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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6989-8.txt b/6989-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..a5887ab --- /dev/null +++ b/6989-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,9305 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest times +down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6989] +Posting Date: March 20, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME *** + + + + +Produced by Lynn Bonnett and Teresa Thomason + + + + + + + + +ANCIENT ROME + +FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D. + +By Robert F. Pennell + +_Revised Edition_ + + + + +PREFACE. + +This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History +of Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high +schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and +fall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her +institutions, manners, and religion. + +For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional +matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to +meet recent requirements. + +The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the text +and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate the +present range of requirement in leading colleges. + +The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this +book. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; +consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a +rule, been omitted. + +ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + +(Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.) + + + + +ANCIENT ROME. + + + +CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + + +Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, +between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles +long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in +its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north of +Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that of +the State of Nevada. + +The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest +of Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least +difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this +pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. +The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through +the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend +easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging the +coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causes +the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into the +Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + +Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the +Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaul +this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. +The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. +Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and the +Trebia on the south, are of historical interest. + +The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a +mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the +coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, between +the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the name +Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. + +Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus +were Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, +a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinórum +(Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little +stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpína on the +southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundary +on the other side of Italy. + +CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of the +peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In this +division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which empty +into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, which +empty into the Adriatic. + +The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering +on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and to +the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM, and +SAMNIUM. + +The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, +near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, +an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. +Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, was +Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to Alba +Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were near +the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome. + +In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, +Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, +Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuvius +was here, and also Lake Avernus. + +In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior +were Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat of +Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + +In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + +SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and +BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + +Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its +only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought a +famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + +In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + +The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. +Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; +and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + +The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about +10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the +poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many +important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were +Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta +(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, +the chief of which is Aetna. + +SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. +ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria; +CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) and LIPARA are +north of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west of it. + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + + +So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into +three races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS were the +first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and were +pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into the +southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostly +absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuries +all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highly +civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans and +Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whom +settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. + +The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful and +warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts of +life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled in the +plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, +they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a confederation +of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities the +most noted were Volsinii, the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, +Caere, and Clusium. This people also formed scattering settlements in +other parts of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in the +sixth century, they were in power at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this +time under their control. Their commerce was considerable. Many well +preserved monuments of their art have been discovered, but no one has +yet been able to decipher any of the inscriptions upon them. The power +of these people was gradually lessened by the Romans, and after the fall +of Veii, in 396, became practically extinct. + +The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belonged +to the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in +Scandinavia. While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italians +entered Italy. + +At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in +civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; the +building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in preparing +food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons and +ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, +and the people were divided into clans (tribes). + +That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain +which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by the +Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + +This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square +miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty +miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, and +its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in the +northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum +near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern +_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first settlements +were made on the hills, which also could be easily fortified. + +The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, +as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, Roma, and +Lavinium. + +These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN +CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was +celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, +called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered +sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). + +(Illustration: Latium) + + + + +CHAPTER III. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + + +We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled +in Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more +particularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to outstrip +all her sisters in prosperity and power. + +Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of +the plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of +hills (Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, +Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, +Quirínal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the Tiber, +and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the Etruscans. +It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons Sublicius_).) +rising to a considerable height, around one of which, the PALATINE, +first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a name gradually changed +to ROMANS. + +When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. It +may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were possibly +a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they united +themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them on the +QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. A third +tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, +was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. All early +communities, to which the Romans were no exception, were composed of +several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups GENTES, and +a single group was called a GENS. All the members of a _gens_ were +descended from a common ancestor, after whom the _gens_ received its +name. + +The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute +authority (Footnote: Called _patria potestas_.) over his household, even +in the matter of life and death. + +The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the +families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding +office for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform certain +sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly of the +Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an assembly +of old men (_Senex_). + +This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the +families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED +members, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by +the king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later by +the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all persons +who had held certain offices were thereby vested with the right of seats +in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the number of Senators +was greatly in excess of three hundred. The Senators, when addressed, +were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for they were Fathers of the families. + +The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, +_Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into ten +districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES +(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, +therefore, belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a +_pater-familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, named +after a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_; +and every curia to a particular _tribe_. + +We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, +and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an assembly +composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. (Footnote: We must +remember that at this time no one was a Roman citizen who did not +belong to some family. All other residents were either slaves or had no +political rights, i.e. had no voice in the government.) This assembly of +Roman citizens met, from time to time, in an enclosed space called the +COMITIUM, which means a place of gathering or coming together. This was +between the Palatine and Quirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. +This assembly itself was called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly +composed of the 30 curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the +existing laws; of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election +of kings made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by +each curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + + +The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the +Latin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, she +naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and grew +wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, easily +held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most powerful +of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with theirs, +she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing their +territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and +his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities along the river, +and at its mouth founded a colony which was named OSTIA, the seaport of +Rome. + +At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Románus_) comprised +nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying mostly +along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or twelve +miles from the river. It was not materially increased during the next +two centuries. + +The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called +PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the families. +They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously protecting their +rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians was a class called +CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. e. they had +no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in every way the +Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In return, the +latter gave them his support, and looked after their interests. These +clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the fields of their +patrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which their patron belonged. +Their origin is uncertain; but they may have come from foreign towns +conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants had not been made slaves. + +In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the +property of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. +Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS +(freedman) and became the client of his former master. + +As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people +flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called resident +foreigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at Athens. Such +were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all were supposed +to be under the protection of some patrician who acted as their patron. + +These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were all +of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly borne in +mind. + +We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the +Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of these +towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed any of +their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of them +were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager Romanus_, or in +Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs_, multitude). Their very name +shows that they must have been numerous. They belonged to no gens +or curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to own +property. In later times (from about 350) all who were not Patricians or +slaves were called Plebeians. + + +THE ARMY. + +Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed +entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning _levy_), +and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, from _mille_, +a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalry +numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each tribe, and was +divided into three companies called Centuries. + +During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now +become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN +reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been +required to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. To +accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned two +acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There were +five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193 +subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the same +amount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries in +active service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries of +reserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. + +In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries +each, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had +thirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + +The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from +the first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, +breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank was +composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, without +breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, who had +neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth class, +armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only slings. + +Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, +however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + +This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally +only for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and the +expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. But +gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be felt, +the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, and +all the people were called together to vote under it. It was called the +COMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The place of meeting +was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the city. + +In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided by +the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system was +to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century represented +the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richer +classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, so +that a majority of the centuries might represent a small minority of +the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome were still +patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by them. In this +assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war declared, and judgment +passed in all criminal cases. + +(Illustration: CAMPANIA) + + + + +CHAPTER V. THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + + +Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were undoubtedly +of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many traces of +Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and the only +buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much later period, +were erected under this dynasty. The names of these kings are said to +have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS, his son-in-law, +and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. + +Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER +CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and +MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from +it we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman +religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + +During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to +drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer +was so well built that it is still used. + +Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was +surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal, Coelian, +and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the opposite +side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge (_pons +sublicius_). + +The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the +previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + +The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius +and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus early +was the Greek influence felt at Rome. + +During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected on +the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + +Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the city +of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. +The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a +Republic was established, which lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + + +At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of +government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for +life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the +PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a +salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his +power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century +before Christ. + +In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointed +by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenure +of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. He +exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. It was at +this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to be the more +important assembly, superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIÁTA. + +We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, +magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forget +that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of the +patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were +many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for this +party. + +About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of +Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some of the +richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. (Footnote: +This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing the Senate, +viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_") These, however, could take no part in +debates, nor could they hold magistracies. + +In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates made +in the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this way it +controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember, +were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizen +had the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases which +involved life. + +Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed by +the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed the finances of +the state, under the direction of the Senate. + +The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century +preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the state +and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especially +by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. They +were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, when +unable to meet the demands of their creditors, according to the laws +they could be imprisoned, or even put to death. + +The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by +"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, +for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other +duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would +extort all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves +unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and +the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + +The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to +serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for +the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, and +naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry service +was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the older +ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fell +on the plebeians. + +This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for +rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the +plebeians were not slow in accepting it. + +The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and +Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls +liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was +averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set +free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were +again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally persuaded +by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their return to +the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, marching to a +hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new city unless their +wrongs were redressed. This is called the First Secession of the Plebs, +and is said to have been in 494. + +The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, +for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were +released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right +to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBÚNI +PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power of +VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power, +however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be +exercised outside of them. + +The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interference +with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attempted +to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls or +Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to +be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by +their VETO stop the matter at once. + +This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in +giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + +The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later +to ten. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + + +The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from +their own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. (Footnote: The word +"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple.) These officers held +nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the Quaestors +did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the performance of +their various duties, and also had special charge of the temple of +Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, all the decrees +of the Senate. + +These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the +first secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia +Centuriáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, which +met sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + +This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" +(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being entitled to +one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of its individual +voters. (Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial division, +corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time there were +probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The plebeians in the +city lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine Hill.) + +The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and +Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. +By it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first +measures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it +presently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, who +were felt to be a power in the state. + +The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; +that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the influence +of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand contests +occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in neighboring +places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the government +withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. + +The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had +reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a +large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. This +land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. + +Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it +became AGER PRIVÁTUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was occupied +by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually rich +patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This land, so +occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or _possessio_; but it really was +still the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent +(from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pasture +land. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land at +any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and were +often lenient about collecting dues. In course of time, this land, which +was handed down from father to son, and frequently sold, began to be +regarded by the occupants as their own property. Also the land tax +(TRIBÚTUM), which was levied on all _ager privátus_, and which was +especially hard upon the small plebeian land-owners, could not legally +be levied upon the _ager occupátus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, +not owned, this land were naturally regarded as usurpers by the +plebeians. + +The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + +SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law +that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and +distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The law +was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his life, and +was never enforced. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + + +The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if +not more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of their +leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition +of their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and +political rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The +struggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, Gnarus +Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. + +VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, +notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the +effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _Comitia +Tribúta_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriáta_. Thus the plebeians +gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW +(_Plebiscítum Publilium_). (Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia +Tribúta were called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarily +binding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have been +recognized as a law.) + +For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The plebeians +demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + +We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the unwritten +ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, had been +interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the patricians +only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the TERENTILIAN +ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, +to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. The patrician +families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter opposition. Kaeso +himself, son of the famous Cincinnátus, was impeached by the Tribune and +fled from the city. + +Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select from +the people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office for +one year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, +and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted to the people +for approval. A commission of three patricians was sent to Athens to +examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height of +its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and upon their +return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was appointed. + +The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables of +copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more +tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the only Roman +code. + +The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, +but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannical +manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, finally +rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentence +that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. Her father, +Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to the heart, and +fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put down such wicked +government. + +A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED +MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into the +city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + +The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we +know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor +was apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the _pater +familias_ over his family was abolished. The close connection heretofore +existing between the clients and patrons was gradually relaxed, the +former became less dependent upon the latter, and finally were absorbed +into the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ among the plebeians now began +to be recognized; previously only the patricians had been divided into +_gentes_. + +Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and +nearer. + +In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were instrumental +in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the substance of which +was as follows:-- + +I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta against +the sentence of any magistrate. + +II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribúta (_plebiscita_), if +sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta, were made binding +upon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal +importance with the other two. + +III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian officers, +were to be considered sacred. + +IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and veto +any of its decisions. + +Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still be +patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore they had +been appointed by the Consuls. + +In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, +and called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of +intermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting that all +issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. + +Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that +the consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was +made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, and +to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta, the +office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year whether +they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continued +for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so influential, +that for a long time no plebeian was elected. + +As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 +obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own ranks +every five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen months. + +The duties of the Censors were:-- + +I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + +II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members who +were guilty of offences against public morals. + +III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works of +the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at Rome. + +A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by +obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There +were now four Quaestors. + +Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, +sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto +often found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joined +the farmers or lower classes. + +Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed +the following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + +I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as +formerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the plebeians. + +II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 acres) +of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or 500 sheep. + +III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain number +of free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + +IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be deducted +from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly instalments. + +These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them +an opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly +by slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of +becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open +to them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be +protected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by +Camillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that these +rogations promised. + +The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except +that of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained that of +Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in 286, by +the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all the people +without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta. After 200 the +sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be filled by plebeians. + +Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; +and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, yet +their rights as citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians. + +To recapitulate:-- + +Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and +holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of +intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + +The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second they +obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third by the +CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. EXTERNAL HISTORY. + + +The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then +possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The +number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became +thirty-five. + +In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into +Etruria and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman +ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, +were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, +marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river +about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The +Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the +foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. +Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which +lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were +induced to withdraw. + +During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, and +we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390. + +The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 +the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military +colonies were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and +also at Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of which +the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to +protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and +equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives +and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government +similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as +Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.) The +neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithful +ally, was annexed to Rome. + +The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring +up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until +finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and +gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. The +town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + +The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed +the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern their +own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequently +made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO, +"citizens without suffrage." + +During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland +countries as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber, she +had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. + +In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty +with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainous +districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southern +half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, and +three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had been +practically masters of the whole of Campania. + +After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites +had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The +Samnites went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania, +which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before +Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + +Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse to +break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering their +city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, she +would simply be defending her subjects. + +Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with +varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual +to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite +Wars. + + +THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + +The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear +idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage +to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a +_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. + + +THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + +The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking +with jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights had +been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or lose +everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls and +half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, in +the third year of which was fought the battle of Trigánum, near Mount +Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victorious +through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUÁTUS, one of the +illustrious names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of the +operations was rather a series of expeditions against individual cities +than a general war. + +In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The +Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of +the Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left +independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their +territory became part of the _Ager Románus_, and the inhabitants Roman +plebeians. + +Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, three more +towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town. + +LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the +Volturnus. + +Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, +which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the +colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the +military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The +first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established +TARRACÍNA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards +founded. + +Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was +destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to Rome, and +placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House. +Hence the name ROSTRA. + +At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of all +kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for political +discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had their +offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near the river, as the _Forum +Boarium_ (cattle market) and the _Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). + +Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing about +these improvements. + + +THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + +The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we have +seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome. + +There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans, +the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, and +had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396, +and of Caere in 353. + +In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the +combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact and +concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were more +scattered. They were both equally brave. + +During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were +usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. +In this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of +military posts in the enemy's country. + +The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed. +By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius, +by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against the +Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a small +plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). On +reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them. +After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romans +themselves were compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had also +occupied the defile in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender. + +A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, +according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its +former condition. + +Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most +humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made +to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck into +the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them,--and +then suffered to depart. + +Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in +mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was +devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the +treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless +sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the +Consuls who had signed it to the enemy. + +Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and the +war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samnites +were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE +VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effective +resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast, +their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. + +During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against the +Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colony +of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The Consul +Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscans +into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them. + +Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR +(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to +unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and +ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + +The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the +sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by +Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS +MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + +In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were +assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match +for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius. +Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed his +life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into the +midst of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the father +of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war.) His +soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed back +the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were already +fleeing before that part of the army which was under Fabius. + +The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS +DENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had +recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, +and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (_sine +suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the _Ager Románus_. This +territory now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the Adriatic +Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations on the south from the +Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. + +In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian +Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + + + + +CHAPTER X. WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + +In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had been +the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the pressure +of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia Minor, and +especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country became so +thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. Here were many +flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and Thurii. These had, +at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly fallen from their former +grandeur, owing partly to the inroads of barbarians from the north, +partly to civil dissensions, and still more to their jealousy of each +other; so that they were unable to oppose any firm and united resistance +to the progress of Rome. It had been their custom to rely largely upon +strangers for the recruiting and management of their armies,--a fact +which explains in part the ease with which they were overcome. + +Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been +made by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which their +fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to allow +their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the Lacinian +promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in evading their +treaty whenever it should profit them. + +Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from +Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic affairs +permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the wedge was +entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver the +former over to Rome. + +Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to +ignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of +Tarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the +theatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was +determined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of the +Roman squadron were destroyed. + +An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was +treated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the +Tarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year +one of the Consuls was ordered south. + +Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young and +ambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, and, +since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests of this +great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West that would +surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. + +Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, +3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the +effeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of amusement +were closed; the people were forced to perform military duty; disturbers +of the public safety were put to death; and other reforms were made +which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. Meanwhile the +Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him to battle. The +armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLÉA, on the banks of the Liris, +where the level nature of the country was in favor of the Greek method +of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most perfect instrument of +warfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman legions had never yet been +brought into collision with it. + +The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a +charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they +retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by +the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory +will send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior +qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A trusted +messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloquence, +which was said to have gained more for his master than the sword. +Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was +guaranteed to his allies in Italy. + +The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; +and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, +when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, +and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + +Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared +that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + +Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared +within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The +defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and +the armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite +against him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, +where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to propose +an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and threats were +employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the Senate; and, on his +part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired exchange. + +Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. +The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but +though the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic +victories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. + +The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the +Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the island +three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the last +time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul MANIUS +CURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed to the +elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded beasts +became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into disorder. With +this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned home, and +two years later was accidentally killed by a woman at Argos. + +The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two years +later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city walls were +demolished, and the fleet given up. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.--NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. + + +Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This +country was divided into two parts. + +I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded +on the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the +APENNINES. + +II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + +The _Ager Románus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial purposes, +into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts (tribes), four of +which were in Rome. The elections were all held at Rome. + +These districts were made up,-- + +a. Of ROME. + +b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but +finally increased to thirty-five. + +c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + +d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent from +Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + +The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,-- + +a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, +afterwards increased to thirty-five. + +b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining territory +composed more than one half of the country controlled by Rome. + +These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay +tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops for +the Roman army. + +The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.-- + +a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. e. +FULL RIGHTS. (Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus suffragii_ +(right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of holding office), +and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). Private rights were _jus +connubii_ (right of intermarriage); and _jus commercii_ (right of +trading and holding property). Full rights were acquired either by +birth or gift. A child born of parents, both of whom enjoyed the +_jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with full rights. Foreigners were +sometimes presented with citizenship (_civitas_)) + +b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + +c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). + +d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + +e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of +trading. + +To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman colonies, and +of some of the Municipia. + +To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who +possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefectúrae_, +and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + +ROADS. + +Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the +capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every +direction,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched +or intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her +possessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a monument +of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonder and +admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten +together the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not +even the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of +fidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + + +NOTED MEN. + +The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding +chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius +Curius Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + +We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one of +the tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tribúta_; this, however, shut +out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and also the freedmen, +who were generally educated and professional men, such as doctors, +teachers, etc. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the +exclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tribúta_, and gave to +property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later this +law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes alone, and +the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed property only. + +During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water supply +by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, was +built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as far +as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are today in +good condition. The road was afterward extended to Brundisium, through +Venusia and Tarentum. + +MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and +his opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He +obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager Publicus_. He +drained the low and swampy country near Reáte by a canal. He was +the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, frugal and +unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his farm and spent +the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple peasant. + +GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was a +Hernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was +incorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battle +of Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, and, +failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behind +a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, though +immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + +In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not +flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The +great mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal +habits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates as +yet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A century later, +when most of the available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthy +and farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + +The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large +treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern +Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greed +for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. +From now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate in +proportion as their empire increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. FOREIGN CONQUEST. + + +ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) (Footnote: The word +"Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were said to +have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of the +Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of +course familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.) + +While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the +Straits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite +Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through +industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + +Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, it +required centuries to gain her power. + +It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her subdued +allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in the support +of her immense population and the equipment of her numerous fleets and +armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once wandering nomads, were +forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colonies sent out by +herself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, open +to the attack of all, and incapable of defence. Thus the country around +Carthage was weak, and the moment a foreign enemy landed in Africa the +war was merely a siege of its chief city. + +The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed the +gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, slaves, +and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and +the iron of Elba. + +But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel religion, +which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the rights of +others, their well known treachery, all shut them off from the higher +civilization of Rome and Greece. + +The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a +few of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed the +state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people summoned +and consulted. + +Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the +establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these +treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and +Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the +Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + +In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field for +Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome would +be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, "the +commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of one +night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + +At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king of +Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands who +came from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head-quarters, had +been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Being shut up +in Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the ground that they were +from Campania. Although Rome was in alliance with Hiero, and had +but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in Rhegium what the +Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aid them, for Sicily +was a rich and tempting prey. + +Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a +truce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of +Messána was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and garrison +of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the Mamertines +no longer needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodged the +Carthaginians. + +Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double +alliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of the eastern +coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of Italy. + +The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the +Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under +HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were +themselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa in +their rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battle +was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to their +superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds on the +coast were left to the Carthaginians. + +The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage ruled +the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the seaports of +Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual energy, the +Romans began the work. (Footnote: In 259, three years previous to the +battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, a +seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval station.) A wrecked +Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by the spring of 260 a +navy of 120 sail was ready for sea. + +The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the +purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of +hanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be +lowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides +with parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to close +quarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened to +the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman marines +were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and fight as if +on land. + +Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE +(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + +In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged +under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander +was captured. + +In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS +DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of Gisco. +The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans were found +to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without these +bridges descending with their grappling irons and holding them fast to +the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of nearly +half their fleet. + +A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, was +erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal of +it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest +inscriptions in the Latin language. + +The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + +In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 +sail. Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and +sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the coast +of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another battle. But +the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula which helps to +form the bay, and there landed without opposition. + +MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in +Africa. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians became +disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and the +capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms offered +were too humiliating to be accepted. + +Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at +Tunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to his +fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, his +army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently died +a captive at Carthage. + +The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to relieve +their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, it gained a +victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméan promontory, sinking +114 of the enemy's ships. + +It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa was +now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly destroyed in +a storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + +Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. Panormus +was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Thermae and the +island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + +DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by +Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city +was blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as much +as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the cavalry of +the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by disease. + +The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined to +surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana (249). +He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Another +fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent storm. + +The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. +Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. +They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily +were still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on +(249-243). + +A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile took +the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military talent, +and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair way +to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, that at +last some private citizens built and manned at their own expense a fleet +of 200 sail. + +GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and +occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian +fleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTES +INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and +supplies. He saw that peace must be made. + +Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the +war,--about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annual +payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS +(241-218). + + +Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. +The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in +crushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + +Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, +seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, +threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one +million dollars as a fine (237). + +The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the +government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + +Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercised +their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily was made +what the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. Sardinia and Corsica +formed another province (235). + +Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For +this purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. The +power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, chief +magistrate, and supreme judge. + +The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. +All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth +of their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and +exports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the dependants +of Rome in Italy. + +The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the +morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without +mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + +The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who did +much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but to no +purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was cleared of +the pirates in 229. + +"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the +means of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations +between Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the suppression +of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances +were concluded with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and embassies +explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were +sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. The admission +of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally acknowledged them as +the allies of the Greek states." + +The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA. The +appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with the +Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The _ager publicus_, +taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. In 232 the +Tribune Gaius Flaminius (Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his agrarian laws +gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first Governor of +Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and honesty, +a great contrast to many who succeeded him.) carried an agrarian law, +to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer +classes. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls +this seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of their +country. They all rose in arms except the Cenománi. + +This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded by +an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, miscarried, +and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near TELAMON in 222, +and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the hands of the Consul +MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now mistress of the whole +peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in Liguria, who resisted a +short time longer. + +Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls in +check; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, and +MUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great northern road, +was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. (Footnote: During this period +the _Comitia Centuriáta_ was reorganized on the basis of tribes (35) +instead of money.) + +Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the +mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as +compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar +Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in +Southern and Southeastern Spain. + +At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many towns +were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The discovery +of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of enriching the +treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablest +leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man of but +twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he had +shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He was a fine +athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and could endure +long privation of sleep and food. For the last few years he had been +in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself for personal +bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. + +Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. +He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In +eight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + +When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and +declared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the +challenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO +THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + +In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invade +Italy. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 +elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the +opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a +part of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all +veterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along the +coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celtic +territory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on +the banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans were +astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + +The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had been +in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal in +Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade Africa. +Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end of June. +Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already left +Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes of the +neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from these were +stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained at Massilia. +It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived with +his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and constructed numerous +rafts to transport his main body of troops. A detachment of soldiers +was sent up the river with orders to cross at the first available place, +and, returning on the opposite bank, to surprise the Celtic forces in +the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts fled in confusion, and the +road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio was outgeneralled in the very +beginning. + +His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all his +forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he +sent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and +himself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + +Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the Isara, +through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in sixteen +days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat). +Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of the country +and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through the country of +the Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As he was leaving this +river and approaching the pass of the Little St. Bernard, he was again +attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the ascent amidst continual +and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, the +army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a table-land, his troops +were allowed a brief rest. + +The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile +valley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and exhausted +soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited their wearied +energies. + +This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, +and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + +The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in Spain +under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, under +the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available were a +few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to restrain the +Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. + +Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command of +these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river Ticinus, +a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which he was +wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards the +famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable loss. + +They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the +bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched +along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, +opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + +Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the +disabled Scipio. + +Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the +Carthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any +resistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were drawn +up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, they +should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in the +trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut to +pieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they +spent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. + +The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in +the valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry +and 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near Placentia, +the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways leading north from +Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The Consuls for this year were +GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The former occupied Arretium, the +latter Ariminum. Here they were joined by the troops that had wintered +at Placentia. + +In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by +either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by +turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and unhealthy +country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost an eye from +ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of his course first +reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and endeavored to intercept +his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, and was now near LAKE +TRASIMÉNUS. + +Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the other. +Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. His +light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on either +side. + +The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the +unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the +position of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, +Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the entrance +to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, revealing the +Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a battle, but a mere +rout. The main body of the Romans was cut to pieces, with scarcely any +resistance, and the Consul himself was killed. Fifteen thousand Romans +fell, and as many more were captured. The loss of the Carthaginians was +but 1,500, and was confined mostly to the Gallic allies. All Etruria +was lost, and Hannibal could march without hindrance upon Rome, whose +citizens, expecting the enemy daily, tore down the bridges over the +Tiber and prepared for a siege. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed +Dictator. + +Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, +devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted on +the shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army a rest, he +proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + +The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised +another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of +determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to +avoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing him +and cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + +Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of +Italy to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city +dependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to +the melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's cavalry +plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what he +considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, disappointed +in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, and not being +prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. +Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on the left bank of +the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right bank of the river +were occupied by his main army; and the road itself, which led across +the river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + +Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the heights +over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with burning +fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army marching by +torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned the road and +marched for the heights, along which they supposed the enemy were going. +Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued his march with the +bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his light-armed troops, +which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. Their engagement with +the Romans had resulted in a severe loss to Fabius. + +Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly +direction, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with much +booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he encamped in +a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his army. + +At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent +inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator +(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared +by one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into +two corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the +first opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his +former tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his rashness, +and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not Fabius come to +his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed the winter of +217-216 unmolested. + +The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the spring +campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was raised and +put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS PAULLUS and GAIUS +TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's strength once more in +open battle. His army was only half as strong as the Roman in infantry, +but was much superior in cavalry. + +In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at +CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in +June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, with +their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the left +under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + +The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by +cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onset +was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased by +the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, they +were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, +among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men of +senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced by +the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greek +cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA +(216-202). + + +ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the +Latin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old men +alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they would +join the ranks. + +Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the second +city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that other +cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into winter +quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxurious and +effeminate habits, are said to have injured his soldiers. But Hannibal's +superiority as a general is unquestionable, and his want of success +after this was due to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact that +the resources of Rome were greater than those of Carthage. The Latin +allies of Rome had remained true to their allegiance, and only one city +of importance was under his control. It was an easy matter to conquer +the enemy in open battle, but to support his own army was more +difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On the other hand, the +Romans were well supplied with food from their possessions in Sicily. + +Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already +employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He +formed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged +Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. He +hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and reinforcements +from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, +to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her into submission. + +The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they +could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and Gnaeus. +With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the enemy +from that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern Greece +effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years (214-212) +passed without any material change in the situation of affairs in Italy. + +In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, +besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover +Campania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched +rapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed the +city, resolved to advance on Rome itself. + +Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through the heart +of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, and with +his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no ally +joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals of +peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of +the enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his +head-quarters in the South. + +Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, was +removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon Capua was +severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred of her chief +citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. The city and +its territory were declared to be Roman territory, and the place was +afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + +Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as Rome +itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, renowned +for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the highest arts +and culture. + + +AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of +more than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome in +her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of +Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, who +was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few months. + +The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian +faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the +leaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to +arouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome +and the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and stormed +Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against him. A +siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various devices +adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMÉDES (Footnote: Archimédes was +a great investigator in the science of mathematics. He discovered the +ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of his famous +sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the world." He +exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines for the +defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in existence. +He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, who would +have spared his life had he not been too intent on a mathematical +problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his tombstone, it +is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.) to defeat the +movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a Spanish +officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which it was so +rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time (212) the city +became a part of the province of Sicily and the head-quarters of the +Roman Governor. + + +THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO +CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO +and HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the +location of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over +to Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large +reinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, +surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain was +lost to Rome. + +Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter Italy, +and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. PUBLIUS +CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but twenty-four +years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He had previously +made himself very popular as Aedile, and was unanimously elected to the +command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he found the whole country west +of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + +Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL +and MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not act +in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring (209), to +capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor was +gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three transports, $600,000, and +10,000 captives fell into the hands of the Romans. + +Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at +BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the +battle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the +Pyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the +winter (209-208) in Gaul. + +The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the son +of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the Baleares, +to wait for reinforcements from home. + +The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in +the total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the +southwestern part of Spain. + +The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed +the straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and +MASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, +after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about +their pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where he +intended to become a candidate for the consulship. + + +OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + +The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. +Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The +Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, +and MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of +keeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting +Hasdrubal was given to the latter. + +The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river +Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent +messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of +march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of their +despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, joined +Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and defeated his +army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal himself. Nero +returned south without delay, and the first intimation that Hannibal had +of this battle was the sight of his brother's head thrown into the camp +by the victorious foe. + +The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four +years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was +powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout +Italy. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the +ground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. + + +INVASION OF AFRICA. + +Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of Africa. +He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his province, with +permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him wise. He was so +popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies poured +in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however, did not like +him, as his taste for splendid living and Greek culture was particularly +offensive to them; and a party in the Senate would have recalled him, +had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor been too strong to be +resisted. + +In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was welcomed +by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous visit to +Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but in 203 +Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage +prevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle +with Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of Carthage. +The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who loved their +commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first and only defeat, +and Scipio won his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle was a hard one. After +all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been killed or put +to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in Italy, although +surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering their own, fought +on, and were killed one by one around their beloved chief. The army was +fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape to +Hadrumétum. + +The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage +was broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to retain +her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, were given +up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about $200,000, for +fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carry +on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by an +increase in territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends of +the Roman people." + +Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterranean +power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa was +under her protection. + +Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was +welcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never before +equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned with +laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which he had +the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no part in +politics. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. ROME IN THE EAST. + + +ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. +The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast +empire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the +limits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece +proper. + +EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the +valley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a +number of towns in Thrace. + +SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of +various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent +rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. +Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + +MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of +Northern Greece. + +GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, the +former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the greater +part of Central Greece. + +Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into +closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in 273. +From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the Second +Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of the +Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + +The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into closer +relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to open the +Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage had left her +no time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern politics, until she +was forced to take action by the alliance of Philip V. of Macedonia and +Hannibal, and by the former's threatened invasion of Italy in 214. A +small force was sent into Greece, which was soon largely increased by +the dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + +The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was +to prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was +partially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but +four thousand of them were at Zama. + +The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus +Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so hard +that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to sail for +Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus assisted +the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to think of +operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to concentrate +their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + +Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their +return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. + +There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN +WAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, to +attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable that +the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years old, +would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers of +Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman envoys +sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with Philip. + +In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that the +people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was driven to +seek alliances which would protect her against him. + +Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced +to vote for one, on the representation that the only means of preventing +an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + +This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a +considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the +Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive +results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man of +different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on +the Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year utterly +defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + +The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he +broke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in around +him with but little loss. The other division was attacked by the Romans, +while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The victory of the +Romans was decisive. + +About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the +Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + +Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of +Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, +Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wage +war without Rome's consent. + +The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" was +proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later +Flamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of +Greece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks to +show themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned home +to enjoy a well earned triumph. + +The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm +establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge +had been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was +assured. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN WAR. + + +Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, +had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not +hear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he +claimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip had +previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. He +crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to enter +Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, until after +Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). + +Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the +power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his +defeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the +chief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the +moral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. Under +him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with Antiochus, +with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an opportunity to +interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, after wandering +from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the Syrian king. + +Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could have +accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he disregarded +the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor matters. The +Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae drove back the +intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The Aetolians were punished +for their infidelity. + +In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command +of the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be +accompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his +military skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed the +Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + +Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the +king. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in +190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 being +slain. The loss of the victors was slight. + +On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all +pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus +mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all +surrendered. + +Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his +name, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of his +victory. + +Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign +against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, +and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse for +the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the reason +was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + +The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they +themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeable +chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without the authority +of the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent which +was too frequently followed in later times. On his return to Rome he was +allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. + +These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid +the foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally +undermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced +learning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The vigor +and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than in the +length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. + +Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the +ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained +during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his +account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, +tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, +however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated +that his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies +that their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of +Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges were +made. + +Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, +on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. His +wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, and +the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. His +daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous GRACCHI. +Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the +campaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In +the conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered +Alexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself +conquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. + +Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically +the mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and +as conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a charm +which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greece +were not so courted at Rome as in later days. + +Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, +but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, King +of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to +arrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring and +swallowed the poison which it contained (183). + +Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim +of his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was +so marked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon +the tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near +accomplishing. + +This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the +Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. (Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146.) + + +Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against +Antiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in additions +to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but he labored +patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir up among +the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He placed his army +on the best footing possible, and soon began to enlarge his boundaries. +Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give up his +conquests, and confine himself to the limits of Macedonia. In 179 Philip +died, and was succeeded by his son PERSEUS. + +The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of +subjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a +marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse +among the Greeks memories of their former greatness. + +The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check him. +War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at first led +by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until LICIUS AEMILIUS +PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in 168. + +Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was +killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE AEDILE, +(Footnote: See page 225) in 192, he prosecuted persons who had made an +illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191 +as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all insurrections. +He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a tribe of +marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + +He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. +The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the +Thermáic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasures +and family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with +kindness by the Consul. + +Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by commissioners, +he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was divided into +four small republics, independent of each other, but prohibited from +intermarriage and commerce with one another. + +On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced +by Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four +years later. + +Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted +by Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus the +elder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of +perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat +superstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his sons +the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularity +is the fact that his body was carried to its last resting place by +volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. + +Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is +alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + +After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the +conquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests there. +All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, and among +these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more than twenty +years, and became a great friend of the younger Africánus, whom he +accompanied to the siege of Carthage. + +Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of +each other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utter +demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all +alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + +Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating +in what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under +the leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the +people rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice defeated +in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained the agnomen +of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, with a Roman +magistrate at its head. + +At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus warned +them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he easily +defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + +Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an +illustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in 115 +three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was a +candidate for the consulship. + +Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh +leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. +The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 +was marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; +beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold +in abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty +vanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of ACHAIA. + +Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, when +it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a colony +of veterans and freedmen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + + +Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial +prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the quarrels +of conflicting factions. + +MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual +source of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, +and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of Rome, +her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an embassy was +sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, the chief of the +embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of the city, and from +that time never ceased to urge its destruction. The embassy did not +reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as they might. Finally, +when some sympathizers with Masinissa were banished from the city, he +attacked and defeated the Carthaginians, compelled their army to +pass under the yoke, and afterwards treacherously destroyed it (150). +Carthage was compelled to give up some of her territory, and pay +$5,000,000 indemnity. + +After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be +disciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to +close any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel words, +_Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed." The people of +Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, they +sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was obscure. They were +requested to make reparation to Rome, and at the same time they were +assured that nothing should be undertaken against Carthage herself. +But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army into Sicily, where the +troops were organized, and Carthaginian ambassadors were expected. + +When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish to +encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some security; +for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three hundred +children of the noblest families should be delivered into their hands +as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly crossed over +to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were ready to treat +with them on any question not previously settled. + +When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told +that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they +said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage +possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were then +told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome had no +control over the city so long as it was fortified. The preservation of +peace, therefore, required that the people should quit the city, give +up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a distance of ten +miles from the sea. The indignation and fury which this demand excited +were intense. The gates were instantly closed, and all the Romans and +Italians who happened to be within the city were massacred. + +The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined +that the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair had +suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every direction. +All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and night in the +manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending than this last +struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored to the uttermost +for the defence of the city with a furious enthusiasm. + +Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, +the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legal +age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. After +two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the +defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + +Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen +days. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given to +Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + +The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most +bitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,--MASINISSA +and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + +Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get the +promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given to +his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the possessions of +Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same Sophonisba, whom he +married. Scipio, however, fearing her influence over him, demanded +her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was a +courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the Romans. + +CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149,) whose long public career was a +constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the +fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Roman +character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the +interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as +Censor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashioned +principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All innovations +were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the author of several +works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has been preserved. + +Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year +discoursing about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, a +friend of the latter. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + + +Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government +of nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, +separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a +praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought into +a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests were a +formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla warfare, +which makes conquest slow and laborious. + +The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who +occupied the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and +intractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the +elder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the +Roman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this part +of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir to +pull down their fortifications. + +Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, +sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, +the father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the +troublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns, but +tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself greater +in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands on +favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the +natives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and in +Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + +In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was +Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged the +Celtibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with +a massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS +MARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the +country humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, +were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another open +rebellion, headed by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During seven +years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent against him. +The Celtibéri joined his standards, and Spain seemed likely to slip from +the Romans. The only check to these successes was during the command of +METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was recalled, matters returned to +their former condition. + +In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save +himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to +sanction. + +Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the Consul +Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was ably +conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + + +THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + +The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city of NUMANTIA, +the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one defeat of a +Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent out her best +general, Africanus the younger. + +After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he +began (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the +utmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of +famine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and +the town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the +title of NUMANTÍNUS. + +The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, which +was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its northern +coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were established +with Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on the whole, order was +maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean there sprang up many +thriving and populous towns, which became centres of civilization to the +neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome rather as allies than +as subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin the silver money of Rome. +The civilizing process, due to Roman influence, went on rapidly in these +parts, while the interior remained in barbarism. + +In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from +the north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave +Celtibéri, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). + +While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves +broke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special barbarity. + +For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of +freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the +regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and +Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + +The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a +wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, who +pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were suffered +by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS captured the +strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus closed the +war. For his success he was allowed an ovation. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. INTERNAL HISTORY.--THE GRACCHI. We have seen how the long +struggle between the patricians and plebeians terminated in a nominal +victory for the latter. From about 275, the outward form of the old +constitution had undergone little change. It was nominally that of a +"moderate democracy." The Senate and offices of state were, in law, +open to all alike. In practice, however, the constitution became an +oligarchy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the +Senate was controlled by a class who claimed all the privileges of a +nobility. The Comitias were rarely called upon to decide a question. +Most matters were settled by a DECREE OF THE SENATE (_Senatus +Consultum_). To be sure the Comitia declared for war or peace, but the +Senate conducted the war and settled the conditions of peace. It also +usually assigned the commands, organized the provinces, and managed the +finances. + +The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It +was a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be +convened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were scattered +over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to decide +questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign policy. + +The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All +patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The +patricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. +The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of the +following six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, +Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right to +place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of +this ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held a +curule office. + +A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, or "new +man." + +The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time the +monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. +The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only +wanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal +rights, and urge the exercise of them. + +Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him +was ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and +brought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. +On one side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and +POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until the +glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor of +the Empire. + +Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to the +nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the daughter +of Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all but three +died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The daughter, +SEMPRONIA, married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, +grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left a +widow when they were mere boys. + +Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-law +during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor in +Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the mild +policy which his father had previously followed. His popular measures +here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a favorite +with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where he was +astonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see Chapter VII.) +cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens of the Republic +were wandering in towns without employment, and deprived of the land +which, according to law (see the Licinian Rogations), should have +been divided among them, and not held in large quantities by the rich +land-owners. + +Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself as +candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began boldly the +battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now a +dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 acres of the +_ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had fenced this land +and improved it were to be compensated therefor. + +The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, +and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECÍNA, +who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his authority as +Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the question. + +Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, +contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, and +passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, +his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry it into +effect. + +It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of +Tribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry +out his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as +candidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it became +evident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned out +in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed slaves +and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three hundred of +his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shed +the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led by SCIPIO NASÍCA, +the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard of the murder of his +brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain." + +The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to +be openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their work, +until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts of +the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But the +commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were not +always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were enraged. +The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + +The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his +brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in +Africa and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and +justice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with +suspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. +He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the avowed +enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, he +endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Roman +citizenship, and to limit the price of bread. + +Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial class, +by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial functions +were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. Heretofore +all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried before a jury +chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal and corrupt, and +it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be bought. + +The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time +very powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that no +Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an appeal +to the assembly of the people. + +But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians ruined +his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their rights +with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten years +before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of his +friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master of the +situation. + +However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty +thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in +force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless the +state was held to be in danger. + +Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the +Gracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were noble, +and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + +A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). His +remark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the +popular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, +probably "a victim of political assassination." + +Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of +scholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets +LUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age towards +luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a general. The +one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which he +possibly might have averted had he shown firm opposition to it. + +SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though +Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. EXTERNAL HISTORY.--PERGAMUM.--JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). + + +Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen miles from +the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. Its +first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. +He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their firm +friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in Asia +Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, and +its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome his +kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It was +made a province under the name of ASIA. + +THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + +After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in Africa +was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which were +centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom to his +son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. The nephew +was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in the Numantine +war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was named joint heir +with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa dying soon after, +Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed the whole +kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed to +Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They were bought off by +Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal was +afterwards captured, savagely tortured, and finally killed. + +The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an +investigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused of +accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign languished, +and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince that it was +evident his money had again been freely used. The scandalous transaction +was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha then repaired to +the city in person, and bought up all the authorities except Memmius, +whom he found incorruptible. He had another cousin in the city, whom he +caused to be murdered. After this the Senate ordered him to leave, and +as he departed, it is said he exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to +perish, if a purchaser be found!" + +War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat +of the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by +the defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS +METELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. He +was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigid +aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as his +lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + +Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was +himself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and soon +attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and his +strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, and +his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. He soon +rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the People, +and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was respected and valued +in high circles is shown by his subsequent marriage into the family of +the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, he +became a person of social distinction. + +The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the +river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his stronghold, +Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrender +was demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritated +that such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded that +Marius should be made Consul and have charge of the war. When the +lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to enable him to be +present at the elections, as was necessary according to the law, his +general ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait another twenty years. +He went, however, and was elected in 107, being the first plebeian +chosen to that office for more than a century. + +Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of +NUMIDICUS. + +Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be +reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other +occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of +rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a young +patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested from +Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. +By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106) +into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius. + +The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of +his treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native +princes, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius +returned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a +dungeon, and there starved to death. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--POLITICAL QUARRELS. + + +The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a +struggle requiring all his talents. + +The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were +threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met +with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. +Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to +have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen +to enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certain +result. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over the +mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. + +Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to forming +and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of the Rhone +in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he drilled +his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible exertions. Many +perished under the strain, but the survivors became hardened soldiers. +Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, and the soldiers were +taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his fourth +consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the enemy. + +The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, the +Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards Noricum, +with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while the +Teutones remained in Gaul. + +As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified camp +near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, and +then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fall +upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match for +the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest lasted two +days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces (20 July, +102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius that he had +been elected Consul for the fifth time. + +Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the fertile +fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulus, the +other Consul. + +The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met +the same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + +No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrels +broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul for the +sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two demagogues, the +Tribune SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn laws and +land laws,(Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN LAWS (100):--I. Any Roman +citizen could buy corn of the state at a nominal price. II. The land +in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had occupied, should be divided +among the Italian and Roman citizens. III. Colonies from the veterans +of Marius were to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.) and +compelled the Senators to take an oath to execute their laws. Metellus +Numidicus refusing to comply with their wishes, Saturnínus sent a guard +to the Senate-House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. + +During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. +He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all +parties he pleased none. + +On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by +MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and +the radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia +both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be +successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínus +and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the +Senate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches were +stoned to death. + +The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall +of Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was +suspected that he was a victim of treachery. + +Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his +vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, +travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, +King of Pontus. + +For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative +quiet. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + + +At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the +equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen +the governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers +(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will help us to +understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the composition +of the Senate and the Equites. + +The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increased +to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurred +from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by the +Censor, (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person that +had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule +Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had held +these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in the +Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence he +must be wealthy. + +We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six classes +according to their property, and that these classes were subdivided into +one hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225, +the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen +of the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must have +property worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given to +them because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though in +later times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equites +were originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians +increased in wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included in +this class. + +There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123, +Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed that the +jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, and not the +Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, +and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles, +represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order. +Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of the +courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, especially in +those courts which were established to try governors for extortion in +the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)_. From +the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They +pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if a governor had the +courage to interfere with them, a threat of prosecution was held over +his head. The average governor preferred to connive at their exactions; +the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for their courage. Another +trouble was threatening the commonwealth. The Italian allies of Rome did +not possess the franchise belonging to a Roman citizen. For nearly two +centuries they had shared dangers and victories with the Romans; they +now eagerly demanded all their privileges. + +In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. +He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the +question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the +courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many +enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Roman +citizenship aroused great opposition. + +His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. +He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an +assassin in the same year. + +The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered +into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, as +their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the +name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was +to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House. + +Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. +The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both took +the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and +Sulla. + +This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies +(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, +defeated the Romans several times, and entered into negotiations with +the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to waver. + +It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned +in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make +concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried +the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all who +had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by the +PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town +the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome within +sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN, +which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise +on all who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing the +rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were +finally put down by Marius. + +The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly +enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn +asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected +by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was +empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes, King +of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager to +have the command. + +At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward +the following bills:-- + +1. That the command of the war against Mithradátes be given to Marius. + +2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + +3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprived +of his seat. + +4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revolt +be recalled. + +In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the +triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops +had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and for +the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + + +With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS +SULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited +a moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, +lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was +a poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was +naturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under +Marius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful +officer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to +win the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole +subsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to have +been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held well +under control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder and +license. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Marius +owed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in +the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient help +towards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising power, +and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. + +After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part +in politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are +almost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was +elected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a +hundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he +went as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first met +MITHRADÁTES. + +This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He +spoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless +ambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to +enlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's interference. + +Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was +ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. This country +Mithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the throne his +own nephew. + +Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He +accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to Rome +with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, eclipsing +the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized leader of the +conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between the rivals was +more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by no means lost his +prestige with the popular party. + +It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War, +thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend +his realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. +With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. +The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, that Ionia, +Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, gladly revolted +from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman residents with +their families were massacred on a single day. It is said that 80,000 +persons perished. Mithradátes himself next crossed the Bosphorus, and +marched into Northern Greece, which received him with open arms. + +Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the +bills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Marius +have charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not to Sulla's +liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in the +Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow him +anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, marched +into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; Sulpicius +was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, where he +lived for a time, watching the course of events. + +Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East +called him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil war +burst out anew (87). + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He +tried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven +from the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He +invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to +follow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and +Marius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They +marched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged +Consul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius was +revoked. + +The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna for +the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a body-guard +of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. The houses of +the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families was exposed to +the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after he +entered office, and the shedding of blood ceased. + +For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government +was practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a +trusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In +84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in +Asia. + +Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against +Athens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched. +After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. The +same year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and the next +year at ORCHOMENOS. + +Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two +victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready +to negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal +interview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as +follows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, +and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay an indemnity +amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships of war. + +Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians +and Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by +compelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now ready +to return to Rome. + +The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 +troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every +preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no +sooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert to +him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of all +Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young POMPEY, +then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts that Sulla's +success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian party was joined +by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than ever. At length, +however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of Rome. The city lay at +his mercy. His first act, an order for the slaughter of 6,000 Samnite +prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct in the city. Every effort +was made to eradicate the last trace of Marian blood and sympathy from +the city. A list of men, declared to be outlaws and public enemies, +was exhibited in the Forum, and a succession of wholesale murders and +confiscations throughout Rome and Italy, made the name of Sulla forever +infamous. + +Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid triumph +for the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. +The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the thinned ranks +of which he filled with his own creatures, with full control over the +state, over every magistrate and every province. + +In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died +the next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + + +THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + +Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the +Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no +former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor +without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the +praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at +least thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six +to eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and +Praetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and +then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + +Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and all +who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + +The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the +Senate. + +On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; +but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to +raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his +oath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, +marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by +Crassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS.--SPARTACUS.--LUCULLUS.--POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + + +Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of +Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served +under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he +served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his +fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He +was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on Sulla's +return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the lead +of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased the +Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He defeated +one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUS +PIUS,(Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the agnomen of +Pius on account of the love which he displayed for his father, whom +he begged the people to recall from banishment in 99.) who had been +specially sent against him from Rome. + +The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after the +Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and founded at +Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe towards his +soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his favorite pet and +constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In 77 he was joined by +PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, then a young man, was +sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius proved more than a match for +both of these generals, and defeated them near Saguntum. + +The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now +formed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered +into negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with the +slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. + +But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these was +that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, and +with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + +Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own +borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of +their number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at Capua +and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were joined by +large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, and were soon +in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent against them. + +The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself at +the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were defeated; +and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even threatened Rome. +But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; his lieutenants grew +jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + +In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in +six months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, +returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those +who had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. +Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road from +Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + +Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was +again in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against him. + +Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social +War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as +Quaestor, in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he was +chosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned to +him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta, +and besieged him at Chalcédon. + +Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the aid +of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at Cabíra +in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take refuge +with his son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. + +Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of provincial +governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were farmed out, +and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the tax-payers +against the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms met with bitter +opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose chief source of +income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues against him by persons +sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction among his troops. He had +been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was all the easier to turn the +soldiers against him. + +In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the river +Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was +obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next year +his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + +Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, +dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious +dinners which he gave. + + +POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + +The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as +it had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a +favorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws laid +down by his general. + +GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood to +his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side in +the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of the +latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. He +defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 was +allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally +qualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he +ever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success we +have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS +CRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. + +Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense wealth +by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice is +said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large sums to the +people for political effect. + +Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was +eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and was +only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and ought to +have waited two years. + +The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained +their prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was +transferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body +was cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed by +Sulla. + +For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey +remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition +against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had +been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. +During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that +the city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had +paralyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy +were not safe from their raids. + +GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command +for three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman +magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over the +coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, all +ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + +In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + +The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the +MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire +control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His +appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by CATULUS, +the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but CICERO +with his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came to Pompey's +assistance, and to him was given the command by which he became +virtually dictator in the East. His operations there were thoroughly +successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the previous victories +of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. Mithradátes was obliged +to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (Kertch). + +In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in +the name of Rome, and made it a province. + +Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, +two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to +the wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army against +Jerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He installed +Hyrcánus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. + +Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of his +old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman arms, that +even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs had +taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, after a reign +of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all formidable +opposition to Rome in Asia. + +Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were now +made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the addition +of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor not +yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; +Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + +After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, January +1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five years old, +had accomplished a really great work, had founded several cities which +afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, and was hailed +as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + +The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. His +wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations between +the two men had been friendly. + +Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to political +importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of CATILINE. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. CAESAR.--CICERO.--VERRES. + + +The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which claimed +descent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations of Caesars +had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been Consuls, +Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the moderate wing. +The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be traced no further +back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the same name as the great +Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent from Ancus Marcius, the +fourth King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the father +of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife of +Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than Praetor. He was married +to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaius +was born on July 12th, 100. + +During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, +tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, +and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the +proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, +must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate +companions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + +Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and +determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely fifteen, +a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred office carried with +it a handsome income. + +Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, +the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely +with the popular party, whose champion he remained. + +When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but +eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was ruined, +his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet free from +proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young man to his +own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife and marry +one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then tried. His +priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His estate was +confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself declared an +outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential friends, however, +interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was finally persuaded to +pardon him; but with reluctance, and with the remark that in Caesar was +the making of many a Marius. The youth then left Italy, and joined the +army in Asia. + +Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the forces +of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates that were +making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his troops +insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to Nicomédes, a Roman +ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional forces. He was +successful in his mission, and, upon his return to Lesbos, distinguished +himself for his bravery in the attack upon Mityléne, and was awarded the +oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. + +Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign +against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that country. +While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left the army +and returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle with the +nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former Governor of +Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause was +theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and Caesar lost the +case. + +Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied +rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property +and priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he was +captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some $50,000 was +raised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once got together some +vessels, returned to the island where he had been in captivity, +seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had them tried, +convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to Rhodes, where +he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. Then the report of +the uprisal of Mithradátes reached him, and he at once crossed over to +the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and saved Caria to Rome. + +Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly +for a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + +While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in which +he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion of his +youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged +to the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek +teachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party +opposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to +gain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one +of its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during the +troubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literary +pursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who +was falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, and +guaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few +years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his return, +in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of the Senate. +His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance of his duties. +There he obtained an insight into the corrupt extortions of the Roman +governors. Five years later, he conducted his famous case against +Verres. + +VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had +amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece +and Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. With +the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the praetorship, +became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern Sicily. +His government there may have been no worse than that of many other +proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller account of +it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches against Verres are +preserved. + +Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official position, +he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit brought +before him he gave to the party that could pay him best. Property was +confiscated on false charges, and works of art of great value were +stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, property to +the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected to spend in +silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, but Cicero's +eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire into exile. + +It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies +abroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward +for what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was +elected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time +his aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he delivered +the funeral oration. + +Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests +were common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a +great man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, +and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When +sent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun by +Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task which +he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular party, of +which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. TROUBLES AT ROME.--CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + + +While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming +worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. +There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious to +regain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by the +Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited +a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous of +the power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate. + +Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS +SERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, +and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year +Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough +money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On +his return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted +through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. + +He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year +(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark +Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the +struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, +owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and +his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which +he had been so long striving. + +Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had +been Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the +Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). But +what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish display +at the public games and exhibitions. + +Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 +the office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became +vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a +candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than +both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence of +the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + +Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his +fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected +caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had many +followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former Consul +Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, +and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a +fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla, +starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws +of every description. The conspirators were divided into two parties; +those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarters +were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trained +soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secret +meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, kill +the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army in +Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and just +before the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to the +Senate. + +Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and +Cethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious +difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus +was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were +sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any +Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Too +many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + +In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, +and Cicero. + +Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for +life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a +complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish, +weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and of +his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would become +dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of the +state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, +forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, +unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. + +Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance +with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was +more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero +was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, +with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + +A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused +the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The +suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat +of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell +fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of +soldiers near Pistoria. + +The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the +vigilance shown in this affair. + +The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar had expected. +It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and it +was felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. The +people demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have a +deliverer from internal strifes. + +Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second +Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the +retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing +the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade +his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizens +without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicero +could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened to +impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribune +moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared his +coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly +seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, ordered +Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from his +hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. +Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate was +riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declared +deposed from their offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. He +was followed to his home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader, +and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar +refused. He would have nothing to do with lawlessness; he let his +opponents play that _rôle_, and awaited the results. The Senate soon saw +its mistake, and requested him to resume his official duties. + +The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He +had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of +the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were held +by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed the +subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the +government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. His +administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it +would, he hoped, be the consulship. + +Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium in +December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes +and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the +greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted to +wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + +Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Though +feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people, +and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him. +He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his +career. + +Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his +side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS +was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three +then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of +shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to +great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater +wealth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + + +Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in +return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was +to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was elected +without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus +Bibulus. + +Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political +offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in +keeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself in +political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Now +he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the +aristocracy of what stuff he was made. + +It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the +orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was too +vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, +and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine there +more, and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. + +Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the +aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was bitterly +opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, and by +Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager publicus_, then +held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among the +veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sum +for their loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. +Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, still +the Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be +obliged to take an oath to observe it. + +The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his +year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many +crimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining the +state. + +The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the +abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a +double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open for +inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + +When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the +reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. +He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work +would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year +(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could +rely, were elected. + +There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for +Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. +Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only too willing +to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, +or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these men +were put temporarily out of the way. + +CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At +one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance to +the festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by women. He was +discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by +means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing him +to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian +family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, and was +successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person who had put +to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to the people be +considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. +All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. His +property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in +the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + +The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, +had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. The +Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island was +ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + +Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the +Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. +He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were +satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to +increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the +city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's +absence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. Caesar was now in the prime of +manhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous experience in +camp life had been comparatively small. His early service in Asia, and +his more recent campaigns in Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for +military life. + +The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the +southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman +province, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which the +Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, and a +part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were all +of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine and +settled in the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwest and +who are represented by the Basques of to-day. + +The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact +with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, like +the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, which were +mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions among +themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions were +frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the AEDUI +and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome; the +latter, impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribe +of Germans under Ariovistus to come into Gaul and settle, and be their +allies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken from +them hostages, and with the Sequanians were in the ascendency. + +In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers +that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to +emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered +on those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through their +country. + +Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling that +the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through Gaul +would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he determined +to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, and after +a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeated +with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treated +kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + +Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of +the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during +which the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came +together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the +drilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few of +the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + +The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into +winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant of +Caesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as +administrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + + +THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + +While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that the +BELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupied +the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of which +the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and NERVII. The last +were the fiercest and least civilized. + +Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched against +the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmed +the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they immediately put +themselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Belgae +could muster about 300,000 men. + +By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly +annihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his +protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six +legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii and +their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the woods on +the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick was +the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets, +to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their proper +places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almost +panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield from +a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The +Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But the enemy fought on +with a bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of sixty thousand +men scarcely five hundred survived. The women and children were cared +for kindly by Caesar, and settled in their own territory. + +The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were +conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + +Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter +quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. In +his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + + +THE VENETI.--INVASION OF GERMANY. + +All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except +the VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and +lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducing +others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among them by +Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed against these +people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages built +on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. In a naval +engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet was +destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their +treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into +slavery. + +The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, +among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + +During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into +Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called +the SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and advanced +to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the invaders +twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of the +time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, and two +men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, +the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + +Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to +inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famous +bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, thinking his +object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. + + +INVASION OF BRITAIN. + +It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossing +the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but little +resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for a +short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the +weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among the +Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + +During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, +as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all +preparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next +day landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leader +CASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many +thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + + +FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + +In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several +tribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commanded +by the lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampment that +there was an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break up camp, +and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. +On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a few +stragglers carried the news to Labiénus, who was wintering with a legion +among the Remi. + +This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant +who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, +who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, +raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + +In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previous +winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Ambiorix, +escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar again crossed +the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, +supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. The +patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The chiefs of all +the tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day was +settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Genabum, +on the Liger, were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggle +of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Averni. + +Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossing +the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marched +upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + +Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. +He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the +towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum alone +was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods and +a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well defended +siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting eight +hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. Large quantities +of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He then +marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town was +on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. A +part of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault +the place. The battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, and +the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. Forty-six officers and seven +hundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious position for +Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junction +with Labiénus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for Gallia +Narbonensis to protect it from invasion. + +On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with +eighty thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill +and considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). +Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress been +invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of Gauls +that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius. +But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five times as +large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. + +Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs +and advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded +unconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into +slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. +Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and +afterwards died in a dungeon. + +With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically +completed. + +The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some +of the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the +Senate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces were +formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of these was +subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, +and Latin became the official language. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRASSUS. + + +During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusion +prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which would +stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property. +Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. There +were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO. + +"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period. +He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; he +had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for the +moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was the +leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat +the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killing +persons disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had high +friends and connections, who threw a shield over him when his audacity +had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. His +chief fame had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs +of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, and there were constant +collisions between his retainers and those of Clodius. + +In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was +demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, led +by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties met +in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo's +party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, and the +recall voted. + +For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot. +He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outside +the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting to +receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuild +his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the public +expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted the +workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down the +walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + +At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long +struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidate +for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two meeting by +accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, +52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated sole +Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went into +exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, +but did not dare to deliver it. + +During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar +renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were +held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, that +of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. + +CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompanied +by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived +at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; and the Romans, seven +legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along the +river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Crassus a +plan of the campaign, which consisted in following the river as far as +Seleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, +and to avoid being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus +allowed himself to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the +sandy plains of Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + +The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed +upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted +a charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians yielded, +but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after great +deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne before +the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave +the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orders for a general +retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, and +Crassus himself was killed in a conference (53). + +In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand +Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as +slaves in the army of the Parthians. + +The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, +had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married +Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus +Scipio. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + + +Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off +all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the +interests of the Senate and aristocracy. + +The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression +upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern +barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself +distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. +"He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than +Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of +warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The nobility had +watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a +thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty." + +Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a +second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on +this account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, +he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, +he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the +consulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to +become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. + +The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended +several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His +enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he +returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger; +whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. + +The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the +days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was +to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in +Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had +been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The +vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in +Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were +placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the +year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter +quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. +From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating +that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The +messenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the new +Consuls entered upon their duties. + +The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited +discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command. +The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were +compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + +When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called together +his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my army +have served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We have +driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; and +the Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside the +Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, and +has called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it in +this course." The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to follow +their leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men and +officers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole +away, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across +the Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and +marched to Ariminum. + +Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy had +imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert. +Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving wives, +children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to seek safety +with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from the +treasury, but left it locked. + +Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that +he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province +in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing +to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by +the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, +that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, +and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give +security that he would dismiss his army. + +These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. +Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains +to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna, before +Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw open +their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled. +Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when he +reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops. + +This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats +and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius +endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him over +to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrison +filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium, +where ships were in readiness for them to depart. + +Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival +outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already +gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousand +troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to see +Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was +unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. + +Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the +Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a +fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his +attention. + +In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way +to Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but +he preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and +assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius +Longínus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with +Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance +and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their violent suppression +of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys to +treat with Pompey, but no one was found willing to go. After three days +spent in useless discussion, Caesar decided to act for himself. By +his own edict, he restored the children of the victims of Sulla's +proscription to their rights and property. The money in the treasury +was voted him by the Assembly of the people. He took as much of it as +he needed, and started at once for Gaul to join his troops on his way to +Spain. + +He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's +lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and +allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain supplies +of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sent +Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily, +immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar's +troops with open arms. + +Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massilia +had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he had +sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, +leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey to +Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA in +Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms, +and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spain +was at his feet. + +Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans +to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. +He then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legions +and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to +surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was +allowed to escape a second time. + +Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived +at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. +Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded, +however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he had +lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised and +killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey's +followers. + +During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course. +He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus, +and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, +when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator. +Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Public +credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. +Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimates +were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the interest was +remitted and the principal declared still due. This measure relieved the +debtors somewhat. + +It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, +during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from +Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here had gathered +many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial families +of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the renegade +Labiénus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, +amounting in all to 100,000 men. + +Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were +fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than +15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans, +inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted +to his leader. + +On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after +an uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards +Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and +intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country was +well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. + +Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his +remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and +many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself to +trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit out +a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antony +finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey's +forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger; +but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him before +Pompey knew of his movements. + +The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of strongly +fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turned +the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to +the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + +Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At +this point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were +surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them +to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and +a few hundred soldiers were captured. + +This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was +exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over; +and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected to +follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recover +from the blow. + +The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey +followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselves +with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero +remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of the +degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + +The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, +only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS, +which gave name to the battle which followed. + +"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place +in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their +own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons +of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman +families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of the +political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present on +the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitude +whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia were +watered by the precious blood of the elect of the earth." + +For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. +One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticed +a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack was +coming. + +The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing +rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey +himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken +from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the +cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. +His left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and +Cassius Longínus. + +At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw +their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry +charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back the +opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced +flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held in +reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, appeared +in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians wavered, +turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselves +upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This wing, composed +of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to fight its former +comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. Pompey himself +mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the battle ended in a +rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand of +the enemy lay dead on the field. + +The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians +had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect +their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out +ready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables +were spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw +these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my +suffering, patient army, which needed the common necessaries of life, +of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a +portion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreat +of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were +pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killed +trying to escape. Labiénus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away +by night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + + +Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way +to the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few +companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne, +and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young +PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, +48. + +Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. +"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the +surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to +have excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being +a first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more +especially in the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted +to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good +statesman, he had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose +a side and stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could +not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he +never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." + +Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, set +sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought to +him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now +saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister, +the famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants of +Alexandría revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a +handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire +to the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he +returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing +CLEOPÁTRA upon the throne (47). + +Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, +where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt against Rome. +Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity rendered +proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED. + +He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy +before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from +the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of the +citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius and +fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been made +Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + +Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He +insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property +respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months +prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, +but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected +privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain +promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open +revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesar +collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state their +grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens" +(_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressed +them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was so keen, that a +reaction at once began, and they all begged to be received again into +his service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted +to each soldier out of the _ager publicus_, or out of his own estates. + +Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King +JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied +all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, Afranius, +Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. + +Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions +of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily, +Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, were +put to death without mercy. + +Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties. +He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and charged +with currying favor of the Dictator. + +Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near +Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed +useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the +province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba to +give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also came +in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils of +war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica +by Cato. + +For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; +Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. +Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, +46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed +to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a +slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted +in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, finding +their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; when +the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. +Labiénus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius +was captured and executed. + +Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and +committed suicide. + +Thus ended the African campaign. + +On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four +successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one +over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers with +liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They +were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousand +tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. +Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beasts +and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + +Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of +forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another +was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to him +in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) of the +Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictator +for two years, and later for life. He received for three years the +office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to be +guardian of manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune +(48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king in +everything excepting name. + +Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the +REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been +so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind. +Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still in +use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, an +Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + +While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate. +Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and the +vacancies filled with persons of merit. + +Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of +Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus had +been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiers +became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Roman +affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in its +wanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect an +army as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There were +thirteen legions in all. + +Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the +province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor +AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The +struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive +battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near +Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was on +the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it hand +to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful at +one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized a +standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labiénus was seen to +gallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized his +troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including three +thousand Roman Knights, and Labiénus himself. + +Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a number +of years. + +Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, +when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians +(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, +which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration. + + +CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + +MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, called +UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.) (95-46) was the +great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the +old school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in +his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, +who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a +general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military +exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; but +when candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declined +to win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. + +QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of +the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was one +of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. +He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant tool +against the great conqueror. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR. + + +Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had fought +against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, MARCUS +BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to nine +hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in +idleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. He +rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of +Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits were +marked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to be +carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were formed. +Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in Rome. The +harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from the Adriatic +to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to Mars was built, +and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of the Tarpeian +Rock. + +In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + +CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the +conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of +Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At +Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned +by Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew +and son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, and +also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, and +Brutus tyranny. + +These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men +who had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. +Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all +who knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking +the life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + +On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the +Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, headed +by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled brother; and +while the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping Caesar's hand, +kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to rise, Cimber dragged +his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was standing behind his +chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was struck, and the whole +pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius stabbed him in the face, and +Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made no further resistance; but, wrapping +his gown over his head and the lower part of his body, he fell at the +base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was drenched with the martyr's blood. + +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the crowd. +They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's toga, and +disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to be carried +to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral pile in the +Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in troops, broke +into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassius +fled from the city for their lives, followed by the other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a +pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As +a historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + + +Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his +sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other +relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + +Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. +He went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, +Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a +large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's +writings and memoranda. + +Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and +showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome +was disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's +property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public +purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out +of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the people. +He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winter +of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, who +was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,--so called +from their resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes against +Philip. + +During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at +Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed +Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, made +friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43) +the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganize +the state, and to hold office for five years. + +The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and +Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia +Cisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription +followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to please +Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + + +PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + +The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, +whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These two +had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80,000 +infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering various +towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled their +forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marching +through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octavius +opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 troops. There were +two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeated +Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of his +colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, three +weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, +and, following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. With +Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, which +is monarchy, was then established. + +The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman +world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took +Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + +Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to +be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in +command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the +Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposed +the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raise +a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, but +later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, the +rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, but was taken +prisoner at Milétus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, and put to +death. + +Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal share +in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But his +soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrender +to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power and +provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be a +factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octavius +and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latter +the East. + +Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to the +fascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dress of +an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friends +and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finally +divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregarding +his good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he became +more and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture +resulted in open war. + +The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, +September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a +large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that +of Cleopátra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopátra +insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was +commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off +Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, when +Cleopátra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave the +line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued until +his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days' +hesitation, surrendered. + +Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter in +Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupied +in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy the +demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length he +turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key of +the country, he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing of success, +committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. The queen, +disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example, +and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithful +attendants also dead at her feet. + +Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital +to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled +disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He +arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. The +gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and had +been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once between +the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at peace with +all the world. + + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + +CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the +dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by +nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, +and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not +sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play +a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it +happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled, +deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of his +adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which he +tried to steer his course. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + + +After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the +precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but he +allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give him +that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. In +this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next the +Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority of +Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore +to this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious +pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property +qualification for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS +(prince), a title which implied that the Emperor was the _first_ +citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any +suspicions of the populace. + +The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had +jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. +It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), +and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + +The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it +made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), and +Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sitting +in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of +course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was made +Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + +Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was +practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all +voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, +however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A. +D.). + +As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as +Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself +resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee them. +The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsuls +appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa, +Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and Gallia +Narbonensis. + +The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was +assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, a +second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body +guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefects +soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus +reigned supreme. + +The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on +the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper +Euphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and +west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, +and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign +Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the +territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + +Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory +between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy +mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two +step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. +They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new +provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + +Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the province +of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + +Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a +campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished the +conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.), +and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work. + +Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany. +His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons, +Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. + +In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired +territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently +conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, they +rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief. + +Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the +Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. After +three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his way +through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy +in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killed +himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again the +Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor +is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my +legions!" + +Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he asked +his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. + +Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 +B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her +beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married +three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by +whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She +was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. + +OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and +accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her +son MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). +The famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. +869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to +tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. + +After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark +Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the +ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + +AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend and +counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleet +of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had +three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him; +the third was murdered by Tiberius. + +Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in +his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and +ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in +the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune, +than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will. +His success depended on the temper of the people and the peculiar +circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is found in +the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live in peace +for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one will, and +the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the legitimate +result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed his +empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus it +would seem that the part he played was that of a shrewd politician, +rather than that of a wise statesman. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + + +In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose +names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the AUGUSTAN +AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, +Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign a +brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than diminished +by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, and that of +Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong to an epoch +in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which pertains to the +arts of peace. + +In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. Born +at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona and +Mediolánum. After completing his education he retired to his paternal +estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the battle of +Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was subsequently +restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly in +Campania. His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-second +year (22 September, 19 B. C.). + +Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly +imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone +inspiring and elevating. + +In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, +a faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal +interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and +difficulties of practical life. + +In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage +gave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the friendship +of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was Horace, who +entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which was established +in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in +which every Roman had a share; and his works became school-books even +before the death of Augustus, and have continued such ever since. + +HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at +Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where he +fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his _Satires_. +These he read to his friends, and their merit was at once recognized. +His great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him to the Emperor, and +gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Mountains. +He died the same year as his patron, and was buried beside him at the +Esquiline Gate. + +The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in +the Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and felicity +of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read and quoted +more than those of any other ancient writer. + +OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil +and Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for +narration. + +"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, +partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of +nature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations of +this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other +poets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character +and rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by +Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing verses +were written during this period. + +One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, the +warm friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the +literature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his +magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helped +both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter is +constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) childless, +and left his fortune to Augustus. + +The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and +Nepos. + +LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man of +rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The historical +value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of the scarcity, +and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on the +times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and always interesting. +His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with that of Caesar. Only +thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two books that he wrote are +preserved. + +NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, +_De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither accurate nor +interesting, and of little value. + +SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of +Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. +He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to be +obscure. + +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments of +this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican institutions, +a man of great independence of character, and a poet of no mean merit, +as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of his writings are +preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two that +had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of justice +(_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The most famous +of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar and finished +by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the great +Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, finished by the +Emperor of that name. + +The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was the +PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. Here are +buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a mausoleum +for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--the first stone +theatre of Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + + +Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. +C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained a +divorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + +Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, +and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in +Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his +campaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 B. +C., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the dissolute +daughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, +developing everything that was bad in his character, and making him +jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. + +Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to +Rhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's +influence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards +appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the age of +fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and ambitions were +locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said but once to have +taken counsel with his officers. He was a master of dissimulation, and +on this account an object of dislike and suspicion. But until his +later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, penetrating all +disguises. + +Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at +large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which had +been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were made. +First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in small +bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the walls. By +this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, the old +COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was treated with +great deference. + +Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, +that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, +governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread of +punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in public +expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his reign on +the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + +Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the +slightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but it +is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was +effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one +who had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the application +of this offence even to words or conduct which could in any way be +considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers +(_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered unsafe. +The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially prominent by +ancient historians; but their statements are beginning to be taken with +much allowance. + +After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a fainting +fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + +LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. She +exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. She +had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She managed +to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of Augustus, +until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the palace with +Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the Empress, and her son +feared and hated her. She survived Augustus fifteen years, and died in +29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her death-bed, and was not present +at her funeral. + +SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was +trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He +persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her +husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry +her. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of +Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and +Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Capreae, +and he himself became the real master of Rome. + +Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrested +and executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in +pieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + + +CALIGULA (37-41). + +Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son +of Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of +Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nickname given +him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five years +of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject to +fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, and +confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is said +to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, that +he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond of adulation, +and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise of a god, +and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He was +murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + + +THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +CLAUDIUS (41-54). + + +A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of +government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the +Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + +Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was a +man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his +two wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was so +notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. His +second wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearly as bad. +This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom she induced +the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless wife then +caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be proclaimed Emperor. + +At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In +the government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He undertook +the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days he laid the +foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about forty years +later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a Roman province +for four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Roman customs, +as did the Gauls, and when the Roman garrisons were withdrawn, they +quickly returned to their former condition. However, many remains of +Roman buildings in the island show that it was for the time well under +subjection. + +The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a new +harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct called +the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to this day. +He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by draining the +Fucine Lake. + + +NERO (54-68). + +NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or three +years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the author, and +BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his government +was during this period the most respectable of any since the time of +Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and removed from +the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an unscrupulous +woman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finally killed his +wife, Octavia. + +It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this +time. A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the real ruler +of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and wickedness. +Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhus was +disposed of; Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, +were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the feelings of his +subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The Emperor appeared in +public, contending first as a musician, and afterwards in the sports of +the circus. + +The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, +was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the stories of +his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure fictions. It +was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so the CHRISTIANS, +then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were accused +of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often enclosed in +fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. + +In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence +of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding +alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard +stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply was +also carefully regulated. + +In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the +magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. Its +walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of art +from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, +lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of Nero +himself, one hundred and ten feet high. + +Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were +implicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life +after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he +conducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, +and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither +Spain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. +Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the +insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned +him to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June 9, +68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, his +name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him ended +the Claudian line of Emperors. + +LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, +of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a +teacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca +began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable +reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later he +was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. He +was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he shared +the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His influence +over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often maintained by +doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike him, and when +Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's command he committed +suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, he discoursed with his +friends on the brevity of life till death ensued. + +Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral +essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of the +last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + + +GALBA (68-69).--OTHO (69).--VITELLIUS (69). + +GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on +account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and was +murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Rome. +He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerely +regretted by the better element in the city. + +OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection +against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his +accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the Rhine, +revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and committed +suicide after a reign of three months. + +VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and +incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during which +he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + +VESPASIAN (69-79). + + +The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the +soldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea +proclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. He +left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at +Rome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the course +of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, rebuilding +also a large part of the city. + +In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and +extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the +general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper +members, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he +put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus returned +from the capture of Jerusalem, (Footnote: Jerusalem was taken in +70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have been +graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was present +in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold +into slavery.) they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was +closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. + +Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A +new Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous +COLOSSÉUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of +Nero, which had stood near by. + +On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugal +and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked by +peace and general prosperity. + +One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum +Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. +Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, +which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, +increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their +civilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. His +life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + + +TITUS (79-81). + +Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of +his father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built a +triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, +called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via +Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred +candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + +It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed by +an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, the +most noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, the only +one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student. +His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, +and caused his death. + + +DOMITIAN (81-96). + +DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate, +and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, during +which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes +and inconsistencies. + +In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added to +the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden and +Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the Rhine +to Ratisbon on the Danube. + +With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the +last of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the historian +Suetonius. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + +NERVA (96-98). + + +NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the first +Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. +He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in command of +the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but during that +time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring happiness and +prosperity upon every class. + + +TRAJAN (98-117). + +Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty +in the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long +afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was +that he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." +Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful +life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. + +He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube +and the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became +so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is +founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. +It was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF +TRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. + +Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an +important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, +however, resulted in no permanent advantage. + +During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS +POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the +financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, +until in the next century they were reduced to a condition of practical +serfdom. + +The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustan +age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose writers +were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior to its +poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE YOUNGER, +and QUINTILIAN. + +The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and +STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + + +HADRIAN (117-138). + +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. +One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquests +of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasons +for this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lend +strength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection without +constant and expensive military operations. The people occupying the +new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy of +defence, and certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke. + +Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, +to overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited +Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a +fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea to +sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, corresponding +nearly to the modern boundary between England and Scotland. He also +visited the East, where the Jews were making serious trouble, and +completed their overthrow. + +On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment. +Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The most +famous of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known as the +Castle of San Angelo. + +Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases +from which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure +a proper succession, he associated with himself in the government TITUS +AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus and +Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadrian +died, leaving the Empire to Titus. + + +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161). + +ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded +to the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate on +account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. +He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the +affairs of state moved smoothly. + + +MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180). + +On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the +title of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus. + +The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into +Gaul; the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the +Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, however, +ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding +Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a +pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The Christians +were charged with being the cause of the plague, and were cruelly +persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp +at Smyrna. + +The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague who +attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The Emperor +was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become his +greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less +unhappy. + +The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. +Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability +even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was +engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring +to check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the +fifty-ninth year of his life (180). + +Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought +with money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked +the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + +Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were +quiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His +faults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His +_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes and +thoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his death, +Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. + + +THE CHRISTIANS. + +The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were +persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for +these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse +to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. +It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, +as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage to +the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. +AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general persecution this sect +had yet suffered. The last combined effort to suppress them was under +DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which +famous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.--DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +COMMODUS (180-192). + + +On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was +received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His +character was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and +vindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of +unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid himself +of the best members of the Senate. His government became so corrupt, +he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. His proudest +boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of his ability to +kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve years +his servants rid the Empire of his presence. + + +PERTINAX (192-193). + +PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, +followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it +was not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted +reforms were stopped by his murder. + + +JULIANUS (193).--SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + +The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who proved +to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a thousand +dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in number. After +enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. + +In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their +respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African, +belonging to the army of the Danube. + +Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished them +from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand legionaries, who +acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in command of this +guard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, and +financial powers. The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. + +After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against the +Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. +In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificent +arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eboracum +(York), in Britain, while making preparations for a campaign against the +Caledonians. + + +CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + +Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in +the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the +elder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence +of their mother. + +Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) he +was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous +baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. +Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, and +was followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a +true Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of his +predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. + + +FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + +ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored +in vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become +all powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign +(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + +Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for three +years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + +GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers +in his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251) +both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the +Christians severer than any that preceded it. + +The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. +Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The +Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of +territory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is +often called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered strength +of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); TACITUS +(275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian undertook a +campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In her he found +a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant by +her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself +in Palmýra, which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia was +carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was +afterwards permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first who +built the walls of Rome in their present position. + + +DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + +With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of +government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost +the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more +united country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself +MAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing +a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS and +CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of the East, +and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed all +revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and imposed peace +and good order upon the world. + +Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two +Caesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn appointed +Caesars as assistants. + +Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE was +proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle +followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and +was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + + +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + +Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which +should be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering +the greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea +and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while +as a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in the least +shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the city was +built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of government +was permanently removed thither, and every inducement was offered to +immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to drag out a +miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen a +prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign of thirty years, +in his sixty-fourth year (337). + +Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with +which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, +HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this +mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kept +on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite influential +body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was issued, in +313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; and also in +this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), met to settle +questions of creed. + +In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all +warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient and +prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition alone +led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked his +course after his success. He was filial in his affection towards his +mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death +his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he was +great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. + + +DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., +CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves +(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the +possession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death +of the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, +because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while Constans +was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. Constans was +murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He died ten years +later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360-363) + +JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and +respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus +gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, had +too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. The +failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign +of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His +successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the army, died after a +reign of only seven months. + +VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the throne +was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his +brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with +Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN +the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her +ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever +visited the city during his reign. (Footnote: Since the building of +Constantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be +mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincial +city.) He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son GRATIAN +(375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under him +Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a battle +against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and Western +Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself sole +ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. Gratian, like +so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, MAXIMUS +(383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS (392-394), were +either deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, +one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom Gratian had made Emperor +of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his death +his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) taking the West, and +Arcadius the East. + +Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed +under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by +marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven +from the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was +suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate +to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he was +wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, +captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When this evil was +past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the Empire, each +eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumbling +to pieces. + +Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperial +line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a relic of its +former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost; Illyria +and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa was soon after +seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possession +of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, +winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. He was assassinated +by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455, the Emperor +himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, but for +only three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a noble of Gaul, became +Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a Sueve, of considerable +ability, who for some time managed the affairs of the Empire, making +and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avítus, ten +months were allowed to elapse before a successor was appointed; and then +the crown was bestowed upon MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, a +man too weak to interfere with the plans of Ricimer. + +After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the +people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who +attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Ricimer; +but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a horde of +barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, +and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself died. + +Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid +succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the +office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of the +DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII. INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + + +The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a +separate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, +because by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; and +especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive +conception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces the +Roman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. + +The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western +Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they +moved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and +defeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the +Danube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + +The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern +Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were +the more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged to +submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in overrunning +the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideous +appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the Danube, and +besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and take refuge in +their territory. The favor was granted, but the refugees were treated +with indignity, and compelled to undergo every privation. + +Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also +desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized +shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They found +the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that they united +with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent against them, and +ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in person, and was +defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and westward into Greece, +everywhere pillaging the country. + +When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong +points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment +for an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete +victory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the +first chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a +close. + +We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, +ALARIC and STILICHO. + +Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year +the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens was +compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken and +plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual resistance. At +this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, hastened to the +scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but Alaric burst through +his lines and escaped. He then made peace with Constantinople, and the +office of Master-General of Illyricum was bestowed upon him. How sincere +the barbarian was in his offers of peace may be seen from the fact that +in two years he invaded Italy (400). + +Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that even +the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear of the +approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for himself, +leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from Britain, Gaul, +and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacant +and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, was +surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified town of Asta, +was there besieged until the arrival of the brave Stilicho, who attacked +the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly routed them. In his +retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he was again defeated, +and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. Honorius returned home +(404), and enjoyed a triumph. + +Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from the +Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + +The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of Germany +who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, and +Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these tribes invaded +Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were met near Florence +by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus himself was killed. +The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, ravaged the lower +portion of the country, and finally separated. One portion, the +Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their descendants comes +the name of Burgundy. + +The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they +established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of +the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves +settled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. +The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to +Africa, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at +one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome itself. + +Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, no +longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting for +the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + +With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, +Alaric again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into +submission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peace +was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. +The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became the +second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + +The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to ravage +the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were almost +spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after his army +marched into France, where they established a kingdom reaching from the +Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + +The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the +Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to +enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves +firmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the +name of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + +Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder +appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + +The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The +portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark +of his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, small +deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, +broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength though +disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an army of +over half a million troops. + +At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to +interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an +invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of an +ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy from the +west, was too favorable to be neglected. + +A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing +this, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever cities +lay in their route. + +The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met the +Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 451, was +fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of Western Europe. +Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the Romans; and a charge +of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of the savages. Aetius did +not push his victory, but allowed the Huns to retreat in the direction +of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rased to the +ground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole country, sparing only those +who preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. + +It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, who +fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoons +at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + +Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, and +with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The VANDALS, we +have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were now ruled by +GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continually +ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets. + +Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow +of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge +sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail +for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands +on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, 455), and for +fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric then left +Rome, taking with him Eudoxia. + +This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years +elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. + +PLAUTUS (254-184). + + +PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. Born +at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on the stage +at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some time he +worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by translating Greek +comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come down to us. They are +lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek and Roman +life. + + +TERENCE (195-159). + +TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early +age as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and +liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of Plautus, +they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same general +character. + + +ENNIUS (139-69). + +QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the +Younger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, the +_Annàles_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the arrival of +Aenéas to the poet's own day. + + +CICERO (106-43). + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prose +writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy natural +talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively imagination, his +great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of expression, which was +never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any circumstances or mood, +his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, all +contributed to render him a powerful speaker. He himself left nothing +undone to attain perfection. Not until he had spent a long time in +laborious study and preparation did he make his _début_ as an orator; +nor did he ever rest and think himself perfect, but, always working, +made the most careful preparation for every case. Each success was to +him only a step to another still higher achievement; and by continual +meditation and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hence +he succeeded, as is universally admitted, in gaining a place beside +Demosthenes, or at all events second only to him. + +There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of twenty +more. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his proscription +by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa at Formiae, in +December, 43. + +His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de Claris +Oratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover of +philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most +read are _De Senectute, De Amicitia,_ and _De Officiis_. + +Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they +furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + + +CAESAR (100-44). + +Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his _Commentarii_, +containing the history of the first seven years of the Gallic war, and +the history of the civil strife down to the Alexandrine war. The account +of his last year in Gaul was written probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of +the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an +orator, Caesar ranks next to Cicero. + + +NEPOS (94-24). + +CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both +Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De Viris +Illustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor good +style. + + +LUCRETIUS (98-55). + +TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum Natura_. The +tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + + +CATULLUS (87-47). + +GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet of Roman +literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + + +VIRGIL (70-19). + +The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aenéis_, in twelve books, +gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, and his +struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised when Virgil +died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + +Besides the _Aenéis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten Eclogues imitated +and partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. The _Georgica_, +a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, is +considered his most finished work, and the most perfect production of +Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + + +HORACE (65-8). + +QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two of +Satires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page 180.) + + +TIBULLUS (54-29). + +ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems +the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + + +PROPERTIUS (49-15). + +SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and +wrote mostly on love. + + +OVID (43 B.C.--18 A.D.) + +PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of _Heroides_; +the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the _Metamorphoses_ (fifteen +books); the _Tristia_; and the _Fasti_. (See page 181.) + + +LIVY (59 B.C.--17 A.D.). + +TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have +been preserved. (See page 181.) + + +PHAEDRUS. + +PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius +(14-37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in +number, and are written in iambic verse. + + +SENECA (8 B.C.--65 A.D.) + +For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, page +189. + + +CURTIUS. + +QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius +(50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. + + +PERSIUS (34-62). + +PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He +wrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + + +LUCAN (39-65). + +LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called +_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + + +PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + +GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in +history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on _Natural +History_ has come down to us. + + +STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. STATIUS (45-96), a native of +Naples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the _Thebaid_, the +_Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the _Silvae_. + +MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen books +are extant. He was a native of Spain. + +QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of +eloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of an +Orator_, is preserved. + +JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described and +attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires are +still in existence. + +TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his age. +His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a high +tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote,-- + +1. A dialogue on orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. +3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of +the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (_Historiae_). +5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + + +PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of +Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books +of his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting +vivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent +and smooth. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS.--PROVINCES. + + +The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen +to fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, +placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large polygonal +blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to make +an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewn +with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at regular +distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. + +There were four main public roads:-- + +1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. + +2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Aquínum and Teánum, joining the Via Appia at +Beneventum. + +3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum and +Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main line at +Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where +it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on the Adriatic, +the other to Ancóna, and from there along the coast to Fanum Fortúnae, +where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Ariminum through +Pisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name of VIA AEMILIA, +into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, and +Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolánum. + +4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsium, +following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by Genua, as far +as Forum Julii, in Gaul. + + +PROVINCES. + +After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were +divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first +Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards +persons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration +of their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls also, +at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, +with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called _Provinciae +Consuláres_. The provinces were generally distributed by lot, but their +distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitled +to them. The tenure of office was usually a year, but it was frequently +prolonged. When a new governor arrived in the province, his predecessor +was expected to leave within thirty days. + +The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the +financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was obliged +to account at Rome for his administration, from his own books and those +of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to deposit two +copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his province, and to +forward a third to Rome. + +If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his official +duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and to +influential Romans who were their patrons. + +The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain +contributions from the people of the province for the support of himself +and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, notary, +lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme in +military and civil matters, and he could not be removed from office. But +after his term had ended, he could be tried for mismanagement. + +Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast +sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these +was Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + +At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; viz. +Sicilia (227 (Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the date +at which the province was established.)), Sardinia and Corsica (227), +Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum (167), +Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia Citerior +(80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Bithynia and +Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), and +Mauritania (46). + +Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, +Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, +Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV. + +(Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered in +different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it into +one chapter for readier reference.) + + +ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + +The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or higher, +and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the Censor, had the +_Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former class belonged the +Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the Comitia +Centuriáta. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, +viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, +Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These +officers had the right to sit in the _sella curúlis_, chair of state. +This chair was displayed upon all public occasions, especially in +the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when he +administered justice. In shape it was plain, resembling a common folding +camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and later +overlaid with gold. + +The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, +and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral +processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other +deceased members of the family of curule rank. + +A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never +held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most famous +new men were Marius and Cicero. + +The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early +republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. The +plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles and +the Tribúni Plebis. + +All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and +all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January +1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor, +December 5th. + +The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which +one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding +each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship, +thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship, +forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthy +could afford to hold office. + + +THE CONSULS. + +The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was +appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power was +equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senate +and the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided. "When both +Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing the +official duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consul +was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him in +single file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (_fasces_), +to signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the +city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifying +the power of the magistrate to behead criminals." + +At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a +province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He was chief +in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + + +PRAETORS. + +There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice +(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, +as _Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor was +called _Praetor Urbánus_. He had charge of all civil suits between Roman +citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted in +their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, and +by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrínus_ had charge of civil cases in +which one or both parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presided +over the permanent criminal courts. + + +AEDILES. + +The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of +the police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings. +Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called Curule +Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians. +They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of the +public games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with the +populace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. A small +sum was appropriated from the public treasury for these games; but +an Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make the show +magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that of +Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to hold this office. + + +QUAESTORS. + +There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having +charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different +governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their +clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, +and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor +always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his +quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia +Tribúta. + + +TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + +There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They were +always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any +decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of +a magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could +hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty +of death. They called together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also had +authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeeded +in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did not +possess the _imperium_. + + +CENSORS. + +There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for +eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period +being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates without +possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were: + +(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of +property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a general +oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to +contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making or +repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the privilege of +collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.(Footnote: +In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the +Aediles. ) (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty +parties from the Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. + + +DICTATOR. + +In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint +a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of +office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were +not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was +thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but +changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. + + +MAGISTER EQUITUM. + +This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in +authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + + +PONTIFICES. + +The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at the head +of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of office +was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge of +their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + + +IMPERIUM. + +This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial +functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) +by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The _Imperium_ could +be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), except +by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a +triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was called IMPERATOR. + + +POTESTAS. + +This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates possessed. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + + +The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the +conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many +houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, +paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are +said to have cost as much as two million dollars. + +The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, _Ostium_, +_Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablínum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. The +VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and open +on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to our +front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a large +room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which the +rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the +opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the +ALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages +from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. +The PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court +surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was +somewhat larger than the Atrium. + +The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were +lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either +bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, +gold, and frescoing. + +The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their +light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The +windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until the +time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered with +lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, in +which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passed +out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + +The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls +were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In +the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors +ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugs +from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely to +add to the attractiveness of the room. + +Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, +which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat +on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more round +holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspended +by chains from the ceiling. + + +MEALS. + +The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our +breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four +o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium +was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between +three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course +consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, which +was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments; +the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes. + +At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and full +dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil the +couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who +reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by +pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was +served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the +dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to +change with every course. + + +DRESS.--BATHING. + +The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The former +was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a long +tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunic +was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman +garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also +the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn by +soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, but +being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear it +only on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in +place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to the +right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga with +a purple hem. + +The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment, +gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to +the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, +and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy for +ornaments as freely as their purses would allow. + +Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The +former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter +were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor +used wooden shoes. + +Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with +elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor +baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular +resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats +for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon +leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. + + +FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + +The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants +of Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts +of civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, +corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted +seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, +the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were +relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to +pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. + +The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, +was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient +festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were +said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of +Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenure +of office is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met at +the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, with +plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they had +sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, and +with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ran +through the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, +especially women, as it was believed this would render them fruitful. + +The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus +(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + +Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and +other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first +exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; +but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men of +rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increased +to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools +(_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. The person who gave +an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published (_edere_), some time +before the show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights began +with wooden swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchanged +for steel weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectators +wished him spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up if +they wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were +often discharged and presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they +were called _rudiarii_. + + +THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + +The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, +combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of an +ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatre +was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus built +one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatre +was built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still +standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could +seat ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is the +COLOSSÉUM. The open space in the centre was called the ARÉNA, and was +surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators +from the wild beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held in +the Forum and in the Circus. + +The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. The +plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. The +first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near the Campus +Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty +thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present, +the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguished +persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behind +these sat the ordinary crowd. + +The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built +for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense +structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called +Eurípus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the +centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, +brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds +of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight between +young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry; +4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, such +as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal +to float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemned +to death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by the +kindness of the Emperor. + + +A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + +The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was +sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had been +Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered +the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. When +a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, +garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smoked +on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered a +city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by +the magistrates. + +The procession then proceeded in the following order:-- + +1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. +Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of +flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and +rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia +of the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with +their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator +in single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator +himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in +a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in +his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with a +laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12. +The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. + +The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the +city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a +purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep +(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. + + +POMOERIUM. + +The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no +person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not always +run parallel to the city walls. + + +NAMES. + +Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), as +Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as Cornelius, +Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognómen_), as Scipio, Cicero, +Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the _agnomen_, given +for some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from some +other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICÁNUS, and all his +descendants had the right to the name. Africánus the younger was adopted +from the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added to +his other names AEMILIÁNUS. + +The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of +Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from +others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio. +If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was +added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ (second), etc. + + +MARRIAGE. + +Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was +forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such +marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, to +marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, +the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. The +wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends, +Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. The +bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes +of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her future +husband's home by three boys, one of whom carried before her a torch, +the other two supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied by +friends of both parties. The groom received the bride at the door, which +she entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house were +then delivered to her. The day ended with a feast given by the husband, +after which the bride was conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium, +which was adorned with flowers. On the following day another feast was +given by the husband, and the wife performed certain religious rites. + +The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from +that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her +children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and shared +the honors and respect shown to her husband. + + +FUNERALS. + +When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present +endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removed +from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and +mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceased +by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointed +with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placed +in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and the +body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward the +door. In early times all funerals were held at night; but in later times +only the poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afford +display. The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed by +musicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament +and sing the funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players and +buffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, and +imitated his words and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased +had liberated, each wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body were +carried the images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown +and military rewards which he had gained. The couch on which the body +was carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold and +purple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loud +lamentations, the women beating their breasts and tearing their hair. + +The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, +and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was delivered. +From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must be +outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times +of the Republic this became quite common. + + +EDUCATION. + +In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, +writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a +taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_) +were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to +teach them to converse in Greek. + +A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned +above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and Latin writers, +besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known +professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + + +BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING. + +The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind +of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often +used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form +one sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from +_volvere_, to roll). + +Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usually +written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a pencil in size +and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded +together with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied together +by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a +signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special +messengers were employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail +service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening and +close. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the person +addressed, and closed with a simple "farewell," without any signature. +Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual +opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + + +_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the +Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, and +the Coelian. + +There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). Some +were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with +porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum Románum_, or simply +_The Forum_. There were also the _Forum Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajáni_. +Some served as markets; as _Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum +Suarium_, the hog market, etc. + +Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), built +by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was +situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as +a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by Augustus, +was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by +Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that +of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in +377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an arched +passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up +to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in +Numa's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus was +one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in +front and another on the back of his head. From him is named the month +of January. + +(Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR.) + +There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that +of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the dynasty of +the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also +numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. + +The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome. + +There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; +and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. + +The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important +was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which +was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of +which can still be seen. + +The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae +had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public +questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. + +The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, +of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still +exist. + +Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by +fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of +which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about +313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + +SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense +size. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still +in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + +There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now +remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of +Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, +built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs +on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, +carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built +by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of +the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and +Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. + +There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that +of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San +Angelo. + +The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most +remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called +COLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae +(261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each +side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is +perhaps best known. + +The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, +from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It +was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION. + + +Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They +were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress +hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a +practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + +No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscítum_, or _senatus +consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, +and the anniversary was observed. + +The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin +or military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman +citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. +The _Latíni_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to +them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, +passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were +placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + + +THE CALENDAR. + +The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each +month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends +fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, +July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days +after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said +to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened +between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days +_before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was reckoned +from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the +Consuls of that year were added. + + +RELIGION. + +The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITER +and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; +TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess of +growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god of +the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivals +were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the +Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and +the Lupercalia, in February. + +VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar +erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had +a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also +worshipped the Penátes and Lares. + +The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected +fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in +dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the +Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and +by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon +plates. + +The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of +houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were +also kept in the inner hall. + +The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL +VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose +twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot +to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The +Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats +in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment +any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and +white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on +the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. They could not marry. + + +FLAMINES. + +The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. +There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiáta, +and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all +the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a +lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in +bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This +priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was +forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He +was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon +an army outside of the city walls. + + +THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always +chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the +1st of March, and for several successive days. + + +THE AUGURES. + +This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen +in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to +interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were +favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no +election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the +omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence +their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close +corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C. + + +THE FETIALES. + +This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering +probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with +other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities +should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + + +The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to +our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort +into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries +(platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in +practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up +each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the first consisting of +four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of +the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four +feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. +The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by +a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor +was a short, straight two-edged sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, +worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the +shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a +heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet +long and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman +citizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always +light-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries +taken from the different provinces. + +The officers were:--1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. The +LEGÁTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. The +QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, numbering six in +each legion, and assisting the Imperator in his duties. + 5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. The +CENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank for +good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each +cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, but +rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, except +the centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families. + +The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body +guard to the Imperator. + +The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched +wings, perched upon a pole. + +The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made +it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same +way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers +encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus +surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The +general's tent was called the _Praetorium_, and the entrance to the +camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite +entrance was called the Decuman Gate. + + + + +CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME. + + +AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture +by the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son +IÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of the +district where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his +daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he named +LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also called +ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which he +called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. + +Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUS +PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided +the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. +Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing +that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made the +daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her +marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became +pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. +When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, and +ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. + +At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its +banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, +the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing +their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who was +near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew +up and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom +to their grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount +Palatínus, which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they were +building a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his +brother. + +Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). +He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he +opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. +To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring +people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in +looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine +virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a +compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then +chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the +people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he +disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. + +One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), a +Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. +Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous +subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. +TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the +fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson of +Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged +the city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a +prison, and to bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the +_pons sublicius_ i. e. a bridge resting on piles.) He also founded a +city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. + +The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS +(616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming a +favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of +Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. +He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many wars +successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built the +CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also began +the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killed +in the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whom +he had snatched the kingdom. + +His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who +enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a census +of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 +souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, +Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. + +TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energetic +in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, +a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his +father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, a +Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oracles +and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused to +purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the +same price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burned +three more, and obtained from the monarch for her last three the +original price. These books were preserved in the Capitol, and held in +great respect. They were destroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, +83. Two men had charge of them, who were called _duoviri sacrórum_. +The worship of the Greek deities, Apollo and Latóna, among others, was +introduced through these books. + +In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, +and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. +(Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by +Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bear +the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, +having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was then +formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. + +Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all +unsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been +painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509.) +In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of the +Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS +COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans sublicius_) +over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the river +in safety to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient +Rome.") + +During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous +youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing +King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized +and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. +Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altar +until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. +Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men as +brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, that +he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his name +Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand. + +Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in +retirement. + +In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by +taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and +crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent +MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote: +Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the belly +and members.) the people were induced to return to the city, and for the +first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to +represent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni Plebis. + +Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and +defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he +received the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that grain +should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished +their right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was banished. +Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, and +came within five miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation of +his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, +when his wife and mother added their tears, he was induced to withdraw +the army. He was afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. +(Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus.") + +After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most +distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven +consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian +gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and the +whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from +Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, +but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius +Vibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. + +In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory +had been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were +in imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was +appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of this +period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found him +working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his wife to throw +over him his mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the state +with proper respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yet +so deeply did he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand his +vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass +under the yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well +earned triumph. + +In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the +beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays +of Ancient Rome.") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed of +Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot to +obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. +When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, the +Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slave +of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, in +presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled the +Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end +to his own life. + +MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He +was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he +captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated +the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards +impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, +and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls under +Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of +forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the +battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, +Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. +He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. + +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July +18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besieged +for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, the +Gauls were defeated. + + + + +CHRONOLOGY. + + (The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.) + + B.C. + 753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. + 753-510. REGAL PERIOD. + 753-716. Romulus. + 716-673. Numa Pompilius. + 673-641. Tullus Hostilius. + 640-616. Ancus Marcius. + 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. + 578-534. Servius Tullius. + 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. + 510-30. THE REPUBLIC. + 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. + 508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. + 494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. + 492. Corioli. Coriolánus. + 477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. + 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus. + 451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. + 396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. + 390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). + 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. + 367. The Licinian Rogations. + 353. Caere: the first Municipium. + 343-341. First Samnite War. + 340-338. The Latin War. + 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. + 326-304, The Second Samnite War. + 321. The Caudine Forks. + 298-290. The Third Samnite War. + 295. Sentínum. + 283. Lake Vadimónis. + 281-272. Pyrrhus. + 280. Heracléa. Cineas. + 279. Asculum. + 274. Beneventum. + 272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. + 264. Period of foreign conquest begins. + 264-241. First Punic War. + 260. Lipara; Mylae. + 257. Tyndaris. + 256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. + 249. Drepana. + 241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. + 237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. + 229. Illyrican War. Important results. + 222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon. + 220. Hannibal in Spain. + 219. Saguntum. + 218-202. Second Punic War. + 218. Ticinus. Trebia. + 217. Trasiménus. Casilínum. + 216. Cannae. + 212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes. + 207. Baecula. Metaurus. + 202. Zama. + 214-205. First Macedonian War. + 200-197. Second Macedonian War. + 198. Cynoscephalae. + 190. Magnesia. + 183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. + 171-168. Third Macedonian War. + 168. Pydna. + 149-146. Third Punic War. + 149., Death of Cato the elder. + 146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. + 143-133. The Numantine War. + 134-132. The Servile War. + 133. Tiberius Gracchus. + 129. Death of Africánus the younger. + 123-121. Gaius Gracchus. + 118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. + 102. Aquae Sextiae. + 101. Vercellae. + 90-89. The Italian or Social War. + 86. Death of Marius. + 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. + 84. Death of Cinna. + 80. Reforms of Sulla. + 78. Death of Sulla. + 80-72. Sertorius in Spain. + 73-71. Spartacus. + 72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. + 67. Pompey conquers the pirates. + 67-61. Pompey in the East. + 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. + 59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. + 59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. + 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. + 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. + 53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and + 52 separation from Caesar. + 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. + 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. + 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. + 48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. + 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. + 47. Battle of Zela. + 47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. + 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. + 45 (Mar. 17). Munda. + 44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. + 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. + 43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. + 42 (Nov.). Philippi. + 36. Naulochus. + 31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + + THE EMPIRE. + + B.C. / A.D. + 30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. + 30-14. Augustus. + + A.D. + 14-37. Tiberius. + 37-41. Caligula. + 41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + 41-54. Claudius. + 54-68. Nero. + 68-69. Galba. + 69. Otho. + 69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + 69-79. Vespasian. + 79. Destruction of Jerusalem. + 79-81. Titus. + 80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. + 81-96. Domitian. + 96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + 96-98. Nerva. + 98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. + 117-138. Hadrian. + 138-161. Antonínus Pius. + 161-180. Marcus Aurelius. + 180-192. Commodus. + 192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. + 284-305. Diocletian. + 306-337. Constantine the Great. + 312. Edict of Milan. + 325. Council of Nice. + 337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. + + + + +SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + +HARVARD COLLEGE. + +JUNE, 1889. + +1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus; +Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important +events was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly.) + +2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + +3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + +4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + +5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. (Take one) + +1888. + +1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman +citizen,--what were they? (Take four.) + +2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) The reign of Hadrian; +(_c_) The first Punic war. (Take one.) + +3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, (Take one) + +4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + +5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for +"additional readings.") + + + + +1887. + +(a) (Take five.) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, +Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events +connected with four of these places. (Take any two.) + +1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + +2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + +3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, +Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + +_Questions on the "additional reading."_ + +(Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading +may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first three +in this group.) + +4. (TIGHE.) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ from +its theoretical powers? + +5. (BEESLEY.) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of +Gaius Gracchus? + +September, 1886. + +1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the +founding of Rome. + +2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the +Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + +3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace the +development of the _comitia tributa_. + +4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The +effect of this victory upon Italy? + +5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, _municipium_, _ager +Romanus_, _equites_. + + + + +YALE COLLEGE. + +EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + +June, 1889. + +1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. +Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. +Licinian Laws. + +2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at +what times introduced? + +3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles in +Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal +fail? + +4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + +5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. +First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. +Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + + +1887. + +(Time allowed, 30 minutes.) + +1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change did +he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make? + +2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causes +of each extension, and dates. + +3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian +era? How were they acquired, and when? + +4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; +comitia centuriata_. + +5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were they? +what happened there, and when? + + +1886. + +1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established. + +2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between +the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + +3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + +4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential +points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + +5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the +provinces? + +6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + + +June, 1885. + +1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + +2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. + +3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under the +Empire? + +4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + +5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of +Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus; +the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Roman +province? + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + +35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., +only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + +2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization of +the world. (1) + +3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state +the result in each contest. (4) + +4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and +state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks; +Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + +5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha; +(2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, or +death of Cicero? (3) + +6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which +occur in Roman history. (3) + +7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + +8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; +Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + +9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + +10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the +Christian era. (3) + +11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + +12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + +13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what +ground were the Christians punished? (2) + +14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. +Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + +15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + +16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + +17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + +18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + +19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + +20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + + +34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before +the founding of Rome.(2) + +2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. +(4) + +3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first +elected. (1) + +4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in +connection with them? (2) + +5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he +for hoping to succeed? (3) + +6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he +fail? (3) + +7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates: +B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + +8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the +Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the +Rubicon"? (3) + +9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances +of this. (3) + +10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one of +them. (4) + +11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian? +(1) + +12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was so +called. (2) + +13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a +stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + +14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of +the writings of each. (6) + +15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of +Rome. (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + +16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + +17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + +18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of +his Country"? (1) + +19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + +20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Marius +and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + + +33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + +44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. + +1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + +2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) Plebeians, (_c_) +Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4) + +3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + +4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + +5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + +6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + +7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their +effect upon the Republic. (2) + +8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? +(2) + +9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + +10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What +Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) + +11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + +12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of +the Roman people? (2) + +13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. +(2) + +14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the +cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + +15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the Emperor +Augustus? (1) + +16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, (_b_) Seneca, +(_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, (_e_) Caligula? (5) + + +THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the +Gracchi form a part? (1) + +18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by +Caius Gracchus? (2) + +19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + +20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by +birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) + +21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great +significance? (2) + + +31st Advanced Academic Examination, + +June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of +Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + +2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ from the +_comitia curiata_? (2) + +3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + +4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was +the result of the war? (2) + +5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of +the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the +circumstances of his death. (4) + +6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, +266-133 B.C. (5) + +7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to +literature and morals. (2) + +8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + +9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + +10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and +Caesar? (1) + +11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain in +their proscription? (4) + +12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + +13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the +Christians? (1) + +14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + +15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + + +THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + +16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + +17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of the +treaty made there. (4) + +18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the +final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + +19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself? +(3) + +20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ (_or Latins_) +(2) + + +30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of +Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + +2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? +(3) + +3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two +conditions of the return? (3) + +4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers +intrusted to them. (2) + +5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + +6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause +of the First Samnite War? (2) + +7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which +direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + +8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? +(1) + + +ANCIENT ROME. + +9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct +of the First Punic War. (2) + +10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle.(2) + +11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + +12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + +13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did +each contribute to it? (3) + +14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + +15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero; +Trajan. (2) + + +THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + +16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, +and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + +17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + +18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it +modelled? (2) + +19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its +membership? (2) + +20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate +perform? (2) + +21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + + +_29th Advanced Academic Examination._ + +November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36._ + +1. When was Rome founded? (1) + +2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the +basis of the new constitution? (2) + +3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings +overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + +4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how +long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + +5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + +6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they +contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + +7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, +and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3) + +8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what +policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + +9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and +habits. (2) + +10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was it +defeated, and in what manner? (3) + +11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + +12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? +(2) + +13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, and +the character of his reign. (2) + +14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + +15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some +articles used by them for food. (2) + + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + +16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, and +the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + +17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, +Tarentum. (3) + +18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what +part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins +descended? (7) + + + + +INDEX. + + + Achaeans + Achaia + Acroceraunia + Actium + Adherbal + Aduatuci + Aediles + Aedui + Aegátes Islands + Aegyptus + Aemilian Way + Aemilius + Aenéas + Aequians + Aesis, R. + Aetius + Aetna + Aetolians + Afranius + Africa + Africánus + Agendicum + Ager occupátus + Ager privátus + Ager publicus + Ager Románus + Agrarian Laws + Agricola + Agrigentum + Agrippa + Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa + Agrippína, sister of Caligula + Alae + Alans + Alaric + Alba Longa + Alban Lake + Alban Mts. + Alesia + Alexander the Great + Alexandría + Allia + Allies + Alsium + Ambiorix + Amphitheatres + Amulius + Anchíses + Ancóna + Ancus Marcius + Andes + Andriscus + Anio, R. + Anthemius + Antiochus III. + Antiochus IV. + Antium + Antonia + Antonius + Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius + Antonínus Pius + Antony + Aóus, R. + Apennines + Apollo, worship of + Apollonia + Apollonius + Appeal, right of + Appian Way + Appius Claudius, Decemvir + Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus + Appius Claudius Caecus + Appuleian Laws + Apsus, R. + Apulia + Aqua Claudia + Aquae Sextiae + Aqueducts + Aquileia + Aquínum + Aquitáni + Arabia + Arabia Petraea + Arcadius + Archeláus + Arches + Archimédes + Ardea + Argos + Aricia + Ariminum + Ariobarzánes + Ariovistus + Aristobúlus + Armenia + Arminius + Armor + Army + Arnus + Arpi + Arpínum + Arretium + Arsanias, R. + Aryan Race + Ascanius + Asculum in Apulia + Asia + Assyria + Aternus + Athens + Athesis + Atrium + Attalus II. + Attalus III. + Attila + Aufidus, R. + Augurs + Augustan Age + Augusta Taurinórum + Augusti + Augustus + Aulerci + Aurelia + Aurelian + Aurelian Way + Aurelius, M. Antonínus + Avaricum + Averni + Avernus, Lake + + Baeculae + Baetis, R. + Baiae + Basilicae + Basilica Julia + Bathing + Baths + Bellovaci + Beneventum + Bibracte + Bibulus + Bithynia + Bocchus + Boian Gauls + Bononia + Books + Bovillae + Brennus + Bridge, Rhine + Bridge, Tiber + Britain + Britannia + Britannicus + Brittany + Brundisium + Bruttium + Brutus, nephew of Tarquin + Brutus + Brutus, Decimus Junius + Brutus, Marcus + Burgundians + Burrhus + Byzantium + + Cabíra + Caecína + Caepio + Caere + Caesar, Gaius Julius + Caesar, Lucius Julius + Caesars + Caícus + Calabria + Calceus + Caledonians + Calendar + Caligula + Calpurnia + Calpurnian Law + Camarína + Camerínum + Camillus + Campania + Campus Martius + Candles + Cannae + Canuleian Law + Canuleius + Canusium + Capéna + Capitoline Hill + Capitolium + Cappadocia + Capreae + Capua + Caracalla + Carrhae + Carthage + Carthaginians + Carthágo Nova + Carus + Casca + Casilínum + Cassius. + Cassivelaunus + Catalonia + Catana + Catiline + Cato, the elder + Cato, the younger + Catullus + Catulus, father of the Senate + Catulus, Gaius Lutatius + Caudine Forks + Caudium + Celtibéri + Celts + Cenománi + Censors + Centuries + Centurions + Ceres + Cerialia + Cethégus + Chaeronéa + Chalcédon + Chalons + Christians + Cicero, Marcus Tullius + Cicero, Quintus Tullius + Cilicia + Cimber + Cimbri + Cincinnátus + Cineas + Cinna + Circeii + Circeium, Promontory + Circus + Circus Maximus + Citizenship + City walls + Claudian Emperors + Claudius, Emperor + Claudius, Publius + Cleopátra + Clients + Cloáca Maxima + Clodion + Clodius + Clupea + Clusium + Coena + Cohors Praetoria + Collatínus + Colonies, Latin + Colonies, Maritime + Colonies, Military. + Comitia Centuriáta + Comitia Curiáta + Comitia Tribúta + Comitium + Colosséum + Colossus + Column of Trajan + Columna Milliaria + Columns + Commodus + Constans + Constantine the Great + Constantine II. + Constantinople + Constantius I. + Constantius II. + Conscripti, Patres + Consuls + Consus + Cora + Corcýra + Corduba + Corfinium + Corinth + Coriolánus + Corioli + Corn laws + Cornelia, daughter of Cinna + Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio + Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africánus + Corsica + Cotta + Council of Nice + Court-houses + Courts + Crassus, the Triumvir + Crassus, son of the Triumvir + Cremóna + Crete + Croton + Cumae + Cures + Curia + Curiae + Curio. + Curtius + Curule Aedile + Curule chair + Curule offices + Cynoscephalae + Cyprus + Cyrenaica + + Dacia + Damophilus + Deal + Debts, Debtors + Decemvirs + Decius, Emperor + Decius, Publius + Decree of the Senate + Deiotarus + Dentátus + Dependent Communities + Dictator + Diocletian + Dolabella + Domitian + Domitius. + Drepana + Dress + Drusus, Germanicus + Drusus, Marcus Livius + Duilius + Duoviri Sacrórum + Dyrrachium + + Eburónes + Ecnomus + Edict of Milan + Editor. + Education + Egesta + Egnatius + Egypt + Elba + Elections + Enipeus, R. + Enna + Ennius + Epidamnus + Epiphanes + Epírus + Equites + Eryx + Etruria + Etruscans + Eudoxia + Eugenius + Eunus + Euphrátes + Examination Papers + + Fabii + Fabius, Cunctátor + Fabius Quintus + Fabius Vibulánus + Fabricius + Faesulae + Farming the revenues + Fauces + Faustulus + Festivals + Fetiales + Five Good Emperors + Flamen Diális + Flamines + Flaminian Way + Flaminínus + Flaminius + Flavian Emperors + Floors + Florentia + Foreigners resident at Rome + Formiae + Forum + Forum Boarium + Forum Caesaris + Forum Holitorium + Forum Julii, in Gaul + Forum Julii, in Venetia + Forum Suarium + Forum of Trajan + Forum of Vespasian + Franks + Freedmen + Fundi + Funerals + Furniture + + Gabii + Gabinius + Gabínus + Gades + Galatia + Galba, Emperor + Galba, Servius + Galerius + Gallia Cisalpína + Gallia Narbonensis + Gaul + Gauls + Games + Gela + Genabum + Gens, Gentes + Genseric + Genua + Genucius + Gergovia + Germanicus, Drusus + Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. + Germans + Glabrio + Gladiators + Glass + Glaucia + Golden House of Nero + Good Emperors + Gordian + Goths + Gracchi + Gracchus, Gains + Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) + Gracchus, Tiberius + Gratian + Greece + Greek Empire + + Hadrian + Hadrumétum + Hamilcar Barca + Hannibal, son of Gisco + Hannibal, son of Hamilcar + Hanno + Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar + Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal + Hasdrubal, son of Gisco + Helena + Heliogabalus + Helvetii + Heracléa + Herculaneum + Herméan Promontory + Hiempsal + Hiero II. + Hieronymus + Hirtius + Hispania Citerior + Hispania Ulterior + Honorius + Horace + Horatius Codes + Hortensius, Quintus + Hortensius, the Orator + Homesteads + Houses + Huns + Hyrcánus + + Iapygia + Iapygians + Ibérus, R. + Icilius + Igilium + Ilerda + Illyrican War + Illyricum + Ilva + Imperator + Imperium + Intermarriage + Interest + Interrex + Isara, R. + Isauria + Isthmian Games + Italians + Italy + Iúlus + + Janiculum + Janus + Jentaculum + Jerusalem + Jews + Joséphus + Jovian + Juba + Judaea + Jugurtha + Julia, daughter of Caesar + Julia, daughter of Augustus + Julian Emperors + Julian the Apostate + Julian Law + Juliánus + Juno + Jupiter + Juries + Justin Martyr + Juvenal + + Kaeso, Quinctius + King of Rome + Knights. + + Labiénus + Lacerna + Lacinian Promontory + Laevínus + Laevínus, Marcus + Lamps + Land-owners, classes of + Lanistae + Lanuvium + Lares + Last of the Romans + Latin Confederacy + Latínus + Latium + Latóna + Laurentum + Lavinia + Lavinium + Legáti + Leges Juliae + Legion + Lentulus + Leontíni + Lepidus, Consul + Lepidus, Triumvir + Leptis + Lesbos + Letter-writing + Lex de Repetundis + Licinian Rogations + Licinius + Liger + Lights + Liguria + Lilybaeum + Lipara Islands + Liris, R. + Literature + Livia + Livilla + Livius + Locri + Longínus + Luca + Lucan + Lucania + Luceres + Luceria + Lucilius + Lucretia + Lucretius + Lucullus + Lupercalia + Luperci + Lupercus + Lupus + Lycia + + Macedonia + Macedonian War + Macrínus + Maecénas + Maenius + Magister Equitum + Magna Graecia + Magnesia + Mago + Majestas + Majorian + Mamertines + Mancínus + Manilian Law + Manilius + Manlius, Marcus + Manlius Capitolínus + Mantua + Marcellus + Marcellus, nephew of Augustus + Marius, + Marriage + Mars + Martial + Masinissa. + Massilia + Mauretania + Mausoléum of Augustus + Mausoléum of Hadrian + Maximian + Maximin + Maximus I. + Maximus II. + Meals + Mediolánum + Memmius + Menenius Agrippa + Mesopotamia + Messalína + Messána + Metapontum + Metaurus, R. + Metellus Macedonicus + Metellus Nepos + Metellus Numidicus + Metellus Pius + Micipsa + Milan, Edict of + Milétus + Military Tribunes + Milliarium Aureum + Milo + Minerva + Minturnae + Minucius + Mithradátes + Mityléne + Moesia + Money brokers + Mons Sacer + Moors + Mucra, R. + Mummius + Munda + Municipia + Muthul + Mutina + Mylae + Mysia + + Names + Naples + Naulochus + Navy + Nepos + Nero, Consul + Nero, Emperor + Nerva + Nervii + Nicaea + Nicomédes + Nobles + Nola + Noricum + Novus Homo + Numantia + Numantian War + Numa Pompilius + Numidia + Numitor + Nursia + + Octavia, sister of Augustus + Octavia, wife of Nero + Octavius + Odoácer + Offices and officers + Ops + Orchomenos + Osca + Ostia + Ostium + Ostrogoths + Otho + Ovation + Ovid + + Padua (Patavium) + Palatine + Pales, Palilia + Palmýra + Pannonia + Panormus + Pantheon + Parma + Parthia, Parthians + Pater-familias + Patres + Patrician + Patricians + Patrons + Paullus + Pelusium + Penátes + Pergamum + Peristylium + Perperna + Perseus + Persius + Pertinax + Petreius + Phaedrus + Pharnaces + Pharsalia, Pharsálus + Philip, Emperor + Philip of Macedonia + Philippi + Philippics + Philopoemen + Phoenicia + Picénum + Picts' + Pirates + Pisae + Pisaurum + Piso + Placentia + Plautian-Papirian Law + Plautus + Plebeians + Plebiscita + Pliny, the elder + Pliny, the younger + Pollio + Polybius + Polycarp + Pomoerium + Pompeia + Pompeii + Pompeius, Gnaeus + Pompeius, Sextus + Pompey the Great + Pomptine Marshes + Pontifices + Pontius + Pontus + Poppaea Sabína + Porsena + Postumius + Potestas + Praefect 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Pennell + </title> + <style type="text/css" xml:space="preserve"> + + body { margin:5%; background:#faebd0; text-align:justify} + P { text-indent: 1em; margin-top: .25em; margin-bottom: .25em; } + H1,H2,H3,H4,H5,H6 { text-align: center; margin-left: 15%; margin-right: 15%; } + hr { width: 50%; text-align: center;} + .foot { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; text-indent: -3em; font-size: 90%; } + blockquote {font-size: 97%; font-style: italic; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;} + .mynote {background-color: #DDE; color: #000; padding: .5em; margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%; font-family: sans-serif; font-size: 95%;} + .toc { margin-left: 10%; margin-bottom: .75em;} + .toc2 { margin-left: 20%;} + div.fig { display:block; margin:0 auto; text-align:center; } + div.middle { margin-left: 20%; margin-right: 20%; text-align: justify; } + .figleft {float: left; margin-left: 0%; margin-right: 1%;} + .figright {float: right; margin-right: 0%; margin-left: 1%;} + .pagenum {display:inline; font-size: 70%; font-style:normal; + margin: 0; padding: 0; position: absolute; right: 1%; + text-align: right;} + pre { font-style: italic; font-size: 90%; margin-left: 10%;} + +</style> + </head> + <body> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest times +down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: March 20, 2009 [EBook #6989] +Last Updated: February 7, 2013 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME *** + + + + +Produced by Lynn Bonnett, Teresa Thomason, and David Widger + + + + + + +</pre> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h1> + ANCIENT ROME + </h1> + <h3> + FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D. + </h3> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h2> + By Robert F. Pennell + </h2> + <p> + <br /><br /> + </p> + <h4> + <i>Revised Edition</i> + </h4> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <blockquote> + <p class="toc"> + <big><b>CONTENTS</b></big> + </p> + <p> + <br /> <a href="#link2H_PREF"> PREFACE. </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0002"> <b>ANCIENT ROME.</b> </a><br /><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0001"> CHAPTER I. </a> GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0002"> CHAPTER II. </a> THE + EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0003"> CHAPTER + III. </a> THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0004"> CHAPTER IV. </a> THE EARLY GROWTH AND + INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0005"> CHAPTER V. + </a> THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0006"> CHAPTER VI. </a> THE CONSULS AND + TRIBUNES <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0007"> CHAPTER VII. </a> THE + COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0008"> + CHAPTER VIII. </a> THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL + RIGHTS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0009"> CHAPTER IX. </a> EXTERNAL + HISTORY <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0010"> CHAPTER X. </a> WARS + WITH PYRRHUS (281-272) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0011"> CHAPTER XI. + </a> DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.—NOTED MEN OF THE + PERIOD <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0012"> CHAPTER XII. </a> FOREIGN + CONQUEST <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0013"> CHAPTER XIII. </a> ROME + AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0014"> CHAPTER XIV. </a> THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.—FROM + THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO THE BATTLE OF CANNAE (218-216.) <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0015"> CHAPTER XV. </a> THE SECOND PUNIC + WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0016"> + CHAPTER XVI. </a> ROME IN THE EAST <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0017"> CHAPTER XVII. </a> THE SYRIAN WAR <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0018"> CHAPTER XVIII. </a> CONQUEST OF + MACEDONIA AND GREECE (171-146.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0019"> + CHAPTER XIX. </a> THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0020"> CHAPTER XX. </a> ROME AND + SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS (206-132.) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0021"> CHAPTER XXI. </a> INTERNAL HISTORY.—THE + GRACCHI <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0022"> CHAPTER XXII. </a> EXTERNAL + HISTORY.—PERGAMUM.—JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104) <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0023"> CHAPTER XXIII. </a> THE CIMBRI AND + TEUTONES.—POLITICAL QUARRELS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0024"> + CHAPTER XXIV. </a> INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88) + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0025"> CHAPTER XXV. </a> MARIUS + AND SULLA.-CINNA <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0026"> CHAPTER XXVI. </a> SERTORIUS.—SPARTACUS.—LUCULLUS.—POMPEY + AND CRASSUS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0027"> CHAPTER XXVII. </a> CAESAR.—CICERO.—VERRES + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0028"> CHAPTER XXVIII. </a> TROUBLES + AT ROME.—CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0029"> + CHAPTER XXIX. </a> THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0030"> CHAPTER XXX. </a> CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN + GAUL <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0031"> CHAPTER XXXI. </a> CLODIUS + AND MILO.—DEATH OF CRASSUS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0032"> + CHAPTER XXXII. </a> CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.—BATTLE + OF PHARSALIA <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0033"> CHAPTER XXXIII. </a> CAESAR'S + OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0034"> CHAPTER XXXIV. </a> MURDER OF CAESAR + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0035"> CHAPTER XXXV. </a> THE + SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.—PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0036"> CHAPTER XXXVI. </a> AUGUSTUS (30 + B.C.-14 A.D.) <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0037"> CHAPTER XXXVII. </a> THE + AUGUSTAN AGE <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0038"> CHAPTER XXXVIII. </a> THE + JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0039"> CHAPTER + XXXIX. </a> THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0040"> CHAPTER XL. </a> THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0041"> CHAPTER XLI. </a> PERIOD + OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.—DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0042"> CHAPTER XLII. </a> INVASIONS AND + DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0043"> + CHAPTER XLIII. </a> ROMAN LITERATURE <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0044"> CHAPTER XLIV. </a> ROMAN ROADS.—PROVINCES + <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0045"> CHAPTER XLV. </a> <br /><br /> + <a href="#link2HCH0046"> CHAPTER XLVI. </a> HOUSES, CUSTOMS, + INSTITUTIONS, ETC <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0047"> CHAPTER XLVII. + </a> PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0048"> CHAPTER XLVIII. </a> COLONIES.—THE + CALENDAR.—RELIGION <br /><br /> <a href="#link2HCH0049"> CHAPTER + XLIX. </a> THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME <br /><br /> <a + href="#link2HCH0050"> CHAPTER L. </a> LEGENDARY ROME <br /><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0053"> CHRONOLOGY. </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0054"> SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0056"> YALE COLLEGE. </a><br /><br /> <a + href="#link2H_4_0057"> UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. </a><br /><br /> + <a href="#link2H_4_0058"> INDEX. </a><br /><br /> + </p> + </blockquote> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_PREF" id="link2H_PREF"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + PREFACE. + </h2> + <p> + This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History of + Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high schools + and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and fall of + Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her + institutions, manners, and religion. + </p> + <p> + For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional + matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to meet + recent requirements. + </p> + <p> + The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the text + and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate the + present range of requirement in leading colleges. + </p> + <p> + The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this book. + The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; + consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a rule, + been omitted. + </p> + <p> + ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + </p> + <p> + (Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.) + </p> + <p> + <br /> <br /> + </p> + <hr /> + <p> + <br /> <br /> <a name="link2H_4_0002" id="link2H_4_0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h1> + ANCIENT ROME. + </h1> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0001" id="link2HCH0001"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + </h2> + <p> + Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, between + the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles long from + the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in its widest + part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north of Trieste. It + has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that of the State of + Nevada. + </p> + <p> + The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest of + Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least + difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this pass + that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. The + Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through the whole + of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend easterly + towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging the coast + through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causes the + rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into the Tyrrhenian + (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + </p> + <p> + Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the + Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaul this + side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. The + little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. Of the + tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and the Trebia on the + south, are of historical interest. + </p> + <p> + The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a + mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the + coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, between + the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the name + Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. + </p> + <p> + Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus were + Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, a noted + battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinórum (Turin), + Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little stream + flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpína on the southeast. The + Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundary on the other side + of Italy. + </p> + <p> + CENTRAL ITALY, <i>Italia Propria</i>, or Italy Proper, included all of the + peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In this + division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which empty + into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, which empty + into the Adriatic. + </p> + <p> + The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering on + the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and to the + south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM, and + SAMNIUM. + </p> + <p> + The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, near + the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, an + Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. + Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, was + Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to Alba Longa + were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were near the + coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome. + </p> + <p> + In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, Clusium, + and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, Neapolis + (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, Caudium, + Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuvius was here, + and also Lake Avernus. + </p> + <p> + In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior were + Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat of + Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + </p> + <p> + In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + </p> + <p> + SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and + BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + </p> + <p> + Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its only + stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought a famous + battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + </p> + <p> + In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + </p> + <p> + The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. Among + them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; and + Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + </p> + <p> + The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about + 10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the + poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many + important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were + Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta (or + Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, the + chief of which is Aetna. + </p> + <p> + SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. + ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria; + CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) and LIPARA are + north of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west of it. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0002" id="link2HCH0002"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER II. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + </h2> + <p> + So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into three + races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS were the first + to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and were pushed + south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into the southeastern + corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostly absorbed by the + Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuries all along the + southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highly civilized. + Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans and Italians, were + the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whom settled in Venetia, + the latter in Liguria. + </p> + <p> + The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful and + warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts of + life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled in the plain + of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, they + moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a confederation of + twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities the most + noted were Volsinii, the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, + and Clusium. This people also formed scattering settlements in other parts + of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in the sixth century, + they were in power at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this time under their + control. Their commerce was considerable. Many well preserved monuments of + their art have been discovered, but no one has yet been able to decipher + any of the inscriptions upon them. The power of these people was gradually + lessened by the Romans, and after the fall of Veii, in 396, became + practically extinct. + </p> + <p> + The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belonged to the + Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in Scandinavia. + While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italians entered Italy. + </p> + <p> + At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in civilization. + They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; the building of + houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in preparing food, and of + salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons and ornaments out of + copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, and the people were + divided into clans (tribes). + </p> + <p> + That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain which + is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by the + Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + </p> + <p> + This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square miles + (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty miles, and + no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, and its + tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in the + northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum near + Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern <i>Campagna</i>) + were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first settlements were made on the + hills, which also could be easily fortified. + </p> + <p> + The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, as + Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, Roma, and + Lavinium. + </p> + <p> + These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN + CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was + celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, + called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered + sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (<i>Latiaris</i>). + </p> + <p> + (Illustration: Latium) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0003" id="link2HCH0003"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER III. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + </h2> + <p> + We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled in + Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more particularly + that one of the Latin towns which was destined to outstrip all her sisters + in prosperity and power. + </p> + <p> + Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of the + plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of hills + (Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, Capitoline, + Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, Quirínal, and + Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the Tiber, and was held by + the early Romans as a stronghold against the Etruscans. It was connected + with Rome by a wooden bridge (<i>Pons Sublicius</i>).) rising to a + considerable height, around one of which, the PALATINE, first settled a + tribe of Latins called RAMNES,—a name gradually changed to ROMANS. + </p> + <p> + When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. It + may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were possibly a + colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they united + themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them on the + QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. A third + tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, was + afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. All early communities, + to which the Romans were no exception, were composed of several groups of + FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups GENTES, and a single group was + called a GENS. All the members of a <i>gens</i> were descended from a + common ancestor, after whom the <i>gens</i> received its name. + </p> + <p> + The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute + authority (Footnote: Called <i>patria potestas</i>.) over his household, + even in the matter of life and death. + </p> + <p> + The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the + families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding office + for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform certain + sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly of the + Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an assembly of + old men (<i>Senex</i>). + </p> + <p> + This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the + families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED members, + holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by the king. + Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later by the Censors, + and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all persons who had held + certain offices were thereby vested with the right of seats in the Senate. + Hence, during this later period, the number of Senators was greatly in + excess of three hundred. The Senators, when addressed, were called PATRES, + or "Fathers," for they were Fathers of the families. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, <i>Ramnes</i>, + <i>Tities</i>, and <i>Luceres</i> Each tribe was subdivided into ten + districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES (3 + tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, therefore, + belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a <i>pater-familias</i>; + every family belonged to a particular <i>gens</i>, named after a common + ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular <i>curia</i>; and every + curia to a particular <i>tribe</i>. + </p> + <p> + We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, and + a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an assembly + composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. (Footnote: We must + remember that at this time no one was a Roman citizen who did not belong + to some family. All other residents were either slaves or had no political + rights, i.e. had no voice in the government.) This assembly of Roman + citizens met, from time to time, in an enclosed space called the COMITIUM, + which means a place of gathering or coming together. This was between the + Palatine and Quirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. This assembly + itself was called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly composed of the 30 + curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the existing laws; of + declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election of kings made by + the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by each curia, and the + majority of the curiae decided any question. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0004" id="link2HCH0004"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + </h2> + <p> + The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the Latin + Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, she + naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and grew + wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, easily + held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most powerful of + the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with theirs, she had + no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing their territory. + Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and his + successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities along the river, and at + its mouth founded a colony which was named OSTIA, the seaport of Rome. + </p> + <p> + At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (<i>ager Románus</i>) + comprised nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying + mostly along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or + twelve miles from the river. It was not materially increased during the + next two centuries. + </p> + <p> + The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called + PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the <i>Patres</i>, or Fathers of the + families. They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously + protecting their rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians was + a class called CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. e. + they had no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in every way + the Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In return, the + latter gave them his support, and looked after their interests. These + clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the fields of their + patrons, and bore the name of the <i>gens</i> to which their patron + belonged. Their origin is uncertain; but they may have come from foreign + towns conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants had not been made + slaves. + </p> + <p> + In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the property + of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. Sometimes a + slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS (freedman) and became + the client of his former master. + </p> + <p> + As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people + flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called resident + foreigners, corresponding in general to the <i>Metics</i> at Athens. Such + were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all were supposed to + be under the protection of some patrician who acted as their patron. + </p> + <p> + These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were all of + a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly borne in mind. + </p> + <p> + We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the + Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of these + towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed any of + their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of them + were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the <i>ager Romanus</i>, or in + Rome itself, were called Plebeians (<i>Plebs</i>, multitude). Their very + name shows that they must have been numerous. They belonged to no gens or + curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to own property. + In later times (from about 350) all who were not Patricians or slaves were + called Plebeians. + </p> + <p> + THE ARMY. + </p> + <p> + Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed + entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning <i>levy</i>), + and numbered three thousand infantry called <i>milites</i>, from <i>mille</i>, + a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalry + numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each tribe, and was + divided into three companies called Centuries. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now + become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN reform + of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been required to + serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. To accomplish + this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned two acres, was + enrolled and ranked according to his property. There were five "Classes" + of them. The several classes were divided into 193 subdivisions called + "Centuries," each century representing the same amount of property. In the + first class there were forty centuries in active service, composed of men + under forty-six, forty centuries of reserve, and eighteen centuries of + cavalry. + </p> + <p> + In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries each, + ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had thirty + centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + </p> + <p> + The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from the + first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, + breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank was + composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, without + breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, who had + neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth class, armed + with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only slings. + </p> + <p> + Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, + however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + </p> + <p> + This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally only + for military purposes,—that the army might be increased, and the + expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. But + gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be felt, the + organization was found well adapted for political purposes, and all the + people were called together to vote under it. It was called the COMITIA + CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The place of meeting was on the + CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the city. + </p> + <p> + In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided by + the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system was to + give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century represented the + same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richer classes were + much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, so that a majority + of the centuries might represent a small minority of the people. The + majority of the wealthy people at Rome were still patricians, so the + assembly was virtually controlled by them. In this assembly magistrates + were elected, laws made, war declared, and judgment passed in all criminal + cases. + </p> + <p> + (Illustration: CAMPANIA) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0005" id="link2HCH0005"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER V. THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + </h2> + <p> + Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were undoubtedly of + Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many traces of Etruscan + influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and the only buildings of + importance that Rome possessed, until a much later period, were erected + under this dynasty. The names of these kings are said to have been LUCIUS + TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS, his son-in-law, and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS + SUPERBUS. + </p> + <p> + Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER + CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and + MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from it we + get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman religion + and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + </p> + <p> + During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to + drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer was + so well built that it is still used. + </p> + <p> + Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was + surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal, Coelian, + and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the opposite side + of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge (<i>pons sublicius</i>). + </p> + <p> + The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the + previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + </p> + <p> + The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius and + those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus early was + the Greek influence felt at Rome. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected on the + Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + </p> + <p> + Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the city of + GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. The + dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a + Republic was established, which lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0006" id="link2HCH0006"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VI. THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + </h2> + <p> + At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of government + was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for life, two + officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the PATRICIANS, each + of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a salutary check upon the + other; so that neither was likely to abuse his power. This change took + place towards the close of the sixth century before Christ. + </p> + <p> + In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointed by + one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenure of + office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. He exercised + his authority only outside of the city walls. It was at this time, about + 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to be the more important assembly, + superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIÁTA. + </p> + <p> + We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, + magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forget + that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of the + patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were + many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for this party. + </p> + <p> + About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of + Fathers of the families (<i>Patres</i>), admitted into its ranks some of + the richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. + (Footnote: This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing + the Senate, viz.: "<i>Patres (et) Consripti</i>") These, however, could + take no part in debates, nor could they hold magistracies. + </p> + <p> + In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates made in + the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this way it + controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember, + were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizen had + the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases which involved + life. + </p> + <p> + Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed by + the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed the finances of + the state, under the direction of the Senate. + </p> + <p> + The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century + preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the state + and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especially by + the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. They were + obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, when unable to + meet the demands of their creditors, according to the laws they could be + imprisoned, or even put to death. + </p> + <p> + The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by + "farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, for a + stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other duties. + These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would extort all they + could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves unlawfully. So the + hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and the unjust law about + debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + </p> + <p> + The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to serve + more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for the + Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, and + naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry service + was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the older + ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fell on + the plebeians. + </p> + <p> + This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for rebelling + against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the plebeians were + not slow in accepting it. + </p> + <p> + The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and Volscians, + and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls liberated all who + were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was averted. Upon the + return of the army, however, those who had been set free were again thrown + into prison. The next year the prisoners were again needed. At first they + refused to obey, but were finally persuaded by the Dictator. But after a + well-earned victory, upon their return to the city walls, the plebeians of + the army deserted, and, marching to a hill near by, occupied it, + threatening to found a new city unless their wrongs were redressed. This + is called the First Secession of the Plebs, and is said to have been in + 494. + </p> + <p> + The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, for + the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were + released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right to + choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBÚNI + PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power of + VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power, + however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be exercised + outside of them. + </p> + <p> + The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interference + with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attempted to + stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls or + Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to be + unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by their + VETO stop the matter at once. + </p> + <p> + This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in + giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + </p> + <p> + The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later + to ten. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0007" id="link2HCH0007"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VII. THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + </h2> + <p> + The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from their + own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. (Footnote: The word "Aedile" is + derived from <i>Aedes</i>, meaning temple.) These officers held nearly the + same position in reference to the Tribunes that the Quaestors did to the + Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the performance of their various + duties, and also had special charge of the temple of Ceres. In this temple + were deposited, for safe keeping, all the decrees of the Senate. + </p> + <p> + These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the first + secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia + Centuriáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, which met + sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + </p> + <p> + This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" (<i>tributa</i>, + meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being entitled to one vote, and + its vote being decided by the majority of its individual voters. + (Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial division, corresponding + roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time there were probably + sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The plebeians in the city lived + mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine Hill.) + </p> + <p> + The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and + Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. By it + any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first measures + passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it presently became + a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, who were felt to be a + power in the state. + </p> + <p> + The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; + that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the influence of + the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand contests occurred + in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in neighboring places to + escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the government withstood the + strain, so fierce was the struggle. + </p> + <p> + The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had + reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a + large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. This + land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or <i>public land</i>. + </p> + <p> + Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it + became AGER PRIVÁTUS, or <i>private land</i>. But the most of it was + occupied by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually rich + patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This land, so + occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or <i>possessio</i>; but it really + was still the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent + (from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pasture + land. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land at any + time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and were often + lenient about collecting dues. In course of time, this land, which was + handed down from father to son, and frequently sold, began to be regarded + by the occupants as their own property. Also the land tax (TRIBÚTUM), + which was levied on all <i>ager privátus</i>, and which was especially + hard upon the small plebeian land-owners, could not legally be levied upon + the <i>ager occupátus</i>. Thus the patricians who possessed, not owned, + this land were naturally regarded as usurpers by the plebeians. + </p> + <p> + The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + </p> + <p> + SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law + that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and + distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The law + was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his life, and + was never enforced. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0008" id="link2HCH0008"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER VIII. THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + </h2> + <p> + The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if not + more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of their + leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition of their + followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and political + rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The struggle finally + culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, Gnarus Genucius, for + attempting to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. + </p> + <p> + VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, + notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the + effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the <i>Comitia + Tribúta</i>, instead of the <i>Comitia Centuriáta</i>. Thus the plebeians + gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW (<i>Plebiscítum + Publilium</i>). (Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia Tribúta were + called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarily binding upon the + people at large; but this bill seems to have been recognized as a law.) + </p> + <p> + For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The plebeians + demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + </p> + <p> + We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the unwritten + ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, had been + interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the patricians only. + A change was demanded. This was obtained by the TERENTILIAN ROGATION, a + proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, to the effect + that the laws thereafter be written. The patrician families, led by one + Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter opposition. Kaeso himself, son of the famous + Cincinnátus, was impeached by the Tribune and fled from the city. + </p> + <p> + Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select from the + people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office for one + year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, and + especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted to the people for + approval. A commission of three patricians was sent to Athens to examine + the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height of its + prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and upon their return + in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was appointed. + </p> + <p> + The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables of + copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more + tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the only Roman + code. + </p> + <p> + The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, + but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannical + manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, finally rebelled + when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentence that brought + an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. Her father, Virginius, saved + his daughter's honor by stabbing her to the heart, and fleeing to the camp + called upon the soldiers to put down such wicked government. + </p> + <p> + A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED + MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into the + city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + </p> + <p> + The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we + know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor was + apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the <i>pater + familias</i> over his family was abolished. The close connection + heretofore existing between the clients and patrons was gradually relaxed, + the former became less dependent upon the latter, and finally were + absorbed into the body of the plebeians. <i>Gentes</i> among the plebeians + now began to be recognized; previously only the patricians had been + divided into <i>gentes</i>. + </p> + <p> + Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and nearer. + </p> + <p> + In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were instrumental + in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the substance of which was + as follows:— + </p> + <p> + I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta against the + sentence of any magistrate. + </p> + <p> + II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribúta (<i>plebiscita</i>), if + sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta, were made binding upon + patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal + importance with the other two. + </p> + <p> + III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian officers, + were to be considered sacred. + </p> + <p> + IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and veto + any of its decisions. + </p> + <p> + Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still be + patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore they had been + appointed by the Consuls. + </p> + <p> + In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, and called + the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of intermarriage (<i>connubium</i>) + with the patricians, and enacting that all issue of such marriages should + have the rank of the father. + </p> + <p> + Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that the + consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was made, and + it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, and to elect + annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta, the office being + open to all citizens. The people voted every year whether they should have + consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continued for nearly a + half-century. The patricians, however, were so influential, that for a + long time no plebeian was elected. + </p> + <p> + As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 + obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own ranks + every five years (<i>lustrum</i>) to hold office for eighteen months. + </p> + <p> + The duties of the Censors were:— + </p> + <p> + I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + </p> + <p> + II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members who + were guilty of offences against public morals. + </p> + <p> + III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works of + the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at Rome. + </p> + <p> + A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by + obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There + were now four Quaestors. + </p> + <p> + Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, sustained + loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto often found it + for their interest to side with the patricians, joined the farmers or + lower classes. + </p> + <p> + Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed the + following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + </p> + <p> + I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as formerly, + two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the plebeians. + </p> + <p> + II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 <i>jugera</i> (300 + acres) of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or 500 + sheep. + </p> + <p> + III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain number of + free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + </p> + <p> + IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be deducted + from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly instalments. + </p> + <p> + These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them an + opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly by + slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of + becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open to + them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be protected. + The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by Camillus as a mark + of gratitude for the better times that these rogations promised. + </p> + <p> + The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except that of + <i>Interrex</i>, were thrown open to them. First they gained that of + Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in 286, by the + law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all the people + without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta. After 200 the + sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be filled by plebeians. + </p> + <p> + Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; and + although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, yet their + rights as citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians. + </p> + <p> + To recapitulate:— + </p> + <p> + Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and holding + property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of intermarriage + (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + </p> + <p> + The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second they + obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third by the + CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0009" id="link2HCH0009"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER IX. EXTERNAL HISTORY. + </h2> + <p> + The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then + possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The number + of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became thirty-five. + </p> + <p> + In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into Etruria and + attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman ambassadors, who, + contrary to the sacred character of their mission, were fighting in the + ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, marched upon Rome. The + disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river about eleven miles north of + the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The Romans were thoroughly defeated + and their city lay at the mercy of the foe. The Celts, however, delayed + three days before marching upon Rome. Thus the people had time to prepare + the Capitol for a siege, which lasted seven months, when by a large sum of + money the barbarians were induced to withdraw. + </p> + <p> + During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, and we + have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390. + </p> + <p> + The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 the + lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military colonies + were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and also at + Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of which the Romans + subsequently planted many, were outposts established to protect conquered + territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and equipped, as if for + military purposes. They took with them their wives and children, slaves + and followers, and established a local government similar to that of Rome. + These colonists relinquished their rights as Roman citizens and became + Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.) The neighboring Latin town of + TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithful ally, was annexed to Rome. + </p> + <p> + The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring up + all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until + finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and gained + possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. The town was + made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed the + full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern their own + city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequently made + MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO, "citizens + without suffrage." + </p> + <p> + During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland countries + as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber, she had + acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. + </p> + <p> + In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty with + the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainous + districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southern half + of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, and three years + later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had been practically + masters of the whole of Campania. + </p> + <p> + After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites had, + independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The Samnites + went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania, which + appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before Capua, and + she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + </p> + <p> + Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse to + break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering their + city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, she + would simply be defending her subjects. + </p> + <p> + Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with + varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual to + divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite Wars. + </p> + <p> + THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + </p> + <p> + The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear idea + of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage to + either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a <i>municipium</i>, + annexing its territory to her own. + </p> + <p> + THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + </p> + <p> + The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking with + jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights had been + disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or lose + everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls and + half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, in the + third year of which was fought the battle of Trigánum, near Mount + Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victorious through + the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUÁTUS, one of the illustrious + names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of the operations was + rather a series of expeditions against individual cities than a general + war. + </p> + <p> + In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The Latin + confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of the Latin + cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left independent, but + all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their territory became + part of the <i>Ager Románus</i>, and the inhabitants Roman plebeians. + </p> + <p> + Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as <i>municipia</i>, three + more towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town. + </p> + <p> + LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the + Volturnus. + </p> + <p> + Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, which + were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the colonists + retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the military + colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The first of these + colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established TARRACÍNA (329), + MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards founded. + </p> + <p> + Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was + destroyed, and the beaks (<i>rostra</i>) of its ships were taken to Rome, + and placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House. + Hence the name ROSTRA. + </p> + <p> + At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of all + kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for political + discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had their + offices here. Smaller <i>Fora</i> were started near the river, as the <i>Forum + Boarium</i> (cattle market) and the <i>Forum Holitorium</i> (vegetable + market). + </p> + <p> + Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing about + these improvements. + </p> + <p> + THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + </p> + <p> + The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we have + seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome. + </p> + <p> + There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans, + the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, and + had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396, + and of Caere in 353. + </p> + <p> + In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the + combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact and + concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were more + scattered. They were both equally brave. + </p> + <p> + During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were usually + successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. In this period + Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of military posts in + the enemy's country. + </p> + <p> + The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed. By + this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius, by + whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against the Romans + for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a small plain, at + each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). On reaching this plain + they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them. After a bloody but + fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romans themselves were + compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had also occupied the defile + in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender. + </p> + <p> + A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, + according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its + former condition. + </p> + <p> + Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most + humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made to + pass under the yoke,—which was made of three spears, two stuck into + the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them,—and + then suffered to depart. + </p> + <p> + Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in mourning, + business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was devoted to + repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the treaty was + refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless sanctioned by a + vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the Consuls who had + signed it to the enemy. + </p> + <p> + Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and the + war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samnites + were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE + VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effective + resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast, + their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. + </p> + <p> + During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against the + Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colony + of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The Consul + Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscans + into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them. + </p> + <p> + Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR + (298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to unite + Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and + ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + </p> + <p> + The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the + sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by + Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS + and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + </p> + <p> + In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were + assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match for + the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius. + Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed his life + to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into the midst + of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the father of Decius + acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war.) His soldiers, + rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed back the Gauls. + The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were already fleeing before + that part of the army which was under Fabius. + </p> + <p> + The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS + finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had recently + joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, and became + allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (<i>sine suffragio</i>), + and their territory was annexed to the <i>Ager Románus</i>. This territory + now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the Adriatic Sea, separating + the Samnites and other nations on the south from the Umbrians, Gauls, and + Etruscans on the north. + </p> + <p> + In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian + Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0010" id="link2HCH0010"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER X. WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + </h2> + <p> + In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had been + the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the pressure of too + rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia Minor, and especially + in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country became so thoroughly + Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. Here were many flourishing + cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and Thurii. These had, at the time + of their contact with Rome, greatly fallen from their former grandeur, + owing partly to the inroads of barbarians from the north, partly to civil + dissensions, and still more to their jealousy of each other; so that they + were unable to oppose any firm and united resistance to the progress of + Rome. It had been their custom to rely largely upon strangers for the + recruiting and management of their armies,—a fact which explains in + part the ease with which they were overcome. + </p> + <p> + Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been made + by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which their fleet + was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to allow their + vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the Lacinian promontory. + As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in evading their treaty whenever + it should profit them. + </p> + <p> + Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from + Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic affairs + permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the wedge was + entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver the + former over to Rome. + </p> + <p> + Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to ignore + the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of Tarentum. It + was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the theatre that + overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was determined to punish + the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of the Roman squadron were + destroyed. + </p> + <p> + An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was treated + with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the Tarentines, + that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year one of the + Consuls was ordered south. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young and + ambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, and, since + he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests of this great + leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West that would surpass + the exhausted monarchies of the East. + </p> + <p> + Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 + cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the effeminate + Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of amusement were closed; + the people were forced to perform military duty; disturbers of the public + safety were put to death; and other reforms were made which the dangers of + the situation seemed to demand. Meanwhile the Romans acted with + promptness, and boldly challenged him to battle. The armies met in 280 on + the plain of HERACLÉA, on the banks of the Liris, where the level nature + of the country was in favor of the Greek method of fighting. The + Macedonian phalanx was the most perfect instrument of warfare the world + had yet seen, and the Roman legions had never yet been brought into + collision with it. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a + charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they + retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by the + heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory will + send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior + qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A trusted + messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloquence, which + was said to have gained more for his master than the sword. Through him + Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was guaranteed to his + allies in Italy. + </p> + <p> + The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; and + though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, when + the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, and + declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + </p> + <p> + Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared + that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + </p> + <p> + Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared + within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The + defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and the + armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite against + him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, where he + received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to propose an + interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and threats were + employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the Senate; and, on his + part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired exchange. + </p> + <p> + Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. The + armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but though the + Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic victories which + were almost as disastrous as defeat. + </p> + <p> + The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the + Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the island + three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the last time + in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul MANIUS + CURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed to the + elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded beasts became + furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into disorder. With this + battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned home, and two + years later was accidentally killed by a woman at Argos. + </p> + <p> + The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two years + later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city walls were + demolished, and the fleet given up. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0011" id="link2HCH0011"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XI. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.—NOTED MEN OF THE + PERIOD. + </h2> + <p> + Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This + country was divided into two parts. + </p> + <p> + I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded on + the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the + APENNINES. + </p> + <p> + II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + </p> + <p> + The <i>Ager Románus</i> was subdivided, for voting and financial purposes, + into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts (tribes), four of + which were in Rome. The elections were all held at Rome. + </p> + <p> + These districts were made up,— + </p> + <p> + a. Of ROME. + </p> + <p> + b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but + finally increased to thirty-five. + </p> + <p> + c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + </p> + <p> + d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent from + Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + </p> + <p> + The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,— + </p> + <p> + a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, afterwards + increased to thirty-five. + </p> + <p> + b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (<i>Socii</i>), whose cities and adjoining + territory composed more than one half of the country controlled by Rome. + </p> + <p> + These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay + tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops for + the Roman army. + </p> + <p> + The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.— + </p> + <p> + a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. e. + FULL RIGHTS. (Footnote: Public rights consisted of the <i>jus suffragii</i> + (right of voting at Rome); <i>jus honorum</i> (right of holding office), + and <i>jus provocationis</i> (right of appeal). Private rights were <i>jus + connubii</i> (right of intermarriage); and <i>jus commercii</i> (right of + trading and holding property). Full rights were acquired either by birth + or gift. A child born of parents, both of whom enjoyed the <i>jus connubii</i>, + was a Roman citizen with full rights. Foreigners were sometimes presented + with citizenship (<i>civitas</i>)) + </p> + <p> + b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + </p> + <p> + c. Those who were ALLIES (<i>Socii</i>). + </p> + <p> + d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + </p> + <p> + e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of trading. + </p> + <p> + To class <i>a</i> belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman colonies, + and of some of the Municipia. + </p> + <p> + To class <i>b</i> belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who + possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the <i>Praefectúrae</i>, + and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + </p> + <p> + ROADS. + </p> + <p> + Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the + capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every + direction,—broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched or + intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her possessions + indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a monument of Roman + thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,—the wonder and admiration of + modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten together the + constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not even the successes + of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of fidelity, for which + ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + </p> + <p> + NOTED MEN. + </p> + <p> + The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding + chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius Curius + Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + </p> + <p> + We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one of + the tribes, and could vote in the <i>Comitia Tribúta</i>; this, however, + shut out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and also the + freedmen, who were generally educated and professional men, such as + doctors, teachers, etc. + </p> + <p> + APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the + exclusive privilege of voting in the <i>Comitia Tribúta</i>, and gave to + property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later this law + was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes alone, and the + thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed property only. + </p> + <p> + During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water supply + by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, was built + under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as far as Capua. + It was constructed so well that many parts of it are today in good + condition. The road was afterward extended to Brundisium, through Venusia + and Tarentum. + </p> + <p> + MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and his + opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He + obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the <i>Ager Publicus</i>. + He drained the low and swampy country near Reáte by a canal. He was the + conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, frugal and + unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his farm and spent the + remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple peasant. + </p> + <p> + GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was a Hernican. + As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was incorruptible, and + of great use to his country. Previous to the battle of Asculum, Pyrrhus + attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, and, failing in this, + thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behind a curtain; the + curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, though immediately under the + elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + </p> + <p> + In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not + flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The great + mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal habits and + moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates as yet, or + possessed large tracts of the <i>Ager Publicus</i>. A century later, when + most of the available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthy and + farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + </p> + <p> + The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large + treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern + Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greed + for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. From + now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate in proportion + as their empire increased. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0012" id="link2HCH0012"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XII. FOREIGN CONQUEST. + </h2> + <p> + ROME AND CARTHAGE.—FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) (Footnote: The word + "Punic" is derived from <i>Phoenici</i>. The Carthaginians were said to + have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of the + Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of course + familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.) + </p> + <p> + While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the + Straits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite + Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through + industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + </p> + <p> + Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, it + required centuries to gain her power. + </p> + <p> + It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her subdued + allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in the support of + her immense population and the equipment of her numerous fleets and + armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once wandering nomads, were + forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colonies sent out by + herself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, open to + the attack of all, and incapable of defence. Thus the country around + Carthage was weak, and the moment a foreign enemy landed in Africa the war + was merely a siege of its chief city. + </p> + <p> + The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed the + gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, slaves, + and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and the + iron of Elba. + </p> + <p> + But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel religion, + which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the rights of others, + their well known treachery, all shut them off from the higher civilization + of Rome and Greece. + </p> + <p> + The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a few + of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed the + state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people summoned and + consulted. + </p> + <p> + Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the + establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these + treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and + Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the + Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + </p> + <p> + In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field for + Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome would + be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, "the + commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of one night + would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + </p> + <p> + At this time the island was shared by three powers,—HIERO, king of + Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands who + came from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head-quarters, had + been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Being shut up in + Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the ground that they were from + Campania. Although Rome was in alliance with Hiero, and had but recently + executed 300 mercenaries for doing in Rhegium what the Mamertines had done + in Sicily,—she determined to aid them, for Sicily was a rich and + tempting prey. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a truce + had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of Messána + was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and garrison of + Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the Mamertines no longer + needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodged the Carthaginians. + </p> + <p> + Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double + alliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of the eastern + coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of Italy. + </p> + <p> + The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the + Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under + HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were themselves + cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa in their rear. Both + besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battle was fought (262), + in which the Romans were victorious, owing to their superior infantry. + Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds on the coast were left to the + Carthaginians. + </p> + <p> + The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage ruled + the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the seaports of + Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual energy, the + Romans began the work. (Footnote: In 259, three years previous to the + battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, a + seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval station.) A wrecked + Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by the spring of 260 a navy + of 120 sail was ready for sea. + </p> + <p> + The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the + purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of hanging + stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be lowered in + front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides with parapets, and + had space for two men in front. On coming to close quarters with the + enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened to the opposing ship by + means of grappling irons; thus the Roman marines were enabled to board + with ease their opponents' ship, and fight as if on land. + </p> + <p> + Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE + (260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + </p> + <p> + In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged + under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander was + captured. + </p> + <p> + In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS + DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of Gisco. + The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans were found to + be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without these bridges + descending with their grappling irons and holding them fast to the Romans. + The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of nearly half their fleet. + </p> + <p> + A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, was + erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal of it is + still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest inscriptions in + the Latin language. + </p> + <p> + The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + </p> + <p> + In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 sail. + Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and + sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the coast + of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another battle. But the + Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula which helps to form the + bay, and there landed without opposition. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in Africa. + For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians became + disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and the + capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms offered were + too humiliating to be accepted. + </p> + <p> + Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at Tunis, + near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to his + fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, his army + cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently died a + captive at Carthage. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to relieve + their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, it gained a + victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméan promontory, sinking + 114 of the enemy's ships. + </p> + <p> + It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa was + now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly destroyed in a + storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + </p> + <p> + Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. Panormus + was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Thermae and the + island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + </p> + <p> + DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by + Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city was + blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as much as the + besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the cavalry of the + Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by disease. + </p> + <p> + The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined to + surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana (249). He + was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Another fleet of + 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent storm. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. Four + fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. They had + failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily were still in the + enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on (249-243). + </p> + <p> + A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile took + the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military talent, + and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair way to + regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, that at last + some private citizens built and manned at their own expense a fleet of 200 + sail. + </p> + <p> + GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and + occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian fleet + which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTES INSULAE in + 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and supplies. He saw that + peace must be made. + </p> + <p> + Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the war,—about + $3,000,000,—one third down, and the remainder in ten annual + payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0013" id="link2HCH0013"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIII. ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS + </h2> + <p> + (241-218). + </p> + <p> + Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. The + Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in crushing + a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + </p> + <p> + Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, + seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, threatened + to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one million dollars as + a fine (237). + </p> + <p> + The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the + government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + </p> + <p> + Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercised + their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily was made what + the Romans called a <i>provincia</i>, or PROVINCE. Sardinia and Corsica + formed another province (235). + </p> + <p> + Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For this + purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. The power + of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, chief magistrate, + and supreme judge. + </p> + <p> + The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. All + the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth of their + produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and exports. They + were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the dependants of Rome in + Italy. + </p> + <p> + The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the + morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without + mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + </p> + <p> + The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who did + much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but to no + purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was cleared of + the pirates in 229. + </p> + <p> + "The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the means + of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations between + Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the suppression of piracy + was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances were concluded + with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and embassies explaining the + reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were sent to the + Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. The admission of the Romans + to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally acknowledged them as the allies of + the Greek states." + </p> + <p> + The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA. The + appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with the + Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The <i>ager publicus</i>, + taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. In 232 the Tribune + Gaius Flaminius (Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his agrarian laws gained + the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first Governor of Sicily, + and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and honesty, a great + contrast to many who succeeded him.) carried an agrarian law, to the + effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer classes. The + law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls this seemed but the + first step to the occupation of the whole of their country. They all rose + in arms except the Cenománi. + </p> + <p> + This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded by an + army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, miscarried, and + they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near TELAMON in 222, and + annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the hands of the Consul MARCUS + CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now mistress of the whole peninsula + of Italy, excepting some tribes in Liguria, who resisted a short time + longer. + </p> + <p> + Three <i>military</i> (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls in + check; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, and MUTINA + in that of the Boii. The <i>Via Flaminia</i>, the great northern road, was + extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. (Footnote: During this period the <i>Comitia + Centuriáta</i> was reorganized on the basis of tribes (35) instead of + money.) + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the + mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as + compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar + Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in + Southern and Southeastern Spain. + </p> + <p> + At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many towns + were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The discovery + of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of enriching the + treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablest leader + was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man of but twenty-eight, + he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he had shown great + courage and ability in camp under his father. He was a fine athlete, well + educated in the duties of a soldier, and could endure long privation of + sleep and food. For the last few years he had been in command of the + cavalry, and had distinguished himself for personal bravery, as well as by + his talents as a leader. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. He + therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In eight + months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + </p> + <p> + When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and declared + herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the challenge, and the + Second Punic War began in 218. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0014" id="link2HCH0014"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.—FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES + TO THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + </h2> + <p> + In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invade Italy. + His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 elephants. + His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the opposition of + the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a part of his troops, + retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all veterans. With these he + crossed the mountains, and marched along the coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and + Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celtic territory, with little opposition. + The last of July found him on the banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio + (Avignon). The Romans were astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + </p> + <p> + The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had been in + Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal in Spain; + the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade Africa. Scipio set + sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end of June. Learning there + for the first time that Hannibal had already left Spain, he hoped to + intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes of the neighborhood were won + over to his side. Troops collected from these were stationed along the + river, but Scipio's main army remained at Massilia. It was Hannibal's + policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived with his troops. He + obtained all the boats possible, and constructed numerous rafts to + transport his main body of troops. A detachment of soldiers was sent up + the river with orders to cross at the first available place, and, + returning on the opposite bank, to surprise the Celtic forces in the rear. + The plan succeeded. The Celts fled in confusion, and the road to the Alps + was opened. Thus Scipio was outgeneralled in the very beginning. + </p> + <p> + His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all his + forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he sent + most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and himself, + with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the Isara, + through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in sixteen days + from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat). + Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of the country and + the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through the country of the + Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As he was leaving this river + and approaching the pass of the Little St. Bernard, he was again attacked + by the Celts, and obliged to make the ascent amidst continual and bloody + encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, the army reached the + summit of the pass. Here, on a table-land, his troops were allowed a brief + rest. + </p> + <p> + The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile valley + of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and exhausted soldiers. + Here they encamped, in September, and recruited their wearied energies. + </p> + <p> + This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, and + cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in Spain + under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, under the + Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available were a few + soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to restrain the Gauls, + who had recently shown signs of defection. + </p> + <p> + Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command of + these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river Ticinus, a + tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which he was wounded + and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards the famous + Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable loss. + </p> + <p> + They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the + bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched + along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, + opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the + disabled Scipio. + </p> + <p> + Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the Carthaginians + was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any resistance was met, to + retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were drawn up ready to give the + enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, they should pursue his + retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in the trap, and all his army, + except one division of 10,000, was cut to pieces. The survivors took + refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they spent the winter. Sempronius + himself escaped to Rome. + </p> + <p> + The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in the + valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry and + 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near Placentia, the + Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways leading north from Rome + and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The Consuls for this year were GAIUS + FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The former occupied Arretium, the latter + Ariminum. Here they were joined by the troops that had wintered at + Placentia. + </p> + <p> + In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by + either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by + turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and unhealthy + country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost an eye from + ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of his course first + reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and endeavored to intercept his + enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, and was now near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS. + </p> + <p> + Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the other. + Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. His + light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on either + side. + </p> + <p> + The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the + unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the position + of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, Hannibal gave the + signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the entrance to the pass, and at + the same time the mist rolled away, revealing the Carthaginian arms on the + right and left. It was not a battle, but a mere rout. The main body of the + Romans was cut to pieces, with scarcely any resistance, and the Consul + himself was killed. Fifteen thousand Romans fell, and as many more were + captured. The loss of the Carthaginians was but 1,500, and was confined + mostly to the Gallic allies. All Etruria was lost, and Hannibal could + march without hindrance upon Rome, whose citizens, expecting the enemy + daily, tore down the bridges over the Tiber and prepared for a siege. + QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed Dictator. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, + devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted on + the shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army a rest, he + proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised + another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of + determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to avoid + a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing him and + cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of Italy to + Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city dependent + upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to the + melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's cavalry + plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what he + considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, disappointed + in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, and not being + prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. + Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on the left bank of + the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right bank of the river were + occupied by his main army; and the road itself, which led across the + river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the heights + over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with burning + fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army marching by + torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned the road and + marched for the heights, along which they supposed the enemy were going. + Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued his march with the bulk + of his army. The next morning he recalled his light-armed troops, which + had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. Their engagement with the + Romans had resulted in a severe loss to Fabius. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly direction, + by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with much booty and a + full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he encamped in a plain rich + in grain and grass for the support of his army. + </p> + <p> + At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent + inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator + (the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared by + one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into two + corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the first + opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his former + tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his rashness, and his + whole corps would have been annihilated had not Fabius come to his + assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed the winter of 217-216 + unmolested. + </p> + <p> + The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the spring + campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was raised and put + under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS PAULLUS and GAIUS + TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's strength once more in + open battle. His army was only half as strong as the Roman in infantry, + but was much superior in cavalry. + </p> + <p> + In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at + CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in June + the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, with their + cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the left under Varro. + The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + </p> + <p> + The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by + cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onset + was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased by the + thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, they were + overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, among whom + were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men of senatorial rank. + This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced by the Romans. All + Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greek cities on the + coast, went over to Hannibal. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0015" id="link2HCH0015"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA + </h2> + <p> + (216-202). + </p> + <p> + ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the Latin + allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old men alike + took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they would join the + ranks. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the second + city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that other cities + would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into winter quarters + here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxurious and effeminate + habits, are said to have injured his soldiers. But Hannibal's superiority + as a general is unquestionable, and his want of success after this was due + to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact that the resources of Rome + were greater than those of Carthage. The Latin allies of Rome had remained + true to their allegiance, and only one city of importance was under his + control. It was an easy matter to conquer the enemy in open battle, but to + support his own army was more difficult, for all Italy had been + devastated. On the other hand, the Romans were well supplied with food + from their possessions in Sicily. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already + employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He formed + an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged Hasdrubal + Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. He hoped, with + this army from the north, with supplies and reinforcements from Carthage, + and with such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, to concentrate a + large force at Rome and compel her into submission. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they + could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and Gnaeus. + With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the enemy from + that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern Greece effectually + engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years (214-212) passed without + any material change in the situation of affairs in Italy. + </p> + <p> + In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, + besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover Campania, + and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched rapidly + north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed the city, + resolved to advance on Rome itself. + </p> + <p> + Silently and quickly he marched along the <i>Via Latino</i> through the + heart of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, and + with his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no ally + joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals of peace + reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of the enemy, he + withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his head-quarters in the + South. + </p> + <p> + Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, was + removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon Capua was + severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred of her chief + citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. The city and its + territory were declared to be Roman territory, and the place was + afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + </p> + <p> + Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as Rome + itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, renowned for + its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the highest arts and + culture. + </p> + <p> + AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + </p> + <p> + HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of more + than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome in her + struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of Hiero, + thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, who was + arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few months. + </p> + <p> + The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian + faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the leaders + of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to arouse the + citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome and the Roman + party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and stormed Leontini. The + Syracusans then closed their city gates against him. A siege of two years + (214-212) followed, famous for the various devices adopted by the noted + mathematician ARCHIMÉDES (Footnote: Archimédes was a great investigator in + the science of mathematics. He discovered the ratio of a sphere to its + circumscribed cylinder. One of his famous sayings was, "Give me where to + stand, and I will move the world." He exerted his ingenuity in the + invention of powerful machines for the defence of Syracuse. Eight of his + works on mathematics are in existence. He was killed at the close of the + siege by a Roman soldier, who would have spared his life had he not been + too intent on a mathematical problem to comply with the summons to + surrender. On his tombstone, it is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing + a sphere.) to defeat the movements of the Romans. The city was finally + betrayed by a Spanish officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures + in which it was so rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time + (212) the city became a part of the province of Sicily and the + head-quarters of the Roman Governor. + </p> + <p> + THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + </p> + <p> + PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO + CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO and + HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the location + of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over to Rome, when + the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large reinforcements + there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, surprised, and + overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain was lost to Rome. + </p> + <p> + Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter Italy, + and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. PUBLIUS + CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but twenty-four + years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He had previously + made himself very popular as Aedile, and was unanimously elected to the + command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he found the whole country west + of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + </p> + <p> + Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL and + MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not act in + harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring (209), to + capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor was + gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three transports, $600,000, and + 10,000 captives fell into the hands of the Romans. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at + BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the battle + was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the Pyrenees, with + a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the winter (209-208) + in Gaul. + </p> + <p> + The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the son + of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the Baleares, to + wait for reinforcements from home. + </p> + <p> + The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in the + total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the + southwestern part of Spain. + </p> + <p> + The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed the + straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and MASINISSA, + whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, after quelling a + mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about their pay, he resigned + his command, and started for Rome, where he intended to become a candidate + for the consulship. + </p> + <p> + OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + </p> + <p> + The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. + Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The + Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, and + MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of keeping + Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting Hasdrubal + was given to the latter. + </p> + <p> + The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river + Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent + messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of + march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of their + despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, joined + Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and defeated his army + with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal himself. Nero returned + south without delay, and the first intimation that Hannibal had of this + battle was the sight of his brother's head thrown into the camp by the + victorious foe. + </p> + <p> + The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four years + more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was powerless to + prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout Italy. Nothing now + remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the ground on which + Hannibal was making his last stand. + </p> + <p> + INVASION OF AFRICA. + </p> + <p> + Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of Africa. + He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his province, with + permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him wise. He was so + popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies poured in + from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however, did not like him, + as his taste for splendid living and Greek culture was particularly + offensive to them; and a party in the Senate would have recalled him, had + not the popular enthusiasm in his favor been too strong to be resisted. + </p> + <p> + In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was welcomed by + Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous visit to Africa + from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but in 203 Scipio twice + defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + </p> + <p> + Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage prevailed. + Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle with Rome, + October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of Carthage. The issue was + decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who loved their commander and + trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first and only defeat, and Scipio won + his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle was a hard one. After all the newly + enrolled troops of Hannibal had been killed or put to flight, his + veterans, who had remained by him in Italy, although surrounded on all + sides by forces far outnumbering their own, fought on, and were killed one + by one around their beloved chief. The army was fairly annihilated. + Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape to Hadrumétum. + </p> + <p> + The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage was + broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to retain her + own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, were given up, + and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about $200,000, for fifty + years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carry on no + war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by an increase in + territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends of the Roman + people." + </p> + <p> + Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterranean + power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa was + under her protection. + </p> + <p> + Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was welcomed + home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never before equalled. + His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned with laurels, in the + Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which he had the sense to + refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no part in politics. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0016" id="link2HCH0016"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVI. ROME IN THE EAST. + </h2> + <p> + ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. The + kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast empire of + Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the limits of Roman + authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece proper. + </p> + <p> + EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the valley + of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a number of + towns in Thrace. + </p> + <p> + SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of + various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent + rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. Thus + arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + </p> + <p> + MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of + Northern Greece. + </p> + <p> + GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, the + former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the greater part + of Central Greece. + </p> + <p> + Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into + closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in 273. + From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the Second + Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of the + Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + </p> + <p> + The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into closer + relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to open the + Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage had left her no + time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern politics, until she was + forced to take action by the alliance of Philip V. of Macedonia and + Hannibal, and by the former's threatened invasion of Italy in 214. A small + force was sent into Greece, which was soon largely increased by the + dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + </p> + <p> + The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was to + prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was partially + successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but four thousand + of them were at Zama. + </p> + <p> + The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus + Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so hard + that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to sail for + Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus assisted the + Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to think of + operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to concentrate + their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + </p> + <p> + Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their + return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. + </p> + <p> + There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN WAR + (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, to + attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable that the + young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years old, would not + be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers of Egypt sought the + protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman envoys sent to assume the + office of protectorship remonstrated with Philip. + </p> + <p> + In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that the + people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was driven to + seek alliances which would protect her against him. + </p> + <p> + Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced to + vote for one, on the representation that the only means of preventing an + invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + </p> + <p> + This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a + considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the + Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive + results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man of + different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on the + Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year utterly + defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + </p> + <p> + The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he broke + through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in around him with + but little loss. The other division was attacked by the Romans, while it + was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The victory of the Romans was + decisive. + </p> + <p> + About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the + Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + </p> + <p> + Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of + Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, + Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wage + war without Rome's consent. + </p> + <p> + The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" was + proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later Flamininus + withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of Greece,"—Chalcis, + Demetrias, and Corinth,—and, urging the Greeks to show themselves + worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned home to enjoy a well + earned triumph. + </p> + <p> + The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm + establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge had + been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was assured. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0017" id="link2HCH0017"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN WAR. + </h2> + <p> + Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, had + been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not hear of + his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he claimed for + himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip had previously + held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. He crossed the + Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to enter Greece, although + earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, until after Flamininus had + withdrawn all his troops (192). + </p> + <p> + Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the + power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his defeat + at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the chief + magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the moral + atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. Under him + Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with Antiochus, with + whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an opportunity to interfere. + His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, after wandering from coast to + coast, became the trusted adviser of the Syrian king. + </p> + <p> + Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could have + accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he disregarded + the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor matters. The + Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae drove back the + intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The Aetolians were punished + for their infidelity. + </p> + <p> + In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command of + the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be accompanied + by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his military skill and + experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed the Hellespont and + sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the king. + They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in 190, and + 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 being slain. The + loss of the victors was slight. + </p> + <p> + On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all + pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus + mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all + surrendered. + </p> + <p> + Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his name, + as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of his + victory. + </p> + <p> + Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign + against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, and + had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse for the + campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the reason was, + their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + </p> + <p> + The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they + themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeable + chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it <i>without the authority + of the Senate</i>, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent which + was too frequently followed in later times. On his return to Rome he was + allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. + </p> + <p> + These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid the + foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally undermined + the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced learning and + refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The vigor and tone of + Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than in the length of time + it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the + ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained + during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his + account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, tore + them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, however, + was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated that his + brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies that their + insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of Zama. This + remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges were made. + </p> + <p> + Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, on + the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. His + wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, and the + sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. His daughter, + CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous GRACCHI. Next to + Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the campaign in the + East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In the conversation + Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered Alexander the + greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself conquered Scipio, he + would have placed himself before either. + </p> + <p> + Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically the + mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and as + conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a charm + which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greece were + not so courted at Rome as in later days. + </p> + <p> + Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, but, + escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, King of + Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to arrest him. + Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring and swallowed the + poison which it contained (183). + </p> + <p> + Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim of + his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was so marked + that people have ever since looked with wonder upon the tremendous + magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near accomplishing. + </p> + <p> + This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the + Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. (Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0018" id="link2HCH0018"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XVIII. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146.) + </h2> + <p> + Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against Antiochus, + he did not receive from them the expected reward in additions to his + territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but he labored patiently + and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir up among the + neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He placed his army on the + best footing possible, and soon began to enlarge his boundaries. + Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give up his + conquests, and confine himself to the limits of Macedonia. In 179 Philip + died, and was succeeded by his son PERSEUS. + </p> + <p> + The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of subjection. + He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a marriage connection + with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse among the Greeks + memories of their former greatness. + </p> + <p> + The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check him. + War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at first led by + incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until LICIUS AEMILIUS + PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in 168. + </p> + <p> + Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was + killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE AEDILE, + (Footnote: See page 225) in 192, he prosecuted persons who had made an + illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191 + as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all insurrections. He + was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a tribe of marauders in + Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + </p> + <p> + He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. The + war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the Thermáic + Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasures and family. + He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with kindness by the + Consul. + </p> + <p> + Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by commissioners, he + arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was divided into four small + republics, independent of each other, but prohibited from intermarriage + and commerce with one another. + </p> + <p> + On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced by + Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four years + later. + </p> + <p> + Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted by + Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus the elder, + his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of perfect + honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat superstitious. A + patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his sons the best training + under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularity is the fact that his + body was carried to its last resting place by volunteers from the various + peoples he had conquered. + </p> + <p> + Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is + alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + </p> + <p> + After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the conquered + monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests there. All + suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, and among these + was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more than twenty years, + and became a great friend of the younger Africánus, whom he accompanied to + the siege of Carthage. + </p> + <p> + Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of each + other, with no rights of <i>connubium</i> or <i>commercium</i>. Utter + demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all + alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + </p> + <p> + Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating in + what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under the + leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the people + rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice defeated in 148 + by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained the agnomen of + MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, with a Roman + magistrate at its head. + </p> + <p> + At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus warned + them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he easily + defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + </p> + <p> + Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an + illustrious plebeian <i>gens</i>, the Caecilian. Before his death in 115 + three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was a + candidate for the consulship. + </p> + <p> + Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh + leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. The + Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 was marked + by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; beautiful + pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold in abundance + was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty vanished. The + country became a Roman province under the name of ACHAIA. + </p> + <p> + Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, when it + was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a colony of + veterans and freedmen. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0019" id="link2HCH0019"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + </h2> + <p> + Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial + prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the quarrels + of conflicting factions. + </p> + <p> + MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual source + of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, and, as she + was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of Rome, her only + recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an embassy was sent to + inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, the chief of the embassy, + was especially alarmed at the prosperity of the city, and from that time + never ceased to urge its destruction. The embassy did not reach any + decision, but allowed matters to go on as they might. Finally, when some + sympathizers with Masinissa were banished from the city, he attacked and + defeated the Carthaginians, compelled their army to pass under the yoke, + and afterwards treacherously destroyed it (150). Carthage was compelled to + give up some of her territory, and pay $5,000,000 indemnity. + </p> + <p> + After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be disciplined + for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to close any speech he + might make in the Senate with the same cruel words, <i>Delenda est + Carthago</i>, "Carthage must be destroyed." The people of Carthage were + called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, they sent ambassadors to + Rome. The answer given them was obscure. They were requested to make + reparation to Rome, and at the same time they were assured that nothing + should be undertaken against Carthage herself. But in 149 the Consuls + crossed with a large army into Sicily, where the troops were organized, + and Carthaginian ambassadors were expected. + </p> + <p> + When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish to + encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some security; + for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three hundred + children of the noblest families should be delivered into their hands as + hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly crossed over to + Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were ready to treat with + them on any question not previously settled. + </p> + <p> + When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told + that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they + said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage + possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were then + told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome had no + control over the city so long as it was fortified. The preservation of + peace, therefore, required that the people should quit the city, give up + their navy, and build a new town without walls at a distance of ten miles + from the sea. The indignation and fury which this demand excited were + intense. The gates were instantly closed, and all the Romans and Italians + who happened to be within the city were massacred. + </p> + <p> + The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined that + the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair had + suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every direction. All + assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and night in the + manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending than this last + struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored to the uttermost + for the defence of the city with a furious enthusiasm. + </p> + <p> + Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, the + Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legal age), + for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. After two years + of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the defenders, + the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + </p> + <p> + Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen days. + The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given to + Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + </p> + <p> + The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most bitter + enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,—MASINISSA and + CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + </p> + <p> + Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get the + promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given to his + rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the possessions of Syphax + fell to Masinissa, and among them this same Sophonisba, whom he married. + Scipio, however, fearing her influence over him, demanded her as a Roman + captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was a courageous prince, but + a convenient tool for the Romans. + </p> + <p> + CATO THE ELDER (<i>Major</i>), (234-149,) whose long public career was a + constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the + fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the <i>old</i> Roman + character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the + interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as Censor, + he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashioned + principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All innovations + were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the author of several + works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has been preserved. + </p> + <p> + Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year discoursing + about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, a friend of the + latter. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0020" id="link2HCH0020"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XX. ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + </h2> + <p> + Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government of + nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, + separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a + praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought into a + state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests were a + formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla warfare, + which makes conquest slow and laborious. + </p> + <p> + The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who occupied the + interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and intractable, + continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the elder put down a + rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the Roman power east of + the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this part of Spain, and + compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir to pull down their + fortifications. + </p> + <p> + Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, + sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the + father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the + troublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns, but + tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself greater in + peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands on favorable + conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the natives. But + farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and in Lusitania + (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + </p> + <p> + In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was + Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged the + Celtibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with a + massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS + avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the country humanely. + His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, were so cruel and + grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another open rebellion, headed + by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During seven years (147-140) he + defeated again and again the armies sent against him. The Celtibéri joined + his standards, and Spain seemed likely to slip from the Romans. The only + check to these successes was during the command of METELLUS MACEDONICUS + (143); when he was recalled, matters returned to their former condition. + </p> + <p> + In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save + himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to sanction. + </p> + <p> + Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the Consul + Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was ably + conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + </p> + <p> + THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + </p> + <p> + The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city of NUMANTIA, + the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one defeat of a + Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent out her best + general, Africanus the younger. + </p> + <p> + After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he began + (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the utmost + bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of famine, it + surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and the town was + levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the title of + NUMANTÍNUS. + </p> + <p> + The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, which + was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its northern coast, + was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were established with Latin + municipal rights <i>(municipia)</i>, and, on the whole, order was + maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean there sprang up many + thriving and populous towns, which became centres of civilization to the + neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome rather as allies than as + subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin the silver money of Rome. The + civilizing process, due to Roman influence, went on rapidly in these + parts, while the interior remained in barbarism. + </p> + <p> + In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from the + north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave Celtibéri, + who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). +</pre> + <p> + While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves broke + out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special barbarity. + </p> + <p> + For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of freemen. + The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the regular + slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and Greece. The + owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + </p> + <p> + The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a wealthy + slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, who pretended + to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were suffered by the Roman + armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS captured the strongholds of the + slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus closed the war. For his success he + was allowed an ovation. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0021" id="link2HCH0021"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXI. INTERNAL HISTORY.—THE GRACCHI. + </h2> + <p> + We have seen how the long struggle between the patricians and plebeians + terminated in a nominal victory for the latter. From about 275, the + outward form of the old constitution had undergone little change. It was + nominally that of a "moderate democracy." The Senate and offices of state + were, in law, open to all alike. In practice, however, the constitution + became an oligarchy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, + the Senate was controlled by a class who claimed all the privileges of a + nobility. The Comitias were rarely called upon to decide a question. Most + matters were settled by a DECREE OF THE SENATE (<i>Senatus Consultum</i>). + To be sure the Comitia declared for war or peace, but the Senate conducted + the war and settled the conditions of peace. It also usually assigned the + commands, organized the provinces, and managed the finances. + </p> + <p> + The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It was + a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be convened + at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were scattered over all + Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to decide questions + demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign policy. + </p> + <p> + The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All + patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The patricians + were the descendants of the original founders of the city. The nobles were + the descendants of any one who had filled one of the following six curule + offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Interrex, Praetor, or + Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right to place in their hall, or + carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of this ancestor, and also of any + other member of the family who had held a curule office. + </p> + <p> + A plebeian who first held this office was called a <i>novus homo</i>, or + "new man." + </p> + <p> + The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time the + monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. The + right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only wanting + a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal rights, and + urge the exercise of them. + </p> + <p> + Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him was + ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and brought + to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. On one side or + the other we find them,—MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and POMPEY, + AUGUSTUS and ANTONY—arraying Rome against herself, until the glories + of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor of the + Empire. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to the + nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the daughter of + Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all but three died + young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The daughter, SEMPRONIA, + married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, grew up under + the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left a widow when they + were mere boys. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-law + during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor in + Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the mild + policy which his father had previously followed. His popular measures here + displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a favorite with him. On + his return home he passed through Tuscany where he was astonished to see + large tracts of the <i>ager publicus</i> (see Chapter VII.) cultivated by + slave gangs, while the free poor citizens of the Republic were wandering + in towns without employment, and deprived of the land which, according to + law (see the Licinian Rogations), should have been divided among them, and + not held in large quantities by the rich land-owners. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself as + candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began boldly the + battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now a dead + letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 acres of the <i>ager + publicus</i> by one individual. Occupants who had fenced this land and + improved it were to be compensated therefor. + </p> + <p> + The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, + and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECÍNA, who + was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his authority as + Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the question. + </p> + <p> + Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, + contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, and + passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, his + brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry it into effect. + </p> + <p> + It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of Tribune + for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry out his + plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as candidate + for the next year. The election day came, and when it became evident that + he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned out in full force + on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed slaves and clients, + raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three hundred of his followers, + threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shed the first blood of + the civil struggle. The mob was led by SCIPIO NASÍCA, the uncle of + Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard of the murder of his brother-in-law, + exclaimed, "Justly slain." + </p> + <p> + The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to be + openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their work, + until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts of the + public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But the + commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were not + always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were enraged. + The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + </p> + <p> + The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his + brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in Africa + and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and justice made + him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with suspicion at Rome. + In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. He revived his + brother's agrarian law, and became at once the avowed enemy of the Senate. + As a means of increasing his popularity, he endeavored to admit all the + Italians to the privileges of Roman citizenship, and to limit the price of + bread. + </p> + <p> + Gains gained the favor of the <i>Equites</i> (Knights), the commercial + class, by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial + functions were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. + Heretofore all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried + before a jury chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal and + corrupt, and it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be bought. + </p> + <p> + The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time very + powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that no Roman + citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an appeal to the + assembly of the people. + </p> + <p> + But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians ruined + his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their rights + with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten years + before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of his + friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master of the + situation. + </p> + <p> + However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty + thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in + force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless the + state was held to be in danger. + </p> + <p> + Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the Gracchi; + but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were noble, and their + virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + </p> + <p> + A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). His remark + about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the popular + party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, probably "a + victim of political assassination." + </p> + <p> + Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of scholars, + a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets LUCILIUS and + TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age towards luxury and + extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a general. The one blot on his + career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which he possibly might + have averted had he shown firm opposition to it. + </p> + <p> + SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though + Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0022" id="link2HCH0022"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXII. EXTERNAL HISTORY.—PERGAMUM.—JUGURTHINE WAR + (118-104). + </h2> + <p> + Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen miles from + the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. Its first + king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. He was an + ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their firm friends. The + city became one of the most prosperous and famous in Asia Minor, noted for + its architectural monuments, its fine library, and its schools. Attalus + III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome his kingdom, which included + Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It was made a province under the + name of ASIA. + </p> + <p> + THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + </p> + <p> + After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in Africa + was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which were + centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom to his son + Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. The nephew was a + brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in the Numantine war, and + returned to Africa covered with honors. He was named joint heir with his + cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa dying soon after, Jugurtha + murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed the whole kingdom, and + attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed to Rome. Commissioners + were sent to investigate. They were bought off by Jugurtha, and returned + home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal was afterwards captured, + savagely tortured, and finally killed. + </p> + <p> + The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an investigation, + moved so slowly that some of its members were accused of accepting bribes. + War was declared at last, but the campaign languished, and peace was soon + made on such easy terms for the prince that it was evident his money had + again been freely used. The scandalous transaction was denounced at Rome + by the Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha then repaired to the city in person, and + bought up all the authorities except Memmius, whom he found incorruptible. + He had another cousin in the city, whom he caused to be murdered. After + this the Senate ordered him to leave, and as he departed, it is said he + exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to perish, if a purchaser be found!" + </p> + <p> + War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat of + the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by the defeat, + the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, nephew + of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. He was a man of + integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigid aristocrat. + Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as his lieutenant the + ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + </p> + <p> + Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was himself + bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and soon attracted + notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and his strictness in + discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, and his courage + caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. He soon rose to be + Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the People, and two + years later Praetor. The fact that he was respected and valued in high + circles is shown by his subsequent marriage into the family of the + Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, he became + a person of social distinction. + </p> + <p> + The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the + river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his stronghold, + Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrender + was demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritated that + such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded that Marius + should be made Consul and have charge of the war. When the lieutenant + asked Metellus for leave of absence to enable him to be present at the + elections, as was necessary according to the law, his general ridiculed + the idea, and told him to wait another twenty years. He went, however, and + was elected in 107, being the first plebeian chosen to that office for + more than a century. + </p> + <p> + Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of + NUMIDICUS. + </p> + <p> + Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be + reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other + occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of rank + who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a young + patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested from + Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. By + his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106) into + the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius. + </p> + <p> + The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of his + treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native princes, + until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius returned + home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a dungeon, and + there starved to death. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0023" id="link2HCH0023"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.—POLITICAL QUARRELS. + </h2> + <p> + The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a + struggle requiring all his talents. + </p> + <p> + The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were + threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met with + five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. Eighty + thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to have fallen + in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen to enter Italy, + the destruction of Rome would have been a certain result. Fortunately, + they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over the mountains, overran for + a season the province of Spain. + </p> + <p> + Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to forming + and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of the Rhone in + Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he drilled his troops, + accustoming them to the greatest possible exertions. Many perished under + the strain, but the survivors became hardened soldiers. Corps of engineers + were attached to each legion, and the soldiers were taught the use of + tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his fourth consulship (102), he + felt prepared to meet the enemy. + </p> + <p> + The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, the + Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards Noricum, with + the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while the Teutones + remained in Gaul. + </p> + <p> + As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified camp + near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, and then + followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fall upon + them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match for the + drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest lasted two days, + and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces (20 July, 102). At the + close of this battle word was brought to Marius that he had been elected + Consul for the fifth time. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the fertile + fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulus, the + other Consul. + </p> + <p> + The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met the + same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + </p> + <p> + No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrels + broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul for the sixth + time. The popular heroes of the hour were two demagogues, the Tribune + SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn laws and land + laws,(Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN LAWS (100):—I. Any Roman + citizen could buy corn of the state at a nominal price. II. The land in + Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had occupied, should be divided among + the Italian and Roman citizens. III. Colonies from the veterans of Marius + were to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.) and compelled the + Senators to take an oath to execute their laws. Metellus Numidicus + refusing to comply with their wishes, Saturnínus sent a guard to the + Senate-House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. + </p> + <p> + During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. He + lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all parties he + pleased none. + </p> + <p> + On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by + MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and the + radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia both ran + for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be successful, he + was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínus and Glaucia were + declared public enemies. They took refuge in the Senate-House, the roof of + which was torn off, and the wretches were stoned to death. + </p> + <p> + The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall of + Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was suspected + that he was a victim of treachery. + </p> + <p> + Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his vacillating + course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, travelling + through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, King of Pontus. + </p> + <p> + For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative + quiet. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0024" id="link2HCH0024"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + </h2> + <p> + At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the + equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen the + governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers (<i>publicani</i>) + and the money-brokers (<i>negotiatores</i>). It will help us to understand + better the condition of affairs, if we study the composition of the Senate + and the Equites. + </p> + <p> + The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increased to + six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurred from + death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by the Censor, + (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person that had held + one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule Aedile, + or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had held these + offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in the Senate, + but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence he must be + wealthy. + </p> + <p> + We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six classes + according to their property, and that these classes were subdivided into + one hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225, + the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen of + the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must have + property worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given to + them because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though in later + times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equites were + originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians increased in + wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included in this class. + </p> + <p> + There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123, + Gaius Gracchus passed the <i>Lex Judicaria</i>, which prescribed that the + jurors <i>(judices)</i> should be chosen from the Equites, and not the + Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, and the + breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles, represented by + the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order. Since the jurors were + chosen from the latter, it had control of the courts, and often made an + unscrupulous use of its power, especially in those courts which were + established to try governors for extortion in the management of provinces + <i>(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)</i>. From the Equites, too, were taken + the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They pillaged and robbed the people at + will, and, if a governor had the courage to interfere with them, a threat + of prosecution was held over his head. The average governor preferred to + connive at their exactions; the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for + their courage. Another trouble was threatening the commonwealth. The + Italian allies of Rome did not possess the franchise belonging to a Roman + citizen. For nearly two centuries they had shared dangers and victories + with the Romans; they now eagerly demanded all their privileges. + </p> + <p> + In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. He + was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the question + peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the courts displeased + the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many enemies, and his + attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Roman citizenship aroused + great opposition. + </p> + <p> + His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. He was + denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an assassin in + the same year. + </p> + <p> + The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered + into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, as + their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the name + ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was to be + the place of assembly and the Senate-House. + </p> + <p> + Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. The + Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both took the + field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and Sulla. + </p> + <p> + This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies (<i>Socii</i>), + was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, defeated the + Romans several times, and entered into negotiations with the Northern + Italians, whose fidelity began to waver. + </p> + <p> + It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned in + the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make + concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried + the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all who had + not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by the PLAUTIAN + PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town the + franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome within sixty + days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN, which + permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise on all + who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing the rebellion. The + Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were finally put down by + Marius. + </p> + <p> + The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly enfranchised + Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn asunder by violent + personal rivalries. There was no class not affected by the wide-spread + tightness in the money market. The treasury was empty, and many + capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes, King of Pontus, had + been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager to have the command. + </p> + <p> + At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward the + following bills:— + </p> + <p> + 1. That the command of the war against Mithradátes be given to Marius. + </p> + <p> + 2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + </p> + <p> + 3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprived of + his seat. + </p> + <p> + 4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revolt be + recalled. + </p> + <p> + In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the + triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops had + been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and for the + first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0025" id="link2HCH0025"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXV. MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + </h2> + <p> + With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS SULLA + (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited a + moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, lounging + in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was a poet, an + artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was naturally a + soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under Marius in the + Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful officer." In these + African campaigns he showed that he knew how to win the hearts and + confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole subsequent career, the + secret of his brilliant successes seems to have been the enthusiastic + devotion of his troops, whom he always held well under control, even when + they were allowed to indulge in plunder and license. It was to Sulla's + combined adroitness and courage that Marius owed the final capture of + Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in the campaigns against the Cimbri + and Teutones, and gave efficient help towards the victory. But the Consul + became jealous of his rising power, and all friendly feeling between the + two ceased. + </p> + <p> + After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part in + politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are almost + unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was elected + Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a hundred lions + in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he went as + Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first met + MITHRADÁTES. + </p> + <p> + This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He spoke + many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless ambition. + He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to enlarge his + own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's interference. + </p> + <p> + Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was + ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. This country + Mithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the throne his + own nephew. + </p> + <p> + Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He + accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to Rome + with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, eclipsing the + fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized leader of the + conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between the rivals was + more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by no means lost his + prestige with the popular party. + </p> + <p> + It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War, thought + it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend his realm. + He collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. With his + fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. The + extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, that Ionia, Lydia, + and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, gladly revolted from + Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman residents with their + families were massacred on a single day. It is said that 80,000 persons + perished. Mithradátes himself next crossed the Bosphorus, and marched into + Northern Greece, which received him with open arms. + </p> + <p> + Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the bills + mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Marius have + charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not to Sulla's liking. He + was in Campania with the legions that had served in the Social War. The + soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow him anywhere. Sulla, + therefore, taking matters into his own hands, marched into the city at the + head of his troops. The people resisted; Sulpicius was slain; Marius fled + for his life, and retired to Africa, where he lived for a time, watching + the course of events. + </p> + <p> + Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East called + him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil war burst out + anew (87). + </p> + <p> + LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He tried + to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven from the + city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He invoked the aid + of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to follow him. The + neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and Marius, coming from + Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They marched upon Rome. The + city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged Consul, and the sentence of + outlawry which had been passed on Marius was revoked. + </p> + <p> + The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna for + the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a body-guard + of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. The houses of + the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families was exposed to + the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after he + entered office, and the shedding of blood ceased. + </p> + <p> + For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government was + practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a trusty + colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In 84, he was + murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in Asia. + </p> + <p> + Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against + Athens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched. After + a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. The same + year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and the next year at + ORCHOMENOS. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two + victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready to + negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal interview + with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as follows. The king + was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, and withdraw to his + former dominions. He was also to pay an indemnity amounting to about + $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships of war. + </p> + <p> + Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians and + Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by compelling + them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now ready to return to + Rome. + </p> + <p> + The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 + troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every + preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no sooner + did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert to him in + immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of all Lower + Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young POMPEY, then but + twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts that Sulla's success was + largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian party was joined by the + Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than ever. At length, however, + Sulla was victorious under the walls of Rome. The city lay at his mercy. + His first act, an order for the slaughter of 6,000 Samnite prisoners, was + a fit prelude to his conduct in the city. Every effort was made to + eradicate the last trace of Marian blood and sympathy from the city. A + list of men, declared to be outlaws and public enemies, was exhibited in + the Forum, and a succession of wholesale murders and confiscations + throughout Rome and Italy, made the name of Sulla forever infamous. + </p> + <p> + Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid triumph + for the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. The + main object of these was to invest the Senate, the thinned ranks of which + he filled with his own creatures, with full control over the state, over + every magistrate and every province. + </p> + <p> + In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died the + next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + </p> + <p> + THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + </p> + <p> + Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the + Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no + former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor + without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the + praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at least + thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six to eight; + that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and Praetors were to + remain at Rome during their first year of office, and then go to the + provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + </p> + <p> + Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and all + who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + </p> + <p> + The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the Senate. + </p> + <p> + On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; but + such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to raise an + army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his oath by going + to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, marched against the + city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by Crassus and Pompey in + 78, and soon after died. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0026" id="link2HCH0026"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS.—SPARTACUS.—LUCULLUS.—POMPEY AND + CRASSUS. + </h2> + <p> + Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of + Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served + under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he + served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his + fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He + was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on Sulla's + return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the lead of the + Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased the Spaniards. + Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He defeated one of Sulla's + generals, and drove out of Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUS PIUS,(Footnote: + Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the agnomen of Pius on account of + the love which he displayed for his father, whom he begged the people to + recall from banishment in 99.) who had been specially sent against him + from Rome. + </p> + <p> + The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after the + Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and founded at + Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe towards his + soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his favorite pet and + constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In 77 he was joined by + PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, then a young man, was sent + to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius proved more than a match for both + of these generals, and defeated them near Saguntum. + </p> + <p> + The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now formed + a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered into + negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with the slaves + in Italy, who were rebelling. + </p> + <p> + But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these was + that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, and + with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own borders. + In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of their number, + named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at Capua and took up a + strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were joined by large numbers of + slaves and outcasts of every description, and were soon in a position to + defeat two Praetors who were sent against them. + </p> + <p> + The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself at + the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were defeated; and + for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even threatened Rome. But + intestine division showed itself in his ranks; his lieutenants grew + jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + </p> + <p> + In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in six + months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, + returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those who + had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. Crassus + pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road from Rome to + Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + </p> + <p> + Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was again + in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against him. + </p> + <p> + Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social + War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as Quaestor, + in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he was chosen to the + consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned to him, Bithynia to + Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta, and besieged him at + Chalcédon. + </p> + <p> + Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the aid of + his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at Cabíra in + 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take refuge with his + son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. + </p> + <p> + Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of provincial + governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were farmed out, + and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the tax-payers + against the tax-gatherers (<i>publicani</i>). His reforms met with bitter + opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose chief source of + income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues against him by persons + sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction among his troops. He had + been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was all the easier to turn the + soldiers against him. + </p> + <p> + In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the river + Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was + obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next year + his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + </p> + <p> + Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, + dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious dinners + which he gave. + </p> + <p> + POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + </p> + <p> + The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as it had + been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a favorite + officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws laid down by + his general. + </p> + <p> + GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood to + his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side in the + civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of the latter, + and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. He defeated the + followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 was allowed to enjoy a + triumph, though still an Eques and not legally qualified. Sulla then + greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he ever afterwards bore. He + was then sent to Spain, with what success we have seen in the previous + chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS CRASSUS were elected Consuls + amid great enthusiasm. + </p> + <p> + Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense wealth + by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice is + said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large sums to the + people for political effect. + </p> + <p> + Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was + eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and was + only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and ought to + have waited two years. + </p> + <p> + The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained their + prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was transferred + again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body was cleared of + its most worthless members, who had been appointed by Sulla. + </p> + <p> + For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey + remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition + against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had + been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. + During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that the + city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had paralyzed + the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy were not safe + from their raids. + </p> + <p> + GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command for + three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman + magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over the + coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, all + ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + </p> + <p> + In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + </p> + <p> + The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the + MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire + control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His + appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by CATULUS, + the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but CICERO with + his first political speech (<i>Pro Lege Manilia</i>) came to Pompey's + assistance, and to him was given the command by which he became virtually + dictator in the East. His operations there were thoroughly successful, + and, though he doubtless owed much to the previous victories of Lucullus, + he showed himself an able soldier. Mithradátes was obliged to flee across + the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (Kertch). + </p> + <p> + In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in the + name of Rome, and made it a province. + </p> + <p> + Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, two + aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to the wishes of + the people, and to enforce it he led his army against Jerusalem, which he + captured after a siege of three months. He installed Hyrcánus on the + throne on condition of an annual tribute. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of his + old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman arms, that + even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs had + taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, after a reign of + fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all formidable + opposition to Rome in Asia. + </p> + <p> + Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were now + made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the addition of + Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor not yet + provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; Cappadocia, + by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + </p> + <p> + After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, January + 1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five years old, had + accomplished a really great work, had founded several cities which + afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, and was hailed + as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + </p> + <p> + The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. His + wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations between the + two men had been friendly. + </p> + <p> + Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to political + importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of CATILINE. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0027" id="link2HCH0027"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVII. CAESAR.—CICERO.—VERRES. + </h2> + <p> + The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian <i>gens</i>, which + claimed descent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations of + Caesars had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been + Consuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the moderate + wing. The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be traced no further + back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the same name as the great + Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent from Ancus Marcius, the fourth + King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the father of the + Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife of Marius. Gaius + Julius held no higher office than Praetor. He was married to Aurelia, a + stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaius was born on + July 12th, 100. + </p> + <p> + During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, + tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, and + features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the + proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, must + have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate companions + was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + </p> + <p> + Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and + determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely fifteen, a + priest of Jupiter (<i>flamen dialis</i>), which sacred office carried with + it a handsome income. + </p> + <p> + Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, the + daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely with the + popular party, whose champion he remained. + </p> + <p> + When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but + eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was ruined, + his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet free from + proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young man to his + own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife and marry one + whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then tried. His priesthood + was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His estate was confiscated, and, + when this had no effect, he was himself declared an outlaw, and a price + was set on his head. Influential friends, however, interceded in his + behalf, and the Dictator was finally persuaded to pardon him; but with + reluctance, and with the remark that in Caesar was the making of many a + Marius. The youth then left Italy, and joined the army in Asia. + </p> + <p> + Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the forces + of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates that were + making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his troops + insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to Nicomédes, a Roman + ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional forces. He was + successful in his mission, and, upon his return to Lesbos, distinguished + himself for his bravery in the attack upon Mityléne, and was awarded the + oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. + </p> + <p> + Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign + against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that country. + While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left the army and + returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle with the nobility + by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former Governor of Macedonia. + Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause was theirs. The best + talent was engaged to defend him, and Caesar lost the case. + </p> + <p> + Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied + rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property and + priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he was + captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some $50,000 was + raised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once got together some + vessels, returned to the island where he had been in captivity, seized the + crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had them tried, convicted, and + crucified. He then resumed his journey to Rhodes, where he remained two + years in the pursuit of his studies. Then the report of the uprisal of + Mithradátes reached him, and he at once crossed over to the mainland, + collected a body of volunteers, and saved Caria to Rome. + </p> + <p> + Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly for + a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + </p> + <p> + While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in which he + was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion of his youth, + was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged to + the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek teachers. + As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party opposed to + Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to gain fame as a + speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one of its members. He + took part in the Social War (89), but during the troubled times that + followed he remained quietly engaged in literary pursuits. His first + public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who was falsely accused of + murdering his father, was a great success, and guaranteed for him a + brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few years by study and travel + in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his return, in 75, he was elected + Quaestor, and thus became a member of the Senate. His year of office he + spent in Sicily, in the performance of his duties. There he obtained an + insight into the corrupt extortions of the Roman governors. Five years + later, he conducted his famous case against Verres. + </p> + <p> + VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had + amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece and + Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. With the + money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the praetorship, became + Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern Sicily. His government + there may have been no worse than that of many other proconsuls in the + different provinces, but we have a fuller account of it owing to the + prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches against Verres are preserved. + </p> + <p> + Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official position, + he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit brought before + him he gave to the party that could pay him best. Property was confiscated + on false charges, and works of art of great value were stolen. By such a + course Verres collected, it is said, property to the value of $4,000,000. + Two thirds of this he expected to spend in silencing accusations. The rest + he hoped to enjoy in peace, but Cicero's eloquence forced him to abandon + his defence and retire into exile. + </p> + <p> + It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies abroad, + and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward for what he + had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was elected + Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time his aunt + Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he delivered the funeral + oration. + </p> + <p> + Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests were + common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a great man + and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, and he married + for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When sent as Quaestor to + Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun by Pompey and settled + the finances of the troubled country, a task which he found the easier as + he was known to belong to the popular party, of which Marius and Sertorius + had been leaders. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0028" id="link2HCH0028"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXVIII. TROUBLES AT ROME.—CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + </h2> + <p> + While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming + worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. + There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious to + regain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by the + Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited a + leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous of the + power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate. + </p> + <p> + Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS + SERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, and + withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year Governor in + Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough money, as he hoped, + to purchase his election to the consulship. On his return home he was + impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted through Cicero's defence + and the careful selection of a jury. + </p> + <p> + He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year + (63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark Antony, + and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the struggle was + really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, owing to the + popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and his defence of + the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which he had been so + long striving. + </p> + <p> + Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had been + Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the Capitol, + and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). But what made + him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish display at the + public games and exhibitions. + </p> + <p> + Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 the + office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became vacant + by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a candidate for + the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than both the rival + candidates combined. He also received further evidence of the popular + favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + </p> + <p> + Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his fame + had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected caused + him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had many + followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former Consul + Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, + and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a fortune + by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla, starving peasants + who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws of every + description. The conspirators were divided into two parties; those outside + of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarters were at + Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trained soldiers; and + those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secret meetings were + held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, kill the + magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army in + Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and just before + the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to the Senate. + </p> + <p> + Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and + Cethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious + difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus was + at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were sacred. The + Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any Roman citizen + without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Too many were + implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + </p> + <p> + In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, and + Cicero. + </p> + <p> + Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for life. + The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a complete key + to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish, weak in + council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and of his own + ability to rule their factions, feared that they would become dangerous + enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of the state, would + make an example and warning for the future. The one, forgetful of the + state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, unmindful of self, would + have purity at any cost. + </p> + <p> + Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance + with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was + more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero was + the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, with his + keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + </p> + <p> + A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused the + conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The + suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat of + the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell fighting + with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of soldiers near + Pistoria. + </p> + <p> + The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the vigilance + shown in this affair. + </p> + <p> + The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar had expected. It + was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and it was + felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. The people + demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have a deliverer from + internal strifes. + </p> + <p> + Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second + Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the + retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing the + acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade his + speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizens + without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicero + could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened to + impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribune + moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared his + coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly + seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, ordered + Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from his hand. The + aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. Constitutional + law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate was riding rough-shod + over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declared deposed from their + offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. He was followed to his + home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader, and make an example of + the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar refused. He would have nothing + to do with lawlessness; he let his opponents play that <i>rôle</i>, and + awaited the results. The Senate soon saw its mistake, and requested him to + resume his official duties. + </p> + <p> + The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He had + already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of the + country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were held by + robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed the + subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the + government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. His + administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it would, + he hoped, be the consulship. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium in + December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes and + immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the greatest + enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted to wear his + triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + </p> + <p> + Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Though + feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people, and + could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him. He + received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his career. + </p> + <p> + Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his side, + he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS was + counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three then + formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,—"a union of + shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to great + power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater wealth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0029" id="link2HCH0029"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + </h2> + <p> + Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in return + supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was to + contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was elected + without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus + Bibulus. + </p> + <p> + Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political + offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in keeping + within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself in political + quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Now he was in a + position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the aristocracy of what + stuff he was made. + </p> + <p> + It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the + orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was too + vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, and + he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine there more, + and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. + </p> + <p> + Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the + aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was bitterly + opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, and by Cato. + The law provided that large tracts of the <i>ager publicus</i>, then held + on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among the veterans of + Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sum for their + loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. Although + Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, still the + Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be obliged + to take an oath to observe it. + </p> + <p> + The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his year + of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many crimes the + commission of which had been for a long time undermining the state. + </p> + <p> + The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the abuses + of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a double + return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open for + inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + </p> + <p> + When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the + reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. He + must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work would + be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year (58) so + adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could rely, were + elected. + </p> + <p> + There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for Caesar + to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. Cicero, + whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only too willing to crush + Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, or, as some + believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these men were put + temporarily out of the way. + </p> + <p> + CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At one + time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance to the + festival of <i>Bona Dea</i>, which was celebrated only by women. He was + discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by means + of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing him to trial, + and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian family in + order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, and was successful. He then + proposed to the Assembly that any person who had put to death a Roman + citizen without allowing him to appeal to the people be considered a + violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. All knew that + Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. His property was + confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in the city was + dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + </p> + <p> + The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, had + been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. The + Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island was + ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + </p> + <p> + Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the + Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. He + accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were + satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to + increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the city, + the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's absence. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0030" id="link2HCH0030"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. + </h2> + <p> + Caesar was now in the prime of manhood, in the full vigor of mind and + body. His previous experience in camp life had been comparatively small. + His early service in Asia, and his more recent campaigns in Spain, + however, had shown his aptitude for military life. + </p> + <p> + The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the + southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman province, + called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which the Romans had + founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, and a part of + Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were all of the Celtic + race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine and settled in the + North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwest and who are + represented by the Basques of to-day. + </p> + <p> + The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact + with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, like + the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, which were + mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions among + themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions were + frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the AEDUI and + SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome; the + latter, impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribe of + Germans under Ariovistus to come into Gaul and settle, and be their + allies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken from + them hostages, and with the Sequanians were in the ascendency. + </p> + <p> + In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers that + their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to emigrate + farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered on those of + the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through their country. + </p> + <p> + Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling that + the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through Gaul would + be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he determined to + interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, and after a + terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeated with + great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treated kindly, + and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + </p> + <p> + Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of the + Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during which the + bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came together. + Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the drilled + legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few of the + barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + </p> + <p> + The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into winter + quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant of Caesar. He + himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as administrator, + and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + </p> + <p> + THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + </p> + <p> + While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that the BELGAE + were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupied the + northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of which the + principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and NERVII. The last were + the fiercest and least civilized. + </p> + <p> + Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched against + the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmed the + Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they immediately put + themselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Belgae + could muster about 300,000 men. + </p> + <p> + By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly + annihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his + protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six + legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii and + their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the woods on + the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick was + the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets, + to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their proper places + in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almost + panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield from a + soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The + Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But the enemy fought on with + a bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of sixty thousand men + scarcely five hundred survived. The women and children were cared for + kindly by Caesar, and settled in their own territory. + </p> + <p> + The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were + conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter + quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. In + his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + </p> + <p> + THE VENETI.—INVASION OF GERMANY. + </p> + <p> + All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except the + VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and lieutenant + of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducing others to + join them, seized some Roman officers sent among them by Crassus. The + campaign of the third year (56) was directed against these people. They + were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages built on the end of + promontories and easily defended by land. In a naval engagement, which + lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet was destroyed. The leaders of the + Veneti were put to death for their treachery in seizing Roman officers, + and the rest were sold into slavery. + </p> + <p> + The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, among + the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + </p> + <p> + During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into + Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called the + SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and advanced to + within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the invaders twenty-four + hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of the time, they + attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, and two men of + aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, the + Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + </p> + <p> + Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to + inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famous + bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, thinking his + object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. + </p> + <p> + INVASION OF BRITAIN. + </p> + <p> + It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossing + the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but little + resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for a short + time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the weather + unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among the Belgae, + and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + </p> + <p> + During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, as + Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all preparations + were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next day landed on the + island. He defeated the Britons under their leader CASSIVELAUNUS, and + compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many thousand prisoners + were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + </p> + <p> + FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + </p> + <p> + In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several tribes. + That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commanded by the + lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampment that there was + an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break up camp, and go, if + possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. On the march + they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a few stragglers carried + the news to Labiénus, who was wintering with a legion among the Remi. + </p> + <p> + This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant who + was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, who had + fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, raised the + siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + </p> + <p> + In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previous + winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Ambiorix, + escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar again crossed + the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, + supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. The + patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The chiefs of all the + tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day was + settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Genabum, on + the Liger, were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggle of the + Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Averni. + </p> + <p> + Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossing + the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marched + upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + </p> + <p> + Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. He + proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the towns + of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum alone was spared. + Within its walls were placed the best of their goods and a strong + garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well defended siege, + captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting eight hundred, + who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. Large quantities of corn were + taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He then marched against + Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town was on a high plateau, + and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. A part of the army, + contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault the place. The + battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat + Caesar received in Gaul. Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. + The siege was raised. It was a serious position for Caesar. All Gaul was + in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junction with Labiénus at + Agendicum, and with all his troops started for Gallia Narbonensis to + protect it from invasion. + </p> + <p> + On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with eighty + thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill and considered + impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). Vercingetorix appealed + to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress been invested when Caesar's + army was surrounded by an immense force of Gauls that had come to the + rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius. But they did not fail + him. The relieving army, though five times as large as his, was driven + back and sent flying home. + </p> + <p> + Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs and + advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded unconditional + surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into slavery, and the + money obtained distributed among the soldiers. Vercingetorix was kept to + be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and afterwards died in a dungeon. + </p> + <p> + With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically + completed. + </p> + <p> + The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some of + the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the Senate. + The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces were formed, + Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of these was + subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, and + Latin became the official language. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0031" id="link2HCH0031"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXI. CLODIUS AND MILO.—DEATH OF CRASSUS. + </h2> + <p> + During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusion + prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which would + stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property. + Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. There + were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO. + </p> + <p> + "Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period. He + had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; he had + no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for the moment + was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was the leader of + the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat the + Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killing persons + disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had high friends and + connections, who threw a shield over him when his audacity had gone beyond + endurance." Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. His chief fame had been + gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs of armed slaves accompanied + him everywhere, and there were constant collisions between his retainers + and those of Clodius. + </p> + <p> + In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was + demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, led by + their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties met in + bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo's party + finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, and the recall + voted. + </p> + <p> + For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot. He + landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outside the + city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting to receive + him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuild his palace + on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the public expense. But + Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted the workmen engaged in + the repair of his Palatine house, broke down the walls, and, attacking + Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + </p> + <p> + At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long + struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidate + for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two meeting by + accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, + 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated sole + Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went into exile + at Massilia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, but did + not dare to deliver it. + </p> + <p> + During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar renewed + his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were held at + Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, that of Spain; + Crassus, that of Syria. + </p> + <p> + CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompanied by + his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived at + Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; and the Romans, seven legions + strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along the river. + The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Crassus a plan of the + campaign, which consisted in following the river as far as Seleucia, in + order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid + being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus allowed himself + to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the sandy plains of + Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + </p> + <p> + The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed + upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted a + charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians yielded, but + only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after great deeds of + valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne before the eyes + of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave the command + into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orders for a general retreat. The + Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, and Crassus + himself was killed in a conference (53). + </p> + <p> + In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand + Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as slaves + in the army of the Parthians. + </p> + <p> + The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had + sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married Cornelia, + the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus Scipio. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0032" id="link2HCH0032"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.—BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + </h2> + <p> + Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off all + pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the interests + of the Senate and aristocracy. + </p> + <p> + The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression + upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern + barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself + distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. + "He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than + Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of + warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The nobility had + watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a + thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty." + </p> + <p> + Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a second + consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on this + account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, he could + not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, he must + disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the + consulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to + become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. + </p> + <p> + The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended + several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His + enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he + returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger; + whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. + </p> + <p> + The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the + days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was to + weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in + Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had + been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The + vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in Asia + Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were placed + under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the year 49 + were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter quarters at + Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. From here he + sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating that he was ready to + resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The messenger arrived at Rome, + January 1, 49, on the day in which the new Consuls entered upon their + duties. + </p> + <p> + The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited + discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command. + The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were + compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + </p> + <p> + When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called together + his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my army have + served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We have driven + the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; and the + Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside the + Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, and + has called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it in + this course." The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to follow + their leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men and + officers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole + away, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across the + Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and marched to + Ariminum. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy had + imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert. + Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving wives, + children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to seek safety + with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from the + treasury, but left it locked. + </p> + <p> + Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that he + was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province in + Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing to + have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by the + Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, that + Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, and that + Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give security that + he would dismiss his army. + </p> + <p> + These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. + Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains to + Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna, before + Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw open their + gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled. Steadily + he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when he reached + Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops. + </p> + <p> + This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats and a + few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius endeavored + to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him over to Caesar. + The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrison filled Pompey + and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium, where ships + were in readiness for them to depart. + </p> + <p> + Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival + outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already gone. + Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousand troops, + waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to see Caesar; and, + though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was unsuccessful, + owing to want of ships. + </p> + <p> + Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the Senate, + and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a fleet must + first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his attention. + </p> + <p> + In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way to Rome + he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but he preferred to + stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and assembled the Senate + through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius Longínus. The attendance was + small, as most of the members were with Pompey. In his address to the + Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance and concessions, of their + unjust demands, and their violent suppression of the authority of the + Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys to treat with Pompey, but no + one was found willing to go. After three days spent in useless discussion, + Caesar decided to act for himself. By his own edict, he restored the + children of the victims of Sulla's proscription to their rights and + property. The money in the treasury was voted him by the Assembly of the + people. He took as much of it as he needed, and started at once for Gaul + to join his troops on his way to Spain. + </p> + <p> + He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's lieutenants, + Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and allied troops. From + Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain supplies of Rome, and it was + important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sent Curio and to Sardinia + Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily, immediately abandoned it and + fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar's troops with open arms. + </p> + <p> + Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massilia + had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he had sent + away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, leaving + Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey to Spain. He + found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA in Catalonia + (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms, and Varro, + who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spain was at his + feet. + </p> + <p> + Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans to + Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. He + then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legions and + marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to + surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was + allowed to escape a second time. + </p> + <p> + Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived at + Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. Gaul, + Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded, + however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he had + lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised and killed in + Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey's followers. + </p> + <p> + During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course. + He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus, and + Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, when he + learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator. Financial + troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Public credit was + shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. Caesar allowed + himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimates were drawn of all + debts as they were one year before, the interest was remitted and the + principal declared still due. This measure relieved the debtors somewhat. + </p> + <p> + It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, during + the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from Brundisium, had + been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here had gathered many princes from + the East, a majority of the Senatorial families of Rome, Cato and Cicero, + the vanquished Afranius, and the renegade Labiénus. There were nine full + legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, amounting in all to 100,000 men. + </p> + <p> + Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were fewer + in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than 15,000 + infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans, inured to + toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted to his + leader. + </p> + <p> + On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after an + uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards Dyrrachium + where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and intrenched + himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country was well disposed + and furnished him with ample supplies. + </p> + <p> + Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his + remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and many + of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself to + trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit out a + second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antony + finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey's forces + were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger; but + Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him before Pompey knew + of his movements. + </p> + <p> + The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of strongly + fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turned + the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to + the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + </p> + <p> + Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At this + point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were surprised + and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them to rally. + Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and a few + hundred soldiers were captured. + </p> + <p> + This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was + exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over; + and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected to follow + up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recover from the + blow. + </p> + <p> + The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey followed, + confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselves with + quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero remained + behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of the degenerate + nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + </p> + <p> + The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, + only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS, which + gave name to the battle which followed. + </p> + <p> + "The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place in + history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their own + persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons of + Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman + families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of the + political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present on the + field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitude whose + deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia were watered by + the precious blood of the elect of the earth." + </p> + <p> + For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. + One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticed a + movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack was coming. + </p> + <p> + The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing rested + on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey himself + commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken from Caesar. + Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the cavalry. Opposite + Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. His left and centre were + led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius Longínus. + </p> + <p> + At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw their + darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry charged, + outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back the opposing cavalry, + who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced flushed with victory, + Caesar's fourth line, which he had held in reserve, and which was made up + of the flower of his legions, appeared in their way. So fierce was their + attack that the Pompeians wavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. + The fourth line threw themselves upon Pompey's left wing, which was now + unprotected. This wing, composed of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in + no mood to fight its former comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and + fled. Pompey himself mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the + battle ended in a rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while + fifteen thousand of the enemy lay dead on the field. + </p> + <p> + The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians had + built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect their + delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out ready for + them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables were spread + with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw these preparations + Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my suffering, patient + army, which needed the common necessaries of life, of dissoluteness and + profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a portion of his forces + in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreat of the enemy. + Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were pardoned. Domitius, + whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killed trying to escape. + Labiénus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away by night. Thus + ended the battle of Pharsalia. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0033" id="link2HCH0033"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIII. CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + </h2> + <p> + Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way to the + sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few companions + who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne, and from there + to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young PTOLEMY; but he was + seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, 48. + </p> + <p> + Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. "Though + he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the surname of + GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to have excelled in + all athletic sports, but he fell short of being a first-class general. He + won great successes in Spain, and more especially in the East; but for + these he was, no doubt, partly indebted to what others had already done. + Of the gifts which make a good statesman, he had really none. He was too + weak and irresolute to choose a side and stand by it. Pitted against such + a man as Caesar, he could not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that + in a corrupt time he never used his opportunities for plunder and + extortion." + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, set + sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought to him. + He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now saw + what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister, the + famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants of Alexandría + revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a handful of + soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire to the neighboring + buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he returned and wreaked + vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing CLEOPÁTRA upon the throne + (47). + </p> + <p> + Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, + where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt against Rome. + Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity rendered + proverbial by his words, <i>Veni, vidi, vici</i>, I CAME, I SAW, I + CONQUERED. + </p> + <p> + He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy before + it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from the capital + there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of the citizens were + firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius and fortune of the + irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been made Dictator a + second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + </p> + <p> + Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He + insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property + respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months + prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, but + discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected privilege + of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain promised + rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open revolt, and + marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesar collected + them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state their grievances. They + demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens" (<i>Quirites</i>), said + the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressed them as "fellow + soldiers," and the implied rebuke was so keen, that a reaction at once + began, and they all begged to be received again into his service. He + accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted to each soldier + out of the <i>ager publicus</i>, or out of his own estates. + </p> + <p> + Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King JUBA + had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied all the + followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, Afranius, Petreius, + and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. + </p> + <p> + Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions + of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily, + Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, were + put to death without mercy. + </p> + <p> + Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties. + He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and charged with + currying favor of the Dictator. + </p> + <p> + Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near + Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed + useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the + province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba to + give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also came in, + enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils of war. + But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica by + Cato. + </p> + <p> + For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; Scipio + had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. Finally, at + THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, 46, the armies + met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed to the charge with + one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a slaughter. Officers + and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted in his flight and + slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, finding their retreat cut + off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; when the first, Petreius, + fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. Labiénus and the two sons + of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius was captured and executed. + </p> + <p> + Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and + committed suicide. + </p> + <p> + Thus ended the African campaign. + </p> + <p> + On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four + successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one over + Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers with + liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They were + feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousand tables, + each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. Then + followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beasts and + gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + </p> + <p> + Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of forty + days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another was + inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to him in the + Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (<i>Quintilis</i>) of the Roman + calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictator for two + years, and later for life. He received for three years the office of + Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to be guardian of + manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune (48) for life, and + Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king in everything excepting + name. + </p> + <p> + Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the + REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been so + inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind. + Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still in + use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, an + Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + </p> + <p> + While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate. + Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and the + vacancies filled with persons of merit. + </p> + <p> + Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of + Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus had + been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiers + became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Roman + affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in its + wanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect an army + as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There were + thirteen legions in all. + </p> + <p> + Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the + province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor + AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The + struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive + battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near + Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was on + the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it hand + to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful at one + time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized a + standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labiénus was seen to + gallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized his + troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including three + thousand Roman Knights, and Labiénus himself. + </p> + <p> + Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a number + of years. + </p> + <p> + Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, + when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians + (Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, + which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration. + </p> + <p> + CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, called + UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.) (95-46) was the + great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the + old school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in + his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, + who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a + general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military + exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; but + when candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declined to + win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. + </p> + <p> + QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of the + Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was one of + the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. He was + the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant tool against the + great conqueror. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0034" id="link2HCH0034"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR. + </h2> + <p> + Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had fought + against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, MARCUS BRUTUS, + and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to nine hundred. He cut + off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in idleness. He sent out + impoverished men to colonize old cities. He rebuilt Corinth, and settled + eighty thousand Italians on the site of Carthage. As a censor of morals he + was very rigid. His own habits were marked by frugality. The rich young + patricians were forbidden to be carried about in litters, as had been the + custom. Libraries were formed. Eminent physicians and scientists were + encouraged to settle in Rome. The harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road + constructed from the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A + temple to Mars was built, and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the + foot of the Tarpeian Rock. + </p> + <p> + In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + </p> + <p> + CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the + conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of + Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At + Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned by + Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew and + son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, and also + been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, and Brutus + tyranny. + </p> + <p> + These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men who + had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. Cicero + was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all who knew + him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking the life of + one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + </p> + <p> + On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the + Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, headed by + Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled brother; and while + the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping Caesar's hand, kissed his + head and breast. As Caesar attempted to rise, Cimber dragged his cloak + from his shoulders, and Casca, who was standing behind his chair, stabbed + him in the neck. The first blow was struck, and the whole pack fell upon + their noble victim. Cassius stabbed him in the face, and Marcus Brutus in + the groin. He made no further resistance; but, wrapping his gown over his + head and the lower part of his body, he fell at the base of POMPEY'S + STATUE, which was drenched with the martyr's blood. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the crowd. +They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's toga, and +disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to be carried +to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral pile in the +Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in troops, broke +into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassius +fled from the city for their lives, followed by the other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a +pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As +a historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0035" id="link2HCH0035"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXV. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.—PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + </h2> + <p> + Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his + sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other + relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + </p> + <p> + Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. He + went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, Calpurnia, + had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,—a large + sum,—and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's writings + and memoranda. + </p> + <p> + Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and showed + himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome was + disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's property. + He claimed that he had already expended it for public purposes. Octavius + at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out of his own fortune, + thus making himself very popular among the people. He then joined the + party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winter of 44 was its chief + champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, who was delivering against + Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,—so called from their + resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes against Philip. + </p> + <p> + During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at + Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed + Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, made + friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43) the + SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganize the + state, and to hold office for five years. + </p> + <p> + The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and + Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia + Cisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription + followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to please + Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + </p> + <p> + PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + </p> + <p> + The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, whither + BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These two had + organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80,000 + infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering various + towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled their + forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marching + through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octavius + opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 troops. There were + two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeated + Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of his + colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, three weeks + later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, and, + following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. With Brutus fell + the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, which is monarchy, + was then established. + </p> + <p> + The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman + world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took Italy + and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + </p> + <p> + Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to be + overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in command of a + strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the Mediterranean, and, + by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposed the city to great + danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raise a fleet and meet this + danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, but later, in 36, in the great + sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, the rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia + with a few followers, but was taken prisoner at Milétus by one of the + lieutenants of Antony, and put to death. + </p> + <p> + Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal share + in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But his + soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrender to + Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power and + provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be a + factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octavius + and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latter + the East. + </p> + <p> + Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to the + fascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dress of + an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friends and + supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finally + divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregarding + his good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he became more + and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture resulted in + open war. + </p> + <p> + The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, + September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a large + army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that of Cleopátra. + He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopátra insisted that they + should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was commanded by Agrippa, who + had been in command at the sea-fight off Naulochus. The battle lasted a + long time, and was still undecided, when Cleopátra hoisted sail and with + her sixty vessels hastened to leave the line. Antony at once followed her. + The battle, however, continued until his remaining fleet was destroyed, + and his army, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered. + </p> + <p> + Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter in + Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupied + in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy the + demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length he turned + his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key of the country, + he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing of success, committed + suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. The queen, disdaining to adorn + the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example, and was found dead on + her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithful attendants also dead at + her feet. + </p> + <p> + Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital to + celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled disputes + in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He arrived at + Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. The gates of the + temple of JANUS—which were open in time of war, and had been closed + but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once between the First and + Second Punic Wars—were closed, and Rome was at peace with all the + world. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + </p> + <p> + CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the + dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by + nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, and + therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not sufficient + self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play a part in + politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it happened that + he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled, deceived by the + weakness of his friends and the strength of his adversaries; and at last + threatened by both the parties between which he tried to steer his course. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0036" id="link2HCH0036"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVI. AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + </h2> + <p> + After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the + precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but he + allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give him + that name for ten years,—a period which was repeatedly renewed. In + this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next the + Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority of + Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore to + this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious pruning he + reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property qualification + for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS (prince), a + title which implied that the Emperor was the <i>first</i> citizen, without + claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any suspicions of the + populace. + </p> + <p> + The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had jurisdiction + in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. It was convened + three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), and 13th (or 15th). + The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + </p> + <p> + The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it + made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), and + Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sitting in the + curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of course, were + only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was made Pontifex + Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + </p> + <p> + Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was + practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all voice + in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, however, + continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A. D.). + </p> + <p> + As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as + Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself + resided at the capital, and sent deputies (<i>legati</i>) to oversee them. + The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsuls + appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa, Achaia + (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and Gallia + Narbonensis. + </p> + <p> + The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was assisted + by three <i>Praefects</i>; one in charge of the corn supplies, a second in + charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body guard of nine + thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefects soon + overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus + reigned supreme. + </p> + <p> + The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on the + Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper + Euphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and west + to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, and + subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign Augustus + joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the territory + along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + </p> + <p> + Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory + between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy + mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two + step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. + They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new + provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + </p> + <p> + Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the province + of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + </p> + <p> + Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a + campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished the + conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.), + and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work. + </p> + <p> + Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany. + His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons, + Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. + </p> + <p> + In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired + territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently + conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, they + rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief. + </p> + <p> + Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the + Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. After + three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his way + through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy in + full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killed + himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again the Roman + frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor is said + to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my legions!" + </p> + <p> + Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he asked his + friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. + </p> + <p> + Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 + B.C.—14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her + beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married three + times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by whom she + had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She was banished + on account of her conduct, and died in want. + </p> + <p> + OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and + accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her son + MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). The famous + lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. 869-887) were + read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to tears, and winning + for the author a munificent reward. + </p> + <p> + After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark Antony, + by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the ancestress of + three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + </p> + <p> + AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend and + counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleet of + Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had + three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him; the + third was murdered by Tiberius. + </p> + <p> + Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in his + personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and + ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in the + ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune, than + in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will. His success + depended on the temper of the people and the peculiar circumstances of the + time. His clearest title to greatness is found in the fact that he + compelled eighty millions of people to live in peace for more than forty + years, He made the world to centre on one will, and the horrors which mark + the reigns of his successors were the legitimate result of the + irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed his empire for the + present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus it would seem that the + part he played was that of a shrewd politician, rather than that of a wise + statesman. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0037" id="link2HCH0037"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVII. THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + </h2> + <p> + In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose names + have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the AUGUSTAN AGE a + synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, Ovid, + Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign a brilliancy + unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than diminished by the fame of + Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, and that of Tacitus, Seneca, + and others, who followed; for they belong to an epoch in which Augustus + stands the central figure in all which pertains to the arts of peace. + </p> + <p> + In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. Born at + Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona and + Mediolánum. After completing his education he retired to his paternal + estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the battle of + Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was subsequently + restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly in Campania. + His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-second year (22 + September, 19 B. C.). + </p> + <p> + Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly imitated + Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone inspiring and + elevating. + </p> + <p> + In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,—a good son, + a faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal + interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and + difficulties of practical life. + </p> + <p> + In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage gave + him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the friendship of all + the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was Horace, who + entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which was established in + his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in which + every Roman had a share; and his works became school-books even before the + death of Augustus, and have continued such ever since. + </p> + <p> + HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at + Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where he + fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his <i>Satires</i>. + These he read to his friends, and their merit was at once recognized. His + great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him to the Emperor, and gave him + a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Mountains. He died the + same year as his patron, and was buried beside him at the Esquiline Gate. + </p> + <p> + The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in the + Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and felicity of + thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read and quoted more + than those of any other ancient writer. + </p> + <p> + OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil and + Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for + narration. + </p> + <p> + "Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, + partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of nature, + and partly because his subject is love. His representations of this + passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other poets in + the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character and rhythm + of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by Augustus for + some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing verses were written + during this period. + </p> + <p> + One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, the warm + friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the literature + and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his magnificent house + was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helped both Virgil and + Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter is constantly referring to + him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) childless, and left his fortune to + Augustus. + </p> + <p> + The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and Nepos. + </p> + <p> + LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man of + rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The historical + value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of the scarcity, and + in many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on the times + of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and always interesting. His + accuracy, however, is not to be compared with that of Caesar. Only + thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two books that he wrote are + preserved. + </p> + <p> + NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, <i>De + Viris Illustribus</i>, has come down to us; it is neither accurate nor + interesting, and of little value. + </p> + <p> + SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of + Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. He + excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to be + obscure. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments of +this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican institutions, +a man of great independence of character, and a poet of no mean merit, +as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of his writings are +preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two that +had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of justice +(<i>Basilicae</i>), which were erected around its borders. The most famous +of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar and finished +by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the great +Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, finished by the +Emperor of that name. +</pre> + <p> + The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was the + PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. Here are + buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a mausoleum for + himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,—the first stone + theatre of Rome. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0038" id="link2HCH0038"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + </h2> + <h3> + TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + </h3> + <p> + Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. C.), + the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained a divorce + from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, and + commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in Cantabria, + Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his campaigns with + success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 B. C., he celebrated + a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the dissolute daughter of + Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, developing + everything that was bad in his character, and making him jealous, + suspicious, and hypocritical. + </p> + <p> + Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to Rhodes, + where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's influence, + however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards appointed the + Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the age of fifty-six. A + silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and ambitions were locked behind + an impenetrable barrier." He is said but once to have taken counsel with + his officers. He was a master of dissimulation, and on this account an + object of dislike and suspicion. But until his later years, his intellect + was clear and far-seeing, penetrating all disguises. + </p> + <p> + Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at + large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which had + been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were made. + First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in small bodies, + was permanently encamped in full force close to the walls. By this course + the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, the old COMITIAS were + practically abolished. But the Senate was treated with great deference. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, + that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, + governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread of + punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in public + expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his reign on the + whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the + slightest pretext. <i>Majestas</i> nearly corresponds to treason; but it + is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was + effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one who + had the <i>imperium</i> or <i>potestas</i>. Tiberius stretched the + application of this offence even to words or conduct which could in any + way be considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers (<i>delatores</i>) + sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered unsafe. The dark side of + this ruler's character is made specially prominent by ancient historians; + but their statements are beginning to be taken with much allowance. + </p> + <p> + After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a fainting + fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + </p> + <p> + LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. She + exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. She had + great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She managed to ruin, + one after another, the large circle of relatives of Augustus, until + finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the palace with Livia and + her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the Empress, and her son feared and + hated her. She survived Augustus fifteen years, and died in 29. Tiberius + refused to visit her on her death-bed, and was not present at her funeral. + </p> + <p> + SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was + trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He + persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her + husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry + her. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of + Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and + Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Capreae, + and he himself became the real master of Rome. + </p> + <p> + Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrested and + executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in pieces + by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + </p> + <p> + CALIGULA (37-41). + </p> + <p> + Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son of + Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of + Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,—a nickname + given him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five + years of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject to + fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, and + confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is said + to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, that he + might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond of adulation, and + often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise of a god, and + demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He was murdered + by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + </p> + <p> + THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. CLAUDIUS (41-54). + </p> + <p> + A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of + government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the + Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + </p> + <p> + Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was a + man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his two + wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was so + notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. His + second wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearly as bad. + This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom she induced + the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless wife then + caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be proclaimed Emperor. + </p> + <p> + At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In the + government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He undertook the + CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days he laid the + foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about forty years + later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a Roman province for + four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Roman customs, as did + the Gauls, and when the Roman garrisons were withdrawn, they quickly + returned to their former condition. However, many remains of Roman + buildings in the island show that it was for the time well under + subjection. + </p> + <p> + The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a new + harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct called the + AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to this day. He also + reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by draining the Fucine + Lake. + </p> + <p> + NERO (54-68). + </p> + <p> + NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or three + years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the author, and + BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his government was + during this period the most respectable of any since the time of Augustus. + His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and removed from the cares of + state. But he soon became infatuated with an unscrupulous woman, POPPAEA + SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finally killed his wife, Octavia. + </p> + <p> + It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this time. + A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the real ruler of the + Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and wickedness. Poppaea + died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhus was disposed of; + Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, were murdered. + The wealthy were plundered, and the feelings of his subjects outraged in + every conceivable manner. The Emperor appeared in public, contending first + as a musician, and afterwards in the sports of the circus. + </p> + <p> + The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, + was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the stories of + his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure fictions. It was + necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so the CHRISTIANS, then + a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were accused of the + crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often enclosed in fagots + covered with pitch, and burned alive. + </p> + <p> + In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence of a + conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding alleys. + The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard stone, and + protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply was also + carefully regulated. + </p> + <p> + In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the + magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. Its + walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of art + from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, lakes, + groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of Nero himself, + one hundred and ten feet high. + </p> + <p> + Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were implicated, + both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life after this + became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he conducted himself + so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, and Roman patience + could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither Spain, GALBA, + proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. Verginius, the Governor + of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the insurrection. The Senate + proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned him to death. He fled from + the city and put an end to his life, June 9, 68, just in time to escape + capture. His statues were broken down, his name everywhere erased, and his + Golden House demolished. With him ended the Claudian line of Emperors. + </p> + <p> + LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, of + a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a teacher + of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca began to + practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable reputation, when + in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later he was recalled to be + tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. He was Consul in 57, and + during the first years of Nero's reign he shared the administration of + affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His influence over Nero, while it lasted, + was salutary, though often maintained by doubtful means. In course of time + Nero began to dislike him, and when Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By + the Emperor's command he committed suicide. Opening the veins in his feet + and arms, he discoursed with his friends on the brevity of life till death + ensued. + </p> + <p> + Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral + essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of the + last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + </p> + <p> + GALBA (68-69).—OTHO (69).—VITELLIUS (69). + </p> + <p> + GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on + account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and was + murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Rome. He + belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerely + regretted by the better element in the city. + </p> + <p> + OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection + against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his + accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the Rhine, + revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and committed + suicide after a reign of three months. + </p> + <p> + VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and + incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during which + he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0039" id="link2HCH0039"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XXXIX. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + </h2> + <h3> + VESPASIAN (69-79). + </h3> + <p> + The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the soldiers + who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea proclaimed as + Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. He left the conduct of + the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at Rome in 70. Here he + overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the course of this struggle the + Capitol was burned. This he restored, rebuilding also a large part of the + city. + </p> + <p> + In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and + extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the + general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper members, + replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he put down a + formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus returned from the + capture of Jerusalem, (Footnote: Jerusalem was taken in 70, after a siege + of several months, the horrors of which have been graphically detailed by + the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was present in the army of Titus. The + city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold into slavery.) they enjoyed a + joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was closed, and peace prevailed during + the remainder of his reign. + </p> + <p> + Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A new + Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous COLOSSÉUM + was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of Nero, which + had stood near by. + </p> + <p> + On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugal + and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked by peace + and general prosperity. + </p> + <p> + One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum + Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. Four + years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, which he + conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, increasing the + prosperity of the people and advancing their civilization. He remained in + Britain until 85, when he was recalled. His life was written by his + son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + </p> + <p> + TITUS (79-81). + </p> + <p> + Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of his + father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built a + triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, + called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via Sacra, + and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred candlestick of + the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + </p> + <p> + It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed by an + eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, the most + noted writer of his day. His work on <i>Natural History</i>, the only one + of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student. His + passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, and + caused his death. + </p> + <p> + DOMITIAN (81-96). + </p> + <p> + DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,—cruel, passionate, + and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, during + which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes and + inconsistencies. + </p> + <p> + In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added to + the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden and + Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the Rhine to + Ratisbon on the Danube. + </p> + <p> + With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the last + of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the historian + Suetonius. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0040" id="link2HCH0040"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + </h2> + <h3> + NERVA (96-98). + </h3> + <p> + NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the first + Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. He + associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in command of the + army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but during that time + he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring happiness and + prosperity upon every class. + </p> + <p> + TRAJAN (98-117). + </p> + <p> + Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty in + the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long + afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was that + he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." Trajan was + a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful life, he was + nevertheless a wise and firm master. + </p> + <p> + He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube and + the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became so + thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is + founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. It was + in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF TRAJAN, + which still remains, was erected. + </p> + <p> + Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an + important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, however, + resulted in no permanent advantage. + </p> + <p> + During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS + POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the + financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, + until in the next century they were reduced to a condition of practical + serfdom. + </p> + <p> + The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustan + age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose writers + were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior to its + poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE YOUNGER, and + QUINTILIAN. + </p> + <p> + The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and + STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + </p> + <p> + HADRIAN (117-138). + </p> + <p> + Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. One + of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquests of + Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasons for + this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lend + strength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection without constant + and expensive military operations. The people occupying the new conquests + were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy of defence, and + certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke. + </p> + <p> + Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, to + overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited Britain, + where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a fortified line + of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea to sea. The remains + of this great work are still to be seen, corresponding nearly to the + modern boundary between England and Scotland. He also visited the East, + where the Jews were making serious trouble, and completed their overthrow. + </p> + <p> + On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment. + Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The most famous + of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known as the Castle of + San Angelo. + </p> + <p> + Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases from + which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure a proper + succession, he associated with himself in the government TITUS AURELIUS + ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus and Lucius Verus. + In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadrian died, leaving the + Empire to Titus. + </p> + <p> + TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161). + </p> + <p> + ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded to + the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate on + account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. He was + a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the affairs of + state moved smoothly. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180). + </p> + <p> + On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the + title of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus. + </p> + <p> + The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into Gaul; the + army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the Parthians in + the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, however, ended + favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding Mesopotamia to + Rome. But the returning army brought with it a pestilence, which spread + devastation throughout the West. The Christians were charged with being + the cause of the plague, and were cruelly persecuted. Among the victims + were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp at Smyrna. + </p> + <p> + The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague who + attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The Emperor + was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become his + greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less + unhappy. + </p> + <p> + The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. Rome + had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability even to + defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was engaged on + the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring to check their + advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the fifty-ninth year of + his life (180). + </p> + <p> + Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought with + money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked the + strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + </p> + <p> + Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were quiet; + he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His faults were + amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His <i>Meditations</i> + have made him known as an author of fine tastes and thoughts. With him + ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his death, Rome's prosperity + and power began rapidly to wane. + </p> + <p> + THE CHRISTIANS. + </p> + <p> + The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were persecuted + at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for these + persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse to + worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. It + was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, as + an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage to the Roman + gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave + his sanction to the most general persecution this sect had yet suffered. + The last combined effort to suppress them was under DIOCLETIAN, in 284, + but it ended with the EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which famous decree gave the + imperial license to the religion of Christ. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0041" id="link2HCH0041"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLI. PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.—DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + </h2> + <h3> + COMMODUS (180-192). + </h3> + <p> + On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was + received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His character was + the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and vindictiveness he + was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of unhappy Rome. By means + of informers, who were well paid, he rid himself of the best members of + the Senate. His government became so corrupt, he himself so notorious in + crime, that he was unendurable. His proudest boasts were of his triumphs + in the amphitheatre, and of his ability to kill a hundred lions with as + many arrows. After a reign of twelve years his servants rid the Empire of + his presence. + </p> + <p> + PERTINAX (192-193). + </p> + <p> + PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, + followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it was + not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted reforms + were stopped by his murder. + </p> + <p> + JULIANUS (193).—SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + </p> + <p> + The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who proved to + be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a thousand dollars to + each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in number. After enjoying the + costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. + </p> + <p> + In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their + respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African, belonging + to the army of the Danube. + </p> + <p> + Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished them + from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand legionaries, who + acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in command of this + guard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, and + financial powers. The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. + </p> + <p> + After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against the + Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. + In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificent + arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eboracum + (York), in Britain, while making preparations for a campaign against the + Caledonians. + </p> + <p> + CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + </p> + <p> + Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in the + government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the elder, + CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence of their + mother. + </p> + <p> + Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) he + was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous baths + which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. Caracalla + was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, and was followed by + HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a true Oriental, with but few + virtues. His end was like that of his predecessors. The Praetorians + revolted and murdered him. + </p> + <p> + FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + </p> + <p> + ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored in + vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become all + powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign + (222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + </p> + <p> + Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for three + years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + </p> + <p> + GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers in + his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251) both + fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the Christians + severer than any that preceded it. + </p> + <p> + The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. Several + generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The Empire nearly + fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of territory. Its + weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is often called the + AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + </p> + <p> + FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + </p> + <p> + FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered strength + of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); TACITUS + (275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian undertook a + campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In her he found a + worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant by her + justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself in + Palmýra, which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia was carried + to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was afterwards + permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first who built the + walls of Rome in their present position. + </p> + <p> + DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + </p> + <p> + With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of government + at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost the last + remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more united + country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself MAXIMIAN, a + gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing a dangerous + revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS and CONSTANTIUS, + whom he called CAESARS,—one to have charge of the East, and the + other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed all revolts, + strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and imposed peace and good + order upon the world. + </p> + <p> + Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two Caesars + to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn appointed Caesars as + assistants. + </p> + <p> + Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE was + proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle + followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and was + declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + </p> + <p> + CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + </p> + <p> + Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which should + be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering the + greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea and the + Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while as a + seaport its advantages were unrivalled,—a feature not in the least + shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the city was + built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of government was + permanently removed thither, and every inducement was offered to + immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to drag out a + miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen a + prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign of thirty years, + in his sixty-fourth year (337). + </p> + <p> + Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with + which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, + HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this + mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kept on + increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite influential body. + It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was issued, in 313, + giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; and also in this + reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), met to settle + questions of creed. + </p> + <p> + In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all + warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient and + prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition alone led + him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked his course + after his success. He was filial in his affection towards his mother; but + he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death his father-in-law, + his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he was great in his virtues, + in his faults he was contemptible. + </p> + <p> + DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + </p> + <p> + Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., CONSTANTIUS, + and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves (337-353). + Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the possession of + Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death of the former. The + other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, because the Persian war + in the East occupied Constantius, while Constans was satisfied with a life + of indolence and dissipation. Constans was murdered in 350, and his + brother was sole Emperor. He died ten years later, and was succeeded by + his cousin, Julian (360-363) + </p> + <p> + JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and + respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus + gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, had + too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. The + failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign + of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His + successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the army, died after a + reign of only seven months. + </p> + <p> + VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the throne + was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his brother + Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with Constantinople + as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN the seat of his + government. So completely had Rome fallen from her ancient position, that + it is very doubtful if this monarch ever visited the city during his + reign. (Footnote: Since the building of Constantinople no Emperor had + lived in Rome. She had ceased to be mistress even of the West, and rapidly + fell to the rank of a provincial city.) He died during a campaign on the + Danube. His son GRATIAN (375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, + and under him Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain + in a battle against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and + Western Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make + himself sole ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. Gratian, + like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, MAXIMUS + (383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS (392-394), were either + deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, one ruler + of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom Gratian had made Emperor of the + East. He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his death his two + sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) taking the West, and Arcadius + the East. + </p> + <p> + Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed + under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by + marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven from + the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was + suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate to + murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he was + wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, + captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When this evil was + past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the Empire, each + eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumbling to + pieces. + </p> + <p> + Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperial + line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a relic of its + former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost; Illyria and + Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa was soon after seized + by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possession of AETIUS, + a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, winning for + himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. He was assassinated by his + ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455, the Emperor himself was + killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, but for only three + months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a noble of Gaul, became Emperor. He was + deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a Sueve, of considerable ability, who for + some time managed the affairs of the Empire, making and unmaking its + monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avítus, ten months were allowed + to elapse before a successor was appointed; and then the crown was + bestowed upon MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, a man too weak to + interfere with the plans of Ricimer. + </p> + <p> + After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the + people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who + attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Ricimer; + but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a horde of + barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, + and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself died. + </p> + <p> + Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid + succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the + office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of the + DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0042" id="link2HCH0042"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLII. INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + </h2> + <p> + The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a separate + chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, because by this plan + a better idea of the operations can be given; and especially because we + can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive conception of the rise of + the nations, which, tearing in pieces the Roman Empire, have made up + Modern Europe. + </p> + <p> + The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western Empire, + came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they moved + westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and defeated the + GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the Danube, and who + were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + </p> + <p> + The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern + Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were the + more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged to + submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in overrunning the + country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideous appearance + and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the Danube, and besought the + Romans to allow them to cross the river and take refuge in their + territory. The favor was granted, but the refugees were treated with + indignity, and compelled to undergo every privation. + </p> + <p> + Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also + desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized + shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They found + the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that they united + with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent against them, and + ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in person, and was + defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and westward into Greece, + everywhere pillaging the country. + </p> + <p> + When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong + points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment for an + attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete victory. + The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the first chapter + of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a close. + </p> + <p> + We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, ALARIC + and STILICHO. + </p> + <p> + Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year the + Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens was + compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken and + plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual resistance. At + this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, hastened to the + scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but Alaric burst through + his lines and escaped. He then made peace with Constantinople, and the + office of Master-General of Illyricum was bestowed upon him. How sincere + the barbarian was in his offers of peace may be seen from the fact that in + two years he invaded Italy (400). + </p> + <p> + Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that even + the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear of the + approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for himself, + leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from Britain, Gaul, + and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacant and + defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, was surprised + by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified town of Asta, was there + besieged until the arrival of the brave Stilicho, who attacked the + besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly routed them. In his retreat, + Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he was again defeated, and escaped + only by the fleetness of his horse. Honorius returned home (404), and + enjoyed a triumph. + </p> + <p> + Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from the + Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + </p> + <p> + The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of Germany + who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, and + Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these tribes invaded + Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were met near Florence by + Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus himself was killed. The + survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, ravaged the lower portion of + the country, and finally separated. One portion, the Burgundians, remained + on the frontier, and from their descendants comes the name of Burgundy. + </p> + <p> + The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they + established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of the + Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves settled + in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. The Vandals + occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to Africa, where + they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at one time were + powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome itself. + </p> + <p> + Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, no + longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting for the + throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + </p> + <p> + With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaric again + appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into submission. Famine + and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peace was purchased by a + large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. The city was + betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became the second time a + prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + </p> + <p> + The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to ravage + the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were almost + spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after his army + marched into France, where they established a kingdom reaching from the + Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + </p> + <p> + The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the + Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to + enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves firmly + in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the name of + FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + </p> + <p> + Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder + appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + </p> + <p> + The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The + portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark of + his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, small + deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, broad + shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength though + disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an army of + over half a million troops. + </p> + <p> + At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to + interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an + invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of an + ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy from the + west, was too favorable to be neglected. + </p> + <p> + A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing this, + they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever cities lay in + their route. + </p> + <p> + The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met the + Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 451, was + fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of Western Europe. + Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the Romans; and a charge of + the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of the savages. Aetius did not + push his victory, but allowed the Huns to retreat in the direction of + Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rased to the ground + Aquileia. He then scoured the whole country, sparing only those who + preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. + </p> + <p> + It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, who + fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoons at + the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + </p> + <p> + Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, and + with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The VANDALS, we + have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were now ruled by + GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continually + ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets. + </p> + <p> + Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow of + the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge sent + to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail for the + mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands on his + promise to spare the property of the Church (June, 455), and for fourteen + days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric then left Rome, taking + with him Eudoxia. + </p> + <p> + This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years + elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0043" id="link2HCH0043"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. + </h2> + <h3> + PLAUTUS (254-184). + </h3> + <p> + PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. Born at + Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on the stage at + Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some time he worked in + a treadmill, but finally gained a living by translating Greek comedies + into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come down to us. They are lively, + graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek and Roman life. + </p> + <p> + TERENCE (195-159). + </p> + <p> + TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early age + as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and + liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of Plautus, + they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same general + character. + </p> + <p> + ENNIUS (139-69). + </p> + <p> + QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the Younger. + Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, the <i>Annàles</i>, + relates the traditional Roman history, from the arrival of Aenéas to the + poet's own day. + </p> + <p> + CICERO (106-43). + </p> + <p> + MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prose + writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy natural + talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively imagination, his + great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of expression, which was + never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any circumstances or mood, his + felicitous memory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, all + contributed to render him a powerful speaker. He himself left nothing + undone to attain perfection. Not until he had spent a long time in + laborious study and preparation did he make his <i>début</i> as an orator; + nor did he ever rest and think himself perfect, but, always working, made + the most careful preparation for every case. Each success was to him only + a step to another still higher achievement; and by continual meditation + and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hence he succeeded, + as is universally admitted, in gaining a place beside Demosthenes, or at + all events second only to him. + </p> + <p> + There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of twenty + more. His famous <i>Philippics</i> against Antony caused his proscription + by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa at Formiae, in + December, 43. + </p> + <p> + His chief writings on rhetoric were <i>De Oratore; Brutus de Claris + Oratoribus;</i> and <i>Orator ad M. Brutum</i>. Cicero was a lover of + philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most read + are <i>De Senectute, De Amicitia,</i> and <i>De Officiis</i>. + </p> + <p> + Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they + furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + </p> + <p> + CAESAR (100-44). + </p> + <p> + Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his <i>Commentarii</i>, + containing the history of the first seven years of the Gallic war, and the + history of the civil strife down to the Alexandrine war. The account of + his last year in Gaul was written probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of the + Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an + orator, Caesar ranks next to Cicero. + </p> + <p> + NEPOS (94-24). + </p> + <p> + CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both Cicero + and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his <i>De Viris + Illustribus</i> is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor + good style. + </p> + <p> + LUCRETIUS (98-55). + </p> + <p> + TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, <i>De Rerum Natura</i>. + The tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + </p> + <p> + CATULLUS (87-47). + </p> + <p> + GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet of Roman + literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + </p> + <p> + VIRGIL (70-19). + </p> + <p> + The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His <i>Aenéis</i>, in twelve books, + gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, and his + struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised when Virgil + died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + </p> + <p> + Besides the <i>Aenéis</i>, Virgil wrote the <i>Bucolica</i>, ten Eclogues + imitated and partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. The <i>Georgica</i>, + a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, is + considered his most finished work, and the most perfect production of + Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + </p> + <p> + HORACE (65-8). + </p> + <p> + QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two of + Satires, two of Epistles, and the <i>Ars Poetica</i>. (See page 180.) + </p> + <p> + TIBULLUS (54-29). + </p> + <p> + ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems the + beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + </p> + <p> + PROPERTIUS (49-15). + </p> + <p> + SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and wrote + mostly on love. + </p> + <p> + OVID (43 B.C.—18 A.D.) + </p> + <p> + PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of <i>Amores</i>; one of <i>Heroides</i>; + the <i>Ars Amatoria</i>; <i>Remedia Amoris</i>; the <i>Metamorphoses</i> + (fifteen books); the <i>Tristia</i>; and the <i>Fasti</i>. (See page 181.) + </p> + <p> + LIVY (59 B.C.—17 A.D.). + </p> + <p> + TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have been + preserved. (See page 181.) + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS. + </p> + <p> + PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius (14-37). + He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in number, and are + written in iambic verse. + </p> + <p> + SENECA (8 B.C.—65 A.D.) + </p> + <p> + For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, page + 189. + </p> + <p> + CURTIUS. + </p> + <p> + QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius + (50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. + </p> + <p> + PERSIUS (34-62). + </p> + <p> + PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He wrote + six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + </p> + <p> + LUCAN (39-65). + </p> + <p> + LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called <i>Pharsalia</i>, + upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + </p> + <p> + PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + </p> + <p> + GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in history, + grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on <i>Natural History</i> + has come down to us. + </p> + <p> + STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. STATIUS (45-96), a native of + Naples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the <i>Thebaid</i>, the + <i>Achilleis</i> (unfinished), and the <i>Silvae</i>. + </p> + <p> + MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen books + are extant. He was a native of Spain. + </p> + <p> + QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of + eloquence for many years in Rome. His work <i>On the Training of an Orator</i>, + is preserved. + </p> + <p> + JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described and + attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires are + still in existence. + </p> + <p> + TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his age. + His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a high + tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote,— + </p> + <p> + 1. A dialogue on orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. + 3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of + the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (<i>Historiae</i>). + 5. <i>Annales</i>, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, + Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + </p> + <p> + PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of Pliny + the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books of his + letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting vivid + pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent and + smooth. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0044" id="link2HCH0044"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS.—PROVINCES. + </h2> + <p> + The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen to + fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, placed + above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large polygonal blocks + of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to make an even + surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewn with gravel. Stone + blocks for the use of equestrians were at regular distances, and also + milestones telling the distance from Rome. + </p> + <p> + There were four main public roads:— + </p> + <p> + 1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. + </p> + <p> + 2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Aquínum and Teánum, joining the Via Appia at + Beneventum. + </p> + <p> + 3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum and + Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main line at + Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where it + again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on the Adriatic, the + other to Ancóna, and from there along the coast to Fanum Fortúnae, where + the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Ariminum through Pisaurum. + From here it was extended, under the name of VIA AEMILIA, into the heart + of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, and Placentia, where it + crossed the Po, to Mediolánum. + </p> + <p> + 4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsium, + following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by Genua, as far as + Forum Julii, in Gaul. + </p> + <p> + PROVINCES. + </p> + <p> + After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were + divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first + Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards persons + who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration of their + office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls also, at the end + of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, with the title of + PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called <i>Provinciae Consuláres</i>. The + provinces were generally distributed by lot, but their distribution was + sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitled to them. The tenure + of office was usually a year, but it was frequently prolonged. When a new + governor arrived in the province, his predecessor was expected to leave + within thirty days. + </p> + <p> + The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the + financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was obliged to + account at Rome for his administration, from his own books and those of + the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to deposit two copies of + his accounts in the two chief cities of his province, and to forward a + third to Rome. + </p> + <p> + If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his official + duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and to + influential Romans who were their patrons. + </p> + <p> + The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain + contributions from the people of the province for the support of himself + and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, notary, lictors, + augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme in military and civil + matters, and he could not be removed from office. But after his term had + ended, he could be tried for mismanagement. + </p> + <p> + Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast sums + of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these was + Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + </p> + <p> + At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; viz. + Sicilia (227 (Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the date at + which the province was established.)), Sardinia and Corsica (227), + Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum (167), + Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia Citerior + (80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Bithynia and + Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), and + Mauritania (46). + </p> + <p> + Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, + Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, Rhodus, + Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0045" id="link2HCH0045"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLV. + </h2> + <p> + (Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered in + different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it into one + chapter for readier reference.) + </p> + <p> + ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + </p> + <p> + The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the <i>Majores</i>, or + higher, and the <i>Minores</i>, or lower. The former, except the Censor, + had the <i>Imperium</i>; the latter did not. To the former class belonged + the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the Comitia + Centuriáta. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, viz. + Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, Magister + Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These officers had + the right to sit in the <i>sella curúlis</i>, chair of state. This chair + was displayed upon all public occasions, especially in the circus and + theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when he administered justice. + In shape it was plain, resembling a common folding camp-stool, with + crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and later overlaid with gold. + </p> + <p> + The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, and + had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral processions + a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other deceased members of + the family of curule rank. + </p> + <p> + A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never + held one, was called a <i>novus homo</i>, i. e. a new man. The most famous + new men were Marius and Cicero. + </p> + <p> + The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early + republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. The + plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles and + the Tribúni Plebis. + </p> + <p> + All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and all + but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January 1st. + The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor, December + 5th. + </p> + <p> + The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which one + must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding each + was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship, + thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship, + forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthy could + afford to hold office. + </p> + <p> + THE CONSULS. + </p> + <p> + The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was + appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power was + equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senate + and the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided. "When both + Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing the + official duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consul was + always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him in single + file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (<i>fasces</i>), to + signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the + city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifying + the power of the magistrate to behead criminals." + </p> + <p> + At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a + province for one year, and was then called the <i>Proconsul</i>. He was + chief in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + </p> + <p> + PRAETORS. + </p> + <p> + There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice + (judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, as <i>Propraetors</i>, + to govern provinces. The most important Praetor was called <i>Praetor + Urbánus</i>. He had charge of all civil suits between Roman citizens. In + the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted in their place. Each + Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, and by six outside. The + <i>Praetor Peregrínus</i> had charge of civil cases in which one or both + parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presided over the permanent + criminal courts. + </p> + <p> + AEDILES. + </p> + <p> + The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of the + police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings. Two of + the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called Curule Aediles, + ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians. They were + elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of the public games gave + them great opportunities for gaining favor with the populace, who then, as + now, delighted in circuses and contests. A small sum was appropriated from + the public treasury for these games; but an Aedile usually expended much + from his own purse to make the show magnificent, and thus to gain votes + for the next office, that of Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford + to hold this office. + </p> + <p> + QUAESTORS. + </p> + <p> + There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having + charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different + governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their + clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, and + paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor always + accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his quartermaster. + The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia Tribúta. + </p> + <p> + TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + </p> + <p> + There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They were always + plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any decree of + the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of a magistrate. + Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could hinder them in the + discharge of their official duties under penalty of death. They called + together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also had authority to convene the + Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeeded in restricting their power; + but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did not possess the <i>imperium</i>. + </p> + <p> + CENSORS. + </p> + <p> + There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for + eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period + being called a <i>lustrum</i>. They ranked as higher magistrates without + possessing the <i>imperium</i>. Their duties were: + </p> + <p> + (1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of + property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a general + oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to contract + for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making or repairing of + public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the privilege of collecting the + taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.(Footnote: In the intervals + of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the Aediles. ) (3) To + punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty parties from the Senate, + the Equites, or the tribe. + </p> + <p> + DICTATOR. + </p> + <p> + In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint a + Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of office + could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were not + appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was thought + necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but changed its + tenure, the latter holding it for life. + </p> + <p> + MAGISTER EQUITUM. + </p> + <p> + This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in authority + to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + </p> + <p> + PONTIFICES. + </p> + <p> + The priests formed a body (<i>collegium</i>) of fifteen members, at the + head of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of + office was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge + of their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + </p> + <p> + IMPERIUM. + </p> + <p> + This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial functions + conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) by a special + law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The <i>Imperium</i> could be exercised + only outside of the city walls (<i>pomoerium</i>), except by special + permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a triumph. The one + receiving the <i>Imperium</i> was called IMPERATOR. + </p> + <p> + POTESTAS. + </p> + <p> + This was the power, in general, which <i>all</i> magistrates possessed. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0046" id="link2HCH0046"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + </h2> + <p> + The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the + conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many houses + of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, paintings, + statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are said to have + cost as much as two million dollars. + </p> + <p> + The principal parts of a Roman house were the <i>Vestibulum</i>, <i>Ostium</i>, + <i>Atrium</i>, <i>Alae</i>, <i>Tablínum</i>, <i>Fauces</i>, and <i>Peristylium</i>. + The VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and + open on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to + our front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a large + room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which the + rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the + opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the + ALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages from the + Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. The PERISTYLIUM, + towards which these passages ran, was an open court surrounded by columns, + decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was somewhat larger than the Atrium. + </p> + <p> + The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were + lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either bare, + exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, gold, and + frescoing. + </p> + <p> + The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their + light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The + windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until the + time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered with + lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, in + which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passed + out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + </p> + <p> + The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls + were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In the + vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors ornamented + with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugs from the + East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely to add to the + attractiveness of the room. + </p> + <p> + Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, which + were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat on the + top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more round holes to + admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspended by chains + from the ceiling. + </p> + <p> + MEALS. + </p> + <p> + The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our + breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four + o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium was + a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between three and + sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course consisted of + stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, which was the main + course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments; the third + course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes. + </p> + <p> + At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and full + dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil the + couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who + reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by + pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was served in + a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the dining-room + was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to change with every + course. + </p> + <p> + DRESS.—BATHING. + </p> + <p> + The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The former + was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a long tunic + with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunic was + girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman + garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also the + garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn by + soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, but + being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear it + only on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in + place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to the + right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga with a + purple hem. + </p> + <p> + The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment, + gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to the + feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, and to + be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy for ornaments as + freely as their purses would allow. + </p> + <p> + Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The former + was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter were + sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor used + wooden shoes. + </p> + <p> + Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with + elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor + baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular + resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats for + spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon + leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. + </p> + <p> + FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + </p> + <p> + The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants of + Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of + civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, corresponding + to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted seven days. During + its continuance no public business was transacted, the law courts were + closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were relieved from all + ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to pleasure, and presents + were interchanged among friends. + </p> + <p> + The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, was + celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient + festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were said + to have been nursed by the she wolf (<i>lupa</i>). The priests of Lupercus + were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenure of office + is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met at the + Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, with plenty of + wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they had sacrificed. + With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, and with others, + they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ran through the + streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, especially women, + as it was believed this would render them fruitful. + </p> + <p> + The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus + (Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + </p> + <p> + Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and other + places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first exhibited + at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; but afterwards + gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men of rank. Under the + Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increased to such an extent, + that gladiators were kept and trained in schools (<i>ludi</i>) and their + trainers were called <i>Lanistae</i>. The person who gave an exhibition + was called an EDITOR. He published (<i>edere</i>), some time before the + show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights began with wooden + swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchanged for steel + weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectators wished him + spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up if they wanted him + killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were often discharged and + presented with a wooden sword (<i>rudis</i>), Hence they were called <i>rudiarii</i>. + </p> + <p> + THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + </p> + <p> + The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, + combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of an + ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatre was + first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus built one + of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatre was + built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still + standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could seat + ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is the COLOSSÉUM. The + open space in the centre was called the ARÉNA, and was surrounded by a + wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators from the wild + beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held in the Forum and in + the Circus. + </p> + <p> + The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. The + plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. The + first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near the Campus + Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty + thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present, the + orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguished persons. + Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behind these sat the + ordinary crowd. + </p> + <p> + The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built for + chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense + structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called Eurípus, + and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the centre Caesar + erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, brought from + Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds of games were + celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight between young men on + horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry; 4th, athletic + sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, such as lions, boars, + etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal to float ships. The + combatants were captives, or criminals condemned to death, who fought + until one party was killed, unless saved by the kindness of the Emperor. + </p> + <p> + A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + </p> + <p> + The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was sometimes + allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had been Dictator, + Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered the city until + the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. When a favorable + decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, garlands of + flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smoked on every + altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered a city gate, + where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by the + magistrates. + </p> + <p> + The procession then proceeded in the following order:— + </p> + <p> + 1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. + Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of + flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and + rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia of the + leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with their + relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator in single + file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator himself, in a + circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in a + gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in his + right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with a + laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12. + The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. + </p> + <p> + The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the city + on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a + purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep (<i>ovis</i>) + was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. + </p> + <p> + POMOERIUM. + </p> + <p> + The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no + person holding the <i>Imperium</i> was allowed to enter. It did not always + run parallel to the city walls. + </p> + <p> + NAMES. + </p> + <p> + Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (<i>praenomen</i>), as + Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (<i>nomen</i>), as Cornelius, + Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (<i>cognómen</i>), as Scipio, + Cicero, Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the <i>agnomen</i>, + given for some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from some + other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICÁNUS, and all his + descendants had the right to the name. Africánus the younger was adopted + from the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added to his + other names AEMILIÁNUS. + </p> + <p> + The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of + Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from + others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio. + If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was added + <i>prima</i> (first), to that of the next, <i>secunda</i> (second), etc. + </p> + <p> + MARRIAGE. + </p> + <p> + Intermarriage (<i>connubium</i>) between patricians and plebeians was + forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such marriages + took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, to marry, and + the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, the marriage + contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. The wedding day was then + fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of any + month, or upon any day in May or February. The bride was dressed in a long + white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes of a bright yellow color. She + was conducted in the evening to her future husband's home by three boys, + one of whom carried before her a torch, the other two supporting her by + the arm. They were accompanied by friends of both parties. The groom + received the bride at the door, which she entered with distaff and spindle + in hand. The keys of the house were then delivered to her. The day ended + with a feast given by the husband, after which the bride was conducted to + the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with flowers. On the + following day another feast was given by the husband, and the wife + performed certain religious rites. + </p> + <p> + The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from + that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her + children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and shared + the honors and respect shown to her husband. + </p> + <p> + FUNERALS. + </p> + <p> + When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present + endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removed + from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and + mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceased by + name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointed with + oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placed in the + mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and the body was + laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward the door. In + early times all funerals were held at night; but in later times only the + poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afford display. + The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed by musicians + playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament and sing the + funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players and buffoons, one + of whom represented the character of the deceased, and imitated his words + and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated, each + wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body were carried the images of the + dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown and military rewards which + he had gained. The couch on which the body was carried was sometimes made + of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. Following it were the + relatives in mourning, often uttering loud lamentations, the women beating + their breasts and tearing their hair. + </p> + <p> + The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, and + stopped before the <i>Rostra</i>, where a funeral oration was delivered. + From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must be + outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times + of the Republic this became quite common. + </p> + <p> + EDUCATION. + </p> + <p> + In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, + writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a + taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (<i>paedagogi</i>) + were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to + teach them to converse in Greek. + </p> + <p> + A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned + above, and a careful study of the best <i>Greek</i> and Latin writers, + besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known + professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + </p> + <p> + BOOKS.—LETTER WRITING. + </p> + <p> + The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind of + the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often used. + The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form one sheet, and + was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from <i>volvere</i>, to + roll). + </p> + <p> + Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usually + written with the <i>stylus</i>, an iron instrument like a pencil in size + and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded + together with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied together by a + string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a signet ring. + Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special messengers were + employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail service. Roman + letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening and close. The writer + always began by sending "greeting" to the person addressed, and closed + with a simple "farewell," without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. + Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter + from Cicero to Pompey. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0047" id="link2HCH0047"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + </h2> + <p> + <i>Rome</i> was built on seven hills,—the Palatine, the Aventine, + the Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, + and the Coelian. + </p> + <p> + There were various public squares (<i>forum</i> = square or park). Some + were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with + porticos. The most celebrated square was the <i>Forum Románum</i>, or + simply <i>The Forum</i>. There were also the <i>Forum Caesaris</i> and <i>Forum + Trajáni</i>. Some served as markets; as <i>Forum Boarium</i>, the cattle + market; <i>Forum Suarium</i>, the hog market, etc. + </p> + <p> + Temples were numerous. The <i>Pantheon</i> (temple of all the gods), built + by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was + situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as a + Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by Augustus, was + on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by + Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that of + Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in 377 B.C., + and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an arched passage east + of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up to the time of + Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in Numa's reign, + again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus was one of the oldest + Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in front and another on + the back of his head. From him is named the month of January. + </p> + <p> + (Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR.) + </p> + <p> + There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that + of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the dynasty of + the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also + numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. + </p> + <p> + The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome. + </p> + <p> + There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; + and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. + </p> + <p> + The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important was + the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which was + situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of which can + still be seen. + </p> + <p> + The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae + had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public + questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. + </p> + <p> + The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, of + Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still exist. + </p> + <p> + Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by + fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of + which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about + 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + </p> + <p> + SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense size. + The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still in use. + Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + </p> + <p> + There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now + remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of + Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, + built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs on + this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, carried + in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built by the + Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of the Emperor + and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and Arabians. 4. The + ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. + </p> + <p> + There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that + of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San + Angelo. + </p> + <p> + The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most + remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called COLUMNAE + ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae (261 B. + C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each side. Columns + were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is perhaps best + known. + </p> + <p> + The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, + from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It + was called <i>Milliarium Aureum</i>, or the golden milestone. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0048" id="link2HCH0048"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.—THE CALENDAR.—RELIGION. + </h2> + <p> + Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They were + intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress hostile + incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a practice + which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + </p> + <p> + No colony was established without a <i>lex</i>, <i>plebiscítum</i>, or <i>senatus + consultum</i>. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, + and the anniversary was observed. + </p> + <p> + The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin or + military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman + citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. The + <i>Latíni</i>, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to + them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, + passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were + placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + </p> + <p> + THE CALENDAR. + </p> + <p> + The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each month + had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends fell on the + first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, July, and + October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days after the + Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said to occur on + the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened between any of + these divisions, it was said to occur so many days <i>before</i> the + division <i>following</i> the event. The year was reckoned from the + foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the Consuls of + that year were added. + </p> + <p> + RELIGION. + </p> + <p> + The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITER + and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; + TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess of growth; + CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god of the + flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivals were + celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia + (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and the + Lupercalia, in February. + </p> + <p> + VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar + erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had a + common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also + worshipped the Penátes and Lares. + </p> + <p> + The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected fields + and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in dog-skins, + were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the Kalends of + May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and by offering + them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon plates. + </p> + <p> + The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of houses + and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were also kept in + the inner hall. + </p> + <p> + The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL + VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose + twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot to + fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The Vestals + were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats in the + public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment any + condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and white + fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on the + hearth (<i>focus publicus</i>) in the temple. They could not marry. + </p> + <p> + FLAMINES. + </p> + <p> + The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. + There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiáta, and + afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all the + Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a lictor, to + the <i>sella curulis</i>, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in bonds + took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This priest, + however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was forbidden + to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He was not + allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon an army + outside of the city walls. + </p> + <p> + THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen + from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of + March, and for several successive days. + </p> + <p> + THE AUGURES. + </p> + <p> + This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in the + time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to interpret the + will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were favorable or + otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no election held, + no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the omens. There was + no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence their power was + great. They held office for life, and were a close corporation, filling + their own vacancies until 103 B. C. + </p> + <p> + THE FETIALES. + </p> + <p> + This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering + probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with other + nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities should + be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0049" id="link2HCH0049"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + </h2> + <p> + The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to + our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort + into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries + (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in + practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up + each legion in three lines (<i>acies</i> triplex), the first consisting of + four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of + the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four + feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. The + outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a + buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor was + a short, straight two-edged sword (<i>gladius</i>), about two feet long, + worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the + shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (<i>pilum</i>) was a + heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and + weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. The + auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed. The + cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from the + different provinces. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +The officers were:—1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. The +LEGÁTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. The +QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, numbering six in +each legion, and assisting the Imperator in his duties. + 5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. The +CENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank for +good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each +cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, but +rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, except +the centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families. +</pre> + <p> + The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body guard + to the Imperator. + </p> + <p> + The STANDARD (<i>signum</i>) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched + wings, perched upon a pole. + </p> + <p> + The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made + it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same + way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers + encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus + surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The + general's tent was called the <i>Praetorium</i>, and the entrance to the + camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite + entrance was called the Decuman Gate. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2HCH0050" id="link2HCH0050"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME. + </h2> + <p> + AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture by the + Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son IÚLUS and + a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of the district where + Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his daughter, LAVINIA, in + marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he named LAVINIUM, in honor of his + wife. After his death, Iúlus, also called ASCANIUS, became king. He + founded on Mount Albánus a city, which he called ALBA LONGA, and to it + transferred the capital. + </p> + <p> + Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUS + PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided + the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. + Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing that they + might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made the daughter, RHEA + SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her marrying, for this was + forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became pregnant by Mars, and + had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed + of this, he cast their mother into prison, and ordered the boys to be + drowned in the Tiber. + </p> + <p> + At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its banks. + The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, the + water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing their + cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who was near + by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew up and + learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom to their + grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, + which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they were building a wall + around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his brother. + </p> + <p> + Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). He + found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he opened + an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. To supply + this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring people, the + SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in looking on, the + Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine virgins. This bold + robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a compromise, and a sharing + of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then chose one hundred Senators, + whom he called PATRES. He also divided the people into thirty wards. In + the thirty-seventh year of his reign he disappeared, and was believed to + have been taken up into heaven. + </p> + <p> + One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), a + Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. + Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous + subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. + TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the fall + of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson of Numa. He + was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged the city, + and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a prison, and to + bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the <i>pons sublicius</i> + i. e. a bridge resting on piles.) He also founded a city at its mouth, + which he called OSTIA. + </p> + <p> + The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS + (616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming a + favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of + Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. He + increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many wars successfully, + and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, + or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also began the temple of + JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killed in the + thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whom he had + snatched the kingdom. + </p> + <p> + His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who enlarged + the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a census of the + people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 souls. + Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, Tarquinius + Superbus, son of Priscus. + </p> + <p> + TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energetic in + war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, a city + of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his father. He + also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, a Greek colony, + came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oracles and prophecies; + but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused to purchase them. The + sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the same price for the + remaining six. The king again refused. She burned three more, and obtained + from the monarch for her last three the original price. These books were + preserved in the Capitol, and held in great respect. They were destroyed + with the temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who + were called <i>duoviri sacrórum</i>. The worship of the Greek deities, + Apollo and Latóna, among others, was introduced through these books. + </p> + <p> + In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, and + others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. (Footnote: The + cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by Sextus, Tarquin's son, + to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bear the humiliation, she + killed herself in the presence of her family, having first appealed to + them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was then formed, with two Consuls at + the head of the government. + </p> + <p> + Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all + unsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been + painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509.) In + the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of the Etruscans. + They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS COCLES, a brave + young man, alone defended the bridge (<i>pans sublicius</i>) over the + Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the river in safety + to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome.") + </p> + <p> + During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous youth, + stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing King + Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized and + carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. + Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altar + until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. + Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men as + brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, that he + made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his name Scaevola + (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand. + </p> + <p> + Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in + retirement. + </p> + <p> + In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by + taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and + crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent + MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote: Menenius + is said to have related for them the famous fable of the belly and + members.) the people were induced to return to the city, and for the first + time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to + represent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni Plebis. + </p> + <p> + Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and + defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he received + the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that grain should not + be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished their right to + choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was banished. Having obtained + command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, and came within five + miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation of his own citizens, + who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, when his wife and + mother added their tears, he was induced to withdraw the army. He was + afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. (Footnote: See + Shakespeare's "Coriolanus.") + </p> + <p> + After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most + distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven + consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian gens + would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and the whole + gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from Rome. For + two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, but finally were + surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius Vibulánus, alone + survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. + </p> + <p> + In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory had been + overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were in imminent + danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was appointed Dictator. + He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of this period. The + ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found him working with + bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his wife to throw over him his + mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the state with proper + respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yet so deeply did + he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand his vigorous + campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass under the + yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph. + </p> + <p> + In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the beauty + of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of + Ancient Rome.") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed of + Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot to + obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. When, + in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, the Decemvir + had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slave of his tool, + Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, in presence of the + people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled the Decemviri to + resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end to his own + life. + </p> + <p> + MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He was + called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he captured + Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated the most + magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards impeached for not + having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, and went into exile at + Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls under Brennus, in 390, Camillus + was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of forty thousand men he + hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the battle which followed + annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, Interrex three times, + Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced + age of eighty-eight. + </p> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July +18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besieged +for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, the +Gauls were defeated. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0053" id="link2H_4_0053"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + CHRONOLOGY. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + (The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.) + + B.C. + 753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. + 753-510. REGAL PERIOD. + 753-716. Romulus. + 716-673. Numa Pompilius. + 673-641. Tullus Hostilius. + 640-616. Ancus Marcius. + 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. + 578-534. Servius Tullius. + 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. + 510-30. THE REPUBLIC. + 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. + 508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. + 494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. + 492. Corioli. Coriolánus. + 477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. + 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus. + 451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. + 396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. + 390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). + 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. + 367. The Licinian Rogations. + 353. Caere: the first Municipium. + 343-341. First Samnite War. + 340-338. The Latin War. + 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. + 326-304, The Second Samnite War. + 321. The Caudine Forks. + 298-290. The Third Samnite War. + 295. Sentínum. + 283. Lake Vadimónis. + 281-272. Pyrrhus. + 280. Heracléa. Cineas. + 279. Asculum. + 274. Beneventum. + 272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. + 264. Period of foreign conquest begins. + 264-241. First Punic War. + 260. Lipara; Mylae. + 257. Tyndaris. + 256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. + 249. Drepana. + 241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. + 237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. + 229. Illyrican War. Important results. + 222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon. + 220. Hannibal in Spain. + 219. Saguntum. + 218-202. Second Punic War. + 218. Ticinus. Trebia. + 217. Trasiménus. Casilínum. + 216. Cannae. + 212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes. + 207. Baecula. Metaurus. + 202. Zama. + 214-205. First Macedonian War. + 200-197. Second Macedonian War. + 198. Cynoscephalae. + 190. Magnesia. + 183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. + 171-168. Third Macedonian War. + 168. Pydna. + 149-146. Third Punic War. + 149., Death of Cato the elder. + 146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. + 143-133. The Numantine War. + 134-132. The Servile War. + 133. Tiberius Gracchus. + 129. Death of Africánus the younger. + 123-121. Gaius Gracchus. + 118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. + 102. Aquae Sextiae. + 101. Vercellae. + 90-89. The Italian or Social War. + 86. Death of Marius. + 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. + 84. Death of Cinna. + 80. Reforms of Sulla. + 78. Death of Sulla. + 80-72. Sertorius in Spain. + 73-71. Spartacus. + 72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. + 67. Pompey conquers the pirates. + 67-61. Pompey in the East. + 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. + 59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. + 59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. + 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. + 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. + 53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and + 52 separation from Caesar. + 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. + 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. + 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. + 48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. + 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. + 47. Battle of Zela. + 47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. + 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. + 45 (Mar. 17). Munda. + 44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. + 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. + 43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. + 42 (Nov.). Philippi. + 36. Naulochus. + 31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + + THE EMPIRE. + + B.C. / A.D. + 30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. + 30-14. Augustus. + + A.D. + 14-37. Tiberius. + 37-41. Caligula. + 41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + 41-54. Claudius. + 54-68. Nero. + 68-69. Galba. + 69. Otho. + 69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + 69-79. Vespasian. + 79. Destruction of Jerusalem. + 79-81. Titus. + 80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. + 81-96. Domitian. + 96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + 96-98. Nerva. + 98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. + 117-138. Hadrian. + 138-161. Antonínus Pius. + 161-180. Marcus Aurelius. + 180-192. Commodus. + 192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. + 284-305. Diocletian. + 306-337. Constantine the Great. + 312. Edict of Milan. + 325. Council of Nice. + 337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. +</pre> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0054" id="link2H_4_0054"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + </h2> + <h3> + HARVARD COLLEGE. + </h3> + <p> + JUNE, 1889. + </p> + <p> + 1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus; + Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important events + was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly.) + </p> + <p> + 2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + </p> + <p> + 3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + </p> + <p> + 4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + </p> + <p> + 5. (<i>a</i>) Education in Rome. (<i>b</i>) Amusements at Rome. (Take one) + </p> + <p> + 1888. + </p> + <p> + 1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman citizen,—what + were they? (Take four.) + </p> + <p> + 2. (<i>a</i>) How did Augustus obtain his power? (<i>b</i>) The reign of + Hadrian; (<i>c</i>) The first Punic war. (Take one.) + </p> + <p> + 3. (<i>a</i>) The Roman religion; (<i>b</i>) Decay of the Empire, (Take + one) + </p> + <p> + 4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + </p> + <p> + 5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for + "additional readings.") + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0055" id="link2H_4_0055"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + 1887. + </h2> + <p> + (a) (Take five.) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, + Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events + connected with four of these places. (Take any two.) + </p> + <p> + 1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + </p> + <p> + 2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + </p> + <p> + 3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, + Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + </p> + <p> + <i>Questions on the "additional reading."</i> + </p> + <p> + (Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading may + substitute one of the following questions for one of the first three in + this group.) + </p> + <p> + 4. (TIGHE.) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ from + its theoretical powers? + </p> + <p> + 5. (BEESLEY.) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of Gaius + Gracchus? + </p> + <p> + September, 1886. + </p> + <p> + 1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the founding + of Rome. + </p> + <p> + 2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the + Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + </p> + <p> + 3. Describe the three forms of the Roman <i>comitia</i>, and trace the + development of the <i>comitia tributa</i>. + </p> + <p> + 4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The + effect of this victory upon Italy? + </p> + <p> + 5. Explain <i>patria potestas</i>, <i>princeps senatus</i>, <i>municipium</i>, + <i>ager Romanus</i>, <i>equites</i>. + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0056" id="link2H_4_0056"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + YALE COLLEGE. + </h2> + <h3> + EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + </h3> + <p> + June, 1889. + </p> + <p> + 1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. + Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. + Licinian Laws. + </p> + <p> + 2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at + what times introduced? + </p> + <p> + 3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles in + Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal + fail? + </p> + <p> + 4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + </p> + <p> + 5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. First + Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. Capture of + Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + </p> + <p> + 1887. + </p> + <p> + (Time allowed, 30 minutes.) + </p> + <p> + 1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change did he + make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make? + </p> + <p> + 2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causes of + each extension, and dates. + </p> + <p> + 3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian + era? How were they acquired, and when? + </p> + <p> + 4. Explain <i>praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; + comitia centuriata</i>. + </p> + <p> + 5. <i>Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;</i> where were + they? what happened there, and when? + </p> + <p> + 1886. + </p> + <p> + 1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established. + </p> + <p> + 2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between the + Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + </p> + <p> + 3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + </p> + <p> + 4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential points + did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + </p> + <p> + 5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the + provinces? + </p> + <p> + 6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + </p> + <p> + June, 1885. + </p> + <p> + 1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + </p> + <p> + 2. Explain <i>tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator</i>. + </p> + <p> + 3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under the + Empire? + </p> + <p> + 4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + </p> + <p> + 5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of + Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus; + the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Roman province? + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0057" id="link2H_4_0057"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + </h2> + <p> + 35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 + M., only. 48 <i>credits; necessary to pass</i>, 36. + </p> + <p> + 1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + </p> + <p> + 2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization of + the world. (1) + </p> + <p> + 3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state the + result in each contest. (4) + </p> + <p> + 4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and state an + important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks; Pharsalia; + Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + </p> + <p> + 5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha; + (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, or death + of Cicero? (3) + </p> + <p> + 6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which occur + in Roman history. (3) + </p> + <p> + 7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + </p> + <p> + 8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; Tiberius + Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + </p> + <p> + 9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + </p> + <p> + 10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the + Christian era. (3) + </p> + <p> + 11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + </p> + <p> + 12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + </p> + <p> + 13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what ground + were the Christians punished? (2) + </p> + <p> + 14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. + Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + </p> + <p> + 15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + </p> + <p> + THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + </p> + <p> + 16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + </p> + <p> + 17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + </p> + <p> + 18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + </p> + <p> + 19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + </p> + <p> + 20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + </p> + <p> + 34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + </p> + <p> + June 14, 1889.—Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + </p> + <p> + 48 <i>credits; necessary to pass,</i> 36. + </p> + <p> + 1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before the + founding of Rome.(2) + </p> + <p> + 2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. (4) + </p> + <p> + 3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first elected. + (1) + </p> + <p> + 4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in + connection with them? (2) + </p> + <p> + 5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he + for hoping to succeed? (3) + </p> + <p> + 6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he + fail? (3) + </p> + <p> + 7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates: + B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + </p> + <p> + 8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the + Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the + Rubicon"? (3) + </p> + <p> + 9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances of + this. (3) + </p> + <p> + 10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one of + them. (4) + </p> + <p> + 11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian? + (1) + </p> + <p> + 12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was so + called. (2) + </p> + <p> + 13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a + stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + </p> + <p> + 14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of + the writings of each. (6) + </p> + <p> + 15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of + Rome. (2) + </p> + <p> + THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + </p> + <p> + 16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + </p> + <p> + 17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + </p> + <p> + 18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of his + Country"? (1) + </p> + <p> + 19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + </p> + <p> + 20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Marius + and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + </p> + <p> + 33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + </p> + <p> + March 8, 1889.—Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + </p> + <p> + 44 <i>credits; necessary to pass</i>, 33. + </p> + <p> + 1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + </p> + <p> + 2. Tell what you know about the (<i>a</i>) Patricians, (<i>b</i>) + Plebeians, (<i>c</i>) Tribune, (<i>d</i>) Consul. (4) + </p> + <p> + 3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + </p> + <p> + 4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + </p> + <p> + 5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + </p> + <p> + 6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + </p> + <p> + 7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their effect + upon the Republic. (2) + </p> + <p> + 8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? + (2) + </p> + <p> + 9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + </p> + <p> + 10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What Roman + general commanded in this battle? (2) + </p> + <p> + 11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + </p> + <p> + 12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of the + Roman people? (2) + </p> + <p> + 13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. (2) + </p> + <p> + 14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the cause + of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + </p> + <p> + 15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the Emperor + Augustus? (1) + </p> + <p> + 16. For what were the following men noted: (<i>a</i>) Juvenal, (<i>b</i>) + Seneca, (<i>c</i>) Cato the Censor, (<i>d</i>) Fabius, (<i>e</i>) + Caligula? (5) + </p> + <p> + THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the Gracchi + form a part? (1) + </p> + <p> + 18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by Caius + Gracchus? (2) + </p> + <p> + 19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + </p> + <p> + 20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by birth? + with which, by sympathy? (2) + </p> + <p> + 21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great + significance? (2) + </p> + <p> + 31st Advanced Academic Examination, + </p> + <p> + June 15, 1888.—Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + </p> + <p> + 48 <i>credits; necessary to pass</i>, 36. + </p> + <p> + 1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of + Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + </p> + <p> + 2. Who established the <i>comitia centuriata</i>? How did it differ from + the <i>comitia curiata</i>? (2) + </p> + <p> + 3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + </p> + <p> + 4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was the + result of the war? (2) + </p> + <p> + 5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of the + siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the + circumstances of his death. (4) + </p> + <p> + 6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, + 266-133 B.C. (5) + </p> + <p> + 7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to + literature and morals. (2) + </p> + <p> + 8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + </p> + <p> + 9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + </p> + <p> + 10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and + Caesar? (1) + </p> + <p> + 11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain in + their proscription? (4) + </p> + <p> + 12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + </p> + <p> + 13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the Christians? + (1) + </p> + <p> + 14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + </p> + <p> + 15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + </p> + <p> + THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + </p> + <p> + 16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + </p> + <p> + 17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of the + treaty made there. (4) + </p> + <p> + 18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the + final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + </p> + <p> + 19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself? (3) + </p> + <p> + 20. Distinguish between <i>Roman citizens</i> and <i>subjects</i> (<i>or + Latins</i>) (2) + </p> + <p> + 30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + </p> + <p> + March 2, 1888.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + </p> + <p> + 48 <i>credits; necessary to pass,</i> 36. + </p> + <p> + 1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of Rome + and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + </p> + <p> + 2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? (3) + </p> + <p> + 3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two + conditions of the return? (3) + </p> + <p> + 4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers + intrusted to them. (2) + </p> + <p> + 5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + </p> + <p> + 6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause of + the First Samnite War? (2) + </p> + <p> + 7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which + direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + </p> + <p> + 8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? (1) + </p> + <p> + ANCIENT ROME. + </p> + <p> + 9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct of + the First Punic War. (2) + </p> + <p> + 10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle.(2) + </p> + <p> + 11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + </p> + <p> + 12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + </p> + <p> + 13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did + each contribute to it? (3) + </p> + <p> + 14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + </p> + <p> + 15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero; + Trajan. (2) + </p> + <p> + THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + </p> + <p> + 16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, and + what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + </p> + <p> + 17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + </p> + <p> + 18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it + modelled? (2) + </p> + <p> + 19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its membership? + (2) + </p> + <p> + 20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate + perform? (2) + </p> + <p> + 21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + </p> + <p> + <i>29th Advanced Academic Examination.</i> + </p> + <p> + November 18, 1887.—Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + </p> + <p> + <i>48 credits; necessary to pass, 36.</i> + </p> + <p> + 1. When was Rome founded? (1) + </p> + <p> + 2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the basis + of the new constitution? (2) + </p> + <p> + 3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings overturned, + and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + </p> + <p> + 4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how long + did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + </p> + <p> + 5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + </p> + <p> + 6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they contend + with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + </p> + <p> + 7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, + and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3) + </p> + <p> + 8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what policy + did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + </p> + <p> + 9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and + habits. (2) + </p> + <p> + 10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was it + defeated, and in what manner? (3) + </p> + <p> + 11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + </p> + <p> + 12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? + (2) + </p> + <p> + 13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, and the + character of his reign. (2) + </p> + <p> + 14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + </p> + <p> + 15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some articles + used by them for food. (2) + </p> + <p> + THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + </p> + <p> + 16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, and + the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + </p> + <p> + 17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, + Tarentum. (3) + </p> + <p> + 18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what part + of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins + descended? (7) + </p> + <p> + <a name="link2H_4_0058" id="link2H_4_0058"> + <!-- H2 anchor --> </a> + </p> + <div style="height: 4em;"> + <br /><br /><br /><br /> + </div> + <h2> + INDEX. + </h2> +<pre xml:space="preserve"> + Achaeans + Achaia + Acroceraunia + Actium + Adherbal + Aduatuci + Aediles + Aedui + Aegátes Islands + Aegyptus + Aemilian Way + Aemilius + Aenéas + Aequians + Aesis, R. + Aetius + Aetna + Aetolians + Afranius + Africa + Africánus + Agendicum + Ager occupátus + Ager privátus + Ager publicus + Ager Románus + Agrarian Laws + Agricola + Agrigentum + Agrippa + Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa + Agrippína, sister of Caligula + Alae + Alans + Alaric + Alba Longa + Alban Lake + Alban Mts. + Alesia + Alexander the Great + Alexandría + Allia + Allies + Alsium + Ambiorix + Amphitheatres + Amulius + Anchíses + Ancóna + Ancus Marcius + Andes + Andriscus + Anio, R. + Anthemius + Antiochus III. + Antiochus IV. + Antium + Antonia + Antonius + Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius + Antonínus Pius + Antony + Aóus, R. + Apennines + Apollo, worship of + Apollonia + Apollonius + Appeal, right of + Appian Way + Appius Claudius, Decemvir + Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus + Appius Claudius Caecus + Appuleian Laws + Apsus, R. + Apulia + Aqua Claudia + Aquae Sextiae + Aqueducts + Aquileia + Aquínum + Aquitáni + Arabia + Arabia Petraea + Arcadius + Archeláus + Arches + Archimédes + Ardea + Argos + Aricia + Ariminum + Ariobarzánes + Ariovistus + Aristobúlus + Armenia + Arminius + Armor + Army + Arnus + Arpi + Arpínum + Arretium + Arsanias, R. + Aryan Race + Ascanius + Asculum in Apulia + Asia + Assyria + Aternus + Athens + Athesis + Atrium + Attalus II. + Attalus III. + Attila + Aufidus, R. + Augurs + Augustan Age + Augusta Taurinórum + Augusti + Augustus + Aulerci + Aurelia + Aurelian + Aurelian Way + Aurelius, M. Antonínus + Avaricum + Averni + Avernus, Lake + + Baeculae + Baetis, R. + Baiae + Basilicae + Basilica Julia + Bathing + Baths + Bellovaci + Beneventum + Bibracte + Bibulus + Bithynia + Bocchus + Boian Gauls + Bononia + Books + Bovillae + Brennus + Bridge, Rhine + Bridge, Tiber + Britain + Britannia + Britannicus + Brittany + Brundisium + Bruttium + Brutus, nephew of Tarquin + Brutus + Brutus, Decimus Junius + Brutus, Marcus + Burgundians + Burrhus + Byzantium + + Cabíra + Caecína + Caepio + Caere + Caesar, Gaius Julius + Caesar, Lucius Julius + Caesars + Caícus + Calabria + Calceus + Caledonians + Calendar + Caligula + Calpurnia + Calpurnian Law + Camarína + Camerínum + Camillus + Campania + Campus Martius + Candles + Cannae + Canuleian Law + Canuleius + Canusium + Capéna + Capitoline Hill + Capitolium + Cappadocia + Capreae + Capua + Caracalla + Carrhae + Carthage + Carthaginians + Carthágo Nova + Carus + Casca + Casilínum + Cassius. + Cassivelaunus + Catalonia + Catana + Catiline + Cato, the elder + Cato, the younger + Catullus + Catulus, father of the Senate + Catulus, Gaius Lutatius + Caudine Forks + Caudium + Celtibéri + Celts + Cenománi + Censors + Centuries + Centurions + Ceres + Cerialia + Cethégus + Chaeronéa + Chalcédon + Chalons + Christians + Cicero, Marcus Tullius + Cicero, Quintus Tullius + Cilicia + Cimber + Cimbri + Cincinnátus + Cineas + Cinna + Circeii + Circeium, Promontory + Circus + Circus Maximus + Citizenship + City walls + Claudian Emperors + Claudius, Emperor + Claudius, Publius + Cleopátra + Clients + Cloáca Maxima + Clodion + Clodius + Clupea + Clusium + Coena + Cohors Praetoria + Collatínus + Colonies, Latin + Colonies, Maritime + Colonies, Military. + Comitia Centuriáta + Comitia Curiáta + Comitia Tribúta + Comitium + Colosséum + Colossus + Column of Trajan + Columna Milliaria + Columns + Commodus + Constans + Constantine the Great + Constantine II. + Constantinople + Constantius I. + Constantius II. + Conscripti, Patres + Consuls + Consus + Cora + Corcýra + Corduba + Corfinium + Corinth + Coriolánus + Corioli + Corn laws + Cornelia, daughter of Cinna + Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio + Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africánus + Corsica + Cotta + Council of Nice + Court-houses + Courts + Crassus, the Triumvir + Crassus, son of the Triumvir + Cremóna + Crete + Croton + Cumae + Cures + Curia + Curiae + Curio. + Curtius + Curule Aedile + Curule chair + Curule offices + Cynoscephalae + Cyprus + Cyrenaica + + Dacia + Damophilus + Deal + Debts, Debtors + Decemvirs + Decius, Emperor + Decius, Publius + Decree of the Senate + Deiotarus + Dentátus + Dependent Communities + Dictator + Diocletian + Dolabella + Domitian + Domitius. + Drepana + Dress + Drusus, Germanicus + Drusus, Marcus Livius + Duilius + Duoviri Sacrórum + Dyrrachium + + Eburónes + Ecnomus + Edict of Milan + Editor. + Education + Egesta + Egnatius + Egypt + Elba + Elections + Enipeus, R. + Enna + Ennius + Epidamnus + Epiphanes + Epírus + Equites + Eryx + Etruria + Etruscans + Eudoxia + Eugenius + Eunus + Euphrátes + Examination Papers + + Fabii + Fabius, Cunctátor + Fabius Quintus + Fabius Vibulánus + Fabricius + Faesulae + Farming the revenues + Fauces + Faustulus + Festivals + Fetiales + Five Good Emperors + Flamen Diális + Flamines + Flaminian Way + Flaminínus + Flaminius + Flavian Emperors + Floors + Florentia + Foreigners resident at Rome + Formiae + Forum + Forum Boarium + Forum Caesaris + Forum Holitorium + Forum Julii, in Gaul + Forum Julii, in Venetia + Forum Suarium + Forum of Trajan + Forum of Vespasian + Franks + Freedmen + Fundi + Funerals + Furniture + + Gabii + Gabinius + Gabínus + Gades + Galatia + Galba, Emperor + Galba, Servius + Galerius + Gallia Cisalpína + Gallia Narbonensis + Gaul + Gauls + Games + Gela + Genabum + Gens, Gentes + Genseric + Genua + Genucius + Gergovia + Germanicus, Drusus + Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. + Germans + Glabrio + Gladiators + Glass + Glaucia + Golden House of Nero + Good Emperors + Gordian + Goths + Gracchi + Gracchus, Gains + Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) + Gracchus, Tiberius + Gratian + Greece + Greek Empire + + Hadrian + Hadrumétum + Hamilcar Barca + Hannibal, son of Gisco + Hannibal, son of Hamilcar + Hanno + Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar + Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal + Hasdrubal, son of Gisco + Helena + Heliogabalus + Helvetii + Heracléa + Herculaneum + Herméan Promontory + Hiempsal + Hiero II. + Hieronymus + Hirtius + Hispania Citerior + Hispania Ulterior + Honorius + Horace + Horatius Codes + Hortensius, Quintus + Hortensius, the Orator + Homesteads + Houses + Huns + Hyrcánus + + Iapygia + Iapygians + Ibérus, R. + Icilius + Igilium + Ilerda + Illyrican War + Illyricum + Ilva + Imperator + Imperium + Intermarriage + Interest + Interrex + Isara, R. + Isauria + Isthmian Games + Italians + Italy + Iúlus + + Janiculum + Janus + Jentaculum + Jerusalem + Jews + Joséphus + Jovian + Juba + Judaea + Jugurtha + Julia, daughter of Caesar + Julia, daughter of Augustus + Julian Emperors + Julian the Apostate + Julian Law + Juliánus + Juno + Jupiter + Juries + Justin Martyr + Juvenal + + Kaeso, Quinctius + King of Rome + Knights. + + Labiénus + Lacerna + Lacinian Promontory + Laevínus + Laevínus, Marcus + Lamps + Land-owners, classes of + Lanistae + Lanuvium + Lares + Last of the Romans + Latin Confederacy + Latínus + Latium + Latóna + Laurentum + Lavinia + Lavinium + Legáti + Leges Juliae + Legion + Lentulus + Leontíni + Lepidus, Consul + Lepidus, Triumvir + Leptis + Lesbos + Letter-writing + Lex de Repetundis + Licinian Rogations + Licinius + Liger + Lights + Liguria + Lilybaeum + Lipara Islands + Liris, R. + Literature + Livia + Livilla + Livius + Locri + Longínus + Luca + Lucan + Lucania + Luceres + Luceria + Lucilius + Lucretia + Lucretius + Lucullus + Lupercalia + Luperci + Lupercus + Lupus + Lycia + + Macedonia + Macedonian War + Macrínus + Maecénas + Maenius + Magister Equitum + Magna Graecia + Magnesia + Mago + Majestas + Majorian + Mamertines + Mancínus + Manilian Law + Manilius + Manlius, Marcus + Manlius Capitolínus + Mantua + Marcellus + Marcellus, nephew of Augustus + Marius, + Marriage + Mars + Martial + Masinissa. + Massilia + Mauretania + Mausoléum of Augustus + Mausoléum of Hadrian + Maximian + Maximin + Maximus I. + Maximus II. + Meals + Mediolánum + Memmius + Menenius Agrippa + Mesopotamia + Messalína + Messána + Metapontum + Metaurus, R. + Metellus Macedonicus + Metellus Nepos + Metellus Numidicus + Metellus Pius + Micipsa + Milan, Edict of + Milétus + Military Tribunes + Milliarium Aureum + Milo + Minerva + Minturnae + Minucius + Mithradátes + Mityléne + Moesia + Money brokers + Mons Sacer + Moors + Mucra, R. + Mummius + Munda + Municipia + Muthul + Mutina + Mylae + Mysia + + Names + Naples + Naulochus + Navy + Nepos + Nero, Consul + Nero, Emperor + Nerva + Nervii + Nicaea + Nicomédes + Nobles + Nola + Noricum + Novus Homo + Numantia + Numantian War + Numa Pompilius + Numidia + Numitor + Nursia + + 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+ Praefectúrae + Praeneste + Praetor + Praetorian Guard + Praetorium + Prandium + Private Lands + Private Rights + Probus + Proconsul + Propertius + Propraetor + Provinces + Provincial System + Prusias + Ptolemy, brother of Cleopátra + Ptolemy of Cyprus + Ptolemy V., Epiphanes + Ptolemy Alexander + Publicani + Public Lands + Public Rights + Publilian Law, Publilius + Punic Wars + Puteoli + Pydna + Pyrrhus + + Quaestors + Quinctius Cincinnátus + Quinctius, Kaeso + Quintilian + Quirínal + Quirinalia + + Radagaisus + Ramnes + Ravenna + Reáte + Reforms of Caesar + Reforms of Sulla + Regillus, Lake + Regulus + Remi + Remus + Rents + Republic + Rhaetia + Rhea Silvia + Rhegium + Rhodes + Ricimer + Roads + Roman Empire + Romans + Rome + Rome, Hills of + Romulus + Roscius + Rostra + Rubicon + Rutilius + + Sabines + Sabis, R. + Sacred Mount + Sacredness of Officials + Sagum + Saguntum + Salernum + Salii + Sallust + Samnites + Samnite Wars + Samnium + Samos + Sardinia + Sardis + Saturn + Saturnalia + Saturnínus + Scaevola + Scarpheia + Scipio, Gnaeus + Scipio, Consul 218 B. 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You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6989] +Posting Date: March 20, 2009 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME *** + + + + +Produced by Lynn Bonnett and Teresa Thomason + + + + + + + + +ANCIENT ROME + +FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES DOWN TO 476 A.D. + +By Robert F. Pennell + +_Revised Edition_ + + + + +PREFACE. + +This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History +of Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high +schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and +fall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her +institutions, manners, and religion. + +For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional +matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to +meet recent requirements. + +The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the text +and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to indicate the +present range of requirement in leading colleges. + +The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this +book. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; +consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a +rule, been omitted. + +ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + +(Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.) + + + + +ANCIENT ROME. + + + +CHAPTER I. GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + + +Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, +between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles +long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in +its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north of +Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that of +the State of Nevada. + +The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest +of Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least +difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this +pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. +The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through +the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend +easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging the +coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country causes +the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into the +Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + +Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the +Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPINA (Gaul +this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. +The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. +Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticinus on the north, and the +Trebia on the south, are of historical interest. + +The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a +mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the +coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, between +the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which comes the name +Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, and Forum Julii. + +Gallia Cisalpina contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus +were Verona, Mediolanum (Milan), Cremona, Mantua, Andes, and Vercellae, +a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta Taurinorum +(Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The Rubicon, a little +stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia Cisalpina on the +southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the southern boundary +on the other side of Italy. + +CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of the +peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In this +division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which empty +into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, which +empty into the Adriatic. + +The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering +on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and to +the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICENUM, and +SAMNIUM. + +The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, +near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was Veii, +an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba Longa. +Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, was +Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to Alba +Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were near +the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near Rome. + +In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, +Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasimenus. In Campania were Capua, +Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, Pompeii, +Caudium, Salernum, Casilinum, and Nola. The famous volcano of Vesuvius +was here, and also Lake Avernus. + +In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior +were Sentinum and Camerinum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat of +Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + +In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + +SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA and +BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + +Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its +only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought a +famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + +In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + +The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. +Among them were Heraclea, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; +and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + +The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about +10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the +poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many +important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were +Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messana, Catana, Camarina, Gela, Selinus, Egesta +(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontini, and Enna. There are many mountains, +the chief of which is Aetna. + +SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably smaller. +ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is off Etruria; +CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Stromboli) and LIPARA are +north of Sicily, and the AEGATES INSULAE are west of it. + + + + +CHAPTER II. THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + + +So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into +three races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS were the +first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and were +pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into the +southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were mostly +absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh centuries +all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were more highly +civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the Etruscans and +Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the former of whom +settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. + +The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful and +warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the arts of +life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled in the +plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading Gauls, +they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a confederation +of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of these cities the +most noted were Volsinii, the head of the confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, +Caere, and Clusium. This people also formed scattering settlements in +other parts of Italy, but gained no firm foothold. At one time, in the +sixth century, they were in power at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this +time under their control. Their commerce was considerable. Many well +preserved monuments of their art have been discovered, but no one has +yet been able to decipher any of the inscriptions upon them. The power +of these people was gradually lessened by the Romans, and after the fall +of Veii, in 396, became practically extinct. + +The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellenes, and belonged +to the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in +Scandinavia. While the Hellenes were settling in Greece, the Italians +entered Italy. + +At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in +civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; the +building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in preparing +food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various weapons and +ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were recognized, +and the people were divided into clans (tribes). + +That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain +which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by the +Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + +This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square +miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty +miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, and +its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in the +northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum +near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern +_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first settlements +were made on the hills, which also could be easily fortified. + +The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other towns, +as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, Roma, and +Lavinium. + +These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN +CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was +celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, +called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered +sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). + +(Illustration: Latium) + + + + +CHAPTER III. THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + + +We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled +in Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more +particularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to outstrip +all her sisters in prosperity and power. + +Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of +the plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of +hills (Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, +Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, +Quirinal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the Tiber, +and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the Etruscans. +It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons Sublicius_).) +rising to a considerable height, around one of which, the PALATINE, +first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a name gradually changed +to ROMANS. + +When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. It +may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were possibly +a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they united +themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them on the +QUIRINAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. A third +tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, +was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. All early +communities, to which the Romans were no exception, were composed of +several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups GENTES, and +a single group was called a GENS. All the members of a _gens_ were +descended from a common ancestor, after whom the _gens_ received its +name. + +The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute +authority (Footnote: Called _patria potestas_.) over his household, even +in the matter of life and death. + +The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the +families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding +office for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform certain +sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly of the +Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an assembly +of old men (_Senex_). + +This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the +families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED +members, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by +the king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later by +the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all persons +who had held certain offices were thereby vested with the right of seats +in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the number of Senators +was greatly in excess of three hundred. The Senators, when addressed, +were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for they were Fathers of the families. + +The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, +_Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into ten +districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES +(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, +therefore, belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a +_pater-familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, named +after a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_; +and every curia to a particular _tribe_. + +We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, +and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an assembly +composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. (Footnote: We must +remember that at this time no one was a Roman citizen who did not +belong to some family. All other residents were either slaves or had no +political rights, i.e. had no voice in the government.) This assembly of +Roman citizens met, from time to time, in an enclosed space called the +COMITIUM, which means a place of gathering or coming together. This was +between the Palatine and Quirinal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. +This assembly itself was called the COMITIA CURIATA, i.e. an assembly +composed of the 30 curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the +existing laws; of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election +of kings made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by +each curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + + +The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the +Latin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, she +naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and grew +wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, easily +held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most powerful +of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with theirs, +she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing their +territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus Hostilius, and +his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities along the river, +and at its mouth founded a colony which was named OSTIA, the seaport of +Rome. + +At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Romanus_) comprised +nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying mostly +along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or twelve +miles from the river. It was not materially increased during the next +two centuries. + +The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called +PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the families. +They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously protecting their +rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians was a class called +CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, i. e. they had +no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in every way the +Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In return, the +latter gave them his support, and looked after their interests. These +clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the fields of their +patrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which their patron belonged. +Their origin is uncertain; but they may have come from foreign towns +conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants had not been made slaves. + +In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the +property of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. +Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS +(freedman) and became the client of his former master. + +As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people +flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called resident +foreigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at Athens. Such +were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all were supposed +to be under the protection of some patrician who acted as their patron. + +These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were all +of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly borne in +mind. + +We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the +Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of these +towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed any of +their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. Many of them +were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager Romanus_, or in +Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs_, multitude). Their very name +shows that they must have been numerous. They belonged to no gens +or curia, but were free, and allowed to engage in trade and to own +property. In later times (from about 350) all who were not Patricians or +slaves were called Plebeians. + + +THE ARMY. + +Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed +entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning _levy_), +and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, from _mille_, +a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. The cavalry +numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each tribe, and was +divided into three companies called Centuries. + +During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now +become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN +reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been +required to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. To +accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned two +acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There were +five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193 +subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the same +amount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries in +active service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries of +reserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. + +In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries +each, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had +thirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + +The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from +the first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, +breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank was +composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, without +breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, who had +neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth class, +armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only slings. + +Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, +however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + +This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally +only for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and the +expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. But +gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be felt, +the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, and +all the people were called together to vote under it. It was called the +COMITIA CENTURIATA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The place of meeting +was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the city. + +In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided by +the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system was +to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century represented +the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or richer +classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer classes, so +that a majority of the centuries might represent a small minority of +the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome were still +patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by them. In this +assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war declared, and judgment +passed in all criminal cases. + +(Illustration: CAMPANIA) + + + + +CHAPTER V. THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + + +Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were undoubtedly +of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many traces of +Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and the only +buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much later period, +were erected under this dynasty. The names of these kings are said to +have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS TULLIUS, his son-in-law, +and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. + +Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER +CAPITOLINUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and +MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from +it we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman +religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + +During this reign the famous CLOACA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to +drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer +was so well built that it is still used. + +Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was +surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirinal, Coelian, +and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the opposite +side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge (_pons +sublicius_). + +The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the +previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + +The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius +and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus early +was the Greek influence felt at Rome. + +During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIANA was erected on +the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + +Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMANUS the territory of the city +of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were afterwards lost. +The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow of this king, and a +Republic was established, which lasted until the death of Julius Caesar. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + + +At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of +government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for +life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the +PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a +salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his +power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century +before Christ. + +In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be appointed +by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; but his tenure +of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a patrician. He +exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. It was at +this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIATA came to be the more +important assembly, superseding in a great measure the COMITIA CURIATA. + +We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, +magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not forget +that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the control of the +patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. Still there were +many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a gain for this +party. + +About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of +Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some of the +richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. (Footnote: +This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers addressing the Senate, +viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_") These, however, could take no part in +debates, nor could they hold magistracies. + +In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates made +in the Comitia Centuriata was confirmed or rejected. In this way it +controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must remember, +were those of generals and supreme judges, though every Roman citizen +had the privilege of appealing from their decision in cases which +involved life. + +Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed by +the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTORES, managed the finances of +the state, under the direction of the Senate. + +The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century +preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the state +and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but especially +by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been devastated. They +were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the taxes, and, when +unable to meet the demands of their creditors, according to the laws +they could be imprisoned, or even put to death. + +The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by +"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, +for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other +duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would +extort all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves +unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and +the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + +The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to +serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for +the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, and +naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry service +was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while the older +ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of military duty fell +on the plebeians. + +This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for +rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the +plebeians were not slow in accepting it. + +The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and +Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls +liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was +averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set +free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were +again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally persuaded +by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their return to +the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, marching to a +hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new city unless their +wrongs were redressed. This is called the First Secession of the Plebs, +and is said to have been in 494. + +The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, +for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were +released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right +to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called TRIBUNI +PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the power of +VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This power, +however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be +exercised outside of them. + +The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent interference +with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any one attempted +to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if the Consuls or +Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to extremes, or to +be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could step in, and by +their VETO stop the matter at once. + +This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in +giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + +The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still later +to ten. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + + +The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from +their own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. (Footnote: The word +"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple.) These officers held +nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the Quaestors +did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the performance of +their various duties, and also had special charge of the temple of +Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, all the decrees +of the Senate. + +These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the +first secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia +Centuriata, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBUTA, which +met sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + +This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" +(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being entitled to +one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of its individual +voters. (Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial division, +corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time there were +probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The plebeians in the +city lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine Hill.) + +The Comitia Tributa was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and +Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. +By it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first +measures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it +presently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, who +were felt to be a power in the state. + +The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; +that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the influence +of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand contests +occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in neighboring +places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the government +withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. + +The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had +reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a +large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. This +land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. + +Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it +became AGER PRIVATUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was occupied +by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually rich +patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This land, so +occupied, was called AGER OCCUPATUS, or _possessio_; but it really was +still the property of the state. The rent paid was a certain per cent +(from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for cattle on pasture +land. Although the state had the undoubted right to claim this land at +any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to retain it, and were +often lenient about collecting dues. In course of time, this land, which +was handed down from father to son, and frequently sold, began to be +regarded by the occupants as their own property. Also the land tax +(TRIBUTUM), which was levied on all _ager privatus_, and which was +especially hard upon the small plebeian land-owners, could not legally +be levied upon the _ager occupatus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, +not owned, this land were naturally regarded as usurpers by the +plebeians. + +The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + +SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law +that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and +distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The law +was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his life, and +was never enforced. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + + +The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if +not more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of their +leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition +of their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and +political rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The +struggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, Gnarus +Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the Consuls. + +VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, +notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the +effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _Comitia +Tributa_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriata_. Thus the plebeians +gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW +(_Plebiscitum Publilium_). (Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia +Tributa were called Plebiscita, and until 286 were not necessarily +binding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have been +recognized as a law.) + +For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The plebeians +demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + +We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the unwritten +ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, had been +interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the patricians +only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the TERENTILIAN +ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius Harsa, a Tribune, +to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. The patrician +families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter opposition. Kaeso +himself, son of the famous Cincinnatus, was impeached by the Tribune and +fled from the city. + +Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriata should select from +the people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office for +one year, to direct the government and supersede all other magistrates, +and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted to the people +for approval. A commission of three patricians was sent to Athens to +examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the height of +its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and upon their +return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was appointed. + +The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables of +copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two more +tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the only Roman +code. + +The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were approved, +but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and tyrannical +manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, finally +rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a sentence +that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. Her father, +Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to the heart, and +fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put down such wicked +government. + +A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED +MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into the +city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + +The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we +know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor +was apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the _pater +familias_ over his family was abolished. The close connection heretofore +existing between the clients and patrons was gradually relaxed, the +former became less dependent upon the latter, and finally were absorbed +into the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ among the plebeians now began +to be recognized; previously only the patricians had been divided into +_gentes_. + +Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and +nearer. + +In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were instrumental +in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the substance of which +was as follows:-- + +I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriata against +the sentence of any magistrate. + +II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tributa (_plebiscita_), if +sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriata, were made binding +upon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal +importance with the other two. + +III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian officers, +were to be considered sacred. + +IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and veto +any of its decisions. + +Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still be +patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tributa. Heretofore they had +been appointed by the Consuls. + +In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, +and called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of +intermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting that all +issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. + +Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that +the consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was +made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, and +to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriata, the +office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year whether +they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom continued +for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so influential, +that for a long time no plebeian was elected. + +As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 +obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own ranks +every five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen months. + +The duties of the Censors were:-- + +I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + +II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members who +were guilty of offences against public morals. + +III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works of +the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at Rome. + +A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by +obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There +were now four Quaestors. + +Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, +sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto +often found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joined +the farmers or lower classes. + +Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed +the following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + +I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as +formerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the plebeians. + +II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 acres) +of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or 500 sheep. + +III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain number +of free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + +IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be deducted +from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly instalments. + +These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them +an opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly +by slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of +becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open +to them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be +protected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by +Camillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that these +rogations promised. + +The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except +that of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained that of +Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in 286, by +the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all the people +without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriata. After 200 the +sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be filled by plebeians. + +Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; +and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, yet +their rights as citizens were no greater than those of the plebeians. + +To recapitulate:-- + +Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and +holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of +intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + +The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second they +obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBUTA; the third by the +CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent bills. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. EXTERNAL HISTORY. + + +The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then +possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The +number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became +thirty-five. + +In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into +Etruria and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman +ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, +were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, +marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river +about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The +Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the +foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. +Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which +lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were +induced to withdraw. + +During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, and +we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to 390. + +The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 +the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military +colonies were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and +also at Circeii and Setia. (Footnote: These military colonies, of which +the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to +protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and +equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives +and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government +similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as +Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.) The +neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a faithful +ally, was annexed to Rome. + +The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring +up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until +finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and +gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. The +town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + +The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed +the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern their +own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were subsequently +made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE SUFFRAGIO, +"citizens without suffrage." + +During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland +countries as far south as TARRACINA. To the north, across the Tiber, she +had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPENA. + +In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty +with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the mountainous +districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over the southern +half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of CAPUA, and +three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they had been +practically masters of the whole of Campania. + +After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites +had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The +Samnites went so far as to attack Teanum, a city of Northern Campania, +which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before +Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + +Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse to +break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering their +city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the Samnites, she +would simply be defending her subjects. + +Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with +varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual +to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite +Wars. + + +THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + +The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear +idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage +to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a +_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. + + +THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + +The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking +with jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights had +been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or lose +everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the Consuls and +half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war followed, in +the third year of which was fought the battle of Triganum, near Mount +Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, were victorious +through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS TORQUATUS, one of the +illustrious names of this still doubtful period. The remainder of the +operations was rather a series of expeditions against individual cities +than a general war. + +In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The +Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of +the Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left +independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their +territory became part of the _Ager Romanus_, and the inhabitants Roman +plebeians. + +Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, three more +towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velitrae, a Volscian town. + +LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the +Volturnus. + +Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, +which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the +colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the +military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The +first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established +TARRACINA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards +founded. + +Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was +destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to Rome, and +placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the Senate-House. +Hence the name ROSTRA. + +At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of all +kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for political +discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and brokers had their +offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near the river, as the _Forum +Boarium_ (cattle market) and the _Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). + +Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing about +these improvements. + + +THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + +The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we have +seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain of Rome. + +There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the Romans, +the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the weakest, and +had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans of Veii in 396, +and of Caere in 353. + +In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the +combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact and +concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but were more +scattered. They were both equally brave. + +During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were +usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. +In this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of +military posts in the enemy's country. + +The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again renewed. +By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius Pontius, +by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned against the +Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans into a small +plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae Caudinae). On +reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted to oppose them. +After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to retreat, the Romans +themselves were compelled to give way. But meanwhile Pontius had also +occupied the defile in their rear, and they were obliged to surrender. + +A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius Postumius, +according to which peace was to be made, and everything restored to its +former condition. + +Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most +humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made +to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck into +the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above them,--and +then suffered to depart. + +Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in +mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was +devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the +treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless +sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the +Consuls who had signed it to the enemy. + +Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and the +war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the Samnites +were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, at LAKE +VADIMONIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any effective +resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their sea-coast, +their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. + +During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against the +Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military colony +of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. The Consul +Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove the Etruscans +into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated them. + +Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR +(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to +unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and +ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + +The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the +sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by +Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS +MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + +In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were +assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match +for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by Decius. +Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul vowed his +life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, rushing into the +midst of the enemy, was slain. (Footnote: It is said that the father +of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the Latin war.) His +soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, rallied and pushed back +the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for the Samnites were already +fleeing before that part of the army which was under Fabius. + +The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS +DENTATUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had +recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, +and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens (_sine +suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the _Ager Romanus_. This +territory now reached across Italy from the Tuscan to the Adriatic +Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations on the south from the +Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. + +In 283, at Lake Vadimonis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian +Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + + + + +CHAPTER X. WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + +In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had been +the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the pressure +of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia Minor, and +especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country became so +thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. Here were many +flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and Thurii. These had, +at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly fallen from their former +grandeur, owing partly to the inroads of barbarians from the north, +partly to civil dissensions, and still more to their jealousy of each +other; so that they were unable to oppose any firm and united resistance +to the progress of Rome. It had been their custom to rely largely upon +strangers for the recruiting and management of their armies,--a fact +which explains in part the ease with which they were overcome. + +Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been +made by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which their +fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to allow +their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the Lacinian +promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in evading their +treaty whenever it should profit them. + +Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from +Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic affairs +permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the wedge was +entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and deliver the +former over to Rome. + +Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to +ignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of +Tarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the +theatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was +determined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of the +Roman squadron were destroyed. + +An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was +treated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the +Tarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year +one of the Consuls was ordered south. + +Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young and +ambitious KING OF EPIRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, and, +since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests of this +great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West that would +surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. + +Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, +3,000 cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the +effeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of amusement +were closed; the people were forced to perform military duty; disturbers +of the public safety were put to death; and other reforms were made +which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. Meanwhile the +Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him to battle. The +armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLEA, on the banks of the Liris, +where the level nature of the country was in favor of the Greek method +of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most perfect instrument of +warfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman legions had never yet been +brought into collision with it. + +The Romans, under LAEVINUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a +charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they +retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by +the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory +will send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior +qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A trusted +messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his eloquence, +which was said to have gained more for his master than the sword. +Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was +guaranteed to his allies in Italy. + +The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; +and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, +when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, +and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + +Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared +that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + +Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared +within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The +defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and +the armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite +against him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, +where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to propose +an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and threats were +employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the Senate; and, on his +part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired exchange. + +Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. +The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but +though the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic +victories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. + +The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the +Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the island +three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the last +time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul MANIUS +CURIOUS DENTATUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed to the +elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded beasts +became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into disorder. With +this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He returned home, and +two years later was accidentally killed by a woman at Argos. + +The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two years +later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city walls were +demolished, and the fleet given up. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.--NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. + + +Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This +country was divided into two parts. + +I. The AGER ROMANUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded +on the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the +APENNINES. + +II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + +The _Ager Romanus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial purposes, +into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts (tribes), four of +which were in Rome. The elections were all held at Rome. + +These districts were made up,-- + +a. Of ROME. + +b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but +finally increased to thirty-five. + +c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + +d. Of the PRAEFECTURAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent from +Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + +The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,-- + +a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, +afterwards increased to thirty-five. + +b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining territory +composed more than one half of the country controlled by Rome. + +These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay +tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops for +the Roman army. + +The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.-- + +a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, i. e. +FULL RIGHTS. (Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus suffragii_ +(right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of holding office), +and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). Private rights were _jus +connubii_ (right of intermarriage); and _jus commercii_ (right of +trading and holding property). Full rights were acquired either by +birth or gift. A child born of parents, both of whom enjoyed the +_jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with full rights. Foreigners were +sometimes presented with citizenship (_civitas_)) + +b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + +c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). + +d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + +e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of +trading. + +To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman colonies, and +of some of the Municipia. + +To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who +possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefecturae_, +and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + +ROADS. + +Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the +capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every +direction,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched +or intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her +possessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a monument +of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonder and +admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten +together the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not +even the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of +fidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + + +NOTED MEN. + +The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding +chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius +Curius Dentatus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + +We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one of +the tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tributa_; this, however, shut +out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and also the freedmen, +who were generally educated and professional men, such as doctors, +teachers, etc. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the +exclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tributa_, and gave to +property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later this +law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes alone, and +the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed property only. + +During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water supply +by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, was +built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as far +as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are today in +good condition. The road was afterward extended to Brundisium, through +Venusia and Tarentum. + +MANIUS CURIUS DENTATUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and +his opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He +obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager Publicus_. He +drained the low and swampy country near Reate by a canal. He was +the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, frugal and +unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his farm and spent +the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple peasant. + +GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentatus, was from the peasants. He was a +Hernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was +incorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battle +of Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, and, +failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant behind +a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, though +immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + +In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not +flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The +great mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal +habits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates as +yet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A century later, +when most of the available land in the peninsula was held by the wealthy +and farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + +The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large +treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern +Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. Greed +for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the Romans. +From now on the moral tone of the people continued to degenerate in +proportion as their empire increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. FOREIGN CONQUEST. + + +ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) (Footnote: The word +"Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were said to +have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of the +Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of +course familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aeneas.) + +While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the +Straits of Messana, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite +Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through +industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + +Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, it +required centuries to gain her power. + +It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her subdued +allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in the support +of her immense population and the equipment of her numerous fleets and +armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once wandering nomads, were +forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with colonies sent out by +herself, they formed the so called Libyo-Phoenician population, open +to the attack of all, and incapable of defence. Thus the country around +Carthage was weak, and the moment a foreign enemy landed in Africa the +war was merely a siege of its chief city. + +The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed the +gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, slaves, +and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of Cyprus; and +the iron of Elba. + +But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel religion, +which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the rights of +others, their well known treachery, all shut them off from the higher +civilization of Rome and Greece. + +The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a +few of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed the +state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people summoned +and consulted. + +Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the +establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these +treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and +Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the +Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + +In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field for +Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome would +be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, "the +commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of one +night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + +At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king of +Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands who +came from Campania. The latter, making Messana their head-quarters, had +been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. Being shut up +in Messana by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the ground that they were +from Campania. Although Rome was in alliance with Hiero, and had +but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in Rhegium what the +Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aid them, for Sicily +was a rich and tempting prey. + +Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a +truce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of +Messana was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and garrison +of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the Mamertines +no longer needed their aid, landed at Messana and dislodged the +Carthaginians. + +Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double +alliance with Syracuse and Messana, thus gaining control of the eastern +coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of Italy. + +The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the +Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under +HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were +themselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heraclea in +their rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a battle +was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to their +superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds on the +coast were left to the Carthaginians. + +The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage ruled +the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the seaports of +Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual energy, the +Romans began the work. (Footnote: In 259, three years previous to the +battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio captured Blesia, a +seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval station.) A wrecked +Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by the spring of 260 a +navy of 120 sail was ready for sea. + +The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the +purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of +hanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be +lowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides +with parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to close +quarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened to +the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman marines +were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and fight as if +on land. + +Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE +(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + +In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged +under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander +was captured. + +In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS +DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of Gisco. +The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans were found +to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near without these +bridges descending with their grappling irons and holding them fast to +the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with the loss of nearly +half their fleet. + +A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, was +erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal of +it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest +inscriptions in the Latin language. + +The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + +In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 +sail. Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and +sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the coast +of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another battle. But +the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula which helps to +form the bay, and there landed without opposition. + +MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in +Africa. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians became +disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and the +capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms offered +were too humiliating to be accepted. + +Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at +Tunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to his +fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, his +army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently died +a captive at Carthage. + +The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to relieve +their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, it gained a +victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Hermean promontory, sinking +114 of the enemy's ships. + +It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa was +now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly destroyed in +a storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + +Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. Panormus +was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; Thermae and the +island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + +DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by +Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city +was blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as much +as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the cavalry of +the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by disease. + +The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined to +surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana (249). +He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. Another +fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent storm. + +The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. +Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. +They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily +were still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on +(249-243). + +A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile took +the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military talent, +and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a fair way +to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, that at +last some private citizens built and manned at their own expense a fleet +of 200 sail. + +GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and +occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian +fleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGATES +INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and +supplies. He saw that peace must be made. + +Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the +war,--about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annual +payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS +(241-218). + + +Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. +The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in +crushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + +Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, +seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, +threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one +million dollars as a fine (237). + +The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the +government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + +Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had exercised +their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily was made +what the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. Sardinia and Corsica +formed another province (235). + +Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For +this purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. The +power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, chief +magistrate, and supreme judge. + +The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. +All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth +of their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and +exports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the dependants +of Rome in Italy. + +The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the +morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without +mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + +The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who did +much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but to no +purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was cleared of +the pirates in 229. + +"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the +means of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations +between Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the suppression +of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. Alliances +were concluded with CORCYRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and embassies +explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into Greece were +sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. The admission +of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally acknowledged them as +the allies of the Greek states." + +The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPINA. The +appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with the +Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimonis in 283. The _ager publicus_, +taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. In 232 the +Tribune Gaius Flaminius (Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his agrarian laws +gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first Governor of +Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and honesty, +a great contrast to many who succeeded him.) carried an agrarian law, +to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer +classes. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls +this seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of their +country. They all rose in arms except the Cenomani. + +This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded by +an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, miscarried, +and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near TELAMON in 222, +and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the hands of the Consul +MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now mistress of the whole +peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in Liguria, who resisted a +short time longer. + +Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls in +check; PLACENTIA and CREMONA in the territory of the Insubres, and +MUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great northern road, +was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. (Footnote: During this period +the _Comitia Centuriata_ was reorganized on the basis of tribes (35) +instead of money.) + +Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the +mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as +compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar +Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in +Southern and Southeastern Spain. + +At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many towns +were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The discovery +of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of enriching the +treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, the ablest +leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man of but +twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy he had +shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He was a fine +athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and could endure +long privation of sleep and food. For the last few years he had been +in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself for personal +bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. + +Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. +He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In +eight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + +When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and +declared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the +challenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO +THE BATTLE OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + +In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthago Nova to invade +Italy. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 +elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the +opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a +part of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all +veterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along the +coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nimes), through the Celtic +territory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on +the banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans were +astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + +The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had been +in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal in +Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade Africa. +Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end of June. +Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already left +Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes of the +neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from these were +stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained at Massilia. +It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio arrived with +his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and constructed numerous +rafts to transport his main body of troops. A detachment of soldiers +was sent up the river with orders to cross at the first available place, +and, returning on the opposite bank, to surprise the Celtic forces in +the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts fled in confusion, and the +road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio was outgeneralled in the very +beginning. + +His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all his +forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he +sent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and +himself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + +Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the Isara, +through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in sixteen +days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont du Chat). +Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of the country +and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through the country of +the Centrones, along the north bank of the Isara. As he was leaving this +river and approaching the pass of the Little St. Bernard, he was again +attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the ascent amidst continual +and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and a night, however, the +army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a table-land, his troops +were allowed a brief rest. + +The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile +valley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and exhausted +soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited their wearied +energies. + +This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, +and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + +The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in Spain +under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, under +the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available were a +few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to restrain the +Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. + +Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command of +these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river Ticinus, +a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which he was +wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards the +famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable loss. + +They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the +bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched +along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, +opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + +Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the +disabled Scipio. + +Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the +Carthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any +resistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were drawn +up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, they +should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in the +trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut to +pieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they +spent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. + +The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in +the valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry +and 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near Placentia, +the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways leading north from +Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The Consuls for this year were +GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The former occupied Arretium, the +latter Ariminum. Here they were joined by the troops that had wintered +at Placentia. + +In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by +either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by +turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and unhealthy +country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost an eye from +ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of his course first +reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and endeavored to intercept +his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, and was now near LAKE +TRASIMENUS. + +Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the other. +Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. His +light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on either +side. + +The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the +unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the +position of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, +Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the entrance +to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, revealing the +Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a battle, but a mere +rout. The main body of the Romans was cut to pieces, with scarcely any +resistance, and the Consul himself was killed. Fifteen thousand Romans +fell, and as many more were captured. The loss of the Carthaginians was +but 1,500, and was confined mostly to the Gallic allies. All Etruria +was lost, and Hannibal could march without hindrance upon Rome, whose +citizens, expecting the enemy daily, tore down the bridges over the +Tiber and prepared for a siege. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed +Dictator. + +Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, +devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted on +the shores of the Adriatic, in Picenum. After giving his army a rest, he +proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + +The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised +another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of +determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to +avoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing him +and cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + +Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of +Italy to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city +dependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to +the melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's cavalry +plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what he +considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, disappointed +in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, and not being +prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards the Adriatic. +Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on the left bank of +the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right bank of the river +were occupied by his main army; and the road itself, which led across +the river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + +Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the heights +over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with burning +fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army marching by +torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned the road and +marched for the heights, along which they supposed the enemy were going. +Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued his march with the +bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his light-armed troops, +which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. Their engagement with +the Romans had resulted in a severe loss to Fabius. + +Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly +direction, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with much +booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he encamped in +a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his army. + +At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent +inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator +(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared +by one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into +two corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the +first opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his +former tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his rashness, +and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not Fabius come to +his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed the winter of +217-216 unmolested. + +The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the spring +campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was raised and +put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS AEMILIUS PAULLUS and GAIUS +TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's strength once more in +open battle. His army was only half as strong as the Roman in infantry, +but was much superior in cavalry. + +In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at +CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in +June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, with +their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the left +under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + +The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by +cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The onset +was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage increased by +the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at stake, they +were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on the field, +among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and eighty men of +senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever experienced by +the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin colonies and the Greek +cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA +(216-202). + + +ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the +Latin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old men +alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they would +join the ranks. + +Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the second +city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that other +cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into winter +quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their luxurious and +effeminate habits, are said to have injured his soldiers. But Hannibal's +superiority as a general is unquestionable, and his want of success +after this was due to insufficient aid from home, and to the fact that +the resources of Rome were greater than those of Carthage. The Latin +allies of Rome had remained true to their allegiance, and only one city +of importance was under his control. It was an easy matter to conquer +the enemy in open battle, but to support his own army was more +difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On the other hand, the +Romans were well supplied with food from their possessions in Sicily. + +Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already +employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He +formed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged +Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. He +hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and reinforcements +from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain from Macedonia, +to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her into submission. + +The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they +could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and Gnaeus. +With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the enemy +from that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern Greece +effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years (214-212) +passed without any material change in the situation of affairs in Italy. + +In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, +besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover +Campania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched +rapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed the +city, resolved to advance on Rome itself. + +Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through the heart +of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, and with +his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no ally +joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals of +peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of +the enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his +head-quarters in the South. + +Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, was +removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon Capua was +severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred of her chief +citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. The city and +its territory were declared to be Roman territory, and the place was +afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + +Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as Rome +itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, renowned +for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the highest arts +and culture. + + +AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of +more than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome in +her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor of +Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, who +was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few months. + +The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian +faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the +leaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to +arouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome +and the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and stormed +Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against him. A +siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various devices +adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMEDES (Footnote: Archimedes was +a great investigator in the science of mathematics. He discovered the +ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of his famous +sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the world." He +exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines for the +defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in existence. +He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, who would +have spared his life had he not been too intent on a mathematical +problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his tombstone, it +is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.) to defeat the +movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a Spanish +officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which it was so +rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time (212) the city +became a part of the province of Sicily and the head-quarters of the +Roman Governor. + + +THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO +CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO +and HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the +location of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over +to Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large +reinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, +surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain was +lost to Rome. + +Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter Italy, +and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. PUBLIUS +CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but twenty-four +years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He had previously +made himself very popular as Aedile, and was unanimously elected to the +command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he found the whole country west +of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + +Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL +and MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not act +in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring (209), to +capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A good harbor was +gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three transports, $600,000, and +10,000 captives fell into the hands of the Romans. + +Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at +BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the +battle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the +Pyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the +winter (209-208) in Gaul. + +The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the son +of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the Baleares, +to wait for reinforcements from home. + +The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in +the total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the +southwestern part of Spain. + +The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed +the straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and +MASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, +after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about +their pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where he +intended to become a candidate for the consulship. + + +OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + +The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. +Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The +Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, +and MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of +keeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting +Hasdrubal was given to the latter. + +The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river +Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent +messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of +march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of their +despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, joined +Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and defeated his +army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal himself. Nero +returned south without delay, and the first intimation that Hannibal had +of this battle was the sight of his brother's head thrown into the camp +by the victorious foe. + +The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four +years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was +powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout +Italy. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the +ground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. + + +INVASION OF AFRICA. + +Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of Africa. +He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his province, with +permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him wise. He was so +popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, and supplies poured +in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, however, did not like +him, as his taste for splendid living and Greek culture was particularly +offensive to them; and a party in the Senate would have recalled him, +had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor been too strong to be +resisted. + +In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was welcomed +by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous visit to +Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but in 203 +Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage +prevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle +with Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of Carthage. +The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who loved their +commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first and only defeat, +and Scipio won his title of AFRICANUS. The battle was a hard one. After +all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been killed or put +to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in Italy, although +surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering their own, fought +on, and were killed one by one around their beloved chief. The army was +fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, managed to escape to +Hadrumetum. + +The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage +was broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to retain +her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, were given +up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about $200,000, for +fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and she could carry +on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was rewarded by an +increase in territory, and was enrolled among the "allies and friends of +the Roman people." + +Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great Mediterranean +power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the north of Africa was +under her protection. + +Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was +welcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never before +equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned with +laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which he had +the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no part in +politics. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. ROME IN THE EAST. + + +ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. +The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast +empire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the +limits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece +proper. + +EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the +valley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a +number of towns in Thrace. + +SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of +various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent +rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. +Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + +MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of +Northern Greece. + +GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, the +former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the greater +part of Central Greece. + +Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into +closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in 273. +From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the Second +Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of the +Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + +The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into closer +relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to open the +Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage had left her +no time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern politics, until she +was forced to take action by the alliance of Philip V. of Macedonia and +Hannibal, and by the former's threatened invasion of Italy in 214. A +small force was sent into Greece, which was soon largely increased by +the dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + +The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was +to prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was +partially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but +four thousand of them were at Zama. + +The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus +Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so hard +that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to sail for +Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus assisted +the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to think of +operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to concentrate +their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + +Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their +return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have it. + +There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN +WAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, to +attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable that +the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years old, +would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers of +Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman envoys +sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with Philip. + +In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that the +people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was driven to +seek alliances which would protect her against him. + +Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced +to vote for one, on the representation that the only means of preventing +an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + +This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a +considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the +Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive +results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMININUS, a man of +different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on +the Aous, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year utterly +defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + +The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he +broke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in around +him with but little loss. The other division was attacked by the Romans, +while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The victory of the +Romans was decisive. + +About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the +Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + +Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of +Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, +Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to wage +war without Rome's consent. + +The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" was +proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later +Flamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of +Greece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks to +show themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned home +to enjoy a well earned triumph. + +The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm +establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge +had been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was +assured. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. THE SYRIAN WAR. + + +Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, +had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not +hear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he +claimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip had +previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. He +crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to enter +Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, until after +Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). + +Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the +power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his +defeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the +chief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the +moral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. Under +him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with Antiochus, +with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an opportunity to +interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, after wandering +from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the Syrian king. + +Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could have +accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he disregarded +the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor matters. The +Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae drove back the +intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The Aetolians were punished +for their infidelity. + +In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command +of the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be +accompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his +military skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed the +Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + +Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the +king. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in +190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 being +slain. The loss of the victors was slight. + +On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all +pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus +mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all +surrendered. + +Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his +name, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of his +victory. + +Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign +against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, +and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse for +the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the reason +was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + +The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they +themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is noticeable +chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without the authority +of the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a precedent which +was too frequently followed in later times. On his return to Rome he was +allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as legal. + +These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid +the foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally +undermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced +learning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The vigor +and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than in the +length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous exotics. + +Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the +ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained +during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his +account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, +tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, +however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated +that his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies +that their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of +Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges were +made. + +Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, +on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. His +wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, and +the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. His +daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous GRACCHI. +Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the +campaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In +the conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered +Alexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself +conquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. + +Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically +the mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and +as conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a charm +which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of Greece +were not so courted at Rome as in later days. + +Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, +but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, King +of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to +arrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring and +swallowed the poison which it contained (183). + +Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim +of his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was +so marked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon +the tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near +accomplishing. + +This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the +Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. (Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.) + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (171-146.) + + +Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against +Antiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in additions +to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but he labored +patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to stir up among +the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He placed his army +on the best footing possible, and soon began to enlarge his boundaries. +Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was compelled to give up his +conquests, and confine himself to the limits of Macedonia. In 179 Philip +died, and was succeeded by his son PERSEUS. + +The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of +subjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a +marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse +among the Greeks memories of their former greatness. + +The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check him. +War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at first led +by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until LICIUS AEMILIUS +PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in 168. + +Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was +killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE AEDILE, +(Footnote: See page 225) in 192, he prosecuted persons who had made an +illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior Spain in 191 +as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all insurrections. +He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a tribe of +marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + +He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. +The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the +Thermaic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothrace with his treasures +and family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with +kindness by the Consul. + +Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by commissioners, +he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was divided into +four small republics, independent of each other, but prohibited from +intermarriage and commerce with one another. + +On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced +by Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four +years later. + +Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted +by Fabius Maximus Cunctator, the younger by the son of Africanus the +elder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of +perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat +superstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his sons +the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his popularity +is the fact that his body was carried to its last resting place by +volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. + +Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is +alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + +After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the +conquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests there. +All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, and among +these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more than twenty +years, and became a great friend of the younger Africanus, whom he +accompanied to the siege of Carthage. + +Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of +each other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utter +demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all +alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + +Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating +in what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under +the leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the +people rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice defeated +in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained the agnomen +of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, with a Roman +magistrate at its head. + +At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus warned +them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he easily +defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + +Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an +illustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in 115 +three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was a +candidate for the consulship. + +Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh +leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. +The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 +was marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; +beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold +in abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty +vanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of ACHAIA. + +Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, when +it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a colony +of veterans and freedmen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + + +Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial +prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the quarrels +of conflicting factions. + +MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual +source of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, +and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of Rome, +her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an embassy was +sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, the chief of the +embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of the city, and from +that time never ceased to urge its destruction. The embassy did not +reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as they might. Finally, +when some sympathizers with Masinissa were banished from the city, he +attacked and defeated the Carthaginians, compelled their army to +pass under the yoke, and afterwards treacherously destroyed it (150). +Carthage was compelled to give up some of her territory, and pay +$5,000,000 indemnity. + +After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be +disciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to +close any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel words, +_Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed." The people of +Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken-hearted, they +sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was obscure. They were +requested to make reparation to Rome, and at the same time they were +assured that nothing should be undertaken against Carthage herself. +But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army into Sicily, where the +troops were organized, and Carthaginian ambassadors were expected. + +When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish to +encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some security; +for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three hundred +children of the noblest families should be delivered into their hands +as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly crossed over +to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were ready to treat +with them on any question not previously settled. + +When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told +that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they +said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage +possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were then +told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome had no +control over the city so long as it was fortified. The preservation of +peace, therefore, required that the people should quit the city, give +up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a distance of ten +miles from the sea. The indignation and fury which this demand excited +were intense. The gates were instantly closed, and all the Romans and +Italians who happened to be within the city were massacred. + +The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined +that the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair had +suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every direction. +All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and night in the +manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending than this last +struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored to the uttermost +for the defence of the city with a furious enthusiasm. + +Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICANUS, +the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the legal +age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. After +two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part of the +defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + +Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen +days. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given to +Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + +The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most +bitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,--MASINISSA +and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + +Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get the +promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given to +his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the possessions of +Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same Sophonisba, whom he +married. Scipio, however, fearing her influence over him, demanded +her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. Masinissa was a +courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the Romans. + +CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149,) whose long public career was a +constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the +fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Roman +character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the +interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as +Censor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old-fashioned +principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All innovations +were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the author of several +works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has been preserved. + +Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year +discoursing about old age with Africanus the younger, and Laelius, a +friend of the latter. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + + +Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government +of nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, +separated by the IBERUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a +praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought into +a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests were a +formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla warfare, +which makes conquest slow and laborious. + +The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBERI, who +occupied the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and +intractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the +elder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the +Roman power east of the Iberus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this part +of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir to +pull down their fortifications. + +Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, +sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, +the father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the +troublesome Celtiberi. He captured over one hundred of their towns, but +tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself greater +in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands on +favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the +natives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and in +Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + +In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was +Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged the +Celtiberi to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with +a massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS +MARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the +country humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, +were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another open +rebellion, headed by VIRIATHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During seven +years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent against him. +The Celtiberi joined his standards, and Spain seemed likely to slip from +the Romans. The only check to these successes was during the command of +METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was recalled, matters returned to +their former condition. + +In 140, the Consul Mancinus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save +himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to +sanction. + +Viriathus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the Consul +Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was ably +conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + + +THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + +The Celtiberi, however, were still in arms. The strong city of NUMANTIA, +the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one defeat of a +Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent out her best +general, Africanus the younger. + +After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he +began (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the +utmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of +famine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and +the town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the +title of NUMANTINUS. + +The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, which +was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its northern +coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were established +with Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on the whole, order was +maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean there sprang up many +thriving and populous towns, which became centres of civilization to the +neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome rather as allies than +as subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin the silver money of Rome. +The civilizing process, due to Roman influence, went on rapidly in these +parts, while the interior remained in barbarism. + +In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from +the north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave +Celtiberi, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). + +While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves +broke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special barbarity. + +For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of +freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the +regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and +Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + +The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a +wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, who +pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were suffered +by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS captured the +strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus closed the +war. For his success he was allowed an ovation. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. INTERNAL HISTORY.--THE GRACCHI. We have seen how the long +struggle between the patricians and plebeians terminated in a nominal +victory for the latter. From about 275, the outward form of the old +constitution had undergone little change. It was nominally that of a +"moderate democracy." The Senate and offices of state were, in law, +open to all alike. In practice, however, the constitution became an +oligarchy. The Senate, not the Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the +Senate was controlled by a class who claimed all the privileges of a +nobility. The Comitias were rarely called upon to decide a question. +Most matters were settled by a DECREE OF THE SENATE (_Senatus +Consultum_). To be sure the Comitia declared for war or peace, but the +Senate conducted the war and settled the conditions of peace. It also +usually assigned the commands, organized the provinces, and managed the +finances. + +The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It +was a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be +convened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were scattered +over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to decide +questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign policy. + +The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All +patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The +patricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. +The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of the +following six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, +Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right to +place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of +this ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held a +curule office. + +A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, or "new +man." + +The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time the +monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. +The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only +wanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal +rights, and urge the exercise of them. + +Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him +was ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and +brought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. +On one side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and +POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until the +glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor of +the Empire. + +Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to the +nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the daughter +of Africanus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all but three +died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The daughter, +SEMPRONIA, married Africanus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS and GAIUS, +grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, who was left a +widow when they were mere boys. + +Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in-law +during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor in +Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the mild +policy which his father had previously followed. His popular measures +here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a favorite +with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where he was +astonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see Chapter VII.) +cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens of the Republic +were wandering in towns without employment, and deprived of the land +which, according to law (see the Licinian Rogations), should have +been divided among them, and not held in large quantities by the rich +land-owners. + +Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself as +candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began boldly the +battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian Law, now a +dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 acres of the +_ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had fenced this land +and improved it were to be compensated therefor. + +The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against Tiberius, +and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS CAECINA, +who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his authority as +Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the question. + +Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, +contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, and +passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, himself, +his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry it into +effect. + +It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of +Tribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry +out his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as +candidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it became +evident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned out +in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed slaves +and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three hundred of +his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). Thus was shed +the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led by SCIPIO NASICA, +the uncle of Tiberius. Africanus, when he heard of the murder of his +brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain." + +The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to +be openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their work, +until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts of +the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But the +commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were not +always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were enraged. +The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + +The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his +brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in +Africa and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and +justice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with +suspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re-elected. +He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the avowed +enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, he +endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Roman +citizenship, and to limit the price of bread. + +Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial class, +by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial functions +were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. Heretofore +all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried before a jury +chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal and corrupt, and +it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be bought. + +The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time +very powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that no +Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an appeal +to the assembly of the people. + +But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians ruined +his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their rights +with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten years +before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of his +friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master of the +situation. + +However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty +thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in +force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless the +state was held to be in danger. + +Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the +Gracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were noble, +and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + +A few years previous to this, the younger Africanus died (129). His +remark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the +popular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, +probably "a victim of political assassination." + +Africanus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of +scholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets +LUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age towards +luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a general. The +one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of Carthage, which he +possibly might have averted had he shown firm opposition to it. + +SCIPIO NASICA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though +Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. EXTERNAL HISTORY.--PERGAMUM.--JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). + + +Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caicus, fifteen miles from +the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. Its +first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the city. +He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their firm +friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in Asia +Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, and +its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome his +kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. It was +made a province under the name of ASIA. + +THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + +After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in Africa +was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which were +centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom to his +son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. The nephew +was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in the Numantine +war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was named joint heir +with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa dying soon after, +Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, claimed the whole +kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, who appealed to +Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They were bought off by +Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing anything. Adherbal was +afterwards captured, savagely tortured, and finally killed. + +The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an +investigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused of +accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign languished, +and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince that it was +evident his money had again been freely used. The scandalous transaction +was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. Jugurtha then repaired to +the city in person, and bought up all the authorities except Memmius, +whom he found incorruptible. He had another cousin in the city, whom he +caused to be murdered. After this the Senate ordered him to leave, and +as he departed, it is said he exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to +perish, if a purchaser be found!" + +War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat +of the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by +the defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS +METELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. He +was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a rigid +aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as his +lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + +Marius, born at Arpinum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was +himself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and soon +attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and his +strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, and +his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. He soon +rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of the People, +and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was respected and valued +in high circles is shown by his subsequent marriage into the family of +the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, the aunt of Julius Caesar, he +became a person of social distinction. + +The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the +river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his stronghold, +Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as unconditional surrender +was demanded, he still held out. The popular party at Rome, irritated +that such a petty prince should give so much trouble, demanded that +Marius should be made Consul and have charge of the war. When the +lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to enable him to be +present at the elections, as was necessary according to the law, his +general ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait another twenty years. +He went, however, and was elected in 107, being the first plebeian +chosen to that office for more than a century. + +Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of +NUMIDICUS. + +Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be +reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other +occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of +rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a young +patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested from +Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was over. +By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed (106) +into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of Marius. + +The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of +his treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native +princes, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius +returned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a +dungeon, and there starved to death. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--POLITICAL QUARRELS. + + +The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a +struggle requiring all his talents. + +The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were +threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met +with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. +Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to +have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen +to enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certain +result. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over the +mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. + +Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to forming +and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of the Rhone +in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he drilled +his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible exertions. Many +perished under the strain, but the survivors became hardened soldiers. +Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, and the soldiers were +taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At length, in his fourth +consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the enemy. + +The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, the +Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards Noricum, +with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while the +Teutones remained in Gaul. + +As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified camp +near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, and +then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to fall +upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no match for +the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest lasted two +days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces (20 July, +102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius that he had +been elected Consul for the fifth time. + +Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the fertile +fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from Catulus, the +other Consul. + +The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met +the same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + +No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political quarrels +broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul for the +sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two demagogues, the +Tribune SATURNINUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They carried corn laws and +land laws,(Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN LAWS (100):--I. Any Roman +citizen could buy corn of the state at a nominal price. II. The land +in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had occupied, should be divided +among the Italian and Roman citizens. III. Colonies from the veterans +of Marius were to be founded in Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.) and +compelled the Senators to take an oath to execute their laws. Metellus +Numidicus refusing to comply with their wishes, Saturninus sent a guard +to the Senate-House, dragged him out, and expelled him from the city. + +During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. +He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all +parties he pleased none. + +On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by +MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and +the radical one, led by Saturninus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia +both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be +successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturninus +and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the +Senate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches were +stoned to death. + +The fall of Saturninus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall +of Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was +suspected that he was a victim of treachery. + +Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his +vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, +travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradates, +King of Pontus. + +For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative +quiet. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + + +At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the +equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen +the governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers +(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will help us to +understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the composition +of the Senate and the Equites. + +The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was increased +to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies occurred +from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by the +Censor, (Footnote: See the duties of Censor) who appointed a person that +had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, Praetor, Curule +Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All persons who had held +these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed to join in debate in the +Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could engage in business. Hence he +must be wealthy. + +We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six classes +according to their property, and that these classes were subdivided into +one hundred and ninety-three other classes called centuries. About 225, +the number was increased to three hundred and seventy-three. Eighteen +of the centuries of the first class were called EQUITES, and must have +property worth twenty thousand dollars or more. This name was given to +them because at first they served in the army as horsemen, though in +later times the cavalry was composed only of allied troops. The Equites +were originally from the aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians +increased in wealth, many of them became rich enough to be included in +this class. + +There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in 123, +Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed that the +jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, and not the +Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two classes, +and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the nobles, +represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian order. +Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of the +courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, especially in +those courts which were established to try governors for extortion in +the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum repetundarum)_. From +the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers of the provinces. They +pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if a governor had the +courage to interfere with them, a threat of prosecution was held over +his head. The average governor preferred to connive at their exactions; +the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles for their courage. Another +trouble was threatening the commonwealth. The Italian allies of Rome did +not possess the franchise belonging to a Roman citizen. For nearly two +centuries they had shared dangers and victories with the Romans; they +now eagerly demanded all their privileges. + +In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. +He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the +question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the +courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him many +enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of Roman +citizenship aroused great opposition. + +His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. +He was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an +assassin in the same year. + +The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations entered +into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian Apennines, as +their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which they gave the +name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of Corfinium, and here was +to be the place of assembly and the Senate-House. + +Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. +The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both took +the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were Marius and +Sulla. + +This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies +(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran Campania, +defeated the Romans several times, and entered into negotiations with +the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to waver. + +It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned +in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make +concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar carried +the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to all who +had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented by the +PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an Italian town +the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at Rome within +sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, the CALPURNIAN, +which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to bestow the franchise +on all who wished it. These laws resulted in disorganizing the +rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the longest, but were +finally put down by Marius. + +The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly +enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn +asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected +by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was +empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradates, King +of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were eager to +have the command. + +At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward +the following bills:-- + +1. That the command of the war against Mithradates be given to Marius. + +2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + +3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be deprived +of his seat. + +4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian revolt +be recalled. + +In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the +triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops +had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and for +the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + + +With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS +SULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited +a moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, +lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was +a poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was +naturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under +Marius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful +officer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to +win the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole +subsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to have +been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held well +under control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder and +license. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Marius +owed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in +the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient help +towards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising power, +and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. + +After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part +in politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are +almost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was +elected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a +hundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he +went as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first met +MITHRADATES. + +This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He +spoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless +ambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to +enlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's interference. + +Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was +ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZANES, that Rome had recognized. This country +Mithradates attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the throne his +own nephew. + +Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He +accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to Rome +with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, eclipsing +the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized leader of the +conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between the rivals was +more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by no means lost his +prestige with the popular party. + +It was at this time that Mithradates, learning of the Social War, +thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend +his realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded Bithynia. +With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the Archipelago. +The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, that Ionia, +Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, gladly revolted +from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman residents with +their families were massacred on a single day. It is said that 80,000 +persons perished. Mithradates himself next crossed the Bosphorus, and +marched into Northern Greece, which received him with open arms. + +Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the +bills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that Marius +have charge of the war against Mithradates. This was not to Sulla's +liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in the +Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow him +anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, marched +into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; Sulpicius +was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, where he +lived for a time, watching the course of events. + +Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East +called him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil war +burst out anew (87). + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He +tried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven +from the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He +invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to +follow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and +Marius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They +marched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged +Consul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius was +revoked. + +The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna for +the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a body-guard +of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. The houses of +the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families was exposed to +the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died sixteen days after he +entered office, and the shedding of blood ceased. + +For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government +was practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a +trusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In +84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in +Asia. + +Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against +Athens, where Archelaus, the general of Mithradates, was intrenched. +After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. The +same year he defeated Archelaus at CHAERONEA in Boeotia, and the next +year at ORCHOMENOS. + +Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two +victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready +to negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal +interview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as +follows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Cappadocia, +and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay an indemnity +amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships of war. + +Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians +and Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by +compelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now ready +to return to Rome. + +The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 +troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every +preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no +sooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert to +him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of all +Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young POMPEY, +then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts that Sulla's +success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian party was joined +by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than ever. At length, +however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of Rome. The city lay at +his mercy. His first act, an order for the slaughter of 6,000 Samnite +prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct in the city. Every effort +was made to eradicate the last trace of Marian blood and sympathy from +the city. A list of men, declared to be outlaws and public enemies, +was exhibited in the Forum, and a succession of wholesale murders and +confiscations throughout Rome and Italy, made the name of Sulla forever +infamous. + +Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid triumph +for the Mithradatic war, he carried (80-79) his political measures. +The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the thinned ranks +of which he filled with his own creatures, with full control over the +state, over every magistrate and every province. + +In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died +the next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + + +THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + +Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the +Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no +former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor +without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the +praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at +least thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six +to eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and +Praetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and +then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + +Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and all +who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + +The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the +Senate. + +On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; +but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to +raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his +oath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, +marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by +Crassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. SERTORIUS.--SPARTACUS.--LUCULLUS.--POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + + +Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of +Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served +under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he +served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his +fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. He +was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on Sulla's +return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the lead +of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased the +Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He defeated +one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania (Portugal) METELLUS +PIUS,(Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He received the agnomen of +Pius on account of the love which he displayed for his father, whom +he begged the people to recall from banishment in 99.) who had been +specially sent against him from Rome. + +The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after the +Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and founded at +Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe towards his +soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his favorite pet and +constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In 77 he was joined by +PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, then a young man, was +sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius proved more than a match for +both of these generals, and defeated them near Saguntum. + +The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now +formed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered +into negotiations with Mithradates, and opened correspondence with the +slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. + +But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these was +that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, and +with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + +Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own +borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of +their number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at Capua +and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were joined by +large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, and were soon +in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent against them. + +The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself at +the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were defeated; +and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even threatened Rome. +But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; his lieutenants grew +jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + +In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in +six months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, +returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those +who had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. +Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road from +Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + +Mithradates meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was +again in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against him. + +Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social +War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as +Quaestor, in his campaign against Mithradates in 88. With Cotta he was +chosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned to +him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradates invaded Bithynia, defeated Cotta, +and besieged him at Chalcedon. + +Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the aid +of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at Cabira +in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take refuge +with his son-in-law, TIGRANES, King of Armenia. + +Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of provincial +governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were farmed out, +and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the tax-payers +against the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms met with bitter +opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose chief source of +income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues against him by persons +sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction among his troops. He had +been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was all the easier to turn the +soldiers against him. + +In 68 he won a victory over Tigranes and Mithradates, at the river +Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was +obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next year +his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + +Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, +dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious +dinners which he gave. + + +POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + +The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as +it had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a +favorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws laid +down by his general. + +GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood to +his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side in +the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of the +latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. He +defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 was +allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally +qualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he +ever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success we +have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS +CRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. + +Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense wealth +by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. Avarice is +said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large sums to the +people for political effect. + +Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was +eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and was +only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and ought to +have waited two years. + +The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained +their prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was +transferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body +was cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed by +Sulla. + +For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey +remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition +against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had +been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. +During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that +the city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had +paralyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy +were not safe from their raids. + +GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command +for three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman +magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over the +coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, all +ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + +In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + +The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the +MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire +control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His +appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by CATULUS, +the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but CICERO +with his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came to Pompey's +assistance, and to him was given the command by which he became +virtually dictator in the East. His operations there were thoroughly +successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the previous victories +of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. Mithradates was obliged +to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum (Kertch). + +In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in +the name of Rome, and made it a province. + +Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, +two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to +the wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army against +Jerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He installed +Hyrcanus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. + +Meanwhile Mithradates had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of his +old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman arms, that +even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn affairs had +taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, after a reign +of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all formidable +opposition to Rome in Asia. + +Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were now +made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the addition +of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor not +yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; +Cappadocia, by Ariobarzanes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + +After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, January +1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five years old, +had accomplished a really great work, had founded several cities which +afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, and was hailed +as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + +The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. His +wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations between +the two men had been friendly. + +Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to political +importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of CATILINE. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. CAESAR.--CICERO.--VERRES. + + +The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which claimed +descent from IULUS, the son of AENEAS. Eight generations of Caesars +had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been Consuls, +Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the moderate wing. +The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be traced no further +back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the same name as the great +Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent from Ancus Marcius, the +fourth King of Rome. They had three children, Gaius Julius, the father +of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, who became the wife of +Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than Praetor. He was married +to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and severe tastes. Their son Gaius +was born on July 12th, 100. + +During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, +tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, +and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the +proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, +must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate +companions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + +Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and +determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely fifteen, +a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred office carried with +it a handsome income. + +Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, +the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely +with the popular party, whose champion he remained. + +When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but +eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was ruined, +his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet free from +proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young man to his +own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife and marry +one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then tried. His +priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His estate was +confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself declared an +outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential friends, however, +interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was finally persuaded to +pardon him; but with reluctance, and with the remark that in Caesar was +the making of many a Marius. The youth then left Italy, and joined the +army in Asia. + +Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the forces +of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates that were +making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding his troops +insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to Nicomedes, a Roman +ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional forces. He was +successful in his mission, and, upon his return to Lesbos, distinguished +himself for his bravery in the attack upon Mitylene, and was awarded the +oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving the life of a fellow-soldier. + +Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign +against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that country. +While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left the army +and returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle with the +nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former Governor of +Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his cause was +theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and Caesar lost the +case. + +Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied +rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property +and priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he was +captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some $50,000 was +raised and paid. Upon arriving at Miletus he at once got together some +vessels, returned to the island where he had been in captivity, +seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had them tried, +convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to Rhodes, where +he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. Then the report of +the uprisal of Mithradates reached him, and he at once crossed over to +the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and saved Caria to Rome. + +Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly +for a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + +While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in which +he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion of his +youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged +to the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek +teachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party +opposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to +gain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one +of its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during the +troubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literary +pursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who +was falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, and +guaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few +years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his return, +in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of the Senate. +His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance of his duties. +There he obtained an insight into the corrupt extortions of the Roman +governors. Five years later, he conducted his famous case against +Verres. + +VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had +amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece +and Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. With +the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the praetorship, +became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern Sicily. +His government there may have been no worse than that of many other +proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller account of +it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches against Verres are +preserved. + +Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official position, +he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit brought +before him he gave to the party that could pay him best. Property was +confiscated on false charges, and works of art of great value were +stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, property to +the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected to spend in +silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, but Cicero's +eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire into exile. + +It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies +abroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward +for what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was +elected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time +his aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he delivered +the funeral oration. + +Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests +were common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a +great man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, +and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When +sent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun by +Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task which +he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular party, of +which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. TROUBLES AT ROME.--CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + + +While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming +worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. +There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were anxious to +regain what they had lost, and there were many who, enriched by the +Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and now only waited +a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The Senate was jealous of +the power of the people, and the people distrusted the Senate. + +Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS +SERGIUS CATILINA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, +and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year +Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough +money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On +his return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted +through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. + +He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year +(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark +Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the +struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was elected, +owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of Verres and +his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the goal for which +he had been so long striving. + +Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had +been Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the +Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscuri (Castor and Pollux). But +what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish display +at the public games and exhibitions. + +Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 +the office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became +vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a +candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than +both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence of +the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + +Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his +fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected +caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had many +followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former Consul +Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the Censors, +and Cethegus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to regain a +fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of Sulla, +starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and outlaws +of every description. The conspirators were divided into two parties; +those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose head-quarters +were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army of trained +soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. Here secret +meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an uprising, kill +the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite with the army in +Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by spies, and just +before the plans for the uprising were matured, he disclosed them to the +Senate. + +Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and +Cethegus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious +difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus +was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were +sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any +Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. Too +many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + +In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, +and Cicero. + +Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for +life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a +complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and selfish, +weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people and of +his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would become +dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of the +state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, +forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, +unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. + +Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance +with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was +more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero +was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, +with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + +A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused +the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The +suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat +of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell +fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of +soldiers near Pistoria. + +The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the +vigilance shown in this affair. + +The execution of Lentulus and Cethegus resulted as Caesar had expected. +It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the Senate, and it +was felt that by it the constitution was still more endangered. The +people demanded that Pompey return. In him they thought to have a +deliverer from internal strifes. + +Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second +Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the +retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing +the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade +his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman citizens +without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the uproar Cicero +could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus threatened to +impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever heat. The Tribune +moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. The Senate feared his +coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), favored it, and earnestly +seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who was also Tribune, ordered +Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his manuscript from his +hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke up the meeting. +Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all sides. The Senate was +riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus and Caesar were declared +deposed from their offices. The people, however, believed in Caesar. He +was followed to his home by crowds, who begged him to be their leader, +and make an example of the law-breakers in the Senate. But Caesar +refused. He would have nothing to do with lawlessness; he let his +opponents play that _role_, and awaited the results. The Senate soon saw +its mistake, and requested him to resume his official duties. + +The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He +had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of +the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were held +by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed the +subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized the +government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. His +administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it +would, he hoped, be the consulship. + +Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium in +December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes +and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the +greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted to +wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + +Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. Though +feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the people, +and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army behind him. +He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend in all his +career. + +Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his +side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS +was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three +then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of +shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to +great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater +wealth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + + +Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in +return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus was +to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was elected +without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was Marcus +Bibulus. + +Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political +offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in +keeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself in +political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. Now +he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the +aristocracy of what stuff he was made. + +It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the +orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was too +vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his superiors, +and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would shine there +more, and be more likely to redound to his own personal fame. + +Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the +aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was bitterly +opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, and by +Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager publicus_, then +held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be distributed among the +veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the holders a reasonable sum +for their loss, though legally they had no claim whatever on the land. +Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, and the Tribunes vetoed, still +the Assembly passed the law, and voted in addition that the Senate be +obliged to take an oath to observe it. + +The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his +year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many +crimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining the +state. + +The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the +abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a +double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open for +inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + +When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the +reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. +He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work +would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year +(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could +rely, were elected. + +There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for +Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him bitterly. +Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only too willing +to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's good fortune, +or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, that both these men +were put temporarily out of the way. + +CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At +one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance to +the festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by women. He was +discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but acquitted by +means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in bringing him +to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted into a plebeian +family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, and was +successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person who had put +to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to the people be +considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal was carried. +All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to Macedonia. His +property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, and his palace in +the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + +The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, +had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. The +Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island was +ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + +Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the +Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. +He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were +satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to +increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the +city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in Caesar's +absence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. Caesar was now in the prime of +manhood, in the full vigor of mind and body. His previous experience in +camp life had been comparatively small. His early service in Asia, and +his more recent campaigns in Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for +military life. + +The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the +southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman +province, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which the +Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, and a +part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were all +of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine and +settled in the North, and the AQUITANI, who lived in the Southwest and +who are represented by the Basques of to-day. + +The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact +with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, like +the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, which were +mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into factions among +themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the factions were +frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes were the AEDUI +and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the protection of Rome; the +latter, impatient of control and Roman influence, had invited a tribe +of Germans under Ariovistus to come into Gaul and settle, and be their +allies. These Germans had attacked and conquered the Aeduans, taken from +them hostages, and with the Sequanians were in the ascendency. + +In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers +that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to +emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered +on those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through their +country. + +Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling that +the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through Gaul +would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he determined +to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near Autun, and after +a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, were defeated +with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one third, were treated +kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + +Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of +the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during +which the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came +together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the +drilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few of +the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + +The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into +winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labienus, the lieutenant of +Caesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as +administrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + + +THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + +While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labienus that the +BELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people occupied +the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, of which +the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIONES, and NERVII. The last +were the fiercest and least civilized. + +Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched against +the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach alarmed +the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they immediately put +themselves under his protection. From them he learned that the Belgae +could muster about 300,000 men. + +By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly +annihilated the Suessiones. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his +protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six +legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii and +their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the woods on +the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and so quick was +the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on their helmets, +to remove the covering from their shields, or to find their proper +places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they became almost +panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched a shield from +a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived their courage. The +Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But the enemy fought on +with a bravery that excited the admiration of Caesar. Of sixty thousand +men scarcely five hundred survived. The women and children were cared +for kindly by Caesar, and settled in their own territory. + +The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were +conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + +Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter +quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. In +his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + + +THE VENETI.--INVASION OF GERMANY. + +All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except +the VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and +lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, inducing +others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among them by +Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed against these +people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with villages built +on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. In a naval +engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet was +destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their +treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into +slavery. + +The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, +among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + +During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into +Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called +the SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and advanced +to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the invaders +twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration of the +time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, and two +men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that followed, +the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + +Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus to +inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his famous +bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, thinking his +object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the bridge behind him. + + +INVASION OF BRITAIN. + +It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by crossing +the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but little +resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country for a +short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near and the +weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters among the +Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + +During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, +as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all +preparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next +day landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leader +CASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. Many +thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + + +FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + +In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several +tribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburones was commanded +by the lieutenants, Gabinus and Cotta. News reached the encampment that +there was an uprisal of the Eburones. It was decided to break up camp, +and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest companions. +On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. Only a few +stragglers carried the news to Labienus, who was wintering with a legion +among the Remi. + +This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant +who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, +who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, +raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + +In 53 Caesar punished the Eburones for their action in the previous +winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, Ambiorix, +escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar again crossed +the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to Cisalpine Gaul, +supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was mistaken. The +patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The chiefs of all +the tribes secretly established communication with each other. A day was +settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman inhabitants of Genabum, +on the Liger, were massacred. The leading spirit in this last struggle +of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of the Averni. + +Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of crossing +the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his legions, marched +upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + +Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. +He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all the +towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum alone +was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods and +a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well defended +siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, excepting eight +hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. Large quantities +of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his soldiers. He then +marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. As the town was +on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he laid siege to it. A +part of the army, contrary to instructions, one day attempted to assault +the place. The battle which followed was disastrous to the Romans, and +the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. Forty-six officers and seven +hundred men fell. The siege was raised. It was a serious position for +Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. Retreating at once, he formed a junction +with Labienus at Agendicum, and with all his troops started for Gallia +Narbonensis to protect it from invasion. + +On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with +eighty thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill +and considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). +Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress been +invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of Gauls +that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and genius. +But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five times as +large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. + +Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs +and advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded +unconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into +slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. +Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and +afterwards died in a dungeon. + +With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically +completed. + +The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some +of the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the +Senate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces were +formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of these was +subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was introduced, +and Latin became the official language. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRASSUS. + + +During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great confusion +prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, which would +stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person and property. +Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had failed. There +were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the other by MILO. + +"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary period. +He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for speech; he +had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person which for the +moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years this man was the +leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, insult the Consuls, beat +the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang of armed slaves, killing +persons disagreeable to him; and in the Senate itself he had high +friends and connections, who threw a shield over him when his audacity +had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as disreputable as Clodius. His +chief fame had been gained in the schools of the gladiators. Gangs +of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, and there were constant +collisions between his retainers and those of Clodius. + +In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was +demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, led +by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties met +in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till Milo's +party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, and the +recall voted. + +For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard lot. +He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. Outside +the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were waiting to +receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and to rebuild +his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the public +expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted the +workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down the +walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + +At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long +struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a candidate +for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two meeting by +accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was murdered, 20 January, +52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, who was nominated sole +Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was evident, and he went into +exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an elaborate speech in his defence, +but did not dare to deliver it. + +During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar +renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were +held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, that +of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. + +CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was accompanied +by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in Gaul. They arrived +at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrates; and the Romans, seven +legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew themselves up along the +river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of ability, proposed to Crassus a +plan of the campaign, which consisted in following the river as far as +Seleucia, in order not to be separated from his fleet and provisions, +and to avoid being surrounded by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus +allowed himself to be deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the +sandy plains of Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + +The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed +upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted +a charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians yielded, +but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after great +deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was borne before +the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and despair, gave +the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave orders for a general +retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army to continual losses, and +Crassus himself was killed in a conference (53). + +In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand +Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as +slaves in the army of the Parthians. + +The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, +had sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married +Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus +Scipio. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + + +Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off +all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the +interests of the Senate and aristocracy. + +The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound impression +upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the northern +barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for himself +distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, or Pompey. +"He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province larger than +Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a nation of +warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The nobility had +watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were forced to vote a +thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made sixty." + +Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a +second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and on +this account would not disband his army; for, according to the custom, +he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, however, +he must disband it before he could offer himself as a candidate for the +consulship. But he asked permission to set aside this custom, and to +become a candidate while he was in the province in command of the army. + +The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been suspended +several times before this; so that Caesar's request was reasonable. His +enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he felt that, if he +returned as a private citizen, his personal safety would be in danger; +whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would be considered sacred. + +The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the +days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, was +to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a force in +Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a legion which had +been loaned him, and also should send another legion back to Italy. The +vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the troops were needed in +Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they reached Italy they were +placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The Consuls chosen for the +year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He had taken up his winter +quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his province bordering on Italy. +From here he sent a messenger with letters to the Senate, stating +that he was ready to resign his command, if Pompey did the same. The +messenger arrived at Rome, January 1, 49, on the day in which the new +Consuls entered upon their duties. + +The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited +discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his command. +The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, they were +compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + +When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called together +his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and my army +have served our country loyally and with some degree of success. We have +driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made Gaul a province; and +the Senate, for answer, has broken the constitution in setting aside the +Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It has voted the state in danger, and +has called Italy to arms, when no single act of mine can justify it in +this course." The soldiers became enthusiastic, and were eager to follow +their leader without pay. Contributions were offered him by both men and +officers. LABIENUS, his trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole +away, and joined Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across +the Alps. With these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and +marched to Ariminum. + +Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy had +imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would desert. +Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving wives, +children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to seek safety +with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the money from the +treasury, but left it locked. + +Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that +he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province +in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing +to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by +the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, +that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, +and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give +security that he would dismiss his army. + +These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. +Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains +to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancona, before +Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw open +their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers fled. +Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until when he +reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand troops. + +This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats +and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius +endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him over +to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its garrison +filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to Brundisium, +where ships were in readiness for them to depart. + +Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his arrival +outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had already +gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve thousand +troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused to see +Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, he was +unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. + +Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the +Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a +fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his +attention. + +In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way +to Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but +he preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and +assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius +Longinus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with +Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own forbearance +and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their violent suppression +of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still willing to send envoys to +treat with Pompey, but no one was found willing to go. After three days +spent in useless discussion, Caesar decided to act for himself. By +his own edict, he restored the children of the victims of Sulla's +proscription to their rights and property. The money in the treasury +was voted him by the Assembly of the people. He took as much of it as +he needed, and started at once for Gaul to join his troops on his way to +Spain. + +He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's +lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and +allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain supplies +of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To Sicily he sent +Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge of Sicily, +immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia received Caesar's +troops with open arms. + +Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of Massilia +had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius whom he had +sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the city, and, +leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued his journey to +Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly intrenched at ILERDA in +Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days he brought them to terms, +and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was eager to surrender. All Spain +was at his feet. + +Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans +to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. +He then set sail from Gades to Tarragona, where he joined his legions +and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to +surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was +allowed to escape a second time. + +Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived +at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. +Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not succeeded, +however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, and he had +lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been surprised and +killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato and Pompey's +followers. + +During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual course. +He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius Lepidus, +and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at Massilia, +when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him Dictator. +Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. Public +credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war began. +Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time estimates +were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the interest was +remitted and the principal declared still due. This measure relieved the +debtors somewhat. + +It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, +during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from +Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epirus. Here had gathered +many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial families +of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the renegade +Labienus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and auxiliaries, +amounting in all to 100,000 men. + +Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were +fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more than +15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all veterans, +inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man was devoted +to his leader. + +On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after +an uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards +Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and +intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country was +well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. + +Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his +remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and +many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself to +trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit out +a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When Antony +finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. Pompey's +forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full of danger; +but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him before +Pompey knew of his movements. + +The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of strongly +fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. He turned +the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as possible to +the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + +Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At +this point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were +surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them +to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, and +a few hundred soldiers were captured. + +This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was +exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically over; +and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected to +follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to recover +from the blow. + +The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey +followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused themselves +with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and Cicero +remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions of the +degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + +The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, +only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSALUS, +which gave name to the battle which followed. + +"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place +in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their +own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons +of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman +families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of the +political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present on +the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble multitude +whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of Pharsalia were +watered by the precious blood of the elect of the earth." + +For several days the armies watched each other without decisive action. +One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) Caesar noticed +a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected attack was +coming. + +The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing +rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey +himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken +from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the +cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. +His left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and +Cassius Longinus. + +At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw +their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's cavalry +charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back the +opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they advanced +flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held in +reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, appeared +in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians wavered, +turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw themselves +upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This wing, composed +of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to fight its former +comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. Pompey himself +mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the battle ended in a +rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while fifteen thousand of +the enemy lay dead on the field. + +The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians +had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to protect +their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were stretched out +ready for them to take repose after their expected victory, and tables +were spread with dainty food and wines on which to feast. As he saw +these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the men who accused my +suffering, patient army, which needed the common necessaries of life, +of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar could not delay. Leaving a +portion of his forces in camp, by rapid marching he cut off the retreat +of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand surrendered, all of whom were +pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at Corfinium and Massilia, was killed +trying to escape. Labienus, Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away +by night. Thus ended the battle of Pharsalia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + + +Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way +to the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few +companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mitylene, +and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young +PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 September, +48. + +Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. +"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the +surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to +have excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being +a first-class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more +especially in the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted +to what others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good +statesman, he had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose +a side and stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could +not but fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he +never used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." + +Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, set +sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought to +him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers now +saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his sister, +the famous CLEOPATRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants of +Alexandria revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a +handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire +to the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he +returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing +CLEOPATRA upon the throne (47). + +Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, +where PHARNACES, son of Mithradates, was inciting a revolt against Rome. +Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity rendered +proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I SAW, I CONQUERED. + +He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy +before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from +the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of the +citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the genius and +fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he had been made +Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + +Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He +insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property +respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months +prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, +but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected +privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain +promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open +revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. Caesar +collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state their +grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, citizens" +(_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had always addressed +them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was so keen, that a +reaction at once began, and they all begged to be received again into +his service. He accepted them, telling them that lands had been allotted +to each soldier out of the _ager publicus_, or out of his own estates. + +Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King +JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied +all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labienus, Afranius, +Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and Gnaeus Pompeius. + +Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen legions +of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon Sicily, +Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if captured, were +put to death without mercy. + +Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such cruelties. +He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, and charged +with currying favor of the Dictator. + +Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near +Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed +useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the +province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba to +give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also came +in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in councils of +war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits sent from Utica +by Cato. + +For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; +Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. +Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, +46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed +to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a +slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was intercepted +in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, but, finding +their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal combat; when +the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his own sword. +Labienus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to Spain. Afranius +was captured and executed. + +Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, and +committed suicide. + +Thus ended the African campaign. + +On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four +successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one +over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers with +liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. They +were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two thousand +tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three persons. +Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of wild beasts +and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + +Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of +forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another +was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to him +in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) of the +Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was appointed Dictator +for two years, and later for life. He received for three years the +office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint Senators, and to be +guardian of manners and morals. He had already been made Tribune +(48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In a word, he was king in +everything excepting name. + +Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the +REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been +so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months behind. +Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is still in +use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed Sosigenes, an +Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + +While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the Senate. +Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were expelled, and the +vacancies filled with persons of merit. + +Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of +Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus had +been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The soldiers +became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied with Roman +affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there in its +wanderings. Thus Labienus and Pompey's two sons managed to collect an +army as numerous as that which had been defeated at Thapsus. There were +thirteen legions in all. + +Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the +province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor +AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The +struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive +battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near +Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was on +the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it hand +to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so doubtful at +one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his horse, seized a +standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, Labienus was seen to +gallop across the field. It was thought he was fleeing. Panic seized his +troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand were slain, including three +thousand Roman Knights, and Labienus himself. + +Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a number +of years. + +Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, +when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians +(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and festivals, +which kept the populace in a fever of delight and admiration. + + +CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + +MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS (Footnote: Cato the Younger, called +UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.) (95-46) was the +great-grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the +old school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in +his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a fanatic, +who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any subject. As a +general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor genius for military +exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as Quaestor and Praetor; but +when candidate for the consulship he was defeated, because he declined +to win votes by bribery and other questionable methods then in vogue. + +QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of +the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was one +of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed Caesar. +He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a pliant tool +against the great conqueror. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. MURDER OF CAESAR. + + +Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had fought +against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, MARCUS +BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to nine +hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in +idleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. He +rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of +Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits were +marked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to be +carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were formed. +Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in Rome. The +harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from the Adriatic +to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to Mars was built, +and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of the Tarpeian +Rock. + +In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + +CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the +conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of +Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At +Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned +by Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew +and son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, and +also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, and +Brutus tyranny. + +These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men +who had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. +Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all +who knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking +the life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + +On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the +Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, headed +by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled brother; and +while the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping Caesar's hand, +kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to rise, Cimber dragged +his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was standing behind his +chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was struck, and the whole +pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius stabbed him in the face, and +Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made no further resistance; but, wrapping +his gown over his head and the lower part of his body, he fell at the +base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was drenched with the martyr's blood. + +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the crowd. +They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's toga, and +disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to be carried +to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral pile in the +Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in troops, broke +into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. Brutus and Cassius +fled from the city for their lives, followed by the other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a +pre-eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As +a historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + + +Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his +sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other +relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + +Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. +He went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, +Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a +large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's +writings and memoranda. + +Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and +showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome +was disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's +property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public +purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly out +of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the people. +He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn and winter +of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent Cicero, who +was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen PHILIPPICS,--so called +from their resemblance to the great orations of Demosthenes against +Philip. + +During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at +Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then appointed +Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the Senate, made +friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 November, 43) +the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to govern and reorganize +the state, and to hold office for five years. + +The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and +Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and Gallia +Cisalpina; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody prescription +followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was surrendered to please +Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + + +PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + +The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, +whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These two +had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to 80,000 +infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering various +towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, assembled their +forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. After marching +through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony and Octavius +opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 troops. There were +two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the first, Brutus defeated +Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, and, unaware of his +colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the second battle, three +weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united armies of the Triumvirs, +and, following the example of Cassius, put an end to his life. With +Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute ascendency of individuals, which +is monarchy, was then established. + +The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman +world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took +Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + +Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to +be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in +command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the +Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, exposed +the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to raise +a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by Pompey, but +later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in Sicily, the +rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, but was taken +prisoner at Miletus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, and put to +death. + +Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal share +in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. But his +soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to surrender +to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his power and +provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but ceased to be a +factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all rivals, Octavius +and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking the West, the latter +the East. + +Antony now repaired to Alexandria, and surrendered himself to the +fascinations of the famous Cleopatra. He assumed the habits and dress of +an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his friends +and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, and finally +divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, disregarding +his good name and the wishes of his friends. Thus gradually he became +more and more estranged from Octavius, until finally the rupture +resulted in open war. + +The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in Greece, +September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the East a +large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by that +of Cleopatra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but Cleopatra +insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of Octavius was +commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea-fight off +Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still undecided, when +Cleopatra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels hastened to leave the +line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, however, continued until +his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his army, after a few days' +hesitation, surrendered. + +Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter in +Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was occupied +in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to satisfy the +demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At length he +turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the key of +the country, he marched upon Alexandria. Antony, despairing of success, +committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopatra. The queen, +disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his example, +and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her two faithful +attendants also dead at her feet. + +Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital +to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled +disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He +arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. The +gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and had +been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once between +the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at peace with +all the world. + + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + +CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the +dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by +nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, +and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not +sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to play +a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. Thus it +happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and repelled, +deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of his +adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between which he +tried to steer his course. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + + +After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the +precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but he +allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give him +that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. In +this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next the +Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the authority of +Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, and to restore +to this body something of its ancient respectability. By judicious +pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and required a property +qualification for membership. He placed himself at its head as PRINCEPS +(prince), a title which implied that the Emperor was the _first_ +citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, thus lulling any +suspicions of the populace. + +The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had +jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. +It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), +and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + +The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it +made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), and +Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of sitting +in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular Consuls, of +course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, he was made +Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + +Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was +practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all +voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, +however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 A. +D.). + +As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as +Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself +resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee them. +The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by Proconsuls +appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, Africa, +Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, and Gallia +Narbonensis. + +The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was +assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, a +second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body +guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These Praefects +soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through them Augustus +reigned supreme. + +The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on +the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper +Euphrates) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and +west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, +and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign +Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the +territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + +Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory +between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy +mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two +step-sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. +They were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new +provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + +Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the province +of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + +Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a +campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished the +conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, B.C.), +and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his work. + +Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in Germany. +His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had two sons, +Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards Emperor. + +In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired +territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently +conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, they +rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful chief. + +Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the +Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. After +three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his way +through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the enemy +in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus killed +himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became again the +Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and the Emperor +is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, give me back my +legions!" + +Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he asked +his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of life. + +Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 +B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her +beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married +three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by +whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She +was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. + +OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and +accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her +son MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). +The famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. +869-887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to +tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. + +After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark +Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the +ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + +AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend and +counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the fleet +of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, and had +three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died before him; +the third was murdered by Tiberius. + +Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in +his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold and +ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather in +the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by fortune, +than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the will. +His success depended on the temper of the people and the peculiar +circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is found in +the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live in peace +for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one will, and +the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the legitimate +result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He formed his +empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the future. Thus it +would seem that the part he played was that of a shrewd politician, +rather than that of a wise statesman. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + + +In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose +names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the AUGUSTAN +AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. Virgil, +Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign a +brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than diminished +by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, and that of +Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong to an epoch +in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which pertains to the +arts of peace. + +In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. Born +at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona and +Mediolanum. After completing his education he retired to his paternal +estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the battle of +Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was subsequently +restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, partly in +Campania. His health was never good, and he died in his fifty-second +year (22 September, 19 B. C.). + +Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly +imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone +inspiring and elevating. + +In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, +a faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal +interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and +difficulties of practical life. + +In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage +gave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the friendship +of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was Horace, who +entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which was established +in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an inheritance in +which every Roman had a share; and his works became school-books even +before the death of Augustus, and have continued such ever since. + +HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at +Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where he +fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his _Satires_. +These he read to his friends, and their merit was at once recognized. +His great patron was MAECENAS, who introduced him to the Emperor, and +gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the Sabine Mountains. +He died the same year as his patron, and was buried beside him at the +Esquiline Gate. + +The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in +the Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and felicity +of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read and quoted +more than those of any other ancient writer. + +OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil +and Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for +narration. + +"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, +partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of +nature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations of +this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other +poets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character +and rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished by +Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing verses +were written during this period. + +One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECENAS, the +warm friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the +literature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his +magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He helped +both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter is +constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) childless, +and left his fortune to Augustus. + +The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and +Nepos. + +LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man of +rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The historical +value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of the scarcity, +and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical documents on the +times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and always interesting. +His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with that of Caesar. Only +thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two books that he wrote are +preserved. + +NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, +_De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither accurate nor +interesting, and of little value. + +SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of +Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. +He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to be +obscure. + +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments of +this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican institutions, +a man of great independence of character, and a poet of no mean merit, +as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of his writings are +preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two that +had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of justice +(_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The most famous +of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar and finished +by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north of the great +Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, finished by the +Emperor of that name. + +The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was the +PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. Here are +buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a mausoleum +for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--the first stone +theatre of Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + + +Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. +C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained a +divorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + +Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, +and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in +Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his +campaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 B. +C., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the dissolute +daughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of Tiberius, +developing everything that was bad in his character, and making him +jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. + +Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to +Rhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's +influence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards +appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the age of +fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and ambitions were +locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said but once to have +taken counsel with his officers. He was a master of dissimulation, and +on this account an object of dislike and suspicion. But until his +later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, penetrating all +disguises. + +Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at +large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which had +been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were made. +First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in small +bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the walls. By +this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, the old +COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was treated with +great deference. + +Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, +that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, +governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread of +punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in public +expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his reign on +the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + +Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the +slightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but it +is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was +effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one +who had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the application +of this offence even to words or conduct which could in any way be +considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of informers +(_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered unsafe. +The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially prominent by +ancient historians; but their statements are beginning to be taken with +much allowance. + +After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a fainting +fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + +LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. She +exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. She +had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She managed +to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of Augustus, +until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the palace with +Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the Empress, and her son +feared and hated her. She survived Augustus fifteen years, and died in +29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her death-bed, and was not present +at her funeral. + +SEJANUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was +trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He +persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her +husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry +her. He so maligned Agrippina, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of +Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and +Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of Capreae, +and he himself became the real master of Rome. + +Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejanus was arrested +and executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in +pieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + + +CALIGULA (37-41). + +Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son +of Germanicus and Agrippina, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of +Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nickname given +him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five years +of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject to +fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, and +confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and is said +to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one neck, that +he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond of adulation, +and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise of a god, +and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was enough. He was +murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + + +THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +CLAUDIUS (41-54). + + +A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of +government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the +Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + +Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was a +man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his +two wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALINA, was so +notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. His +second wife, his niece AGRIPPINA, sister of Caligula, was nearly as bad. +This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom she induced +the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless wife then +caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be proclaimed Emperor. + +At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In +the government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He undertook +the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days he laid the +foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about forty years +later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a Roman province +for four hundred years, but the people never assimilated Roman customs, +as did the Gauls, and when the Roman garrisons were withdrawn, they +quickly returned to their former condition. However, many remains of +Roman buildings in the island show that it was for the time well under +subjection. + +The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a new +harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct called +the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to this day. +He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by draining the +Fucine Lake. + + +NERO (54-68). + +NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or three +years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the author, and +BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his government +was during this period the most respectable of any since the time of +Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and removed from +the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an unscrupulous +woman, POPPAEA SABINA, for whom he neglected and finally killed his +wife, Octavia. + +It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this +time. A freedman, TIGELLINUS, became his adviser, and was the real ruler +of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and wickedness. +Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; Burrhus was +disposed of; Agrippina, and Britannicus, the true heir to the throne, +were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the feelings of his +subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The Emperor appeared in +public, contending first as a musician, and afterwards in the sports of +the circus. + +The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the city, +was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the stories of +his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure fictions. It +was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so the CHRISTIANS, +then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer people, were accused +of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They were often enclosed in +fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. + +In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence +of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding +alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard +stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply was +also carefully regulated. + +In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the +magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. Its +walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of art +from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, +lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of Nero +himself, one hundred and ten feet high. + +Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were +implicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life +after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he +conducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, +and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither +Spain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. +Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the +insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned +him to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June 9, +68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, his +name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him ended +the Claudian line of Emperors. + +LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, +of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a +teacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca +began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable +reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later he +was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. He +was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he shared +the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His influence +over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often maintained by +doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike him, and when +Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's command he committed +suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, he discoursed with his +friends on the brevity of life till death ensued. + +Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral +essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of the +last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + + +GALBA (68-69).--OTHO (69).--VITELLIUS (69). + +GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on +account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and was +murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached Rome. +He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was sincerely +regretted by the better element in the city. + +OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection +against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his +accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the Rhine, +revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and committed +suicide after a reign of three months. + +VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and +incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during which +he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + +VESPASIAN (69-79). + + +The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the +soldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea +proclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIANUS. He +left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at +Rome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the course +of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, rebuilding +also a large part of the city. + +In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and +extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the +general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper +members, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he +put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus returned +from the capture of Jerusalem, (Footnote: Jerusalem was taken in +70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have been +graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Josephus, who was present +in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold +into slavery.) they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was +closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. + +Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A +new Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous +COLOSSEUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of +Nero, which had stood near by. + +On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, frugal +and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was marked by +peace and general prosperity. + +One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum +Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. +Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, +which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, +increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their +civilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. His +life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + + +TITUS (79-81). + +Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of +his father. He finished the Colosseum, begun by Vespasian, and built a +triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, +called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via +Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred +candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + +It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed by +an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, the +most noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, the only +one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a true student. +His passion for investigation led him to approach too near the volcano, +and caused his death. + + +DOMITIAN (81-96). + +DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate, +and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, during +which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his crimes +and inconsistencies. + +In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added to +the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden and +Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the Rhine +to Ratisbon on the Danube. + +With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the +last of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the historian +Suetonius. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + +NERVA (96-98). + + +NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the first +Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or influence. +He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in command of +the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but during that +time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring happiness and +prosperity upon every class. + + +TRAJAN (98-117). + +Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty +in the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long +afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was +that he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." +Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful +life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. + +He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube +and the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became +so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is +founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. +It was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF +TRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. + +Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an +important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, +however, resulted in no permanent advantage. + +During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS +POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the +financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free peasantry, +until in the next century they were reduced to a condition of practical +serfdom. + +The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the Augustan +age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose writers +were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior to its +poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE YOUNGER, +and QUINTILIAN. + +The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and +STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + + +HADRIAN (117-138). + +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. +One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent conquests +of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. The reasons +for this were that they had reached the utmost limits which could lend +strength to the power of Rome, or be held in subjection without +constant and expensive military operations. The people occupying the +new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered over a country easy of +defence, and certain to strive constantly against a foreign yoke. + +Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, +to overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited +Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a +fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea to +sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, corresponding +nearly to the modern boundary between England and Scotland. He also +visited the East, where the Jews were making serious trouble, and +completed their overthrow. + +On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its adornment. +Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. The most +famous of these is the MAUSOLEUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known as the +Castle of San Angelo. + +Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases +from which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure +a proper succession, he associated with himself in the government TITUS +AURELIUS ANTONINUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius Verus and +Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, Hadrian +died, leaving the Empire to Titus. + + +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS PIUS (138-161). + +ANTONINUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded +to the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate on +account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. +He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the +affairs of state moved smoothly. + + +MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONINUS (161-180). + +On the death of Antoninus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the +title of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. + +The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into +Gaul; the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the +Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, however, +ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by ceding +Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a +pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The Christians +were charged with being the cause of the plague, and were cruelly +persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and Polycarp +at Smyrna. + +The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague who +attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The Emperor +was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have become his +greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was scarcely less +unhappy. + +The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. +Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability +even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was +engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring +to check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the +fifty-ninth year of his life (180). + +Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought +with money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked +the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + +Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were +quiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His +faults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His +_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes and +thoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his death, +Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. + + +THE CHRISTIANS. + +The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were +persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for +these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse +to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had flourished. +It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the Emperor's statue, +as an act of adoration. The Christians not only refused homage to +the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense as sacrilegious. +AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general persecution this sect +had yet suffered. The last combined effort to suppress them was under +DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which +famous decree gave the imperial license to the religion of Christ. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.--DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +COMMODUS (180-192). + + +On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was +received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His +character was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and +vindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of +unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid himself +of the best members of the Senate. His government became so corrupt, +he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. His proudest +boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of his ability to +kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign of twelve years +his servants rid the Empire of his presence. + + +PERTINAX (192-193). + +PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, +followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it +was not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted +reforms were stopped by his murder. + + +JULIANUS (193).--SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + +The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who proved +to be DIDIUS JULIANUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a thousand +dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in number. After +enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and executed. + +In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their +respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, an African, +belonging to the army of the Danube. + +Severus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished them +from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand legionaries, who +acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in command of this +guard was made to rank next to himself, with legislative, judicial, and +financial powers. The Senate he reduced to a nonentity. + +After securing the capital, Severus carried on a campaign against the +Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and Arabia. +In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a magnificent +arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died at Eboracum +(York), in Britain, while making preparations for a campaign against the +Caledonians. + + +CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + +Severus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in +the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the +elder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence +of their mother. + +Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) he +was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous +baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. +Caracalla was succeeded by MACRINUS, who reigned but one year, and +was followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a +true Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of his +predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. + + +FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + +ALEXANDER SEVERUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored +in vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become +all powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign +(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + +Severus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for three +years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + +GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers +in his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249-251) +both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the +Christians severer than any that preceded it. + +The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. +Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The +Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of +territory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is +often called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered strength +of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); TACITUS +(275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian undertook a +campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMYRA. In her he found +a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered more brilliant by +her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she fortified herself +in Palmyra, which was taken after a siege and destroyed. Zenobia was +carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph of her conqueror, but was +afterwards permitted to live in retirement. Aurelian was the first who +built the walls of Rome in their present position. + + +DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + +With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of +government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost +the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more +united country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself +MAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing +a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS and +CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of the East, +and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he crushed all +revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and imposed peace +and good order upon the world. + +Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two +Caesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn appointed +Caesars as assistants. + +Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE was +proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle +followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and +was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + + +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + +Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which +should be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering +the greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea +and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while +as a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in the least +shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the city was +built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of government +was permanently removed thither, and every inducement was offered to +immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to drag out a +miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome had fallen a +prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign of thirty years, +in his sixty-fourth year (337). + +Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with +which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, +HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this +mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had kept +on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite influential +body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was issued, in +313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; and also in +this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), met to settle +questions of creed. + +In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all +warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient and +prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition alone +led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy marked his +course after his success. He was filial in his affection towards his +mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put to death +his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. If he was +great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. + + +DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., +CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves +(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the +possession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death +of the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, +because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while Constans +was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. Constans was +murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He died ten years +later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360-363) + +JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and +respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus +gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, had +too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being shaken. The +failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. After a reign +of three years, he was killed in an expedition against the Persians. His +successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the army, died after a +reign of only seven months. + +VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the throne +was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his +brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with +Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN +the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her +ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever +visited the city during his reign. (Footnote: Since the building of +Constantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be +mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a provincial +city.) He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son GRATIAN +(375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under him +Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a battle +against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and Western +Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make himself sole +ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. Gratian, like +so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His successors, MAXIMUS +(383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS (392-394), were +either deposed or assassinated, and again there was, for a short time, +one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom Gratian had made Emperor +of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year (394-395). On his death +his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS (395-423) taking the West, and +Arcadius the East. + +Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed +under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by +marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven +from the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was +suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate +to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he was +wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was besieged, +captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When this evil was +past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of the Empire, each +eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so obviously crumbling +to pieces. + +Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the imperial +line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a relic of its +former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically lost; Illyria +and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa was soon after +seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in the possession +of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld the Roman name, +winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. He was assassinated +by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in 455, the Emperor +himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who succeeded him, but for +only three months, when AVITUS (455-456), a noble of Gaul, became +Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a Sueve, of considerable +ability, who for some time managed the affairs of the Empire, making +and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the removal of Avitus, ten +months were allowed to elapse before a successor was appointed; and then +the crown was bestowed upon MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVERUS followed him, a +man too weak to interfere with the plans of Ricimer. + +After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the +people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who +attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of Ricimer; +but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a horde of +barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and sacked Rome, +and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself died. + +Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid +succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the +office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of the +DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOACER, with the title of Patrician. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII. INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + + +The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a +separate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, +because by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; and +especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive +conception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces the +Roman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. + +The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western +Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they +moved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and +defeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the +Danube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + +The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern +Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were +the more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged to +submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in overrunning +the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the hideous +appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the Danube, and +besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and take refuge in +their territory. The favor was granted, but the refugees were treated +with indignity, and compelled to undergo every privation. + +Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also +desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized +shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They found +the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that they united +with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent against them, and +ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in person, and was +defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and westward into Greece, +everywhere pillaging the country. + +When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong +points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment +for an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete +victory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the +first chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a +close. + +We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, +ALARIC and STILICHO. + +Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year +the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens was +compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken and +plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual resistance. At +this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, hastened to the +scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but Alaric burst through +his lines and escaped. He then made peace with Constantinople, and the +office of Master-General of Illyricum was bestowed upon him. How sincere +the barbarian was in his offers of peace may be seen from the fact that +in two years he invaded Italy (400). + +Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that even +the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear of the +approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for himself, +leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from Britain, Gaul, +and the other provinces far and near, leaving their places vacant +and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape to Gaul, was +surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified town of Asta, +was there besieged until the arrival of the brave Stilicho, who attacked +the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly routed them. In his +retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he was again defeated, +and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. Honorius returned home +(404), and enjoyed a triumph. + +Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from the +Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + +The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of Germany +who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, Vandals, and +Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these tribes invaded +Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were met near Florence +by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus himself was killed. +The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, ravaged the lower +portion of the country, and finally separated. One portion, the +Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their descendants comes +the name of Burgundy. + +The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they +established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of +the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves +settled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. +The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to +Africa, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at +one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome itself. + +Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, no +longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting for +the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + +With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, +Alaric again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into +submission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally peace +was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon returned. +The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries became the +second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + +The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to ravage +the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were almost +spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after his army +marched into France, where they established a kingdom reaching from the +Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + +The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the +Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to +enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves +firmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the +name of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + +Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder +appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + +The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The +portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark +of his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, small +deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a beard, +broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength though +disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an army of +over half a million troops. + +At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to +interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an +invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of an +ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy from the +west, was too favorable to be neglected. + +A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing +this, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever cities +lay in their route. + +The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met the +Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in 451, was +fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of Western Europe. +Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the Romans; and a charge +of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of the savages. Aetius did +not push his victory, but allowed the Huns to retreat in the direction +of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, captured, and rased to the +ground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole country, sparing only those +who preserved their lives by the surrender of their wealth. + +It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, who +fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the lagoons +at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + +Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, and +with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The VANDALS, we +have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were now ruled by +GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were continually +ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their fleets. + +Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the widow +of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in revenge +sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once set sail +for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into his hands +on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, 455), and for +fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. Genseric then left +Rome, taking with him Eudoxia. + +This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years +elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. ROMAN LITERATURE. + +PLAUTUS (254-184). + + +PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. Born +at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on the stage +at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some time he +worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by translating Greek +comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come down to us. They are +lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a mixture of Greek and Roman +life. + + +TERENCE (195-159). + +TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early +age as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and +liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of Plautus, +they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same general +character. + + +ENNIUS (139-69). + +QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the +Younger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, the +_Annales_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the arrival of +Aeneas to the poet's own day. + + +CICERO (106-43). + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpinum, ranks as the first prose +writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy natural +talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively imagination, his +great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of expression, which was +never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any circumstances or mood, +his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and impressive figure, all +contributed to render him a powerful speaker. He himself left nothing +undone to attain perfection. Not until he had spent a long time in +laborious study and preparation did he make his _debut_ as an orator; +nor did he ever rest and think himself perfect, but, always working, +made the most careful preparation for every case. Each success was to +him only a step to another still higher achievement; and by continual +meditation and study he kept himself fully equipped for his task. Hence +he succeeded, as is universally admitted, in gaining a place beside +Demosthenes, or at all events second only to him. + +There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of twenty +more. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his proscription +by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa at Formiae, in +December, 43. + +His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de Claris +Oratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover of +philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most +read are _De Senectute, De Amicitia,_ and _De Officiis_. + +Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they +furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + + +CAESAR (100-44). + +Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his _Commentarii_, +containing the history of the first seven years of the Gallic war, and +the history of the civil strife down to the Alexandrine war. The account +of his last year in Gaul was written probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of +the Alexandrine, African, and Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an +orator, Caesar ranks next to Cicero. + + +NEPOS (94-24). + +CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both +Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De Viris +Illustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor good +style. + + +LUCRETIUS (98-55). + +TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum Natura_. The +tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + + +CATULLUS (87-47). + +GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Verona, is the greatest lyric poet of Roman +literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + + +VIRGIL (70-19). + +The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aeneis_, in twelve books, +gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aeneas, and his +struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised when Virgil +died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + +Besides the _Aeneis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten Eclogues imitated +and partially translated from the Greek poet Theocritus. The _Georgica_, +a poem of four books on agriculture in its different branches, is +considered his most finished work, and the most perfect production of +Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + + +HORACE (65-8). + +QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two of +Satires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page 180.) + + +TIBULLUS (54-29). + +ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems +the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + + +PROPERTIUS (49-15). + +SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and +wrote mostly on love. + + +OVID (43 B.C.--18 A.D.) + +PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of _Heroides_; +the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the _Metamorphoses_ (fifteen +books); the _Tristia_; and the _Fasti_. (See page 181.) + + +LIVY (59 B.C.--17 A.D.). + +TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have +been preserved. (See page 181.) + + +PHAEDRUS. + +PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius +(14-37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in +number, and are written in iambic verse. + + +SENECA (8 B.C.--65 A.D.) + +For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, page +189. + + +CURTIUS. + +QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of Claudius +(50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander the Great. + + +PERSIUS (34-62). + +PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He +wrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + + +LUCAN (39-65). + +LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called +_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + + +PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + +GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in +history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on _Natural +History_ has come down to us. + + +STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. STATIUS (45-96), a native of +Naples, had considerable poetical talent. He wrote the _Thebaid_, the +_Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the _Silvae_. + +MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen books +are extant. He was a native of Spain. + +QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of +eloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of an +Orator_, is preserved. + +JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquinum, was a great satirist, who described and +attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires are +still in existence. + +TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his age. +His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a high +tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He wrote,-- + +1. A dialogue on orators. 2. A biography of his father-in-law, Agricola. +3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. 4. A history of +the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian (_Historiae_). +5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + + +PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of +Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books +of his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting +vivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent +and smooth. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. ROMAN ROADS.--PROVINCES. + + +The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen +to fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, +placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large polygonal +blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so as to make +an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths strewn +with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at regular +distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. + +There were four main public roads:-- + +1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and Brundisium. + +2. VIA LATINA, from Rome to Aquinum and Teanum, joining the Via Appia at +Beneventum. + +3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum and +Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main line at +Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and Nuceria, where +it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortunae on the Adriatic, +the other to Ancona, and from there along the coast to Fanum Fortunae, +where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to Ariminum through +Pisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name of VIA AEMILIA, +into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, Mutina, Parma, and +Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolanum. + +4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at Alsium, +following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by Genua, as far +as Forum Julii, in Gaul. + + +PROVINCES. + +After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were +divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first +Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards +persons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration +of their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls also, +at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern provinces, +with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called _Provinciae +Consulares_. The provinces were generally distributed by lot, but their +distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement among those entitled +to them. The tenure of office was usually a year, but it was frequently +prolonged. When a new governor arrived in the province, his predecessor +was expected to leave within thirty days. + +The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the +financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was obliged +to account at Rome for his administration, from his own books and those +of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to deposit two +copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his province, and to +forward a third to Rome. + +If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his official +duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the Senate, and to +influential Romans who were their patrons. + +The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain +contributions from the people of the province for the support of himself +and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, notary, +lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme in +military and civil matters, and he could not be removed from office. But +after his term had ended, he could be tried for mismanagement. + +Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast +sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these +was Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + +At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; viz. +Sicilia (227 (Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the date +at which the province was established.)), Sardinia and Corsica (227), +Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum (167), +Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia Citerior +(80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), Bithynia and +Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), Numidia (46), and +Mauritania (46). + +Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, Noricum, +Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, Galatia, +Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and Assyria. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV. + +(Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered in +different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it into +one chapter for readier reference.) + + +ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + +The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or higher, +and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the Censor, had the +_Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former class belonged the +Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all elected in the Comitia +Centuriata. The magistrates were also divided into two other classes, +viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices were those of Dictator, +Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and Curule Aedile. These +officers had the right to sit in the _sella curulis_, chair of state. +This chair was displayed upon all public occasions, especially in +the circus and theatre; and it was the seat of the Praetor when he +administered justice. In shape it was plain, resembling a common folding +camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was ornamented with ivory, and later +overlaid with gold. + +The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, +and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral +processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other +deceased members of the family of curule rank. + +A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never +held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most famous +new men were Marius and Cicero. + +The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early +republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. The +plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian Aediles and +the Tribuni Plebis. + +All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and +all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on January +1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the Quaestor, +December 5th. + +The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which +one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for holding +each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the aedileship, +thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the consulship, +forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only the wealthy +could afford to hold office. + + +THE CONSULS. + +The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator was +appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power was +equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the Senate +and the Comitia Centuriata, in each of which they presided. "When both +Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in performing the +official duties, each acting a month; and during this time the Consul +was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, who preceded him in +single file, each carrying on his shoulders a bundle of rods (_fasces_), +to signify the power of the magistrate to scourge criminals. Outside the +city, these fasces showed an axe projecting from each bundle, signifying +the power of the magistrate to behead criminals." + +At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern a +province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He was chief +in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + + +PRAETORS. + +There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice +(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, +as _Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor was +called _Praetor Urbanus_. He had charge of all civil suits between Roman +citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, he acted in +their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in the city, and +by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrinus_ had charge of civil cases in +which one or both parties were aliens. The other six Praetors presided +over the permanent criminal courts. + + +AEDILES. + +The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of +the police of the city, and the care of the public games and buildings. +Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, called Curule +Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might be patricians. +They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their supervision of the +public games gave them great opportunities for gaining favor with the +populace, who then, as now, delighted in circuses and contests. A small +sum was appropriated from the public treasury for these games; but +an Aedile usually expended much from his own purse to make the show +magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the next office, that of +Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to hold this office. + + +QUAESTORS. + +There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having +charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different +governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their +clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, +and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor +always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his +quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia +Tributa. + + +TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + +There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tributa. They were +always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any +decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of +a magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could +hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty +of death. They called together the Comitia Tributa, and they also had +authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla succeeded +in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The Tribunes did not +possess the _imperium_. + + +CENSORS. + +There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office for +eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this period +being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates without +possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were: + +(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of +property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. (2) To have a general +oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of the Treasury; to +contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for the making or +repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the privilege of +collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest bidder.(Footnote: +In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under (2) fell to the +Aediles. ) (3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty +parties from the Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. + + +DICTATOR. + +In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint +a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of +office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were +not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was +thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but +changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. + + +MAGISTER EQUITUM. + +This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in +authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + + +PONTIFICES. + +The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at the head +of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure of office +was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the discharge of +their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + + +IMPERIUM. + +This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial +functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) +by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiata. The _Imperium_ could +be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), except +by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of celebrating a +triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was called IMPERATOR. + + +POTESTAS. + +This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates possessed. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + + +The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the +conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many +houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, +paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are +said to have cost as much as two million dollars. + +The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, _Ostium_, +_Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablinum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. The +VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, and open +on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in general to our +front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which was a large +room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which the +rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the +opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the +ALAE, and the TABLINUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages +from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. +The PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court +surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was +somewhat larger than the Atrium. + +The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were +lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either +bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, +gold, and frescoing. + +The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their +light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The +windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until the +time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered with +lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally used, in +which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the smoke passed +out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + +The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls +were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In +the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors +ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive rugs +from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained likely to +add to the attractiveness of the room. + +Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, +which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat +on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more round +holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were suspended +by chains from the ceiling. + + +MEALS. + +The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our +breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four +o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium +was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between +three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course +consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, which +was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with condiments; +the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, and cakes. + +At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and full +dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil the +couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who +reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported by +pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was +served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the +dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to +change with every course. + + +DRESS.--BATHING. + +The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The former +was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a long +tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The tunic +was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly a Roman +garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was also +the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was worn by +soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly semicircular, but +being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in later times to wear it +only on state occasions. The poor wore only the tunic, others wore, in +place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an open cloak, fastened to the +right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until about sixteen, wore a toga with +a purple hem. + +The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose garment, +gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce extending to +the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the whole figure, +and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their fancy for +ornaments as freely as their purses would allow. + +Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The +former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter +were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The poor +used wooden shoes. + +Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, with +elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, and vapor +baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places of popular +resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, with seats +for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before dinner. Upon +leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body with oil. + + +FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + +The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants +of Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts +of civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, +corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted +seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, +the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were +relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to +pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. + +The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, +was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient +festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were +said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of +Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their tenure +of office is not known. On the day of the festival these priests met at +the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a meal, with +plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats which they had +sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of their bodies, and +with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in their hands, ran +through the streets of Rome, striking with them all whom they met, +especially women, as it was believed this would render them fruitful. + +The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirinus +(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + +Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and +other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first +exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; +but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men of +rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement increased +to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in schools +(_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. The person who gave +an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published (_edere_), some time +before the show, a list of the combatants. In the show the fights began +with wooden swords, but at the sound of the trumpet these were exchanged +for steel weapons. When a combatant was wounded, if the spectators +wished him spared, they held their thumbs down, but turned them up if +they wanted him killed. Gladiators who had served a long time, were +often discharged and presented with a wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they +were called _rudiarii_. + + +THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + +The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, +combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of an +ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word Amphitheatre +was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. Augustus built +one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most celebrated amphitheatre +was built by Vespasian and Titus, and dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still +standing, though partly in ruins, covers nearly six acres, and could +seat ninety thousand people. The name given to it to-day is the +COLOSSEUM. The open space in the centre was called the ARENA, and was +surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet high to protect the spectators +from the wild beasts. Before the time of Caesar the shows were held in +the Forum and in the Circus. + +The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. The +plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden stages. The +first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near the Campus +Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of forty +thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at present, +the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other distinguished +persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the Equites, and behind +these sat the ordinary crowd. + +The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built +for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense +structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called +Euripus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the +centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, +brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six kinds +of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight between +young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and cavalry; +4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild beasts, such +as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let into the canal +to float ships. The combatants were captives, or criminals condemned +to death, who fought until one party was killed, unless saved by the +kindness of the Emperor. + + +A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + +The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was +sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had been +Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever entered +the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved one. When +a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all thrown open, +garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and incense smoked +on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal car and entered a +city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the Senate, headed by +the magistrates. + +The procession then proceeded in the following order:-- + +1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. +Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of +flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and +rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia +of the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with +their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator +in single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator +himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in +a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough in +his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled with a +laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the Imperator. 12. +The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with laurel. + +The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the +city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a +purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep +(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a triumph. + + +POMOERIUM. + +The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no +person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not always +run parallel to the city walls. + + +NAMES. + +Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), as +Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as Cornelius, +Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognomen_), as Scipio, Cicero, +Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, the _agnomen_, given +for some exploit, or to show that the person was adopted from some +other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called AFRICANUS, and all his +descendants had the right to the name. Africanus the younger was adopted +from the Cornelian gens into the Aemilian gens; therefore he added to +his other names AEMILIANUS. + +The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of +Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from +others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of Scipio. +If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the eldest was +added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ (second), etc. + + +MARRIAGE. + +Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was +forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such +marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, to +marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was given, +the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. The +wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the Kalends, +Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or February. The +bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal veil, and shoes +of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the evening to her future +husband's home by three boys, one of whom carried before her a torch, +the other two supporting her by the arm. They were accompanied by +friends of both parties. The groom received the bride at the door, which +she entered with distaff and spindle in hand. The keys of the house were +then delivered to her. The day ended with a feast given by the husband, +after which the bride was conducted to the bridal couch, in the atrium, +which was adorned with flowers. On the following day another feast was +given by the husband, and the wife performed certain religious rites. + +The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from +that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her +children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and shared +the honors and respect shown to her husband. + + +FUNERALS. + +When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present +endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was removed +from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his eyes and +mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon the deceased +by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, and anointed +with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small coin was placed +in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) in Hades, and the +body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with its feet toward the +door. In early times all funerals were held at night; but in later times +only the poor followed this custom, mainly because they could not afford +display. The funeral, held the ninth day after the death, was headed by +musicians playing mournful strains, and mourning women hired to lament +and sing the funeral song. These were sometimes followed by players and +buffoons, one of whom represented the character of the deceased, and +imitated his words and actions. Then came the slaves whom the deceased +had liberated, each wearing the cap of liberty. Before the body were +carried the images of the dead and of his ancestors, and also the crown +and military rewards which he had gained. The couch on which the body +was carried was sometimes made of ivory, and covered with gold and +purple. Following it were the relatives in mourning, often uttering loud +lamentations, the women beating their breasts and tearing their hair. + +The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, +and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was delivered. +From here the body was carried to its place of burial, which must be +outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in the later times +of the Republic this became quite common. + + +EDUCATION. + +In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, +writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a +taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_) +were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and to +teach them to converse in Greek. + +A full course of instruction included the elementary branches mentioned +above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and Latin writers, +besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some well known +professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + + +BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING. + +The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind +of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often +used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form +one sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from +_volvere_, to roll). + +Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were usually +written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a pencil in size +and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with wax, and folded +together with the writing on the inside. The slips were tied together +by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and stamped with a +signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment with ink. Special +messengers were employed to carry letters, as there was no regular mail +service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly in the opening and +close. The writer always began by sending "greeting" to the person +addressed, and closed with a simple "farewell," without any signature. +Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. = sends greeting) would be the usual +opening of a letter from Cicero to Pompey. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + + +_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the +Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirinal, the Viminal, and +the Coelian. + +There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). Some +were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned with +porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum Romanum_, or simply +_The Forum_. There were also the _Forum Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajani_. +Some served as markets; as _Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum +Suarium_, the hog market, etc. + +Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), built +by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It was +situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now used as +a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatinus, built by Augustus, +was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was founded by +Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the Tiber; that +of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was dedicated in +377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus was an arched +passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open during war. Up +to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three times, once in +Numa's reign, again at the close of the battle of Actium. Janus was +one of the oldest Latin divinities, and was represented with a face in +front and another on the back of his head. From him is named the month +of January. + +(Illustration: ROME AND ENVIR.) + +There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was that +of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolinus, built during the dynasty of +the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) There were also +numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other deities. + +The COLOSSEUM was the largest building in Rome. + +There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of Balbus; +and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus Maximus. + +The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important +was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, which +was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations of +which can still be seen. + +The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty curiae +had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were discussed public +questions pertaining to politics, finance, or religion. + +The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of Nero, +of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which still +exist. + +Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by +fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three of +which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built about +313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + +SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense +size. The CLOACA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is still +in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + +There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now +remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of +Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine Hill, +built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas-reliefs +on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at Jerusalem, +carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS, built +by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via Sacra, in honor of +the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of the Parthians and +Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIENUS. 5. The ARCH OF CONSTANTINE. + +There were two famous MAUSOLEA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and that +of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle of San +Angelo. + +The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most +remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called +COLUMNAE ROSTRATAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at Mylae +(261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to each +side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of Trajan is +perhaps best known. + +The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, +from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. It +was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION. + + +Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They +were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress +hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; a +practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + +No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscitum_, or _senatus +consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied their foundation, +and the anniversary was observed. + +The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin +or military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman +citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. +The _Latini_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt equal to +them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the Julian law, +passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at Rome, and were +placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + + +THE CALENDAR. + +The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each +month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends +fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, +July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight days +after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was said +to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it happened +between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many days +_before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was reckoned +from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the names of the +Consuls of that year were added. + + +RELIGION. + +The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: JUPITER +and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of seed-sowing; +TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the goddess of +growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; PALES, the god of +the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. Various festivals +were celebrated in honor of these, as the Saturnalia, in December; the +Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and Palilia (Pales), in April; and +the Lupercalia, in February. + +VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar +erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, had +a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were also +worshipped the Penates and Lares. + +The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected +fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in +dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on the +Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with flowers, and +by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of their meals upon +plates. + +The PENATES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of +houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were +also kept in the inner hall. + +The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL +VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose +twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot +to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The +Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private seats +in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from punishment +any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white dresses and +white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire always burning on +the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. They could not marry. + + +FLAMINES. + +The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular god. +There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia Curiata, +and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most distinguished of all +the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIALIS (Jupiter). He had the right to a +lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat in the Senate. If one in +bonds took refuge in his house, the chains were at once removed. This +priest, however, could not be away from the city a single night, and was +forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for three consecutive nights. He +was not allowed to mount a horse, or even to touch one, or to look upon +an army outside of the city walls. + + +THE SALII. These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always +chosen from the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the +1st of March, and for several successive days. + + +THE AUGURES. + +This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen +in the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to +interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were +favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, no +election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first consulting the +omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the Augurs, and hence +their power was great. They held office for life, and were a close +corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. C. + + +THE FETIALES. + +This was another body of priests holding office for life, and numbering +probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute arose with +other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether hostilities +should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + + +The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded to +our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each cohort +into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two centuries +(platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six thousand, in +practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle was to draw up +each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the first consisting of +four cohorts, the second and third of three each. The defensive armor of +the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or leather, a shield (four +feet by two and a half), greaves, and corselets of various material. +The outer garment was a woollen blanket, fastened to the shoulders by +a buckle. Higher officers wore a long purple cloak. The offensive armor +was a short, straight two-edged sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, +worn by privates on the right side, so as not to interfere with the +shield, but on the left side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a +heavy wooden shaft with an iron head, the whole about seven feet +long and weighing fully ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman +citizens. The auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always +light-armed. The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries +taken from the different provinces. + +The officers were:--1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. 2. The +LEGATI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. 3. The +QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. 4. The TRIBUNI MILITUM, numbering six in +each legion, and assisting the Imperator in his duties. + 5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. 6. The +CENTURIONES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in rank for +good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six in each +cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the ranks, but +rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the officers, except +the centurions, came from either senatorial or equestrian families. + +The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body +guard to the Imperator. + +The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with outstretched +wings, perched upon a pole. + +The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They made +it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in the same +way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary soldiers +encamped next to the wall on the inside of the fortifications, thus +surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the general and his staff. The +general's tent was called the _Praetorium_, and the entrance to the +camp in front of his tent was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite +entrance was called the Decuman Gate. + + + + +CHAPTER L. LEGENDARY ROME. + + +AENEAS, son of Anchises and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture +by the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son +IULUS and a number of brave followers. LATINUS, who was king of the +district where Aeneas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his +daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aeneas founded a city, which he named +LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iulus, also called +ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albanus a city, which he +called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. + +Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was SILVIUS +PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. They divided +the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter the crown. +Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, fearing +that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and made the +daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to prevent her +marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, however, became +pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named ROMULUS and REMUS. +When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their mother into prison, and +ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. + +At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its +banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, and, +the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, hearing +their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a shepherd who was +near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared them. When they grew +up and learned who they were, they killed Amulius, and gave the kingdom +to their grandfather, Numitor. Then (753) they founded a city on Mount +Palatinus, which they called ROME, after Romulus. While they were +building a wall around this city, Remus was killed in a quarrel with his +brother. + +Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). +He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he +opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. +To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring +people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in +looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine +virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a +compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then +chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the +people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he +disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. + +One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), a +Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great lawgiver. +Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his barbarous +subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to the god Janus. +TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was noted for the +fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), the grandson of +Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered the Latins, enlarged +the city, and built new walls around it. He was the first to build a +prison, and to bridge the Tiber. (Footnote: This bridge was called the +_pons sublicius_ i. e. a bridge resting on piles.) He also founded a +city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. + +The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS +(616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, becoming a +favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After the death of +Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became king himself. +He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on many wars +successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. He built the +CLOACA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. Tarquin also began +the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLINUS, on the Capitoline Hill. He was killed +in the thirty-eighth year of his reign by the sons of Ancus, from whom +he had snatched the kingdom. + +His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who +enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diana, and took a census +of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained 83,000 +souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her husband, +Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. + +TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was energetic +in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which was Ardea, +a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, begun by his +father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman from Cumae, a +Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine books of oracles +and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and he refused to +purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, returning, asked the +same price for the remaining six. The king again refused. She burned +three more, and obtained from the monarch for her last three the +original price. These books were preserved in the Capitol, and held in +great respect. They were destroyed with the temple by fire, on July 6, +83. Two men had charge of them, who were called _duoviri sacrorum_. +The worship of the Greek deities, Apollo and Latona, among others, was +introduced through these books. + +In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATINUS, +and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. +(Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by +Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatinus. Unable to bear +the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, +having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs) A Republic was then +formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. + +Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all +unsuccessful. (Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been +painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in 509.) +In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of the +Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS +COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans sublicius_) +over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He then swam the river +in safety to his friends. (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient +Rome.") + +During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous +youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing +King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was seized +and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of burning. +Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the burning altar +until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic act, pardoned him. +Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three hundred other men as +brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena was so alarmed, that +he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius received his name +Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of his right hand. + +Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in +retirement. + +In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by +taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and +crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent +MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions (Footnote: +Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the belly +and members.) the people were induced to return to the city, and for the +first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own ranks to +represent their interests. These officers were called Tribuni Plebis. + +Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and +defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he +received the name of CORIOLANUS. During a famine, he advised that grain +should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they relinquished +their right to choose the Tribuni Plebis. For this he was banished. +Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched against Rome, and +came within five miles of the city. Here he was met by a deputation of +his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. He refused; but, +when his wife and mother added their tears, he was induced to withdraw +the army. He was afterwards killed by the Volscians as a traitor. +(Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus.") + +After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most +distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven +consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian +gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and the +whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven from +Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the Veientes, +but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus Fabius +Vibulanus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the Fabii. + +In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory +had been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were +in imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNATUS was +appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of this +period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment found him +working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnatus told his wife to throw +over him his mantle, that he might receive the messengers of the state +with proper respect. Such was the simplicity of his character, and yet +so deeply did he reverence authority. The Aequi could not withstand his +vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon to surrender, and made to pass +under the yoke as a sign of humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well +earned triumph. + +In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the +beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, (Footnote: See Macaulay's "Lays +of Ancient Rome.") a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the betrothed of +Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an infamous plot to +obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that she was a slave. +When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's father and lover, the +Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged her to be the slave +of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his daughter's bosom, in +presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged populace compelled the +Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape worse punishment, put an end +to his own life. + +MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He +was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he +captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated +the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards +impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, +and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls under +Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the head of +forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, and in the +battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was Dictator five times, +Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and enjoyed four triumphs. +He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. + +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia (July +18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he besieged +for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, the +Gauls were defeated. + + + + +CHRONOLOGY. + + (The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.) + + B.C. + 753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. + 753-510. REGAL PERIOD. + 753-716. Romulus. + 716-673. Numa Pompilius. + 673-641. Tullus Hostilius. + 640-616. Ancus Marcius. + 616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. + 578-534. Servius Tullius. + 534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. + 510-30. THE REPUBLIC. + 509. Battle of Lake Regillus. + 508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. + 494. Tribuni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. + 492. Corioli. Coriolanus. + 477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. + 458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnatus. + 451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. + 396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. + 390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). + 387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. + 367. The Licinian Rogations. + 353. Caere: the first Municipium. + 343-341. First Samnite War. + 340-338. The Latin War. + 338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. + 326-304, The Second Samnite War. + 321. The Caudine Forks. + 298-290. The Third Samnite War. + 295. Sentinum. + 283. Lake Vadimonis. + 281-272. Pyrrhus. + 280. Heraclea. Cineas. + 279. Asculum. + 274. Beneventum. + 272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. + 264. Period of foreign conquest begins. + 264-241. First Punic War. + 260. Lipara; Mylae. + 257. Tyndaris. + 256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. + 249. Drepana. + 241. Aegates Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. + 237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. + 229. Illyrican War. Important results. + 222. Gallia Cisalpina acquired by battle of Telamon. + 220. Hannibal in Spain. + 219. Saguntum. + 218-202. Second Punic War. + 218. Ticinus. Trebia. + 217. Trasimenus. Casilinum. + 216. Cannae. + 212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimedes. + 207. Baecula. Metaurus. + 202. Zama. + 214-205. First Macedonian War. + 200-197. Second Macedonian War. + 198. Cynoscephalae. + 190. Magnesia. + 183. Death of Africanus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. + 171-168. Third Macedonian War. + 168. Pydna. + 149-146. Third Punic War. + 149., Death of Cato the elder. + 146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. + 143-133. The Numantine War. + 134-132. The Servile War. + 133. Tiberius Gracchus. + 129. Death of Africanus the younger. + 123-121. Gaius Gracchus. + 118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. + 102. Aquae Sextiae. + 101. Vercellae. + 90-89. The Italian or Social War. + 86. Death of Marius. + 86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradates. + 84. Death of Cinna. + 80. Reforms of Sulla. + 78. Death of Sulla. + 80-72. Sertorius in Spain. + 73-71. Spartacus. + 72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradates. + 67. Pompey conquers the pirates. + 67-61. Pompey in the East. + 63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. + 59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. + 59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. + 58-49. Caesar in Gaul. + 57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. + 53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and + 52 separation from Caesar. + 49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. + 49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. + 48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. + 48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. + 48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. + 47. Battle of Zela. + 47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. + 46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. + 45 (Mar. 17). Munda. + 44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. + 43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. + 43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. + 42 (Nov.). Philippi. + 36. Naulochus. + 31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + + THE EMPIRE. + + B.C. / A.D. + 30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. + 30-14. Augustus. + + A.D. + 14-37. Tiberius. + 37-41. Caligula. + 41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + 41-54. Claudius. + 54-68. Nero. + 68-69. Galba. + 69. Otho. + 69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + 69-79. Vespasian. + 79. Destruction of Jerusalem. + 79-81. Titus. + 80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. + 81-96. Domitian. + 96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + 96-98. Nerva. + 98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. + 117-138. Hadrian. + 138-161. Antoninus Pius. + 161-180. Marcus Aurelius. + 180-192. Commodus. + 192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. + 284-305. Diocletian. + 306-337. Constantine the Great. + 312. Edict of Milan. + 325. Council of Nice. + 337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. + + + + +SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + +HARVARD COLLEGE. + +JUNE, 1889. + +1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsalus; +Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important +events was each connected? (Omit one; answer very briefly.) + +2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + +3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + +4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + +5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. (Take one) + +1888. + +1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman +citizen,--what were they? (Take four.) + +2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) The reign of Hadrian; +(_c_) The first Punic war. (Take one.) + +3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, (Take one) + +4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + +5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. (4 and 5 are for +"additional readings.") + + + + +1887. + +(a) (Take five.) The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, +Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events +connected with four of these places. (Take any two.) + +1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + +2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + +3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, Curia, +Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + +_Questions on the "additional reading."_ + +(Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading +may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first three +in this group.) + +4. (TIGHE.) How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ from +its theoretical powers? + +5. (BEESLEY.) What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of +Gaius Gracchus? + +September, 1886. + +1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the +founding of Rome. + +2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the +Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + +3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace the +development of the _comitia tributa_. + +4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? The +effect of this victory upon Italy? + +5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, _municipium_, _ager +Romanus_, _equites_. + + + + +YALE COLLEGE. + +EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + +June, 1889. + +1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. +Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. +Licinian Laws. + +2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at +what times introduced? + +3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles in +Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did Hannibal +fail? + +4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + +5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. +First Samnite War. Pharsalus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. +Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + + +1887. + +(Time allowed, 30 minutes.) + +1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change did +he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine make? + +2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the causes +of each extension, and dates. + +3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian +era? How were they acquired, and when? + +4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; +comitia centuriata_. + +5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were they? +what happened there, and when? + + +1886. + +1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was established. + +2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between +the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + +3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + +4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential +points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + +5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the +provinces? + +6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + + +June, 1885. + +1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + +2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. + +3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under the +Empire? + +4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + +5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of +Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over Pyrrhus; +the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first Roman +province? + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + +35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., +only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + +2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization of +the world. (1) + +3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state +the result in each contest. (4) + +4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and +state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine Forks; +Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + +5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of Jugurtha; +(2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of Antony, or +death of Cicero? (3) + +6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which +occur in Roman history. (3) + +7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + +8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; +Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + +9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + +10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the +Christian era. (3) + +11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + +12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + +13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what +ground were the Christians punished? (2) + +14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. +Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + +15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + +16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + +17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + +18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + +19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + +20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + + +34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before +the founding of Rome.(2) + +2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. +(4) + +3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first +elected. (1) + +4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in +connection with them? (2) + +5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had he +for hoping to succeed? (3) + +6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he +fail? (3) + +7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following dates: +B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + +8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the +Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the +Rubicon"? (3) + +9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances +of this. (3) + +10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one of +them. (4) + +11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by Diocletian? +(1) + +12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was so +called. (2) + +13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to a +stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + +14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character of +the writings of each. (6) + +15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of +Rome. (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + +16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + +17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + +18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour of +his Country"? (1) + +19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + +20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of Marius +and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + + +33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + +44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. + +1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + +2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) Plebeians, (_c_) +Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4) + +3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + +4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + +5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + +6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + +7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their +effect upon the Republic. (2) + +8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its result? +(2) + +9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + +10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What +Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) + +11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + +12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of +the Roman people? (2) + +13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this war. +(2) + +14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the +cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + +15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the Emperor +Augustus? (1) + +16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, (_b_) Seneca, +(_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, (_e_) Caligula? (5) + + +THE GRACCHI. 17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the +Gracchi form a part? (1) + +18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by +Caius Gracchus? (2) + +19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + +20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by +birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) + +21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great +significance? (2) + + +31st Advanced Academic Examination, + +June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of +Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + +2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ from the +_comitia curiata_? (2) + +3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + +4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was +the result of the war? (2) + +5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of +the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the +circumstances of his death. (4) + +6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of conquest, +266-133 B.C. (5) + +7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to +literature and morals. (2) + +8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + +9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + +10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and +Caesar? (1) + +11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain in +their proscription? (4) + +12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + +13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the +Christians? (1) + +14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + +15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + + +THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + +16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + +17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of the +treaty made there. (4) + +18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of the +final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + +19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for herself? +(3) + +20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ (_or Latins_) +(2) + + +30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of +Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + +2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first Consuls? +(3) + +3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two +conditions of the return? (3) + +4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers +intrusted to them. (2) + +5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + +6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause +of the First Samnite War? (2) + +7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which +direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + +8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic War? +(1) + + +ANCIENT ROME. + +9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct +of the First Punic War. (2) + +10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the battle.(2) + +11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + +12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + +13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did +each contribute to it? (3) + +14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + +15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: Nero; +Trajan. (2) + + +THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + +16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, +and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + +17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + +18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was it +modelled? (2) + +19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its +membership? (2) + +20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate +perform? (2) + +21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + + +_29th Advanced Academic Examination._ + +November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36._ + +1. When was Rome founded? (1) + +2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the +basis of the new constitution? (2) + +3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings +overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + +4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how +long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + +5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + +6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they +contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + +7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and wealth, +and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in arms? (3) + +8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what +policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + +9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and +habits. (2) + +10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was it +defeated, and in what manner? (3) + +11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + +12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its result? +(2) + +13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, and +the character of his reign. (2) + +14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + +15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some +articles used by them for food. (2) + + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + +16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, and +the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + +17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, Naples, +Tarentum. (3) + +18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what +part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins +descended? (7) + + + + +INDEX. + + + Achaeans + Achaia + Acroceraunia + Actium + Adherbal + Aduatuci + Aediles + Aedui + Aegates Islands + Aegyptus + Aemilian Way + Aemilius + Aeneas + Aequians + Aesis, R. + Aetius + Aetna + Aetolians + Afranius + Africa + Africanus + Agendicum + Ager occupatus + Ager privatus + Ager publicus + Ager Romanus + Agrarian Laws + Agricola + Agrigentum + Agrippa + Agrippina, daughter of Agrippa + Agrippina, sister of Caligula + Alae + Alans + Alaric + Alba Longa + Alban Lake + Alban Mts. + Alesia + Alexander the Great + Alexandria + Allia + Allies + Alsium + Ambiorix + Amphitheatres + Amulius + Anchises + Ancona + Ancus Marcius + Andes + Andriscus + Anio, R. + Anthemius + Antiochus III. + Antiochus IV. + Antium + Antonia + Antonius + Antoninus, Marcus Aurelius + Antoninus Pius + Antony + Aous, R. + Apennines + Apollo, worship of + Apollonia + Apollonius + Appeal, right of + Appian Way + Appius Claudius, Decemvir + Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus + Appius Claudius Caecus + Appuleian Laws + Apsus, R. + Apulia + Aqua Claudia + Aquae Sextiae + Aqueducts + Aquileia + Aquinum + Aquitani + Arabia + Arabia Petraea + Arcadius + Archelaus + Arches + Archimedes + Ardea + Argos + Aricia + Ariminum + Ariobarzanes + Ariovistus + Aristobulus + Armenia + Arminius + Armor + Army + Arnus + Arpi + Arpinum + Arretium + Arsanias, R. + Aryan Race + Ascanius + Asculum in Apulia + Asia + Assyria + Aternus + Athens + Athesis + Atrium + Attalus II. + Attalus III. + Attila + Aufidus, R. + Augurs + Augustan Age + Augusta Taurinorum + Augusti + Augustus + Aulerci + Aurelia + Aurelian + Aurelian Way + Aurelius, M. Antoninus + Avaricum + Averni + Avernus, Lake + + Baeculae + Baetis, R. + Baiae + Basilicae + Basilica Julia + Bathing + Baths + Bellovaci + Beneventum + Bibracte + Bibulus + Bithynia + Bocchus + Boian Gauls + Bononia + Books + Bovillae + Brennus + Bridge, Rhine + Bridge, Tiber + Britain + Britannia + Britannicus + Brittany + Brundisium + Bruttium + Brutus, nephew of Tarquin + Brutus + Brutus, Decimus Junius + Brutus, Marcus + Burgundians + Burrhus + Byzantium + + Cabira + Caecina + Caepio + Caere + Caesar, Gaius Julius + Caesar, Lucius Julius + Caesars + Caicus + Calabria + Calceus + Caledonians + Calendar + Caligula + Calpurnia + Calpurnian Law + Camarina + Camerinum + Camillus + Campania + Campus Martius + Candles + Cannae + Canuleian Law + Canuleius + Canusium + Capena + Capitoline Hill + Capitolium + Cappadocia + Capreae + Capua + Caracalla + Carrhae + Carthage + Carthaginians + Carthago Nova + Carus + Casca + Casilinum + Cassius. + Cassivelaunus + Catalonia + Catana + Catiline + Cato, the elder + Cato, the younger + Catullus + Catulus, father of the Senate + Catulus, Gaius Lutatius + Caudine Forks + Caudium + Celtiberi + Celts + Cenomani + Censors + Centuries + Centurions + Ceres + Cerialia + Cethegus + Chaeronea + Chalcedon + Chalons + Christians + Cicero, Marcus Tullius + Cicero, Quintus Tullius + Cilicia + Cimber + Cimbri + Cincinnatus + Cineas + Cinna + Circeii + Circeium, Promontory + Circus + Circus Maximus + Citizenship + City walls + Claudian Emperors + Claudius, Emperor + Claudius, Publius + Cleopatra + Clients + Cloaca Maxima + Clodion + Clodius + Clupea + Clusium + Coena + Cohors Praetoria + Collatinus + Colonies, Latin + Colonies, Maritime + Colonies, Military. + Comitia Centuriata + Comitia Curiata + Comitia Tributa + Comitium + Colosseum + Colossus + Column of Trajan + Columna Milliaria + Columns + Commodus + Constans + Constantine the Great + Constantine II. + Constantinople + Constantius I. + Constantius II. + Conscripti, Patres + Consuls + Consus + Cora + Corcyra + Corduba + Corfinium + Corinth + Coriolanus + Corioli + Corn laws + Cornelia, daughter of Cinna + Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio + Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africanus + Corsica + Cotta + Council of Nice + Court-houses + Courts + Crassus, the Triumvir + Crassus, son of the Triumvir + Cremona + Crete + Croton + Cumae + Cures + Curia + Curiae + Curio. + Curtius + Curule Aedile + Curule chair + Curule offices + Cynoscephalae + Cyprus + Cyrenaica + + Dacia + Damophilus + Deal + Debts, Debtors + Decemvirs + Decius, Emperor + Decius, Publius + Decree of the Senate + Deiotarus + Dentatus + Dependent Communities + Dictator + Diocletian + Dolabella + Domitian + Domitius. + Drepana + Dress + Drusus, Germanicus + Drusus, Marcus Livius + Duilius + Duoviri Sacrorum + Dyrrachium + + Eburones + Ecnomus + Edict of Milan + Editor. + Education + Egesta + Egnatius + Egypt + Elba + Elections + Enipeus, R. + Enna + Ennius + Epidamnus + Epiphanes + Epirus + Equites + Eryx + Etruria + Etruscans + Eudoxia + Eugenius + Eunus + Euphrates + Examination Papers + + Fabii + Fabius, Cunctator + Fabius Quintus + Fabius Vibulanus + Fabricius + Faesulae + Farming the revenues + Fauces + Faustulus + Festivals + Fetiales + Five Good Emperors + Flamen Dialis + Flamines + Flaminian Way + Flamininus + Flaminius + Flavian Emperors + Floors + Florentia + Foreigners resident at Rome + Formiae + Forum + Forum Boarium + Forum Caesaris + Forum Holitorium + Forum Julii, in Gaul + Forum Julii, in Venetia + Forum Suarium + Forum of Trajan + Forum of Vespasian + Franks + Freedmen + Fundi + Funerals + Furniture + + Gabii + Gabinius + Gabinus + Gades + Galatia + Galba, Emperor + Galba, Servius + Galerius + Gallia Cisalpina + Gallia Narbonensis + Gaul + Gauls + Games + Gela + Genabum + Gens, Gentes + Genseric + Genua + Genucius + Gergovia + Germanicus, Drusus + Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. + Germans + Glabrio + Gladiators + Glass + Glaucia + Golden House of Nero + Good Emperors + Gordian + Goths + Gracchi + Gracchus, Gains + Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) + Gracchus, Tiberius + Gratian + Greece + Greek Empire + + Hadrian + Hadrumetum + Hamilcar Barca + Hannibal, son of Gisco + Hannibal, son of Hamilcar + Hanno + Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar + Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal + Hasdrubal, son of Gisco + Helena + Heliogabalus + Helvetii + Heraclea + Herculaneum + Hermean Promontory + Hiempsal + Hiero II. + Hieronymus + Hirtius + Hispania Citerior + Hispania Ulterior + Honorius + Horace + Horatius Codes + Hortensius, Quintus + Hortensius, the Orator + Homesteads + Houses + Huns + Hyrcanus + + Iapygia + Iapygians + Iberus, R. + Icilius + Igilium + Ilerda + Illyrican War + Illyricum + Ilva + Imperator + Imperium + Intermarriage + Interest + Interrex + Isara, R. + Isauria + Isthmian Games + Italians + Italy + Iulus + + Janiculum + Janus + Jentaculum + Jerusalem + Jews + Josephus + Jovian + Juba + Judaea + Jugurtha + Julia, daughter of Caesar + Julia, daughter of Augustus + Julian Emperors + Julian the Apostate + Julian Law + Julianus + Juno + Jupiter + Juries + Justin Martyr + Juvenal + + Kaeso, Quinctius + King of Rome + Knights. + + Labienus + Lacerna + Lacinian Promontory + Laevinus + Laevinus, Marcus + Lamps + Land-owners, classes of + Lanistae + Lanuvium + Lares + Last of the Romans + Latin Confederacy + Latinus + Latium + Latona + Laurentum + Lavinia + Lavinium + Legati + Leges Juliae + Legion + Lentulus + Leontini + Lepidus, Consul + Lepidus, Triumvir + Leptis + Lesbos + Letter-writing + Lex de Repetundis + Licinian Rogations + Licinius + Liger + Lights + Liguria + Lilybaeum + Lipara Islands + Liris, R. + Literature + Livia + Livilla + Livius + Locri + Longinus + Luca + Lucan + Lucania + Luceres + Luceria + Lucilius + Lucretia + Lucretius + Lucullus + Lupercalia + Luperci + Lupercus + Lupus + Lycia + + Macedonia + Macedonian War + Macrinus + Maecenas + Maenius + Magister Equitum + Magna Graecia + Magnesia + Mago + Majestas + Majorian + Mamertines + Mancinus + Manilian Law + Manilius + Manlius, Marcus + Manlius Capitolinus + Mantua + Marcellus + Marcellus, nephew of Augustus + Marius, + Marriage + Mars + Martial + Masinissa. + Massilia + Mauretania + Mausoleum of Augustus + Mausoleum of Hadrian + Maximian + Maximin + Maximus I. + Maximus II. + Meals + Mediolanum + Memmius + Menenius Agrippa + Mesopotamia + Messalina + Messana + Metapontum + Metaurus, R. + Metellus Macedonicus + Metellus Nepos + Metellus Numidicus + Metellus Pius + Micipsa + Milan, Edict of + Miletus + Military Tribunes + Milliarium Aureum + Milo + Minerva + Minturnae + Minucius + Mithradates + Mitylene + Moesia + Money brokers + Mons Sacer + Moors + Mucra, R. + Mummius + Munda + Municipia + Muthul + Mutina + Mylae + Mysia + + Names + Naples + Naulochus + Navy + Nepos + Nero, Consul + Nero, Emperor + Nerva + Nervii + Nicaea + Nicomedes + Nobles + Nola + Noricum + Novus Homo + Numantia + Numantian War + Numa Pompilius + Numidia + Numitor + Nursia + + Octavia, sister of Augustus + Octavia, wife of Nero + Octavius + Odoacer + Offices and officers + Ops + Orchomenos + Osca + Ostia + Ostium + Ostrogoths + Otho + Ovation + Ovid + + Padua (Patavium) + Palatine + Pales, Palilia + Palmyra + Pannonia + Panormus + Pantheon + Parma + Parthia, Parthians + Pater-familias + Patres + Patrician + Patricians + Patrons + Paullus + Pelusium + Penates + Pergamum + Peristylium + Perperna + Perseus + Persius + Pertinax + Petreius + Phaedrus + Pharnaces + Pharsalia, Pharsalus + Philip, Emperor + Philip of Macedonia + Philippi + Philippics + Philopoemen + Phoenicia + Picenum + Picts' + Pirates + Pisae + Pisaurum + Piso + Placentia + Plautian-Papirian Law + Plautus + Plebeians + Plebiscita + Pliny, the elder + Pliny, the younger + Pollio + Polybius + Polycarp + Pomoerium + Pompeia + Pompeii + Pompeius, Gnaeus + Pompeius, Sextus + Pompey the Great + Pomptine Marshes + Pontifices + Pontius + Pontus + Poppaea Sabina + Porsena + Postumius + Potestas + Praefect + Praefecturae + Praeneste + Praetor + Praetorian Guard + Praetorium + Prandium + Private Lands + Private Rights + Probus + Proconsul + Propertius + Propraetor + Provinces + Provincial System + Prusias + Ptolemy, brother of Cleopatra + Ptolemy of Cyprus + Ptolemy V., Epiphanes + Ptolemy Alexander + Publicani + Public Lands + Public Rights + Publilian Law, Publilius + Punic Wars + Puteoli + Pydna + Pyrrhus + + Quaestors + Quinctius Cincinnatus + Quinctius, Kaeso + Quintilian + Quirinal + Quirinalia + + Radagaisus + Ramnes + Ravenna + Reate + Reforms of Caesar + Reforms of Sulla + Regillus, Lake + Regulus + Remi + Remus + Rents + Republic + Rhaetia + Rhea Silvia + Rhegium + Rhodes + Ricimer + Roads + Roman Empire + Romans + Rome + Rome, Hills of + Romulus + Roscius + Rostra + Rubicon + Rutilius + + Sabines + Sabis, R. + Sacred Mount + Sacredness of Officials + Sagum + Saguntum + Salernum + Salii + Sallust + Samnites + Samnite Wars + Samnium + Samos + Sardinia + Sardis + Saturn + Saturnalia + Saturninus + Scaevola + Scarpheia + Scipio, Gnaeus + Scipio, Consul 218 B. C. + Scipio Africanus, the elder + Scipio Africanus, the younger + Scipio Asiaticus + Scipio, Metellus + Scipio Nasica + Scribonia + Segesta + Sejanus + Seleucia + Selinus + Sempronia + Sempronius + Sena Gallica + Senate + Senones + Sentinum + Sequani + Sertorius + Servian Reform + Servile War + Servilius + Servius Tullius + Setia + Severus, Alexander + Severus, Septimius + Severus III. + Sewers + Sextus Lateranus + Sextus, son of Tarquin + Ships + Sibylline Books + Sicily + Silver Age + Silvius Procas + Sinuessa + Slaves. + Social War + Soleae + Solon + Sophonisba + Soracte, Mt. + Sosigenes + Spain + Sparta + Spartacus + Spoletium + Spurius Cassius + Standards + Statius + Stilicho + Stola + Strongyle Islands + Suessiones + Sueves, Suevi + Sulla + Sulmo + Sulpicius Galba + Sulpicius Rufus + Sutrium + Sybaris + Syphax + Syracuse + Syria + + Tablinum + Tacitus, Emperor + Tacitus, Historian + Tarentum. + Tarquinii + Tarquinius Priscus + Tarquinius Superbus + Tarracina + Tarragona + Tauromenium + Tax-gatherers + Teanum + Telamon + Tellilia, Tellus + Temple of Aesculapius + Temple of Apollo Palatinus + Temple of Ceres + Temple of Concordia + Temple of Diana + Temple of Janus + Temple of Juno + Temple of Jupiter + Temple of Mars + Temple of Peace + Tenth Legion, revolt of + Terence + Terentilius, Terentilian Rogations + Teutoberger Forest + Teutones + Thala + Thapsus + Theatre + Theatre of Balbus + Theatre of Marcellus + Theatre of Pompey + Theodosius + Thermae + Thermus + Thessaly + Thirty Tyrants + Thurii + Tibullus + Tibur + Tiberius + Ticinus, R. + Tigellinus + Tigranes + Time, mode of reckoning + Tities + Titus + Tivoli + Toga + Torquatus + Trajan + Trasimenus, Lake + Trebia, R. + Trebonius + Tribes + Tribunes + Tribuni Militum + Tributum + Triclinium + Triganum + Trinacria + Triumphal Arches + Triumphal Procession + Triumvirate, First + Triumvirate, Second, + Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius + Tullus Hostilius + Tunica + Tunis + Tusculum + Twelve Caesars + Twelve Tables + Tyndaris + + Umbria, Umbrians + Utica + + Vadimonis, Lake + Valens + Valentinian I. + Valentinian II. + Valentinian III. + Valerius, Valerio-Horatian Laws + Valerius, Caesar's Lieutenant + Valero Publilius + Vandals + Varro, Consul at Cannae + Varro, Pompey's Lieutenant + Varus + Veii, Veientes + Velitrae + Veneti + Venetia + Venice + Venusia + Vercellae + Vercingetorix + Verginius + Verona + Verres + Verus, Annius + Verus, Lucius + Vespasian + Vesta. + Vestal Virgins + Vestibulum + Vesuvius, Mt. + Veto + Veturius + Via Aemilia + Via Appia + Via Aurelia + Via Flaminia + Via Latina + Via Sacra + Vienna + Villius + Virgil + Virginia, Virginius + Viriathus + Visigoths + Vitellius + Volaterrae + Volsci + Volsinii + Volturnus + Voting + Vulso + + Windows + Writing + Written Code of Laws + + York + + Zama + Zela + Zeno + Zenobia + Zeugma + Zeugma + + + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest +times down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME *** + +***** This file should be named 6989.txt or 6989.zip ***** +This and all associated files of various formats will be found in: + http://www.gutenberg.org/6/9/8/6989/ + +Produced by Lynn Bonnett and Teresa Thomason + +Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions +will be renamed. + +Creating the works from public domain print editions means that no +one owns a United States copyright in these works, so the Foundation +(and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United States without +permission and without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, +set forth in the General Terms of Use part of this license, apply to +copying and distributing Project Gutenberg-tm electronic works to +protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm concept and trademark. Project +Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if you +charge for the eBooks, unless you receive specific permission. 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Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: History of Rome from the Earliest times down to 476 AD + +Author: Robert F. Pennell + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6989] +[Yes, we are more than one year ahead of schedule] +[This file was first posted on February 20, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: Latin-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME TO 476 AD. *** + + + + +This eBook was produced by Lynn Bonnett and especially to Teresa Thomason +of the Special Collections Department, Milner Library, Illinois State +University, Normal, IL, who helped to clarify a portion of the text. + + + + + +ANCIENT ROME + +FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES +DOWN TO 476 A.D. + +BY ROBERT F. PENNELL + +_REVISED EDITION_ WITH PLANS AND COLORED MAP + + + + +PREFACE. + +This compilation is designed to be a companion to the author's History +of Greece. It is hoped that it may fill a want, now felt in many high +schools and academies, of a short and clear statement of the rise and +fall of Rome, with a biography of her chief men, and an outline of her +institutions, manners, and religion. + +For this new edition the book has been entirely rewritten, additional +matter having been introduced whenever it has been found necessary to +meet recent requirements. + +The penults of proper names have been marked when long, both in the +text and Index. The Examination Papers given are introduced to +indicate the present range of requirement in leading colleges. + +The maps and plans have been specially drawn and engraved for this +book. The design has been to make them as clear and open as possible; +consequently, names and places not mentioned in the text have, as a +rule, been omitted. + +ROBERT F. PENNELL. RIVERSIDE, CALIFORNIA, July. 1890. + +[Illustration: GAIUS IULIUS CAESAR.] + + + + +ANCIENT ROME. + + + +CHAPTER I. + +GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY. + + +Italy is a long, narrow peninsula in the southern part of Europe, +between the 38th and 46th parallels of north latitude. It is 720 miles +long from the Alps to its southern extremity, and 330 miles broad in +its widest part, i.e. from the Little St. Bernard to the hills north +of Trieste. It has an area of nearly 110,000 square miles, about that +of the State of Nevada. + +The Alps separate Italy on the north and northwest from the rest of +Europe. The pass over these mountains which presents the least +difficulties is through the Julian Alps on the east. It was over this +pass that the Barbarians swept down in their invasions of the country. +The Apennines, which are a continuation of the Alps, extend through +the whole of the peninsula. Starting in the Maritime Alps, they extend +easterly towards the Adriatic coast, and turn southeasterly hugging +the coast through its whole extent. This conformation of the country +causes the rivers of any size below the basin of the Po to flow into +the Tyrrhenian (Tuscan) Sea, rather than into the Adriatic. + +Northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, is drained by the +Padus (Po) and its tributaries. It was called GALLIA CISALPÍNA (Gaul +this side of the Alps), and corresponds in general to modern Lombardy. +The little river Athesis, north of the Padus, flows into the Adriatic. +Of the tributaries of the Padus, the Ticínus on the north, and the +Trebia on the south, are of historical interest. + +The portion of Northern Italy bordering on the Mediterranean is a +mountainous district, and was called LIGURIA. In this district on the +coast were Genua and Nicaea. The district north of the Athesis, +between the Alps and the Adriatic, was called VENETIA, from which +comes the name Venice. Here were located Patavium (Padua), Aquileia, +and Forum Julii. + +Gallia Cisalpína contained many flourishing towns. North of the Padus +were Veróna, Mediolánum (Milan), Cremóna, Mantua, Andes, and +Vercellae, a noted battle-field. South of this river were Augusta +Taurinórum (Turin), Placentia, Parma, Mutina, and Ravenna. The +Rubicon, a little stream flowing into the Adriatic, bounded Gallia +Cisalpína on the southeast. The Mucra, another little stream, was the +southern boundary on the other side of Italy. + +CENTRAL ITALY, _Italia Propria_, or Italy Proper, included all of +the peninsula below these rivers as far down as Apulia and Lucania. In +this division are the rivers Tiber, Arnus, Liris, and Volturnus, which +empty into the Mediterranean, and the Metaurus, Aesis, and Aternus, +which empty into the Adriatic. + +The most important subdivision of Central Italy was LATIUM, bordering +on the Tyrrhenian Sea. North of it on the same coast was ETRURIA, and +to the south was CAMPANIA. On the Adriatic coast were UMBRIA, PICÉNUM, +and SAMNIUM. + +The cities of Latium were Rome, on the Tiber, and its seaport, Ostia, +near the mouth of the same river. Ten miles northwest of Rome was +Veii, an Etruscan city, and about the same distance southeast was Alba +Longa. Nearly the same distance directly south of Rome, on the coast, +was Lavinium, and east-northeast of Rome was Tibur. Neighboring to +Alba Longa were Tusculum and the Alban Lake. The Pomptine Marshes were +near the coast, in the southern part of Latium. Lake Regillus was near +Rome. + +In Etruria were Florentia, Faesulae, Pisae, Arretium, Volaterrae, +Clusium, and Tarquinii; also Lake Trasiménus. In Campania were Capua, +Neapolis (Naples), Cumae, Baiae, a watering place, Herculaneum, +Pompeii, Caudium, Salernum, Casilínum, and Nola. The famous volcano of +Vesuvius was here, and also Lake Avernus. + +In Umbria, on the coast, were Ariminum and Pisaurum; in the interior +were Sentinum and Camerínum. The river Metaurus, noted for the defeat +of Hasdrubal, was likewise in Umbria. + +In Picenum was Ancona. In Samnium were Cures and Beneventum. + +SOUTHERN ITALY included APULIA and CALABRIA on the Adriatic, LUCANIA +and BRUTTUM on the Tyrrhenian Sea. + +Apulia is the most level of the countries south of the Rubicon. Its +only stream is the Aufidus, on the bank of which at Cannae was fought +a famous battle. Arpi, Asculum, and Canusium are interior towns. + +In Calabria (or Iapygia) were the cities of Brundisium and Tarentum. + +The chief towns in Lucania and Bruttium were settled by the Greeks. +Among them were Heracléa, Metapontum, Sybaris, and Thurii, in Lucania; +and Croton, Locri, and Rhegium, in Bruttium. + +The islands near Italy were important. SICILY, with an area of about +10,000 square miles, and triangular in shape, was often called by the +poets TRINACRIA (with three promontories). The island contained many +important cities, most of which were of Greek origin. Among these were +Syracuse, Agrigentum, Messána, Catana, Camarína, Gela, Selínus, Egesta +(or Segesta), Panormus, Leontíni, and Enna. There are many mountains, +the chief of which is Aetna. + +SARDINIA is nearly as large as Sicily. CORSICA is considerably +smaller. ILVA (Elba) is between Corsica and the mainland. IGILIUM is +off Etruria; CAPREAE is in the Bay of Naples; STRONGYLE (Strombóli) +and LIPARA are north of Sicily, and the AEGÁTES INSULAE are west of +it. + + + + +CHAPTER II. + +THE EARLY INHABITANTS OF ITALY. + + +So far as we know, the early inhabitants of Italy were divided into three +races, the IAPYGIAN, ETRUSCAN, and ITALIAN. The IAPYGIANS +were the first to settle in Italy. They probably came from the north, and +were pushed south by later immigrations, until they were crowded into +the southeastern corner of the peninsula (Calabria). Here they were +mostly absorbed by the Greeks, who settled in the eighth and seventh +centuries all along the southern and southwestern coast, and who were +more highly civilized. Besides the Iapygians, and distinct from the +Etruscans and Italians, were the Venetians and the Ligurians, the +former of whom settled in Venetia, the latter in Liguria. + +The ETRUSCANS at the time when Roman history begins were a powerful +and warlike race, superior to the Italians in civilization and the +arts of life. They probably came from the north, and at first settled +in the plain of the Po; but being afterwards dislodged by the invading +Gauls, they moved farther south, into Etruria. Here they formed a +confederation of twelve cities between the Arno and the Tiber. Of +these cities the most noted were Volsinii, the head of the +confederacy, Veii, Volaterrae, Caere, and Clusium. This people also +formed scattering settlements in other parts of Italy, but gained no +firm foothold. At one time, in the sixth century, they were in power +at Rome. Corsica, too, was at this time under their control. Their +commerce was considerable. Many well preserved monuments of their art +have been discovered, but no one has yet been able to decipher any of +the inscriptions upon them. The power of these people was gradually +lessened by the Romans, and after the fall of Veii, in 396, became +practically extinct. + +The ITALIANS were of the same origin as the Hellénes, and belonged to +the Aryan race, a people that lived in earliest times possibly in +Scandinavia. While the Hellénes were settling in Greece, the Italians +entered Italy. + +At this time the Italians had made considerable progress in +civilization. They understood, in a measure, the art of agriculture; +the building of houses; the use of wagons and of boats; of fire in +preparing food, and of salt in seasoning it. They could make various +weapons and ornaments out of copper and silver; husband and wife were +recognized, and the people were divided into clans (tribes). + +That portion of the Italians known as the LATINS settled in a plain +which is bounded on the east and south by mountains, on the west by +the Tyrrhenian Sea, and on the north by the high lands of Etruria. + +This plain, called LATIUM (flat country), contains about 700 square +miles (one half the size of Rhode Island), with a coast of only fifty +miles, and no good harbors. It is watered by two rivers, the Tiber, +and its tributary, the Anio. Hills rise here and there; as Soracte in +the northeast, the promontory of Circeium in the southwest, Janiculum +near Rome, and the Alban range farther south. The low lands (modern +_Campagna_) were malarious and unhealthy. Hence the first +settlements were made on the hills, which also could be easily +fortified. + +The first town established was ALBA; around this sprung up other +towns, as Lanuvium, Aricia, Tusculum, Tibur, Praeneste, Laurentum, +Roma, and Lavinium. + +These towns, thirty in number, formed a confederacy, called the LATIN +CONFEDERACY, and chose Alba to be its head. An annual festival was +celebrated with great solemnity by the magistrates on the Alban Mount, +called the Latin festival. Here all the people assembled and offered +sacrifice to their common god, Jupiter (_Latiaris_). + +[Illustration: Latium] + + + + +CHAPTER III. + +THE ROMANS AND THEIR EARLY GOVERNMENT. + + +We have learned the probable origin of the LATINS; how they settled in +Latium, and founded numerous towns. We shall now examine more +particularly that one of the Latin towns which was destined to +outstrip all her sisters in prosperity and power. + +Fourteen miles from the mouth of the Tiber, the monotonous level of +the plain through which the river flows is broken by a cluster of +hills [Footnote: The seven hills of historic Rome were the Aventine, +Capitoline, Coelian, Esquiline (the highest, 218 feet), Palatine, +Quirínal, and Viminal. The Janiculum was on the other side of the +Tiber, and was held by the early Romans as a stronghold against the +Etruscans. It was connected with Rome by a wooden bridge (_Pons +Sublicius_).] rising to a considerable height, around one of which, +the PALATINE, first settled a tribe of Latins called RAMNES,--a name +gradually changed to ROMANS. + +When this settlement was formed is not known. Tradition says in 753. +It may have been much earlier. These first settlers of Rome were +possibly a colony from Alba. In the early stages of their history they +united themselves with a Sabine colony that had settled north of them +on the QUIRÍNAL HILL. The name of TITIES was given to this new tribe. +A third tribe, named LUCERES, composed, possibly, of conquered Latins, +was afterwards added and settled upon the COELIAN HILL. + +All early communities, to which the Romans were no exception, were +composed of several groups of FAMILIES. The Romans called these groups +GENTES, and a single group was called a GENS. All the members of a +_gens_ were descended from a common ancestor, after whom the +_gens_ received its name. + +The head of each family was called PATER-FAMILIAS, and he had absolute +authority [Footnote: Called _patria potestas_.] over his household, +even in the matter of life and death. + +The Roman government at first was conducted by these Fathers of the +families, with a KING, elected from their own number, and holding +office for life. His duties were to command the army, to perform +certain sacrifices (as high priest), and to preside over the assembly +of the Fathers of the families, which was called the SENATE, i. e. an +assembly of old men (_Senex_). + +This body was probably originally composed of all the Fathers of the +families, but in historical times it was limited to THREE HUNDRED +members, holding life office, and appointed during the regal period by +the king. Later the appointment was made by the Consuls, still later +by the Censors, and for nearly one hundred years before Christ all +persons who had held certain offices were thereby vested with the +right of seats in the Senate. Hence, during this later period, the +number of Senators was greatly in excess of three hundred. The +Senators, when addressed, were called PATRES, or "Fathers," for they +were Fathers of the families. + +The Romans, as we saw above, were divided at first into three tribes, +_Ramnes_, _Tities_, and _Luceres_ Each tribe was subdivided into +ten districts called CURIAE, and each curia into ten clans called GENTES +(3 tribes, 30 curiae, and 300 gentes). Every Roman citizen, therefore, +belonged to a particular family, at the head of which was a _pater- +familias_; every family belonged to a particular _gens_, named +after a common ancestor; every gens belonged to a particular _curia_; +and every curia to a particular _tribe_. + +We have learned that in the early government of Rome there was a king, +and a senate that advised the king. Besides this, there was an +assembly composed of all Roman citizens who could bear arms. +[Footnote: We must remember that at this time no one was a Roman +citizen who did not belong to some family. All other residents were +either slaves or had no political rights, i.e. had no voice in the +government.] This assembly of Roman citizens met, from time to time, +in an enclosed space called the COMITIUM, which means a place of +gathering or coming together. This was between the Palatine and +Quirínal hills near the FORUM, or market-place. This assembly itself +was called the COMITIA CURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly composed of the 30 +curiae. This body alone had the power of changing the existing laws; +of declaring war or peace; and of confirming the election of kings +made by the senate. The voting in this assembly was taken by each +curia, and the majority of the curiae decided any question. + + + + +CHAPTER IV. + +THE EARLY GROWTH AND INTERNAL HISTORY OF ROME. + + +The position of Rome was superior to that of the other towns in the +Latin Confederacy. Situated on the Tiber, at the head of navigation, +she naturally became a commercial centre. Her citizens prospered and +grew wealthy, and wealth is power. Her hills were natural strongholds, +easily held against a foe. Thus we see that she soon became the most +powerful of the Latin cities, and when her interests conflicted with +theirs, she had no scruples about conquering any of them and annexing +their territory. Thus Alba was taken during the reign of Tullus +Hostilius, and his successor, Ancus Marcius, subdued several cities +along the river, and at its mouth founded a colony which was named +OSTIA, the seaport of Rome. + +At this time (about 625) the Roman territory (_ager Románus_) +comprised nearly 250 square miles, being irregular in shape, but lying +mostly along the southern bank of the Tiber and extending about ten or +twelve miles from the river. It was not materially increased during +the next two centuries. + +The original founders of Rome and their direct descendants were called +PATRICIANS, i. e. belonging to the _Patres_, or Fathers of the +families. They formed a class distinct from all others, jealously +protecting their rights against outsiders. Attached to the Patricians +was a class called CLIENTS, who, though free, enjoyed no civil rights, +i. e. they had no voice in the government, but were bound to assist in +every way the Patrician, called PATRON, to whom they were attached. In +return, the latter gave them his support, and looked after their +interests. These clients corresponded somewhat to serfs, worked on the +fields of their patrons, and bore the name of the _gens_ to which +their patron belonged. Their origin is uncertain; but they may have +come from foreign towns conquered by the Latins, and whose inhabitants +had not been made slaves. + +In addition to the clients there were actual slaves, who were the +property of their masters, and could be bought or sold at pleasure. +Sometimes a slave was freed, and then he was called a LIBERTUS +(freedman) and became the client of his former master. + +As Rome grew into commercial prominence, still another class of people +flocked into the city from foreign places, who might be called +resident foreigners, corresponding in general to the _Metics_ at +Athens. Such were many merchants and workmen of all trades. These all +were supposed to be under the protection of some patrician who acted +as their patron. + +These three classes, clients, slaves, and resident foreigners, were +all of a different race from the Romans. This should be constantly +borne in mind. + +We have learned that Rome, as she grew in power, conquered many of the +Latin towns, and added their territory to hers. The inhabitants of +these towns were of the same race as the Romans, but were not allowed +any of their civil rights. Most of them were farmers and peasants. +Many of them were wealthy. This class of inhabitants on the _ager +Romanus_, or in Rome itself, were called Plebeians (_Plebs, +multitude). Their very name shows that they must have been numerous. +They belonged to no gens or curia, but were free, and allowed to +engage in trade and to own property. In later times (from about 350) +all who were not Patricians or slaves were called Plebeians. + + +THE ARMY. + +Until the time of Servius Tullius (about 550) the army was composed +entirely of patricians. It was called a Legio (a word meaning +_levy_), and numbered three thousand infantry called _milites_, +from _mille_, a thousand, one thousand being levied from each tribe. +The cavalry numbered three hundred at first, one hundred from each +tribe, and was divided into three companies called Centuries. + +During the reign of Servius the demands of the plebeians, who had now +become numerous, for more rights, was met by the so called SERVIAN +reform of the constitution. Heretofore only the patricians had been +required to serve in the army. Now all males were liable to service. +To accomplish this, every one who was a land-owner, provided he owned +two acres, was enrolled and ranked according to his property. There +were five "Classes" of them. The several classes were divided into 193 +subdivisions called "Centuries," each century representing the same +amount of property. In the first class there were forty centuries in +active service, composed of men under forty-six, forty centuries of +reserve, and eighteen centuries of cavalry. + +In the second, third, and fourth classes there were twenty centuries +each, ten in active service, and ten in reserve. The fifth class had +thirty centuries of soldiers, and five of mechanics, musicians, etc. + +The first four ranks of the troops were made up of the infantry from +the first class. All were armed with a leather helmet, round shield, +breastplate, greaves (leg-pieces), spear, and sword. The fifth rank +was composed of the second class, who were armed like the first, +without breastplate. The sixth rank was composed of the third class, +who had neither breastplate nor greaves. Behind these came the fourth +class, armed with spears and darts, and the fifth class, having only +slings. + +Each soldier of the infantry paid for his own equipments; the cavalry, +however, received from the state a horse, and food to keep it. + +This new organization of both patricians and plebeians was originally +only for military purposes,--that the army might be increased, and the +expenses of keeping it more equitably divided among all the people. +But gradually, as the influence of the wealthy plebeians began to be +felt, the organization was found well adapted for political purposes, +and all the people were called together to vote under it. It was +called the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA, i.e. an assembly of centuries. The +place of meeting was on the CAMPUS MARTIUS, a plain outside of the +city. + +In this assembly each century had one vote, and its vote was decided +by the majority of its individual voters. The tendency of this system +was to give the wealthy the whole power; for since each century +represented the same amount of property, the centuries in the upper or +richer classes were much smaller than those in the lower or poorer +classes, so that a majority of the centuries might represent a small +minority of the people. The majority of the wealthy people at Rome +were still patricians, so the assembly was virtually controlled by +them. In this assembly magistrates were elected, laws made, war +declared, and judgment passed in all criminal cases. + +[Illustration: CAMPANIA] + + + + +CHAPTER V. + +THE DYNASTY OF THE TARQUINS. + + +Of the seven traditional kings of Rome, the last three were +undoubtedly of Etruscan origin, and their reigns left in the city many +traces of Etruscan influence. The Etruscans were great builders, and +the only buildings of importance that Rome possessed, until a much +later period, were erected under this dynasty. The names of these +kings are said to have been LUCIUS TARQUINIUS PRISCUS, SERVIUS +TULLIUS, his son-in-law, and LUCIUS TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS. + +Under the first of these kings were built the fine temple of JUPITER +CAPITOLÍNUS, on the Capitoline Hill, and near by shrines to JUNO and +MINERVA. This temple to Jupiter was called the CAPITOLIUM, and from it +we get our word CAPITOL. It was looked upon as the centre of Roman +religion and authority, and at times the Senate was convened in it. + +During this reign the famous CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer intended to +drain the Campagna, is also said to have been constructed. This sewer +was so well built that it is still used. + +Under the second king of this dynasty, Servius Tullius, the city was +surrounded with a wall, which included the Palatine, Quirínal, +Coelian, and Aventine hills, and also the Janiculum, which was on the +opposite side of the river, and connected with the city by a bridge +(_pons sublicius_). + +The establishment of the new military organization, mentioned in the +previous chapter, was attributed also to this king. + +The pupil will notice the similarity between these reforms of Tullius +and those of Solon of Athens, who lived about the same time. Thus +early was the Greek influence felt at Rome. + +During the reign of Tullius a temple in honor of DIÁNA was erected on +the Aventine, to be used by all the Latin towns. + +Tarquinius Superbus added to the AGER ROMÁNUS the territory of the +city of GABII, and planted two military colonies, which were +afterwards lost. The dynasty of the Tarquins ended with the overthrow +of this king, and a Republic was established, which lasted until the +death of Julius Caesar. + + + + +CHAPTER VI. + +THE CONSULS AND TRIBUNES. + + +At the close of the dynasty of the Tarquins, the regal form of +government was abolished, and instead of one king who held office for +life, two officers, called CONSULS, were elected annually from the +PATRICIANS, each of whom possessed supreme power, and acted as a +salutary check upon the other; so that neither was likely to abuse his +power. This change took place towards the close of the sixth century +before Christ. + +In times of great emergency a person called DICTATOR might be +appointed by one of the Consuls, who should have supreme authority; +but his tenure of office never exceeded six months, and he must be a +patrician. He exercised his authority only outside of the city walls. +It was at this time, about 500, that the COMITIA CENTURIÁTA came to be +the more important assembly, superseding in a great measure the +COMITIA CURIÁTA. + +We must remember that in this assembly all criminal cases were tried, +magistrates nominated, and laws adopted or rejected. We must not +forget that, since it was on a property basis, it was under the +control of the patricians, for the great mass of plebeians were poor. +Still there were many wealthy plebeians, and so far the assembly was a +gain for this party. + +About this time the Senate, which heretofore had consisted solely of +Fathers of the families (_Patres_), admitted into its ranks some +of the richest of the landed plebeians, and called them CONSCRIPTI. +[Footnote: This is the origin of the phrase used by speakers +addressing the Senate, viz.: "_Patres (et) Consripti_"] These, +however, could take no part in debates, nor could they hold +magistracies. + +In the Senate, thus constituted, the nomination of all magistrates +made in the Comitia Centuriáta was confirmed or rejected. In this way +it controlled the election of the Consuls, whose duties, we must +remember, were those of generals and supreme judges, though every +Roman citizen had the privilege of appealing from their decision in +cases which involved life. + +Two subordinate officers, chosen from the patricians, were appointed +by the Consuls. These officers, called QUAESTÓRES, managed the +finances of the state, under the direction of the Senate. + +The wars in which the Romans had been engaged, during the century +preceding the establishment of the Republic, had impoverished the +state and crippled its commerce. This was felt by all classes, but +especially by the small landed plebeians whose fields had been +devastated. They were obliged to mortgage their property to pay the +taxes, and, when unable to meet the demands of their creditors, +according to the laws they could be imprisoned, or even put to death. + +The rich land-owners, on the other hand, increased their wealth by +"farming" the public revenues; i.e. the state would let out to them, +for a stipulated sum, the privilege of collecting all import and other +duties. These, in turn (called in later times Publicans), would extort +all they could from the tax-payers, thus enriching themselves +unlawfully. So the hard times, the oppression of the tax-gatherer, and +the unjust law about debt, made the condition of the poor unendurable. + +The military service, too, bore hard upon them. Many were obliged to +serve more than their due time, and in a rank lower than was just; for +the Consuls, who had charge of the levy of troops, were patricians, +and naturally favored their own party. Hence we see that the cavalry +service was at this time made up entirely of young patricians, while +the older ones were in the reserve corps, so that the brunt of +military duty fell on the plebeians. + +This state of things could not last, and, as the opportunity for +rebelling against this unjust and cruel oppression was offered, the +plebeians were not slow in accepting it. + +The city was at war with the neighboring Sabines, Aequians, and +Volscians, and needed extra men for defence. One of the Consuls +liberated all who were confined in prison for debt, and the danger was +averted. Upon the return of the army, however, those who had been set +free were again thrown into prison. The next year the prisoners were +again needed. At first they refused to obey, but were finally +persuaded by the Dictator. But after a well-earned victory, upon their +return to the city walls, the plebeians of the army deserted, and, +marching to a hill near by, occupied it, threatening to found a new +city unless their wrongs were redressed. This is called the First +Secession of the Plebs, and is said to have been in 494. + +The patricians and richer plebeians saw that concessions must be made, +for the loss of these people would be ruin to Rome. Those in debt were +released from their obligations, and the plebeians received the right +to choose annually, from their own numbers, two officers called +TRIBÚNI PLEBIS, who should look after their interests, and have the +power of VETOING any action taken by any magistrate in the city. This +power, however, was confined within the city walls, and could never be +exercised outside of them. + +The person of the Tribunes was also made sacred, to prevent +interference with them while in discharge of their duties, and if any +one attempted to stop them he was committing a capital crime. Thus, if +the Consuls or Quaestors were inclined to press the law of debt to +extremes, or to be unjust in the levying of troops, the Tribunes could +step in, and by their VETO stop the matter at once. + +This was an immense gain for the plebeians, and they were justified in +giving the name of SACRED MOUNT to the hill to which they had seceded. + +The number of Tribunes was afterwards increased to five, and still +later to ten. + + + + +CHAPTER VII. + +THE COMITIA TRIBUTA AND THE AGRARIAN LAWS. + + +The next gain made by the plebeians was the annual appointment from +their own ranks of two officers, called AEDILES. [Footnote: The word +"Aedile" is derived from _Aedes_, meaning temple.] These officers +held nearly the same position in reference to the Tribunes that the +Quaestors did to the Consuls. They assisted the Tribunes in the +performance of their various duties, and also had special charge of +the temple of Ceres. In this temple were deposited, for safe keeping, +all the decrees of the Senate. + +These two offices, those of Tribune and Aedile, the result of the +first secession, were filled by elections held at first in the Comitia +Centuriáta, but later in an assembly called the COMITIA TRIBÚTA, which +met sometimes within and sometimes without the city walls. + +This assembly was composed of plebeians, who voted by "tribes" +(_tributa_, meaning composed of tribes), each tribe being +entitled to one vote, and its vote being decided by the majority of +its individual voters. [Footnote: These "tribes" were a territorial +division, corresponding roughly to "wards" in our cities. At this time +there were probably sixteen, but later there were thirty-five. The +plebeians in the city lived mostly in one quarter, on the Aventine +Hill.] + +The Comitia Tribúta was convened and presided over by the Tribunes and +Aediles. In it were discussed matters of interest to the plebeians. By +it any member could be punished for misconduct, and though at first +measures passed in it were not binding on the people at large, it +presently became a determined body, with competent and bold leaders, +who were felt to be a power in the state. + +The aim of the patricians was now to lessen the power of the Tribunes; +that of the plebeians, to restrain the Consuls and extend the +influence of the Tribunes. Party spirit ran high; even hand to hand +contests occurred in the city. Many families left Rome and settled in +neighboring places to escape the turmoil. It is a wonder that the +government withstood the strain, so fierce was the struggle. + +The AGRARIAN LAWS at this time first become prominent. These laws had +reference to the distribution of the PUBLIC LANDS. Rome had acquired a +large amount of land taken from the territory of conquered cities. +This land was called AGER PUBLICUS, or _public land_. + +Some of this land was sold or given away as "homesteads," and then it +became AGER PRIVÁTUS, or _private land_. But the most of it was +occupied by permission of the magistrates. The occupants were usually +rich patricians, who were favored by the patrician magistrates. This +land, so occupied, was called AGER OCCUPÁTUS, or _possessio_; but +it really was still the property of the state. The rent paid was a +certain per cent (from 10 to 20) of the crops, or so much a head for +cattle on pasture land. Although the state had the undoubted right to +claim this land at any time, the magistrates allowed the occupants to +retain it, and were often lenient about collecting dues. In course of +time, this land, which was handed down from father to son, and +frequently sold, began to be regarded by the occupants as their own +property. Also the land tax (TRIBÚTUM), which was levied on all +_ager privátus_, and which was especially hard upon the small +plebeian land-owners, could not legally be levied upon the _ager +occupátus_. Thus the patricians who possessed, not owned, this land +were naturally regarded as usurpers by the plebeians. + +The first object of the AGRARIAN LAWS was to remedy this evil. + +SPURIUS CASSIUS, an able man, now came forward (486?), proposing a law +that the state take up these lands, divide them into small lots, and +distribute them among the poor plebeians as homes (homesteads). The +law was carried, but in the troublesome times it cost Cassius his +life, and was never enforced. + + + + +CHAPTER VIII. + +THE CONTEST OF THE PLEBEIANS FOR CIVIL RIGHTS. + + +The plebeians were now (about 475) as numerous as the patricians, if +not more so. Their organization had become perfected, and many of +their leaders were persistent in their efforts to better the condition +of their followers. Their especial aim was to raise their civil and +political rights to an equality with those of the patricians. The +struggle finally culminated in the murder of one of the Tribunes, +Gnarus Genucius, for attempting to veto some of the acts of the +Consuls. + +VALERO PUBLILIUS, a Tribune, now (471) proposed and carried, +notwithstanding violent opposition by the patricians, a measure to the +effect that the Tribunes should hereafter be chosen in the _Comitia +Tribúta_, instead of the _Comitia Centuriáta_. Thus the plebeians +gained a very important step. This bill is called the PUBLILIAN LAW +(_Plebiscítum Publilium_). [Footnote: All bills passed in the Comitia +Tribúta were called Plebiscíta, and until 286 were not necessarily +binding upon the people at large; but this bill seems to have been +recognized as a law.] + +For the next twenty years the struggle continued unabated. The +plebeians demanded a WRITTEN CODE OF LAWS. + +We find among all early peoples that the laws are at first the +unwritten ones of custom and precedent. The laws at Rome, thus far, +had been interpreted according to the wishes and traditions of the +patricians only. A change was demanded. This was obtained by the +TERENTILIAN ROGATION, a proposal made in 461 by Gaius Terentilius +Harsa, a Tribune, to the effect that the laws thereafter be written. +The patrician families, led by one Kaeso Quinctius, made bitter +opposition. Kaeso himself, son of the famous Cincinnátus, was +impeached by the Tribune and fled from the city. + +Finally it was arranged that the Comitia Centuriáta should select from +the people at large ten men, called the DECEMVIRATE, to hold office +for one year, to direct the government and supersede all other +magistrates, and especially to draw up a code of laws to be submitted +to the people for approval. A commission of three patricians was sent +to Athens to examine the laws of that city, which was now (454) at the +height of its prosperity. Two years were spent by this commission, and +upon their return in 452 the above mentioned Decemvirate was +appointed. + +The laws drawn up by this board were approved, engraved on ten tables +of copper, and placed in the Forum in front of the Senate-House. Two +more tables were added the next year. These TWELVE TABLES were the +only Roman code. + +The DECEMVIRI should have resigned as soon as these laws were +approved, but they neglected to do so, and began to act in a cruel and +tyrannical manner. The people, growing uneasy under their injustice, +finally rebelled when one of the Decemviri, Appius Claudius, passed a +sentence that brought an innocent maiden, Virginia, into his power. +Her father, Virginius, saved his daughter's honor by stabbing her to +the heart, and fleeing to the camp called upon the soldiers to put +down such wicked government. + +A second time the army deserted its leaders, and seceded to the SACRED +MOUNT, where they nominated their own Tribunes. Then, marching into +the city, they compelled the Decemviri to resign. + +The TWELVE TABLES have not been preserved, except in fragments, and we +know but little of their exact contents. The position of the debtor +was apparently made more endurable. The absolute control of the +_pater familias_ over his family was abolished. The close +connection heretofore existing between the clients and patrons was +gradually relaxed, the former became less dependent upon the latter, +and finally were absorbed into the body of the plebeians. _Gentes_ +among the plebeians now began to be recognized; previously only the +patricians had been divided into _gentes_. + +Thus we see, socially, the two orders were approaching nearer and +nearer. + +In 449 Valerius and Horatius were elected Consuls, and were +instrumental in passing the so called VALERIO-HORATIAN laws, the +substance of which was as follows:-- + +I. Every Roman citizen could appeal to the Comitia Centuriáta against +the sentence of any magistrate. + +II. All the decisions of the Comitia Tribúta (_plebiscita_), if +sanctioned by the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta, were made binding +upon patricians and plebeians alike. This assembly now became of equal +importance with the other two. + +III. The persons of the Tribunes, Aediles, and other plebeian +officers, were to be considered sacred. + +IV. The Tribunes could take part in the debates of the Senate, and +veto any of its decisions. + +Two years later (447), the election of the Quaestors, who must still +be patricians, was intrusted to the Comitia Tribúta. Heretofore they +had been appointed by the Consuls. + +In 445 the Tribune Canuleius proposed a bill which was passed, and +called the CANULEIAN LAW, giving to the plebeians the right of +intermarriage (_connubium_) with the patricians, and enacting +that all issue of such marriages should have the rank of the father. + +Canuleius also proposed another bill which he did not carry; viz. that +the consulship be open to the plebeians. A compromise, however, was +made, and it was agreed to suspend for a time the office of Consul, +and to elect annually six MILITARY TRIBUNES in the Comitia Centuriáta, +the office being open to all citizens. The people voted every year +whether they should have consuls or military tribunes, and this custom +continued for nearly a half-century. The patricians, however, were so +influential, that for a long time no plebeian was elected. + +As an offset to these gains of the plebeians, the patricians in 435 +obtained two new officers, called CENSORS, elected from their own +ranks every five years (_lustrum_) to hold office for eighteen +months. + +The duties of the Censors were:- + +I. To see that the citizens of every class were properly registered. + +II. To punish immorality in the Senate by the removal of any members +who were guilty of offences against public morals. + +III. To have the general supervision of the finances and public works +of the state. This office became in after years the most coveted at +Rome. + +A few years later, in 421, the plebeians made another step forward by +obtaining the right of electing one of their number as Quaestor. There +were now four Quaestors. + +Thus the patricians, in spite of the most obstinate resistance, +sustained loss after loss. Even the rich plebeians, who had hitherto +often found it for their interest to side with the patricians, joined +the farmers or lower classes. + +Finally, in 367, the Tribunes Licinius and Sextius proposed and passed +the following bills, called the LICINIAN ROGATIONS. + +I. To abolish the six military tribunes, and elect annually, as +formerly, two Consuls, choosing one or both of them from the +plebeians. + +II. To forbid any citizen's holding more than 500 _jugera_ (300 +acres) of the public lands, or feeding thereon more than 100 oxen or +500 sheep. + +III. To compel all landlords to employ on their fields a certain +number of free laborers, proportionate to the number of their slaves. + +IV. To allow all interest hitherto paid on borrowed money to be +deducted from the principal, and the rest to be paid in three yearly +instalments. + +These rogations were a great gain for the poorer classes. It gave them +an opportunity for labor which had previously been performed mostly by +slaves. They were less burdened by debts, and had some prospect of +becoming solvent. But most of all, since the office of Consul was open +to them, they felt that their interests were now more likely to be +protected. The temple of CONCORDIA in the Forum was dedicated by +Camillus as a mark of gratitude for the better times that these +rogations promised. + +The plebeians, however, did not stop until all the offices, except +that of _Interrex_, were thrown open to them. First they gained +that of Dictator, then those of Censor and of Praetor, and finally, in +286, by the law of HORTENSIUS, the plebiscita became binding upon all +the people without the sanction of the Senate and Comitia Centuriáta. +After 200 the sacred offices of PONTIFEX and AUGUR also could be +filled by plebeians. + +Thus the strife that had lasted for two centuries was virtually ended; +and although the Roman patricians still held aloof from the commons, +yet their rights as citizens were no greater than those of the +plebeians. + +To recapitulate:-- + +Full citizenship comprised four rights, viz.: that of trading and +holding property (COMMERCIUM); that of voting (SUFFRAGIUM); that of +intermarriage (CONNUBIUM); and that of holding office (HONORES). + +The first of these rights the plebeians always enjoyed; the second +they obtained in the establishment of the COMITIA TRIBÚTA; the third +by the CANULEIAN BILL; the fourth by the LICINIAN and subsequent +bills. + + + + +CHAPTER IX. + +EXTERNAL HISTORY. + + +The first authentic history of Rome begins about 400. The city then +possessed, possibly, three hundred square miles of territory. The +number of tribes had been increased to twenty-five. Later it became +thirty-five. + +In 391 a horde of Celtic barbarians crossed the Apennines into Etruria +and attacked CLUSIUM. Here a Celtic chief was slain by Roman +ambassadors, who, contrary to the sacred character of their mission, +were fighting in the ranks of the Etrurians. The Celts, in revenge, +marched upon Rome. The disastrous battle of the ALLIA, a small river +about eleven miles north of the city, was fought on July 18, 390. The +Romans were thoroughly defeated and their city lay at the mercy of the +foe. The Celts, however, delayed three days before marching upon Rome. +Thus the people had time to prepare the Capitol for a siege, which +lasted seven months, when by a large sum of money the barbarians were +induced to withdraw. + +During this siege the records of the city's history were destroyed, +and we have no trustworthy data for events that happened previous to +390. + +The city was quickly rebuilt and soon recovered from the blow. In 387 +the lost territory adjacent to the Tiber was annexed, and military colonies + were planted at Sutrium and Nepete upon the Etruscan border, and +also at Circeii and Setia. [Footnote: These military colonies, of which +the Romans subsequently planted many, were outposts established to +protect conquered territory. A band of Roman citizens was armed and +equipped, as if for military purposes. They took with them their wives +and children, slaves and followers, and established a local government +similar to that of Rome. These colonists relinquished their rights as +Roman citizens and became Latins; hence the name LATIN COLONIES.] +The neighboring Latin town of TUSCULUM, which had always been a +faithful ally, was annexed to Rome. + +The trying times of these years had caused numerous enemies to spring +up all around Rome; but she showed herself superior to them all, until +finally, in 353, she had subdued the whole of Southern Etruria, and +gained possession of the town of CAERE, with most of its territory. +The town was made a MUNICIPIUM, the first of its kind. + +The inhabitants, being of foreign blood and language, were not allowed +the full rights of Roman citizenship, but were permitted to govern +their own city in local matters as they wished. Many towns were +subsequently made MUNICIPIA. Their inhabitants were called CIVES SINE +SUFFRAGIO, "citizens without suffrage." + +During the next ten years (353-343) Rome subdued all the lowland +countries as far south as TARRACÍNA. To the north, across the Tiber, +she had acquired most of the territory belonging to VEII and CAPÉNA. + +In 354 she formed her first connections beyond the Liris, by a treaty +with the SAMNITES, a race that had established itself in the +mountainous districts of Central Italy. This people, spreading over +the southern half of Italy, had in 423 captured the Etruscan city of +CAPUA, and three years later the Greek city of CUMAE. Since then they +had been practically masters of the whole of Campania. + +After the treaty of 354 mentioned above, both the Romans and Samnites +had, independently of each other, been waging war upon the Volsci. The +Samnites went so far as to attack Teánum, a city of Northern Campania, +which appealed to Capua for aid. The Samnites at once appeared before +Capua, and she, unable to defend herself, asked aid of Rome. + +Alarmed at the advances of the Samnites, Rome only awaited an excuse +to break her treaty. This was furnished by the Capuans surrendering +their city unconditionally to Rome, so that, in attacking the +Samnites, she would simply be defending her subjects. + +Thus began the SAMNITE WARS, which lasted for over half a century with +varying success, and which were interrupted by two truces. It is usual +to divide them into three parts, the First, Second, and Third Samnite +Wars. + + +THE FIRST SAMNITE WAR (343-341). + +The accounts of this war are so uncertain and confused that no clear +idea of its details can be given. It resulted in no material advantage +to either side, except that Rome retained Capua and made it a +_municipium_, annexing its territory to her own. + + +THE LATIN WAR (340-338). + +The cities of the LATIN CONFEDERACY had been for a long time looking with +jealous eyes upon the rapid progress of Rome. Their own rights +had been disregarded, and they felt that they must now make a stand or +lose everything. They sent to Rome a proposition that one of the +Consuls and half of the Senate be Latins; but it was rejected. A war +followed, in the third year of which was fought the battle of +Trigánum, near Mount Vesuvius. The Romans, with their Samnite allies, +were victorious through the efforts of the Consul, TITUS MANLIUS +TORQUÁTUS, one of the illustrious names of this still doubtful period. +The remainder of the operations was rather a series of expeditions +against individual cities than a general war. + +In 338 all the Latins laid down their arms, and the war closed. The +Latin confederacy was at an end. Rome now was mistress. Four of the +Latin cities, TIBUR, PRAENESTE, CORA, and LAURENTUM, were left +independent, but all the rest of the towns were annexed to Rome. Their +territory became part of the _Ager Románus_, and the inhabitants +Roman plebeians. + +Besides acquiring Latium, Rome also annexed, as _municipia_, +three more towns, Fundi, Formiae, and Velítrae, a Volscian town. + +LATIUM was now made to include all the country from the Tiber to the +Volturnus. + +Rome about this time established several MARITIME (Roman) COLONIES, +which were similar to her MILITARY (Latin) COLONIES, except that the +colonists retained all their rights as Roman citizens, whereas the +military colonists relinquished these rights and became Latins. The +first of these colonies was ANTIUM (338); afterwards were established +TARRACÍNA (329), MINTURNAE, and SINUESSA (296). Others were afterwards +founded. + +Later, when Antium was changed into a military colony, its navy was +destroyed, and the beaks (_rostra_) of its ships were taken to +Rome, and placed as ornaments on the speaker's stand opposite the +Senate-House. Hence the name ROSTRA. + +At this time the FORUM, which had been used for trading purposes of +all kinds, was improved and beautified. It became a centre for +political discussions and financial proceedings. The bankers and +brokers had their offices here. Smaller _Fora_ were started near +the river, as the _Forum Boarium_ (cattle market) and the +_Forum Holitorium_ (vegetable market). + +Maenius, one of the Censors, was chiefly instrumental in bringing +about these improvements. + + +THE SECOND AND THIRD SAMNITE WARS (326-290). + +The results of the First Samnite War and the Latin War were, as we +have seen, to break up the Latin confederacy, and enlarge the domain +of Rome. + +There were now in Italy three races aiming at the supremacy, the +Romans, the Samnites, and the Etruscans. The last of these was the +weakest, and had been declining ever since the capture by the Romans +of Veii in 396, and of Caere in 353. + +In the contest which followed between Rome and the Samnites, the +combatants were very nearly matched. Rome had her power more compact +and concentrated, while the Samnites were superior in numbers, but +were more scattered. They were both equally brave. + +During the first five years of the war (326-321), the Romans were +usually successful, and the Samnites were forced to sue for peace. In +this period Rome gained no new territory, but founded a number of +military posts in the enemy's country. + +The peace lasted for about a year, when hostilities were again +renewed. By this time the Samnites had found a worthy leader in Gavius +Pontius, by whose skill and wisdom the fortune of war was turned +against the Romans for seven years (321-315). He allured the Romans +into a small plain, at each end of which was a defile (Furculae +Caudinae). On reaching this plain they found Pontius strongly posted +to oppose them. After a bloody but fruitless attempt to force him to +retreat, the Romans themselves were compelled to give way. But +meanwhile Pontius had also occupied the defile in their rear, and they +were obliged to surrender. + +A treaty was signed by the Consuls Titus Veturius and Spurius +Postumius, according to which peace was to be made, and everything +restored to its former condition. + +Such was the affair at the Caudine Forks (321), one of the most +humiliating defeats that ever befell the Roman arms. The army was made +to pass under the yoke,--which was made of three spears, two stuck +into the ground parallel to each other and the third placed above +them,--and then suffered to depart. + +Rome was filled with dismay at the news. The citizens dressed in +mourning, business and amusements were suspended, and every energy was +devoted to repairing the disaster. Compliance with the terms of the +treaty was refused, on the ground that no treaty was valid unless +sanctioned by a vote of the people. It was determined to deliver the +Consuls who had signed it to the enemy. + +Pontius, indignant at the broken faith, refused to accept them, and +the war was renewed. It continued for seven years, when (310) the +Samnites were so thoroughly whipped by QUINTUS FABIUS, then Dictator, +at LAKE VADIMÓNIS in Etruria, that they could no longer make any +effective resistance, and at last (304) agreed to relinquish all their +sea-coast, their alliances and conquests, and acknowledge the +supremacy of Rome. + +During this war the Etruscans made their last single effort against +the Roman power. An expedition was sent in 311 to attack the military +colony of Sutrium, which had been founded seventy-six years before. +The Consul Quintus Fabius went to the rescue, raised the siege, drove +the Etruscans into the Ciminian forests, and there completely defeated +them. + +Six years intervened between the Second and the THIRD SAMNITE WAR +(298-290). This time was employed by the Samnites in endeavoring to +unite Italy against Rome. They were joined by the UMBRIANS, GAULS, and +ETRUSCANS. The LUCANIANS alone were with Rome. + +The war was of short duration, and was practically decided by the +sanguinary battle of SENTINUM (295) in Umbria. The Samnites, led by +Gellius Egnatius, were routed by the Roman Consuls QUINTUS FABIUS +MAXIMUS and PUBLIUS DECIUS MUS. + +In this battle the struggle was long and doubtful. The Samnites were +assisted by the Gauls, who were showing themselves more than a match +for the part of the Roman army opposed to them, and commanded by +Decius. Following the example of his illustrious father, the Consul +vowed his life to the Infernal Gods if victory were granted, and, +rushing into the midst of the enemy, was slain. [Footnote: It is said +that the father of Decius acted in a similar manner in a battle of the +Latin war.] His soldiers, rendered enthusiastic by his example, +rallied and pushed back the Gauls. The victory was now complete, for +the Samnites were already fleeing before that part of the army which +was under Fabius. + +The war dragged on for five years, when the Consul MANIUS CURIUS +DENTÁTUS finally crushed the Samnites, and also the SABINES, who had +recently joined them. The Samnites were allowed their independence, +and became allies of Rome. The Sabines were made Roman citizens +(_sine suffragio_), and their territory was annexed to the +_Ager Románus_. This territory now reached across Italy from the +Tuscan to the Adriatic Sea, separating the Samnites and other nations +on the south from the Umbrians, Gauls, and Etruscans on the north. + +In 283, at Lake Vadimónis, the Romans defeated the Senonian and Boian +Gauls, and founded the military colony of SENA GALLICA. + + + + +CHAPTER X. + +WARS WITH PYRRHUS (281-272). + +In the early times of Rome, while she was but little known, it had +been the custom of Greece to send colonies away to relieve the +pressure of too rapid increase. We find them in Spain, France, Asia +Minor, and especially in Sicily and Southern Italy, where the country +became so thoroughly Grecianized that it was called MAGNA GRAECIA. +Here were many flourishing cities, as Tarentum, Sybaris, Croton, and +Thurii. These had, at the time of their contact with Rome, greatly +fallen from their former grandeur, owing partly to the inroads of +barbarians from the north, partly to civil dissensions, and still more +to their jealousy of each other; so that they were unable to oppose +any firm and united resistance to the progress of Rome. It had been +their custom to rely largely upon strangers for the recruiting and +management of their armies,--a fact which explains in part the ease +with which they were overcome. + +Of these cities TARENTUM was now the chief. With it a treaty had been +made by which the Tarentines agreed to certain limits beyond which +their fleet was not to pass, and the Romans bound themselves not to +allow their vessels to appear in the Gulf of Tarentum beyond the +Lacinian promontory. As usual, the Romans found no difficulty in +evading their treaty whenever it should profit them. + +Thurii was attacked by the Lucanians, and, despairing of aid from +Tarentum, called on Rome for assistance. As soon as domestic +affairs permitted, war was declared against the Lucanians, and the +wedge was entered which was to separate Magna Graecia from Hellas, and +deliver the former over to Rome. + +Pretending that the war was instigated by Tarentum, Rome decided to +ignore the treaty, and sent a fleet of ten vessels into the Bay of +Tarentum. It was a gala day, and the people were assembled in the +theatre that overlooked the bay when the ships appeared. It was +determined to punish the intrusion. A fleet was manned, and four of +the Roman squadron were destroyed. + +An ambassador, Postumius, sent by Rome to demand satisfaction, was +treated with insult and contempt. He replied to the mockery of the +Tarentines, that their blood should wash out the stain. The next year +one of the Consuls was ordered south. + +Meanwhile Tarentum had sent envoys to ask aid of PYRRHUS, the young +and ambitious KING OF EPÍRUS. He was cousin of Alexander the Great, +and, since he had obtained no share in the division of the conquests +of this great leader, his dream was to found an empire in the West +that would surpass the exhausted monarchies of the East. + +Pyrrhus landed in Italy in 281 with a force of 20,000 infantry, 3,000 +cavalry, and 20 elephants. He at once set about compelling the +effeminate Greeks to prepare for their own defence. Places of +amusement were closed; the people were forced to perform military +duty; disturbers of the public safety were put to death; and other +reforms were made which the dangers of the situation seemed to demand. +Meanwhile the Romans acted with promptness, and boldly challenged him +to battle. The armies met in 280 on the plain of HERACLÉA, on the +banks of the Liris, where the level nature of the country was in favor +of the Greek method of fighting. The Macedonian phalanx was the most +perfect instrument of warfare the world had yet seen, and the Roman +legions had never yet been brought into collision with it. + +The Romans, under LAEVÍNUS, were defeated, more by the surprise of a +charge of elephants than by the tactics of the phalanx. However, they +retired in good order. Pyrrhus is said to have been much impressed by +the heroic conduct of the foe, and to have said, "Another such victory +will send me back without a man to Epirus." He recognized the inferior +qualities of his Greek allies, and determined to make a peace. A +trusted messenger, CINEAS, was sent to Rome. He was noted for his +eloquence, which was said to have gained more for his master than the +sword. Through him Pyrrhus promised to retire to Epirus if safety was +guaranteed to his allies in Italy. + +The eloquence of Cineas was fortified with presents for the Senators; +and though these were refused, many seemed disposed to treat with him, +when the aged APPIUS CLAUDIUS CAECUS (Blind) was led into the Senate, +and declared that Rome should never treat with an enemy in arms. + +Cineas was deeply impressed by the dignity of the Romans, and declared +that the Senators were an assembly of kings and Rome itself a temple. + +Pyrrhus then tried force, and, hastily advancing northward, appeared +within eighteen miles of the city. Here his danger became great. The +defection he had hoped for among the Latins did not take place, and +the armies which had been operating elsewhere were now ready to unite +against him. He therefore retired into winter quarters at Tarentum, +where he received the famous embassy of GAIUS FABRICIUS, sent to +propose an interchange of prisoners. It was in vain that bribes and +threats were employed to shake the courage of the men sent by the +Senate; and, on his part, Pyrrhus refused to grant the desired +exchange. + +Many Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and hostilities were renewed. +The armies again met in 279 on the plain of ASCULUM, in Apulia; but +though the Romans were defeated, it was only another of those Pyrrhic +victories which were almost as disastrous as defeat. + +The same year Pyrrhus retired to Sicily to defend Syracuse against the +Carthaginians, who were allied to the Romans. He remained on the +island three years. Upon his return to Italy he met the Romans for the +last time in 274, near BENEVENTUM, where he was defeated by the Consul +MANIUS CURIOUS DENTÁTUS. The Romans had by this time become accustomed +to the elephants, and used burning arrows against them. The wounded +beasts became furious and unmanageable, and threw the army into +disorder. With this battle ended the career of Pyrrhus in Italy. He +returned home, and two years later was accidentally killed by a woman +at Argos. + +The departure of Pyrrhus left all Italy at the mercy of Rome. Two +years later, in 272, the garrison at Tarentum surrendered, the city +walls were demolished, and the fleet given up. + + + + +CHAPTER XI. + +DIVISIONS OF THE ROMAN TERRITORY.--NOTED MEN OF THE PERIOD. + + +Rome was now mistress of all Italy south of the Arnus and Aesis. This +country was divided into two parts. + +I. The AGER ROMÁNUS, including about one quarter of the whole, bounded +on the north by CAERE, on the south by FORMIAE, and on the east by the +APENNINES. + +II. The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES. + +The _Ager Románus_ was subdivided, for voting and financial +purposes, into thirty-three, afterwards thirty-five districts +(tribes), four of which were in Rome. The elections were all held at +Rome. + +These districts were made up,-- + +a. Of ROME. + +b. Of the ROMAN COLONIES, mostly maritime, now numbering seven, but +finally increased to thirty-five. + +c. Of the MUNICIPIA (towns bound to service). + +d. Of the PRAEFECTÚRAE (towns governed by a praefect, who was sent +from Rome and appointed by the Praetor). + +The DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES were made up,-- + +a. Of the LATIN (military) COLONIES, now numbering twenty-two, +afterwards increased to thirty-five. + +b. Of the ALLIES of Rome (_Socii_), whose cities and adjoining +territory composed more than one half of the country controlled by +Rome. + +These allies were allowed local government, were not obliged to pay +tribute, but were called upon to furnish their proportion of troops +for the Roman army. + +The inhabitants of this country were divided into five classes, viz.-- + +a. Those who possessed both PUBLIC and PRIVATE RIGHTS as citizens, +i. e. FULL RIGHTS. [Footnote: Public rights consisted of the _jus +suffragii_ (right of voting at Rome); _jus honorum_ (right of +holding office), and _jus provocationis_ (right of appeal). +Private rights were _jus connubii_ (right of intermarriage); and +_jus commercii_ (right of trading and holding property). Full +rights were acquired either by birth or gift. A child born of parents, +both of whom enjoyed the _jus connubii_, was a Roman citizen with +full rights. Foreigners were sometimes presented with citizenship +(_civitas_)] + +b. Those who were subjects and did not possess full rights. + +c. Those who were ALLIES (_Socii_). + +d. Those who were SLAVES, who possessed no rights. + +e. Those who were RESIDENT FOREIGNERS, who possessed the right of +trading. + +To class _a_ belonged the citizens of Rome, of the Roman +colonies, and of some of the Municipia. + +To class _b_ belonged the citizens of most of the Municipia, who +possessed only private rights, the citizens of all the _Praefectúrae_, +and the citizens of all the Latin colonies. + +ROADS. + +Even at this early date, the necessity of easy communication with the +capital seems to have been well understood. Roads were pushed in every +direction,--broad, level ways, over which armies might be marched or +intelligence quickly carried. They were chains which bound her +possessions indissolubly together. Some of them remain today a +monument of Roman thoroughness, enterprise, and sagacity,--the wonder +and admiration of modern road-builders. By these means did Rome fasten +together the constantly increasing fabric of her empire, so that not +even the successes of Hannibal caused more than a momentary shaking of +fidelity, for which ample punishment was both speedy and certain. + + +NOTED MEN. + +The three most noted men of the period embraced in the two preceding +chapters were Appius Claudius, the Censor and patrician; and Manius +Curius Dentátus and Gaius Fabricius, plebeians. + +We have seen that all plebeians who were land-owners belonged to one +of the tribes, and could vote in the _Comitia Tribúta_; this, +however, shut out the plebeians of the city who owned no land, and +also the freedmen, who were generally educated and professional men, +such as doctors, teachers, etc. + +APPIUS CLAUDIUS as Censor, in 312, deprived the landowners of the +exclusive privilege of voting in the _Comitia Tribúta_, and gave +to property owners of any sort the right to vote. Eight years later +this law was modified, so that it applied to the four city tribes +alone, and the thirty-one rural tribes had for their basis landed +property only. + +During the censorship of Appius, Rome had its first regular water +supply by the Appian aqueduct. The first military road, the VIA APPIA, +was built under his supervision. This road ran at first from Rome as +far as Capua. It was constructed so well that many parts of it are +today in good condition. The road was afterward extended to +Brundisium, through Venusia and Tarentum. + +MANIUS CURIUS DENTÁTUS was a peasant, a contemporary of Appius, and +his opponent in many ways. He was a strong friend of the plebeians. He +obtained for the soldiers large assignments of the _Ager +Publicus_. He drained the low and swampy country near Reáte by a +canal. He was the conqueror of Pyrrhus. A man of sterling qualities, +frugal and unostentatious, after his public life he retired to his +farm and spent the remainder of his days in seclusion as a simple +peasant. + +GAIUS FABRICIUS, like Dentátus, was from the peasants. He was a +Hernican. As a soldier he was successful. As a statesman he was +incorruptible, and of great use to his country. Previous to the battle +of Asculum, Pyrrhus attempted to bribe him by large sums of money, +and, failing in this, thought to frighten him by hiding an elephant +behind a curtain; the curtain was suddenly removed, but Fabricius, +though immediately under the elephant's trunk, stood unmoved. + +In this generation we find Roman character at its best. Wealth had not +flowed into the state in such large quantities as to corrupt it. The +great mass of the people were peasants, small land-owners, of frugal +habits and moral qualities. But comparatively few owned large estates +as yet, or possessed large tracts of the _Ager Publicus_. A +century later, when most of the available land in the peninsula was +held by the wealthy and farmed by slaves, we find a great change. + +The fall of TARENTUM marks an important era in Roman history. Large +treasures were obtained from this and other Greek cities in Southern +Italy. Luxury became more fashionable; morals began to degenerate. +Greed for wealth obtained by plunder began to get possession of the +Romans. From now on the moral tone of the people continued to +degenerate in proportion as their empire increased. + + + + +CHAPTER XII. + +FOREIGN CONQUEST. + + +ROME AND CARTHAGE.--FIRST PUNIC WAR. (264-241.) [Footnote: The +word "Punic" is derived from _Phoenici_. The Carthaginians were +said to have come originally from PHOENICIA, on the eastern coast of +the Mediterranean. Their first ruler was Dido. The Latin student is of +course familiar with Virgil's story of Dido and Aenéas.] + +While Rome was gradually enlarging her territory from Latium to the +Straits of Messána, on the other shore of the Mediterranean, opposite +Italy and less than one hundred miles from Sicily, sprang up, through +industry and commerce, the Carthaginian power. + +Like Rome, Carthage had an obscure beginning. As in the case of Rome, +it required centuries to gain her power. + +It was the policy of Carthage to make a successful revolt of her +subdued allies an impossibility, by consuming all their energies in +the support of her immense population and the equipment of her +numerous fleets and armies. Hence all the surrounding tribes, once +wandering nomads, were forced to become tillers of the soil; and, with +colonies sent out by herself, they formed the so called Libyo- +Phoenician population, open to the attack of all, and incapable of +defence. Thus the country around Carthage was weak, and the moment a +foreign enemy landed in Africa the war was merely a siege of its chief +city. + +The power of Carthage lay in her commerce. Through her hands passed +the gold and pearls of the Orient; the famous Tyrian purple; ivory, +slaves, and incense of Arabia; the silver of Spain; the bronze of +Cyprus; and the iron of Elba. + +But the harsh and gloomy character of the people, their cruel +religion, which sanctioned human sacrifice, their disregard of the +rights of others, their well known treachery, all shut them off from +the higher civilization of Rome and Greece. + +The government of Carthage was an ARISTOCRACY. A council composed of a +few of high birth, and another composed of the very wealthy, managed +the state. Only in times of extraordinary danger were the people +summoned and consulted. + +Rome had made two treaties with Carthage; one immediately after the +establishment of the Republic, in 500, the other about 340. By these +treaties commerce was allowed between Rome and its dependencies and +Carthage and her possessions in Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. But the +Romans were not to trade in Spain, or sail beyond the Bay of Carthage. + +In leaving Sicily, Pyrrhus had exclaimed, "What a fine battle-field +for Rome and Carthage!" If Carthage were mistress of this island, Rome +would be shut up in her peninsula; if Rome were in possession of it, +"the commerce of Carthage would be intercepted, and a good breeze of +one night would carry the Roman fleets to her walls". + +At this time the island was shared by three powers,--HIERO, king of +Syracuse, the CARTHAGINIANS, and the MAMERTINES, a band of brigands +who came from Campania. The latter, making Messána their head- +quarters, had been pillaging all of the island that they could reach. +Being shut up in Messána by Hiero, they asked aid of Rome on the +ground that they were from Campania. Although Rome was in alliance +with Hiero, and had but recently executed 300 mercenaries for doing in +Rhegium what the Mamertines had done in Sicily,--she determined to aid +them, for Sicily was a rich and tempting prey. + +Meanwhile, however, through the intervention of the Carthaginians, a +truce had been formed between Hiero and the brigands, and the siege of +Messána was raised. The city itself was occupied by a fleet and +garrison of Carthaginians under HANNO, The Romans, though the +Mamertines no longer needed their aid, landed at Messána and dislodged +the Carthaginians, + +Thus opened the FIRST PUNIC WAR. The Romans at once formed a double +alliance with Syracuse and Messána, thus gaining control of the +eastern coast of Sicily and getting their first foothold outside of +Italy. + +The most important inland city of Sicily was AGRIGENTUM. Here the +Carthaginians the next year (262) concentrated their forces under +HANNIBAL, son of Cisco. The Romans besieged the city, but were +themselves cut off from supplies by Hanno, who landed at Heracléa in +their rear. Both besieged and besiegers suffered much. At last a +battle was fought (262), in which the Romans were victorious, owing to +their superior infantry. Agrigentum fell, and only a few strongholds +on the coast were left to the Carthaginians. + +The Romans now began to feel the need of a fleet. That of Carthage +ruled the sea without a rival: it notonly controlled many of the +seaports of Sicily, but also threatened Italy itself. With their usual +energy, the Romans began the work. [Footnote: In 259, three years +previous to the battle of Ecnomus, the Romans under Lucius Scipio +captured Blesia, a seaport of Corsica, and established there a naval +station.] A wrecked Carthaginian vessel was taken as a model, and by +the spring of 260 a navy of 120 sail was ready for sea. + +The ships were made the more formidable by a heavy iron beak, for the +purpose of running down and sinking the enemy's vessels; a kind of +hanging stage was also placed on the prow of the ship, which could be +lowered in front or on either side. It was furnished on both sides +with parapets, and had space for two men in front. On coming to close +quarters with the enemy, this stage was quickly lowered and fastened +to the opposing ship by means of grappling irons; thus the Roman +marines were enabled to board with ease their opponents' ship, and +fight as if on land. + +Four naval battles now followed: 1st, near LIPARA (260); 2d, off MYLAE +(260); 3d, off TYNDARIS (257); 4th, off ECNOMUS (256). + +In the first of these only seventeen ships of the Romans were engaged +under the CONSUL GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO. The fleet with its commander +was captured. + +In the second engagement, off Mylae, all the Roman fleet under GAIUS +DUILIUS took part. The Carthaginians were led by Hannibal, son of +Gisco. The newly invented stages or boarding-bridges of the Romans +were found to be very effective. The enemy could not approach near +without these bridges descending with their grappling irons and +holding them fast to the Romans. The Carthaginians were defeated, with +the loss of nearly half their fleet. + +A bronze column, ornamented with the beaks of the captured vessels, +was erected at Rome in honor of this victory of Duilius. The pedestal +of it is still standing, and on it are inscribed some of the oldest +inscriptions in the Latin language. + +The third engagement, off Tyndaris, resulted in a drawn battle. + +In the fourth engagement, off Ecnomus, the Carthaginians had 350 sail. +Thirty Carthaginian and twenty-four Roman vessels were sunk, and +sixty-four of the former captured. The Punic fleet withdrew to the +coast of Africa, and prepared in the Bay of Carthage for another +battle. But the Romans sailed to the eastern side of the peninsula +which helps to form the bay, and there landed without opposition. + +MARCUS ATILIUS REGULUS was put in command of the Roman forces in +Africa. For a time he was very successful, and the Carthaginians +became disheartened. Many of the towns near Cartilage surrendered, and +the capital itself was in danger. Peace was asked, but the terms +offered were too humiliating to be accepted. + +Regulus, who began to despise his opponents, remained inactive at +Tunis, near Carthage, neglecting even to secure a line of retreat to +his fortified camp at Clupea. The next spring (255) he was surprised, +his army cut to pieces, and he himself taken prisoner. He subsequently +died a captive at Carthage. + +The Romans, learning of this defeat, sent a fleet of 350 sail to +relieve their comrades who were shut up in Clupea. While on its way, +it gained a victory over the Carthaginian fleet off the Herméan +promontory, sinking 114 of the enemy's ships. + +It arrived at Clupea in time to save its friends. The war in Africa +was now abandoned. The fleet, setting sail for home, was partly +destroyed in a storm, only eighty ships reaching port. + +Hostilities continued for six years without any great results. +Panormus was taken in 254; the coast of Africa ravaged in 253; +Thermae and the island of Lipara were taken in 252, and Eryx in 249. + +DREPANA and LILYBAEUM were now the only places in Sicily, held by +Carthage. A regular siege of Lilybaeum was decided upon, and the city +was blockaded by land and sea; but the besieging party suffered as +much as the besieged, its supplies were frequently cut off by the +cavalry of the Carthaginians, and its ranks began to be thinned by +disease. + +The Consul, Publius Claudius, who had charge of the siege, determined +to surprise the Carthaginian fleet, which was stationed at Drepana +(249). He was unsuccessful, and lost three fourths of his vessels. +Another fleet of 120 sail sent to aid him was wrecked in a violent +storm. + +The Romans were now in perplexity. The war had lasted fifteen years. +Four fleets had been lost, and one sixth of the fighting population. +They had failed in Africa, and the two strongest places in Sicily were +still in the enemy's hands. For six years more the war dragged on +(249-243). + +A new Carthaginian commander, HAMILCAR BARCA (Lightning), meanwhile +took the field in Sicily. He was a man of great activity and military +talent, and the Romans at first were no match for him. He seemed in a +fair way to regain all Sicily. The apathy of the Senate was so great, +that at last some private citizens built and manned at their own +expense a fleet of 200 sail. + +GAIUS LUTATIUS CATALUS, the Consul in command, surprised the enemy and +occupied the harbors of Drepana and Lilybaeum in 242. A Carthaginian +fleet which came to the rescue was met and destroyed off the AEGÁTES +INSULAE in 241. Hamilcar was left in Sicily without support and +supplies. He saw that peace must be made. + +Sicily was surrendered. Carthage agreed to pay the cost of the war,-- +about $3,000,000,--one third down, and the remainder in ten annual +payments. Thus ended the First Punic War. + + + + +CHAPTER XIII. + +ROME AND CARTHAGE BETWEEN THE FIRST AND SECOND PUNIC WARS (241-218). + + +Twenty-three years elapsed between the First and Second Punic Wars. +The Carthaginians were engaged during the first part of this time in +crushing a mutiny of their mercenary troops. + +Rome, taking advantage of the position in which her rival was placed, +seized upon SARDINIA and CORSICA, and, when Carthage objected, +threatened to renew the war, and obliged her to pay more than one +million dollars as a fine (237). + +The acquisition of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica introduced into the +government of Rome a new system; viz. the PROVINCIAL SYSTEM. + +Heretofore the two chief magistrates of Rome, the Consuls, had +exercised their functions over all the Roman possessions. Now Sicily +was made what the Romans called a _provincia_, or PROVINCE. +Sardinia and Corsica formed another province (235). + +Over each province was placed a Roman governor, called Proconsul. For +this purpose two new Praetors were now elected, making four in all. +The power of the governor was absolute; he was commander in chief, +chief magistrate, and supreme judge. + +The finances of the provinces were intrusted to one or more QUAESTORS. +All the inhabitants paid as taxes into the Roman treasury one tenth of +their produce, and five per cent of the value of their imports and +exports. They were not obliged to furnish troops, as were the +dependants of Rome in Italy. + +The provincial government was a fruitful source of corruption. As the +morals of the Romans degenerated, the provinces were plundered without +mercy to enrich the coffers of the avaricious governors. + +The Adriatic Sea at this time was overrun by Illyrican pirates, who +did much damage. Satisfaction was demanded by Rome of Illyricum, but +to no purpose. As a last resort, war was declared, and the sea was +cleared of the pirates in 229. + +"The results of this Illyrican war did not end here, for it was the +means of establishing, for the first time, direct political relations +between Rome and the states of Greece, to many of which the +suppression of piracy was of as much importance as to Rome herself. +Alliances were concluded with CORCÝRA, EPIDAMNUS, and APOLLONIA; and +embassies explaining the reasons which had brought Roman troops into +Greece were sent to the Aetolians and Achaeans, to Athens and Corinth. +The admission of the Romans to the Isthmian Games in 228 formally +acknowledged them as the allies of the Greek states." + +The Romans now began to look with hungry eyes upon GALLIA CISALPÍNA. +The appetite for conquest was well whetted. There had been peace with +the Gauls since the battle of Lake Vadimónis in 283. The _ager +publicus_, taken from the Gauls then, was still mostly unoccupied. +In 232 the Tribune Gaius Flaminius [Footnote: Gaius Flaminius, by his +agrarian laws gained the bitter hatred of the nobility. He was the first +Governor of Sicily, and there showed himself to be a man of integrity and +honesty, a great contrast to many who succeeded him.] carried an agrarian +law, to the effect that this land be given to the veterans and the poorer +classes. The law was executed, and colonies planted. To the Gauls this +seemed but the first step to the occupation of the whole of their +country. They all rose in arms except the Cenománi. + +This contest continued for ten years, and in 225 Etruria was invaded +by an army of 70,000 men. The plans of the invaders, however, +miscarried, and they were hemmed in between two Roman armies near +TELAMON in 222, and annihilated. The Gallic king was slain at the +hands of the Consul MARCUS CLAUDIUS MARCELLUS. PAGE 61 Rome was now +mistress of the whole peninsula of Italy, excepting some tribes in +Liguria, who resisted a short time longer. + +Three _military_ (Latin) colonies were founded to hold the Gauls +in check; PLACENTIA and CREMÓNA in the territory of the Insubres, and +MUTINA in that of the Boii. The _Via Flaminia_, the great +northern road, was extended from SPOLETIUM to ARIMINUM. [Footnote: +During this period the _Comitia Centuriáta_ was reorganized on the +basis of tribes (35) instead of money.] + +Meanwhile Carthage was not idle. After subduing the revolt of the +mercenaries in 237, she formed the project of obtaining SPAIN as +compensation for the loss of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica. Hamilcar +Barca, by energetic measures, established (236-228) a firm foothold in +Southern and Southeastern Spain. + +At his death, his son-in-law, Hasdrubal, continued his work. Many +towns were founded, trade prospered, and agriculture flourished. The +discovery of rich silver mines near Carthago Nova was a means of +enriching the treasury. After the assassination of Hasdrubal, in 220, +the ablest leader was Hannibal, son of Hamilcar. Although a young man +of but twenty-eight, he had had a life of varied experience. As a boy +he had shown great courage and ability in camp under his father. He +was a fine athlete, well educated in the duties of a soldier, and +could endure long privation of sleep and food. For the last few years +he had been in command of the cavalry, and had distinguished himself +for personal bravery, as well as by his talents as a leader. + +Hannibal resolved to begin the inevitable struggle with Rome at once. +He therefore laid siege to Saguntum, a Spanish town allied to Rome. In +eight months the place was compelled to capitulate (219). + +When Rome demanded satisfaction of Carthage for this insult, and +declared herself ready for war, the Carthaginians accepted the +challenge, and the Second Punic War began in 218. + + + + +CHAPTER XIV. + +THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.--FROM THE PASSAGE OF THE PYRENEES TO THE BATTLE +OF CANNAE. (218-216.) + +In the spring of 218 Hannibal started from Carthágo Nova to invade +Italy. His army consisted of 90,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 37 +elephants. His march to the Pyrenees occupied two months, owing to the +opposition of the Spanish allies of Rome. Hannibal now sent back a +part of his troops, retaining 50,000 infantry and 9,000 cavalry, all +veterans. With these he crossed the mountains, and marched along the +coast by Narbo (Narbonne) and Nemansus (Nîmes), through the Celtic +territory, with little opposition. The last of July found him on the +banks of the Rhone, opposite Avenio (Avignon). The Romans were +astonished at the rapidity of his movements. + +The Consuls of the year were SCIPIO and SEMPRONIUS. The former had +been in Northern Italy, leisurely collecting forces to attack Hannibal +in Spain; the latter was in Sicily, making preparations to invade +Africa. Scipio set sail for Spain, touching at Massilia near the end +of June. Learning there for the first time that Hannibal had already +left Spain, he hoped to intercept him on the Rhone. The Celtic tribes +of the neighborhood were won over to his side. Troops collected from +these were stationed along the river, but Scipio's main army remained +at Massilia. It was Hannibal's policy to cross the river before Scipio +arrived with his troops. He obtained all the boats possible, and +constructed numerous rafts to transport his main body of troops. A +detachment of soldiers was sent up the river with orders to cross at +the first available place, and, returning on the opposite bank, to +surprise the Celtic forces in the rear. The plan succeeded. The Celts +fled in confusion, and the road to the Alps was opened. Thus Scipio +was outgeneralled in the very beginning. + +His course now should have been to return to Northern Italy with all +his forces, and take every means to check Hannibal there. Instead, he +sent most of his troops to Spain under his brother Gnaeus Scipio, and +himself, with but a few men, set sail for Pisae. + +Meanwhile Hannibal hurried up the valley of the Rhone, across the +Isara, through the fertile country of the Allobroges, arriving, in +sixteen days from Avenio, at the pass of the first Alpine range (Mont +du Chat). Crossing this with some difficulty, owing to the nature of +the country and the resistance of the Celts, he hastened on through +the country of the Centrónes, along the north bank of the Isara. As he +was leaving this river and approaching the pass of the Little St. +Bernard, he was again attacked by the Celts, and obliged to make the +ascent amidst continual and bloody encounters. After toiling a day and +a night, however, the army reached the summit of the pass. Here, on a +table-land, his troops were allowed a brief rest. + +The hardships of the descent were fully as great, and the fertile +valley of the Po was a welcome sight to the half-famished and +exhausted soldiers. Here they encamped, in September, and recruited +their wearied energies. + +This famous march of Hannibal from the Rhone lasted thirty-three days, +and cost him 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry. + +The Romans were still unprepared to meet Hannibal. One army was in +Spain under Gnaeus Scipio; the other in Sicily, on its way to Africa, +under the Consul Sempronius. The only troops immediately available +were a few soldiers that had been left in the valley of the Po to +restrain the Gauls, who had recently shown signs of defection. + +Publius Cornelius Scipio, upon his return from Massilia, took command +of these. He met Hannibal first in October, 218, near the river +Ticinus, a tributary of the Po. A cavalry skirmish followed, in which +he was wounded and rescued by his son, a lad of seventeen, afterwards +the famous Africanus. The Romans were discomfited, with considerable +loss. + +They then retreated, crossing the Po at Placentia, and destroying the +bridge behind them. Hannibal forded the river farther up, and marched +along its right bank until he reached its confluence with the Trebia, +opposite Placentia. Here he encamped. + +Meanwhile Sempronius, who had been recalled from Sicily, relieved the +disabled Scipio. + +Early one raw morning in December, 218, the vanguard of the +Carthaginians was ordered to cross the Trebia, and, as soon any +resistance was met, to retreat. The other troops of Hannibal were +drawn up ready to give the enemy a hot reception, if, as he expected, +they should pursue his retreating vanguard. Sempronius was caught in +the trap, and all his army, except one division of 10,000, was cut to +pieces. The survivors took refuge in Placentia and Cremona, where they +spent the winter. Sempronius himself escaped to Rome. + +The result of TREBIA was the insurrection of all the Celtic tribes in +the valley of the Po, who increased Hannibal's army by 60,000 infantry +and 4,000 cavalry. While the Carthaginian was wintering near +Placentia, the Romans stationed troops to guard the two highways +leading north from Rome and ending at Arretium and Ariminum, The +Consuls for this year were GAIUS FLAMINIUS and GNAEUS SERVILIUS. The +former occupied Arretium, the latter Ariminum. Here they were joined +by the troops that had wintered at Placentia. + +In the spring, Hannibal, instead of attempting to pursue his march by +either of the highways which were fortified, outflanked the Romans by +turning aside into Etruria. His route led through a marshy and +unhealthy country, and many soldiers perished. Hannibal himself lost +an eye from ophthalmia. When he had arrived at Faesulae a report of +his course first reached Flaminius, who at once broke camp and +endeavored to intercept his enemy. Hannibal, however, had the start, +and was now near LAKE TRASIMÉNUS. + +Here was a pass with a high hill on one side and the lake on the +other. Hannibal, with the flower of his infantry, occupied the hill. +His light-armed troops and horsemen were drawn up in concealment on +either side. + +The Roman column advanced (May, 217), without hesitation, to the +unoccupied pass, the thick morning mist completely concealing the +position of the enemy. As the Roman vanguard approached the hill, +Hannibal gave the signal for attack. The cavalry closed up the +entrance to the pass, and at the same time the mist rolled away, +revealing the Carthaginian arms on the right and left. It was not a +battle, but a mere rout. The main body of the Romans was cut to +pieces, with scarcely any resistance, and the Consul himself was +killed. Fifteen thousand Romans fell, and as many more were captured. +The loss of the Carthaginians was but 1,500, and was confined mostly +to the Gallic allies. All Etruria was lost, and Hannibal could march +without hindrance upon Rome, whose citizens, expecting the enemy +daily, tore down the bridges over the Tiber and prepared for a siege. +QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS was appointed Dictator. + +Hannibal, however, did not march upon Rome, but turned through Umbria, +devastating the country as he went. Crossing the Apennines, he halted +on the shores of the Adriatic, in Picénum. After giving his army a +rest, he proceeded along the coast into Southern Italy. + +The Romans, seeing that the city was not in immediate danger, raised +another army, and placed the Dictator in command. Fabius was a man of +determination and firmness, well advanced in years. He determined to +avoid a pitched battle, but to dog the steps of the enemy, harassing +him and cutting off his supplies as far as possible. + +Meanwhile Hannibal again crossed the mountains into the heart of Italy +to Beneventum, and from there to Capua, the largest Italian city +dependent upon Rome. The Dictator followed, condemning his soldiers to +the melancholy task of looking on in inaction, while the enemy's +cavalry plundered their faithful allies. Finally, Fabius obtained what +he considered a favorable opportunity for an attack. Hannibal, +disappointed in his expectations that Capua would be friendly to him, +and not being prepared to lay siege to the town, had withdrawn towards +the Adriatic. Fabius intercepted him near Casilinum, in Campania, on +the left bank of the Volturnus. The heights that commanded the right +bank of the river were occupied by his main army; and the road itself, +which led across the river, was guarded by a strong division of men. + +Hannibal, however, ordered his light-armed troops to ascend the +heights over the road during the night, driving before them oxen with +burning fagots tied to their horns, giving the appearance of an army +marching by torchlight. The plan was successful. The Romans abandoned +the road and marched for the heights, along which they supposed the +enemy were going. Hannibal, with a clear road before him, continued +his march with the bulk of his army. The next morning he recalled his +light-armed troops, which had been sent on to the hills with the oxen. +Their engagement with the Romans had resulted in a severe loss to +Fabius. + +Hannibal then proceeded, without opposition, in a northeasterly +direction, by a very circuitous route. He arrived in Luceria, with +much booty and a full money-chest, at harvest time. Near here he +encamped in a plain rich in grain and grass for the support of his +army. + +At Rome the policy of Fabius was severely criticised. His apparent +inaction was displeasing to a large party, and he was called Cunctator +(the Delayer). At length the assembly voted that his command be shared +by one of his lieutenants, Marcus Minucius. The army was divided into +two corps; one under Marcus, who intended to attack Hannibal at the +first opportunity; the other under Fabius, who still adhered to his +former tactics. Marcus made an attack, but paid dearly for his +rashness, and his whole corps would have been annihilated had not +Fabius come to his assistance and covered his retreat. Hannibal passed +the winter of 217-216 unmolested. + +The season was spent by the Romans in active preparations for the +spring campaign. An army of 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry was +raised and put under the command of the Consuls, LUCIUS ÆMILIUS +PAULLUS and GAIUS TERENTIUS VARRO. It was decided to test Hannibal's +strength once more in open battle. His army was only half as strong as +the Roman in infantry, but was much superior in cavalry. + +In the early summer of 216 the Consuls concentrated their forces at +CANNAE, a hamlet near the mouth of the Aufidus. Early one morning in +June the Romans massed their troops on the left bank of the river, +with their cavalry on either wing, the right under Paullus, and the +left under Varro. The Proconsul Servilius commanded the centre. + +The Carthaginians were drawn up in the form of a crescent, flanked by +cavalry. Both armies advanced to the attack at the same time. The +onset was terrible; but though the Romans fought with a courage +increased by the thought that their homes, wives, and children were at +stake, they were overwhelmed on all sides. Seventy thousand fell on +the field, among whom were Paullus, Servilius, many officers, and +eighty men of senatorial rank. This was the most crushing defeat ever +experienced by the Romans. All Southern Italy, except the Latin +colonies and the Greek cities on the coast, went over to Hannibal. + + + + +CHAPTER XV. + +THE SECOND PUNIC WAR.-FROM CANNAE TO THE BATTLE OF ZAMA (216-202). + + +ROME was appalled; but though defeated, she was not subdued. All the +Latin allies were summoned for aid in the common peril. Boys and old +men alike took up arms even the slaves were promised freedom if they +would join the ranks. + +Hannibal marched from Cannae into Campania. He induced Capua, the +second city of Italy, to side with him. But his expectations that +other cities would follow her example were not fulfilled. He went into +winter quarters here (215-214). The Capuans, notorious for their +luxurious and effeminate habits, are said to have injured his +soldiers. But Hannibal's superiority as a general is unquestionable, +and his want of success after this was due to insufficient aid from +home, and to the fact that the resources of Rome were greater than +those of Carthage. The Latin allies of Rome had remained true to their +allegiance, and only one city of importance was under his control. It +was an easy matter to conquer the enemy in open battle, but to support +his own army was more difficult, for all Italy had been devastated. On +the other hand, the Romans were well supplied with food from their +possessions in Sicily. + +Hannibal saw, therefore, that more active measures than those already +employed were necessary. He sent to Carthage an appeal for aid. He +formed an alliance with Philip V. of Macedonia, and earnestly urged +Hasdrubal Baroa, his lieutenant in Spain, to come to his assistance. +He hoped, with this army from the north, with supplies and +reinforcements from Carthage, and with such troops as he might obtain +from Macedonia, to concentrate a large force at Rome and compel her +into submission. + +The Romans, realizing the position of Hannibal, kept what forces they +could spare in Spain, under the two Scipio brothers, Publius and +Gnaeus. With these they hoped to stop reinforcements from reaching the +enemy from that quarter. At the same time their army in Northern +Greece effectually engaged the attention of Philip. Thus two years +(214-212) passed without any material change in the situation of +affairs in Italy. + +In 212, while the Carthaginians were in the extreme south of Italy, +besieging Tarentum, the Romans made strenuous efforts to recover +Campania, and especially Capua. Hannibal, learning the danger, marched +rapidly north, and failing to break through the lines which enclosed +the city, resolved to advance on Rome itself. + +Silently and quickly he marched along the _Via Latino_ through +the heart of the territory of Rome, to within three miles of the city, +and with his vanguard he even rode up to one of the city gates. But no +ally joined him; no Roman force was recalled to face him; no proposals +of peace reached his camp. Impressed by the unmoved confidence of the +enemy, he withdrew as quickly as he came, and retreated to his head- +quarters in the South. + +Capua fell in 211, and the seat of war, to the great relief of Rome, +was removed to Lucania and Bruttium. The punishment inflicted upon +Capua was severe. Seventy of her Senators were killed, three hundred +of her chief citizens imprisoned, and the whole people sold as slaves. +The city and its territory were declared to be Roman territory, and +the place was afterwards repeopled by Roman occupants. + +Such was the fate of this famous city. Founded in as early times as +Rome itself, it became the most flourishing city of Magna Graecia, +renowned for its luxury and refinement, and as the home of all the +highest arts and culture. + + +AFFAIRS IN SICILY. + +HIERO II., tyrant of Syracuse, died in 216. During his long reign of +more than fifty years he had been the stanch friend and ally of Rome +in her struggles with Carthage. Hieronymus, the grandson and successor +of Hiero, thought fit to ally himself with Carthage. The young tyrant, +who was arrogant and cruel, was assassinated after reigning a few +months. + +The Roman Governor of Sicily, MARCELLUS, troubled by the Carthaginian +faction in Syracuse, threatened the city with an attack unless the +leaders of this faction were expelled. In return, they endeavored to +arouse the citizens of the neighboring city of Leontini against Rome +and the Roman party in Syracuse. Marcellus at once attacked and +stormed Leontini. The Syracusans then closed their city gates against +him. A siege of two years (214-212) followed, famous for the various +devices adopted by the noted mathematician ARCHIMÉDES [Footnote: +Archimédes was a great investigator in the science of mathematics. He +discovered the ratio of a sphere to its circumscribed cylinder. One of +his famous sayings was, "Give me where to stand, and I will move the +world." He exerted his ingenuity in the invention of powerful machines +for the defence of Syracuse. Eight of his works on mathematics are in +existence. He was killed at the close of the siege by a Roman soldier, +who would have spared his life had he not been too intent on a +mathematical problem to comply with the summons to surrender. On his +tombstone, it is said, was engraved a cylinder enclosing a sphere.] to +defeat the movements of the Romans. The city was finally betrayed by a +Spanish officer, and given up to plunder. The art treasures in which +it was so rich were conveyed by Marcellus to Rome. From this time +(212) the city became a part of the province of Sicily and the head- +quarters of the Roman Governor. + + +THE CAMPAIGNS IN SPAIN. + +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, with his brother, GNAEUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO +CALVUS, were winning victories over the Carthaginians under HANNO and +HASDRUBAL. The greatest of these was fought in 215 at Ibera, the +location of which is uncertain. Spain was gradually being gained over +to Rome, when the Carthaginians, making desperate efforts, sent large +reinforcements there (212). The armies of the Scipios were separated, +surprised, and overwhelmed. Both their leaders were slain, and Spain +was lost to Rome. + +Unless checked, the Carthaginians would now cross the Alps, enter +Italy, and, joining forces with Hannibal, place Rome in great danger. +PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO, son of one of the slain generals, then but +twenty-four years of age, offered to go to Spain and take command. He +had previously made himself very popular as Aedile, and was +unanimously elected to the command. On his arrival in Spain in 210, he +found the whole country west of the Ebro under the enemy's control. + +Fortunately for the Romans, the three Carthaginian generals, HASDRUBAL +and MAGO, brothers of Hannibal, and HASDRUBAL, son of Gisco, did not +act in harmony. Thus Scipio was enabled, in the following spring +(209), to capture Carthago Nova, the head-quarters of the enemy. A +good harbor was gained, and eighteen ships of war, sixty-three +transports, $600,000, and 10,000 captives fell into the hands of the +Romans. + +Shortly after, Scipio fought Hasdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, at +BAECULAE, in the upper valley of the Baetis (Guadalquivir); but the +battle was not decisive, for Hasdrubal was soon seen crossing the +Pyrenees, with a considerable force, on his way to Italy. He spent the +winter (209-208) in Gaul. + +The two Carthaginian generals now in Spain, Mago, and Hasdrubal, the +son of Gisco, retired, the latter to Lusitania, the former to the +Baleares, to wait for reinforcements from home. + +The next year another battle was fought near Baecula, resulting in the +total defeat of the Carthaginians, who retreated to Gadus, in the +southwestern part of Spain. + +The country being now (206) under Roman influence, Scipio crossed the +straits to Africa, and visited the Numidian princes, SYPHAX and +MASINISSA, whom he hoped to stir up against Carthage. On his return, +after quelling a mutiny of the soldiers, who were dissatisfied about +their pay, he resigned his command, and started for Rome, where he +intended to become a candidate for the consulship. + + +OPERATIONS IN ITALY. + +The news of the approach of Hasdrubal caused intense anxiety at Rome. +Every nerve was strained to prevent the union of the two brothers. The +Consuls for this year (207) were GAIUS CLAUDIUS NERO, a patrician, and +MARCUS LIVIUS, a plebeian. To the former was intrusted the task of +keeping Hannibal in check in Bruttium, while the duty of intercepting +Hasdrubal was given to the latter. + +The Carthaginian had already reached the neighborhood of the river +Metaurus, a small stream south of the Rubicon. From here he sent +messengers to inform his brother of his approach and proposed line of +march. These messengers were captured by Nero, and the contents of +their despatches learned. He at once pushed north with his forces, +joined Livius, met Hasdrubal on the METAURUS early in 207, and +defeated his army with great slaughter. Among the slain was Hasdrubal +himself. Nero returned south without delay, and the first intimation +that Hannibal had of this battle was the sight of his brother's head +thrown into the camp by the victorious foe. + +The war in Italy was now virtually ended, for, although during four +years more Hannibal stood at bay in a corner of Bruttium, he was +powerless to prevent the restoration of Roman authority throughout +Italy. Nothing now remained to Carthage outside of Africa, except the +ground on which Hannibal was making his last stand. + + +INVASION OF AFRICA. + +Scipio, on his return from Spain, urged an immediate invasion of +Africa. He was elected Consul in 205, receiving Sicily as his +province, with permission to cross into Africa if it seemed to him +wise. He was so popular that voluntary contributions of men, money, +and supplies poured in from all sides. The old-fashioned aristocracy, +however, did not like him, as his taste for splendid living and Greek +culture was particularly offensive to them; and a party in the Senate +would have recalled him, had not the popular enthusiasm in his favor +been too strong to be resisted. + +In 204 he sailed from Lilybaeum, and landed near Utica. He was +welcomed by Masinissa, whose friendship he had gained in his previous +visit to Africa from Spain. Syphax, however, sided with Carthage; but +in 203 Scipio twice defeated him and the Carthaginian forces. + +Negotiations for peace followed, but the war party in Carthage +prevailed. Hannibal was recalled. He returned to fight his last battle +with Rome, October 19, 202, at ZAMA, a short distance west of +Carthage. The issue was decided by the valor of the Roman legions, who +loved their commander and trusted his skill. Hannibal met his first +and only defeat, and Scipio won his title of AFRICÁNUS. The battle was +a hard one. After all the newly enrolled troops of Hannibal had been +killed or put to flight, his veterans, who had remained by him in +Italy, although surrounded on all sides by forces far outnumbering +their own, fought on, and were killed one by one around their beloved +chief. The army was fairly annihilated. Hannibal, with only a handful, +managed to escape to Hadrumétum. + +The battle of Zama decided the fate of the West. The power of Carthage +was broken, and her supremacy passed to Rome. She was allowed to +retain her own territory intact, but all her war-ships, except ten, +were given up, and her prisoners restored; an annual tax of about +$200,000, for fifty years, was to be paid into the Roman treasury, and +she could carry on no war without the consent of Rome. Masinissa was +rewarded by an increase in territory, and was enrolled among the +"allies and friends of the Roman people." + +Rome was now safe from any attack. She had become a great +Mediterranean power. Spain was divided into two provinces, and the +north of Africa was under her protection. + +Such was the result of the seventeen years' struggle. Scipio was +welcomed home, and surnamed AFRICANUS. He enjoyed a triumph never +before equalled. His statue was placed, in triumphal robes and crowned +with laurels, in the Capitol. Many honors were thrust upon him, which +he had the sense to refuse. He lived quietly for some years, taking no +part in politics. + + + + +CHAPTER XVI. + +ROME IN THE EAST. + + +ROME was now in a position to add new nations to her list of subjects. +The kingdoms of the East which formerly composed a part of the vast +empire of Alexander the Great, and which finally went to swell the +limits of Roman authority, were Egypt, Syria, Macedonia, and Greece +proper. + +EGYPT was governed by the Ptolemies, and included at this time the +valley of the Nile, Palestine, Phoenicia, the island of Cyprus, and a +number of towns in Thrace. + +SYRIA, extending from the Mediterranean to the Indus, was composed of +various nations which enjoyed a semi-independence. Under incompetent +rulers, she saw portion after portion of her dominions fall from her. +Thus arose Pergamus, Pontus, Cappadocia, and Phrygia. + +MACEDONIA was ruled by Philip V., and included also a large portion of +Northern Greece. + +GREECE proper was divided between the ACHAEAN and AETOLIAN LEAGUES, +the former including the most of the Peloponnesus, the latter the +greater part of Central Greece. + +Ever since the repulse of Pyrrhus, Rome had been slowly drifting into +closer contact with the East. She formed an alliance with Egypt in +273. From this country had come in part her supply of corn during the +Second Punic War. In 205, Ptolemy V. became king, and, through fear of +the Macedonian and Syrian kings, sought the protection of Rome. + +The punishment of the Illyrican pirates in 228 brought Rome into +closer relations with Greece. These connections had been sufficient to +open the Eastern ports to her trade, but her struggle with Carthage +had left her no time or strength to interfere actively in Eastern +politics, until she was forced to take action by the alliance of +Philip V. of Macedonia and Hannibal, and by the former's threatened +invasion of Italy in 214. A small force was sent into Greece, which +was soon largely increased by the dissatisfied subjects of Philip. + +The only object of Rome in the First Macedonian War (214-205) was to +prevent Philip from lending aid to Hannibal; and in this she was +partially successful. None of the Macedonian troops entered Italy, but +four thousand of them were at Zama. + +The military operations of this war were of slight importance. Marcus +Valerius Laevinus was sent to the Adriatic, and pushed the king so +hard that he was obliged to burn the fleet in which he intended to +sail for Italy. Philip was at this time at war with Aetolia. Laevinus +assisted the Aetolians, and the king was too fully occupied at home to +think of operations farther away. But in 205, the Romans, wishing to +concentrate their energies upon the invasion of Africa, made peace. + +Some of Philip's soldiers had been captured at Zama. He demanded their +return. The answer was, that, if he wished war again, he could have +it. + +There were several other reasons which led to the SECOND MACEDONIAN +WAR (200-197). Philip had agreed with ANTIOCHUS III., king of Syria, +to attempt with him the division of Egypt, since it seemed probable +that the young king, Epiphanes (Ptolemy V.), who was only four years +old, would not be able to make an effectual resistance. The ministers +of Egypt sought the protection of Rome. On their journey, the Roman +envoys sent to assume the office of protectorship remonstrated with +Philip. + +In Asia Minor Philip had conducted himself with such barbarity that +the people rose against him; and from a similar cause Greece was +driven to seek alliances which would protect her against him. + +Rome was unwilling to undertake a new war, but the people were induced +to vote for one, on the representation that the only means of +preventing an invasion of Italy was to carry the war abroad. + +This year (200) the Consul, Publius Sulpicius Galba, was sent with a +considerable force across the Adriatic. His campaign, and that of the +Consul Villius during the next year, were productive of no decisive +results, but in 198 the Consul TITUS QUINCTIUS FLAMINÍNUS, a man of +different calibre, conducted the war with vigor. He defeated Philip on +the Aóus, drove him back to the pass of Tempe, and the next year +utterly defeated him at CYNOSCEPHALAE. + +The king had drawn up his forces in two divisions. With the first he +broke through the line of the legions, which, however, closed in +around him with but little loss. The other division was attacked by +the Romans, while it was forming, and thoroughly discomfited. The +victory of the Romans was decisive. + +About the same time the Achaeans captured CORINTH from Philip, and the +Rhodians defeated his troops in Caria. + +Further resistance was impossible. Philip was left in possession of +Macedonia alone; he was deprived of all his dependencies in Greece, +Thrace, and Asia Minor, and was forbidden, as Carthage had been, to +wage war without Rome's consent. + +The next year (196), at the Isthmian Games, the "freedom of Greece" +was proclaimed to the enthusiastic crowds, and two years later +Flamininus withdrew his troops from the so called "three fetters of +Greece,"--Chalcis, Demetrias, and Corinth,--and, urging the Greeks to +show themselves worthy of the gift of the Roman people, he returned +home to enjoy a well earned triumph. + +The chief result of the second Macedonian war was, therefore, the firm +establishment of a ROMAN PROTECTORATE OVER GREECE AND EGYPT. The wedge +had been entered and the interference of Rome in Eastern affairs was +assured. + + + + +CHAPTER XVII. + +THE SYRIAN WAR. + + +Antiochus III. of Syria, who had proposed to share Egypt with Philip, +had been engaged for some time in a campaign in the East, and did not +hear of his ally's danger until too late to aid him. However, he +claimed for himself portions of Asia Minor and Thrace, which Philip +had previously held, and which Rome now declared free and independent. +He crossed the Hellespont into Thrace in 196, but did not dare to +enter Greece, although earnestly urged to do so by the Aetolians, +until after Flamininus had withdrawn all his troops (192). + +Antiochus was no general. Himself irresolute and fond of pleasure, the +power behind his throne was HANNIBAL. This great soldier, after his +defeat at Zama, did not relinquish the aim of his life. He became the +chief magistrate of his native city, and in a short time cleared the +moral atmosphere, which was charged with corruption and depravity. +Under him Carthage might have risen again. But his intrigues with +Antiochus, with whom he wished to make an alliance, gave Rome an +opportunity to interfere. His surrender was demanded. He fled, and, +after wandering from coast to coast, became the trusted adviser of the +Syrian king. + +Had Antiochus been energetic after his arrival in Greece, he could +have accomplished something before the Roman troops came. But he +disregarded the warnings of Hannibal, and spent valuable time in minor +matters. The Romans arrived in 191, and under Glabrio at Thermopylae +drove back the intruder, who hastily retired to Asia Minor. The +Aetolians were punished for their infidelity. + +In 190, LUCIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO was elected Consul, and put in command +of the army in the East, with the understanding that he should be +accompanied by his brother Africanus, and have the benefit of his +military skill and experience. Under his command, the Romans crossed +the Hellespont and sought Antiochus in his own kingdom. + +Hannibal could do nothing with the poorly disciplined troops of the +king. They were met by the invading forces at MAGNESIA, in Lydia, in +190, and 80,000 Asiatics were put to rout by 30,000 Romans, 50,000 +being slain. The loss of the victors was slight. + +On that day the fate of Asia was sealed. Antiochus relinquished all +pretensions to any territory west of the river Halys and the Taurus +mountains. His chariots, elephants, fleet, and treasures were all +surrendered. + +Scipio returned home to enjoy a triumph, and added ASIATICUS to his +name, as his brother had taken that of Africanus in commemoration of +his victory. + +Gneius Manlius Vulso succeeded Scipio in the East. He made a campaign +against the Gauls, who had settled in Galatia about a century before, +and had become wealthy by means of constant plunderings. The excuse +for the campaign was, that they had served in the Syrian army; the +reason was, their wealth, and the ambition of the Consul for glory. + +The Galatians were easily overcome, their wealth seized, and they +themselves became assimilated to their neighbors. This war is +noticeable chiefly for the reason that Manlius undertook it _without +the authority of the Senate_, the first instance of its kind, and a +precedent which was too frequently followed in later times. On his +return to Rome he was allowed a triumph, which stamped his act as +legal. + +These wars in the East brought to Rome immense riches, which laid the +foundation of its Oriental extravagance and luxury, and finally +undermined the strength of the state. From Greece were introduced +learning and refinement, from Asia immorality and effeminacy. The +vigor and tone of Roman society are nowhere more forcibly shown than +in the length of time it took for its subjugation by these ruinous +exotics. + +Meanwhile, at Rome the political enemies of the Scipios were in the +ascendency. Asiaticus was accused of misappropriating funds obtained +during his campaign in the East. As he was about to produce his +account-books before the Senate, his brother, Africanus, seized them, +tore them to pieces, and threw the remnants on the floor. Asiaticus, +however, was sentenced to pay a fine. When it was afterwards intimated +that his brother too was implicated, he proudly reminded his enemies +that their insinuations were ill-timed, for it was the anniversary of +Zama. This remark changed the tide of feeling, and no more charges +were made. + +Two years later (183), Africanus died in voluntary exile at Liternum, +on the coast of Campania. He had lived little more than fifty years. +His wife, Aemilia, was the daughter of Paullus, who fell at Cannae, +and the sister of him who afterwards conquered Perseus of Macedonia. +His daughter, CORNELIA, afterwards became the mother of the famous +GRACCHI. + +Next to Caesar, Scipio was Rome's greatest general. During the +campaign in the East, he met Hannibal at the court of Antiochus. In +the conversation Hannibal is reported to have said that he considered +Alexander the greatest general, Pyrrhus next, and, had he himself +conquered Scipio, he would have placed himself before either. + +Scipio lived to see Rome grow from an Italian power to be practically +the mistress of the world. He was of marked intellectual culture, and +as conversant with Greek as with his mother tongue. He possessed a +charm which made him popular at a time when the culture and arts of +Greece were not so courted at Rome as in later days. + +Hannibal, after the defeat of Antiochus, was demanded by the Romans, +but, escaping, took refuge in Crete, and subsequently with Prusias, +King of Bithynia. His surrender was demanded, and troops were sent to +arrest him. Seeing no way of escape, he opened the bead on his ring +and swallowed the poison which it contained (183). + +Thus died one of the greatest of commanders, without attaining the aim +of his life. He had lived but fifty-four years, yet his life was so +marked that people have ever since looked with wonder upon the +tremendous magnitude of what he undertook, and came so near +accomplishing. + +This same year is also memorable for the death of "the last of the +Greeks," PHILOPOEMEN. [Footnote: See Ancient Greece, page 145.] + + + + +CHAPTER XVIII. + +CONQUEST OF MACEDONIA AND GREECE. (I71-146.) + + +Although Philip had aided the Romans in their campaign against +Antiochus, he did not receive from them the expected reward in +additions to his territory. Immediate resistance would be futile; but +he labored patiently and quietly to increase his resources, and to +stir up among the neighboring Greeks hostile feeling towards Rome. He +placed his army on the best footing possible, and soon began to +enlarge his boundaries. Complaints were made to Rome, and the king was +compelled to give up his conquests, and confine himself to the limits +of Macedonia. In 179 Philip died, and was succeeded by his son +PERSEUS. + +The new king was as able as his father, and more impatient of +subjection. He made friends with the surrounding princes, formed a +marriage connection with Antiochus IV. of Syria, and strove to arouse +among the Greeks memories of their former greatness. + +The Senate, hearing of his numerous intrigues, determined to check +him. War was declared in 171; but the forces sent by Rome were at +first led by incompetent men, and nothing was accomplished until +LICIUS AEMILIUS PAULLUS was made Consul, and took charge of the war in +168. + +Paullus (229-160) was the son of the Consul of the same name who was +killed at Cannae. His integrity was first shown when, as CURULE +AEDILE, [Footnote: See page 225] in 192, he prosecuted persons who had +made an illegal use of the public pastures. He was sent to Ulterior +Spain in 191 as governor, where, after some reverses, he put down all +insurrections. He was Consul in 182, and did good work in conquering a +tribe of marauders in Liguria. For this he was allowed a triumph. + +He was elected Consul a second time in 168, and sent against Perseus. +The war was brought to a speedy end by the battle of PYDNA, on the +Thermáic Gulf, June 22. The king fled to Samothráce with his treasures +and family. He was shortly afterwards captured, but was treated with +kindness by the Consul. + +Paullus now travelled through Greece. Later, assisted by +commissioners, he arranged the affairs of Macedonia. The country was +divided into four small republics, independent of each other, but +prohibited from intermarriage and commerce with one another. + +On his return to Rome in 167, he enjoyed a triumph, which was graced +by Perseus and his three children. He was Censor in 164, and died four +years later. + +Paullus had two sons by his first wife. The elder of these was adopted +by Fabius Maximus Cunctátor, the younger by the son of Africánus the +elder, his brother-in-law. He was of the "blue" blood of Rome, of +perfect honesty, and very popular, a good general, but somewhat +superstitious. A patron of learning and the fine arts, he gave his +sons the best training under Greek masters. A strong proof of his +popularity is the fact that his body was carried to its last resting +place by volunteers from the various peoples he had conquered. + +Perseus spent his last days in confinement near Rome, enduring, it is +alleged, base and cruel treatment. He was the last king of Macedonia. + +After the victory at Pydna, the sympathy shown in Greece for the +conquered monarch made the Romans more watchful of her interests +there. All suspected to be enemies were removed as hostages to Italy, +and among these was the historian POLYBIUS. He lived in Rome for more +than twenty years, and became a great friend of the younger Africánus, +whom he accompanied to the siege of Carthage. + +Like Macedonia, Greece was separated into parts, independent of each +other, with no rights of _connubium_ or _commercium_. Utter +demoralization soon ensued, which proved a sure preventive to all +alliances liable to shake the authority of Rome. + +Trouble again arose in Macedonia twenty years after Pydna, culminating +in what is sometimes called the FOURTH MACEDONIAN WAR (149-146). Under +the leadership of ANDRISCUS, who claimed to be a son of Perseus, the +people rebelled against the protection of Rome. They were twice +defeated in 148 by the praetor QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS, who gained +the agnomen of MACEDONICUS. The country was made a Roman province, +with a Roman magistrate at its head. + +At this time the Achaeans were quarrelling with Sparta. Metellus +warned them to desist, and when the Achaeans advanced against him, he +easily defeated them near SCARPHEIA. + +Metellus was a moderate reformer and a model man. He belonged to an +illustrious plebeian _gens_, the Caecilian. Before his death in +115 three of his sons had been consuls, one censor, and the fourth was +a candidate for the consulship. + +Metellus was succeeded in Greece by LUCIUS MUMMIUS, a cruel and harsh +leader. The remnant of the Achaean army had taken refuge in CORINTH. +The Senate directed Mummius to attack the city. Its capture in 146 was +marked by special cruelties. The city was burned to the ground; +beautiful pictures and costly statuary were ruthlessly destroyed. Gold +in abundance was carried to Rome. The last vestige of Greek liberty +vanished. The country became a Roman province under the name of +ACHAIA. + +Corinth, the "eye of all Greece," remained in ruins for a century, +when it was rebuilt in 46 by Julius Caesar, who planted on its site a +colony of veterans and freedmen. + + + + +CHAPTER XIX. + +THE THIRD PUNIC WAR, AND FALL OF CARTHAGE. + + +Fifty years had passed since Zama. It was a period of great commercial +prosperity for Carthage, but her government was weakened by the +quarrels of conflicting factions. + +MASINISSA, King of Numidia, an ally of the Romans, was a continual +source of annoyance to Carthage. He made inroads upon her territory, +and, as she was bound by her treaty not to war upon any allies of +Rome, her only recourse was to complain to the Senate. In 157 an +embassy was sent to inquire into the troubles. MARCUS PORCIUS CATO, +the chief of the embassy, was especially alarmed at the prosperity of +the city, and from that time never ceased to urge its destruction. The +embassy did not reach any decision, but allowed matters to go on as +they might. Finally, when some sympathizers with Masinissa were +banished from the city, he attacked and defeated the Carthaginians, +compelled their army to pass under the yoke, and afterwards +treacherously destroyed it (150). Carthage was compelled to give up +some of her territory, and pay $5,000,000 indemnity. + +After this victory, matters came to a crisis. The city must be +disciplined for warring with an ally of Rome. Cato never failed to +close any speech he might make in the Senate with the same cruel +words, _Delenda est Carthago_, "Carthage must be destroyed." The +people of Carthage were called to account. Desponding and broken- +hearted, they sent ambassadors to Rome. The answer given them was +obscure. They were requested to make reparation to Rome, and at the +same time they were assured that nothing should be undertaken against +Carthage herself. But in 149 the Consuls crossed with a large army +into Sicily, where the troops were organized, and Carthaginian +ambassadors were expected. + +When they appeared, the Consuls declared that the Senate did not wish +to encroach upon the freedom of the people, but only desired some +security; for this purpose it demanded that, within thirty days, three +hundred children of the noblest families should be delivered into +their hands as hostages. This demand was met. The Romans then coolly +crossed over to Africa, and informed the Carthaginians that they were +ready to treat with them on any question not previously settled. + +When the ambassadors again appeared before the Consuls, they were told +that Carthage must deliver over all her arms and artillery; for, they +said, as Rome was able to protect her, there was no need of Carthage +possessing arms. Hard as was this command, it was obeyed. They were +then told that Carthage had indeed shown her good will, but that Rome +had no control over the city so long as it was fortified. The +preservation of peace, therefore, required that the people should quit +the city, give up their navy, and build a new town without walls at a +distance of ten miles from the sea. The indignation and fury which +this demand excited were intense. The gates were instantly closed, and +all the Romans and Italians who happened to be within the city were +massacred. + +The Romans, who expected to find a defenceless population, imagined +that the storming of the place would be an easy matter. But despair +had suggested to the Carthaginians means of defence in every +direction. All assaults were repelled. Everybody was engaged day and +night in the manufacture of arms. Nothing can be more heartrending +than this last struggle of despair. Every man and every woman labored +to the uttermost for the defence of the city with a furious +enthusiasm. + +Two years after the siege began, PUBLIUS CORNELIUS SCIPIO AFRICÁNUS, +the Younger, was elected Consul while but thirty-seven (under the +legal age), for the express purpose of giving him charge of the siege. +After two years of desperate fighting and splendid heroism on the part +of the defenders, the famished garrison could hold out no longer. + +Carthage fell in 146, and the ruins of the city burned for seventeen +days. The destruction was complete. A part of her territory was given +to Numidia. The rest was made a Roman province, and called AFRICA. + +The year 149 saw the death of two men who had been Carthage's most +bitter enemies, but who were not allowed to see her downfall,-- +MASINISSA and CATO, the one aged ninety, the other eighty-five. + +Masinissa's (239-149) hostility dates from the time he failed to get +the promised hand of Hasdrubal's daughter, Sophonisba, who was given +to his rival, Syphax. After the battle of Zama, most of the +possessions of Syphax fell to Masinissa, and among them this same +Sophonisba, whom he married. Scipio, however, fearing her influence +over him, demanded her as a Roman captive, whereupon she took poison. +Masinissa was a courageous prince, but a convenient tool for the +Romans. + +CATO THE ELDER (_Major_), (234-149,) whose long public career was +a constant struggle with the enemies of the state abroad, and with the +fashions of his countrymen at home, was a type of the _old_ Roman +character, with a stern sense of duty that forbade his neglecting the +interests of state, farm, or household. In 184, in his capacity as +Censor, he acted with extreme rigor. He zealously asserted old- +fashioned principles, and opposed the growing tendency to luxury. All +innovations were in his eyes little less than crimes. He was the +author of several works, one of which, a treatise on agriculture, has +been preserved. + +Cicero's "Cato Major" represents him in his eighty-fourth year +discoursing about old age with Africánus the younger, and Laelius, a +friend of the latter. + + + + +CHAPTER XX. + +ROME AND SPAIN.-THE NUMANTINE AND SERVILE WARS. (206-132.) + + +Africanus the elder left Spain in 206. After a provincial government +of nine years (206-197), the country was divided into two provinces, +separated by the IBÉRUS (Ebro), and each province was assigned to a +praetor. It was some time, however, before Spain was really brought +into a state of complete peace and order. The mountains and forests +were a formidable obstacle to the Roman legions, and favored guerilla +warfare, which makes conquest slow and laborious. + +The most warlike of the Spanish tribes was the CELTIBÉRI, who occupied +the interior of the peninsula. They were always uncertain and +intractable, continually breaking out into revolt. In 195, Cato the +elder put down a rebellion led by them. He established more firmly the +Roman power east of the Ibérus. He disarmed the inhabitants of this +part of Spain, and compelled all from the Pyrenees to the Guadalquivir +to pull down their fortifications. + +Still the smouldering fires of rebellion were not extinguished, for, +sixteen years later (179), we find TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS, the +father of the famous Gracchi, as Governor of Spain, fighting the +troublesome Celtibéri. He captured over one hundred of their towns, +but tempered his victories with moderate measures, showing himself +greater in peace than in war. He granted to the poorer classes lands +on favorable conditions, and did much to produce contentment among the +natives. But farther west, in the valleys of the Douro and Tagus, and +in Lusitania (Portugal), there seems to have been constant warfare. + +In 154, MUMMIUS, the same who eight years later sacked Corinth, was +Governor of Farther Spain. His defeat by the Lusitanians encouraged +the Celtibéri to revolt again, and there followed another defeat, with +a massacre of many Roman citizens. Two years later (152), CLAUDIUS +MARCELLUS avenged these losses, founded Corduba, and governed the +country humanely. His successors, LUCIUS LUCULLUS and SERVIUS GALBA, +were so cruel and grasping as to drive the Lusitanians into another +open rebellion, headed by VIRIÁTHUS, a bold and daring bandit. During +seven years (147-140) he defeated again and again the armies sent +against him. The Celtibéri joined his standards, and Spain seemed +likely to slip from the Romans. The only check to these successes was +during the command of METELLUS MACEDONICUS (143); when he was +recalled, matters returned to their former condition. + +In 140, the Consul Mancínus was obliged to capitulate, and, to save +himself and his army, made a treaty which the Senate refused to +sanction. + +Viriáthus was finally (139) assassinated by persons hired by the +Consul Caepio; his people were then subdued, and the government was +ably conducted (138) by DECIMUS JUNIUS BRUTUS. + + +THE NUMANTINE WAR (143-133). + +The Celtibéri, however, were still in arms. The strong city of +NUMANTIA, the capital of one of their tribes, witnessed more than one +defeat of a Roman Consul before its walls (141-140). Finally Rome sent +out her best general, Africanus the younger. + +After devoting several months to the disciplining of his troops, he +began (134) a regular siege of the place. It was defended with the +utmost bravery and tenacity, until, forced by the last extreme of +famine, it surrendered (133). The inhabitants were sold as slaves, and +the town was levelled to the ground. The victor was honored with the +title of NUMANTÍNUS. + +The fall of Numantia gave Rome a hold upon the interior of Spain, +which was never lost. The country now, with the exception of its +northern coast, was nominally Roman territory. Several towns were +established with Latin municipal rights _(municipia)_, and, on +the whole, order was maintained. Along the coast of the Mediterranean +there sprang up many thriving and populous towns, which became centres +of civilization to the neighboring districts, and were treated by Rome +rather as allies than as subjects. Some of them were allowed to coin +the silver money of Rome. The civilizing process, due to Roman +influence, went on rapidly in these parts, while the interior remained +in barbarism. + +In 105 the peninsula was overrun by the Cimbri, a barbarous race from +the north. The country was ravaged, but finally saved by the brave +Celtibéri, who forced the invaders back into Gaul. + + THE SERVILE WAR (134-132). + +While the Numantine war was still in progress, a war with the slaves +broke out in Sicily, where they had been treated with special +barbarity. + +For a long time slave labor had been taking the place of that of +freemen. The supply was rendered enormous by constant wars, and by the +regular slave trade carried on with the shores of the Black Sea and +Greece. The owners of the slaves became an idle aristocracy. + +The immediate cause of the outbreak in Sicily was the cruelty of a +wealthy slave-owner, Damophilus. The leader of the slaves was EUNUS, +who pretended to be a Syrian prophet. A number of defeats were +suffered by the Roman armies, until, finally, PUBLIUS RUTILIUS +captured the strongholds of the slaves, TAUROMENIUM and ENNA, and thus +closed the war. For his success he was allowed an ovation. + + + + +CHAPTER XXI. + +INTERNAL HISTORY.--THE GRACCHI. + + +We have seen how the long struggle between the patricians and +plebeians terminated in a nominal victory for the latter. From about +275, the outward form of the old constitution had undergone little +change. It was nominally that of a "moderate democracy." The Senate +and offices of state were, in law, open to all alike. In practice, +however, the constitution became an oligarchy. The Senate, not the +Comitias, ruled Rome. Moreover, the Senate was controlled by a class +who claimed all the privileges of a nobility. The Comitias were rarely +called upon to decide a question. Most matters were settled by a +DECREE OF THE SENATE (_Senatus Consultum_). To be sure the +Comitia declared for war or peace, but the Senate conducted the war +and settled the conditions of peace. It also usually assigned the +commands, organized the provinces, and managed the finances. + +The causes for this ascendency of the Senate are not hard to find. It +was a body made up of men capable of conducting affairs. It could be +convened at any time, whereas the voters of the Comitias were +scattered over all Italy, and, if assembled, would not be competent to +decide questions demanding knowledge of military matters and foreign +policy. + +The Senate and the Roman nobility were in the main the same. All +patricians were nobles, but all nobles were not patricians. The +patricians were the descendants of the original founders of the city. +The nobles were the descendants of any one who had filled one of the +following six curule offices, viz. Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, +Interrex, Praetor, or Curule Aedile. These nobles possessed the right +to place in their hall, or carry in funeral processions, a wax mask of +this ancestor, and also of any other member of the family who had held +a curule office. + +A plebeian who first held this office was called a _novus homo_, +or "new man." + +The Senate, thus made up of patricians and nobles, had at this time +the monopoly of power. Legally, however, it had no positive authority. +The right of the people to govern was still valid, and there was only +wanting a magistrate with the courage to remind them of their legal +rights, and urge the exercise of them. + +Such a magistrate was found in TIBERIUS SEMPRONIUS GRACCHUS. With him +was ushered in the contest which lasted for more than a century, and +brought to the surface some of the proudest names of Roman history. On +one side or the other we find them,--MARIUS and SULLA, CAESAR and +POMPEY, AUGUSTUS and ANTONY--arraying Rome against herself, until the +glories of the Republic were swallowed up in the misrule and dishonor +of the Empire. + +Tiberius Sempronius Gracchus the elder (see Chapter XX.) belonged to +the nobility, but not to the aristocracy. He married CORNELIA, the +daughter of Africánus the elder. They had twelve children, of whom all +but three died young. Two sons and a daughter lived to maturity. The +daughter, SEMPRONIA, married Africánus the younger. The sons, TIBERIUS +and GAIUS, grew up under the care of their noble and gifted mother, +who was left a widow when they were mere boys. + +Tiberius (164-133) entered the army, and served under his brother-in- +law during the third Punic war. Ten years later (136) he was Quaestor +in Spain, where he won the affections of the people by adhering to the +mild policy which his father had previously followed. His popular +measures here displeased his brother-in-law, and he ceased to be a +favorite with him. On his return home he passed through Tuscany where +he was astonished to see large tracts of the _ager publicus_ (see +Chapter VII.) cultivated by slave gangs, while the free poor citizens +of the Republic were wandering in towns without employment, and +deprived of the land which, according to law (see the Licinian +Rogations), should have been divided among them, and not held in large +quantities by the rich land-owners. + +Tiberius determined to rectify this wrong. In 133 he offered himself +as candidate for the tribuneship, and was elected. He then began +boldly the battle for the commons. He proposed to revise the Agrarian +Law, now a dead letter, which forbade the holding of more than 320 +acres of the _ager publicus_ by one individual. Occupants who had +fenced this land and improved it were to be compensated therefor. + +The wealthy classes and the Senate at once took sides against +Tiberius, and the struggle began. One of the other Tribunes, OCTAVIUS +CAECÍNA, who was himself a large land-owner, taking advantage of his +authority as Tribune, interposed his veto to prevent a vote upon the +question. + +Gracchus, full of enthusiasm over the justice of his cause, obtained, +contrary to all precedent, the removal of his colleague from office, +and passed his Agrarian Law. Three commissioners were appointed, +himself, his brother, and his father-in-law, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, to carry +it into effect. + +It was contrary to the law that a person should hold the office of +Tribune for two successive years. But Gracchus, in his desire to carry +out his plans, determined to violate this rule, and offered himself as +candidate for the next year. The election day came, and when it became +evident that he would be re-elected, the aristocrats, who had turned +out in full force on the Campus Martius with their retinues of armed +slaves and clients, raised a riot, and, killing Gracchus with three +hundred of his followers, threw their bodies into the Tiber (133). +Thus was shed the first blood of the civil struggle. The mob was led +by SCIPIO NASÍCA, the uncle of Tiberius. Africánus, when he heard of +the murder of his brother-in-law, exclaimed, "Justly slain." + +The agrarian law, however, which had passed, was too evidently just to +be openly ignored. The remaining two commissioners continued their +work, until, within two years, 40,000 families were settled on tracts +of the public land which the patricians were compelled to vacate. But +the commissioners became unpopular, for those who received lands were +not always satisfied, and those who were obliged to leave them were +enraged. The commissioners were suspended, and the law repealed. + +The mantle of Tiberius fell on GAIUS GRACCHUS. For a time after his +brother's death he retired from politics, and served in the army in +Africa and Sardinia, where he was Quaestor. His valor, wisdom, and +justice made him justly popular, but caused him to be regarded with +suspicion at Rome. In 123 he was elected Tribune, and twice re- +elected. He revived his brother's agrarian law, and became at once the +avowed enemy of the Senate. As a means of increasing his popularity, +he endeavored to admit all the Italians to the privileges of Roman +citizenship, and to limit the price of bread. + +Gains gained the favor of the _Equites_ (Knights), the commercial +class, by carrying through the assembly a law by which all judicial +functions were taken from the Senate and intrusted to the Knights. +Heretofore all civil and criminal cases of importance had been tried +before a jury chosen from the Senate. These juries were often venal +and corrupt, and it was a notorious fact that their verdicts could be +bought. + +The transferring of the juries to the Equites made Gaius for a time +very powerful. He caused another law to be passed, to the effect that +no Roman citizen should be put to death without legal trial and an +appeal to the assembly of the people. + +But the plan of Gaius to extend the franchise to all the Italians +ruined his popularity. The Roman citizens had no desire to share their +rights with the Etruscans and Samnites. Riots again broke out, as ten +years before. The aristocracy again armed itself. Gaius with 3,000 of +his friends was murdered in 121, and the Senate was once more master +of the situation. + +However, the results obtained by the Gracchi still remained. Forty +thousand peasants had been settled on public land. The jury law was in +force. No Roman citizen could be put to death without trial, unless +the state was held to be in danger. + +Nearly all Roman writers unite in attacking the reputation of the +Gracchi; but viewed in the light of to-day their characters were +noble, and their virtues too conspicuous to be obscured. + +A few years previous to this, the younger Africánus died (129). His +remark about the death of Tiberius Gracchus gave dire offence to the +popular party, and a few days later he was found dead in his bed, +probably "a victim of political assassination." + +Africánus was a man of refinement and culture, a warm friend of +scholars, a patron of the Greek historian POLYBIUS, and of the poets +LUCILIUS and TERENCE. He was opposed to the tendency of his age +towards luxury and extravagance. He was an orator, as well as a +general. The one blot on his career is the terrible destruction of +Carthage, which he possibly might have averted had he shown firm +opposition to it. + +SCIPIO NASÍCA, who led the mob against Tiberius, was compelled, though +Pontifex Maximus, to leave the city, and died an exile in Asia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXII. + +EXTERNAL HISTORY.--PERGAMUM.--JUGURTHINE WAR (118-104). + + +Pergamum was an ancient city of Mysia on the Caícus, fifteen miles +from the sea. It first became important after the death of Alexander. +Its first king, Attalus I. (241-197), added a large territory to the +city. He was an ally of the Romans, and his successors remained their +firm friends. The city became one of the most prosperous and famous in +Asia Minor, noted for its architectural monuments, its fine library, +and its schools. Attalus III., at his death in 133, bequeathed to Rome +his kingdom, which included Lydia, Pisidia, Lycaonia, and Pamphylia. +It was made a province under the name of ASIA. + +THE WAR WITH JUGURTHA. + +After the destruction of Carthage, the most important kingdom in +Africa was NUMIDIA. It contained a number of flourishing towns, which +were centres of a considerable commerce. Masinissa left this kingdom +to his son Micipsa. The latter had two sons and a nephew, JUGURTHA. +The nephew was a brilliant young man, who had served under Scipio in +the Numantine war, and returned to Africa covered with honors. He was +named joint heir with his cousins to the kingdom of Numidia. Micipsa +dying soon after, Jugurtha murdered one of his cousins, Hiempsal, +claimed the whole kingdom, and attacked his other cousin, Adherbal, +who appealed to Rome. Commissioners were sent to investigate. They +were bought off by Jugurtha, and returned home without accomplishing +anything. Adherbal was afterwards captured, savagely tortured, and +finally killed. + +The Senate, compelled by the popular indignation to make an +investigation, moved so slowly that some of its members were accused +of accepting bribes. War was declared at last, but the campaign +languished, and peace was soon made on such easy terms for the prince +that it was evident his money had again been freely used. The +scandalous transaction was denounced at Rome by the Tribune MEMMIUS. +Jugurtha then repaired to the city in person, and bought up all the +authorities except Memmius, whom he found incorruptible. He had +another cousin in the city, whom he caused to be murdered. After this +the Senate ordered him to leave, and as he departed, it is said he +exclaimed, "Venal city, destined soon to perish, if a purchaser be +found!" + +War was now begun in earnest (110), but resulted in a crushing defeat +of the Romans, whose army was sent under the yoke. Humiliated by the +defeat, the Senate in the following year sent QUINTUS CAECILIUS +METELLUS, nephew of Metellus Macedonicus, to take charge of the war. +He was a man of integrity, with some experience as an officer, and a +rigid aristocrat. Realizing the danger of failure, he took with him as +his lieutenant the ablest soldier that he could find, GAIUS MARIUS. + +Marius, born at Arpínum in 157, was the son of a farmer, and was +himself bred to the plough. He joined the army at an early age, and +soon attracted notice for his punctual performance of all duties, and +his strictness in discipline. He was present at the siege of Numantia, +and his courage caused Scipio to predict for him a brilliant career. +He soon rose to be Military Tribune. In 119 he was chosen Tribune of +the People, and two years later Praetor. The fact that he was +respected and valued in high circles is shown by his subsequent +marriage into the family of the Caesars. By this marriage with Julia, +the aunt of Julius Caesar, he became a person of social distinction. + +The campaign was moderately successful. Jugurtha was defeated near the +river Muthul, and made to retire into the desert, where his +stronghold, Thala, was captured. He sued for peace, but, as +unconditional surrender was demanded, he still held out. The popular +party at Rome, irritated that such a petty prince should give so much +trouble, demanded that Marius should be made Consul and have charge of +the war. When the lieutenant asked Metellus for leave of absence to +enable him to be present at the elections, as was necessary according +to the law, his general ridiculed the idea, and told him to wait +another twenty years. He went, however, and was elected in 107, being +the first plebeian chosen to that office for more than a century. + +Metellus was recalled, enjoyed a triumph, and received the agnomen of +NUMIDICUS. + +Marius was every inch a soldier. He saw that the Roman legions must be +reorganized and better disciplined. He enlisted men who had no other +occupation, that they might become professional soldiers. Some men of +rank who had a taste for war also went with him. Among these was a +young patrician, CORNELIUS SULLA. With this army Marius soon wrested +from Jugurtha all his strongholds. In less than two years the war was +over. By his ally, Bocchus, King of Mauritania, Jugurtha was betrayed +(106) into the hands of Sulla, who was acting as the Quaestor of +Marius. + +The western portion of Numidia was given to Bocchus as the reward of +his treachery, while the remainder continued to be governed by native +princes, until the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. In 104 Marius +returned home, and entered Rome in triumph. Jugurtha was thrown into a +dungeon, and there starved to death. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIII. + +THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONES.--POLITICAL QUARRELS. + + +The war with Jugurtha ended none too soon, for Marius was needed in a +struggle requiring all his talents. + +The CIMBRI and TEUTONES, barbarous nations from Northern Europe, were +threatening the frontiers of Italy. Already the Roman armies had met +with five successive defeats at their hands on the banks of the Rhone. +Eighty thousand Romans and forty thousand camp followers are said to +have fallen in these battles. Had the barbarians at this moment chosen +to enter Italy, the destruction of Rome would have been a certain +result. Fortunately, they turned to the Pyrenees, and, sweeping over +the mountains, overran for a season the province of Spain. + +Marius, appointed Consul a second time, devoted his energies to +forming and training the army. He selected the plains on the banks of +the Rhone in Southern Gaul as best adapted for his purpose. Here he +drilled his troops, accustoming them to the greatest possible +exertions. Many perished under the strain, but the survivors became +hardened soldiers. Corps of engineers were attached to each legion, +and the soldiers were taught the use of tools, as well as of arms. At +length, in his fourth consulship (102), he felt prepared to meet the +enemy. + +The barbarians, on their return from Spain, separated their forces, +the Cimbri marching around the northern foot of the Alps towards +Noricum, with the intention of invading Italy from that quarter, while +the Teutones remained in Gaul. + +As the latter advanced, Marius took up his position in a fortified +camp near AQUAE SEXTIAE (Aix). He allowed the enemy to march past him, +and then followed cautiously, waiting for a favorable opportunity to +fall upon them. In the battle that followed, the barbarians were no +match for the drilled legionaries, who were irresistible. The contest +lasted two days, and the vast host of the Teutones was cut to pieces +(20 July, 102). At the close of this battle word was brought to Marius +that he had been elected Consul for the fifth time. + +Meanwhile, the Cimbri had crossed the Alps and were ravaging the +fertile fields of Lombardy, meeting with but slight opposition from +Catulus, the other Consul. + +The next year Marius came to his rescue. Near VERCELLAE the Cimbri met +the same fate as their brethren, and Italy was saved (101). + +No sooner was the danger from the invasion over than political +quarrels broke out at Rome with great fury. Marius was elected Consul +for the sixth time. The popular heroes of the hour were two +demagogues, the Tribune SATURNÍNUS and the Praetor GLAUCIA. They +carried corn laws and land laws,[Footnote: These were the APPULEIAN +LAWS (100):--I. Any Roman citizen could buy corn of the state at a +nominal price. II. The land in Cisalpine Gaul, which the Cimbrians had +occupied, should be divided among the Italian and Roman citizens. +III. Colonies from the veterans of Marius were to be founded in +Sicily, Achaia, and Macedonia.] and compelled the Senators to take an +oath to execute their laws. Metellus Numidicus refusing to comply with +their wishes, Saturnínus sent a guard to the Senate-House, dragged him +out, and expelled him from the city. + +During this troublesome time, Marius showed that he was no politician. +He lacked judgment and firmness, and by endeavoring to please all +parties he pleased none. + +On the popular side there were two parties, the moderate one, led by +MEMMIUS, who had exposed the Senate in its dealings with Jugurtha, and +the radical one, led by Saturnínus and Glaucia. Memmius and Glaucia +both ran for the consulship, and as the former seemed likely to be +successful, he was murdered. A reaction then set in, and Saturnínus +and Glaucia were declared public enemies. They took refuge in the +Senate-House, the roof of which was torn off, and the wretches were +stoned to death. + +The fall of Saturnínus and Glaucia was followed in 99 by the recall of +Metellus from banishment. He died shortly afterwards, and it was +suspected that he was a victim of treachery. + +Marius having now become generally unpopular on account of his +vacillating course in the recent troubles, went into voluntary exile, +travelling through Asia Minor, and visiting the court of Mithradátes, +King of Pontus. + +For the next eight years (99-91) Rome enjoyed a season of comparative +quiet. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIV. + +INTERNAL HISTORY.-THE SOCIAL WAR (90-88). + + +At this time there was a bitter rivalry between the Senate and the +equestrian order, or commercial class. From the former were chosen the +governors of the provinces, from the latter came the tax-gatherers +(_publicani_) and the money-brokers (_negotiatores_). It will +help us to understand better the condition of affairs, if we study the +composition of the Senate and the Equites. + +The Senators, three hundred in number (later their number was +increased to six hundred), held their office for life. When vacancies +occurred from death, or occasionally from removal, they were filled by +the Censor, [Footnote: See the duties of Censor] who appointed a +person that had held one of the following offices: Dictator, Consul, +Praetor, Curule Aedile, or, after the time of Sulla, Quaestor. All +persons who had held these offices, or that of Tribune, were allowed +to join in debate in the Senate, but not to vote. No Senator could +engage in business. Hence he must be wealthy. + +We saw in Chapter IV. that Roman citizens were divided into six +classes according to their property, and that these classes were +subdivided into one hundred and ninety-three other classes called +centuries. About 225, the number was increased to three hundred and +seventy-three. Eighteen of the centuries of the first class were +called EQUITES, and must have property worth twenty thousand dollars +or more. This name was given to them because at first they served in +the army as horsemen, though in later times the cavalry was composed +only of allied troops. The Equites were originally from the +aristocracy alone, but, as the plebeians increased in wealth, many of +them became rich enough to be included in this class. + +There was no hostility between the Senate and the Equites until, in +123, Gaius Gracchus passed the _Lex Judicaria_, which prescribed +that the jurors _(judices)_ should be chosen from the Equites, +and not the Senate. From this time dates the struggle between the two +classes, and the breach widened every year. On the one side were the +nobles, represented by the Senate; on the other side, the equestrian +order. Since the jurors were chosen from the latter, it had control of +the courts, and often made an unscrupulous use of its power, +especially in those courts which were established to try governors for +extortion in the management of provinces _(quaestiones rerum +repetundarum)_. From the Equites, too, were taken the tax-gatherers +of the provinces. They pillaged and robbed the people at will, and, if +a governor had the courage to interfere with them, a threat of +prosecution was held over his head. The average governor preferred to +connive at their exactions; the bolder ones paid with fines or exiles +for their courage. Another trouble was threatening the commonwealth. +The Italian allies of Rome did not possess the franchise belonging to +a Roman citizen. For nearly two centuries they had shared dangers and +victories with the Romans; they now eagerly demanded all their +privileges. + +In 91, MARCUS LIVIUS DRUSUS, the Tribune, took up the task of reform. +He was noble, wealthy, and popular, and he hoped to settle the +question peacefully and equitably. But his attempt to reform the +courts displeased the Equites, his agrarian and corn laws made him +many enemies, and his attempt to admit the Italians to the rights of +Roman citizenship aroused great opposition. + +His laws were passed, but the Senate pronounced them null and void. He +was denounced in that body as a traitor, and was struck down by an +assassin in the same year. + +The death of Drusus drove the Italians to despair. Eight nations +entered into a close alliance, chose CORFINIUM, in the Pelignian +Apennines, as their capital, and formed a Federal Republic, to which +they gave the name ITALIA. All Italians were to be citizens of +Corfinium, and here was to be the place of assembly and the Senate- +House. + +Rome, in the face of this danger, acted promptly and with resolution. +The Consuls, Lucius Julius Caesar and Publius Rutilius Lupus, both +took the field; with each were five lieutenants, among whom were +Marius and Sulla. + +This war (90-88), called the SOCIAL WAR, i.e. the war with the allies +(_Socii_), was at first disastrous to Rome. The allies overran +Campania, defeated the Romans several times, and entered into +negotiations with the Northern Italians, whose fidelity began to +waver. + +It is not strange, therefore, that opinions at Rome began to be turned +in the direction of a more liberal policy. It was decided to make +concessions. Towards the close of the year 90, the Consul Caesar +carried the JULIAN LAW, by which the Roman franchise was extended to +all who had not yet revolted. The next year this law was supplemented +by the PLAUTIAN PAPIRIAN LAW, which allowed every citizen of an +Italian town the franchise, if he handed in his name to the Praetor at +Rome within sixty days. About the same time was passed another law, +the CALPURNIAN, which permitted Roman magistrates in the field to +bestow the franchise on all who wished it. These laws resulted in +disorganizing the rebellion. The Samnites and Lucanians held out the +longest, but were finally put down by Marius. + +The end of the Social War brought no peace at Rome. The newly +enfranchised Italians were not fully satisfied. The Senate was torn +asunder by violent personal rivalries. There was no class not affected +by the wide-spread tightness in the money market. The treasury was +empty, and many capitalists became insolvent. War with Mithradátes, +King of Pontus, had been declared, and both Marius and Sulla were +eager to have the command. + +At this time (88) the TRIBUNE PUBLIUS SULPICIUS RUFUS brought forward +the following bills:-- + +1. That the command of the war against Mithradátes be given to Marius. + +2. That the new citizens should be distributed through all the tribes. + +3. That any Senator who owed more than four hundred dollars be +deprived of his seat. + +4. That those exiled on suspicion of having aided in the Italian +revolt be recalled. + +In spite of the bitterest opposition, these bills were passed. But the +triumph of Sulpicius was of short duration. Sulla, who with his troops +had been encamping near Nola in Campania, marched upon the city, and +for the first time a Consul entered Rome at the head of his legions. + + + + +CHAPTER XXV. + +MARIUS AND SULLA.-CINNA. + + +With the name of MARIUS is usually coupled that of LUCIUS CORNELIUS +SULLA (138-78). "He was a patrician of the purest blood, had inherited +a moderate fortune, and had spent it, like other young men of rank, +lounging in theatres and amusing himself with dinner parties. He was a +poet, an artist, and a wit. Although apparently indolent, he was +naturally a soldier, statesman, and diplomatist. As Quaestor under +Marius in the Jugurthine War, he had proved a most active and useful +officer." In these African campaigns he showed that he knew how to win +the hearts and confidence of his soldiers; and through his whole +subsequent career, the secret of his brilliant successes seems to have +been the enthusiastic devotion of his troops, whom he always held well +under control, even when they were allowed to indulge in plunder and +license. It was to Sulla's combined adroitness and courage that Marius +owed the final capture of Jugurtha. He served again under Marius in +the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones, and gave efficient help +towards the victory. But the Consul became jealous of his rising +power, and all friendly feeling between the two ceased. + +After this campaign Sulla lived at Rome for some years, taking no part +in politics, and during this time his name and that of his rival are +almost unheard. He appeared before the public again in 93, when he was +elected Praetor, and increased his popularity by an exhibition of a +hundred lions in the arena, matched against Numidian archers. In 92 he +went as Propraetor to govern the province of Asia, and here he first +met MITHRADÁTES. + +This monarch, who ruled over Pontus, was an extraordinary man. He +spoke many languages, was the idol, of his subjects, and had boundless +ambition. He doubted the durability of the Roman Empire, and began to +enlarge his own territory, with no apparent fear of Rome's +interference. + +Cappadocia, a neighboring country, was under Roman protection, and was +ruled by a prince, ARIOBARZÁNES, that Rome had recognized. This +country Mithradátes attacked. He killed the prince, and placed on the +throne his own nephew. + +Rome interfered, and Sulla was instructed to visit the monarch. He +accomplished his mission with his usual adroitness, and returned to +Rome with new honors. He took an active part in the Social War, +eclipsing the fame of his rival, Marius. He was now the recognized +leader of the conservative and aristocratic party. The feeling between +the rivals was more bitter than ever, for Marius, though old, had by +no means lost his prestige with the popular party. + +It was at this time that Mithradátes, learning of the Social War, +thought it a good opportunity to advance his own interests and extend +his realm. He collected all his available forces, and invaded +Bithynia. With his fleets he sailed through the Dardanelles into the +Archipelago. The extortions of the Roman governors had been so great, +that Ionia, Lydia, and Caria, with all the islands near Asia Minor, +gladly revolted from Rome, and accepted his protection. All the Roman +residents with their families were massacred on a single day. It is +said that 80,000 persons perished. Mithradátes himself next crossed +the Bosphorus, and marched into Northern Greece, which received him +with open arms. + +Such was the condition in the East when Sulpicius Rufus carried the +bills mentioned in the last chapter. One of these bills was that +Marius have charge of the war against Mithradátes. This was not to +Sulla's liking. He was in Campania with the legions that had served in +the Social War. The soldiers were devoted to him, and ready to follow +him anywhere. Sulla, therefore, taking matters into his own hands, +marched into the city at the head of his troops. The people resisted; +Sulpicius was slain; Marius fled for his life, and retired to Africa, +where he lived for a time, watching the course of events. + +Sulla could not remain long at the capital. The affairs of the East +called him away; and no sooner was he gone than the flames of civil +war burst out anew (87). + +LUCIUS CORNELIUS CINNA, a friend of Marius, was Consul that year. He +tried to recall Marius, but was violently opposed and finally driven +from the city. The Senate declared him deposed from his office. He +invoked the aid of the soldiers in Campania, and found them ready to +follow him. The neighboring Italian towns sent him men and money, and +Marius, coming from Africa, joined him with six thousand troops. They +marched upon Rome. The city was captured. Cinna was acknowledged +Consul, and the sentence of outlawry which had been passed on Marius +was revoked. + +The next year Marius was made Consul for the seventh time, and Cinna +for the second. Then followed the wildest cruelties. Marius had a +body-guard of slaves, which he sent out to murder whomever he wished. +The houses of the rich were plundered, and the honor of noble families +was exposed to the mercy of the slaves. Fortunately Marius died +sixteen days after he entered office, and the shedding of blood +ceased. + +For the next three years Cinna ruled Rome. Constitutional government +was practically suspended. For the years 85 and 84 Cinna himself and a +trusty colleague were Consuls, but no regular elections were held. In +84, he was murdered, when on the eve of setting out against Sulla in +Asia. + +Sulla left Italy for the East with 30,000 troops. He marched against +Athens, where Archeláus, the general of Mithradátes, was intrenched. +After a long siege, he captured and pillaged the city, March 1, 86. +The same year he defeated Archeláus at CHAERONÉA in Boeotia, and the +next year at ORCHOMENOS. + +Meanwhile Sulla's lieutenant, LUCULLUS, raised a fleet and gained two +victories off the coast of Asia Minor. The Asiatic king was now ready +to negotiate. Sulla crossed the Hellespont in 84, and in a personal +interview with the king arranged the terms of peace, which were as +follows. The king was to give up Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and +Cappadocia, and withdraw to his former dominions. He was also to pay +an indemnity amounting to about $3,500,000, and surrender eighty ships +of war. + +Having thus settled matters with the king, Sulla punished the Lydians +and Carians, in whose territory the Romans had been massacred, by +compelling them to pay at one time five years' tribute. He was now +ready to return to Rome. + +The same year that Cinna died, Sulla landed at Brundisium, with 40,000 +troops and a large following of nobles who had fled from Rome. Every +preparation was made by the Marian party for his reception; but no +sooner did he land in Italy than the soldiers were induced to desert +to him in immense numbers, and he soon found himself in possession of +all Lower Italy. Among those who hastened to his standard was young +POMPEY, then but twenty-three years old, and it was to his efforts +that Sulla's success was largely due. The next year, 83, the Marian +party was joined by the Samnites, and the war raged more fiercely than +ever. At length, however, Sulla was victorious under the walls of +Rome. The city lay at his mercy. His first act, an order for the +slaughter of 6,000 Samnite prisoners, was a fit prelude to his conduct +in the city. Every effort was made to eradicate the last trace of +Marian blood and sympathy from the city. A list of men, declared to be +outlaws and public enemies, was exhibited in the Forum, and a +succession of wholesale murders and confiscations throughout Rome and +Italy, made the name of Sulla forever infamous. + +Having received the title of Dictator, and celebrated a splendid +triumph for the Mithradátic war, he carried (80-79) his political +measures. The main object of these was to invest the Senate, the +thinned ranks of which he filled with his own creatures, with full +control over the state, over every magistrate and every province. + +In 79 he resigned his dictatorship and went to Puteoli, where he died +the next year, from a loathsome disease brought on by his excesses. + + +THE REFORMS OF SULLA. + +Sulla restricted the power of the magistrates to the advantage of the +Senate. Senators were alone made eligible for the tribuneship, and no +former Tribune could hold any curule office. No one could be Praetor +without having first been Quaestor, or Consul without having held the +praetorship. Every candidate for the office of Quaestor must be at +least thirty years old. The number of Praetors was increased from six +to eight; that of Quaestors, from twelve to twenty. The Consuls and +Praetors were to remain at Rome during their first year of office, and +then go to the provinces as Proconsuls and Propraetors. + +Three hundred new Senators, taken from the Equites, were added, and +all who had been Quaestors were made eligible to the Senate. + +The control of the courts was transferred from the Equites to the +Senate. + +On the death of Sulla, in 78, CRASSUS and LEPIDUS were chosen Consuls; +but such was the instability of the times that they were sworn not to +raise an army during their consulship. Lepidus attempted to evade his +oath by going to Gaul, and, when summoned by the Senate to return, +marched against the city at the head of his forces. He was defeated by +Crassus and Pompey in 78, and soon after died. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVI. + +SERTORIUS.--SPARTACUS.--LUCULLUS.--POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + + +Quintus Sertorius (121-72), a native of the little Sabine village of +Nursia under the Apennines, had joined the party of Marius, and served +under him in the campaigns against the Cimbri and Teutones. In 97 he +served in Spain, and became acquainted with the country with which his +fame is chiefly associated. In 91 he was Quaestor in Cisalpine Gaul. +He was a partisan of Marius during his troubles with Sulla, and on +Sulla's return from the East he left Rome for Spain, where he took the +lead of the Marian party. His bravery, kindness, and eloquence pleased +the Spaniards. Many Roman refugees and deserters joined him. He +defeated one of Sulla's generals, and drove out of Lusitania +(Portugal) METELLUS PIUS,[Footnote: Son of Metellus Numidicus. He +received the agnomen of Pius on account of the love which he displayed +for his father, whom he begged the people to recall from banishment in +99.] who had been specially sent against him from Rome. + +The object of Sertorius was to establish a government in Spain after +the Roman model. He formed a Senate of three hundred members, and +founded at Osca a school for native children. He was strict and severe +towards his soldiers, but kind to the people. A white fawn was his +favorite pet and constant follower. He ruled Spain for six years. In +77 he was joined by PERPERNA a Roman officer. The same year Pompey, +then a young man, was sent to co-operate with Metellus. Sertorius +proved more than a match for both of these generals, and defeated them +near Saguntum. + +The position of the Romans was becoming critical, for Sertorius now +formed a league with the pirates of the Mediterranean. He also entered +into negotiations with Mithradátes, and opened correspondence with the +slaves in Italy, who were rebelling. + +But intrigues and jealousies arose in his camp. The outcome of these +was that he was treacherously murdered by Perperna at a banquet in 72, +and with his death fell the Marian party in Spain. + +Meanwhile a dangerous enemy was threatening Italy within her own +borders. In 73 a band of gladiators, under the leadership of one of +their number, named SPARTACUS escaped from the training school at +Capua and took up a strong position on Mount Vesuvius. They were +joined by large numbers of slaves and outcasts of every description, +and were soon in a position to defeat two Praetors who were sent +against them. + +The next year they assumed the offensive; and Spartacus found himself +at the head of 100,000 men. Four generals sent against him were +defeated; and for two years he ravaged Italy at will, and even +threatened Rome. But intestine division showed itself in his ranks; +his lieutenants grew jealous of him, and his strength began to wane. + +In 71 the command of the war was given to CRASSUS, who finished it in +six months. Spartacus fell, fighting bravely, near Brundisium. Pompey, +returning from the Sertorian war in Spain, met five thousand of those +who had escaped from the array of Spartacus. These he slew to a man. +Crassus pointed the moral of his victory by hanging, along the road +from Rome to Capua, six thousand captives whom he had taken. + +Mithradátes meanwhile, taking advantage of the troubles at Rome, was +again in arms, and in 74 LUCIUS LICINIUS LUCULLUS was sent against +him. + +Lucullus, of plebeian birth, first distinguished himself in the Social +War, where he gained the favor of Sulla, and accompanied him, as +Quaestor, in his campaign against Mithradátes in 88. With Cotta he was +chosen to the consulship in 74. The province of Cilicia was assigned +to him, Bithynia to Cotta. Mithradátes invaded Bithynia, defeated +Cotta, and besieged him at Chalcédon. + +Lucullus, after reorganizing and disciplining his army, went to the +aid of his colleague, drove the king into Pontus, and defeated him at +Cabíra in 72, and his fleet at Tenedos in 71, compelling him to take +refuge with his son-in-law, TIGRÁNES, King of Armenia. + +Lucullus endeavored to work reforms in the administration of +provincial governments in the East. The revenues of the provinces were +farmed out, and the measures of Lucullus were intended to protect the +tax-payers against the tax-gatherers (_publicani_). His reforms +met with bitter opposition at Rome, especially from the Equites, whose +chief source of income was often this same tax-farming. Intrigues +against him by persons sent from Rome began to create dissatisfaction +among his troops. He had been a severe disciplinarian, and so it was +all the easier to turn the soldiers against him. + +In 68 he won a victory over Tigránes and Mithradátes, at the river +Arsanias; but his legions refused to follow him farther, and he was +obliged to lead them into winter quarters in Mesopotamia. The next +year his soldiers again mutinied, and he was replaced by Pompey. + +Returning to Rome, Lucullus spent the rest of his days in retirement, +dying about 57. He was very rich, and was famed for the luxurious +dinners which he gave. + + +POMPEY AND CRASSUS. + +The Sullan system stood for nine years, and was then overthrown, as it +had been established, by a soldier. It was the fortune of Pompey, a +favorite officer of Sulla, to cause the first violation of the laws +laid down by his general. + +GNEIUS POMPEIUS MAGNUS (106-48) led a soldier's life from his boyhood +to his death. When a youth of seventeen he fought by his father's side +in the civil struggles between Marius and Sulla. He was a partisan of +the latter, and connected himself with the cause of the aristocracy. +He defeated the followers of Marius in Sicily and Africa, and in 81 +was allowed to enjoy a triumph, though still an Eques and not legally +qualified. Sulla then greeted him with the surname of Magnus, which he +ever afterwards bore. He was then sent to Spain, with what success we +have seen in the previous chapter. In 70 Pompey and MARCUS LICINIUS +CRASSUS were elected Consuls amid great enthusiasm. + +Crassus (108-53), the conqueror of Spartacus, had amassed immense +wealth by speculation, mining, dealing in slaves, and other methods. +Avarice is said to have been his ruling passion, though he gave large +sums to the people for political effect. + +Neither Pompey nor Crassus, according to the laws passed by Sulla, was +eligible to the consulship. The former had never been Quaestor, and +was only thirty-five years old; the latter was still Praetor, and +ought to have waited two years. + +The work of Sulla was now quickly undone. The Tribunes regained their +prerogative, the veto. The control of the criminal courts was +transferred again from the Senate to the Equites, and the former body +was cleared of its most worthless members, who had been appointed by +Sulla. + +For three years (70-67) after the expiration of his consulship, Pompey +remained quietly at Rome. He was then put in charge of an expedition +against the Greek pirates. From the earliest times these marauders had +been in the habit of depredating on the shores of the Mediterranean. +During the civil wars of Rome they had become much bolder, so that the +city was compelled to take an active part against them. They had +paralyzed the trade of the Mediterranean, and even the coasts of Italy +were not safe from their raids. + +GABINIUS, a Tribune, proposed that Pompey should hold his command for +three years; that he should have supreme authority over all Roman +magistrates in the provinces throughout the Mediterranean, and over +the coasts for fifty miles inland. He was to have fifteen lieutenants, +all ex-praetors, two hundred ships, and all the troops he needed. + +In three months the pirates were swept from the sea. + +The next year (66) Pompey's powers were still further enlarged by the +MANILIAN LAW, proposed by the Tribune Manilius. By this law the entire +control of the Roman policy in the East was given to Pompey. His +appointment was violently opposed by the Senate, especially by +CATULUS, the "father of the Senate," and by the orator HORTENSIUS; but +CICERO with his first political speech (_Pro Lege Manilia_) came +to Pompey's assistance, and to him was given the command by which he +became virtually dictator in the East. His operations there were +thoroughly successful, and, though he doubtless owed much to the +previous victories of Lucullus, he showed himself an able soldier. +Mithradátes was obliged to flee across the Black Sea to Panticapaeum +(Kertch). + +In the year 64 Pompey went to Syria, took possession of the country in +the name of Rome, and made it a province. + +Next he was invited to act as judge between Hyrcánus and Aristobúlus, +two aspirants to the Jewish throne. His decision was contrary to the +wishes of the people, and to enforce it he led his army against +Jerusalem, which he captured after a siege of three months. He +installed Hyrcánus on the throne on condition of an annual tribute. + +Meanwhile Mithradátes had returned to Pontus for the prosecution of +his old design; but so great was the terror inspired by the Roman +arms, that even his own son refused to join him. Desperate at the turn +affairs had taken, the aged monarch put an end to his own life in 63, +after a reign of fifty-seven years. With him ceased for many years all +formidable opposition to Rome in Asia. + +Besides Syria, Pontus, to which Bithynia was joined, and Crete were +now made provinces. Cilicia was reorganized, and enlarged by the +addition of Pamphylia and Isauria. The three countries in Asia Minor +not yet provinces, but dependencies, were Galatia, ruled by Deiotarus; +Cappadocia, by Ariobarzánes; and Paphlagonia, by Attalus. + +After an absence of nearly seven years, Pompey returned to Rome, +January 1, 61, and enjoyed a well earned triumph. He was forty-five +years old, had accomplished a really great work, had founded several +cities which afterwards became centres of Greek life and civilization, +and was hailed as the conqueror of Spain, Africa, and Asia. + +The rest of Pompey's life is closely connected with that of Caesar. +His wife, Julia, was Caesar's daughter, and thus far the relations +between the two men had been friendly. + +Pompey's absence in the East was marked at Rome by the rise to +political importance of CAESAR and CICERO, and by the conspiracy of +CATILINE. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVII. + +CAESAR.--CICERO.--VERRES. + + +The Caesars were a family belonging to the Julian _gens_, which +claimed descent from IÚLUS, the son of AENÉAS. Eight generations of +Caesars had held prominent places in the commonwealth. They had been +Consuls, Praetors, Censors, Aediles, and were aristocrats of the +moderate wing. The direct ancestry of GAIUS JULIUS CAESAR can be +traced no further back than his grandfather. This gentleman, of the +same name as the great Caesar, married Marcia, who claimed descent +from Ancus Marcius, the fourth King of Rome. They had three children, +Gaius Julius, the father of the Dictator, Sextus Julius, and Julia, +who became the wife of Marius. Gaius Julius held no higher office than +Praetor. He was married to Aurelia, a stately woman of simple and +severe tastes. Their son Gaius was born on July 12th, 100. + +During Cinna's consulship (86), Caesar is first mentioned as a youth, +tall, slight, handsome, with dark, piercing eyes, sallow complexion, +and features refined and intellectual. The bloody scenes attending the +proscription of his uncle Marius, to whose party his father belonged, +must have made a deep impression upon him. One of his most intimate +companions was CICERO, who was six years his senior. + +Marius had seen in his nephew the materials which make great men, and +determined to help him to promotion. He made him, when scarcely +fifteen, a priest of Jupiter (_flamen dialis_), which sacred +office carried with it a handsome income. + +Shortly after the death of his father, in 84, Caesar married Cornelia, +the daughter of Cinna. By this marriage he was connected more closely +with the popular party, whose champion he remained. + +When Sulla returned to Rome from his Eastern campaign, Caesar was but +eighteen. In the wholesale murders that followed, his party was +ruined, his nearest friends dispersed or killed. He himself was yet +free from proscription, for Sulla wished to win such a promising young +man to his own side. He made proposals that Caesar divorce his wife +and marry one whom he might select. Caesar refused. Force was then +tried. His priesthood was taken from him, and his wife's dowry. His +estate was confiscated, and, when this had no effect, he was himself +declared an outlaw, and a price was set on his head. Influential +friends, however, interceded in his behalf, and the Dictator was +finally persuaded to pardon him; but with reluctance, and with the +remark that in Caesar was the making of many a Marius. The youth then +left Italy, and joined the army in Asia. + +Here Caesar served his apprenticeship as a soldier. He joined the +forces of the Praetor Thermus, who had been sent against the pirates +that were making their head-quarters in Lesbos. The Praetor, finding +his troops insufficient to accomplish his work, sent Caesar to +Nicomédes, a Roman ally and the King of Bithynia, to obtain additional +forces. He was successful in his mission, and, upon his return to +Lesbos, distinguished himself for his bravery in the attack upon +Mityléne, and was awarded the oak wreath, a coveted honor, for saving +the life of a fellow-soldier. + +Caesar is next seen in Cilicia, serving under Servilius, in a campaign +against the pirates who were marauding along the coast of that +country. While here he was informed of Sulla's death, and at once left +the army and returned home (77). The next year he began his struggle +with the nobility by prosecuting for extortion Dolabella, a former +Governor of Macedonia. Dolabella was a favorite of the Senate, and his +cause was theirs. The best talent was engaged to defend him, and +Caesar lost the case. + +Feeling his deficiency as an orator, Caesar went to Rhodes and studied +rhetoric under the famous Apollonius. He had recovered his property +and priesthood, and could well afford the time. While on his way he +was captured by pirates, and not released until a ransom of some +$50,000 was raised and paid. Upon arriving at Milétus he at once got +together some vessels, returned to the island where he had been in +captivity, seized the crew of pirates, took them to Pergamus, and had +them tried, convicted, and crucified. He then resumed his journey to +Rhodes, where he remained two years in the pursuit of his studies. +Then the report of the uprisal of Mithradátes reached him, and he at +once crossed over to the mainland, collected a body of volunteers, and +saved Caria to Rome. + +Having finished his studies, Caesar returned to Rome and lived quietly +for a time with his wife and mother, watching the course of events. + +While Caesar was thus preparing himself for the great struggle in +which he was destined to take the leading part, Cicero, the companion +of his youth, was beginning to attract attention at Rome. + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO (106-43) was a townsman of Marius. He belonged +to the Equites, and received a good education under the best Greek +teachers. As he ripened into manhood, he chose in politics the party +opposed to Caesar, and for a profession he selected the bar, hoping to +gain fame as a speaker before the Senate, and finally to become one of +its members. He took part in the Social War (89), but during the +troubled times that followed he remained quietly engaged in literary +pursuits. His first public oration (80), the defence of Roscius, who +was falsely accused of murdering his father, was a great success, and +guaranteed for him a brilliant future. Cicero improved the next few +years by study and travel in Asia and Greece. Shortly after his +return, in 75, he was elected Quaestor, and thus became a member of +the Senate. His year of office he spent in Sicily, in the performance +of his duties. There he obtained an insight into the corrupt +extortions of the Roman governors. Five years later, he conducted his +famous case against Verres. + +VERRES had been a follower of Sulla, and during the proscriptions had +amassed some property. Afterwards he held official positions in Greece +and Asia, where he became notorious for his greediness and cruelty. +With the money thus acquired, he had bought his election to the +praetorship, became Senator, and was sent by his colleagues to govern +Sicily. His government there may have been no worse than that of many +other proconsuls in the different provinces, but we have a fuller +account of it owing to the prosecution of Cicero, whose speeches +against Verres are preserved. + +Verres was Governor of Sicily for three years. In his official +position, he was judge of all civil and criminal cases. Every suit +brought before him he gave to the party that could pay him best. +Property was confiscated on false charges, and works of art of great +value were stolen. By such a course Verres collected, it is said, +property to the value of $4,000,000. Two thirds of this he expected to +spend in silencing accusations. The rest he hoped to enjoy in peace, +but Cicero's eloquence forced him to abandon his defence and retire +into exile. + +It was about this time that Caesar finished his rhetorical studies +abroad, and returned home. He was elected Military Tribune as a reward +for what he had accomplished in Caria. Two years later, in 68, he was +elected Quaestor, thereby acquiring a seat in the Senate. At this time +his aunt Julia died, and, as one of her nearest relatives, he +delivered the funeral oration. + +Caesar was now beginning to know Pompey, and saw that their interests +were common. The latter, although but six years older, was already a +great man and a distinguished soldier. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, died, +and he married for a second wife Pompeia, the cousin of Pompey. When +sent as Quaestor to Farther Spain, in 67, he completed the work begun +by Pompey and settled the finances of the troubled country, a task +which he found the easier as he was known to belong to the popular +party, of which Marius and Sertorius had been leaders. + + + + +CHAPTER XXVIII. + +TROUBLES AT ROME.--CONSPIRACY OF CATILINE. + + +While Pompey was absent in the East, matters at Rome were daily becoming +worse, and shaping themselves for the speedy overthrow of the Republic. +There were many who had suffered under Sulla, and who were +anxious to regain what they had lost, and there were many who, +enriched by the Dictator, had squandered their ill-gotten wealth, and +now only waited a leader to renew the assault upon the state. The +Senate was jealous of the power of the people, and the people +distrusted the Senate. + +Among the patricians who were aspiring to the consulship was LUCIUS +SERGIUS CATILÍNA, a villain steeped in every crime, but adroit, bold, +and withal captivating. In 68 he had been Praetor, the next year +Governor in Africa, where by his extortions he had obtained enough +money, as he hoped, to purchase his election to the consulship. On his +return home he was impeached for his misgovernment, but acquitted +through Cicero's defence and the careful selection of a jury. + +He then came forward as candidate for the consulship of the next year +(63). There were two other candidates, Antonius, the uncle of Mark +Antony, and Cicero himself. Antony was sure of an election, so the +struggle was really between Catiline and Cicero. The latter was +elected, owing to the popularity he had acquired by his prosecution of +Verres and his defence of the Manilian Law. Thus Cicero reached the +goal for which he had been so long striving. + +Caesar was rising at the same time. The year previous (65) he had been +Curule Aedile, had built a row of costly columns in front of the +Capitol, and erected a temple to the Dioscúri (Castor and Pollux). But +what made him especially pleasing to the populace was his lavish +display at the public games and exhibitions. + +Caesar was now looked upon as a prominent democratic leader. In 63 the +office of Pontifex Maximus, the head of the state religion, became +vacant by the death of its occupant, Metellus Pius. Caesar became a +candidate for the office, and was elected, receiving more votes than +both the rival candidates combined. He also received further evidence +of the popular favor by being chosen Praetor for the next year (62). + +Cicero's consulship would have closed without adding anything to his +fame had it not been for Catiline. The latter's failure to be elected +caused him to enter into a plot to seize and burn the city. He had +many followers, men of noble families, among whom were the former +Consul Lentulus, who had been recently expelled from the Senate by the +Censors, and Cethégus, a bankrupt spendthrift, who was anxious to +regain a fortune by a change in government. There were veterans of +Sulla, starving peasants who had been dispossessed of their farms, and +outlaws of every description. The conspirators were divided into two +parties; those outside of the city, headed by Marcus Manlius, whose +head-quarters were at Faesulae (Fiesole), where was gathered an army +of trained soldiers; and those inside of the city, headed by Catiline. +Here secret meetings were held, the purpose of which was to excite an +uprising, kill the magistrates, seize the government, and then unite +with the army in Etruria. Cicero was informed of these meetings by +spies, and just before the plans for the uprising were matured, he +disclosed them to the Senate. + +Catiline fled from Rome; but his accomplices, of whom Lentulus and +Cethégus were the most prominent, were arrested in the city. A serious +difficulty now arose as to the disposition of the prisoners. Lentulus +was at that time Praetor, and the persons of public officers were +sacred. The Sempronian Law of Gracchus forbade the executing of any +Roman citizen without giving him a right of appeal to the Assembly. +Too many were implicated in the conspiracy for this to be safe. + +In the debate in the Senate, the principal speakers were Caesar, Cato, +and Cicero. + +Cato and Cicero advocated immediate death; Caesar, imprisonment for +life. The motives of the men are so characteristic that they form a +complete key to their several public careers. Cicero, vain and +selfish, weak in council, and distrustful of the temper of the people +and of his own ability to rule their factions, feared that they would +become dangerous enemies to himself; Cato, desiring the reformation of +the state, would make an example and warning for the future. The one, +forgetful of the state, was overcome by personal fears; the other, +unmindful of self, would have purity at any cost. + +Caesar, on the other hand, wished everything done in strict accordance +with the laws; as a bold and wise statesman, he urged that nothing was +more impolitic than lawless violence on the part of the rulers. Cicero +was the timid magistrate; Cato, the injudicious reformer; but Caesar, +with his keener knowledge and stronger hand, was the safer guide. + +A sentence of death was voted; and Cicero, with unseemly haste, caused +the conspirators to be strangled that same night (December 5, 63). The +suppression of the conspiracy in the city was followed by the defeat +of the army in Etruria. Thither Catiline had fled, and there he fell +fighting with desperate courage at the head of his motley force of +soldiers near Pistoria. + +The name of "Father of his Country" was given to Cicero for the +vigilance shown in this affair. + +The execution of Lentulus and Cethégus resulted as Caesar had +expected. It was a lawless act on the part of the Consul and the +Senate, and it was felt that by it the constitution was still more +endangered. The people demanded that Pompey return. In him they +thought to have a deliverer from internal strifes. + +Cicero was wrapped up in his own conceit, imagining himself a second +Romulus. On the last day of the year (63), as was the custom of the +retiring Consuls, he arose in the Forum to deliver a speech, reviewing +the acts of his year of consulship. Metellus Nepos, a Tribune, forbade +his speaking, on the ground that one who had put to death Roman +citizens without a hearing did not deserve to be heard. Amid the +uproar Cicero could only shout that he had saved his country. Metellus +threatened to impeach him, and excitement in the city was at fever +heat. The Tribune moved before the Assembly that Pompey be recalled. +The Senate feared his coming. Caesar, who was now Praetor (judge), +favored it, and earnestly seconded the proposal of Metellus. Cato, who +was also Tribune, ordered Metellus to stop speaking, and snatched his +manuscript from his hand. The aristocrats drew their swords, and broke +up the meeting. Constitutional law was trampled under foot on all +sides. The Senate was riding rough-shod over all opponents. Metellus +and Caesar were declared deposed from their offices. The people, +however, believed in Caesar. He was followed to his home by crowds, +who begged him to be their leader, and make an example of the law- +breakers in the Senate. But Caesar refused. He would have nothing to +do with lawlessness; he let his opponents play that _rôle_, and +awaited the results. The Senate soon saw its mistake, and requested +him to resume his official duties. + +The next year (61) Caesar was sent to Farther Spain as Propraetor. He +had already left a favorable impression there as Quaestor. Portions of +the country were still unsubdued. Many of the mountain passes were +held by robbers, whose depredations caused much trouble. He completed +the subjugation of the peninsula, put down the brigands, reorganized +the government, and sent large sums of money to the treasury at Rome. +His administration was thorough and complete, and a just reward for it +would, he hoped, be the consulship. + +Meanwhile Pompey had returned from the East. He landed at Brundisium +in December, 62, and proceeded with a large band of captured princes +and immense treasures to Rome, which he entered in triumph amidst the +greatest enthusiasm. By a special vote of the Senate he was permitted +to wear his triumphal robe in that body whenever he pleased. + +Caesar returned from Spain in 60, with wealth and military fame. +Though feared and detested by the Senate, he was the favorite of the +people, and could depend upon their support. Pompey had the army +behind him. He received Caesar with pleasure, for he had been a friend +in all his career. + +Caesar felt that, with the people and the army through Pompey on his +side, he only needed the capitalists to make his success sure. CRASSUS +was counted as the richest man at Rome. He was won over. These three +then formed what is known as the FIRST TRIUMVIRATE,--"a union of +shrewdness, renown, and riches," by which Caesar expected to rise to +great power, Pompey to retain his power, and Crassus to gain greater +wealth. + + + + +CHAPTER XXIX. + +THE FIRST TRIUMVIRATE. + + +Pompey was ostensibly at the head of the first Triumvirate, and in +return supported Caesar in his candidacy for the consulship. Crassus +was to contribute his wealth to influence the election. Caesar was +elected without opposition (59); his colleague, the Senate's tool, was +Marcus Bibulus. + +Caesar had now reached the highest round in the ladder of political +offices. He had shown himself in all his course to be careful in +keeping within the bounds of the constitution, never exerting himself +in political quarrels except to defend the law against lawlessness. +Now he was in a position to push his ideas of reform, and to show the +aristocracy of what stuff he was made. + +It would have been well for Cicero, and better for the state, had the +orator been willing to join hands with Caesar and Pompey; but he was +too vain of his own glory to join hands with those who were his +superiors, and he clung to the Senate, feeling that his talents would +shine there more, and be more likely to redound to his own personal +fame. + +Caesar's consulship increased his popularity among all except the +aristocrats. His AGRARIAN LAW, carefully framed and worded, was +bitterly opposed by the Senate, especially by his colleague, Bibulus, +and by Cato. The law provided that large tracts of the _ager +publicus_, then held on easy terms by the rich patricians, be +distributed among the veterans of Pompey. Caesar proposed to pay the +holders a reasonable sum for their loss, though legally they had no +claim whatever on the land. Although Bibulus interfered, Cato raved, +and the Tribunes vetoed, still the Assembly passed the law, and voted +in addition that the Senate be obliged to take an oath to observe it. + +The LEGES JULIAE were a code of laws which Caesar drew up during his +year of office. They mark an era in Roman law, for they cover many +crimes the commission of which had been for a long time undermining +the state. + +The most important of these was the LEX DE REPETUNDIS, aimed at the +abuses of governors of provinces. It required all governors to make a +double return of their accounts, one to be left in the province open +for inspection, the other to be kept at Rome. + +When Caesar's term of office was nearly ended, he obtained from the +reluctant Senate his appointment as Proconsul of Gaul for five years. +He must leave the city, however, in safe hands, otherwise all his work +would be undone. He managed the consular elections for the next year +(58) so adroitly, that Piso and Gabinius, on whose friendship he could +rely, were elected. + +There were in Rome, however, two men whom it would be dangerous for +Caesar to leave behind. Cato, the ultra aristocrat, hated him +bitterly. Cicero, whose ambition was to lead the Senate, a body only +too willing to crush Caesar, might do him great harm. It was Caesar's +good fortune, or, as some believe, the result of his own scheming, +that both these men were put temporarily out of the way. + +CLODIUS PULCHER was a young aristocrat, notorious for his wildness. At +one time, by assuming the dress of a woman, he had gained admittance +to the festival of _Bona Dea_, which was celebrated only by +women. He was discovered and brought to trial before the Senate, but +acquitted by means of open bribery. Cicero had been instrumental in +bringing him to trial, and Clodius never forgot it. He got adopted +into a plebeian family in order to be a candidate for the tribuneship, +and was successful. He then proposed to the Assembly that any person +who had put to death a Roman citizen without allowing him to appeal to +the people be considered a violator of the constitution. The proposal +was carried. All knew that Cicero was meant, and he fled at once to +Macedonia. His property was confiscated, his houses were destroyed, +and his palace in the city was dedicated to the Goddess of Liberty. + +The kingdom of Cyprus, which had long been attached to that of Egypt, +had been bequeathed to Rome at the death of Ptolemy Alexander in 80. +The Senate had delayed to accept the bequest, and meanwhile the island +was ruled by Ptolemy of Cyprus, one of the heirs of the dead king. + +Clodius, on the plea that this king harbored pirates, persuaded the +Assembly to annex the island, and to send Cato to take charge of it. +He accepted the mission, and was absent two years. His duties were +satisfactorily performed, and he returned with about $7,000,000 to +increase the Roman treasury. Thus, Cicero and Cato being out of the +city, the Senate was without a leader who could work injury in +Caesar's absence. + + + + +CHAPTER XXX. + +CAESAR'S CAMPAIGNS IN GAUL. + + +Caesar was now in the prime of manhood, in the full vigor of mind and +body. His previous experience in camp life had been comparatively +small. His early service in Asia, and his more recent campaigns in +Spain, however, had shown his aptitude for military life. + +The Romans had already obtained a foothold in Gaul. Since 118, the +southern part of the country along the seaboard had been a Roman +province, called GALLIA NARBONENSIS, from the colony of Narbo which +the Romans had founded. The rest of Gaul included all modern France, +and a part of Switzerland, Holland, and Belgium. The inhabitants were +all of the Celtic race, except a few Germans who had crossed the Rhine +and settled in the North, and the AQUITÁNI, who lived in the Southwest +and who are represented by the Basques of to-day. + +The Gauls were more or less civilized since they had come into contact +with the Romans, but they still had the tribal form of government, +like the early Romans. There were more than fifty of these tribes, +which were mostly hostile to one another, as well as divided into +factions among themselves. This condition favored a conquest, for the +factions were frequently Roman and non-Roman. Two of the chief tribes +were the AEDUI and SEQUANI. The former had been taken under the +protection of Rome; the latter, impatient of control and Roman +influence, had invited a tribe of Germans under Ariovistus to come +into Gaul and settle, and be their allies. These Germans had attacked +and conquered the Aeduans, taken from them hostages, and with the +Sequanians were in the ascendency. + +In Switzerland lived the HELVETII. They had so increased in numbers +that their country was too small for them. They therefore proposed to +emigrate farther into Gaul, and the Sequanians, whose lands bordered +on those of the Helvetians, gave them permission to march through +their country. + +Such was the state of affairs when Caesar arrived in Gaul. Feeling +that the passage of such a large body of emigrants (368,000) through +Gaul would be dangerous to the province (Gallia Narbonensis), he +determined to interfere. The Helvetians were met at BIBRACTE, near +Autun, and after a terrible battle, which raged from noon until night, +were defeated with great slaughter (58). The survivors, about one +third, were treated kindly, and most of them sent back to Switzerland. + +Caesar now turned his attention to the Germans who had settled west of +the Rhine. After several fruitless attempts at negotiation, during +which the bad faith of Ariovistus became conspicuous, the forces came +together. Though the Germans were brave, they were no match for the +drilled legionaries, who fought with the regularity of a machine. Few +of the barbarians escaped, but among these was Ariovistus. + +The campaigns of this year being ended, the legions were sent into +winter quarters among the Sequanians under Labiénus, the lieutenant of +Caesar. He himself went into Cisalpine Gaul to attend to his duties as +administrator, and to have communication with his friends at Rome. + + +THE WAR WITH THE BELGAE. + +While Caesar was in Hither Gaul, he learned from Labiénus that the +BELGAE were forming a league to resist the Romans. This people +occupied the northeastern part of Gaul, and embraced several tribes, +of which the principal were the REMI, BELLOVACI, SUESSIÓNES, and +NERVII. The last were the fiercest and least civilized. + +Caesar raised two new legions, making eight in all, and marched +against the Belgae as soon as the spring opened. His sudden approach +alarmed the Remi, who lived nearest to Central Gaul, and they +immediately put themselves under his protection. From them he learned +that the Belgae could muster about 300,000 men. + +By skilful tactics and a successful attack he put to flight and nearly +annihilated the Suessiónes. The Bellovaci now put themselves under his +protection, but the Nervii remained in arms. One day, while the six +legions were forming camp on the bank of the river Sabis, the Nervii +and their allies suddenly rushed upon them from an ambuscade in the +woods on the opposite bank. The troops were entirely unprepared, and +so quick was the enemy's charge that the Romans had not time to put on +their helmets, to remove the covering from their shields, or to find +their proper places in the ranks. Great confusion followed, and they +became almost panic-stricken. Caesar rushed into their midst, snatched +a shield from a soldier, and by his presence and coolness revived +their courage. The Nervii were checked, and victory was assured. But +the enemy fought on with a bravery that excited the admiration of +Caesar. Of sixty thousand men scarcely five hundred survived. The +women and children were cared for kindly by Caesar, and settled in +their own territory. + +The Aduatuci, who had assisted the Nervii in their struggle, were +conquered by Caesar and sold into slavery. + +Thus ended the Belgian campaign (57). The legions were put into winter +quarters near where the war had been waged, and Caesar went to Italy. +In his honor was decreed a thanksgiving lasting fifteen days. + + +THE VENETI.--INVASION OF GERMANY. + +All the tribes in the northwestern part of Gaul (Brittany) except the +VENETI had given hostages to Crassus, son of the Triumvir, and +lieutenant of Caesar. This tribe refused to give hostages, and, +inducing others to join them, seized some Roman officers sent among +them by Crassus. The campaign of the third year (56) was directed +against these people. They were mostly sailors and fishermen, with +villages built on the end of promontories and easily defended by land. +In a naval engagement, which lasted nearly all day, their whole fleet +was destroyed. The leaders of the Veneti were put to death for their +treachery in seizing Roman officers, and the rest were sold into +slavery. + +The legions spent the winter of 56-55 in the northern part of Gaul, +among the Aulerci and neighboring tribes. + +During this winter another wave of Germans passed over the Rhine into +Gaul. They had been driven from their homes by a powerful tribe called +the SUEVI. In the spring of 55 Caesar collected his troops and +advanced to within twelve miles of the German camp, and gave the +invaders twenty-four hours to leave the country. Before the expiration +of the time, they attacked Caesar's outposts, killing several Knights, +and two men of aristocratic families. In the general engagement that +followed, the Germans were totally routed and most of them were slain. + +Caesar next determined to cross the Rhine into Germany, thinking thus +to inspire the Germans with greater fear of the Romans. He built his +famous bridge, crossed it, remained eighteen days in Germany, and, +thinking his object accomplished, returned to Gaul, destroying the +bridge behind him. + + +INVASION OF BRITAIN. + +It was now August and Caesar occupied the rest of the season by +crossing the Channel to Britain (England). Landing near Deal, with but +little resistance on the part of the natives, he explored the country +for a short time, and returned in September, as the equinox was near +and the weather unsettled. The legions were sent into winter quarters +among the Belgae, and Caesar set out for Cisalpine Gaul. + +During this winter (55-54), orders were given to build a large fleet, +as Caesar intended to return to Britain the next year. After all +preparations were completed, he set sail, July 20, 54, and the next +day landed on the island. He defeated the Britons under their leader +CASSIVELAUNUS, and compelled them to pay tribute and give hostages. +Many thousand prisoners were taken, and sold in Italy as slaves. + + +FINAL STRUGGLES OF THE GAULS. + +In the winter of 54-53 the legions were distributed among several +tribes. That stationed in the territory of the Eburónes was commanded +by the lieutenants, Gabínus and Cotta. News reached the encampment +that there was an uprisal of the Eburónes. It was decided to break up +camp, and go, if possible, to the winter quarters of their nearest +companions. On the march they were surprised and nearly all killed. +Only a few stragglers carried the news to Labiénus, who was wintering +with a legion among the Remi. + +This success moved the Nervii to attack Quintus Cicero, the lieutenant +who was wintering with his legion among them. Word was sent to Caesar, +who had fortunately not yet left Gaul. He hastened to Cicero's relief, +raised the siege, and all but annihilated the revolting Nervii. + +In 53 Caesar punished the Eburónes for their action in the previous +winter. The tribe was completely destroyed, but their leader, +Ambiorix, escaped and was never captured. During this summer Caesar +again crossed the Rhine. At the close of the summer he returned to +Cisalpine Gaul, supposing that the Gauls were totally subdued. He was +mistaken. The patriotism of the people was not yet extinguished. The +chiefs of all the tribes secretly established communication with each +other. A day was settled upon for a general uprising. The Roman +inhabitants of Genabum, on the Liger, were massacred. The leading +spirit in this last struggle of the Gauls was VERCINGETORIX, chief of +the Averni. + +Caesar hastened across the Alps, surmounted the difficulties of +crossing the Cevennes when the snow was very deep, collected his +legions, marched upon Genabum, and plundered and burnt the town. + +Vercingetorix saw that he was no match for the legions in open battle. +He proposed, therefore, to cut off Caesar's supplies by burning all +the towns of the Bituriges, and laying the country waste. Avaricum +alone was spared. Within its walls were placed the best of their goods +and a strong garrison. Thither Caesar marched, and, after a well +defended siege, captured the town and killed every person in it, +excepting eight hundred, who escaped to the camp of Vercingetorix. +Large quantities of corn were taken, with which Caesar supplied his +soldiers. He then marched against Gergovia, the capital of the Averni. +As the town was on a high plateau, and too strong to be stormed, he +laid siege to it. A part of the army, contrary to instructions, one +day attempted to assault the place. The battle which followed was +disastrous to the Romans, and the only defeat Caesar received in Gaul. +Forty-six officers and seven hundred men fell. The siege was raised. +It was a serious position for Caesar. All Gaul was in flames. +Retreating at once, he formed a junction with Labiénus at Agendicum, +and with all his troops started for Gallia Narbonensis to protect it +from invasion. + +On his route was ALESIA. Here Vercingetorix was intrenched with eighty +thousand troops. It was, like Gergovia, situated on a hill and +considered impregnable. Caesar laid siege to this place (52). +Vercingetorix appealed to all Gaul for aid. Hardly had the fortress +been invested when Caesar's army was surrounded by an immense force of +Gauls that had come to the rescue. Caesar needed now all his skill and +genius. But they did not fail him. The relieving army, though five +times as large as his, was driven back and sent flying home. + +Seeing that all was over, Vercingetorix called a council of his chiefs +and advised surrender. A message was sent to Caesar. He demanded +unconditional surrender, and was obeyed. The people were sold into +slavery, and the money obtained distributed among the soldiers. +Vercingetorix was kept to be exhibited in the triumph at Rome, and +afterwards died in a dungeon. + +With the fall of Alesia, the subjugation of Gaul was practically +completed. + +The next year (51) Caesar honored several chiefs with privileges; some +of the nobles were granted the franchise, and some admitted to the +Senate. The work of Romanizing Gaul was fairly begun. Two provinces +were formed, Gallia and Belgica, and later (17 A. D.) the former of +these was subdivided into Lugdunensis and Aquitania. Roman money was +introduced, and Latin became the official language. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXI. + +CLODIUS AND MILO.--DEATH OF CRASSUS. + + +During the nine years (59-50) passed by Caesar in Gaul, great +confusion prevailed at Rome. The Republic needed a strong, firm hand, +which would stop the shedding of blood and insure security of person +and property. Pompey had attempted to bring about this result, but had +failed. There were two prominent factions, one led by CLODIUS, the +other by MILO. + +"Clodius is the most extraordinary figure in this extraordinary +period. He had no character. He had no distinguished talent save for +speech; he had no policy; he was ready to adopt any cause or person +which for the moment was convenient to him; and yet for five years +this man was the leader of the Roman mob. He could defy justice, +insult the Consuls, beat the Tribunes, parade the streets with a gang +of armed slaves, killing persons disagreeable to him; and in the +Senate itself he had high friends and connections, who threw a shield +over him when his audacity had gone beyond endurance." Milo was as +disreputable as Clodius. His chief fame had been gained in the schools +of the gladiators. Gangs of armed slaves accompanied him everywhere, +and there were constant collisions between his retainers and those of +Clodius. + +In 57 Consuls were elected who favored Cicero, and his recall was +demanded. Clodius and his followers opposed the recall. The nobles, +led by their tool Milo, pressed it. Day after day the opposing parties +met in bloody affrays. For seven months the brawl continued, till +Milo's party finally got the ascendancy; the Assembly was convened, +and the recall voted. + +For seventeen months Cicero had been in Greece, lamenting his hard +lot. He landed at Brundisium on August 5, 57, and proceeded to Rome. +Outside the city all men of note, except his avowed enemies, were +waiting to receive him. The Senate voted to restore his property, and +to rebuild his palace on the Palatine Hill and his other villas at the +public expense. But Clodius, with his bands of ruffians, interrupted +the workmen engaged in the repair of his Palatine house, broke down +the walls, and, attacking Cicero himself, nearly murdered him. + +At last Clodius even attempted to burn the house of Milo. The long +struggle between these two ruffians culminated when Milo was a +candidate for the consulship, and Clodius for the praetorship. The two +meeting by accident in the Via Appia at Bovillae, Clodius was +murdered, 20 January, 52. This act of violence strengthened Pompey, +who was nominated sole Consul. Milo was impeached. His guilt was +evident, and he went into exile at Massilia. Cicero prepared an +elaborate speech in his defence, but did not dare to deliver it. + +During the interval between the two campaigns of 57 and 56, Caesar +renewed his alliance with his two colleagues in interviews that were +held at Ravenna and Luca. He retained the command of Gaul; Pompey, +that of Spain; Crassus, that of Syria. + +CRASSUS now undertook the war against the Parthians. He was +accompanied by his son, who had done good service under Caesar in +Gaul. They arrived at Zeugma, a city of Syria, on the Euphrátes; and +the Romans, seven legions strong, with four thousand cavalry, drew +themselves up along the river. The Quaestor, CASSIUS, a man of +ability, proposed to Crassus a plan of the campaign, which consisted +in following the river as far as Seleucia, in order not to be +separated from his fleet and provisions, and to avoid being surrounded +by the cavalry of the enemy. But Crassus allowed himself to be +deceived by an Arab chief, who lured him to the sandy plains of +Mesopotamia at Carrhae. + +The forces of the Parthians, divided into many bodies, suddenly rushed +upon the Roman ranks, and drove them back. The young Crassus attempted +a charge at the head of fifteen hundred horsemen. The Parthians +yielded, but only to draw him into an ambush, where he perished, after +great deeds of valor. His head, carried on the end of a pike, was +borne before the eyes of his unhappy father, who, crushed by grief and +despair, gave the command into the hands of Cassius. Cassius gave +orders for a general retreat. The Parthians subjected the Roman army +to continual losses, and Crassus himself was killed in a conference +(53). + +In this disastrous campaign there perished more than twenty thousand +Romans. Ten thousand were taken prisoners and compelled to serve as +slaves in the army of the Parthians. + +The death of Crassus broke the Triumvirate; that of Julia, in 54, had +sundered the family ties between Caesar and Pompey, who married +Cornelia, the widow of the young Crassus, and daughter of Metellus +Scipio. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXII. + +CAESAR'S STRUGGLE WITH POMPEY.--BATTLE OF PHARSALIA. + + +Pompey was elected sole Consul in February, 52. He at once threw off +all pretence of an alliance with Caesar, and devoted himself to the +interests of the Senate and aristocracy. + +The brilliant successes of Caesar in Gaul had made a profound +impression upon the minds of the citizens, to whom the name of the +northern barbarians was still fraught with terror. Caesar had won for +himself distinction as a soldier greater than the Scipios, or Sulla, +or Pompey. "He was coming back to lay at his country's feet a province +larger than Spain, not only subdued, but reconciled to subjugation; a +nation of warriors, as much devoted to him as his own legions." The +nobility had watched his successes with bitter envy; but they were +forced to vote a thanksgiving of twenty days, which "the people made +sixty." + +Caesar now declared through his followers at Rome that he desired a +second consulship. But he wished first to celebrate his triumph, and +on this account would not disband his army; for, according to the +custom, he could not triumph without it. According to another custom, +however, he must disband it before he could offer himself as a +candidate for the consulship. But he asked permission to set aside +this custom, and to become a candidate while he was in the province in +command of the army. + +The law requiring a candidate to give up his command had been +suspended several times before this; so that Caesar's request was +reasonable. His enemies in the city were numerous and powerful, and he +felt that, if he returned as a private citizen, his personal safety +would be in danger; whereas, if he were a magistrate, his person would +be considered sacred. + +The Senate, on the other hand, felt that, if he carried his point, the +days of their influence were numbered. Their first step, therefore, +was to weaken Caesar, and to provide their champion, Pompey, with a +force in Italy, They voted that Caesar should return to Pompey a +legion which had been loaned him, and also should send another legion +back to Italy. The vote was taken on the ostensible plea that the +troops were needed in Asia Minor against the Parthians; but when they +reached Italy they were placed under Pompey's command in Campania. The +Consuls chosen for the year 49 were both bitter enemies of Caesar. He +had taken up his winter quarters at Ravenna, the last town in his +province bordering on Italy. From here he sent a messenger with +letters to the Senate, stating that he was ready to resign his +command, if Pompey did the same. The messenger arrived at Rome, +January 1, 49, on the day in which the new Consuls entered upon their +duties. + +The letters were read in the Senate, and there followed a spirited +discussion, resulting in a decree that Caesar should resign his +command. The Tribunes opposed; but, being threatened by the Consuls, +they were compelled to leave the city, and went directly to Ravenna. + +When the action of the Senate was reported to Caesar, he called +together his soldiers, and addressed them thus: "For nine years I and +my army have served our country loyally and with some degree of +success. We have driven the Germans across the Rhine; we have made +Gaul a province; and the Senate, for answer, has broken the +constitution in setting aside the Tribunes who spoke in my defence. It +has voted the state in danger, and has called Italy to arms, when no +single act of mine can justify it in this course." The soldiers became +enthusiastic, and were eager to follow their leader without pay. +Contributions were offered him by both men and officers. LABIENUS, his +trusted lieutenant, alone proved false. He stole away, and joined +Pompey. Caesar then sent for two legions from across the Alps. With +these legions he crossed the RUBICON into Italy, and marched to +Ariminum. + +Meanwhile the report of his movements reached Rome. The aristocracy +had imagined that his courage would fail him, or that his army would +desert. Thoroughly frightened, Consuls, Praetors, Senators,-leaving +wives, children, and property to their fate,-fled from the city to +seek safety with Pompey in Capua. They did not stop even to take the +money from the treasury, but left it locked. + +Caesar paused at Ariminum, and sent envoys to the Senate, stating that +he was still desirous of peace. If Pompey would depart to his province +in Spain, he would himself disband his own troops. He was even willing +to have a personal interview with Pompey. This message was received by +the Senate after its flight from Rome. The substance of its reply was, +that Pompey did not wish a personal interview, but would go to Spain, +and that Caesar must leave Ariminum, return to his province, and give +security that he would dismiss his army. + +These terms seemed to Caesar unfair, and he would not accept them. +Accordingly he sent his lieutenant, Mark Antony, across the mountains +to Arretium, on the road to Rome. He himself pushed on to Ancóna, +before Pompey could stop him. The towns that were on his march threw +open their gates, their garrisons joined his army, and their officers +fled. Steadily he advanced, with constantly increasing forces, until +when he reached Corfinium his army had swelled to thirty thousand +troops. + +This place had been occupied by Domitius with a party of aristocrats +and a few thousand men. Caesar surrounded the town, and when Domitius +endeavored to steal away, his own troops took him and delivered him +over to Caesar. The capture of Corfinium and the desertion of its +garrison filled Pompey and his followers with dismay. They hurried to +Brundisium, where ships were in readiness for them to depart. + +Hoping to intercept Pompey, Caesar hastened to this port. On his +arrival outside of the town, the Consuls, with half the army, had +already gone. Pompey, however, was still within the place, with twelve +thousand troops, waiting for transports to carry them away. He refused +to see Caesar; and, though the latter endeavored to blockade the port, +he was unsuccessful, owing to want of ships. + +Thus Pompey escaped. With him were the Consuls, more than half the +Senate, and the aristocracy. Caesar would have followed them, but a +fleet must first be obtained, and matters nearer home demanded his +attention. + +In sixty days Caesar had made himself master of Italy. On his way to +Rome he met Cicero, and invited him to attend the Senate, but he +preferred to stay away. Caesar entered the city unattended, and +assembled the Senate through the Tribunes, Mark Antony and Cassius +Longínus. The attendance was small, as most of the members were with +Pompey. In his address to the Senate Caesar spoke of his own +forbearance and concessions, of their unjust demands, and their +violent suppression of the authority of the Tribunes. He was still +willing to send envoys to treat with Pompey, but no one was found +willing to go. After three days spent in useless discussion, Caesar +decided to act for himself. By his own edict, he restored the children +of the victims of Sulla's proscription to their rights and property. +The money in the treasury was voted him by the Assembly of the people. +He took as much of it as he needed, and started at once for Gaul to +join his troops on his way to Spain. + +He had much to accomplish. Spain was in the hands of Pompey's +lieutenants, Afranius, Petreius, and Varro, who had six legions and +allied troops. From Sicily and Sardinia came most of the grain +supplies of Rome, and it was important to hold these islands. To +Sicily he sent Curio and to Sardinia Valerius. Cato, who was in charge +of Sicily, immediately abandoned it and fled to Africa. Sardinia +received Caesar's troops with open arms. + +Upon his arrival in Gaul, Caesar found that the inhabitants of +Massilia had risen against his authority, led by the same Domitius +whom he had sent away unharmed from Corfinium. Caesar blockaded the +city, and, leaving Decimus Brutus in charge of operations, continued +his journey to Spain. He found Afranius and Petreius strongly +intrenched at ILERDA in Catalonia (Northern Spain). Within forty days +he brought them to terms, and Varro, who was in Southern Spain, was +eager to surrender. All Spain was at his feet. + +Before leaving Spain, Caesar summoned the leading Spaniards and Romans +to Cordova, for a conference. All promised obedience to his authority. +He then set sail from Gades to Tarragóna, where he joined his legions +and marched back to Massilia, which he found hard pressed and ready to +surrender. The gates were opened. All were pardoned, and Domitius was +allowed to escape a second time. + +Caesar left a portion of his forces in Gaul, and with the rest arrived +at Rome in the early winter of 49-48. Thus far he had been successful. +Gaul, Spain, Sardinia, Sicily, and Italy were his. He had not +succeeded, however, in getting together a naval force in the Adriatic, +and he had lost his promising lieutenant, Curio, who had been +surprised and killed in Africa, whither he had gone in pursuit of Cato +and Pompey's followers. + +During Caesar's absence, affairs at Rome had resumed their usual +course. He had left the city under charge of his lieutenant, Aemilius +Lepidus, and Italy in command of Mark Antony. Caesar was still at +Massilia, when he learned that the people of Rome had proclaimed him +Dictator. Financial troubles in the city had made this step necessary. +Public credit was shaken. Debts had not been paid since the civil war +began. Caesar allowed himself only eleven days in Rome. In this time +estimates were drawn of all debts as they were one year before, the +interest was remitted and the principal declared still due. This +measure relieved the debtors somewhat. + +It was now nearly a year since Caesar crossed the Rubicon. Pompey, +during the nine months that had elapsed since his escape from +Brundisium, had been collecting his forces in Epírus. Here had +gathered many princes from the East, a majority of the Senatorial +families of Rome, Cato and Cicero, the vanquished Afranius, and the +renegade Labiénus. There were nine full legions, with cavalry and +auxiliaries, amounting in all to 100,000 men. + +Caesar reached Brundisium at the end of the year 49. His forces were +fewer in number than those of his adversary, amounting to not more +than 15,000 infantry and 600 cavalry. But his legionaries were all +veterans, inured to toil and hunger, to heat and cold, and every man +was devoted to his leader. + +On the 4th of January he set sail from Brundisium, landing after an +uneventful voyage at Acroceraunia. He advanced at once towards +Dyrrachium where were Pompey's head-quarters, occupied Apollonia, and +intrenched himself on the left bank of the river Apsus. The country +was well disposed and furnished him with ample supplies. + +Caesar sent back the vessels on which he crossed to transport his +remaining troops, but they were intercepted on their way across and +many of them destroyed. He was therefore compelled to confine himself +to trifling operations, until his lieutenant, Mark Antony, could fit +out a second fleet and bring over the remainder of his legions. When +Antony finally crossed, he landed one hundred miles up the coast. +Pompey's forces were between him and Caesar, and his position was full +of danger; but Caesar marched rapidly round Dyrrachium, and joined him +before Pompey knew of his movements. + +The great general was now ready for action. He built a line of +strongly fortified forts around Pompey's camp, blockading him by land. +He turned the streams of water aside, causing as much inconvenience as +possible to the enemy. So the siege dragged on into June. + +Two deserters informed Pompey of a weak spot in Caesar's line. At this +point Pompey made a sudden attack. For once Caesar's troops were +surprised and panic-stricken. Even his own presence did not cause them +to rally. Nearly one thousand of his men fell, thirty-two standards, +and a few hundred soldiers were captured. + +This victory was the ruin of Pompey's cause. Its importance was +exaggerated. His followers were sure that the war was practically +over; and so certain were they of ultimate success that they neglected +to follow up the advantage gained, and gave Caesar opportunity to +recover from the blow. + +The latter now retired from the sea-board into Thessaly. Pompey +followed, confident of victory. The nobles in his camp amused +themselves with quarrelling about the expected spoils of war. Cato and +Cicero remained behind in Epirus, the former disgusted at the actions +of the degenerate nobility, the latter pleading ill health. + +The two armies encamped on a plain in Thessaly near the river Enipeus, +only four miles apart. Between them lay a low hill called PHARSÁLUS, +which gave name to the battle which followed. + +"The battle of PHARSALIA (August 9, 48) has acquired a special place +in history, because it was fought by the Roman aristocracy in their +own persons in defence of their own supremacy. Senators and the sons +of Senators, the heirs of the names and fortunes of the ancient Roman +families, the leaders of society in Roman salons, and the chiefs of +the political party of the optimates (aristocracy) were here present +on the field. The other great actions were fought by the ignoble +multitude whose deaths were of less significance. The plains of +Pharsalia were watered by the precious blood of the elect of the +earth." + +For several days the armies watched each other without decisive +action. One morning towards the end of May (August 9, old style) +Caesar noticed a movement in Pompey's lines that told him the expected +attack was coming. + +The position of the Senatorial army was well taken. Its right wing +rested on the Enipeus, its left was spread out on the plain. Pompey +himself commanded the left with the two legions the Senate had taken +from Caesar. Outside him on the plain were his allies covered by the +cavalry. Opposite Pompey was Caesar, with the famous Tenth Legion. His +left and centre were led by his faithful Tribunes, Mark Antony and +Cassius Longínus. + +At the given signal Caesar's front ranks advanced on a run, threw +their darts, drew their swords, and closed in. At once Pompey's +cavalry charged, outflanking the enemy's right wing, and driving back +the opposing cavalry, who were inferior in numbers. But as they +advanced flushed with victory, Caesar's fourth line, which he had held +in reserve, and which was made up of the flower of his legions, +appeared in their way. So fierce was their attack that the Pompeians +wavered, turned, and fled. They never rallied. The fourth line threw +themselves upon Pompey's left wing, which was now unprotected. This +wing, composed of Caesar's old veterans, was probably in no mood to +fight its former comrades in arms. At any rate, it turned and fled. +Pompey himself mounted his horse and rode off in despair. Thus the +battle ended in a rout. But two hundred of Caesar's men fell, while +fifteen thousand of the enemy lay dead on the field. + +The abandoned camp was a remarkable sight. The luxurious patricians +had built houses of turf with ivy trained over the entrances to +protect their delicate skins from the sun's rays; couches were +stretched out ready for them to take repose after their expected +victory, and tables were spread with dainty food and wines on which to +feast. As he saw these preparations Caesar exclaimed, "These are the +men who accused my suffering, patient army, which needed the common +necessaries of life, of dissoluteness and profligacy." But Caesar +could not delay. Leaving a portion of his forces in camp, by rapid +marching he cut off the retreat of the enemy. Twenty-four thousand +surrendered, all of whom were pardoned. Domitius, whom we saw at +Corfinium and Massilia, was killed trying to escape. Labiénus, +Afranius, and Petreius managed to steal away by night. Thus ended the +battle of Pharsalia. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIII. + +CAESAR'S OPERATIONS IN EGYPT, ASIA, AFRICA, AND SPAIN. + + +Pompey, in his flight from Pharsalia, hastened by the shortest way to +the sea, and, seeing a vessel weighing anchor, embarked with a few +companions who had accompanied him in his flight. He went to Mityléne, +and from there to Egypt, hoping to obtain an asylum with the young +PTOLEMY; but he was seized upon his arrival, and beheaded, 28 +September, 48. + +Just before his death Pompey had completed his fifty-eighth year. +"Though he had some great and good qualities, he hardly deserved the +surname of GREAT. He was certainly a good soldier, and is said to have +excelled in all athletic sports, but he fell short of being a first- +class general. He won great successes in Spain, and more especially in +the East; but for these he was, no doubt, partly indebted to what +others had already done. Of the gifts which make a good statesman, he +had really none. He was too weak and irresolute to choose a side and +stand by it. Pitted against such a man as Caesar, he could not but +fail. But to his credit be it said, that in a corrupt time he never +used his opportunities for plunder and extortion." + +Meanwhile Caesar, pursuing his victory with indefatigable activity, +set sail for Egypt. Upon his arrival the head of his enemy was brought +to him. He turned from the sight with tears in his eyes. The murderers +now saw what would be their fate. Ptolemy was at variance with his +sister, the famous CLEOPÁTRA, Caesar sided with her. The inhabitants +of Alexandría revolted, and besieged Caesar in the palace; but with a +handful of soldiers he bravely baffled their attacks. Setting fire to +the neighboring buildings, he escaped to his ships. Afterwards he +returned and wreaked vengeance upon the Alexandrians, establishing +CLEOPÁTRA upon the throne (47). + +Satisfied with this vengeance, Caesar left Egypt, and went to Pontus, +where PHARNACES, son of Mithradátes, was inciting a revolt against +Rome. Caesar attacked and defeated him at ZELA (47), with a rapidity +rendered proverbial by his words, _Veni, vidi, vici_, I CAME, I +SAW, I CONQUERED. + +He now passed quickly down the Hellespont, and had landed in Italy +before it was known that he had left Pontus. During his absence from +the capital there had been some minor disturbances; but the mass of +the citizens were firmly attached to him. Few could distrust the +genius and fortune of the irresistible conqueror. In October of 48 he +had been made Dictator a second time, and appointed Tribune for life. + +Caesar's return in September, 47, was marked by no proscription. He +insisted that all debts should be paid, and the rights of property +respected. He restored quiet, and after a brief stay of three months +prepared to transport his army to Africa. The army was in Campania, +but discontented and mutinous because of not receiving the expected +privilege of pillage and plunder. They refused to move until certain +promised rewards were received. The Tenth Legion broke out into open +revolt, and marched from Campania to Rome to obtain their rights. +Caesar collected them in the Campus Martins, and asked them to state +their grievances. They demanded their discharge. "I grant it, +citizens" (_Quirites_), said the Imperator. Heretofore he had +always addressed them as "fellow soldiers," and the implied rebuke was +so keen, that a reaction at once began, and they all begged to be +received again into his service. He accepted them, telling them that +lands had been allotted to each soldier out of the _ager +publicus_, or out of his own estates. + +Africa must now be subdued. Since the defeat and death of Curio, King +JUBA had found no one to dispute his authority. Around him now rallied +all the followers of Pompey, Metellus Scipio, Cato, Labiénus, +Afranius, Petreius, and the slain general's two sons, Sextus and +Gnaeus Pompeius. + +Utica was made their head-quarters. Here Cato collected thirteen +legions of troops of miscellaneous character. Raids were made upon +Sicily, Sardinia, and the coasts of Italy. Caesar's officers, if +captured, were put to death without mercy. + +Cicero alone of the old Pompeian party protested against such +cruelties. He remained in Italy, was denounced by them as a traitor, +and charged with currying favor of the Dictator. + +Caesar sailed from Lilybaeum (December 19), effected a landing near +Leptis, and maintained himself in a fortified position until he formed +useful alliances among the Mauretanians. Many Roman residents in the +province came to him, indignant at Metellus Scipio's promise to Juba +to give the province to him in case of success. Many deserters also +came in, enraged that precedence was given to Juba over Scipio in +councils of war. But the enemy's army was kept full of new recruits +sent from Utica by Cato. + +For three months Caesar failed to bring on the desired engagement; +Scipio had learned caution from Pompey's experience at Pharsalia. +Finally, at THAPSUS, one hundred miles southeast of Carthage, April 4, +46, the armies met. Caesar's men were so enthusiastic that they rushed +to the charge with one impulse. There was no real battle, but rather a +slaughter. Officers and men fled for their lives. Scipio was +intercepted in his flight and slain. Juba and Petreius fled together, +but, finding their retreat cut off, engaged, it is said, in mortal +combat; when the first, Petreius, fell, the other threw himself on his +own sword. Labiénus and the two sons of Pompey managed to escape to +Spain. Afranius was captured and executed. + +Cato, when he heard of the defeat, retired to his chamber in Utica, +and committed suicide. + +Thus ended the African campaign. + +On his return from Africa, Caesar celebrated four triumphs, on four +successive days; one over the Gauls, one over Ptolemy of Egypt, one +over Pharnaces, and one over Juba. He gratified his armed followers +with liberal gifts, and pleased the people by his great munificence. +They were feasted at a splendid banquet, at which were twenty-two +thousand tables, each table having three couches, and each couch three +persons. Then followed shows in the circus and theatre, combats of +wild beasts and gladiators, in which the public especially delighted. + +Honors were now heaped upon Caesar without stint. A thanksgiving of +forty days was decreed. His statue was placed in the Capitol. Another +was inscribed to Caesar the Demigod. A golden chair was allotted to +him in the Senate-House. The name of the fifth month (_Quintilis_) +of the Roman calendar was changed to JULIUS (July). He was +appointed Dictator for two years, and later for life. He received for +three years the office of Censor, which enabled him to appoint +Senators, and to be guardian of manners and morals. He had +already been made Tribune (48) for life, and Pontifex Maximus (63). In +a word, he was king in everything excepting name. + +Caesar's most remarkable and durable reform at this period was the +REVISION OF THE CALENDAR. The Roman method of reckoning time had been +so inaccurate, that now their seasons were more than two months +behind. Caesar established a calendar, which, with slight changes, is +still in use. It went into operation January 1st, 45. He employed +Sosigenes, an Alexandrian astronomer, to superintend the reform. + +While Sosigenes was at work on the calendar, Caesar purified the +Senate. Many who were guilty of extortion and corruption were +expelled, and the vacancies filled with persons of merit. + +Meanwhile matters in Spain were not satisfactory. After the battle of +Pharsalia, Cassius Longinus, Trebonius, and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus +had been sent to govern the province. They could not agree. The +soldiers became mutinous. To Spain flocked all who were dissatisfied +with Roman affairs. The remnant of Scipio's African army rested there +in its wanderings. Thus Labiénus and Pompey's two sons managed to +collect an army as numerous as that which had been defeated at +Thapsus. There were thirteen legions in all. + +Caesar saw that he must make one more struggle. He set out for the +province accompanied by his nephew OCTAVIUS (afterwards the Emperor +AUGUSTUS), and by his trusted friend and officer, DECIMUS BRUTUS. The +struggle in Spain was protracted for several months, but the decisive +battle was fought at MUNDA, 17 March, 45, on the Guadalquivir, near +Cordova. The forces were well matched. The advantage in position was +on the side of the enemy. The battle was stubbornly fought, most of it +hand to hand, with short swords. So equal was the struggle, so +doubtful at one time the issue, that Caesar himself sprang from his +horse, seized a standard, and rallied a wavering legion. Finally, +Labiénus was seen to gallop across the field. It was thought he was +fleeing. Panic seized his troops, they broke and ran. Thirty thousand +were slain, including three thousand Roman Knights, and Labiénus +himself. + +Gnaeus Pompey shortly after lost his life, but Sextus lived for a +number of years. + +Caesar tarried in Spain, regulating affairs, until late in the autumn, +when he returned to Rome and enjoyed another triumph over the Iberians +(Spaniards). The triumph was followed, as usual, by games and +festivals, which kept the populace in a fever of delight and +admiration. + + +CATO.-METELLUS SCIPIO. + +MARCUS PORTIUS CATO UTICENSIS [Footnote: Cato the Younger, called +UTICENSIS on account of his death at Utica.] (95-46) was the great- +grandson of Cato the Censor. He was the last of the Romans of the old +school. Like his more famous ancestor, he was frugal and austere in +his habits, upright, unselfish, and incorruptible. But he was a +fanatic, who could not be persuaded to relinquish his views on any +subject. As a general, he was a failure, having neither taste nor +genius for military exploits. He held various offices at Rome, as +Quaestor and Praetor; but when candidate for the consulship he was +defeated, because he declined to win votes by bribery and other +questionable methods then in vogue. + +QUINTUS CAECILIUS METELLUS PIUS belonged to the illustrious family of +the Scipios by birth, and to that of the Metelli by adoption. He was +one of the most unjust and dishonest of the Senators that opposed +Caesar. He was the father-in-law of Pompey, by whom he was made a +pliant tool against the great conqueror. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIV. + +MURDER OF CAESAR. + + +Upon his return from Spain, Caesar granted pardon to all who had +fought against him, the most prominent of whom were GAIUS CASSIUS, +MARCUS BRUTUS, and CICERO. He increased the number of the Senate to +nine hundred. He cut off the corn grants, which nursed the city mob in +idleness. He sent out impoverished men to colonize old cities. He +rebuilt Corinth, and settled eighty thousand Italians on the site of +Carthage. As a censor of morals he was very rigid. His own habits were +marked by frugality. The rich young patricians were forbidden to be +carried about in litters, as had been the custom. Libraries were +formed. Eminent physicians and scientists were encouraged to settle in +Rome. The harbor of Ostia was improved, and a road constructed from +the Adriatic to the Tyrrhenian Sea, over the Apennines. A temple to +Mars was built, and an immense amphitheatre was erected at the foot of +the Tarpeian Rock. + +In the midst of this useful activity he was basely murdered. + +CASSIUS LONGINUS and MARCUS JUNIUS BRUTUS were the leaders in the +conspiracy to effect Caesar's death, Cassius, a former lieutenant of +Crassus, had shown great bravery in the war with the Parthians. At +Pharsalia he fought on the side of Pompey, but was afterwards pardoned +by Caesar. He was married to a sister of Brutus. The latter, a nephew +and son-in-law of Cato, had also fought at Pharsalia against Caesar, +and also been pardoned by him. Cassius, it was said, hated the tyrant, +and Brutus tyranny. + +These conspirators were soon joined by persons of all parties; and men +who had fought against each other in the civil war now joined hands. +Cicero was not taken into the plot. He was of advanced years, and all +who knew him must have felt that he would never consent to the taking +the life of one who had been so lenient towards his conquered enemies. + +On the morning of the IDES (15th) OF MARCH, 44, as Caesar entered the +Senate and took his seat, he was approached by the conspirators, +headed by Tullius Cimber, who prayed for the pardon of his exiled +brother; and while the rest joined him in the request, he, grasping +Caesar's hand, kissed his head and breast. As Caesar attempted to +rise, Cimber dragged his cloak from his shoulders, and Casca, who was +standing behind his chair, stabbed him in the neck. The first blow was +struck, and the whole pack fell upon their noble victim. Cassius +stabbed him in the face, and Marcus Brutus in the groin. He made no +further resistance; but, wrapping his gown over his head and the lower +part of his body, he fell at the base of POMPEY'S STATUE, which was +drenched with the martyr's blood. + +Great tumult and commotion followed; and, in their alarm, most of the +Senators fled. It was two days before the Senate met, the conspirators +meanwhile having taken refuge in the Capitol. Public sentiment was +against them. Many of Caesar's old soldiers were in the city, and many +more were flocking there from all directions. The funeral oration of +Mark Antony over the remains produced a deep impression upon the +crowd. They became so excited when the speaker removed the dead man's +toga, and disclosed his wounds, that, instead of allowing the body to +be carried to the Campus Martius for burial, they raised a funeral +pile in the Forum, and there burned it. The crowd then dispersed in +troops, broke into and destroyed the houses of the conspirators. +Brutus and Cassius fled from the city for their lives, followed by the +other murderers. + + As a general Caesar was probably superior to all others, excepting +possibly Hannibal. He was especially remarkable for the fertility of +his resources. It has been said that Napoleon taught his enemies how +to conquer him; but Caesar's enemies never learned how to conquer him, +because he had not a mere system of tactics, but a new stratagem for +every emergency. He was, however, not only a great general, but a pre- +eminent statesman, and second only to Cicero in eloquence. As a +historian, he wrote in a style that was clear, vigorous, and also +simple. Most of his writings are lost; but of those that remain Cicero +said that fools might try to improve on them, but no wise man would +attempt it. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXV. + +THE SECOND TRIUMVIRATE.--PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + + +Caesar in his will had appointed GAIUS OCTAVIUS, the grandson of his +sister Julia, heir to three fourths of his property; and his other +relatives were to have the remaining fourth. + +Young Octavius was in his nineteenth year when Caesar was murdered. He +went at once to Rome to claim his inheritance. Caesar's widow, +Calpurnia, had intrusted to Mark Antony all the money in the house,--a +large sum,--and had also delivered to his care all the Dictator's +writings and memoranda. + +Octavius was cool and sagacious, without passion or affection, and +showed himself a match for all his opponents. His arrival at Rome was +disagreeable to Antony, who was unwilling to surrender Caesar's +property. He claimed that he had already expended it for public +purposes. Octavius at once paid the dead Dictator's legacies, mostly +out of his own fortune, thus making himself very popular among the +people. He then joined the party of the Senate, and during the autumn +and winter of 44 was its chief champion. He was helped by the eloquent +Cicero, who was delivering against Antony his famous fourteen +PHILIPPICS,--so called from their resemblance to the great orations of +Demosthenes against Philip. + +During the spring of 43 Octavius advanced against Antony, who was at +Mutina (Modena), and defeated him in two battles. He was then +appointed Consul, and, finding it for his interest, he deserted the +Senate, made friends with Antony, and with him and Lepidus formed (27 +November, 43) the SECOND TRIUMVIRATE, assuming full authority to +govern and reorganize the state, and to hold office for five years. + +The provinces were divided as follows: Lepidus was to have Spain and +Gallia Narbonensis; Antony, the rest of Gaul beyond the Alps and +Gallia Cisalpína; Octavius, Sicily, Sardinia, and Africa. A bloody +prescription followed. Among its victims were CICERO, who was +surrendered to please Antony, 300 Senators, and 2,000 Equites. + + +PHILIPPI AND ACTIUM. + +The Triumvirs could now concentrate their energies upon the East, +whither BRUTUS and CASSIUS, the murderers of Caesar, had fled. These +two had organized in the provinces of the East an army amounting to +80,000 infantry and 20,000 cavalry. They were employed in plundering +various towns of Asia Minor, and finally, in the spring of 42, +assembled their forces at Sardis preparatory to an invasion of Europe. +After marching through Thrace they entered Macedonia, and found Antony +and Octavius opposed to them at PHILIPPI, with an army of 120,000 +troops. There were two battles at Philippi in November, 42. In the +first, Brutus defeated Octavius; but Cassius was defeated by Antony, +and, unaware of his colleague's victory, committed suicide. In the +second battle, three weeks later, Brutus was defeated by the united +armies of the Triumvirs, and, following the example of Cassius, put an +end to his life. With Brutus fell the Republic. The absolute +ascendency of individuals, which is monarchy, was then established. + +The immediate result of Philippi was a fresh arrangement of the Roman +world among the Triumvirs. Antony preferred the East, Octavius took +Italy and Spain, and Africa fell to Lepidus. + +Octavius tried to establish order in Italy, but many obstacles were to +be overcome. Sextus Pompeius, who had escaped from Munda, was in +command of a strong naval force. He controlled a large part of the +Mediterranean, and, by waylaying the corn ships bound for Rome, +exposed the city to great danger from famine. Octavius was obliged to +raise a fleet and meet this danger. At first he was defeated by +Pompey, but later, in 36, in the great sea fight off NAULOCHUS in +Sicily, the rebel was overcome. He fled to Asia with a few followers, +but was taken prisoner at Milétus by one of the lieutenants of Antony, +and put to death. + +Lepidus now claimed Sicily as a part of his province, and an equal +share in the government of the Roman world with the other Triumvirs. +But his soldiers were induced to desert him, and he was obliged to +surrender to Octavius. His life was spared, but he was deprived of his +power and provinces. He lived twenty years longer (until 13), but +ceased to be a factor in public affairs. Having rid themselves of all +rivals, Octavius and Antony redivided the Empire, the former taking +the West, the latter the East. + +Antony now repaired to Alexandría, and surrendered himself to the +fascinations of the famous Cleopátra. He assumed the habits and dress +of an Eastern monarch, and by his senseless follies disgusted his +friends and supporters. He resigned himself to luxury and idleness, +and finally divorced himself from his wife Octavia, sister of +Octavius, disregarding his good name and the wishes of his friends. +Thus gradually he became more and more estranged from Octavius, until +finally the rupture resulted in open war. + +The contest was decided by the naval battle off Cape Actium, in +Greece, September 2, 31. Antony had collected from all parts of the +East a large army, in addition to his fleet, which was supported by +that of Cleopátra. He wished to decide the contest on land; but +Cleopátra insisted that they should fight by sea. The fleet of +Octavius was commanded by Agrippa, who had been in command at the sea- +fight off Naulochus. The battle lasted a long time, and was still +undecided, when Cleopátra hoisted sail and with her sixty vessels +hastened to leave the line. Antony at once followed her. The battle, +however, continued until his remaining fleet was destroyed, and his +army, after a few days' hesitation, surrendered. + +Octavius did not follow Antony for about a year. He passed the winter +in Samos, sending Agrippa to Italy with the veterans. His time was +occupied in restoring order in Greece and Asia, in raising money to +satisfy the demands of his troops, and in founding new colonies. At +length he turned his attention to Egypt. After capturing Pelusium, the +key of the country, he marched upon Alexandría. Antony, despairing of +success, committed suicide, expiring in the arms of Cleopátra. The +queen, disdaining to adorn the triumph of the conqueror, followed his +example, and was found dead on her couch, in royal attire, with her +two faithful attendants also dead at her feet. + +Octavius was now sole ruler of Rome. Before returning to the capital +to celebrate his triumphs, he organized Egypt as a province, settled +disputes in Judaea, and arranged matters in Syria and Asia Minor. He +arrived at Rome (August 29), and enjoyed three magnificent triumphs. +The gates of the temple of JANUS--which were open in time of war, and +had been closed but twice before, once during Numa's reign, and once +between the First and Second Punic Wars--were closed, and Rome was at +peace with all the world. + + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO. + +CICERO'S public life covered a period of nearly forty years, from the +dictatorship of Sulla to the fall of the Republic. Although endowed by +nature with great talents, he was always under the sway of the moment, +and therefore little qualified to be a statesman; yet he had not +sufficient self-knowledge to see it. Hence the attempts he made to +play a part in politics served only to lay bare his utter weakness. +Thus it happened that he was used and then pushed aside, attracted and +repelled, deceived by the weakness of his friends and the strength of +his adversaries; and at last threatened by both the parties between +which he tried to steer his course. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVI. + +AUGUSTUS (30 B.C.-14 A.D.) + + +After enjoying his triple triumph, Octavius should, according to the +precedents of the Republic, have given up the title of IMPERATOR; but +he allowed the Senate, which was only too glad to flatter him, to give +him that name for ten years,--a period which was repeatedly renewed. +In this way he became permanent commander of the national forces. Next +the Imperator (Emperor) caused himself to be invested with the +authority of Censor. This enabled him to revise the list of Senators, +and to restore to this body something of its ancient respectability. +By judicious pruning he reduced the number to six hundred, and +required a property qualification for membership. He placed himself at +its head as PRINCEPS (prince), a title which implied that the Emperor +was the _first_ citizen, without claiming any rights of royalty, +thus lulling any suspicions of the populace. + +The Senate still decided the most important questions. It had +jurisdiction in criminal matters, and the right of ratifying new laws. +It was convened three times each month; viz. on the 1st, 5th (or 7th), +and 13th (or 15th). The Emperor voted with the other Senators. + +The Senate next conferred upon Octavius the title of AUGUSTUS; then it +made him Proconsul (an officer with the right to govern provinces), +and Consul, with the privilege of having twelve lictors, and of +sitting in the curule chair between the two Consuls. The regular +Consuls, of course, were only too ready to follow his wishes. Finally, +he was made Pontifex Maximus, the head of the Roman religion. + +Augustus was now supreme ruler in fact, if not in name. The Senate was +practically subject to his will. The Assemblies gradually lost all +voice in the government, and finally disappeared entirely. The Senate, +however, continued nominally to act until the time of Diocletian (284 +A. D.). + +As Augustus had exclusive command of the armies, he chose to govern as +Proconsul those provinces which required military forces. He himself +resided at the capital, and sent deputies (_legati_) to oversee +them. The other provinces, called Senatorial, were governed by +Proconsuls appointed by the Senate. These were at this time Sicily, +Africa, Achaia (Greece), Macedonia, Asia (Minor), Hispania Ulterior, +and Gallia Narbonensis. + +The city government now included all Italy. In this Augustus was +assisted by three _Praefects_; one in charge of the corn supplies, +a second in charge of the city proper, and a third in charge of his body +guard of nine thousand men, called the PRAETORIAN GUARD. These +Praefects soon overshadowed all the regular magistrates, and through +them Augustus reigned supreme. + +The Roman Empire at this time included all the countries bordering on +the Mediterranean, extending east to the Parthian kingdom (the Upper +Euphrátes) and the Arabian Desert, south to the Desert of Sahara, and +west to the Atlantic Ocean. On the north the boundary was unsettled, +and subject to inroads of barbarians. In the early part of his reign +Augustus joined to the Empire a new province, Moesia, comprising the +territory along the Lower Danube, and making nineteen in all. + +Augustus next devoted himself to the task of conquering the territory +between the Lower Rhine and Moesia, which was occupied by hardy +mountaineers whose resistance was likely to be stubborn. His two step- +sons, Drusus and Tiberius, were in charge of this important work. They +were so successful as to acquire enough territory to form two new +provinces, Rhaetia and Noricum (15 B.C.). + +Tiberius also conquered the valley of the Save, and made it the +province of Pannonia (Western Hungary), 10 B.C. + +Drusus, while his brother Tiberius was engaged in Pannonia, made a +campaign against the Germans near the Rhine. He had nearly finished +the conquest of Germany from the Rhine to the Elbe, when he died (9, +B.C.), and was succeeded by his brother Tiberius, who completed his +work. + +Drusus received the cognomen of Germanicus for his conquests in +Germany. His wife was Antonia, daughter of Mark Antony, by whom he had +two sons, Germanicus and Claudius, the latter of whom was afterwards +Emperor. + +In 7 A.D. Lucius Varus was appointed governor of the newly acquired +territory in Germany. When he endeavored to subject these recently +conquered peoples to the forms of the Roman provincial government, +they rose in rebellion under the lead of Arminius (Herman), a powerful +chief. + +Varus was allured from his fortified camp (9 A.D.) into a pass in the +Teutoberger Forests, where he was suddenly attacked on all sides. +After three days' fighting, he succeeded with great loss in making his +way through the pass into the open plain, but was there met by the +enemy in full force, and his troops were annihilated. In despair Varus +killed himself. Germany was practically lost and the Rhine became +again the Roman frontier. This defeat caused a great stir at Rome, and +the Emperor is said to have exclaimed in his sorrow, "Varus, Varus, +give me back my legions!" + +Five years later (14 A.D.) Augustus died. In his last moments he +asked his friends if he had not played well his part in the comedy of +life. + +Although married three times, the Emperor had but one child, JULIA (39 +B.C.--14 A.D.), by his second wife, Scribonia. She was noted for her +beauty and talents, but infamous for her intrigues. She was married +three times; first, to Marcellus, her cousin; secondly, to Agrippa, by +whom she had five children; and thirdly, to the Emperor Tiberius. She +was banished on account of her conduct, and died in want. + +OCTAVIA, the sister of Augustus, was noted for her beauty and +accomplishments, as well as for the nobility of her character. Her son +MARCELLUS was adopted by his uncle, but died young (23 B. C.). The +famous lines of Virgil upon this promising young man (Aeneid VI. 869- +887) were read before the Emperor and his sister, moving them to +tears, and winning for the author a munificent reward. + +After the death of her first husband, Octavia was married to Mark +Antony, by whom she had two daughters, through whom she was the +ancestress of three Emperors, CLAUDIUS, CALIGULA, and NERO. + +AGRIPPA (63-12), an eminent general and statesman, was a warm friend +and counsellor of Augustus. At the battle of Actium he commanded the +fleet of Octavius. He married Julia, the only daughter of the Emperor, +and had three sons, two of whom were adopted by Augustus, but died +before him; the third was murdered by Tiberius. + +Augustus died at the age of seventy-six. He was frugal and correct in +his personal habits, quick and shrewd in his dealings with men, bold +and ambitious in the affairs of state. His greatness consisted rather +in the ability to abstain from abusing the advantages presented by +fortune, than in the genius which moulds the current of affairs to the +will. His success depended on the temper of the people and the +peculiar circumstances of the time. His clearest title to greatness is +found in the fact that he compelled eighty millions of people to live +in peace for more than forty years, He made the world to centre on one +will, and the horrors which mark the reigns of his successors were the +legitimate result of the irresponsible sovereignty he established. He +formed his empire for the present, to the utter ignoring of the +future. Thus it would seem that the part he played was that of a +shrewd politician, rather than that of a wise statesman. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVII. + +THE AUGUSTAN AGE. + + +In speaking of Augustus, we must take into account the writers whose +names have given to his its brightest lustre, and have made the +AUGUSTAN AGE a synonym for excellence in culture, art, and government. +Virgil, Ovid, Horace, Livy, and a host of others, have given his reign +a brilliancy unmatched in time, which is rather enhanced than +diminished by the fame of Cicero, Caesar, and Sallust, who preceded, +and that of Tacitus, Seneca, and others, who followed; for they belong +to an epoch in which Augustus stands the central figure in all which +pertains to the arts of peace. + +In literature the name of VIRGIL stands first in the Augustan age. +Born at Andes, near Mantua, 15 October, 70, he was educated at Cremona +and Mediolánum. After completing his education he retired to his +paternal estate. In the division of land among the soldiers after the +battle of Philippi (42), he was deprived of his property, which was +subsequently restored to him by Augustus. He lived partly at Rome, +partly in Campania. His health was never good, and he died in his +fifty-second year (22 September, 19 B. C.). + +Virgil had neither original nor creative genius. Though he mainly +imitated Greek poetry, his style is graceful and eloquent, his tone +inspiring and elevating. + +In disposition he was childlike, innocent, and amiable,--a good son, a +faithful friend, honest, and full of devotion to persons and ideal +interests. He was not, however, fitted to grapple with the tasks and +difficulties of practical life. + +In his fortunes and friends he was a happy man. Munificent patronage +gave him ample means of enjoyment and leisure; and he had the +friendship of all the most accomplished men of his day, among whom was +Horace, who entertained a strong affection for him. His fame, which +was established in his lifetime, was cherished after his death as an +inheritance in which every Roman had a share; and his works became +school-books even before the death of Augustus, and have continued +such ever since. + +HORACE (65-8 B. C.) was born at Venusia, but received his education at +Rome and Athens. He was present at the battle of Philippi (42), where +he fought as Tribune under Brutus. His first writings were his +_Satires_. These he read to his friends, and their merit was at +once recognized. His great patron was MAECÉNAS, who introduced him to +the Emperor, and gave him a fine country seat near Tivoli, among the +Sabine Mountains. He died the same year as his patron, and was buried +beside him at the Esquiline Gate. + +The poems of Horace give us a picture of refined and educated life in +the Rome of his time. They are unsurpassed in gracefulness and +felicity of thought. Filled with truisms, they were for centuries read +and quoted more than those of any other ancient writer. + +OVID (43 B. C.-18 A. D.), a native of Sulmo, is far inferior to Virgil +and Horace as a poet, but ranks high on account of his great gift for +narration. + +"Of the Latin poets he stands perhaps nearest to modern civilization, +partly on account of his fresh and vivid sense of the beauties of +nature, and partly because his subject is love. His representations of +this passion are graceful, and strikingly true. He also excelled other +poets in the perfect elegance of his form, especially in the character +and rhythm of his verses." He spent his last days in exile, banished +by Augustus for some reason now unknown. Some of his most pleasing +verses were written during this period. + +One of the most noted men of the Augustan age was MAECÉNAS, the warm +friend and adviser of Augustus. He was a constant patron of the +literature and art of his generation. He was very wealthy, and his +magnificent house was the centre of literary society in Rome, He +helped both Virgil and Horace in a substantial manner, and the latter +is constantly referring to him in his poetry. He died (8 B. C.) +childless, and left his fortune to Augustus. + +The prose writers who lived at this period were Livy, Sallust, and +Nepos. + +LIVY is the best of these. He was a native of Patavium (Padua), a man +of rhetorical training, who spent most of his time in Rome. The +historical value of his work cannot be overestimated, on account of +the scarcity, and in many cases the utter lack, of other historical +documents on the times of which he wrote. His style is spirited, and +always interesting. His accuracy, however, is not to be compared with +that of Caesar. Only thirty-five out of the one hundred and forty-two +books that he wrote are preserved. + +NEPOS was a prolific writer, but only a portion of one of his works, +_De Viris Illustribus_, has come down to us; it is neither +accurate nor interesting, and of little value. + +SALLUST left two historical productions, one on the conspiracy of +Catiline, the other on the war with Jugurtha. His style is rhetorical. +He excels in delineating character, but he is often so concise as to +be obscure. + +GAIUS ASINIUS POLLIO was a statesman and orator of marked attainments +of this time. He was strongly attached to the old republican +institutions, a man of great independence of character, and a poet of +no mean merit, as his contemporaries testify. Unfortunately, none of +his writings are preserved. + + The age of Augustus is also noted for the architectural improvements +in Rome. Augustus is said to have found a city of stone, and left one +of marble. He himself built twelve temples, and repaired eighty-two +that had fallen into decay. The FORUM was beautified by five halls of +justice (_Basilicae_), which were erected around its borders. The +most famous of these was the BASILICA JULIA, begun by Julius Caesar +and finished by Augustus. Public squares were planned and begun north +of the great Forum, the finest of which was the FORUM OF TRAJAN, +finished by the Emperor of that name. + +The finest building outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, was +the PANTHEON, built by Agrippa, and now used as a Christian church. +Here are buried many distinguished men. Near by, Augustus erected a +mausoleum for himself. Here too was a theatre, built by Pompey,--the +first stone theatre of Rome. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXVIII. + +THE JULIAN AND CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +TIBERIUS (14-37 A.D.) + + +Augustus was succeeded by TIBERIUS CLAUDIUS NERO CAESAR (born 42 B. +C.), the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia. His mother obtained +a divorce from Tiberius, and married Augustus. + +Tiberius had great military talent. He was a severe disciplinarian, +and commanded the full confidence of his soldiers. As commander in +Cantabria, Armenia, Rhaetia, Dalmatia, and Germany, he conducted his +campaigns with success, and honor to himself. Returning to Rome in 7 +B. C., he celebrated a triumph, and afterwards married Julia, the +dissolute daughter of Augustus. This marriage proved to be the ruin of +Tiberius, developing everything that was bad in his character, and +making him jealous, suspicious, and hypocritical. + +Augustus, not relishing the changes in his character, sent him to +Rhodes, where he lived seven years in retirement. Through his mother's +influence, however, he was recalled in 2 A. D., and was afterwards +appointed the Emperor's successor. He ascended the throne at the +age of fifty-six. A silent man, "all his feelings, desires, and +ambitions were locked behind an impenetrable barrier." He is said but +once to have taken counsel with his officers. He was a master of +dissimulation, and on this account an object of dislike and suspicion. +But until his later years, his intellect was clear and far-seeing, +penetrating all disguises. + +Throughout his reign Tiberius strove to do his duty to the Empire at +large, and maintained with great care the constitutional forms which +had been established by Augustus. Only two changes of importance were +made. First, the IMPERIAL GUARD, hitherto seen in the city only in +small bodies, was permanently encamped in full force close to the +walls. By this course the danger of riots was much lessened. Secondly, +the old COMITIAS were practically abolished. But the Senate was +treated with great deference. + +Tiberius expended great care on the provinces. His favorite maxim was, +that a good shepherd should shear, and not flay, his sheep. Soldiers, +governors, and officials of all kinds were kept in a wholesome dread +of punishment, if they oppressed those under them. Strict economy in +public expenses kept the taxes down. Commerce was cherished, and his +reign on the whole was one of prosperity for the Empire. + +Tiberius was noted especially for prosecutions for MAJESTAS, on the +slightest pretext. _Majestas_ nearly corresponds to treason; but +it is more comprehensive. One of the offences included in the word was +effecting, aiding in, or planning the death of a magistrate, or of one +who had the _imperium_ or _potestas_. Tiberius stretched the +application of this offence even to words or conduct which could in +any way be considered dangerous to the Emperor. A hateful class of +informers (_delatores_) sprung up, and the lives of all were rendered +unsafe. The dark side of this ruler's character is made specially +prominent by ancient historians; but their statements are beginning to +be taken with much allowance. + +After a reign of twenty-three years, Tiberius died, either in a +fainting fit or from violence, at the age of seventy-nine. + +LIVIA, the mother of Tiberius, deserves more than a passing notice. +She exercised almost a boundless influence on her husband, Augustus. +She had great ambition, and was very cruel and unscrupulous. She +managed to ruin, one after another, the large circle of relatives of +Augustus, until finally the aged Emperor found himself alone in the +palace with Livia and her son, Tiberius. All Rome execrated the +Empress, and her son feared and hated her. She survived Augustus +fifteen years, and died in 29. Tiberius refused to visit her on her +death-bed, and was not present at her funeral. + +SEJÁNUS was the commander of the Praetorian Guard of Tiberius. He was +trusted fully by the Emperor, but proved to be a deep-dyed rascal. He +persuaded Livilla, the daughter-in-law of the Emperor, to poison her +husband, the heir apparent, and then he divorced his own wife to marry +her. He so maligned Agrippína, the widow of Germanicus and daughter of +Agrippa and Julia, that Tiberius banished her, with her sons Nero and +Drusus. In 26 he induced the Emperor to retire to the island of +Capreae, and he himself became the real master of Rome. + +Tiberius at last finding out his true character, Sejánus was arrested +and executed in 31. His body was dragged through the streets, torn in +pieces by the mob, and thrown into the Tiber. + + +CALIGULA (37-41). + +Tiberius having left no son, the Senate recognized Gaius Caesar, son +of Germanicus and Agrippína, grandson of Julia, and great-grandson of +Augustus, as Emperor. He is better known as CALIGULA,--a nickname +given him by the soldiers from the buskins he wore. He was twenty-five +years of age when he began to reign, of weak constitution, and subject +to fits. After squandering his own wealth, he killed rich citizens, +and confiscated their property. He seemed to revel in bloodshed, and +is said to have expressed a wish that the Roman people had but one +neck, that he might slay them all at a blow. He was passionately fond +of adulation, and often repaired to the Capitoline temple in the guise +of a god, and demanded worship. Four years of such a tyrant was +enough. He was murdered by a Tribune of his Praetorian Guard. + + +THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. + +CLAUDIUS (41-54). + + +A strong party was now in favor of returning to a republican form of +government; but while the Senate was considering this question, the +Praetorian Guard settled it by proclaiming CLAUDIUS Emperor. + +Claudius was the uncle of Caligula and the nephew of Tiberius. He was +a man of learning and good parts, but a glutton, and the slave of his +two wives, who were both bad women. His first wife, MESSALÍNA, was so +notorious that her name has became almost a synonym for wickedness. +His second wife, his niece AGRIPPÍNA, sister of Caligula, was nearly +as bad. This woman had by her former husband, Domitius, a son, whom +she induced the Emperor to adopt under the name of NERO. The faithless +wife then caused her husband to be poisoned, and her son to be +proclaimed Emperor. + +At Rome the rule of Claudius was mild, and on the whole beneficial. In +the government of the provinces he was rigorous and severe. He +undertook the CONQUEST OF BRITAIN, and in a campaign of sixteen days +he laid the foundation of its final subjugation, which occurred about +forty years later, under the noted general AGRICOLA: It remained a +Roman province for four hundred years, but the people never +assimilated Roman customs, as did the Gauls, and when the Roman +garrisons were withdrawn, they quickly returned to their former +condition. However, many remains of Roman buildings in the island show +that it was for the time well under subjection. + +The public works of Claudius were on a grand scale. He constructed a +new harbor at the mouth of the Tiber, and built the great aqueduct +called the AQUA CLAUDIA, the ruined arches of which can be seen to +this day. He also reclaimed for agriculture a large tract of land by +draining the Fucine Lake. + + +NERO (54-68). + +NERO was but sixteen years old when he began to reign. For two or +three years he was under the influence of his tutor, SENECA, the +author, and BURRHUS, the Praefect of the Praetorian Guard, and his +government was during this period the most respectable of any since +the time of Augustus. His masters kept the young Emperor amused, and +removed from the cares of state. But he soon became infatuated with an +unscrupulous woman, POPPAEA SABÍNA, for whom he neglected and finally +killed his wife, Octavia. + +It would be useless to follow in detail the crimes of Nero from this +time. A freedman, TIGELLÍNUS, became his adviser, and was the real +ruler of the Empire. He encouraged his master in all his vices and +wickedness. Poppaea died from a kick administered by Nero in anger; +Burrhus was disposed of; Agrippína, and Britannicus, the true heir to +the throne, were murdered. The wealthy were plundered, and the +feelings of his subjects outraged in every conceivable manner. The +Emperor appeared in public, contending first as a musician, and +afterwards in the sports of the circus. + +The great fire of 18 July, 64, which destroyed a large part of the +city, was ascribed to him, but without sufficient evidence; and the +stories of his conduct during the conflagration are doubtless pure +fictions. It was necessary, however, to fix the guilt on some one; so +the CHRISTIANS, then a small sect, made up chiefly of the poorer +people, were accused of the crime, and persecuted without mercy. They +were often enclosed in fagots covered with pitch, and burned alive. + +In rebuilding Rome, Nero took every precaution against the recurrence +of a conflagration. Broad regular streets replaced the narrow winding +alleys. The new houses were limited in height, built partly of hard +stone, and protected by open spaces and colonnades. The water supply +was also carefully regulated. + +In addition to rebuilding the city, Nero gratified his love for the +magnificent by erecting a splendid palace, called the GOLDEN HOUSE. +Its walls were adorned with gold, precious stones, and masterpieces of +art from Greece. The grounds around were marvellous in their meadows, +lakes, groves, and distant views. In front was a colossal statue of +Nero himself, one hundred and ten feet high. + +Conspiracies having been formed in which Seneca and Lucan were +implicated, both men were ordered to take their own lives. Nero's life +after this became still more infamous. In a tour made in Greece, he +conducted himself so scandalously that even Roman morals were shocked, +and Roman patience could endure him no longer. The Governor of Hither +Spain, GALBA, proclaimed himself Emperor, and marched upon Rome. +Verginius, the Governor of Upper Germany, also lent his aid to the +insurrection. The Senate proclaimed Nero a public enemy, and condemned +him to death. He fled from the city and put an end to his life, June +9, 68, just in time to escape capture. His statues were broken down, +his name everywhere erased, and his Golden House demolished. With him +ended the Claudian line of Emperors. + +LUCIUS ANNAEUS SENECA (8 B. C.-65 A. D.) was born at Corduba in Spain, +of a Spanish Roman family, and was educated at Rome. His father was a +teacher of rhetoric, a man of wealth and literary attainments. Seneca +began to practise at the bar at Rome, and was gaining considerable +reputation, when in 41 he was banished to Corsica. Eight years later +he was recalled to be tutor of the young Nero, then eleven years old. +He was Consul in 57, and during the first years of Nero's reign he +shared the administration of affairs with the worthy Burrhus. His +influence over Nero, while it lasted, was salutary, though often +maintained by doubtful means. In course of time Nero began to dislike +him, and when Burrhus died his fate was sealed. By the Emperor's +command he committed suicide. Opening the veins in his feet and arms, +he discoursed with his friends on the brevity of life till death +ensued. + +Seneca is the most eminent of the writers of his age. He wrote moral +essays, philosophical letters, physical treatises, and tragedies. Of +the last, the best are HERCULES FURENS, PHAEDRA, and MEDEA. + + +GALBA (68-69).--OTHO (69).--VITELLIUS (69). + +GALBA entered the city as a conqueror, without much trouble, but on +account of his parsimony and austerity he soon became unpopular, and +was murdered by his mutinous soldiers fifteen days after he reached +Rome. He belonged to an old patrician family, and his overthrow was +sincerely regretted by the better element in the city. + +OTHO, the first husband of Poppaea, and the leader in the insurrection +against Galba, was now declared Emperor. No sooner did the news of his +accession reach Gaul than VITELLIUS, a general of the army of the +Rhine, revolted. Otho marched against the rebels, was defeated, and +committed suicide after a reign of three months. + +VITELLIUS had been a good soldier, but as a ruler he was weak and +incapable. He was killed after a reign of less than a year, during +which he had distinguished himself by gluttony and vulgar sensuality. + + + + +CHAPTER XXXIX. + +THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. + +VESPASIAN (69-79). + + +The East now made a claim for the Emperor, and on July 1, 69, the +soldiers who were engaged in war against the revolted Jews in Judaea +proclaimed as Emperor their commander, TITUS FLAVIUS VESPASIÁNUS. He +left the conduct of the war in charge of his son Titus, and arrived at +Rome in 70. Here he overthrew and put to death Vitellius. In the +course of this struggle the Capitol was burned. This he restored, +rebuilding also a large part of the city. + +In his own life Vespasian was simple, putting to shame the luxury and +extravagance of the nobles, and causing a marked improvement in the +general tone of society. He removed from the Senate many improper +members, replacing them by able men, among whom was AGRICOLA. In 70 he +put down a formidable rebellion in Gaul; and when his son Titus +returned from the capture of Jerusalem, [Footnote: Jerusalem was taken +in 70, after a siege of several months, the horrors of which have been +graphically detailed by the Jewish historian Joséphus, who was present +in the army of Titus. The city was destroyed, and the inhabitants sold +into slavery.] they enjoyed a joint triumph. The Temple of Janus was +closed, and peace prevailed during the remainder of his reign. + +Much money was spent on public works, and in beautifying the city. A +new Forum was built, a Temple of Peace, public baths, and the famous +COLOSSÉUM was begun, receiving its name from the Colossus, a statue of +Nero, which had stood near by. + +On the whole, Vespasian was active and prudent in public affairs, +frugal and virtuous in private life. The decade of his reign was +marked by peace and general prosperity. + +One of the ablest men of this age was AGRICOLA (37-93). Born at Forum +Julii in Gaul, he was made Governor of Aquitania by Vespasian in 73. +Four years later he was Consul, and the next year was sent to Britain, +which he conquered, and governed with marked ability and moderation, +increasing the prosperity of the people and advancing their +civilization. He remained in Britain until 85, when he was recalled. +His life was written by his son-in-law, the historian Tacitus. + + +TITUS (79-81). + +Vespasian was succeeded by his son TITUS, who emulated the virtues of +his father. He finished the Colosséum, begun by Vespasian, and built a +triumphal arch to commemorate his victories over the Jews. This arch, +called the ARCH OF TITUS, was built on the highest part of the Via +Sacra, and on its walls was carved a representation of the sacred +candlestick of the Jewish temple, which can still be seen. + +It was during this reign that HERCULANEUM and POMPEII were destroyed +by an eruption of Vesuvius. In this eruption perished PLINY THE ELDER, +the most noted writer of his day. His work on _Natural History_, +the only one of his writings that is preserved, shows that he was a +true student. His passion for investigation led him to approach too +near the volcano, and caused his death. + + +DOMITIAN (81-96). + +DOMITIAN was the opposite of his brother Titus,--cruel, passionate, +and extravagant. He was murdered after a reign of fifteen years, +during which he earned the hatred and contempt of his subjects by his +crimes and inconsistencies. + +In his foreign policy Domitian showed considerable ability. He added +to the Empire that part of Germany which corresponds to modern Baden +and Wirtemberg, and built a line of fortifications from Mentz on the +Rhine to Ratisbon on the Danube. + +With him ended the line of the FLAVIAN EMPERORS, and he was also the +last of the so called TWELVE CAESARS, a name given them by the +historian Suetonius. + + + + +CHAPTER XL. + +THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. + +NERVA (96-98). + + +NERVA was appointed by the Senate to succeed Domitian, and was the +first Emperor who did not owe his advancement to military force or +influence. He associated with himself MARCUS ULPIUS TRAJANUS, then in +command of the army on the Rhine. Nerva ruled only sixteen months; but +during that time he restored tranquillity among the people, conferring +happiness and prosperity upon every class. + + +TRAJAN (98-117). + +Nerva was succeeded by TRAJAN, whose character has its surest guaranty +in the love and veneration of his subjects; and it is said that, long +afterwards, the highest praise that could be bestowed on a ruler was +that he was "more fortunate than Augustus, and better than Trajan." +Trajan was a soldier, and, if he lacked the refinements of a peaceful +life, he was nevertheless a wise and firm master. + +He added to the Empire Dacia, the country included between the Danube +and the Theiss, the Carpathians and the Pruth. This territory became +so thoroughly Romanized that the language of its inhabitants to-day is +founded on that of their conquerors nearly eighteen centuries ago. It +was in honor of this campaign into Dacia that the famous COLUMN OF +TRAJAN, which still remains, was erected. + +Trajan also annexed to the Empire Arabia Petraea, which afforded an +important route between Egypt and Syria. His invasion of Parthia, +however, resulted in no permanent advantage. + +During the reign of Trajan the Roman Empire REACHED THE SUMMIT OF ITS +POWER; but the first signs of decay were beginning to be seen in the +financial distress of all Italy, and the decline of the free +peasantry, until in the next century they were reduced to a condition +of practical serfdom. + +The literature of Trajan's reign was second only to that of the +Augustan age. His time has often been called the SILVER AGE. Its prose +writers were, however, unlike those of the Augustan age, far superior +to its poets. The most famous prose writers were TACITUS, PLINY THE +YOUNGER, and QUINTILIAN. + +The poets of this period were JUVENAL, PERSIUS, MARTIAL, LUCAN, and +STATIUS, of whom the last two were of an inferior order. + + +HADRIAN (117-138). + +Trajan was succeeded by his cousin's son, HADRIAN, a native of Spain. +One of the first acts of Hadrian was to relinquish the recent +conquests of Trajan, and to restore the old boundaries of the Empire. +The reasons for this were that they had reached the utmost limits +which could lend strength to the power of Rome, or be held in +subjection without constant and expensive military operations. The +people occupying the new conquests were hardy and warlike, scattered +over a country easy of defence, and certain to strive constantly +against a foreign yoke. + +Hadrian displayed constant activity in travelling over the Empire, to +overlook personally its administration and protection. He visited +Britain, where he crushed the inroads of the Caledonians and built a +fortified line of works, known as the PICTS' WALL, extending from sea +to sea. The remains of this great work are still to be seen, +corresponding nearly to the modern boundary between England and +Scotland. He also visited the East, where the Jews were making serious +trouble, and completed their overthrow. + +On his return to the city, the Emperor devoted himself to its +adornment. Several of his works, more or less complete, still remain. +The most famous of these is the MAUSOLÉUM (Tomb) OF HADRIAN, now known +as the Castle of San Angelo. + +Hadrian was afflicted with bad health, suffering much from diseases +from which he could find no relief. On account of this, and to secure +a proper succession, he associated with himself in the government +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS, and required him to adopt Marcus Annius +Verus and Lucius Verus. In 138, soon after this arrangement was made, +Hadrian died, leaving the Empire to Titus. + + +TITUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS PIUS (138-161). + +ANTONÍNUS, a native of Gaul, was fifty-two years old when he succeeded +to the throne. The cognomen PIUS was conferred upon him by the Senate +on account of the affectionate respect which he had shown for Hadrian. +He was a man of noble appearance, firm and prudent, and under him the +affairs of state moved smoothly. + + +MARCUS AURELIUS ANTONÍNUS (161-180). + +On the death of Antonínus, Marcus Annius Verus succeeded him under the +title of Marcus Aurelius Antonínus. + +The Moors made an invasion into Spain; the barbarians broke into Gaul; +the army in Britain attempted to set up another Emperor; and the +Parthians in the East were in an uneasy state. The Eastern war, +however, ended favorably, and the Parthian king purchased peace by +ceding Mesopotamia to Rome. But the returning army brought with it a +pestilence, which spread devastation throughout the West. The +Christians were charged with being the cause of the plague, and were +cruelly persecuted. Among the victims were Justin Martyr at Rome, and +Polycarp at Smyrna. + +The death of Lucius Verus in 168 released Aurelius from a colleague +who attracted attention only by his unfitness for his position. The +Emperor was thus relieved of embarrassments which might well have +become his greatest danger. The remainder of his reign, however, was +scarcely less unhappy. + +The dangers from the troublesome barbarians grew greater and greater. +Rome had now passed the age of conquest, and began to show inability +even to defend what she had acquired. For fourteen years Aurelius was +engaged on the frontiers fighting these barbarians, and endeavoring to +check their advance. He died at Vienna while thus occupied, in the +fifty-ninth year of his life (180). + +Peace was shortly afterwards made with the barbarians, a peace bought +with money; an example often followed in later times, when Rome lacked +the strength and courage to enforce her wishes by force of arms. + +Marcus Aurelius was the PHILOSOPHER of the Empire. His tastes were +quiet; he was unassuming, and intent on the good of the people. His +faults were amiable weaknesses; his virtues, those of a hero. His +_Meditations_ have made him known as an author of fine tastes and +thoughts. With him ended the line of the GOOD EMPERORS. After his +death, Rome's prosperity and power began rapidly to wane. + + +THE CHRISTIANS. + +The CHRISTIANS, who were gradually increasing in numbers, were +persecuted at different times throughout the Empire. One ground for +these persecutions was that it was a crime against the state to refuse +to worship the gods of the Romans under whom the Empire had +flourished. It was also the custom to burn incense in front of the +Emperor's statue, as an act of adoration. The Christians not only +refused homage to the Roman gods, but denounced the burning of incense +as sacrilegious. AURELIUS gave his sanction to the most general +persecution this sect had yet suffered. The last combined effort to +suppress them was under DIOCLETIAN, in 284, but it ended with the +EDICT OF MILAN in 312, which famous decree gave the imperial license +to the religion of Christ. + + + + +CHAPTER XLI. + +PERIOD OF MILITARY DESPOTISM.--DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +COMMODUS (180-192). + + +On the death of Aurelius, his son, Commodus, hastened to Rome, and was +received by both the Senate and army without opposition. His character +was the opposite of that of his good father. In ferocity and +vindictiveness he was almost unequalled, even among the Emperors of +unhappy Rome. By means of informers, who were well paid, he rid +himself of the best members of the Senate. His government became so +corrupt, he himself so notorious in crime, that he was unendurable. +His proudest boasts were of his triumphs in the amphitheatre, and of +his ability to kill a hundred lions with as many arrows. After a reign +of twelve years his servants rid the Empire of his presence. + + +PERTINAX (192-193). + +PERTINAX, the Praefect of the city, an old and experienced Senator, +followed Commodus. His reign of three months was well meant, but as it +was not supported by the military it was of no effect. His attempted +reforms were stopped by his murder. + + +JULIANUS (193).--SEPTIMIUS SEVERUS (193-211). + +The Praetorians now offered the crown to the highest bidder, who +proved to be DIDIUS JULIÁNUS, a wealthy Senator. He paid about a +thousand dollars to each soldier of the Guard, twelve thousand in +number. After enjoying the costly honor two months he was deposed and +executed. + +In the mean time several soldiers had been declared Emperor by their +respective armies. Among them was SEPTIMIUS SEVÉRUS, an African, +belonging to the army of the Danube. + +Sevérus was an able soldier. He disarmed the Praetorians, banished +them from Rome, and filled their place with fifty thousand +legionaries, who acted as his body guard. The person whom he placed in +command of this guard was made to rank next to himself, with +legislative, judicial, and financial powers. The Senate he reduced to +a nonentity. + +After securing the capital, Sevérus carried on a campaign against the +Parthians, and was victorious over the rulers of Mesopotamia and +Arabia. In 203 he erected, in commemoration of these victories, a +magnificent arch, which still stands at the head of the Forum. He died +at Eboracum (York), in Britain, while making preparations for a +campaign against the Caledonians. + + +CARACALLA, MACRINUS, AND HELIOGABALUS. + +Sevérus left two sons, both of whom he had associated with himself in +the government. No sooner was he dead than they quarrelled, and the +elder, CARACALLA, murdered the other with his own hand in the presence +of their mother. + +Caracalla was blood-thirsty and cruel. After a short reign (211-216) +he was murdered by one of his soldiers. By him were begun the famous +baths which bore his name, and of which extensive remains still exist. +Caracalla was succeeded by MACRÍNUS, who reigned but one year, and was +followed by HELIOGABALUS (218-222), a priest of the sun, a true +Oriental, with but few virtues. His end was like that of his +predecessors. The Praetorians revolted and murdered him. + + +FROM ALEXANDER SEVERUS TO THE AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS (222-268). + +ALEXANDER SEVÉRUS was a good man, and well educated. But he endeavored +in vain to check the decline of the state. The military had become all +powerful, and he could effect nothing against it. During his reign +(222-235), the famous baths begun by Caracalla were finished. + +Sevérus was killed in a mutiny led by MAXIMIN, who was Emperor for +three years (235-238), and was then murdered by his mutinous soldiers. + +GORDIAN, his successor (238-244), was also slain by his own soldiers +in his camp on the Euphrates, and PHILIP (244-249) and DECIUS (249- +251) both fell in battle. Under Decius was begun a persecution of the +Christians severer than any that preceded it. + +The next seventeen years (251-268) is a period of great confusion. +Several generals in different provinces were declared Emperor. The +Empire nearly fell to pieces, but finally rallied without loss of +territory. Its weakness, however, was apparent to all. This period is +often called the AGE OF THE THIRTY TYRANTS. + + + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS (268-283). + + +FIVE GOOD EMPERORS now ruled and revived somewhat the shattered +strength of the government: CLAUDIUS (268-270); AURELIAN (270-275); +TACITUS (275-276); PROBUS (276-282); and CARUS (282-283). Aurelian +undertook a campaign against the famous ZENOBIA, Queen of PALMÝRA. In +her he found a worthy foe, one whose political ability was rendered +more brilliant by her justice and courage. Defeated in the field, she +fortified herself in Palmýra, which was taken after a siege and +destroyed. Zenobia was carried to Rome, where she graced the triumph +of her conqueror, but was afterwards permitted to live in retirement. +Aurelian was the first who built the walls of Rome in their present +position. + + +DIOCLETIAN (284-305). + +With this ruler, the last vestige of the old republican form of +government at Rome disappears. Old Rome was dead. Her Senate had lost +the last remnant of its respectability. Seeing the necessity of a more +united country and a firmer rule, DIOCLETIAN associated with himself +MAXIMIAN, a gigantic soldier, who signalized his accession by subduing +a dangerous revolt in Gaul. He also appointed two officers, GALERIUS +and CONSTANTIUS, whom he called CAESARS,--one to have charge of the +East, and the other of the West. By means of these assistants he +crushed all revolts, strengthened the waning power of the Empire, and +imposed peace and good order upon the world. + +Diocletian and Maximian afterwards resigned, and allowed their two +Caesars to assume the rank of AUGUSTI, and they in their turn +appointed Caesars as assistants. + +Soon after his accession Constantius died, and his son CONSTANTINE +was proclaimed Caesar, against the wishes of Galerius. A bitter struggle +followed, in which Constantine finally overcame all his opponents, and +was declared sole Emperor. For his successes he was named the GREAT. + + +CONSTANTINE THE GREAT (306-337). + +Constantine determined to build for his Empire a new capital, which +should be worthy of him. He selected the site of BYZANTIUM as offering +the greatest advantages; for, being defended on three sides by the sea +and the Golden Horn, it could easily be made almost impregnable, while +as a seaport its advantages were unrivalled,--a feature not in the +least shared by Rome. The project was entered upon with energy; the +city was built, and named CONSTANTINOPLE. To people it, the seat of +government was permanently removed thither, and every inducement was +offered to immigration. Thus was born the GREEK EMPIRE, destined to +drag out a miserable existence for nearly a thousand years after Rome +had fallen a prey to the barbarians. Its founder died, after a reign +of thirty years, in his sixty-fourth year (337). + +Constantine is entitled to great credit for the uniform kindness with +which he treated his Christian subjects. It is said that his mother, +HELENA, was a Christian, and that it was to her influence that this +mildness was due. The sect, notwithstanding many persecutions, had +kept on increasing, until now we find them a numerous and quite +influential body. It was during his reign that the DECREE OF MILAN was +issued, in 313, giving the imperial license to the religion of Christ; +and also in this reign the famous COUNCIL OF NICE, in Bithynia (325), +met to settle questions of creed. + +In person Constantine was tall and majestic: he was dexterous in all +warlike accomplishments; intrepid in war, affable in peace; patient +and prudent in council, bold and unhesitating in action. Ambition +alone led him to attack the East; and the very madness of jealousy +marked his course after his success. He was filial in his affection +towards his mother; but he can scarcely be called affectionate who put +to death his father-in-law, his brother-in-law, his wife, and his son. +If he was great in his virtues, in his faults he was contemptible. + + +DECLINE OF THE EMPIRE. + +Constantine was succeeded by his three sons, CONSTANTINE II., +CONSTANTIUS, and CONSTANS, who divided the Empire among themselves +(337-353). Constantine and Constans almost at once quarrelled over the +possession of Italy, and the difficulty was ended only by the death of +the former. The other two brothers lived in harmony for some time, +because the Persian war in the East occupied Constantius, while +Constans was satisfied with a life of indolence and dissipation. +Constans was murdered in 350, and his brother was sole Emperor. He +died ten years later, and was succeeded by his cousin, Julian (360- +363) + +JULIAN was a good soldier, and a man calculated to win the love and +respect of all. But he attempted to restore the old religion, and thus +gained for himself the epithet of APOSTATE. The Christians, however, +had too firm a hold on the state to admit of their powers being +shaken. The failure of Julian precluded any similar attempt afterward. +After a reign of three years, he was killed in an expedition against +the Persians. His successor, JOVIAN (363-364), who was chosen by the +army, died after a reign of only seven months. + +VALENTINIAN and VALENS (364-375). After a brief interregnum, the +throne was bestowed on Valentinian, who associated with himself his +brother Valens. The Empire was divided. Valens took the East, with +Constantinople as his capital. Valentinian took the West, making MILAN +the seat of his government. So completely had Rome fallen from her +ancient position, that it is very doubtful if this monarch ever +visited the city during his reign. [Footnote: Since the building of +Constantinople no Emperor had lived in Rome. She had ceased to be +mistress even of the West, and rapidly fell to the rank of a +provincial city.] He died during a campaign on the Danube. His son +GRATIAN (375-383) succeeded him. He discouraged Paganism, and under +him Christianity made rapid strides. His uncle Valens was slain in a +battle against the Goths; but so completely were the Eastern and +Western Empires now separated, that Gratian did not attempt to make +himself sole ruler, but appointed THEODOSIUS to the empty throne. +Gratian, like so many of his predecessors, was murdered. His +successors, MAXIMUS (383-388), VALENTINIAN II. (388-392), and EUGENIUS +(392-394), were either deposed or assassinated, and again there was, +for a short time, one ruler of the whole Empire, THEODOSIUS, whom +Gratian had made Emperor of the East. He was sole Emperor for one year +(394-395). On his death his two sons divided the Empire, HONORIUS +(395-423) taking the West, and Arcadius the East. + +Honorius was only six years old when he began to reign. He was placed +under the care of a Vandal named STILICHO, to whom he was allied by +marriage. Stilicho was a man of ability. The barbarians were driven +from the frontiers on the Rhine and in Britain; a revolt in Africa was +suppressed. Honorius himself was weak and jealous. He did not hesitate +to murder Stilicho as soon as he was old enough to see the power he +was wielding. With Stilicho's death his fortune departed. Rome was +besieged, captured, and sacked by the barbarian ALARIC, in 410. When +this evil was past, numerous contestants arose in different parts of +the Empire, each eager for a portion of the fabric which was now so +obviously crumbling to pieces. + +Honorius was succeeded, after one of the longest reigns of the +imperial line, by VALENTINIAN III. (423-455). The Empire was but a +relic of its former self. Gaul, Spain, and Britain were practically +lost; Illyria and Pannonia were in the hands of the Goths; and Africa +was soon after seized by the barbarians. Valentinian was fortunate in +the possession of AETIUS, a Scythian by birth, who for a time upheld +the Roman name, winning for himself the title of LAST OF THE ROMANS. +He was assassinated by his ungrateful master. A few months later, in +455, the Emperor himself was killed by a Senator, MAXIMUS, who +succeeded him, but for only three months, when AVÍTUS (455-456), a +noble of Gaul, became Emperor. He was deposed by RICIMER (457-467), a +Sueve, of considerable ability, who for some time managed the affairs +of the Empire, making and unmaking its monarchs at pleasure. After the +removal of Avítus, ten months were allowed to elapse before a +successor was appointed; and then the crown was bestowed upon +MAJORIAN (457-461). SEVÉRUS followed him, a man too weak to interfere +with the plans of Ricimer. + +After his death, Ricimer ruled under the title of PATRICIAN, until the +people demanded an Emperor, and he appointed ANTHEMIUS (467-472), who +attempted to strengthen his position by marrying a daughter of +Ricimer; but jealousy soon sprang up between them. Ricimer invited a +horde of barbarians from across the Alps, with whom he captured and +sacked Rome, and killed Anthemius. Shortly after, Ricimer himself +died. + +Names which appear only as names now follow each other in rapid +succession. Finally, in 476, ZENO, Emperor of the East, declared the +office of EMPEROR OF THE WEST abolished, and gave the government of +the DIOCESE OF ITALY to ODOÁCER, with the title of Patrician. + + + + +CHAPTER XLII. + +INVASIONS AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE BARBARIANS. + + +The sieges and captures of Rome by the Barbarians we present in a +separate chapter, instead of in the narrative of the Emperors, because +by this plan a better idea of the operations can be given; and +especially because we can thus obtain a clearer and more comprehensive +conception of the rise of the nations, which, tearing in pieces the +Roman Empire, have made up Modern Europe. + +The HUNS, who originated the movement which overthrew the Western +Empire, came, it is supposed, from the eastern part of Asia. As they +moved westward, their march was irresistible. In 395 they met and +defeated the GOTHS, a powerful tribe that lived to the north of the +Danube, and who were ruled by a king named Hermanric. + +The Gothic nation consisted of two branches, the OSTROGOTHS, Eastern +Goths, and the VISIGOTHS, Western Goths, Of these the Ostrogoths were +the more powerful, but on the approach of the Huns they were obliged +to submit. The Huns moved on, and found but little trouble in +overrunning the country of the Visigoths, who were so terrified by the +hideous appearance and wild shouts of the Huns that they fled to the +Danube, and besought the Romans to allow them to cross the river and +take refuge in their territory. The favor was granted, but the +refugees were treated with indignity, and compelled to undergo every +privation. + +Subsequently a remnant of the Ostrogoths arrived at the Danube, also +desiring to cross. To them permission was refused, but they seized +shipping and crossed, despite the prohibition of the Romans. They +found the condition of their brethren, the Visigoths, so sad, that +they united with them in open revolt, defeated a Roman army sent +against them, and ravaged Thrace. The Emperor Valens took the field in +person, and was defeated (378). The Goths then moved southward and +westward into Greece, everywhere pillaging the country. + +When Theodosius became Emperor, he acted cautiously, fortifying strong +points from which to watch the enemy and select a favorable moment for +an attack. At length he surprised their camp and gained a complete +victory. The Goths were taken into the service of the Empire, and the +first chapter of the barbarian invasion of the Empire was brought to a +close. + +We now meet two of the great names connected with the fall of Rome, +ALARIC and STILICHO. + +Theodosius was succeeded by Arcadius, and before the end of the year +the Goths broke into open revolt under their leader, Alaric. Athens +was compelled to pay a ransom; Corinth, Argos, and Sparta were taken +and plundered. No place was strong enough to offer effectual +resistance. At this juncture, Stilicho, General of the Western Empire, +hastened to the scene, and succeeded in surrounding the Goths, but +Alaric burst through his lines and escaped. He then made peace with +Constantinople, and the office of Master-General of Illyricum was +bestowed upon him. How sincere the barbarian was in his offers of +peace may be seen from the fact that in two years he invaded Italy +(400). + +Honorius, who was then Emperor of the West, was a man so weak that +even the genius of Stilicho could not save him. No sooner did he hear +of the approach of Alaric, than he hastened to a place of safety for +himself, leaving Stilicho to defend Rome. Troops were called from +Britain, Gaul, and the other provinces far and near, leaving their +places vacant and defenceless. Honorius, who had attempted to escape +to Gaul, was surprised by Alaric, and, taking refuge in the fortified +town of Asta, was there besieged until the arrival of the brave +Stilicho, who attacked the besiegers, and after a bloody fight utterly +routed them. In his retreat, Alaric attempted to attack Verona, but he +was again defeated, and escaped only by the fleetness of his horse. +Honorius returned home (404), and enjoyed a triumph. + +Rome had scarcely time to congratulate herself upon her escape from +the Goths, when she was threatened by a new enemy. + +The Huns, pushing westward, had dislodged the northern tribes of +Germany who dwelt on the Baltic. These were the Alans, Sueves, +Vandals, and Burgundians. Under the leadership of RADAGAISUS, these +tribes invaded Italy with about two hundred thousand men. They were +met near Florence by Stilicho, and totally defeated (406). Radagaisus +himself was killed. The survivors turned backward, burst into Gaul, +ravaged the lower portion of the country, and finally separated. One +portion, the Burgundians, remained on the frontier, and from their +descendants comes the name of Burgundy. + +The Alans, Sueves, and Vandals pushed on into Spain, where they +established kingdoms. The Alans occupied the country at the foot of +the Pyrenees, but were soon after subdued by the Visigoths. The Sueves +settled in the northwest of Spain, but met the same fate as the Alans. +The Vandals occupied the southern part, and from there crossed over to +Africa, where they maintained themselves for nearly a century, and at +one time were powerful enough, as we shall see, to capture Rome +itself. + +Rome was now for a time delivered from her enemies, and the Emperor, +no longer needing Stilicho, was easily persuaded that he was plotting +for the throne. He was put to death, with many of his friends. + +With Stilicho Rome fell. Scarcely two months after his death, Alaric +again appeared before Rome. He sought to starve the city into +submission. Famine and pestilence raged within its walls. Finally +peace was purchased by a large ransom, and Alaric withdrew, but soon +returned. The city was betrayed, and after a lapse of eight centuries +became the second time a prey to the barbarians (24 August, 410). + +The city was plundered for five days, and then Alaric withdrew to +ravage the surrounding country. But the days of this great leader were +almost spent. Before the end of the year he died, and shortly after +his army marched into France, where they established a kingdom +reaching from the Loire and the Rhone to the Straits of Gibraltar. + +The GERMANS, under their king, CLODION, prompted by the example of the +Burgundians and Visigoths, began, about 425, a series of attempts to +enlarge their boundaries. They succeeded in establishing themselves +firmly in all the country from the Rhine to the Somme, and under the +name of FRANKS founded the present French nation in France (447). + +Clodion left two sons, who quarrelled over the succession. The elder +appealed to the Huns for support, the younger to Rome. + +The Huns at this time were ruled by ATTILA, "the Scourge of God." The +portrait of this monster is thus painted. His features bore the mark +of his Eastern origin. He had a large head, a swarthy complexion, +small deep-seated eyes, a flat nose, a few hairs in the place of a +beard, broad shoulders, and a short square body, of nervous strength +though disproportioned form. This man wielded at will, it is said, an +army of over half a million troops. + +At the time he received from the son of Clodion the invitation to +interfere in the affairs of Gaul, Attila was already contemplating an +invasion of both the Western and Eastern Empires; but the prospect of +an ally in Gaul, with an opportunity of afterwards attacking Italy +from the west, was too favorable to be neglected. + +A march of six hundred miles brought the Huns to the Rhine. Crossing +this, they continued their progress, sacking and burning whatever +cities lay in their route. + +The Visigoths under Theodoric, joining the Romans under Aetius, met +the Huns near Orleans. Attila retreated towards Chalons, where, in +451, was fought a great battle, which saved the civilization of +Western Europe. Attila began the attack. He was bravely met by the +Romans; and a charge of the Visigoths completed the discomfiture of +the savages. Aetius did not push his victory, but allowed the Huns to +retreat in the direction of Italy. The "Scourge" first attacked, +captured, and rased to the ground Aquileia. He then scoured the whole +country, sparing only those who preserved their lives by the surrender +of their wealth. + +It was to this invasion that VENICE owed its rise. The inhabitants, +who fled from the approach of the Huns, found on the islands in the +lagoons at the head of the Adriatic a harbor of safety. + +Attila died shortly after (453) from the bursting of a blood-vessel, +and with his death the empire of the Huns ceased to exist. The +VANDALS, we have seen, had established themselves in Africa. They were +now ruled by GENSERIC. Carthage was their head-quarters, and they were +continually ravaging the coasts of the Mediterranean with their +fleets. + +Maximus, Emperor of Rome (455), had forcibly married Eudoxia, the +widow of the previous Emperor, Valentinian, whom he had killed. She in +revenge sent to Genseric a secret message to attack Rome. He at once +set sail for the mouth of the Tiber. The capital was delivered into +his hands on his promise to spare the property of the Church (June, +455), and for fourteen days the Vandals ravaged it at pleasure. +Genseric then left Rome, taking with him Eudoxia. + +This was the last sack of the city by barbarians. But twenty-one years +elapsed before the Roman Empire came to an end (476). + + + + +CHAPTER XLIII. + +ROMAN LITERATURE. + +PLAUTUS (254-184). + + +PLAUTUS, the comic poet, was one of the earliest of Roman writers. +Born at Sarsina in Umbria, of free parentage, he at first worked on +the stage at Rome, but lost his savings in speculation. Then for some +time he worked in a treadmill, but finally gained a living by +translating Greek comedies into Latin. Twenty of his plays have come +down to us. They are lively, graphic, and full of fun, depicting a +mixture of Greek and Roman life. + + +TERENCE (195-159). + +TERENCE was a native of Carthage. He was brought to Rome at an early +age as a slave of the Senator Terentius, by whom he was educated and +liberated. Six of his comedies are preserved. Like the plays of +Plautus, they are free translations from the Greek, and of the same +general character. + + +ENNIUS (139-69). + +QUINTUS ENNIUS, a native of Rudiae, was taken to Rome by Cato the +Younger. Here he supported himself by teaching Greek. His epic poem, +the _Annàles_, relates the traditional Roman history, from the +arrival of Aenéas to the poet's own day. + + +CICERO (106-43). + +MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, a native of Arpínum, ranks as the first prose +writer in Roman literature. As an orator Cicero had a very happy +natural talent. The extreme versatility of his mind, his lively +imagination, his great sensitiveness, his inexhaustible richness of +expression, which was never at a loss for a word or tone to suit any +circumstances or mood, his felicitous memory, his splendid voice and +impressive figure, all contributed to render him a powerful speaker. +He himself left nothing undone to attain perfection. Not until he had +spent a long time in laborious study and preparation did he make his +_début_ as an orator; nor did he ever rest and think himself +perfect, but, always working, made the most careful preparation for +every case. Each success was to him only a step to another still +higher achievement; and by continual meditation and study he kept +himself fully equipped for his task. Hence he succeeded, as is +universally admitted, in gaining a place beside Demosthenes, or at all +events second only to him. + +There are extant fifty-seven orations of Cicero, and fragments of +twenty more. His famous _Philippics_ against Antony caused his +proscription by the Second Triumvirate, and his murder near his villa +at Formiae, in December, 43. + +His chief writings on rhetoric were _De Oratore; Brutus de Claris +Oratoribus;_ and _Orator ad M. Brutum_. Cicero was a lover of +philosophy, and his writings on the subject were numerous. Those most +read are _De Senectute, De Amicitia,_ and _De Officiis_. + +Eight hundred and sixty-four of Cicero's letters are extant, and they +furnish an inexhaustible treasure of contemporaneous history. + + +CAESAR (100-44). + +Of CAESAR'S literary works the most important are his +_Commentarii_, containing the history of the first seven years of +the Gallic war, and the history of the civil strife down to the +Alexandrine war. The account of his last year in Gaul was written +probably by Aulus Hirtius; that of the Alexandrine, African, and +Spanish wars, by some unknown hand. As an orator, Caesar ranks next to +Cicero. + + +NEPOS (94-24). + +CORNELIUS NEPOS, a native of Northern Italy, was a friend of both +Cicero and Atticus. He was a prolific writer, but only his _De Viris +Illustribus_ is preserved. It shows neither historical accuracy nor +good style. + + +LUCRETIUS (98-55). + +TITUS LUCRETIUS CARUS has left a didactic poem, _De Rerum +Natura_. The tone of the work is sad, and in many places bitter. + + +CATULLUS (87-47). + +GAIUS VALERIUS CATULLUS, of Veróna, is the greatest lyric poet of +Roman literature. One hundred and sixteen of his poems are extant. + + +VIRGIL (70-19). + +The great epic Roman poet was VIRGIL. His _Aenéis_, in twelve +books, gives an account of the wanderings and adventures of Aenéas, +and his struggles to found a city in Italy. The poem was not revised +when Virgil died, and it was published contrary to his wishes. + +Besides the _Aenéis_, Virgil wrote the _Bucolica_, ten +Eclogues imitated and partially translated from the Greek poet +Theocritus. The _Georgica_, a poem of four books on agriculture +in its different branches, is considered his most finished work, and +the most perfect production of Roman art-poetry. (See page 179.) + + +HORACE (65-8). + +QUINTUS HORATIUS FLACCUS left four books of Odes, one of Epodes, two +of Satires, two of Epistles, and the _Ars Poetica_. (See page +180.) + + +TIBULLUS (54-29). + +ALBIUS TIBULLUS, an elegiac poet, celebrated in exquisitely fine poems +the beauty and cruelty of his mistresses. + + +PROPERTIUS (49-15). + +SEXTUS PROPERTIUS, a native of Umbria, was also an elegiac poet, and +wrote mostly on love. + + +OVID (43 B.C.--18 A.D.) + +PUBLIUS OVIDIUS NASO left three books of _Amores_; one of +_Heroides_; the _Ars Amatoria_; _Remedia Amoris_; the +_Metamorphoses_ (fifteen books); the _Tristia_; and the +_Fasti_. (See page 181.) + + +LIVY (59 B.C.--17 A.D.). + +TITUS LIVIUS left a history of Rome, of which thirty-five books have +been preserved. (See page 181.) + + +PHAEDRUS. + +PHAEDRUS, a writer of fables, flourished in the reign of Tiberius (14- +37). He was originally a slave. His fables are ninety-seven in number, +and are written in iambic verse. + + +SENECA (8 B.C.--65 A.D.) + +For an account of this writer see the chapter on the Emperor Nero, +page 189. + + +CURTIUS. + +QUINTUS CURTIUS RUFUS was a historian who lived in the reign of +Claudius (50 A.D.). He wrote a history of the exploits of Alexander +the Great. + + +PERSIUS (34-62). + +PERSIUS, a poet of the reign of Nero, was a native of Volaterrae. He +wrote six satires, which are obscure and hard to understand. + + +LUCAN (39-65). + +LUCAN, a nephew of Seneca, wrote an epic poem (not finished) called +_Pharsalia_, upon the civil war between Caesar and Pompey. + + +PLINY THE ELDER (23-79). + +GAIUS PLINIUS SECUNDUS, of Northern Italy, was a great scholar in +history, grammar, rhetoric, and natural science. His work on +_Natural History_ has come down to us. + + +STATIUS, MARTIAL, QUINTILIAN, JUVENAL. + +STATIUS (45-96), a native of Naples, had considerable poetical talent. +He wrote the _Thebaid_, the _Achilleis_ (unfinished), and the +_Silvae_. + +MARTIAL (42-102), wrote sharp and witty epigrams, of which fifteen +books are extant. He was a native of Spain. + +QUINTILIAN (35-95), was also a native of Spain. He was a teacher of +eloquence for many years in Rome. His work _On the Training of an +Orator_, is preserved. + +JUVENAL(47-130), of Aquínum, was a great satirist, who described and +attacked bitterly the vices of Roman society. Sixteen of his satires +are still in existence. + +TACITUS (54-119). CORNELIUS TACITUS was the great historian of his +age. His birthplace is unknown. His writings are interesting and of a +high tone, but often tinged with prejudice, and hence unfair. He +wrote,-- + +1. A dialogue on orators. +2. A biography of his father-in-law, +Agricola. +3. A description of the habits of the people of Germany. +4. A history of the reigns of Galba, Otho, Vespasian, Titus, and +Domitian (_Historiae_). +5. _Annales_, a narrative of the events of the reigns of Tiberius, +Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. + + +PLINY THE YOUNGER (62-113). Pliny the Younger was the adopted son of +Pliny the Elder. He was a voluminous correspondent. We have nine books +of his letters, relating to a large number of subjects, and presenting +vivid pictures of the times in which he lived. Their diction is fluent +and smooth. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIV. + +ROMAN ROADS.--PROVINCES. + + +The Romans were famous for their excellent public roads, from thirteen +to fifteen feet wide. The roadbed was formed of four distinct layers, +placed above the foundation. The upper layer was made of large +polygonal blocks of the hardest stone, fitted and joined together so +as to make an even surface. On each side of the road were footpaths +strewn with gravel. Stone blocks for the use of equestrians were at +regular distances, and also milestones telling the distance from Rome. + +There were four main public roads:-- + +1. VIA APPIA, from Rome to Capua, Beneventum, Tarentum, and +Brundisium. + +2. VIA LATÍNA, from Rome to Aquínum and Teánum, joining the Via Appia +at Beneventum. + +3. VIA FLAMINIA, the great northern road. In Umbria, near Ocriculum +and Narnia, a branch went east through Spoletium, joining the main +line at Fulsinia. It then continued through Fanum, Flaminii, and +Nuceria, where it again divided, one branch going to Fanum Fortúnae on +the Adriatic, the other to Ancóna, and from there along the coast to +Fanum Fortúnae, where the two branches, again uniting, passed on to +Ariminum through Pisaurum. From here it was extended, under the name +of VIA AEMILIA, into the heart of Cisalpine Gaul, through Bononia, +Mutina, Parma, and Placentia, where it crossed the Po, to Mediolánum. + +4. VIA AURELIA, the great coast road, reached the west coast at +Alsium, following the shore along through Etruria and Liguria, by +Genua, as far as Forum Julii, in Gaul. + + +PROVINCES. + +After the conquest of Italy, all the additional Roman dominions were +divided into provinces. Sicily was the first Roman province. At first +Praetors were appointed to govern these provinces; but afterwards +persons who had been Praetors at Rome were appointed at the expiration +of their office, with the title of PROPRAETOR. Later, the Consuls +also, at the end of their year of office, were sent to govern +provinces, with the title of PROCONSUL. Such provinces were called +_Provinciae Consuláres_. The provinces were generally distributed +by lot, but their distribution was sometimes arranged by agreement +among those entitled to them. The tenure of office was usually a year, +but it was frequently prolonged. When a new governor arrived in the +province, his predecessor was expected to leave within thirty days. + +The governor was assisted by two QUAESTORS, who had charge of the +financial duties of the government. Originally the governor was +obliged to account at Rome for his administration, from his own books +and those of the Quaestors; but after 61 B. C., he was obliged to +deposit two copies of his accounts in the two chief cities of his +province, and to forward a third to Rome. + +If the governor misconducted himself in the performance of his +official duties, the provincials might apply for redress to the +Senate, and to influential Romans who were their patrons. + +The governor received no salary, but was allowed to exact certain +contributions from the people of the province for the support of +himself and his retinue, which consisted of quaestors, secretary, +notary, lictors, augurs, and public criers. His authority was supreme +in military and civil matters, and he could not be removed from +office. But after his term had ended, he could be tried for +mismanagement. + +Many of the governors were rascals, and obtained by unfair means vast +sums of money from the provincials. One of the most notorious of these +was Verres, against whom Cicero delivered his Verrine orations. + +At the time of the battle of Actium there were eighteen provinces; +viz. Sicilia (227 [Footnote: The figures in parentheses indicate the +date at which the province was established.]), Sardinia and Corsica +(227), Hispania Citerior (205), Hispania Ulterior (205), Illyricum +(167), Macedonia (146), Africa (146), Asia (133), Achaia (146), Gallia +Citerior (80), Gallia Narbonensis (118), Cilicia (63), Syria (64), +Bithynia and Pontus (63), Cyprus (55), Cyrenaica and Crete (63), +Numidia (46), and Mauritania (46). + +Under the Emperors the following sixteen were added: Rhoetia, +Noricum, Pannonia, Moesia, Dacia, Britannia, Aegyptus, Cappadocia, +Galatia, Rhodus, Lycia, Judaea, Arabia, Mesopotamia. Armenia, and +Assyria. + + + + +CHAPTER XLV. + + +[Footnote: Most of the information given in this chapter is scattered +in different parts of the history; but it seems well to condense it +into one chapter for readier reference.] + + +ROMAN OFFICERS, ETC. + +The magistrates of Rome were of two classes; the _Majores_, or +higher, and the _Minores_, or lower. The former, except the +Censor, had the _Imperium_; the latter did not. To the former +class belonged the Consuls, Praetors, and Censors, who were all +elected in the Comitia Centuriáta. The magistrates were also divided +into two other classes, viz. Curule and Non-Curule. The Curule offices +were those of Dictator, Magister Equitum, Consul, Praetor, Censor, and +Curule Aedile. These officers had the right to sit in the _sella +curúlis_, chair of state. This chair was displayed upon all public +occasions, especially in the circus and theatre; and it was the seat +of the Praetor when he administered justice. In shape it was plain, +resembling a common folding camp-stool, with crooked legs. It was +ornamented with ivory, and later overlaid with gold. + +The descendants of any one who had held a curule office were nobles, +and had the right to place in their halls and to carry at funeral +processions a wax mask of this ancestor, as well as of any other +deceased members of the family of curule rank. + +A person who first held a curule office, and whose ancestors had never +held one, was called a _novus homo_, i. e. a new man. The most +famous new men were Marius and Cicero. + +The magistrates were chosen only from the patricians in the early +republic; but in course of time the plebeians shared these honors. +The plebeian magistrates, properly so called, were the plebeian +Aediles and the Tribúni Plebis. + +All the magistrates, except the Censor, were elected for one year; and +all but the Tribunes and Quaestors began their term of office on +January 1st. The Tribune's year began December 10th; that of the +Quaestor, December 5th. + +The offices, except that of Tribune, formed a gradation, through which +one must pass if he desired the consulship. The earliest age for +holding each was, for the quaestorship, twenty-seven years; for the +aedileship, thirty-seven; for the praetorship, forty; and for the +consulship, forty-three. No magistrate received any salary, and only +the wealthy could afford to hold office. + + +THE CONSULS. + +The two Consuls were the highest magistrates, except when a Dictator +was appointed, and were the chiefs of the administration. Their power +was equal, and they had the right before all others of summoning the +Senate and the Comitia Centuriáta, in each of which they presided. +"When both Consuls were in the city, they usually took turns in +performing the official duties, each acting a month; and during this +time the Consul was always accompanied in public by twelve lictors, +who preceded him in single file, each carrying on his shoulders a +bundle of rods (_fasces_), to signify the power of the magistrate +to scourge criminals. Outside the city, these fasces showed an axe +projecting from each bundle, signifying the power of the magistrate to +behead criminals." + +At the expiration of his year of office, the Consul was sent to govern +a province for one year, and was then called the _Proconsul_. He +was chief in his province in all military, civil, and criminal cases. + + +PRAETORS. + +There were eight Praetors, whose duties were to administer justice +(judges). After the expiration of their year of office, they went, as +_Propraetors_, to govern provinces. The most important Praetor +was called _Praetor Urbánus_. He had charge of all civil suits +between Roman citizens. In the absence of both Consuls from the city, +he acted in their place. Each Praetor was attended by two lictors in +the city, and by six outside. The _Praetor Peregrínus_ had charge +of civil cases in which one or both parties were aliens. The other six +Praetors presided over the permanent criminal courts. + + +AEDILES. + +The Aediles were four officers who had the general superintendence of +the police of the city, and the care of the public games and +buildings. Two of the Aediles were taken from the plebeians, and two, +called Curule Aediles, ranked with the higher magistrates, and might +be patricians. They were elected in the Comitia Tributa. Their +supervision of the public games gave them great opportunities for +gaining favor with the populace, who then, as now, delighted in +circuses and contests. A small sum was appropriated from the public +treasury for these games; but an Aedile usually expended much from his +own purse to make the show magnificent, and thus to gain votes for the +next office, that of Praetor. Only the very wealthy could afford to +hold this office. + + +QUAESTORS. + +There were twenty Quaestors. Two were city treasurers at Rome, having +charge also of the archives. The others were assigned to the different +governors of the provinces, and acted as quartermasters. Through their +clerks, the two city Quaestors kept the accounts, received the taxes, +and paid out the city's money, as directed by the Senate. A Quaestor +always accompanied every Imperator (general) in the field as his +quartermaster. The elections for Quaestors were held in the Comitia +Tribúta. + + +TRIBUNI PLEBIS. + +There were ten Tribunes, elected in the Comitia Tribúta. They were +always plebeians, and their chief power lay in their right to veto any +decree of the Senate, any law of the Comitia, and any public act of a +magistrate. Their persons were considered sacred, and no one could +hinder them in the discharge of their official duties under penalty of +death. They called together the Comitia Tribúta, and they also had +authority to convene the Senate and to preside over it. Sulla +succeeded in restricting their power; but Pompey restored it. The +Tribunes did not possess the _imperium_. + + +CENSORS. + +There were two Censors, chosen from Ex-Consuls, and they held office +for eighteen months. They were elected once every five years, this +period being called a _lustrum_. They ranked as higher magistrates +without possessing the _imperium_. Their duties were: + +(1) To take the census, i.e. register the citizens and their amount of +property, and to fill all vacancies in the Senate. +(2) To have a general oversight of the finances, like our Secretary of +the Treasury; to contract for the erecting of public buildings, and for +the making or repairing of public roads, sewers, etc.; to let out the +privilege of collecting the taxes, for five years, to the highest +bidder.[Footnote: In the intervals of the censorship, the duties under +(2) fell to the Aediles. ] +(3) To punish gross immorality by removal of the guilty parties from the +Senate, the Equites, or the tribe. + + +DICTATOR. + +In cases of great danger the Senate called upon the Consuls to appoint +a Dictator, who should possess supreme power, but whose tenure of +office could never exceed six months. In later times Dictators were +not appointed, but Consuls were invested with the authority if it was +thought necessary. Sulla and Caesar, however, revived the office, but +changed its tenure, the latter holding it for life. + + +MAGISTER EQUITUM. + +This was an officer appointed by the Dictator, to stand next in +authority to him, and act as a sort of Vice-Dictator. + + +PONTIFICES. + +The priests formed a body (_collegium_) of fifteen members, at +the head of whom was the Pontifex Maximus (high priest). Their tenure +of office was for life, and they were responsible to no one in the +discharge of their duties. Their influence was necessarily very great. + + +IMPERIUM. + +This was a power to command the armies, and to exercise judicial +functions conferred upon a magistrate (Dictator, Consul, or Praetor) +by a special law passed by the Comitia Curiáta. The _Imperium_ +could be exercised only outside of the city walls (_pomoerium_), +except by special permission of the Senate for the purpose of +celebrating a triumph. The one receiving the _Imperium_ was +called IMPERATOR. + + +POTESTAS. + +This was the power, in general, which _all_ magistrates +possessed. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVI. + +HOUSES, CUSTOMS, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. + + +The private houses of the Romans were poor affairs until after the +conquest of the East, when money began to pour into the city. Many +houses of immense size were then erected, adorned with columns, +paintings, statues, and costly works of art. Some of these houses are +said to have cost as much as two million dollars. + +The principal parts of a Roman house were the _Vestibulum_, +_Ostium_, _Atrium_, _Alae_, _Tablínum_, _Fauces_, and _Peristylium_. +The VESTIBULUM was a court surrounded by the house on three sides, +and open on the fourth to the street. The OSTIUM corresponded in +general to our front hall. From it a door opened into the ATRIUM, which +was a large room with an opening in the centre of its roof, through which +the rain-water was carried into a cistern placed in the floor under the +opening. To the right and left of the Atrium were side rooms called the +ALAE, and the TABLÍNUM was a balcony attached to it. The passages +from the Atrium to the interior of the house were called FAUCES. The +PERISTYLIUM, towards which these passages ran, was an open court +surrounded by columns, decorated with flowers and shrubs. It was +somewhat larger than the Atrium. + +The floors were covered with stone, marble, or mosaics. The walls were +lined with marble slabs, or frescoed, while the ceilings were either +bare, exposing the beams, or, in the finer houses, covered with ivory, +gold, and frescoing. + +The main rooms were lighted from above; the side rooms received their +light from these, and not through windows looking into the street. The +windows of rooms in upper stories were not supplied with glass until +the time of the Empire. They were merely openings in the wall, covered +with lattice-work. To heat a room, portable stoves were generally +used, in which charcoal was burned. There were no chimneys, and the +smoke passed out through the windows or the openings in the roofs. + +The rooms of the wealthy were furnished with great splendor. The walls +were frescoed with scenes from Greek mythology, landscapes, etc. In +the vestibules were fine sculptures, costly marble walls, and doors +ornamented with gold, silver, and rare shells. There were expensive +rugs from the East, and, in fact, everything that could be obtained +likely to add to the attractiveness of the room. + +Candles were used in early times, but later the wealthy used lamps, +which were made of terra-cotta or bronze. They were mostly oval, flat +on the top, often with figures in relief. In them were one or more +round holes to admit the wick. They either rested on tables, or were +suspended by chains from the ceiling. + + +MEALS. + +The meals were the JENTACULUM, PRANDIUM, and COENA. The first was our +breakfast, though served at an early hour, sometimes as early as four +o'clock. It consisted of bread, cheese, and dried fruits. The prandium +was a lunch served about noon. The coena, or dinner, served between +three and sunset, was usually of three courses. The first course +consisted of stimulants, eggs, or lettuce and olives; the second, +which was the main course, consisted of meats, fowl, or fish, with +condiments; the third course was made up of fruits, nuts, sweetmeats, +and cakes. + +At elaborate dinners the guests assembled, each with his napkin and +full dress of bright colors. The shoes were removed so as not to soil +the couches. These couches usually were adapted for three guests, who +reclined, resting the head on the left hand, with the elbow supported +by pillows. The Romans took the food with their fingers. Dinner was +served in a room called the TRICLINIUM. In Nero's "Golden House," the +dining-room was constructed like a theatre, with shifting scenes to +change with every course. + + +DRESS.--BATHING. + +The Roman men usually wore two garments, the TUNICA and TOGA. The +former was a short woollen under garment with short sleeves. To have a +long tunic with long sleeves was considered a mark of effeminacy. The +tunic was girded round the waist with a belt. The toga was peculiarly +a Roman garment, and none but citizens were allowed to wear it. It was +also the garment of peace, in distinction from the SAGUM, which was +worn by soldiers. The toga was of white wool and was nearly +semicircular, but being a cumbrous garment, it became customary in +later times to wear it only on state occasions. The poor wore only the +tunic, others wore, in place of the toga, the LACERNA, which was an +open cloak, fastened to the right shoulder by a buckle. Boys, until +about sixteen, wore a toga with a purple hem. + +The women wore a TUNIC, STOLA, and PULLA. The stola was a loose +garment, gathered in and girdled at the waist with a deep flounce +extending to the feet. The pulla was a sort of shawl to throw over the +whole figure, and to be worn out of doors. The ladies indulged their +fancy for ornaments as freely as their purses would allow. + +Foot-gear was mostly of two kinds, the CALCEUS and the SOLEAE. The +former was much like our shoe, and was worn in the street. The latter +were sandals, strapped to the bare foot, and worn in the house. The +poor used wooden shoes. + +Bathing was popular among the wealthy. Fine buildings were erected, +with elegant decorations, and all conveniences for cold, warm, hot, +and vapor baths. These bath-houses were very numerous, and were places +of popular resort. Attached to many of them were rooms for exercise, +with seats for spectators. The usual time for bathing was just before +dinner. Upon leaving the bath, it was customary to anoint the body +with oil. + + +FESTIVALS, GAMES, ETC. + +The SATURNALIA was the festival of Saturn, to whom the inhabitants of +Latium attributed the introduction of agriculture and the arts of +civilized life. It was celebrated near the end of December, +corresponding to our Christmas holidays, and under the Empire lasted +seven days. During its continuance no public business was transacted, +the law courts were closed, the schools had a holiday, and slaves were +relieved from all ordinary toil. All classes devoted themselves to +pleasure, and presents were interchanged among friends. + +The LUPERCALIA; a festival in honor of Lupercus, the god of fertility, +was celebrated on the 15th of February. It was one of the most ancient +festivals, and was held in the Lupercal, where Romulus and Remus were +said to have been nursed by the she wolf (_lupa_). The priests of +Lupercus were called LUPERCI. They formed a collegium, but their +tenure of office is not known. On the day of the festival these +priests met at the Lupercal, offered sacrifice of goats, and took a +meal, with plenty of wine. They then cut up the skins of the goats +which they had sacrificed. With some of these they covered parts of +their bodies, and with others, they made thongs, and, holding them in +their hands, ran through the streets of Rome, striking with them all +whom they met, especially women, as it was believed this would render +them fruitful. + +The QUIRINALIA was celebrated on the 17th of February, when Quirínus +(Romulus) was said to have been carried up to heaven. + +Gladiators were men who fought with swords in the amphitheatre and +other places, for the amusement of the people. These shows were first +exhibited at Rome in 264 B. c., and were confined to public funerals; +but afterwards gladiators were to be seen at the funerals of most men +of rank. Under the Empire the passion for this kind of amusement +increased to such an extent, that gladiators were kept and trained in +schools (_ludi_) and their trainers were called _Lanistae_. +The person who gave an exhibition was called an EDITOR. He published +(_edere_), some time before the show, a list of the combatants. +In the show the fights began with wooden swords, but at the sound of +the trumpet these were exchanged for steel weapons. When a combatant +was wounded, if the spectators wished him spared, they held their +thumbs down, but turned them up if they wanted him killed. Gladiators +who had served a long time, were often discharged and presented with a +wooden sword (_rudis_), Hence they were called _rudiarii_. + + +THE AMPHITHEATRE, THEATRE, AND CIRCUS. + +The AMPHITHEATRE was a place for the exhibition of gladiatorial shows, +combats of wild beasts, and naval engagements. Its shape was that of +an ellipse, surrounded by seats for the spectators. The word +Amphitheatre was first applied to a wooden building erected by Caesar. +Augustus built one of stone in the Campus Martius, but the most +celebrated amphitheatre was built by Vespasian and Titus, and +dedicated in 80 A. D. It is still standing, though partly in ruins, +covers nearly six acres, and could seat ninety thousand people. The +name given to it to-day is the COLOSSÉUM. The open space in the centre +was called the ARÉNA, and was surrounded by a wall about fifteen feet +high to protect the spectators from the wild beasts. Before the time +of Caesar the shows were held in the Forum and in the Circus. + +The THEATRE was never as popular with the Romans as with the Greeks. +The plays of Plautus and Terence were acted on temporary wooden +stages. The first stone theatre was built by Pompey in 55 B. C., near +the Campus Martius. It was a fine building, with a seating capacity of +forty thousand. The seats were arranged in a semicircle, as at +present, the orchestra being reserved for the Senators and other +distinguished persons. Then came fourteen rows of seats for the +Equites, and behind these sat the ordinary crowd. + +The CIRCUS MAXIMUS. between the Palatine and Aventine Hills, was built +for chariot races, boxing, and gymnastic contests. It was an immense +structure, with galleries three stories high, and a canal called +Eurípus, and it accommodated one hundred thousand spectators. In the +centre Caesar erected an obelisk one hundred and thirty-two feet high, +brought from Egypt. The seats were arranged as in the theatre. Six +kinds of games were celebrated: 1st, chariot racing; 2d, a sham-fight +between young men on horseback; 3d, a sham-fight between infantry and +cavalry; 4th, athletic sports of all kinds; 5th, fights with wild +beasts, such as lions, boars, etc.; 6th, sea fights. Water was let +into the canal to float ships. The combatants were captives, or +criminals condemned to death, who fought until one party was killed, +unless saved by the kindness of the Emperor. + + +A TRIUMPHAL PROCESSION. + +The Imperator, when he returned from a successful campaign, was +sometimes allowed to enjoy a triumphal procession, provided he had +been Dictator, Consul, or Praetor. No one desiring a triumph ever +entered the city until the Senate decided whether or not he deserved +one. When a favorable decision was reached, the temples were all +thrown open, garlands of flowers decorated every shrine and image, and +incense smoked on every altar. The Imperator ascended the triumphal +car and entered a city gate, where he was met by the whole body of the +Senate, headed by the magistrates. + +The procession then proceeded in the following order:-- + +1. The Senate, headed by the magistrates. 2. A troop of trumpeters. 3. +Carts laden with spoils, often very costly and numerous. 4. A body of +flute-players. 5. White bulls and oxen for sacrifice. 6. Elephants and +rare animals from the conquered countries. 7. The arms and insignia of +the leaders of the conquered enemy. 8. The leaders themselves, with +their relatives and other captives. 9. The lictors of the Imperator in +single file, their fasces wreathed with laurel. 10. The Imperator +himself, in a circular chariot drawn by four horses. He was attired in +a gold-embroidered robe, and a flowered tunic; he held a laurel bough +in his right hand, a sceptre in his left, and his brow was encircled +with a laurel wreath. 11. The grown up sons and officers of the +Imperator. 12. The whole body of infantry, with spears adorned with +laurel. + +The OVATION was a sort of smaller triumph. The commander entered the +city on foot, or in later times on horseback. He was clothed in a +purple-bordered robe. His head was crowned with laurel, and a sheep +(_ovis_) was sacrificed, instead of a bull as in the case of a +triumph. + + +POMOERIUM. + +The Pomoerium was the sacred enclosure of the city, inside of which no +person holding the _Imperium_ was allowed to enter. It did not +always run parallel to the city walls. + + +NAMES. + +Every man in Rome had three names. The given name (_praenomen_), +as Lucius, Marcus, Gaius. The name of the gens (_nomen_), as +Cornelius, Tullius, Julius. The name of the family (_cognómen_), +as Scipio, Cicero, Caesar. To these names was sometimes added another, +the _agnomen_, given for some exploit, or to show that the person +was adopted from some other gens. Thus Scipio the elder was called +AFRICÁNUS, and all his descendants had the right to the name. +Africánus the younger was adopted from the Cornelian gens into the +Aemilian gens; therefore he added to his other names AEMILIÁNUS. + +The women were called only by the name of their gens. The daughter of +Scipio was called, for example, CORNELIA, and to distinguish her from +others of the Cornelian gens she was called Cornelia daughter of +Scipio. If there were more than one daughter, to the name of the +eldest was added _prima_ (first), to that of the next, _secunda_ +(second), etc. + + +MARRIAGE. + +Intermarriage (_connubium_) between patricians and plebeians was +forbidden previous to 445, and after that the offspring of such +marriages took the rank of the father. After the parties had agreed, +to marry, and the consent of the parents or persons in authority was +given, the marriage contract was drawn up and signed by both parties. +The wedding day was then fixed upon. This could not fall upon the +Kalends, Nones, or Ides of any month, or upon any day in May or +February. The bride was dressed in a long white robe, with a bridal +veil, and shoes of a bright yellow color. She was conducted in the +evening to her future husband's home by three boys, one of whom +carried before her a torch, the other two supporting her by the arm. +They were accompanied by friends of both parties. The groom received +the bride at the door, which she entered with distaff and spindle in +hand. The keys of the house were then delivered to her. The day ended +with a feast given by the husband, after which the bride was conducted +to the bridal couch, in the atrium, which was adorned with flowers. On +the following day another feast was given by the husband, and the wife +performed certain religious rites. + +The position of the Roman woman after marriage was very different from +that of the Greek. She presided over the whole household, educated her +children, watched over and preserved the honor of the house, and +shared the honors and respect shown to her husband. + + +FUNERALS. + +When a Roman was at the point of death, his nearest relative present +endeavored to catch the last breath with his mouth. The ring was +removed from the dying person's hand, and as soon as he was dead his +eyes and mouth were closed by the nearest relative, who called upon +the deceased by name, exclaiming "Farewell!" The body was then washed, +and anointed with oil and perfumes, by slaves or undertakers. A small +coin was placed in the mouth of the body to pay the ferryman (Charon) +in Hades, and the body was laid out on a couch in the vestibulum, with +its feet toward the door. In early times all funerals were held at +night; but in later times only the poor followed this custom, mainly +because they could not afford display. The funeral, held the ninth day +after the death, was headed by musicians playing mournful strains, and +mourning women hired to lament and sing the funeral song. These were +sometimes followed by players and buffoons, one of whom represented +the character of the deceased, and imitated his words and actions. +Then came the slaves whom the deceased had liberated, each wearing the +cap of liberty. Before the body were carried the images of the dead +and of his ancestors, and also the crown and military rewards which he +had gained. The couch on which the body was carried was sometimes made +of ivory, and covered with gold and purple. Following it were the +relatives in mourning, often uttering loud lamentations, the women +beating their breasts and tearing their hair. + +The procession of the most illustrious dead passed through the Forum, +and stopped before the _Rostra_, where a funeral oration was +delivered. From here the body was carried to its place of burial, +which must be outside the city. Bodies were sometimes cremated, and in +the later times of the Republic this became quite common. + + +EDUCATION. + +In early times the education of the Romans was confined to reading, +writing, and arithmetic; but as they came in contact with the Greeks a +taste for higher education was acquired. Greek slaves (_paedagogi_) +were employed in the wealthy families to watch over the children, and +to teach them to converse in Greek. + +A full course of instruction included the elementary branches +mentioned above, and a careful study of the best _Greek_ and +Latin writers, besides a course in philosophy and rhetoric, under some +well known professor abroad, usually at Athens or Rhodes. + + +BOOKS.--LETTER WRITING. + +The most common material on which books were written was the thin rind +of the Egyptian papyrus tree. Besides the papyrus, parchment was often +used. The paper or parchment was joined together so as to form one +sheet, and was rolled on a staff, whence the name volume (from +_volvere_, to roll). + +Letter writing was very common among the educated. Letters were +usually written with the _stylus_, an iron instrument like a +pencil in size and shape, on thin slips of wood or ivory covered with +wax, and folded together with the writing on the inside. The slips +were tied together by a string, and the knot was sealed with wax and +stamped with a signet ring. Letters were also written on parchment +with ink. Special messengers were employed to carry letters, as there +was no regular mail service. Roman letters differed from ours chiefly +in the opening and close. The writer always began by sending +"greeting" to the person addressed, and closed with a simple" +farewell," without any signature. Thus "Cicero S. D. Pompeio" (S. D. += sends greeting) would be the usual opening of a letter from Cicero +to Pompey. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVII. + +PUBLIC BUILDINGS, SQUARES, ETC. + + +_Rome_ was built on seven hills,--the Palatine, the Aventine, the +Capitoline, the Esquiline (the largest), the Quirínal, the Viminal, +and the Coelian. + +There were various public squares (_forum_ = square or park). +Some were places of resort for public business, and most were adorned +with porticos. The most celebrated square was the _Forum +Románum_, or simply _The Forum_. There were also the _Forum +Caesaris_ and _Forum Trajáni_. Some served as markets; as +_Forum Boarium_, the cattle market; _Forum Suarium_, the hog +market, etc. + +Temples were numerous. The _Pantheon_ (temple of all the gods), +built by Agrippa and restored by Hadrian, was dedicated to Jupiter. It +was situated outside of the city, in the Campus Martius, and is now +used as a Christian church. The Temple of Apollo Palatínus, built by +Augustus, was on the Palatine Hill. It contained a library, which was +founded by Augustus. The Temple of Aesculapius was on an island in the +Tiber; that of Concordia, on the slope of the Capitoline Hill, was +dedicated in 377 B.C., and restored by Tiberius. The Temple of Janus +was an arched passage east of the Forum, the gates of which were open +during war. Up to the time of Ovid the gates had been closed but three +times, once in Numa's reign, again at the close of the [Illustration: ROME + AND ENVIRONS K. D. Servoss, Eng'r, N. Y.] Second Punic War, and +after the battle of Actium. Janus was one of the oldest Latin divinities, +and was represented with a face in front and another on the back of his +head. From him is named the month of January. + +There were several temples of Jupiter, the most famous of which was +that of Jupiter Optimus, Maximus, or Capitolínus, built during the +dynasty of the Tarquins, and splendidly adorned. (See Chapter V.) +There were also numerous temples of Juno, of Mars, and of other +deities. + +The COLOSSÉUM was the largest building in Rome. + +There were three theatres; that of Pompey, of Marcellus, and of +Balbus; and several circuses, the most famous of which was the Circus +Maximus. + +The BASILICAE were halls of justice (court-houses). The most important +was the Basilica Julia, begun by Caesar and finished by Augustus, +which was situated on the south side of the Forum, and the foundations +of which can still be seen. + +The CURIA, or Senate-house, was in the Forum. Each of the thirty +curiae had a place of meeting, called also a curia, where were +discussed public questions pertaining to politics, finance, or +religion. + +The PUBLIC BATHS were numerous. There were Thermae (hot baths) of +Nero, of Titus, of Trajan, of Caracalla, and of others, ruins of which +still exist. + +Pure water was brought into the city from the surrounding hills by +fourteen different aqueducts, all of which were well built, and three +of which are still in use. The first aqueduct (Aqua Appia) was built +about 313 B.C., by Appius Claudius. + +SEWERS intersected Rome in all directions, and some were of immense +size. The CLOÁCA MAXIMA, built by Tarquin, was the largest, and is +still in use. Its innermost arch has a diameter of fourteen feet. + +There are said to have been twenty TRIUMPHAL ARCHES, of which five now +remain, 1. The ARCH OF DRUSUS, on the Appian Way, erected in honor of +Claudius Drusus. 2. The ARCH OF TITUS, at the foot of the Palatine +Hill, built by Titus to commemorate his conquest of Judaea, The bas- +reliefs on this arch represent the spoils taken from the temple at +Jerusalem, carried in triumphal procession. 3. The ARCH OF SEPTIMIUS +SEVERUS, built by the Senate in 207 A. D., at the end of the Via +Sacra, in honor of the Emperor and his two sons for their conquest of +the Parthians and Arabians. 4. The ARCH OF GALLIÉNUS. 5. The ARCH OF +CONSTANTINE. + +There were two famous MAUSOLÉA, that of Augustus, now in ruins, and +that of Hadrian, which, stripped of its ornaments, is now the Castle +of San Angelo. + +The COLUMNS commemorating persons or events were numerous. The most +remarkable of these were erected for naval victories, and called +COLUMNAE ROSTRÁTAE. The one of Duilius, in honor of the victory at +Mylae (261 B. C.), still stands. It has three ship-beaks attached to +each side. Columns were built in honor of several Emperors. That of +Trajan is perhaps best known. + +The COLUMNA MILLIARIA was a milestone set up by Augustus in the Forum, +from which all distances on the different public roads were measured. +It was called _Milliarium Aureum_, or the golden milestone. + + + + +CHAPTER XLVIII. + +COLONIES.--THE CALENDAR.--RELIGION. + + +Colonies were established by Rome throughout its whole history. They +were intended to keep in check a conquered people, and also to repress +hostile incursions. Many were founded to provide for veteran soldiers; +a practice which was begun by Sulla, and continued under the Emperors. + +No colony was established without a _lex_, _plebiscítum_, or +_senatus consultum_. Religious ceremonies always accompanied +their foundation, and the anniversary was observed. + +The colonies were divided into two classes, viz. Roman, and Latin or +military. Members of the former class had all the rights of Roman +citizens; those of the latter could not vote in the Comitia at Rome. +The _Latíni_, who were once Roman citizens, and who always felt +equal to them, were uneasy in their subordinate position. But by the +Julian law, passed in 90 B. C., they acquired the right of voting at +Rome, and were placed on the same footing as Roman colonists. + + +THE CALENDAR. + +The Roman year began with March. There were twelve months, and each +month had three divisions, the KALENDS, NONES, and IDES. The Kalends +fell on the first of the month; the Nones, on the 7th of March, May, +July, and October; in other months, on the 5th. The Ides came eight +days after the Nones. If an event happened on these divisions, it was +said to occur on the Kalends, Nones, or Ides of the month. If it +happened between any of these divisions, it was said to occur so many +days _before_ the division _following_ the event. The year was +reckoned from the foundation of the city (753 B.C.), and often the +names of the Consuls of that year were added. + + +RELIGION. + +The Romans were religious, and had numerous gods and goddesses: +JUPITER and JUNO, the god and goddess of light; SATURN, the god of +seed-sowing; TELLUS, the goddess of the nourishing earth; CERES, the +goddess of growth; CONSUS and OPS, who presided over the harvest; +PALES, the god of the flocks; and LUPERCUS, the god of fertility. +Various festivals were celebrated in honor of these, as the +Saturnalia, in December; the Tellilia (Tellus), Cerialia (Ceres), and +Palilia (Pales), in April; and the Lupercalia, in February. + +VESTA was the goddess of the house, and as every family had an altar +erected for her worship, so the state, as a combination of families, +had a common altar to her in the temple of Vesta. In this temple were +also worshipped the Penátes and Lares. + +The LARES were special guardians of private houses. Some protected +fields and cities. Images of Lares of diminutive size, clad often in +dog-skins, were ranged along the hearth. The people honored them on +the Kalends of May and other festival days by decking them with +flowers, and by offering them wine, incense, flour, and portions of +their meals upon plates. + +The PENÁTES were kept and worshipped only in the inmost chambers of +houses and temples. Their statues, made of wax, wood, or ivory, were +also kept in the inner hall. + +The priestesses of Vesta were six in number, and were called VESTAL +VIRGINS. When a vestal was to be elected, the Pontifex Maximus chose +twenty young girls from high families. Of these one was chosen by lot +to fill the vacancy, and she was bound to serve for thirty years. The +Vestals were preceded by a lictor when in public. They had private +seats in the public shows, and had the power of delivering from +punishment any condemned person they happened to meet. They wore white +dresses and white fillets. Their chief duty was to keep the fire +always burning on the hearth (_focus publicus_) in the temple. +They could not marry. + + +FLAMINES. + +The FLAMINES were priests devoted to the service of some particular +god. There were fifteen, and they were chosen first in the Comitia +Curiáta, and afterwards probably in the Tributa. The most +distinguished of all the Flamines was the FLAMEN DIÁLIS (Jupiter). He +had the right to a lictor, to the _sella curulis_, and to a seat +in the Senate. If one in bonds took refuge in his house, the chains +were at once removed. This priest, however, could not be away from the +city a single night, and was forbidden to sleep out of his own bed for +three consecutive nights. He was not allowed to mount a horse, or even +to touch one, or to look upon an army outside of the city walls. + + +THE SALII. + +These were priests of Mars, twelve in number, and always chosen from +the patricians. They celebrated the festival of Mars on the 1st of +March, and for several successive days. + + +THE AUGURES. + +This body varied in number, from three, in early times, to sixteen in +the time of Caesar. It was composed of men who were believed to +interpret the will of the gods, and to declare whether the omens were +favorable or otherwise. No public act of any kind could be performed, +no election held, no law passed, no war waged, without first +consulting the omens. There was no appeal from the decision of the +Augurs, and hence their power was great. They held office for life, +and were a close corporation, filling their own vacancies until 103 B. +C. + + +THE FETIALES. + +This was another body of priests holding office for life, and +numbering probably twenty. They were expected, whenever any dispute +arose with other nations, to demand satisfaction, to determine whether +hostilities should be begun, and to preside at any ratification of +peace. + + + + +CHAPTER XLIX. + +THE ROMAN ARMY IN CAESAR'S TIME. + + +The LEGIO was composed of infantry, and, though larger, corresponded +to our regiment. It was divided into ten cohorts (battalions), each +cohort into three maniples (companies), and each maniple into two +centuries (platoons). In theory the number in each legion was six +thousand, in practice about four thousand. The usual order of battle +was to draw up each legion in three lines (_acies_ triplex), the +first consisting of four cohorts, the second and third of three each. +The defensive armor of the legionary soldier was a helmet of metal or +leather, a shield (four feet by two and a half), greaves, and +corselets of various material. The outer garment was a woollen +blanket, fastened to the shoulders by a buckle. Higher officers wore a +long purple cloak. The offensive armor was a short, straight two-edged +sword (_gladius_), about two feet long, worn by privates on the +right side, so as not to interfere with the shield, but on the left +side by officers. The javelin (_pilum_) was a heavy wooden shaft +with an iron head, the whole about seven feet long and weighing fully +ten pounds. All legionary soldiers were Roman citizens. The +auxiliaries were hired or drafted troops, and were always light-armed. +The cavalry in Caesar's time was made up of auxiliaries taken from the +different provinces. + +The officers were:-- +1. The IMPERATOR, or commander in chief. +2. The LEGÁTI, or staff officers, varying in number. Caesar had ten. +3. The QUAESTOR, or quartermaster. +4. The TRIBÚNI MILITUM, numbering six in each legion, and assisting + the Imperator in his duties. +5. The PRAEFECTI, who held various subordinate commands. +6. The CENTURIÓNES, who were non-commissioned officers, and rose in +rank for good service. There were sixty centurions in each legion, six +in each cohort, and one in each century. They were promoted from the +ranks, but rarely rose above centurion of the first rank. All the +officers, except the centurions, came from either senatorial or +equestrian families. + +The COHORS PRAETORIA was a body of picked troops that acted as body +guard to the Imperator. + +The STANDARD (_signum_) of the legion was an eagle with +outstretched wings, perched upon a pole. + +The Romans when on the march fortified their camp every night. They +made it rectangular in shape, and threw up fortifications always in +the same way. It was surrounded by a ditch and rampart. The legionary +soldiers encamped next to the wall on the inside of the +fortifications, thus surrounding the cavalry, the auxiliaries, the +general and his staff. The general's tent was called the +_Praetorium_, and the entrance to the camp in front of his tent +was called the Praetorian Gate. The opposite entrance was called the +Decuman Gate. + + + + +CHAPTER L. + +LEGENDARY ROME. + + +AENEAS, son of Anchíses and Venus, fled from Troy after its capture by +the Greeks (1184?) and came to Italy. He was accompanied by his son +IÚLUS and a number of brave followers. LATÍNUS, who was king of the +district where Aenéas landed, received him kindly, and gave him his +daughter, LAVINIA, in marriage. Aenéas founded a city, which he named +LAVINIUM, in honor of his wife. After his death, Iúlus, also called +ASCANIUS, became king. He founded on Mount Albánus a city, which he +called ALBA LONGA, and to it transferred the capital. + +Here a number of kings ruled in succession, the last of whom was +SILVIUS PROCAS, who left two sons, NUMITOR, the older, and AMULIUS. +They divided the kingdom, the former choosing the property, the latter +the crown. Numitor had two children, a son and a daughter. Amulius, +fearing that they might aspire to the throne, murdered the son, and +made the daughter, RHEA SILVIA, a Vestal virgin. This he did to +prevent her marrying, for this was forbidden to Vestal virgins. She, +however, became pregnant by Mars, and had twin sons, whom she named +ROMULUS and REMUS. When Amulius was informed of this, he cast their +mother into prison, and ordered the boys to be drowned in the Tiber. + +At this time the river was swollen by rains, and had overflowed its +banks. The boys were thrown into a shallow place, escaped drowning, +and, the water subsiding, they were left on dry land. A she wolf, +hearing their cries, ran to them and suckled them. FAUSTULUS, a +shepherd who was near by, seeing this, took the boys home and reared +them. When they grew up and learned who they were, they killed +Amulius, and gave the kingdom to their grandfather, Numitor. Then +(753) they founded a city on Mount Palatínus, which they called ROME, +after Romulus. While they were building a wall around this city, Remus +was killed in a quarrel with his brother. + +Romulus, first king of Rome, ruled for thirty-seven years (753-716). +He found the city needed inhabitants, and to increase their number he +opened an asylum, to which many refugees fled. But wives were needed. +To supply this want, he celebrated games, and invited the neighboring +people, the SABINES, to attend the sports. When all were engaged in +looking on, the Romans suddenly made a rush and seized the Sabine +virgins. This bold robbery caused a war, which finally ended in a +compromise, and a sharing of the city with the Sabines. Romulus then +chose one hundred Senators, whom he called PATRES. He also divided the +people into thirty wards. In the thirty-seventh year of his reign he +disappeared, and was believed to have been taken up into heaven. + +One year followed without any king, and then NUMA POMPILIUS(716-673), +a Sabine from Cures, was chosen. He was a good man, and a great +lawgiver. Many sacred rites were instituted by him to civilize his +barbarous subjects. He reformed the calendar, and built a temple to +the god Janus. TULLUS HOSTILIUS(673-641) succeeded him. His reign was +noted for the fall of Alba Longa. Then came ANCUS MARCIUS (640-616), +the grandson of Numa. He was a good ruler and popular. He conquered +the Latins, enlarged the city, and built new walls around it. He was +the first to build a prison, and to bridge the Tiber. [Footnote: This +bridge was called the _pons sublicius_ i. e. a bridge resting on +piles.] He also founded a city at its mouth, which he called OSTIA. + +The next three kings were of Etruscan origin. LUCIUS TARQUINIUS +PRISCUS (616-578) went to Rome first during the reign of Ancus, and, +becoming a favorite of his, was appointed guardian of his sons. After +the death of Ancus, he wrested the government from them, and became +king himself. He increased the Senators to two hundred, carried on +many wars successfully, and thus enlarged the territory of the city. +He built the CLOÁCA MAXIMA, or great sewer, which is used to-day. +Tarquin also began the temple of JUPITER CAPITOLÍNUS, on the +Capitoline Hill. He was killed in the thirty-eighth year of his reign +by the sons of Ancus, from whom he had snatched the kingdom. + +His successor was his son-in-law, SERVIUS TULLIUS (578-534), who +enlarged the city still more, built a temple to Diána, and took a +census of the people. It was found that the city and suburbs contained +83,000 souls. Servius was killed by his daughter, Tullia, and her +husband, Tarquinius Superbus, son of Priscus. + +TARQUINIUS SUPERBUS succeeded to the throne (534-510). He was +energetic in war, and conquered many neighboring places, among which +was Ardea, a city of the Rutuli. He finished the temple of Jupiter, +begun by his father. He also obtained the SIBYLLINE BOOKS. A woman +from Cumae, a Greek colony, came to him, and offered for sale nine +books of oracles and prophecies; but the price seemed exorbitant, and +he refused to purchase them. The sibyl then burned three, and, +returning, asked the same price for the remaining six. The king again +refused. She burned three more, and obtained from the monarch for her +last three the original price. These books were preserved in the +Capitol, and held in great respect. They were destroyed with the +temple by fire, on July 6, 83. Two men had charge of them, who were +called _duoviri sacrórum_. The worship of the Greek deities, +Apollo and Latóna, among others, was introduced through these books. + +In 510 a conspiracy was formed against Tarquin by BRUTUS, COLLATÍNUS, +and others, and the gates of the city were closed against him. +[Footnote: The cause of the conspiracy was the violence offered by +Sextus, Tarquin's son, to Lucretia, wife of Collatínus. Unable to bear +the humiliation, she killed herself in the presence of her family, +having first appealed to them to avenge her wrongs] A Republic was +then formed, with two Consuls at the head of the government. + +Tarquin made three attempts to recover his power at Rome, all +unsuccessful. [Footnote: The victory of Lake Regillus, which has been +painted by Macaulay in glowing colors, was gained over Tarquin in +509.] In the last attempt (508), he was assisted by PORSENA, king of +the Etruscans. They advanced against the city from the north. HORATIUS +COCLES, a brave young man, alone defended the bridge (_pans +sublicius_) over the Tiber until it was torn down behind him. He +then swam the river in safety to his friends. [Footnote: See +Macaulay's "Lays of Ancient Rome."] + +During the siege of the city, QUINTUS MUCIUS SCAEVOLA, a courageous +youth, stole into the camp of the enemy with the intention of killing +King Porsena, but by mistake killed his secretary instead. He was +seized and carried to Porsena, who tried to frighten him by threats of +burning. Instead of replying, Scaevola held his right hand on the +burning altar until it was consumed. The king, admiring this heroic +act, pardoned him. Out of gratitude, Scaevola told the king that three +hundred other men as brave as himself had sworn to kill him. Porsena +was so alarmed, that he made peace, and withdrew from the city. Mucius +received his name Scaevola (left-handed) on account of this loss of +his right hand. + +Tarquin went to Tusculum, where he spent the rest of his days in +retirement. + +In 494 the plebeians at Rome rebelled, because they were exhausted by +taxes and military service. A large part of them left the city, and +crossed the Anio to a mountain (Mons Sacer) near by. The Senate sent +MENENIUS AGRIPPA to treat with them. By his exertions [Footnote: +Menenius is said to have related for them the famous fable of the +belly and members.] the people were induced to return to the city, and +for the first time were allowed to have officers chosen from their own +ranks to represent their interests. These officers were called Tribúni +Plebis. + +Two years later (492) Gaius Marcius, one of the patricians, met and +defeated the Volsci, a neighboring tribe, at CORIOLI. For this he +received the name of CORIOLÁNUS. During a famine, he advised that +grain should not be distributed to the plebeians unless they +relinquished their right to choose the Tribúni Plebis. For this he was +banished. Having obtained command of a Volscian army, he marched +against Rome, and came within five miles of the city. Here he was met +by a deputation of his own citizens, who begged him to spare the city. +He refused; but, when his wife and mother added their tears, he was +induced to withdraw the army. He was afterwards killed by the +Volscians as a traitor. [Footnote: See Shakespeare's "Coriolanus."] + +After the expulsion of Tarquin, the FABII were among the most +distinguished men at Rome. There were three brothers, and for seven +consecutive years one of them was Consul. It looked as if the Fabian +gens would get control of the government. The state took alarm, and +the whole gens, numbering 306 males and 4,000 dependents, was driven +from Rome. For two years they carried on war alone against the +Veientes, but finally were surprised and slain (477). One boy, Quintus +Fabius Vibulánus, alone survived to preserve the name and gens of the +Fabii. + +In 458 the Romans were hard pressed by the Aequi. Their territory had +been overrun, and their Consuls, cut off in some defiles, were in +imminent danger of destruction. LUCIUS QUINCTUS CINCINNÁTUS was +appointed Dictator. He was one of the most noted Roman warriors of +this period. The ambassadors sent to inform him of his appointment +found him working with bare arms in his field. Cincinnátus told his +wife to throw over him his mantle, that he might receive the +messengers of the state with proper respect. Such was the simplicity +of his character, and yet so deeply did he reverence authority. The +Aequi could not withstand his vigorous campaign, but were obliged soon +to surrender, and made to pass under the yoke as a sign of +humiliation. The Dictator enjoyed a well earned triumph. + +In 451 one of the Decemviri, APPIUS CLAUDIUS, was captivated by the +beauty of a patrician maiden, VIRGINIA, [Footnote: See Macaulay's +"Lays of Ancient Rome."] a daughter of Lucius Virginius, and the +betrothed of Lucius Icilius. He formed, with one of his tools, an +infamous plot to obtain possession of Virginia, under pretence that +she was a slave. When, in spite of all the efforts of the girl's +father and lover, the Decemvir had, in his official capacity, adjudged +her to be the slave of his tool, Virginius plunged a knife into his +daughter's bosom, in presence of the people in the Forum. The enraged +populace compelled the Decemviri to resign, and Appius, to escape +worse punishment, put an end to his own life. + +MARCUS FURIUS CAMILLUS was a famous man of a little later period. He +was called a second Romulus for his distinguished services. In 396 he +captured Veii, after a siege of ten years. On his return he celebrated +the most magnificent triumph yet seen at Rome. He was afterwards +impeached for not having fairly divided the spoils obtained at Veii, +and went into exile at Ardea. When Rome was besieged by the Gauls +under Brennus, in 390, Camillus was recalled and made Dictator. At the +head of forty thousand men he hastened to the city, raised the siege, +and in the battle which followed annihilated the Gauls. He was +Dictator five times, Interrex three times, Military Tribune twice, and +enjoyed four triumphs. He died at the advanced age of eighty-eight. + +BRENNUS was the famous leader of the Senones, a tribe of Gauls, who +invaded Italy about 390. He defeated the Romans at the River Allia +(July 18, 390), and captured the city, except the Capitol, which he +besieged for six months. + + During the siege he tried to surprise the garrison, but was repulsed +by Manlius, who was awakened by the cackling of some geese. Peace was +finally purchased by the Romans by the payment of a thousand pounds of +gold. To increase the weight, Brennus is said to have thrown his sword +on the scales. At this juncture, as the story runs, Camillus appeared +with his troops, ordered the gold to be removed, saying that Rome must +be ransomed with steel, and not gold. In the battle which followed, +the Gauls were defeated. + + + + +CHRONOLOGY. + +[The dates previous to 389 B.C. are uncertain.] + +B.C. +753. Foundation of Rome by Romulus. +753-510. REGAL PERIOD. +753-716. Romulus. +716-673. Numa Pompilius. +673-641. Tullus Hostilius. +640-616. Ancus Marcius. +616-578. Tarquinius Priscus. +578-534. Servius Tullius. +534-510. Tarquinius Superbus. +510-30. THE REPUBLIC. +509. Battle of Lake Regillus. +508. Porsena. Horatius Codes. +494. Tribúni Plebis. Menenius Agrippa. +492. Corioli. Coriolánus. +477. Destruction of the Fabian Gens. +458. War with the Aequians. Cincinnátus. +451. The Decemviri. Appius Claudius. Virginia. +396. Capture of Veil. Camillus. +390. Siege of Rome by Brennus. Battle at the Allia river (July 18). +387. The planting of the first military or Latin colonies. +367. The Licinian Rogations. +353. Caere: the first Municipium. +343-341. First Samnite War. +340-338. The Latin War. +338. Antium, the first Roman or maritime colony. +326-304, The Second Samnite War. +321. The Caudine Forks. +298-290. The Third Samnite War. +295. Sentínum. +283. Lake Vadimónis. +281-272. Pyrrhus. +280. Heracléa. Cineas. +279. Asculum. +274. Beneventum. +272. Rome mistress of Italy; morality at its height. +264. Period of foreign conquest begins. +264-241. First Punic War. +260. Lipara; Mylae. +257. Tyndaris. +256. Ecnomus. Regulus at Clupea. +249. Drepana. +241. Aegátes Insulae. Catulus. Hamilcar Barca. +237. Sardinia and Corsica acquired, and provincial system established. +229. Illyrican War. Important results. +222. Gallia Cisalpína acquired by battle of Telamon. +220. Hannibal in Spain. +219. Saguntum. +218-202. Second Punic War. +218. Ticinus. Trebia. +217. Trasiménus. Casilínum. +216. Cannae. +212. Capture of Syracuse. Archimédes. +207. Baecula. Metaurus. +202. Zama. +214-205. First Macedonian War. +200-197. Second Macedonian War. +198. Cynoscephalae. +190. Magnesia. +183. Death of Africánus, Hannibal, and Philopoemen. +171-168. Third Macedonian War. +168. Pydna. +149-146. Third Punic War. +149., Death of Cato the elder. +146. Destruction of Carthage and Corinth. +143-133. The Numantine War. +134-132. The Servile War. +133. Tiberius Gracchus. +129. Death of Africánus the younger. +123-121. Gaius Gracchus. +118-104. The Jugurthine War. Metellus. Marius. Sulla. +102. Aquae Sextiae. +101. Vercellae. +90-89. The Italian or Social War. +86. Death of Marius. +86-84. Sulla's campaign against Mithradátes. +84. Death of Cinna. +80. Reforms of Sulla. +78. Death of Sulla. +80-72. Sertorius in Spain. +73-71. Spartacus. +72-67. Campaign of Lucullus against Mithradátes. +67. Pompey conquers the pirates. +67-61. Pompey in the East. +63. Cicero Consul. Catiline. +59. First Triumvirate formed. Caesar's first Consulship. +59. The Leges Juliae. Clodius. Cicero's banishment. + Cato sent to Cyprus. +58-49. Caesar in Gaul. +57. Recall of Cicero. Return of Cato. +53. Death of Crassus. + Murder of Clodius. Pompey's consulship and +52 separation from Caesar. +49. Caesar crosses the Rubicon. +49. Siege and capture of Ilerda. +48 (Jan. 4). Caesar sails from Brundisium. +48. Victory of Pompey near the sea-board. +48 (Aug. 9). Pharsalia. (Sept 28) Murder of Pompey. + Caesar establishes Cleopatra on the throne of Egypt. +47. Battle of Zela. +47 (Sept.). Caesar returns to Rome. +46 (Apr. 4). Thapsus. Death of Cato the younger. +45 (Mar. 17). Munda. +44 (Mar. 15). Murder of Caesar. +43 (Nov. 27). The Second Triumvirate. +43 (Dec.) Murder of Cicero. +42 (Nov.). Philippi. +36. Naulochus. +31 (Sept. 2). Actium. + +THE EMPIRE. + +B.C. / A.D. +30-41. THE JULIAN EMPERORS. +30-14. Augustus. + +A.D. +14-37. Tiberius. +37-41. Caligula. +41-68. THE CLAUDIAN EMPERORS. +41-54. Claudius. +54-68. Nero. +68-69. Galba. +69. Otho. +69-96. THE FLAVIAN EMPERORS. +69-79. Vespasian. +79. Destruction of Jerusalem. +79-81. Titus. +80. Destruction of Herculaneum and Pompeii. +81-96. Domitian. +96-180. THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS. +96-98. Nerva. +98-117. Trajan. Limit of Empire reached. +117-138. Hadrian. +138-161. Antonínus Pius. +161-180. Marcus Aurelius. +180-192. Commodus. +192-284. From Pertinax to Diocletian. +284-305. Diocletian. +306-337. Constantine the Great. +312. Edict of Milan. +325. Council of Nice. +337-476. From Constantine to Romulus Augustulus. + + + + +SPECIMEN EXAMINATION PAPERS. + +HARVARD COLLEGE. + +JUNE, 1889. + +1. Place or explain the following: Capua; Numidia; Veii; Pharsálus; +Comitia Centuriata; Decemvir; law of Majestas. With what important +events was each connected? [Omit one; answer very briefly.] + +2. The campaigns of Pyrrhus in Italy. + +3. The causes and results of the Samnite Wars. + +4. Cato's efforts to reform the government of Rome. + +5. (_a_) Education in Rome. (_b_) Amusements at Rome. +[Take one] + +1888. + +1. Basilica; Lex Publilia; Patrician; Triumvir; Tribune; Roman +citizen,--what were they? [Take four.] + +2. (_a_) How did Augustus obtain his power? (_b_) +The reign of Hadrian; (_c_) The first Punic war. [Take one.] + +3. (_a_) The Roman religion; (_b_) Decay of the Empire, +[Take one] + +4. Sulla's rule in Rome. + +5. The tribes at the time of the Second Punic War. [4 and 5 +are for "additional readings."] + + + + +1887. + +(a) [Take five.] The Allia, Agrigentum, Lilybaeum, Placentia, Cannae, +Numantia, Massilia,-where? Mention (with dates) historical events +connected with four of these places. [Take any two.] + +1. How were the members of the Roman Senate chosen at different times? + +2. The origin of the Praetorship. What were the duties of the Praetor? + +3. Describe or explain any five: Pater Patratus, Feriae Latinae, +Curia, Equites, Flamines, the Licinian Laws, the law of Majestas. + +_Questions on the "additional reading."_ + +[Candidates who have read the books recommended for additional reading +may substitute one of the following questions for one of the first +three in this group.] + +4. [TIGHE.] How did the practical powers of the Roman Senate differ +from its theoretical powers? + +5. [BEESLEY.] What can be said in defence of the Lex Frumentaria of +Gaius Gracchus? + +September, 1886. + +1. Give an account of the races which inhabited Italy before the +founding of Rome. + +2. What were the principal Greek colonies on the shores of the +Mediterranean? For what were three of them celebrated? + +3. Describe the three forms of the Roman _comitia_, and trace +the development of the _comitia tributa_. + +4. What were some causes of the victory of Rome in the Punic wars? +The effect of this victory upon Italy? + +5. Explain _patria potestas_, _princeps senatus_, +_municipium_, _ager Romanus_, _equites_. + + + + +YALE COLLEGE. + +EXAMINATION FOR ADMISSION. + +June, 1889. + +1. The Patricians and Plebeians: first causes of strife between them. +Steps in the political progress of the Plebeians. Censors. Tribunes. +Licinian Laws. + +2. Greek influences on Roman life: what were they? In what ways and at +what times introduced? + +3. The Second Punic War: its causes. Hannibal's great march. Battles +in Italy. Hasdrubal. Transference of the war. The result. Why did +Hannibal fail? + +4. Give some account of the members of the First Triumvirate. + +5. Arrange in chronological order, with dates: Actium. The Gracchi. +First Samnite War. Pharsálus Regulus. Teutones and Cimbri. Numantia. +Capture of Rome by the Gauls. Cicero's first oration against Catiline. + + +1887. + +[Time allowed, 30 minutes.] + +1. What powers did Octavianus Augustus take to himself? What change +did he make in the government of Rome? What changes did Constantine +make? + +2. The gradual extension of the right of Roman citizenship, the +causes of each extension, and dates. + +3. What were the possessions of Rome at the beginning of the Christian +era? How were they acquired, and when? + +4. Explain _praetorian guards; provincia; colonia; tribunus plebis; +comitia centuriata_. + +5. _Allia, Beneventum, Saguntum, Metaurus, Pharsalia;_ where were +they? what happened there, and when? + + +1886. + +1. Describe the circumstances under which the tribunate was +established. + +2. When and where did the principal military events in the war between +the Caesarians and Pompeians occur? + +3. Sketch briefly the career of Pompeius. + +4. What persons composed the Second Triumvirate? In what essential +points did the Second Triumvirate differ from the First? + +5. When and for what reasons was the right of citizenship given to the +provinces? + +6. What radical changes in the government were made by Diocletian? + + +June, 1885. + +1. Give an account of the Second Punic War (with dates). + +2. Explain _tribunus plebis, censor, dictator, imperator_. + +3. How were the provinces governed under the Republic, and how under +the Empire? + +4. What were the causes of the Social War, and what the results? + +5. When and where did the following events take place: the defeat of +Varus; the first Roman naval victory; the decisive victory over +Pyrrhus; the death of Brutus and Cassius; the conquest of the first +Roman province? + + + + +UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK. + +35TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION November 22, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to +12 M., only. 48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Mention two prominent characteristics of the Roman people. (2) + +2. Mention one element which Rome has contributed to the civilization +of the world. (1) + +3. Mention two foreign enemies that fought Rome on Italian soil; state +the result in each contest. (4) + +4. Describe the situation of any two of the following places, and +state an important historical event connected with each: Caudine +Forks; Pharsalia; Pompeii; Cannae. (4) + +5. Which occurred first: (1) Fall of Carthage, or captivity of +Jugurtha; (2) Battle of Actium, or battle of Philippi; (3) Death of +Antony, or death of Cicero? (3) + +6. What do you understand by a "proscription"? Mention the two which +occur in Roman history. (3) + +7. What were gladiators? who was their leader when they rebelled? (2) + +8. What notable service was rendered to his country by Camillus; +Tiberius Gracchus; Marius; Cicero? (4) + +9. Mention two laws that are landmarks in Roman history. (2) + +10. Give the boundaries of the Roman Empire at the beginning of the +Christian era. (3) + +11. Briefly describe the system of slavery as it existed in Rome.(2) + +12. What was the Haruspex? how did he determine future events? (2) + +13. Was the Roman government usually tolerant of religion? on what +ground were the Christians punished? (2) + +14. Describe the way in which the Romans attacked fortified towns. +Describe two engines used by them for this purpose.(3) + +15. Whence did Rome derive literature and art? (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CORNELIUS SULLA. + +16. To which of the two great parties in Rome did Sulla belong? (1) + +17. Tell something of the reforms which he instituted. (2) + +18. Mention two wars in which Sulla was engaged. (2) + +19. Briefly describe his dictatorship and how it came to an end. (2) + +20. Give a sketch of the character of Sulla. (2) + + +34TH ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +June 14, 1889.--Time, 9 30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Give a brief account of any two races which inhabited Italy before +the founding of Rome.(2) + +2. On how many hills was Rome built? Give the names of three of them. (4) + +3. Narrate the circumstances under which the Tribunes were first +elected. (1) + +4. What were the "public lands"? what political question arose in +connection with them? (2) + +5. What king of Epirus made war on the Romans? Why? What grounds had +he for hoping to succeed? (3) + +6. Mention two reasons why Hannibal hoped to overcome Rome. Why did he +fail? (3) + +7. What importance in Roman history is attached to the following +dates: B.C. 55, 44, 42? (3) + +8. Briefly describe the political situation when Caesar crossed the +Rubicon. What were the chief consequences of his act? what was "the +Rubicon"? (3) + +9. What power was intrusted to a Roman Dictator? Mention two instances +of this. (3) + +10. Give the names of the Flavian Emperors, with some account of one +of them. (4) + +11. What radical change in the Roman government was made by +Diocletian? (1) + +12. Give a brief description of Julian the Apostate; tell why he was +so called. (2) + +13. Mention three objects which a Roman would be sure to point out to +a stranger visiting Rome at the time of the Emperor Titus.(3) + +14. Mention any three writers of the Augustan age, and the character +of the writings of each. (6) + +15. Mention two principal causes which contributed to the downfall of +Rome. (2) + + +THE LIFE AND PUBLIC SERVICES OF CAIUS MARIUS. + +16. To what class of the people did Marius belong? (1) + +17. In what war did he first gain great distinction? (1) + +18. By the defeat of what peoples did he gain the title of "Saviour +of his Country"? (1) + +19. How many times was Marius elected Consul? (1) + +20. What prolonged struggle had its beginning in the quarrels of +Marius and Sulla? what was the result to the Republic? (2) + + +33d ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 8, 1889.--Time, 9.30 A M. to 12 M., only. + +44 _credits; necessary to pass_, 33. + +1. What was the early form of government in Rome? (1) + +2. Tell what you know about the (_a_) Patricians, (_b_) +Plebeians, (_c_) Tribune, (_d_) Consul. (4) + +3. Give a brief account of the origin of the Comitia Tributa. (2) + +4. What was meant by an Agrarian law? who secured the first one? (2) + +5. Who compiled the laws of the Twelve Tables? (2) + +6. Tell briefly the story of Cincinnatus. (2) + +7. Describe the system of Roman roads, and tell something of their +effect upon the Republic. (2) + +8. Give the immediate cause of the First Punic War. What was its +result? (2) + +9. Give the name of Rome's first province. (1) + +10. In what battle did the Romans finally overthrow Macedonia? What +Roman general commanded in this battle? (2) + +11. Briefly describe the siege of Numantia. (2) + +12. What was the effect of their great conquests upon the character of +the Roman people? (2) + +13. What was the cause of the Social War? Give the result of this +war. (2) + +14. Describe the campaign of Pompey against the pirates, giving the +cause of the campaign, its length, and the result. (3) + +15. What great religious event occurred during the reign of the +Emperor Augustus? (1) + +16. For what were the following men noted: (_a_) Juvenal, +(_b_) Seneca, (_c_) Cato the Censor, (_d_) Fabius, +(_e_) Caligula? (5) + + +THE GRACCHI. + +17. Of what great movement did the agitations of the Gracchi form a +part? (1) + +18. What measure was proposed by Tiberius Gracchus? what measure by +Caius Gracchus? (2) + +19. Briefly describe the death of each of the Gracchi. (2) + +20. With which order of the Roman people were the Gracchi allied by +birth? with which, by sympathy? (2) + +21. Why was the failure of the agitation of the Gracchi of very great +significance? (2) + + +31st Advanced Academic Examination, + +June 15, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A. M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass_, 36. + +1. Into what three principal classes (or races) may the inhabitants of +Italy be divided? To what great race did they belong? (4) + +2. Who established the _comitia centuriata_? How did it differ +from the _comitia curiata_? (2) + +3. Who made the first code of Roman law? (1) + +4. What king aided the Greek colonies in their war with Rome? What was +the result of the war? (2) + +5. In what war was Syracuse taken by the Romans? What was the cause of +the siege? Give the name of a famous man who was slain, and state the +circumstances of his death. (4) + +6. Mention five provinces gained by Rome during the period of +conquest, 266-133 B.C. (5) + +7. Give the effects upon Rome of the Eastern conquests, in regard to +literature and morals. (2) + +8. What political parties did Marius and Sulla represent? (2) + +9. What two foreign wars were conducted by Marius. (2) + +10. What was the decisive battle in the civil war between Pompey and +Caesar? (1) + +11. Who formed the Second Triumvirate? What illustrious man was slain +in their proscription? (4) + +12. To what one of the Caesars was Seneca tutor? (1) + +13. In whose reign occurred the last great persecution of the +Christians? (1) + +14. Give a brief sketch of the life and character of Constantine? (3) + +15. Who was the last Western Roman Emperor? (1) + + +THE SAMNITE WARS, AND THE RELATIONS OF ROME TO SUBJECT STATES. + +16. What caused Rome to bring the First Samnite War to an end? (1) + +17. Give a brief account of the battle of the Caudine Forks, and of +the treaty made there. (4) + +18. What was the result of the battle of Sentinum? Give the terms of +the final peace between the Romans and the Samnites. (3) + +19. In the Roman State what three rights did Rome reserve for +herself? (3) + +20. Distinguish between _Roman citizens_ and _subjects_ +(_or Latins_) (2) + + +30TH ADVANCED ACADEMIC EXAMINATION. + +March 2, 1888.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +48 _credits; necessary to pass,_ 36. + +1. Draw an outline map of Italy, and upon it indicate the location of +Rome and sketch the river Tiber and the outline of Latium (6) + +2. When was the Republic established, and who were the first +Consuls? (3) + +3. What was the cause of the first Secession, and what were the two +conditions of the return? (3) + +4. Give an account of the appointment of the Decemvirs and the powers +intrusted to them. (2) + +5. Mention two provisions of the Licinian laws or rogations. (2) + +6. What part of Italy did the Samnites possess, and what was the cause +of the First Samnite War? (2) + +7. Give the name of one of the Roman military roads, tell in which +direction it led, and what towns were at its extremities. (3) + +8. In what locality were most of the contests of the First Punic +War? (1) + + +ANCIENT ROME. + +9. Mention one Roman and one Carthaginian general noted in the conduct +of the First Punic War. (2) + +10. Describe the battle of Cannae, and tell the result of the +battle.(2) + +11. Mention two reforms or measures favored by the Gracchi.(2) + +12. Compare the character of Marius with that of Sulla.(2) + +13. Who formed the First Triumvirate, and what element of strength did +each contribute to it? (3) + +14. What cause was assigned for the assassination of Caesar? (1) + +15. Describe in a sentence the character of each of the following: +Nero; Trajan. (2) + + +THE EARLY HISTORY OF ROME. + +16. Into what two principal branches were the early Italians divided, +and what part of Italy did they occupy? (3) + +17. Tell briefly the traditional story of the founding of Rome. (2) + +18. What was the first form of government at Rome, and after what was +it modelled? (2) + +19. How did the Senate differ from the Comitia Curiata in its +membership? (2) + +20. What authority did the king have, and what duties did the Senate +perform? (2) + +21. Describe the religion of the early Romans. (1) + + +_29th Advanced Academic Examination._ + +November 18, 1887.--Time, 9.30 A.M. to 12 M., only. + +_48 credits; necessary to pass, 36._ + +1. When was Rome founded? (1) + +2. Under what king was the constitution remodelled, and what was the +basis of the new constitution? (2) + +3. Who was the last king? By whom was the government by kings +overturned, and to whom was the power then intrusted? (3) + +4. What caused the struggle between the patricians and plebeians, how +long did it continue, and how did it result? (3) + +5. Give briefly the story of Coriolanus (2) + +6. What induced the Gauls to invade Italy 390 B.C., where did they +contend with the Roman army, and with what result? (3) + +7. Where was Carthage, by what means did it attain its power and +wealth, and when did the Romans and Carthaginians first contend in +arms? (3) + +8. Under what circumstances was Fabius sent against Hannibal, what +policy did he pursue, and with what result? (3) + +9. Compare Publius Scipio Africanus with Marcus Cato in character and +habits. (2) + +10. What was the object of Catiline's conspiracy, by what Consul was +it defeated, and in what manner? (3) + +11. What causes led to the formation of the First Triumvirate? (1) + +12. What was the cause of the battle of Actium, and what was its +result? (2) + +13. Describe the manner in which Octavius Augustus became Emperor, +and the character of his reign. (2) + +14. By what Emperor was Jerusalem captured, and in what year? (2) + +15. Describe the customs of the Romans at meals, and mention some +articles used by them for food. (2) + + +THE GEOGRAPHY OF ITALY, AND ITS EARLY INHABITANTS. + +16. Draw a map of Italy, and upon it sketch the Apennine mountains, +and the rivers Tiber and Arno. (4) + +17. Upon the map indicate the location of the following: Rome, +Naples, Tarentum. (3) + +18. What three races occupied Italy in the earliest known times, what +part of Italy did each occupy, and from which of these were the Latins +descended? (7) + + + + +INDEX. + +Achaeans +Achaia +Acroceraunia +Actium +Adherbal +Aduatuci +Aediles +Aedui +Aegátes Islands +Aegyptus +Aemilian Way +Aemilius +Aenéas +Aequians +Aesis, R. +Aetius +Aetna +Aetolians +Afranius +Africa +Africánus +Agendicum +Ager occupátus +Ager privátus +Ager publicus +Ager Románus +Agrarian Laws +Agricola +Agrigentum +Agrippa +Agrippína, daughter of Agrippa +Agrippína, sister of Caligula +Alae +Alans +Alaric +Alba Longa +Alban Lake +Alban Mts. +Alesia +Alexander the Great +Alexandría +Allia +Allies +Alsium +Ambiorix +Amphitheatres +Amulius +Anchíses +Ancóna +Ancus Marcius +Andes +Andriscus +Anio, R. +Anthemius +Antiochus III. +Antiochus IV. +Antium +Antonia +Antonius +Antonínus, Marcus Aurelius +Antonínus Pius +Antony +Aóus, R. +Apennines +Apollo, worship of +Apollonia +Apollonius +Appeal, right of +Appian Way +Appius Claudius, Decemvir +Appius Claudius, father-in-law of Gracchus +Appius Claudius Caecus +Appuleian Laws +Apsus, R. +Apulia +Aqua Claudia +Aquae Sextiae +Aqueducts +Aquileia +Aquínum +Aquitáni +Arabia +Arabia Petraea +Arcadius +Archeláus +Arches +Archimédes +Ardea +Argos +Aricia +Ariminum +Ariobarzánes +Ariovistus +Aristobúlus +Armenia +Arminius +Armor +Army +Arnus +Arpi +Arpínum +Arretium +Arsanias, R. +Aryan Race +Ascanius +Asculum in Apulia +Asia +Assyria +Aternus +Athens +Athesis +Atrium +Attalus II. +Attalus III. +Attila +Aufidus, R. +Augurs +Augustan Age +Augusta Taurinórum +Augusti +Augustus +Aulerci +Aurelia +Aurelian +Aurelian Way +Aurelius, M. Antonínus +Avaricum +Averni +Avernus, Lake + +Baeculae +Baetis, R. +Baiae +Basilicae +Basilica Julia +Bathing +Baths +Bellovaci +Beneventum +Bibracte +Bibulus +Bithynia +Bocchus +Boian Gauls +Bononia +Books +Bovillae +Brennus +Bridge, Rhine +Bridge, Tiber +Britain +Britannia +Britannicus +Brittany +Brundisium +Bruttium +Brutus, nephew of Tarquin +Brutus +Brutus, Decimus Junius +Brutus, Marcus +Burgundians +Burrhus +Byzantium + +Cabíra +Caecína +Caepio +Caere +Caesar, Gaius Julius +Caesar, Lucius Julius +Caesars +Caícus +Calabria +Calceus +Caledonians +Calendar +Caligula +Calpurnia +Calpurnian Law +Camarína +Camerínum +Camillus +Campania +Campus Martius +Candles +Cannae +Canuleian Law +Canuleius +Canusium +Capéna +Capitoline Hill +Capitolium +Cappadocia +Capreae +Capua +Caracalla +Carrhae +Carthage +Carthaginians +Carthágo Nova +Carus +Casca +Casilínum +Cassius. +Cassivelaunus +Catalonia +Catana +Catiline +Cato, the elder +Cato, the younger +Catullus +Catulus, father of the Senate +Catulus, Gaius Lutatius +Caudine Forks +Caudium +Celtibéri +Celts +Cenománi +Censors +Centuries +Centurions +Ceres +Cerialia +Cethégus +Chaeronéa +Chalcédon +Chalons +Christians +Cicero, Marcus Tullius +Cicero, Quintus Tullius +Cilicia +Cimber +Cimbri +Cincinnátus +Cineas +Cinna +Circeii +Circeium, Promontory +Circus +Circus Maximus +Citizenship +City walls +Claudian Emperors +Claudius, Emperor +Claudius, Publius +Cleopátra +Clients +Cloáca Maxima +Clodion +Clodius +Clupea +Clusium +Coena +Cohors Praetoria +Collatínus +Colonies, Latin +Colonies, Maritime +Colonies, Military. +Comitia Centuriáta +Comitia Curiáta +Comitia Tribúta +Comitium +Colosséum +Colossus +Column of Trajan +Columna Milliaria +Columns +Commodus +Constans +Constantine the Great +Constantine II. +Constantinople +Constantius I. +Constantius II. +Conscripti, Patres +Consuls +Consus +Cora +Corcýra +Corduba +Corfinium +Corinth +Coriolánus +Corioli +Corn laws +Cornelia, daughter of Cinna +Cornelia, daughter of Metellus Scipio +Cornelia, daughter of Scipio Africánus +Corsica +Cotta +Council of Nice +Court-houses +Courts +Crassus, the Triumvir +Crassus, son of the Triumvir +Cremóna +Crete +Croton +Cumae +Cures +Curia +Curiae +Curio. +Curtius +Curule Aedile +Curule chair +Curule offices +Cynoscephalae +Cyprus +Cyrenaica + +Dacia +Damophilus +Deal +Debts, Debtors +Decemvirs +Decius, Emperor +Decius, Publius +Decree of the Senate +Deiotarus +Dentátus +Dependent Communities +Dictator +Diocletian +Dolabella +Domitian +Domitius. +Drepana +Dress +Drusus, Germanicus +Drusus, Marcus Livius +Duilius +Duoviri Sacrórum +Dyrrachium + +Eburónes +Ecnomus +Edict of Milan +Editor. +Education +Egesta +Egnatius +Egypt +Elba +Elections +Enipeus, R. +Enna +Ennius +Epidamnus +Epiphanes +Epírus +Equites +Eryx +Etruria +Etruscans +Eudoxia +Eugenius +Eunus +Euphrátes +Examination Papers + +Fabii +Fabius, Cunctátor +Fabius Quintus +Fabius Vibulánus +Fabricius +Faesulae +Farming the revenues +Fauces +Faustulus +Festivals +Fetiales +Five Good Emperors +Flamen Diális +Flamines +Flaminian Way +Flaminínus +Flaminius +Flavian Emperors +Floors +Florentia +Foreigners resident at Rome +Formiae +Forum +Forum Boarium +Forum Caesaris +Forum Holitorium +Forum Julii, in Gaul +Forum Julii, in Venetia +Forum Suarium +Forum of Trajan +Forum of Vespasian +Franks +Freedmen +Fundi +Funerals +Furniture + +Gabii +Gabinius +Gabínus +Gades +Galatia +Galba, Emperor +Galba, Servius +Galerius +Gallia Cisalpína +Gallia Narbonensis +Gaul +Gauls +Games +Gela +Genabum +Gens, Gentes +Genseric +Genua +Genucius +Gergovia +Germanicus, Drusus +Germanicus, son of Drusus Germ. +Germans +Glabrio +Gladiators +Glass +Glaucia +Golden House of Nero +Good Emperors +Gordian +Goths +Gracchi +Gracchus, Gains +Gracchus, Tiberius (senior) +Gracchus, Tiberius +Gratian +Greece +Greek Empire + +Hadrian +Hadrumétum +Hamilcar Barca +Hannibal, son of Gisco +Hannibal, son of Hamilcar +Hanno +Hasdrubal, son-in-law of Hamilcar +Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal +Hasdrubal, son of Gisco +Helena +Heliogabalus +Helvetii +Heracléa +Herculaneum +Herméan Promontory +Hiempsal +Hiero II. +Hieronymus +Hirtius +Hispania Citerior +Hispania Ulterior +Honorius +Horace +Horatius Codes +Hortensius, Quintus +Hortensius, the Orator +Homesteads +Houses +Huns +Hyrcánus + +Iapygia +Iapygians +Ibérus, R. +Icilius +Igilium +Ilerda +Illyrican War +Illyricum +Ilva +Imperator +Imperium +Intermarriage +Interest +Interrex +Isara, R. +Isauria +Isthmian Games +Italians +Italy +Iúlus + +Janiculum +Janus +Jentaculum +Jerusalem +Jews +Joséphus +Jovian +Juba +Judaea +Jugurtha +Julia, daughter of Caesar +Julia, daughter of Augustus +Julian Emperors +Julian the Apostate +Julian Law +Juliánus +Juno +Jupiter +Juries +Justin Martyr +Juvenal + +Kaeso, Quinctius +King of Rome +Knights. + +Labiénus +Lacerna +Lacinian Promontory +Laevínus +Laevínus, Marcus +Lamps +Land-owners, classes of +Lanistae +Lanuvium +Lares +Last of the Romans +Latin Confederacy +Latínus +Latium +Latóna +Laurentum +Lavinia +Lavinium +Legáti +Leges Juliae +Legion +Lentulus +Leontíni +Lepidus, Consul +Lepidus, Triumvir +Leptis +Lesbos +Letter-writing +Lex de Repetundis +Licinian Rogations +Licinius +Liger +Lights +Liguria +Lilybaeum +Lipara Islands +Liris, R. +Literature +Livia +Livilla +Livius +Locri +Longínus +Luca +Lucan +Lucania +Luceres +Luceria +Lucilius +Lucretia +Lucretius +Lucullus +Lupercalia +Luperci +Lupercus +Lupus +Lycia + +Macedonia +Macedonian War +Macrínus +Maecénas +Maenius +Magister Equitum +Magna Graecia +Magnesia +Mago +Majestas +Majorian +Mamertines +Mancínus +Manilian Law +Manilius +Manlius, Marcus +Manlius Capitolínus +Mantua +Marcellus +Marcellus, nephew of Augustus +Marius, +Marriage +Mars +Martial +Masinissa. +Massilia +Mauretania +Mausoléum of Augustus +Mausoléum of Hadrian +Maximian +Maximin +Maximus I. +Maximus II. +Meals +Mediolánum +Memmius +Menenius Agrippa +Mesopotamia +Messalína +Messána +Metapontum +Metaurus, R. +Metellus Macedonicus +Metellus Nepos +Metellus Numidicus +Metellus Pius +Micipsa +Milan, Edict of +Milétus +Military Tribunes +Milliarium Aureum +Milo +Minerva +Minturnae +Minucius +Mithradátes +Mityléne +Moesia +Money brokers +Mons Sacer +Moors +Mucra, R. +Mummius +Munda +Municipia +Muthul +Mutina +Mylae +Mysia + +Names +Naples +Naulochus +Navy +Nepos +Nero, Consul +Nero, Emperor +Nerva +Nervii +Nicaea +Nicomédes +Nobles +Nola +Noricum +Novus Homo +Numantia +Numantian War +Numa Pompilius +Numidia +Numitor +Nursia + +Octavia, sister of Augustus +Octavia, wife of Nero +Octavius +Odoácer +Offices and officers +Ops +Orchomenos +Osca +Ostia +Ostium +Ostrogoths +Otho +Ovation +Ovid + +Padua (Patavium) +Palatine +Pales, Palilia +Palmýra +Pannonia +Panormus +Pantheon +Parma +Parthia, Parthians +Pater-familias +Patres +Patrician +Patricians +Patrons +Paullus +Pelusium +Penátes +Pergamum +Peristylium +Perperna +Perseus +Persius +Pertinax +Petreius +Phaedrus +Pharnaces +Pharsalia, Pharsálus +Philip, Emperor +Philip of Macedonia +Philippi +Philippics +Philopoemen +Phoenicia +Picénum +Picts' +Pirates +Pisae +Pisaurum +Piso +Placentia +Plautian-Papirian Law +Plautus +Plebeians +Plebiscita +Pliny, the elder +Pliny, the younger +Pollio +Polybius +Polycarp +Pomoerium +Pompeia +Pompeii +Pompeius, Gnaeus +Pompeius, Sextus +Pompey the Great +Pomptine Marshes +Pontifices +Pontius +Pontus +Poppaea Sabína +Porsena +Postumius +Potestas +Praefect +Praefectúrae +Praeneste +Praetor +Praetorian Guard +Praetorium +Prandium +Private Lands +Private Rights +Probus +Proconsul +Propertius +Propraetor +Provinces +Provincial System +Prusias +Ptolemy, brother of Cleopátra +Ptolemy of Cyprus +Ptolemy V., Epiphanes +Ptolemy Alexander +Publicani +Public Lands +Public Rights +Publilian Law, Publilius +Punic Wars +Puteoli +Pydna +Pyrrhus + +Quaestors +Quinctius Cincinnátus +Quinctius, Kaeso +Quintilian +Quirínal +Quirinalia + +Radagaisus +Ramnes +Ravenna +Reáte +Reforms of Caesar +Reforms of Sulla +Regillus, Lake +Regulus +Remi +Remus +Rents +Republic +Rhaetia +Rhea Silvia +Rhegium +Rhodes +Ricimer +Roads +Roman Empire +Romans +Rome +Rome, Hills of +Romulus +Roscius +Rostra +Rubicon +Rutilius + +Sabines +Sabis, R. +Sacred Mount +Sacredness of Officials +Sagum +Saguntum +Salernum +Salii +Sallust +Samnites +Samnite Wars +Samnium +Samos +Sardinia +Sardis +Saturn +Saturnalia +Saturnínus +Scaevola +Scarpheia +Scipio, Gnaeus +Scipio, Consul 218 B. C. +Scipio Africánus, the elder +Scipio Africánus, the younger +Scipio Asiaticus +Scipio, Metellus +Scipio Nasíca +Scribonia +Segesta +Sejánus +Seleucia +Selínus +Sempronia +Sempronius +Sena Gallica +Senate +Senones +Sentínum +Sequani +Sertorius +Servian Reform +Servile War +Servilius +Servius Tullius +Setia +Sevérus, Alexander +Sevérus, Septimius +Sevérus III. +Sewers +Sextus Lateránus +Sextus, son of Tarquin +Ships +Sibylline Books +Sicily +Silver Age +Silvius Procas +Sinuessa +Slaves. +Social War +Soleae +Solon +Sophonisba +Soracte, Mt. +Sosigenes +Spain +Sparta +Spartacus +Spoletium +Spurius Cassius +Standards +Statius +Stilicho +Stola +Strongyle Islands +Suessiónes +Sueves, Suevi +Sulla +Sulmo +Sulpicius Galba +Sulpicius Rufus +Sutrium +Sybaris +Syphax +Syracuse +Syria + +Tablinum +Tacitus, Emperor +Tacitus, Historian +Tarentum. +Tarquinii +Tarquinius Priscus +Tarquinius Superbus +Tarracína +Tarragóna +Tauromenium +Tax-gatherers +Teánum +Telamon +Tellilia, Tellus +Temple of Aesculapius +Temple of Apollo Palatínus +Temple of Ceres +Temple of Concordia +Temple of Diána +Temple of Janus +Temple of Juno +Temple of Jupiter +Temple of Mars +Temple of Peace +Tenth Legion, revolt of +Terence +Terentilius, Terentilian Rogations +Teutoberger Forest +Teutones +Thala +Thapsus +Theatre +Theatre of Balbus +Theatre of Marcellus +Theatre of Pompey +Theodosius +Thermae +Thermus +Thessaly +Thirty Tyrants +Thurii +Tibullus +Tibur +Tiberius +Ticínus, R. +Tigellínus +Tigránes +Time, mode of reckoning +Tities +Titus +Tivoli +Toga +Torquátus +Trajan +Trasiménus, Lake +Trebia, R. +Trebonius +Tribes +Tribunes +Tribúni Militum +Tribútum +Triclinium +Trigánum +Trinacria +Triumphal Arches +Triumphal Procession +Triumvirate, First +Triumvirate, Second, +Tullia, daughter of Servius Tullius +Tullus Hostilius +Tunica +Tunis +Tusculum +Twelve Caesars +Twelve Tables +Tyndaris + +Umbria, Umbrians +Utica + +Vadimónis, Lake +Valens +Valentinian I. +Valentinian II. +Valentinian III. +Valerius, Valerio-Horatian Laws +Valerius, Caesar's Lieutenant +Valero Publilius +Vandals +Varro, Consul at Cannae +Varro, Pompey's Lieutenant +Varus +Veii, Veientes +Velítrae +Veneti +Venetia +Venice +Venusia +Vercellae +Vercingetorix +Verginius +Veróna +Verres +Verus, Annius +Verus, Lucius +Vespasian +Vesta. +Vestal Virgins +Vestibulum +Vesuvius, Mt. +Veto +Veturius +Via Aemilia +Via Appia +Via Aurelia +Via Flaminia +Via Latína +Via Sacra +Vienna +Villius +Virgil +Virginia, Virginius +Viriáthus +Visigoths +Vitellius +Volaterrae +Volsci +Volsinii +Volturnus +Voting +Vulso + +Windows +Writing +Written Code of Laws + +York + +Zama +Zela +Zeno +Zenobia +Zeugma +Zeugma + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of History of Rome from the Earliest +times down to 476 AD, by Robert F. Pennell + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HISTORY OF ROME TO 476 AD. *** + +This file should be named 8rome10.txt or 8rome10.zip +Corrected EDITIONS of our eBooks get a new NUMBER, 8rome11.txt +VERSIONS based on separate sources get new LETTER, 8rome10a.txt + +This eBook was produced by Lynn Bonnett and especially to Teresa Thomason +of the Special Collections Department, Milner Library, Illinois State +University, Normal, IL, who helped to clarify a portion of the text. + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. 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