies, +was exhibited in the Forum, and a succession of wholesale murders and +confiscations throughout Rome and Italy, made the name of Sulla forever +infamous. + +Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid triumph +for the Mithradatic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. +The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the thinned ranks +of which he filled with his own creatures, with full control over the +state, over every magistrate and every province. + +In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died +the next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + + +THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + +Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the +Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no +former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor +without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the +praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at +least thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six +to eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and +Praetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and +then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + +Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and all +who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + +The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the +Senate. + +On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; +but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to +raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his +oath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, +marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by +Crassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS.--SPARTACUS.--LUCULLUS.--POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + + +Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of +Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served +under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he +served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his +fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He +was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on Sulla's +return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the lead +of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased the +Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He defeated +one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUS +PIUS,(Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the agnomen of +Pius on account of the love which he displayed for his father, whom +he begged the people to recall from banishment in 99.) who had been +specially sent against him from Rome. + +The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after the +Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and founded at +Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe towards his +soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his favorite pet and +constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In 77 he was joined by +PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, then a young man, was +sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius proved more than a match for +both of these generals, and defeated them near Saguntum. + +The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now +formed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered +into negotiations with Mithradates, and opened correspondence with the +slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. + +But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these was +that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, and +with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + +Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own +borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of +their number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at Capua +and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were joined by +large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, and were soon +in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent against them. + +The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself at +the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were defeated; +and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even threatened Rome. +But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; his lieutenants grew +jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + +In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in +six months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, +returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those +who had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. +Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road from +Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + +Mithradates meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was +again in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against him. + +Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social +War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as +Quaestor, in his campaign against Mithradates in 88. With Cotta he was +chosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned to +him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradates invaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta, +and besieged him at Chalcedon. + +Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the aid +of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at Cabira +in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take refuge +with his son-in-law, TIGRANES, King of Armenia. + +Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of provincial +governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were farmed out, +and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the tax-payers +against the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms met with bitter +opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose chief source of +income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues against him by persons +sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction among his troops. He had +been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was all the easier to turn the +soldiers against him. + +In 68 he won a victory over Tigranes and Mithradates, at the river +Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was +obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next year +his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + +Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, +dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious +dinners which he gave. + + +POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + +The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as +it had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a +favorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws laid +down by his general. + +GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood to +his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side in +the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of the +latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. He +defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 was +allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally +qualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he +ever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success we +have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS +CRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. + +Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense wealth +by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice is +said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large sums to the +people for political effect. + +Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was +eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and was +only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and ought to +have waited two years. + +The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained +their prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was +transferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body +was cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed by +Sulla. + +For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey +remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition +against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had +been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. +During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that +the city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had +paralyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy +were not safe from their raids. + +GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command +for three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman +magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over the +coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, all +ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + +In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + +The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the +MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire +control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His +appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by CATULUS, +the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but CICERO +with his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came to Pompey's +assistance, and to him was given the command by which he became +virtually dictator in the East. His operations there were thoroughly +successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the previous victories +of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. Mithradates was obliged +to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (Kertch). + +In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in +the name of Rome, and made it a province. + +Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, +two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to +the wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army against +Jerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He installed +Hyrcanus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. + +Meanwhile Mithradates had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of his +old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman arms, that +even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs had +taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, after a reign +of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all formidable +opposition to Rome in Asia. + +Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were now +made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the addition +of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor not +yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; +Cappadocia, by Ariobarzanes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + +After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, January +1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five years old, +had accomplished a really great work, had founded several cities which +afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, and was hailed +as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + +The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. His +wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations between +the two men had been friendly. + +Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to political +importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of CATILINE. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. CAESAR.--CICERO.--VERRES. + + +The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which claimed +descent from IULUS, the son of AENEAS. Eight generations of Caesars +had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been Consuls, +Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the moderate wing. +The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be traced no further +back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the same name as the great +Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent from Ancus Marcius, the +fourth King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the father +of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife of +Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than Praetor. He was married +to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaius +was born on July 12th, 100. + +During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, +tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, +and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the +proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, +must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate +companions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + +Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and +determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely fifteen, +a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred office carried with +it a handsome income. + +Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, +the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely +with the popular party, whose champion he remained. + +When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but +eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was ruined, +his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet free from +proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young man to his +own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife and marry +one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then tried. His +priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His estate was +confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself declared an +outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential friends, however, +interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was finally persuaded to +pardon him; but with reluctance, and with the remark that in Caesar was +the making of many a Marius. The youth then left Italy, and joined the +army in Asia. + +Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the forces +of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates that were +making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his troops +insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to Nicomedes, a Roman +ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional forces. He was +successful in his mission, and, upon his return to Lesbos, distinguished +himself for his bravery in the attack upon Mitylene, and was awarded the +oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. + +Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign +against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that country. +While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left the army +and returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle with the +nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former Governor of +Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause was +theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and Caesar lost the +case. + +Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied +rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property +and priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he was +captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some $50,000 was +raised and paid. Upon arriving at Miletus he at once got together some +vessels, returned to the island where he had been in captivity, +seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had them tried, +convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to Rhodes, where +he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. Then the report of +the uprisal of Mithradates reached him, and he at once crossed over to +the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and saved Caria to Rome. + +Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly +for a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + +While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in which +he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion of his +youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged +to the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek +teachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party +opposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to +gain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one +of its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during the +troubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literary +pursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who +was falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, and +guaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few +years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his return, +in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of the Senate. +His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance of his duties. +There he obtained an insight into the corrupt extortions of the Roman +governors. Five years later, he conducted his famous case against +Verres. + +VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had +amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece +and Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. With +the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the praetorship, +became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern Sicily. +His government there may have been no worse than that of many other +proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller account of +it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches against Verres are +preserved. + +Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official position, +he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit brought +before him he gave to the party that could pay him best. Property was +confiscated on false charges, and works of art of great value were +stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, property to +the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected to spend in +silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, but Cicero's +eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire into exile. + +It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies +abroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward +for what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was +elected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time +his aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he delivered +the funeral oration. + +Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests +were common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a +great man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, +and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When +sent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun by +Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task which +he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular party, of +which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. TROUBLES AT ROME.--CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + + +While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming +worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. +There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious to +regain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by the +Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited +a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous of +the power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate. + +Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS +SERGIUS CATILINA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, +and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year +Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough +money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On +his return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted +through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. + +He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year +(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark +Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the +struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, +owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and +his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which +he had been so long striving. + +Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had +been Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the +Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). But +what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish display +at the public games and exhibitions. + +Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 +the office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became +vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a +candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than +both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence of +the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + +Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his +fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected +caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had many +followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former Consul +Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, +and Cethegus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a +fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla, +starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws +of every description. The conspirators were divided into two parties; +those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarters +were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trained +soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secret +meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, kill +the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army in +Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and just +before the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to the +Senate. + +Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and +Cethegus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious +difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus +was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were +sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any +Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Too +many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + +In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, +and Cicero. + +Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for +life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a +complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish, +weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and of +his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would become +dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of the +state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, +forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, +unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. + +Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance +with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was +more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero +was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, +with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + +A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused +the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The +suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat +of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell +fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of +soldiers near Pistoria. + +The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the +vigilance shown in this affair. + +The execution of Lentulus and Cethegus resulted as Caesar had expected. +It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and it +was felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. The +people demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have a +deliverer from internal strifes. + +Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second +Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the +retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing +the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade +his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizens +without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicero +could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened to +impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribune +moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared his +coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly +seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, ordered +Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from his +hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. +Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate was +riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declared +deposed from their offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. He +was followed to his home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader, +and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar +refused. He would have nothing to do with lawlessness; he let his +opponents play that _role_, and awaited the results. The Senate soon saw +its mistake, and requested him to resume his official duties. + +The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He +had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of +the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were held +by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed the +subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the +government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. His +administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it +would, he hoped, be the consulship. + +Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium in +December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes +and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the +greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted to +wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + +Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Though +feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people, +and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him. +He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his +career. + +Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his +side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS +was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three +then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of +shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to +great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater +wealth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + + +Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in +return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was +to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was elected +without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus +Bibulus. + +Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political +offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in +keeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself in +political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Now +he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the +aristocracy of what stuff he was made. + +It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the +orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was too +vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, +and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine there +more, and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. + +Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the +aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was bitterly +opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, and by +Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager publicus_, then +held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among the +veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sum +for their loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. +Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, still +the Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be +obliged to take an oath to observe it. + +The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his +year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many +crimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining the +state. + +The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the +abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a +double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open for +inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + +When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the +reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. +He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work +would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year +(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could +rely, were elected. + +There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for +Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. +Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only too willing +to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, +or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these men +were put temporarily out of the way. + +CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At +one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance to +the festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by women. He was +discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by +means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing him +to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian +family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, and was +successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person who had put +to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to the people be +considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. +All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. His +property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in +the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + +The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, +had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. The +Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island was +ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + +Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the +Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. +He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were +satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to +increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the +city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's +absence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. Caesar was now in the prime of +manhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous experience in +camp life had been comparatively small. His early service in Asia, and +his more recent campaigns in Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for +military life. + +The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the +southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman +province, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which the +Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, and a +part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were all +of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine and +settled in the North, and the AQUITANI, who lived in the Southwest and +who are represented by the Basques of to-day. + +The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact +with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, like +the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, which were +mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions among +themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions were +frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the AEDUI +and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome; the +latter, impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribe +of Germans under Ariovistus to come into Gaul and settle, and be their +allies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken from +them hostages, and with the Sequanians were in the ascendency. + +In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers +that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to +emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered +on those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through their +country. + +Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling that +the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through Gaul +would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he determined +to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, and after +a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeated +with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treated +kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + +Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of +the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during +which the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came +together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the +drilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few of +the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + +The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into +winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labienus, the lieutenant of +Caesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as +administrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + + +THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + +While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labienus that the +BELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupied +the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of which +the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIONES, and NERVII. The last +were the fiercest and least civilized. + +Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched against +the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmed +the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they immediately put +themselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Belgae +could muster about 300,000 men. + +By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly +annihilated the Suessiones. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his +protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six +legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii and +their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the woods on +the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick was +the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets, +to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their proper +places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almost +panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield from +a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The +Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But the enemy fought on +with a bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of sixty thousand +men scarcely five hundred survived. The women and children were cared +for kindly by Caesar, and settled in their own territory. + +The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were +conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + +Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter +quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. In +his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + + +THE VENETI.--INVASION OF GERMANY. + +All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except +the VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and +lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducing +others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among them by +Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed against these +people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages built +on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. In a naval +engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet was +destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their +treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into +slavery. + +The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, +among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + +During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into +Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called +the SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and advanced +to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the invaders +twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of the +time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, and two +men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, +the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + +Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to +inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famous +bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, thinking his +object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. + + +INVASION OF BRITAIN. + +It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossing +the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but little +resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for a +short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the +weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among the +Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + +During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, +as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all +preparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next +day landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leader +CASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many +thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + + +FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + +In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several +tribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburones was commanded +by the lieutenants, Gabinus and Cotta. News reached the encampment that +there was an uprisal of the Eburones. It was decided to break up camp, +and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. +On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a few +stragglers carried the news to Labienus, who was wintering with a legion +among the Remi. + +This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant +who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, +who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, +raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + +In 53 Caesar punished the Eburones for their action in the previous +winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Ambiorix, +escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar again crossed +the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, +supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. The +patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The chiefs of all +the tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day was +settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Genabum, +on the Liger, were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggle +of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Averni. + +Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossing +the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marched +upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + +Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. +He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the +towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum alone +was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods and +a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well defended +siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting eight +hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. Large quantities +of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He then +marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town was +on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. A +part of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault +the place. The battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, and +the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. Forty-six officers and seven +hundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious position for +Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junction +with Labienus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for Gallia +Narbonensis to protect it from invasion. + +On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with +eighty thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill +and considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). +Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress been +invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of Gauls +that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius. +But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five times as +large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. + +Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs +and advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded +unconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into +slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. +Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and +afterwards died in a dungeon. + +With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically +completed. + +The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some +of the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the +Senate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces were +formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of these was +subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, +and Latin became the official language. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRASSUS. + + +During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusion +prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which would +stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property. +Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. There +were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO. + +"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period. +He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; he +had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for the +moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was the +leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat +the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killing +persons disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had high +friends and connections, who threw a shield over him when his audacity +had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. His +chief fame had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs +of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, and there were constant +collisions between his retainers and those of Clodius. + +In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was +demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, led +by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties met +in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo's +party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, and the +recall voted. + +For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot. +He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outside +the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting to +receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuild +his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the public +expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted the +workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down the +walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + +At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long +struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidate +for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two meeting by +accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, +52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated sole +Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went into +exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, +but did not dare to deliver it. + +During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar +renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were +held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, that +of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. + +CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompanied +by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived +at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrates; and the Romans, seven +legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along the +river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Crassus a +plan of the campaign, which consisted in following the river as far as +Seleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, +and to avoid being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus +allowed himself to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the +sandy plains of Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + +The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed +upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted +a charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians yielded, +but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after great +deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne before +the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave +the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orders for a general +retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, and +Crassus himself was killed in a conference (53). + +In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand +Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as +slaves in the army of the Parthians. + +The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, +had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married +Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus +Scipio. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + + +Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off +all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the +interests of the Senate and aristocracy. + +The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression +upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern +barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself +distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. +"He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than +Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of +warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The nobility had +watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a +thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty." + +Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a +second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on +this account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, +he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, +he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the +consulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to +become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. + +The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended +several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His +enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he +returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger; +whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. + +The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the +days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was +to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in +Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had +been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The +vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in +Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were +placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the +year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter +quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. +From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating +that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The +messenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the new +Consuls entered upon their duties. + +The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited +discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command. +The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were +compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + +When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called together +his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my army +have served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We have +driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; and +the Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside the +Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, and +has called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it in +this course." The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to follow +their leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men and +officers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole +away, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across +the Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and +marched to Ariminum. + +Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy had +imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert. +Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving wives, +children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to seek safety +with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from the +treasury, but left it locked. + +Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that +he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province +in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing +to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by +the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, +that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, +and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give +security that he would dismiss his army. + +These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. +Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains +to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancona, before +Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw open +their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled. +Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when he +reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops. + +This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats +and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius +endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him over +to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrison +filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium, +where ships were in readiness for them to depart. + +Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival +outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already +gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousand +troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to see +Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was +unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. + +Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the +Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a +fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his +attention. + +In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way +to Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but +he preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and +assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius +Longinus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with +Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance +and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their violent suppression +of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys to +treat with Pompey, but no one was found willing to go. After three days +spent in useless discussion, Caesar decided to act for himself. By +his own edict, he restored the children of the victims of Sulla's +proscription to their rights and property. The money in the treasury +was voted him by the Assembly of the people. He took as much of it as +he needed, and started at once for Gaul to join his troops on his way to +Spain. + +He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's +lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and +allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain supplies +of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sent +Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily, +immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar's +troops with open arms. + +Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massilia +had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he had +sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, +leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey to +Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA in +Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms, +and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spain +was at his feet. + +Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans +to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. +He then set sail from Gades to Tarragona, where he joined his legions +and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to +surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was +allowed to escape a second time. + +Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived +at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. +Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded, +however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he had +lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised and +killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey's +followers. + +During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course. +He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus, +and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, +when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator. +Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Public +credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. +Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimates +were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the interest was +remitted and the principal declared still due. This measure relieved the +debtors somewhat. + +It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, +during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from +Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epirus. Here had gathered +many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial families +of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the renegade +Labienus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, +amounting in all to 100,000 men. + +Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were +fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than +15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans, +inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted +to his leader. + +On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after +an uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards +Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and +intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country was +well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. + +Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his +remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and +many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself to +trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit out +a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antony +finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey's +forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger; +but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him before +Pompey knew of his movements. + +The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of strongly +fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turned +the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to +the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + +Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At +this point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were +surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them +to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and +a few hundred soldiers were captured. + +This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was +exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over; +and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected to +follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recover +from the blow. + +The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey +followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselves +with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero +remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of the +degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + +The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, +only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSALUS, +which gave name to the battle which followed. + +"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place +in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their +own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons +of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman +families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of the +political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present on +the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitude +whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia were +watered by the precious blood of the elect of the earth." + +For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. +One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticed +a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack was +coming. + +The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing +rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey +himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken +from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the +cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. +His left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and +Cassius Longinus. + +At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw +their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry +charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back the +opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced +flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held in +reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, appeared +in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians wavered, +turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselves +upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This wing, composed +of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to fight its former +comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. Pompey himself +mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the battle ended in a +rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand of +the enemy lay dead on the field. + +The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians +had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect +their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out +ready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables +were spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw +these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my +suffering, patient army, which needed the common necessaries of life, +of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a +portion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreat +of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were +pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killed +trying to escape. Labienus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away +by night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + + +Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way +to the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few +companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mitylene, +and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young +PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, +48. + +Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. +"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the +surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to +have excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being +a first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more +especially in the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted +to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good +statesman, he had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose +a side and stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could +not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he +never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." + +Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, set +sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought to +him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now +saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister, +the famous CLEOPATRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants of +Alexandria revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a +handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire +to the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he +returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing +CLEOPATRA upon the throne (47). + +Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, +where PHARNACES, son of Mithradates, was inciting a revolt against Rome. +Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity rendered +proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED. + +He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy +before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from +the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of the +citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius and +fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been made +Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + +Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He +insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property +respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months +prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, +but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected +privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain +promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open +revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesar +collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state their +grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens" +(_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressed +them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was so keen, that a +reaction at once began, and they all begged to be received again into +his service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted +to each soldier out of the _ager publicus_, or out of his own estates. + +Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King +JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied +all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labienus, Afranius, +Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. + +Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions +of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily, +Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, were +put to death without mercy. + +Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties. +He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and charged +with currying favor of the Dictator. + +Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near +Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed +useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the +province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba to +give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also came +in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils of +war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica +by Cato. + +For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; +Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. +Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, +46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed +to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a +slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted +in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, finding +their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; when +the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. +Labienus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius +was captured and executed. + +Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and +committed suicide. + +Thus ended the African campaign. + +On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four +successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one +over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers with +liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They +were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousand +tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. +Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beasts +and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + +Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of +forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another +was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to him +in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) of the +Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictator +for two years, and later for life. He received for three years the +office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to be +guardian of manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune +(48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king in +everything excepting name. + +Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the +REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been +so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind. +Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still in +use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, an +Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + +While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate. +Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and the +vacancies filled with persons of merit. + +Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of +Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus had +been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiers +became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Roman +affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in its +wanderings. Thus Labienus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect an +army as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There were +thirteen legions in all. + +Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the +province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor +AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The +struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive +battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near +Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was on +the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it hand +to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful at +one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized a +standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labienus was seen to +gallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized his +troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including three +thousand Roman Knights, and Labienus himself. + +Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a number +of years. + +Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, +when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians +(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, +which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration. + + +CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + +MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, called +UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.) (95-46) was the +great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the +old school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in +his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, +who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a +general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military +exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; but +when candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declined +to win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. + +QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of +the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was one +of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. +He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant tool +against the great conqueror. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR. + + +Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had fought +against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, MARCUS +BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to nine +hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in +idleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. He +rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of +Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits were +marked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to be +carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were formed. +Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in Rome. The +harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from the Adriatic +to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to Mars was built, +and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of the Tarpeian +Rock. + +In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + +CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the +conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of +Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At +Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned +by Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew +and son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, and +also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, and +Brutus tyranny. + +These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men +who had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. +Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all +who knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking +the life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + +On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the +Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, headed +by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled brother; and +while the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping Caesar's hand, +kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to rise, Cimber dragged +his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was standing behind his +chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was struck, and the whole +pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius stabbed him in the face, and +Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made no further resistance; but, wrapping +his gown over his head and the lower part of his body, he fell at the +base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was drenched with the martyr's blood. + +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the crowd. +They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's toga, and +disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to be carried +to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral pile in the +Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in troops, broke +into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassius +fled from the city for their lives, followed by the other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a +pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As +a historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + + +Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his +sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other +relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + +Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. +He went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, +Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a +large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's +writings and memoranda. + +Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and +showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome +was disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's +property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public +purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out +of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the people. +He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winter +of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, who +was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,--so called +from their resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes against +Philip. + +During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at +Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed +Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, made +friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43) +the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganize +the state, and to hold office for five years. + +The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and +Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia +Cisalpina; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription +followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to please +Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + + +PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + +The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, +whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These two +had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80,000 +infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering various +towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled their +forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marching +through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octavius +opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 troops. There were +two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeated +Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of his +colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, three +weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, +and, following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. With +Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, which +is monarchy, was then established. + +The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman +world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took +Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + +Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to +be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in +command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the +Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposed +the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raise +a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, but +later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, the +rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, but was taken +prisoner at Miletus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, and put to +death. + +Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal share +in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But his +soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrender +to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power and +provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be a +factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octavius +and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latter +the East. + +Antony now repaired to Alexandria, and surrendered himself to the +fascinations of the famous Cleopatra. He assumed the habits and dress of +an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friends +and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finally +divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregarding +his good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he became +more and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture +resulted in open war. + +The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, +September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a +large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that +of Cleopatra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopatra +insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was +commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off +Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, when +Cleopatra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave the +line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued until +his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days' +hesitation, surrendered. + +Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter in +Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupied +in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy the +demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length he +turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key of +the country, he marched upon Alexandria. Antony, despairing of success, +committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopatra. The queen, +disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example, +and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithful +attendants also dead at her feet. + +Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital +to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled +disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He +arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. The +gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and had +been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once between +the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at peace with +all the world. + + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + +CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the +dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by +nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, +and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not +sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play +a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it +happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled, +deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of his +adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which he +tried to steer his course. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + + +After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the +precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but he +allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give him +that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. In +this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next the +Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority of +Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore +to this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious +pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property +qualification for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS +(prince), a title which implied that the Emperor was the _first_ +citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any +suspicions of the populace. + +The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had +jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. +It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), +and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + +The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it +made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), and +Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sitting +in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of +course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was made +Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + +Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was +practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all +voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, +however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A. +D.). + +As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as +Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself +resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee them. +The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsuls +appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa, +Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and Gallia +Narbonensis. + +The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was +assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, a +second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body +guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefects +soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus +reigned supreme. + +The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on +the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper +Euphrates) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and +west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, +and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign +Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the +territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + +Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory +between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy +mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two +step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. +They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new +provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + +Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the province +of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + +Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a +campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished the +conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.), +and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work. + +Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany. +His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons, +Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. + +In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired +territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently +conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, they +rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief. + +Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the +Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. After +three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his way +through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy +in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killed +himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again the +Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor +is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my +legions!" + +Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he asked +his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. + +Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 +B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her +beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married +three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by +whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She +was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. + +OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and +accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her +son MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). +The famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. +869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to +tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. + +After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark +Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the +ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + +AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend and +counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleet +of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had +three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him; +the third was murdered by Tiberius. + +Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in +his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and +ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in +the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune, +than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will. +His success depended on the temper of the people and the peculiar +circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is found in +the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live in peace +for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one will, and +the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the legitimate +result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed his +empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus it +would seem that the part he played was that of a shrewd politician, +rather than that of a wise statesman. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + + +In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose +names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the AUGUSTAN +AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, +Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign a +brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than diminished +by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, and that of +Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong to an epoch +in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which pertains to the +arts of peace. + +In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. Born +at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona and +Mediolanum. After completing his education he retired to his paternal +estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the battle of +Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was subsequently +restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly in +Campania. His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-second +year (22 September, 19 B. C.). + +Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly +imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone +inspiring and elevating. + +In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, +a faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal +interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and +difficulties of practical life. + +In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage +gave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the friendship +of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was Horace, who +entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which was established +in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in +which every Roman had a share; and his works became school-books even +before the death of Augustus, and have continued such ever since. + +HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at +Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where he +fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his _Satires_. +These he read to his friends, and their merit was at once recognized. +His great patron was MAECENAS, who introduced him to the Emperor, and +gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Mountains. +He died the same year as his patron, and was buried beside him at the +Esquiline Gate. + +The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in +the Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and felicity +of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read and quoted +more than those of any other ancient writer. + +OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil +and Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for +narration. + +"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, +partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of +nature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations of +this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other +poets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character +and rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by +Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing verses +were written during this period. + +One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECENAS, the +warm friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the +literature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his +magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helped +both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter is +constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) childless, +and left his fortune to Augustus. + +The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and +Nepos. + +LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man of +rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The historical +value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of the scarcity, +and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on the +times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and always interesting. +His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with that of Caesar. Only +thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two books that he wrote are +preserved. + +NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, +_De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither accurate nor +interesting, and of little value. + +SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of +Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. +He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to be +obscure. + +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments of +this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican institutions, +a man of great independence of character, and a poet of no mean merit, +as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of his writings are +preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two that +had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of justice +(_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The most famous +of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar and finished +by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the great +Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, finished by the +Emperor of that name. + +The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was the +PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. Here are +buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a mausoleum +for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--the first stone +theatre of Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + + +Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. +C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained a +divorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + +Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, +and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in +Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his +campaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 B. +C., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the dissolute +daughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, +developing everything that was bad in his character, and making him +jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. + +Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to +Rhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's +influence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards +appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the age of +fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and ambitions were +locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said but once to have +taken counsel with his officers. He was a master of dissimulation, and +on this account an object of dislike and suspicion. But until his +later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, penetrating all +disguises. + +Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at +large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which had +been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were made. +First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in small +bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the walls. By +this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, the old +COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was treated with +great deference. + +Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, +that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, +governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread of +punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in public +expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his reign on +the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + +Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the +slightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but it +is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was +effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one +who had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the application +of this offence even to words or conduct which could in any way be +considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers +(_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered unsafe. +The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially prominent by +ancient historians; but their statements are beginning to be taken with +much allowance. + +After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a fainting +fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + +LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. She +exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. She +had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She managed +to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of Augustus, +until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the palace with +Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the Empress, and her son +feared and hated her. She survived Augustus fifteen years, and died in +29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her death-bed, and was not present +at her funeral. + +SEJANUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was +trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He +persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her +husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry +her. He so maligned Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of +Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and +Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Capreae, +and he himself became the real master of Rome. + +Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejanus was arrested +and executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in +pieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + + +CALIGULA (37-41). + +Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son +of Germanicus and Agrippina, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of +Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nickname given +him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five years +of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject to +fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, and +confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is said +to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, that +he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond of adulation, +and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise of a god, +and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He was +murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + + +THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +CLAUDIUS (41-54). + + +A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of +government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the +Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + +Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was a +man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his +two wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALINA, was so +notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. His +second wife, his niece AGRIPPINA, sister of Caligula, was nearly as bad. +This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom she induced +the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless wife then +caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be proclaimed Emperor. + +At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In +the government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He undertook +the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days he laid the +foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about forty years +later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a Roman province +for four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Roman customs, +as did the Gauls, and when the Roman garrisons were withdrawn, they +quickly returned to their former condition. However, many remains of +Roman buildings in the island show that it was for the time well under +subjection. + +The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a new +harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct called +the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to this day. +He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by draining the +Fucine Lake. + + +NERO (54-68). + +NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or three +years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the author, and +BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his government +was during this period the most respectable of any since the time of +Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and removed from +the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an unscrupulous +woman, POPPAEA SABINA, for whom he neglected and finally killed his +wife, Octavia. + +It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this +time. A freedman, TIGELLINUS, became his adviser, and was the real ruler +of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and wickedness. +Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhus was +disposed of; Agrippina, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, +were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the feelings of his +subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The Emperor appeared in +public, contending first as a musician, and afterwards in the sports of +the circus. + +The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, +was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the stories of +his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure fictions. It +was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so the CHRISTIANS, +then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were accused +of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often enclosed in +fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. + +In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence +of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding +alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard +stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply was +also carefully regulated. + +In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the +magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. Its +walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of art +from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, +lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of Nero +himself, one hundred and ten feet high. + +Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were +implicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life +after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he +conducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, +and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither +Spain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. +Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the +insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned +him to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June 9, +68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, his +name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him ended +the Claudian line of Emperors. + +LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, +of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a +teacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca +began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable +reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later he +was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. He +was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he shared +the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His influence +over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often maintained by +doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike him, and when +Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's command he committed +suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, he discoursed with his +friends on the brevity of life till death ensued. + +Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral +essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of the +last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + + +GALBA (68-69).--OTHO (69).--VITELLIUS (69). + +GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on +account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and was +murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Rome. +He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerely +regretted by the better element in the city. + +OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection +against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his +accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the Rhine, +revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and committed +suicide after a reign of three months. + +VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and +incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during which +he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + +VESPASIAN (69-79). + + +The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the +soldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea +proclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS. He +left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at +Rome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the course +of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, rebuilding +also a large part of the city. + +In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and +extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the +general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper +members, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he +put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus returned +from the capture of Jerusalem, (Footnote: Jerusalem was taken in +70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have been +graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Josephus, who was present +in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold +into slavery.) they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was +closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. + +Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A +new Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous +COLOSSEUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of +Nero, which had stood near by. + +On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugal +and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked by +peace and general prosperity. + +One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum +Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. +Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, +which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, +increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their +civilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. His +life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + + +TITUS (79-81). + +Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of +his father. He finished the Colosseum, begun by Vespasian, and built a +triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, +called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via +Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred +candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + +It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed by +an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, the +most noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, the only +one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student. +His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, +and caused his death. + + +DOMITIAN (81-96). + +DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate, +and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, during +which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes +and inconsistencies. + +In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added to +the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden and +Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the Rhine +to Ratisbon on the Danube. + +With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the +last of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the historian +Suetonius. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + +NERVA (96-98). + + +NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the first +Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. +He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in command of +the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but during that +time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring happiness and +prosperity upon every class. + + +TRAJAN (98-117). + +Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty +in the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long +afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was +that he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." +Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful +life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. + +He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube +and the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became +so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is +founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. +It was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF +TRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. + +Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an +important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, +however, resulted in no permanent advantage. + +During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS +POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the +financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, +until in the next century they were reduced to a condition of practical +serfdom. + +The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustan +age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose writers +were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior to its +poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE YOUNGER, +and QUINTILIAN. + +The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and +STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + + +HADRIAN (117-138). + +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. +One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquests +of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasons +for this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lend +strength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection without +constant and expensive military operations. The people occupying the +new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy of +defence, and certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke. + +Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, +to overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited +Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a +fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea to +sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, corresponding +nearly to the modern boundary between England and Scotland. He also +visited the East, where the Jews were making serious trouble, and +completed their overthrow. + +On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment. +Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The most +famous of these is the MAUSOLEUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known as the +Castle of San Angelo. + +Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases +from which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure +a proper succession, he associated with himself in the government TITUS +AURELIUS ANTONINUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus and +Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadrian +died, leaving the Empire to Titus. + + +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS PIUS (138-161). + +ANTONINUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded +to the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate on +account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. +He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the +affairs of state moved smoothly. + + +MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (161-180). + +On the death of Antoninus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the +title of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. + +The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into +Gaul; the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the +Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, however, +ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding +Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a +pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The Christians +were charged with being the cause of the plague, and were cruelly +persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp +at Smyrna. + +The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague who +attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The Emperor +was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become his +greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less +unhappy. + +The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. +Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability +even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was +engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring +to check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the +fifty-ninth year of his life (180). + +Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought +with money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked +the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + +Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were +quiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His +faults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His +_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes and +thoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his death, +Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. + + +THE CHRISTIANS. + +The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were +persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for +these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse +to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. +It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, +as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage to +the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. +AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general persecution this sect +had yet suffered. The last combined effort to suppress them was under +DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which +famous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.--DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +COMMODUS (180-192). + + +On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was +received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His +character was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and +vindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of +unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid himself +of the best members of the Senate. His government became so corrupt, +he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. His proudest +boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of his ability to +kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve years +his servants rid the Empire of his presence. + + +PERTINAX (192-193). + +PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, +followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it +was not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted +reforms were stopped by his murder. + + +JULIANUS (193).--SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + +The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who proved +to be DIDIUS JULIANUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a thousand +dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in number. After +enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. + +In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their +respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, an African, +belonging to the army of the Danube. + +Severus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished them +from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand legionaries, who +acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in command of this +guard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, and +financial powers. The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. + +After securing the capital, Severus carried on a campaign against the +Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. +In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificent +arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eboracum +(York), in Britain, while making preparations for a campaign against the +Caledonians. + + +CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + +Severus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in +the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the +elder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence +of their mother. + +Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) he +was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous +baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. +Caracalla was succeeded by MACRINUS, who reigned but one year, and +was followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a +true Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of his +predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. + + +FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + +ALEXANDER SEVERUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored +in vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become +all powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign +(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + +Severus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for three +years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + +GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers +in his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251) +both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the +Christians severer than any that preceded it. + +The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. +Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The +Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of +territory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is +often called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered strength +of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); TACITUS +(275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian undertook a +campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMYRA. In her he found +a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant by +her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself +in Palmyra, which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia was +carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was +afterwards permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first who +built the walls of Rome in their present position. + + +DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + +With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of +government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost +the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more +united country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself +MAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing +a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS and +CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of the East, +and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed all +revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and imposed peace +and good order upon the world. + +Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two +Caesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn appointed +Caesars as assistants. + +Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE was +proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle +followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and +was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + + +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + +Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which +should be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering +the greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea +and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while +as a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in the least +shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the city was +built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of government +was permanently removed thither, and every inducement was offered to +immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to drag out a +miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen a +prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign of thirty years, +in his sixty-fourth year (337). + +Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with +which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, +HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this +mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kept +on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite influential +body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was issued, in +313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; and also in +this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), met to settle +questions of creed. + +In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all +warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient and +prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition alone +led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked his +course after his success. He was filial in his affection towards his +mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death +his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he was +great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. + + +DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., +CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves +(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the +possession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death +of the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, +because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while Constans +was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. Constans was +murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He died ten years +later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360-363) + +JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and +respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus +gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, had +too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. The +failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign +of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His +successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the army, died after a +reign of only seven months. + +VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the throne +was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his +brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with +Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN +the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her +ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever +visited the city during his reign. (Footnote: Since the building of +Constantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be +mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincial +city.) He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son GRATIAN +(375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under him +Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a battle +against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and Western +Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself sole +ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. Gratian, like +so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, MAXIMUS +(383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS (392-394), were +either deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, +one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom Gratian had made Emperor +of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his death +his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) taking the West, and +Arcadius the East. + +Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed +under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by +marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven +from the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was +suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate +to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he was +wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, +captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When this evil was +past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the Empire, each +eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumbling +to pieces. + +Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperial +line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a relic of its +former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost; Illyria +and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa was soon after +seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possession +of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, +winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. He was assassinated +by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455, the Emperor +himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, but for +only three months, when AVITUS (455-456), a noble of Gaul, became +Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a Sueve, of considerable +ability, who for some time managed the affairs of the Empire, making +and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avitus, ten +months were allowed to elapse before a successor was appointed; and then +the crown was bestowed upon MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVERUS followed him, a +man too weak to interfere with the plans of Ricimer. + +After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the +people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who +attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Ricimer; +but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a horde of +barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, +and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself died. + +Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid +succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the +office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of the +DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOACER, with the title of Patrician. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII. INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + + +The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a +separate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, +because by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; and +especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive +conception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces the +Roman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. + +The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western +Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they +moved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and +defeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the +Danube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + +The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern +Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were +the more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged to +submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in overrunning +the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideous +appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the Danube, and +besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and take refuge in +their territory. The favor was granted, but the refugees were treated +with indignity, and compelled to undergo every privation. + +Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also +desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized +shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They found +the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that they united +with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent against them, and +ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in person, and was +defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and westward into Greece, +everywhere pillaging the country. + +When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong +points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment +for an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete +victory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the +first chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a +close. + +We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, +ALARIC and STILICHO. + +Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year +the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens was +compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken and +plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual resistance. At +this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, hastened to the +scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but Alaric burst through +his lines and escaped. He then made peace with Constantinople, and the +office of Master-General of Illyricum was bestowed upon him. How sincere +the barbarian was in his offers of peace may be seen from the fact that +in two years he invaded Italy (400). + +Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that even +the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear of the +approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for himself, +leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from Britain, Gaul, +and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacant +and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, was +surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified town of Asta, +was there besieged until the arrival of the brave Stilicho, who attacked +the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly routed them. In his +retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he was again defeated, +and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. Honorius returned home +(404), and enjoyed a triumph. + +Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from the +Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + +The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of Germany +who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, and +Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these tribes invaded +Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were met near Florence +by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus himself was killed. +The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, ravaged the lower +portion of the country, and finally separated. One portion, the +Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their descendants comes +the name of Burgundy. + +The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they +established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of +the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves +settled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. +The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to +Africa, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at +one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome itself. + +Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, no +longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting for +the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + +With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, +Alaric again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into +submission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peace +was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. +The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became the +second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + +The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to ravage +the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were almost +spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after his army +marched into France, where they established a kingdom reaching from the +Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + +The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the +Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to +enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves +firmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the +name of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + +Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder +appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + +The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The +portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark +of his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, small +deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, +broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength though +disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an army of +over half a million troops. + +At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to +interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an +invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of an +ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy from the +west, was too favorable to be neglected. + +A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing +this, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever cities +lay in their route. + +The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met the +Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 451, was +fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of Western Europe. +Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the Romans; and a charge +of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of the savages. Aetius did +not push his victory, but allowed the Huns to retreat in the direction +of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rased to the +ground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole country, sparing only those +who preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. + +It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, who +fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoons +at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + +Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, and +with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The VANDALS, we +have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were now ruled by +GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continually +ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets. + +Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow +of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge +sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail +for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands +on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, 455), and for +fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric then left +Rome, taking with him Eudoxia. + +This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years +elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. + +PLAUTUS (254-184). + + +PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. Born +at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on the stage +at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some time he +worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by translating Greek +comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come down to us. They are +lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek and Roman +life. + + +TERENCE (195-159). + +TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early +age as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and +liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of Plautus, +they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same general +character. + + +ENNIUS (139-69). + +QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the +Younger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, the +_Annales_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the arrival of +Aeneas to the poet's own day. + + +CICERO (106-43). + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpinum, ranks as the first prose +writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy natural +talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively imagination, his +great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of expression, which was +never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any circumstances or mood, +his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, all +contributed to render him a powerful speaker. He himself left nothing +undone to attain perfection. Not until he had spent a long time in +laborious study and preparation did he make his _debut_ as an orator; +nor did he ever rest and think himself perfect, but, always working, +made the most careful preparation for every case. Each success was to +him only a step to another still higher achievement; and by continual +meditation and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hence +he succeeded, as is universally admitted, in gaining a place beside +Demosthenes, or at all events second only to him. + +There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of twenty +more. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his proscription +by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa at Formiae, in +December, 43. + +His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de Claris +Oratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover of +philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most +read are _De Senectute, De Amicitia,_ and _De Officiis_. + +Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they +furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + + +CAESAR (100-44). + +Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his _Commentarii_, +containing the history of the first seven years of the Gallic war, and +the history of the civil strife down to the Alexandrine war. The account +of his last year in Gaul was written probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of +the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an +orator, Caesar ranks next to Cicero. + + +NEPOS (94-24). + +CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both +Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De Viris +Illustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor good +style. + + +LUCRETIUS (98-55). + +TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum Natura_. The +tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + + +CATULLUS (87-47). + +GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Verona, is the greatest lyric poet of Roman +literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + + +VIRGIL (70-19). + +The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aeneis_, in twelve books, +gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aeneas, and his +struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised when Virgil +died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + +Besides the _Aeneis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten Eclogues imitated +and partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. The _Georgica_, +a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, is +considered his most finished work, and the most perfect production of +Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + + +HORACE (65-8). + +QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two of +Satires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page 180.) + + +TIBULLUS (54-29). + +ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems +the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + + +PROPERTIUS (49-15). + +SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and +wrote mostly on love. + + +OVID (43 B.C.--18 A.D.) + +PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of _Heroides_; +the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the _Metamorphoses_ (fifteen +books); the _Tristia_; and the _Fasti_. (See page 181.) + + +LIVY (59 B.C.--17 A.D.). + +TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have +been preserved. (See page 181.) + + +PHAEDRUS. + +PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius +(14-37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in +number, and are written in iambic verse. + + +SENECA (8 B.C.--65 A.D.) + +For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, page +189. + + +CURTIUS. + +QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius +(50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. + + +PERSIUS (34-62). + +PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He +wrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + + +LUCAN (39-65). + +LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called +_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + + +PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + +GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in +history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on _Natural +History_ has come down to us. + + +STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. STATIUS (45-96), a native of +Naples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the _Thebaid_, the +_Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the _Silvae_. + +MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen books +are extant. He was a native of Spain. + +QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of +eloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of an +Orator_, is preserved. + +JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquinum, was a great satirist, who described and +attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires are +still in existence. + +TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his age. +His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a high +tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote,-- + +1. A dialogue on orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. +3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of +the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (_Historiae_). +5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + + +PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of +Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books +of his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting +vivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent +and smooth. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS.--PROVINCES. + + +The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen +to fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, +placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large polygonal +blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to make +an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewn +with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at regular +distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. + +There were four main public roads:-- + +1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. + +2. VIA LATINA, from Rome to Aquinum and Teanum, joining the Via Appia at +Beneventum. + +3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum and +Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main line at +Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where +it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortunae on the Adriatic, +the other to Ancona, and from there along the coast to Fanum Fortunae, +where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Ariminum through +Pisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name of VIA AEMILIA, +into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, and +Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolanum. + +4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsium, +following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by Genua, as far +as Forum Julii, in Gaul. + + +PROVINCES. + +After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were +divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first +Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards +persons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration +of their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls also, +at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, +with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called _Provinciae +Consulares_. The provinces were generally distributed by lot, but their +distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitled +to them. The tenure of office was usually a year, but it was frequently +prolonged. When a new governor arrived in the province, his predecessor +was expected to leave within thirty days. + +The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the +financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was obliged +to account at Rome for his administration, from his own books and those +of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to deposit two +copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his province, and to +forward a third to Rome. + +If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his official +duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and to +influential Romans who were their patrons. + +The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain +contributions from the people of the province for the support of himself +and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, notary, +lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme in +military and civil matters, and he could not be removed from office. But +after his term had ended, he could be tried for mismanagement. + +Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast +sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these +was Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + +At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; viz. +Sicilia (227 (Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the date +at which the province was established.)), Sardinia and Corsica (227), +Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum (167), +Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia Citerior +(80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Bithynia and +Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), and +Mauritania (46). + +Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, +Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, +Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV. + +(Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered in +different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it into +one chapter for readier reference.) + + +ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + +The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or higher, +and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the Censor, had the +_Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former class belonged the +Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the Comitia +Centuriata. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, +viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, +Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These +officers had the right to sit in the _sella curulis_, chair of state. +This chair was displayed upon all public occasions, especially in +the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when he +administered justice. In shape it was plain, resembling a common folding +camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and later +overlaid with gold. + +The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, +and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral +processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other +deceased members of the family of curule rank. + +A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never +held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most famous +new men were Marius and Cicero. + +The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early +republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. The +plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles and +the Tribuni Plebis. + +All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and +all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January +1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor, +December 5th. + +The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which +one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding +each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship, +thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship, +forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthy +could afford to hold office. + + +THE CONSULS. + +The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was +appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power was +equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senate +and the Comitia Centuriata, in each of which they presided. "When both +Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing the +official duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consul +was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him in +single file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (_fasces_), +to signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the +city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifying +the power of the magistrate to behead criminals." + +At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a +province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He was chief +in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + + +PRAETORS. + +There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice +(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, +as _Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor was +called _Praetor Urbanus_. He had charge of all civil suits between Roman +citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted in +their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, and +by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrinus_ had charge of civil cases in +which one or both parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presided +over the permanent criminal courts. + + +AEDILES. + +The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of +the police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings. +Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called Curule +Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians. +They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of the +public games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with the +populace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. A small +sum was appropriated from the public treasury for these games; but +an Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make the show +magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that of +Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to hold this office. + + +QUAESTORS. + +There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having +charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different +governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their +clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, +and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor +always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his +quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia +Tributa. + + +TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + +There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tributa. They were +always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any +decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of +a magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could +hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty +of death. They called together the Comitia Tributa, and they also had +authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeeded +in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did not +possess the _imperium_. + + +CENSORS. + +There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for +eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period +being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates without +possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were: + +(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of +property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a general +oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to +contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making or +repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the privilege of +collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.(Footnote: +In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the +Aediles. ) (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty +parties from the Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. + + +DICTATOR. + +In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint +a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of +office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were +not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was +thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but +changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. + + +MAGISTER EQUITUM. + +This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in +authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + + +PONTIFICES. + +The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at the head +of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of office +was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge of +their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + + +IMPERIUM. + +This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial +functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) +by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiata. The _Imperium_ could +be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), except +by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a +triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was called IMPERATOR. + + +POTESTAS. + +This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates possessed. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + + +The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the +conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many +houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, +paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are +said to have cost as much as two million dollars. + +The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, _Ostium_, +_Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablinum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. The +VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and open +on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to our +front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a large +room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which the +rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the +opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the +ALAE, and the TABLINUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages +from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. +The PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court +surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was +somewhat larger than the Atrium. + +The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were +lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either +bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, +gold, and frescoing. + +The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their +light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The +windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until the +time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered with +lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, in +which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passed +out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + +The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls +were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In +the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors +ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugs +from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely to +add to the attractiveness of the room. + +Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, +which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat +on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more round +holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspended +by chains from the ceiling. + + +MEALS. + +The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our +breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four +o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium +was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between +three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course +consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, which +was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments; +the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes. + +At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and full +dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil the +couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who +reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by +pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was +served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the +dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to +change with every course. + + +DRESS.--BATHING. + +The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The former +was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a long +tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunic +was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman +garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also +the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn by +soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, but +being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear it +only on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in +place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to the +right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga with +a purple hem. + +The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment, +gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to +the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, +and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy for +ornaments as freely as their purses would allow. + +Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The +former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter +were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor +used wooden shoes. + +Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with +elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor +baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular +resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats +for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon +leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. + + +FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + +The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants +of Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts +of civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, +corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted +seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, +the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were +relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to +pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. + +The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, +was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient +festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were +said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of +Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenure +of office is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met at +the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, with +plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they had +sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, and +with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ran +through the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, +especially women, as it was believed this would render them fruitful. + +The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirinus +(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + +Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and +other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first +exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; +but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men of +rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increased +to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools +(_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. The person who gave +an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published (_edere_), some time +before the show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights began +with wooden swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchanged +for steel weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectators +wished him spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up if +they wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were +often discharged and presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they +were called _rudiarii_. + + +THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + +The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, +combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of an +ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatre +was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus built +one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatre +was built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still +standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could +seat ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is the +COLOSSEUM. The open space in the centre was called the ARENA, and was +surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators +from the wild beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held in +the Forum and in the Circus. + +The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. The +plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. The +first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near the Campus +Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty +thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present, +the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguished +persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behind +these sat the ordinary crowd. + +The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built +for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense +structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called +Euripus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the +centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, +brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds +of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight between +young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry; +4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, such +as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal +to float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemned +to death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by the +kindness of the Emperor. + + +A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + +The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was +sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had been +Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered +the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. When +a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, +garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smoked +on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered a +city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by +the magistrates. + +The procession then proceeded in the following order:-- + +1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. +Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of +flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and +rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia +of the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with +their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator +in single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator +himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in +a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in +his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with a +laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12. +The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. + +The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the +city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a +purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep +(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. + + +POMOERIUM. + +The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no +person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not always +run parallel to the city walls. + + +NAMES. + +Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), as +Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as Cornelius, +Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognomen_), as Scipio, Cicero, +Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the _agnomen_, given +for some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from some +other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICANUS, and all his +descendants had the right to the name. Africanus the younger was adopted +from the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added to +his other names AEMILIANUS. + +The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of +Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from +others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio. +If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was +added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ (second), etc. + + +MARRIAGE. + +Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was +forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such +marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, to +marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, +the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. The +wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends, +Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. The +bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes +of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her future +husband's home by three boys, one of whom carried before her a torch, +the other two supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied by +friends of both parties. The groom received the bride at the door, which +she entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house were +then delivered to her. The day ended with a feast given by the husband, +after which the bride was conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium, +which was adorned with flowers. On the following day another feast was +given by the husband, and the wife performed certain religious rites. + +The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from +that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her +children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and shared +the honors and respect shown to her husband. + + +FUNERALS. + +When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present +endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removed +from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and +mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceased +by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointed +with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placed +in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and the +body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward the +door. In early times all funerals were held at night; but in later times +only the poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afford +display. The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed by +musicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament +and sing the funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players and +buffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, and +imitated his words and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased +had liberated, each wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body were +carried the images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown +and military rewards which he had gained. The couch on which the body +was carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold and +purple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loud +lamentations, the women beating their breasts and tearing their hair. + +The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, +and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was delivered. +From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must be +outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times +of the Republic this became quite common. + + +EDUCATION. + +In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, +writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a +taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_) +were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to +teach them to converse in Greek. + +A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned +above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and Latin writers, +besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known +professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + + +BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING. + +The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind +of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often +used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form +one sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from +_volvere_, to roll). + +Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usually +written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a pencil in size +and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded +together with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied together +by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a +signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special +messengers were employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail +service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening and +close. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the person +addressed, and closed with a simple "farewell," without any signature. +Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual +opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + + +_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the +Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirinal, the Viminal, and +the Coelian. + +There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). Some +were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with +porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum Romanum_, or simply +_The Forum_. There were also the _Forum Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajani_. +Some served as markets; as _Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum +Suarium_, the hog market, etc. + +Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), built +by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was +situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as +a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatinus, built by Augustus, +was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by +Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that +of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in +377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an arched +passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up +to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in +Numa's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus was +one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in +front and another on the back of his head. From him is named the month +of January. + +(Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR.) + +There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that +of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolinus, built during the dynasty of +the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also +numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. + +The COLOSSEUM was the largest building in Rome. + +There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; +and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. + +The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important +was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which +was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of +which can still be seen. + +The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae +had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public +questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. + +The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, +of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still +exist. + +Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by +fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of +which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about +313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + +SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense +size. The CLOACA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still +in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + +There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now +remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of +Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, +built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs +on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, +carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built +by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of +the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and +Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIENUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. + +There were two famous MAUSOLEA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that +of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San +Angelo. + +The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most +remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called +COLUMNAE ROSTRATAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae +(261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each +side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is +perhaps best known. + +The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, +from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It +was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION. + + +Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They +were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress +hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a +practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + +No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscitum_, or _senatus +consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, +and the anniversary was observed. + +The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin +or military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman +citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. +The _Latini_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to +them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, +passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were +placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + + +THE CALENDAR. + +The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each +month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends +fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, +July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days +after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said +to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened +between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days +_before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was reckoned +from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the +Consuls of that year were added. + + +RELIGION. + +The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITER +and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; +TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess of +growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god of +the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivals +were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the +Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and +the Lupercalia, in February. + +VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar +erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had +a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also +worshipped the Penates and Lares. + +The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected +fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in +dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the +Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and +by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon +plates. + +The PENATES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of +houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were +also kept in the inner hall. + +The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL +VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose +twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot +to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The +Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats +in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment +any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and +white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on +the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. They could not marry. + + +FLAMINES. + +The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. +There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiata, +and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all +the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIALIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a +lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in +bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This +priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was +forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He +was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon +an army outside of the city walls. + + +THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always +chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the +1st of March, and for several successive days. + + +THE AUGURES. + +This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen +in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to +interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were +favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no +election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the +omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence +their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close +corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C. + + +THE FETIALES. + +This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering +probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with +other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities +should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + + +The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to +our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort +into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries +(platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in +practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up +each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the first consisting of +four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of +the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four +feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. +The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by +a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor +was a short, straight two-edged sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, +worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the +shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a +heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet +long and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman +citizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always +light-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries +taken from the different provinces. + +The officers were:--1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. The +LEGATI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. The +QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBUNI MILITUM, numbering six in +each legion, and assisting the Imperator in his duties. + 5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. The +CENTURIONES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank for +good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each +cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, but +rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, except +the centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families. + +The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body +guard to the Imperator. + +The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched +wings, perched upon a pole. + +The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made +it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same +way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers +encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus +surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The +general's tent was called the _Praetorium_, and the entrance to the +camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite +entrance was called the Decuman Gate. + + + + +CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME. + + +AENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture +by the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son +IULUS and a number of brave followers. LATINUS, who was king of the +district where Aeneas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his +daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aeneas founded a city, which he named +LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iulus, also called +ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albanus a city, which he +called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. + +Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUS +PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided +the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. +Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing +that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made the +daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her +marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became +pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. +When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, and +ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. + +At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its +banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, +the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing +their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who was +near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew +up and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom +to their grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount +Palatinus, which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they were +building a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his +brother. + +Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). +He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he +opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. +To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring +people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in +looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine +virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a +compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then +chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the +people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he +disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. + +One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), a +Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. +Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous +subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. +TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the +fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson of +Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged +the city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a +prison, and to bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the +_pons sublicius_ i. e. a bridge resting on piles.) He also founded a +city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. + +The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS +(616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming a +favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of +Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. +He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many wars +successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built the +CLOACA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also began +the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLINUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killed +in the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whom +he had snatched the kingdom. + +His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who +enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diana, and took a census +of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 +souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, +Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. + +TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energetic +in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, +a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his +father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, a +Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oracles +and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused to +purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the +same price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burned +three more, and obtained from the monarch for her last three the +original price. These books were preserved in the Capitol, and held in +great respect. They were destroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, +83. Two men had charge of them, who were called _duoviri sacrorum_. +The worship of the Greek deities, Apollo and Latona, among others, was +introduced through these books. + +In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATINUS, +and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. +(Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by +Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatinus. Unable to bear +the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, +having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was then +formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. + +Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all +unsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been +painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509.) +In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of the +Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS +COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans sublicius_) +over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the river +in safety to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient +Rome.") + +During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous +youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing +King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized +and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. +Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altar +until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. +Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men as +brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, that +he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his name +Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand. + +Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in +retirement. + +In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by +taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and +crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent +MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote: +Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the belly +and members.) the people were induced to return to the city, and for the +first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to +represent their interests. These officers were called Tribuni Plebis. + +Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and +defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he +received the name of CORIOLANUS. During a famine, he advised that grain +should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished +their right to choose the Tribuni Plebis. For this he was banished. +Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, and +came within five miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation of +his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, +when his wife and mother added their tears, he was induced to withdraw +the army. He was afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. +(Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus.") + +After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most +distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven +consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian +gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and the +whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from +Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, +but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius +Vibulanus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. + +In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory +had been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were +in imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNATUS was +appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of this +period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found him +working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnatus told his wife to throw +over him his mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the state +with proper respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yet +so deeply did he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand his +vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass +under the yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well +earned triumph. + +In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the +beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays +of Ancient Rome.") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed of +Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot to +obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. +When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, the +Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slave +of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, in +presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled the +Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end +to his own life. + +MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He +was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he +captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated +the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards +impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, +and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls under +Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of +forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the +battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, +Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. +He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. + +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July +18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besieged +for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, the +Gauls were defeated. + + + + +CHRONOLOGY. + + (The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.) + + B.C. + 753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. + 753-510. REGAL PERIOD. + 753-716. Romulus. + 716-673. Numa Pompilius. + 673-641. Tullus Hostilius. + 640-616. Ancus Marcius. + 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. + 578-534. Servius Tullius. + 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. + 510-30. THE REPUBLIC. + 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. + 508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. + 494. Tribuni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. + 492. Corioli. Coriolanus. + 477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. + 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnatus. + 451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. + 396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. + 390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). + 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. + 367. The Licinian Rogations. + 353. Caere: the first Municipium. + 343-341. First Samnite War. + 340-338. The Latin War. + 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. + 326-304, The Second Samnite War. + 321. The Caudine Forks. + 298-290. The Third Samnite War. + 295. Sentinum. + 283. Lake Vadimonis. + 281-272. Pyrrhus. + 280. Heraclea. Cineas. + 279. Asculum. + 274. Beneventum. + 272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. + 264. Period of foreign conquest begins. + 264-241. First Punic War. + 260. Lipara; Mylae. + 257. Tyndaris. + 256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. + 249. Drepana. + 241. Aegates Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. + 237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. + 229. Illyrican War. Important results. + 222. Gallia Cisalpina acquired by battle of Telamon. + 220. Hannibal in Spain. + 219. Saguntum. + 218-202. Second Punic War. + 218. Ticinus. Trebia. + 217. Trasimenus. Casilinum. + 216. Cannae. + 212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimedes. + 207. Baecula. Metaurus. + 202. Zama. + 214-205. First Macedonian War. + 200-197. Second Macedonian War. + 198. Cynoscephalae. + 190. Magnesia. + 183. Death of Africanus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. + 171-168. Third Macedonian War. + 168. Pydna. + 149-146. Third Punic War. + 149., Death of Cato the elder. + 146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. + 143-133. The Numantine War. + 134-132. The Servile War. + 133. Tiberius Gracchus. + 129. Death of Africanus the younger. + 123-121. Gaius Gracchus. + 118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. + 102. Aquae Sextiae. + 101. Vercellae. + 90-89. The Italian or Social War. + 86. Death of Marius. + 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradates. + 84. Death of Cinna. + 80. Reforms of Sulla. + 78. Death of Sulla. + 80-72. Sertorius in Spain. + 73-71. Spartacus. + 72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradates. + 67. Pompey conquers the pirates. + 67-61. Pompey in the East. + 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. + 59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. + 59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. + 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. + 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. + 53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and + 52 separation from Caesar. + 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. + 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. + 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. + 48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. + 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. + 47. Battle of Zela. + 47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. + 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. + 45 (Mar. 17). Munda. + 44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. + 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. + 43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. + 42 (Nov.). Philippi. + 36. Naulochus. + 31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + + THE EMPIRE. + + B.C. / A.D. + 30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. + 30-14. Augustus. + + A.D. + 14-37. Tiberius. + 37-41. Caligula. + 41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + 41-54. Claudius. + 54-68. Nero. + 68-69. Galba. + 69. Otho. + 69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + 69-79. Vespasian. + 79. Destruction of Jerusalem. + 79-81. Titus. + 80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. + 81-96. Domitian. + 96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + 96-98. Nerva. + 98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. + 117-138. Hadrian. + 138-161. Antoninus Pius. + 161-180. Marcus Aurelius. + 180-192. Commodus. + 192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. + 284-305. Diocletian. + 306-337. Constantine the Great. + 312. Edict of Milan. + 325. Council of Nice. + 337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. + + + + +SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + +HARVARD COLLEGE. + +JUNE, 1889. + +1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsalus; +Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important +events was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly.) + +2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + +3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + +4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + +5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. (Take one) + +1888. + +1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman +citizen,--what were they? (Take four.) + +2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) The reign of Hadrian; +(_c_) The first Punic war. (Take one.) + +3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, (Take one) + +4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + +5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for +"additional readings.") + + + + +1887. + +(a) (Take five.) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, +Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events +connected with four of these places. (Take any two.) + +1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + +2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + +3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, +Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + +_Questions on the "additional reading."_ + +(Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading +may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first three +in this group.) + +4. (TIGHE.) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ from +its theoretical powers? + +5. (BEESLEY.) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of +Gaius Gracchus? + +September, 1886. + +1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the +founding of Rome. + +2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the +Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + +3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace the +development of the _comitia tributa_. + +4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The +effect of this victory upon Italy? + +5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, _municipium_, _ager +Romanus_, _equites_. + + + + +YALE COLLEGE. + +EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + +June, 1889. + +1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. +Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. +Licinian Laws. + +2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at +what times introduced? + +3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles in +Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal +fail? + +4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + +5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. +First Samnite War. Pharsalus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. +Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + + +1887. + +(Time allowed, 30 minutes.) + +1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change did +he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make? + +2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causes +of each extension, and dates. + +3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian +era? How were they acquired, and when? + +4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; +comitia centuriata_. + +5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were they? +what happened there, and when? + + +1886. + +1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established. + +2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between +the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + +3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + +4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential +points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + +5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the +provinces? + +6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + + +June, 1885. + +1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + +2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. + +3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under the +Empire? + +4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + +5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of +Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus; +the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Roman +province? + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + +35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., +only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + +2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization of +the world. (1) + +3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state +the result in each contest. (4) + +4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and +state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks; +Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + +5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha; +(2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, or +death of Cicero? (3) + +6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which +occur in Roman history. (3) + +7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + +8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; +Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + +9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + +10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the +Christian era. (3) + +11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + +12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + +13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what +ground were the Christians punished? (2) + +14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. +Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + +15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + +16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + +17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + +18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + +19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + +20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + + +34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before +the founding of Rome.(2) + +2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. +(4) + +3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first +elected. (1) + +4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in +connection with them? (2) + +5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he +for hoping to succeed? (3) + +6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he +fail? (3) + +7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates: +B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + +8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the +Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the +Rubicon"? (3) + +9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances +of this. (3) + +10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one of +them. (4) + +11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian? +(1) + +12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was so +called. (2) + +13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a +stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + +14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of +the writings of each. (6) + +15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of +Rome. (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + +16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + +17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + +18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of +his Country"? (1) + +19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + +20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Marius +and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + + +33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + +44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. + +1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + +2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) Plebeians, (_c_) +Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4) + +3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + +4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + +5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + +6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + +7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their +effect upon the Republic. (2) + +8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? +(2) + +9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + +10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What +Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) + +11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + +12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of +the Roman people? (2) + +13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. +(2) + +14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the +cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + +15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the Emperor +Augustus? (1) + +16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, (_b_) Seneca, +(_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, (_e_) Caligula? (5) + + +THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the +Gracchi form a part? (1) + +18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by +Caius Gracchus? (2) + +19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + +20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by +birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) + +21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great +significance? (2) + + +31st Advanced Academic Examination, + +June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of +Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + +2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ from the +_comitia curiata_? (2) + +3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + +4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was +the result of the war? (2) + +5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of +the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the +circumstances of his death. (4) + +6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, +266-133 B.C. (5) + +7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to +literature and morals. (2) + +8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + +9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + +10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and +Caesar? (1) + +11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain in +their proscription? (4) + +12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + +13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the +Christians? (1) + +14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + +15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + + +THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + +16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + +17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of the +treaty made there. (4) + +18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the +final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + +19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself? +(3) + +20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ (_or Latins_) +(2) + + +30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of +Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + +2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? +(3) + +3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two +conditions of the return? (3) + +4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers +intrusted to them. (2) + +5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + +6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause +of the First Samnite War? (2) + +7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which +direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + +8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? +(1) + + +ANCIENT ROME. + +9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct +of the First Punic War. (2) + +10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle.(2) + +11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + +12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + +13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did +each contribute to it? (3) + +14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + +15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero; +Trajan. (2) + + +THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + +16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, +and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + +17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + +18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it +modelled? (2) + +19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its +membership? (2) + +20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate +perform? (2) + +21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + + +_29th Advanced Academic Examination._ + +November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36._ + +1. When was Rome founded? (1) + +2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the +basis of the new constitution? (2) + +3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings +overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + +4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how +long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + +5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + +6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they +contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + +7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, +and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3) + +8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what +policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + +9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and +habits. (2) + +10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was it +defeated, and in what manner? (3) + +11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + +12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? +(2) + +13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, and +the character of his reign. (2) + +14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + +15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some +articles used by them for food. (2) + + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + +16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, and +the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + +17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, +Tarentum. (3) + +18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what +part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins +descended? (7) + + + + +INDEX. + + + Achaeans + Achaia + Acroceraunia + Actium + Adherbal + Aduatuci + Aediles + Aedui + Aegates Islands + Aegyptus + Aemilian Way + Aemilius + Aeneas + Aequians + Aesis, R. + Aetius + Aetna + Aetolians + Afranius + Africa + Africanus + Agendicum + Ager occupatus + Ager privatus + Ager publicus + Ager Romanus + Agrarian Laws + Agricola + Agrigentum + Agrippa + Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa + Agrippina, sister of Caligula + Alae + Alans + Alaric + Alba Longa + Alban Lake + Alban Mts. + Alesia + Alexander the Great + Alexandria + Allia + Allies + Alsium + Ambiorix + Amphitheatres + Amulius + Anchises + Ancona + Ancus Marcius + Andes + Andriscus + Anio, R. + Anthemius + Antiochus III. + Antiochus IV. + Antium + Antonia + Antonius + Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius + Antoninus Pius + Antony + Aous, R. + Apennines + Apollo, worship of + Apollonia + Apollonius + Appeal, right of + Appian Way + Appius Claudius, Decemvir + Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus + Appius Claudius Caecus + Appuleian Laws + Apsus, R. + Apulia + Aqua Claudia + Aquae Sextiae + Aqueducts + Aquileia + Aquinum + Aquitani + Arabia + Arabia Petraea + Arcadius + Archelaus + Arches + Archimedes + Ardea + Argos + Aricia + Ariminum + Ariobarzanes + Ariovistus + Aristobulus + Armenia + Arminius + Armor + Army + Arnus + Arpi + Arpinum + Arretium + Arsanias, R. + Aryan Race + Ascanius + Asculum in Apulia + Asia + Assyria + Aternus + Athens + Athesis + Atrium + Attalus II. + Attalus III. + Attila + Aufidus, R. + Augurs + Augustan Age + Augusta Taurinorum + Augusti + Augustus + Aulerci + Aurelia + Aurelian + Aurelian Way + Aurelius, M. Antoninus + Avaricum + Averni + Avernus, Lake + + Baeculae + Baetis, R. + Baiae + Basilicae + Basilica Julia + Bathing + Baths + Bellovaci + Beneventum + Bibracte + Bibulus + Bithynia + Bocchus + Boian Gauls + Bononia + Books + Bovillae + Brennus + Bridge, Rhine + Bridge, Tiber + Britain + Britannia + Britannicus + Brittany + Brundisium + Bruttium + Brutus, nephew of Tarquin + Brutus + Brutus, Decimus Junius + Brutus, Marcus + Burgundians + Burrhus + Byzantium + + Cabira + Caecina + Caepio + Caere + Caesar, Gaius Julius + Caesar, Lucius Julius + Caesars + Caicus + Calabria + Calceus + Caledonians + Calendar + Caligula + Calpurnia + Calpurnian Law + Camarina + Camerinum + Camillus + Campania + Campus Martius + Candles + Cannae + Canuleian Law + Canuleius + Canusium + Capena + Capitoline Hill + Capitolium + Cappadocia + Capreae + Capua + Caracalla + Carrhae + Carthage + Carthaginians + Carthago Nova + Carus + Casca + Casilinum + Cassius. + Cassivelaunus + Catalonia + Catana + Catiline + Cato, the elder + Cato, the younger + Catullus + Catulus, father of the Senate + Catulus, Gaius Lutatius + Caudine Forks + Caudium + Celtiberi + Celts + Cenomani + Censors + Centuries + Centurions + Ceres + Cerialia + Cethegus + Chaeronea + Chalcedon + Chalons + Christians + Cicero, Marcus Tullius + Cicero, Quintus Tullius + Cilicia + Cimber + Cimbri + Cincinnatus + Cineas + Cinna + Circeii + Circeium, Promontory + Circus + Circus Maximus + Citizenship + City walls + Claudian Emperors + Claudius, Emperor + Claudius, Publius + Cleopatra + Clients + Cloaca Maxima + Clodion + Clodius + Clupea + Clusium + Coena + Cohors Praetoria + Collatinus + Colonies, Latin + Colonies, Maritime + Colonies, Military. + Comitia Centuriata + Comitia Curiata + Comitia Tributa + Comitium + Colosseum + Colossus + Column of Trajan + Columna Milliaria + Columns + Commodus + Constans + Constantine the Great + Constantine II. + Constantinople + Constantius I. + Constantius II. + Conscripti, Patres + Consuls + Consus + Cora + Corcyra + Corduba + Corfinium + Corinth + Coriolanus + Corioli + Corn laws + Cornelia, daughter of Cinna + Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio + Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus + Corsica + Cotta + Council of Nice + Court-houses + Courts + Crassus, the Triumvir + Crassus, son of the Triumvir + Cremona + Crete + Croton + Cumae + Cures + Curia + Curiae + Curio. + Curtius + Curule Aedile + Curule chair + Curule offices + Cynoscephalae + Cyprus + Cyrenaica + + Dacia + Damophilus + Deal + Debts, Debtors + Decemvirs + Decius, Emperor + Decius, Publius + Decree of the Senate + Deiotarus + Dentatus + Dependent Communities + Dictator + Diocletian + Dolabella + Domitian + Domitius. + Drepana + Dress + Drusus, Germanicus + Drusus, Marcus Livius + Duilius + Duoviri Sacrorum + Dyrrachium + + Eburones + Ecnomus + Edict of Milan + Editor. + Education + Egesta + Egnatius + Egypt + Elba + Elections + Enipeus, R. + Enna + Ennius + Epidamnus + Epiphanes + Epirus + Equites + Eryx + Etruria + Etruscans + Eudoxia + Eugenius + Eunus + Euphrates + Examination Papers + + Fabii + Fabius, Cunctator + Fabius Quintus + Fabius Vibulanus + Fabricius + Faesulae + Farming the revenues + Fauces + Faustulus + Festivals + Fetiales + Five Good Emperors + Flamen Dialis + Flamines + Flaminian Way + Flamininus + Flaminius + Flavian Emperors + Floors + Florentia + Foreigners resident at Rome + Formiae + Forum + Forum Boarium + Forum Caesaris + Forum Holitorium + Forum Julii, in Gaul + Forum Julii, in Venetia + Forum Suarium + Forum of Trajan + Forum of Vespasian + Franks + Freedmen + Fundi + Funerals + Furniture + + Gabii + Gabinius + Gabinus + Gades + Galatia + Galba, Emperor + Galba, Servius + Galerius + Gallia Cisalpina + Gallia Narbonensis + Gaul + Gauls + Games + Gela + Genabum + Gens, Gentes + Genseric + Genua + Genucius + Gergovia + Germanicus, Drusus + Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. + Germans + Glabrio + Gladiators + Glass + Glaucia + Golden House of Nero + Good Emperors + Gordian + Goths + Gracchi + Gracchus, Gains + Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) + Gracchus, Tiberius + Gratian + Greece + Greek Empire + + Hadrian + Hadrumetum + Hamilcar Barca + Hannibal, son of Gisco + Hannibal, son of Hamilcar + Hanno + Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar + Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal + Hasdrubal, son of Gisco + Helena + Heliogabalus + Helvetii + Heraclea + Herculaneum + Hermean Promontory + Hiempsal + Hiero II. + Hieronymus + Hirtius + Hispania Citerior + Hispania Ulterior + Honorius + Horace + Horatius Codes + Hortensius, Quintus + Hortensius, the Orator + Homesteads + Houses + Huns + Hyrcanus + + Iapygia + Iapygians + Iberus, R. + Icilius + Igilium + Ilerda + Illyrican War + Illyricum + Ilva + Imperator + Imperium + Intermarriage + Interest + Interrex + Isara, R. + Isauria + Isthmian Games + Italians + Italy + Iulus + + Janiculum + Janus + Jentaculum + Jerusalem + Jews + Josephus + Jovian + Juba + Judaea + Jugurtha + Julia, daughter of Caesar + Julia, daughter of Augustus + Julian Emperors + Julian the Apostate + Julian Law + Julianus + Juno + Jupiter + Juries + Justin Martyr + Juvenal + + Kaeso, Quinctius + King of Rome + Knights. + + Labienus + Lacerna + Lacinian Promontory + Laevinus + Laevinus, Marcus + Lamps + Land-owners, classes of + Lanistae + Lanuvium + Lares + Last of the Romans + Latin Confederacy + Latinus + Latium + Latona + Laurentum + Lavinia + Lavinium + Legati + Leges Juliae + Legion + Lentulus + Leontini + Lepidus, Consul + Lepidus, Triumvir + Leptis + Lesbos + Letter-writing + Lex de Repetundis + Licinian Rogations + Licinius + Liger + Lights + Liguria + Lilybaeum + Lipara Islands + Liris, R. + Literature + Livia + Livilla + Livius + Locri + Longinus + Luca + Lucan + Lucania + Luceres + Luceria + Lucilius + Lucretia + Lucretius + Lucullus + Lupercalia + Luperci + Lupercus + Lupus + Lycia + + Macedonia + Macedonian War + Macrinus + Maecenas + Maenius + Magister Equitum + Magna Graecia + Magnesia + Mago + Majestas + Majorian + Mamertines + Mancinus + Manilian Law + Manilius + Manlius, Marcus + Manlius Capitolinus + Mantua + Marcellus + Marcellus, nephew of Augustus + Marius, + Marriage + Mars + Martial + Masinissa. + Massilia + Mauretania + Mausoleum of Augustus + Mausoleum of Hadrian + Maximian + Maximin + Maximus I. + Maximus II. + Meals + Mediolanum + Memmius + Menenius Agrippa + Mesopotamia + Messalina + Messana + Metapontum + Metaurus, R. + Metellus Macedonicus + Metellus Nepos + Metellus Numidicus + Metellus Pius + Micipsa + Milan, Edict of + Miletus + Military Tribunes + Milliarium Aureum + Milo + Minerva + Minturnae + Minucius + Mithradates + Mitylene + Moesia + Money brokers + Mons Sacer + Moors + Mucra, R. + Mummius + Munda + Municipia + Muthul + Mutina + Mylae + Mysia + + Names + Naples + Naulochus + Navy + Nepos + Nero, Consul + Nero, Emperor + Nerva + Nervii + Nicaea + Nicomedes + Nobles + Nola + Noricum + Novus Homo + Numantia + Numantian War + Numa Pompilius + Numidia + Numitor + Nursia + + Octavia, sister of Augustus + Octavia, wife of Nero + Octavius + Odoacer + Offices and officers + Ops + Orchomenos + Osca + Ostia + Ostium + Ostrogoths + Otho + Ovation + Ovid + + Padua (Patavium) + Palatine + Pales, Palilia + Palmyra + Pannonia + Panormus + Pantheon + Parma + Parthia, Parthians + Pater-familias + Patres + Patrician + Patricians + Patrons + Paullus + Pelusium + Penates + Pergamum + Peristylium + Perperna + Perseus + Persius + Pertinax + Petreius + Phaedrus + Pharnaces + Pharsalia, Pharsalus + Philip, Emperor + Philip of Macedonia + Philippi + Philippics + Philopoemen + Phoenicia + Picenum + Picts' + Pirates + Pisae + Pisaurum + Piso + Placentia + Plautian-Papirian Law + Plautus + Plebeians + Plebiscita + Pliny, the elder + Pliny, the younger + Pollio + Polybius + Polycarp + Pomoerium + Pompeia + Pompeii + Pompeius, Gnaeus + Pompeius, Sextus + Pompey the Great + Pomptine Marshes + Pontifices + Pontius + Pontus + Poppaea Sabina + Porsena + Postumius + Potestas + Praefect + Praefecturae + Praeneste + Praetor + Praetorian Guard + Praetorium + Prandium + Private Lands + Private Rights + Probus + Proconsul + Propertius + Propraetor + Provinces + Provincial System + Prusias + Ptolemy, brother of Cleopatra + Ptolemy of Cyprus + Ptolemy V., Epiphanes + Ptolemy Alexander + Publicani + Public Lands + Public Rights + Publilian Law, Publilius + Punic Wars + Puteoli + Pydna + Pyrrhus + + Quaestors + Quinctius Cincinnatus + Quinctius, Kaeso + Quintilian + Quirinal + Quirinalia + + Radagaisus + Ramnes + Ravenna + Reate + Reforms of Caesar + Reforms of Sulla + Regillus, Lake + Regulus + Remi + Remus + Rents + Republic + Rhaetia + Rhea Silvia + Rhegium + Rhodes + Ricimer + Roads + Roman Empire + Romans + Rome + Rome, Hills of + Romulus + Roscius + Rostra + Rubicon + Rutilius + + Sabines + Sabis, R. + Sacred Mount + Sacredness of Officials + Sagum + Saguntum + Salernum + Salii + Sallust + Samnites + Samnite Wars + Samnium + Samos + Sardinia + Sardis + Saturn + Saturnalia + Saturninus + Scaevola + Scarpheia + Scipio, Gnaeus + Scipio, Consul 218 B. 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