diff options
| -rw-r--r-- | .gitattributes | 3 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 6986-8.txt | 13612 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | 6986-8.zip | bin | 0 -> 294537 bytes | |||
| -rw-r--r-- | LICENSE.txt | 11 | ||||
| -rw-r--r-- | README.md | 2 |
5 files changed, 13628 insertions, 0 deletions
diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/6986-8.txt b/6986-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..5b2f827 --- /dev/null +++ b/6986-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,13612 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Hygienic Physiology, by Joel Dorman Steele + +Copyright laws are changing all over the world. Be sure to check the +copyright laws for your country before downloading or redistributing +this or any other Project Gutenberg eBook. + +This header should be the first thing seen when viewing this Project +Gutenberg file. Please do not remove it. Do not change or edit the +header without written permission. + +Please read the "legal small print," and other information about the +eBook and Project Gutenberg at the bottom of this file. Included is +important information about your specific rights and restrictions in +how the file may be used. You can also find out about how to make a +donation to Project Gutenberg, and how to get involved. + + +**Welcome To The World of Free Plain Vanilla Electronic Texts** + +**eBooks Readable By Both Humans and By Computers, Since 1971** + +*****These eBooks Were Prepared By Thousands of Volunteers!***** + + +Title: Hygienic Physiology + +Author: Joel Dorman Steele + +Release Date: November, 2004 [EBook #6986] +[This file was first posted on February 20, 2003] + +Edition: 10 + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO Latin-1 + +*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY *** + + + + +Richard Prairie, Charles Franks and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team + + + +[Illustration] + +PATHFINDER PHYSIOLOGY No. 3 + +HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY + +WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE USE OF + +ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND NARCOTICS + +BEING A REVISED EDITION OF THE + +FOURTEEN WEEKS IN HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY + +BY JOEL DORMAN STEELE, PH.D. + +ENLARGED EDITION WITH SELECTED READINGS + +_Edited for the use of Schools, in accordance with the recent +Legislation upon Temperance Instruction_ + +INDORSEMENT. + +BOSTON, _June_ 20, 1889. + +The Pathfinder Series of Text-books on Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene +consists of the following volumes: + +I. Child's Health Primer (for Primary Grades). + +II. Hygiene for Young People or, Young People's Physiology. (for +Intermediate Classes) + +III. Hygienic Physiology (for Advanced Pupils). + +The above are the series originally prepared (as their general title +indicates) to supply the demand created by the laws for temperance +instruction in public schools in the United States. They were written by +experts under the supervision of the Scientific Department of the National +Woman's Christian Temperance Union, published by the instigation of the +same, and have been carefully revised from time to time, under the same +supervision, to keep them abreast with the latest teachings of science. + +Being both teachable and well adapted to grade, their educational value, +as proven by schoolroom tests, is of the highest order. We therefore +cordially indorse and highly recommend the Pathfinder Series for use in +schools. + +MARY H. HUNT, + +_National and International Superintendent of the Scientific Dep't of +the Woman's Christian Temperance Union; Life Director of the National +Educational Association._ + +ADVISORY BOARD: + +JOSEPH COOK, WILLIAM E. SHELDON, ALBERT H. PLUMB, D.D., DANIEL DORCHESTER, +D.D. + +PREFACE + +The term Physiology, or the science of the functions of the body, has come +to include Anatomy, or the science of its structure, and Hygiene, or the +laws of health; the one being essential to the proper understanding of +physiology, and the other being its practical application to life. The +three are intimately blended, and in treating of the different subjects +the author has drawn no line of distinction where nature has made none. +This work is not prepared for the use of medical students, but for the +instruction of youth in the principles which underlie the preservation of +health and the formation of correct physical habits. All else is made +subservient to this practical knowledge. A simple scientific dress is used +which, while conducing to clearness, also gratifies that general desire of +children to know something of the nomenclature of any study they pursue. + +To the description of each organ is appended an account of its most common +diseases, accidents, etc., and, when practicable, their mode of treatment. +A pupil may thus learn, for example, the cause and cure of "a cold," the +management of a wound, or the nature of an inflammation. + +The Practical Questions, which have been a prominent feature in other +books of the series, will be found, it is hoped, equally useful in this +work. Directions for preparing simple microscopic objects, and +illustrations of the different organs, are given under each subject. + +The Readings, which represent the ideas but not always the exact +phraseology of the author quoted, have, in general, been selected with +direct reference to Practical Hygiene, a subject which now largely +occupies the public mind. The dangers that lurk in foul air and +contaminated water, in bad drainage, leaky gas pipes, and defective +plumbing, in reckless appetites, and in careless dissemination of +contagious diseases, are here portrayed in such a manner as, it is +trusted, will assist the pupil to avoid these treacherous quicksands, and +to provide for himself a solid path of health. + +Under the heading of Health and Disease will be found Hints about the sick +room, Directions for the use of Disinfectants, Suggestions as to what to +do "Till the Doctor comes," and a list of antidotes for Poisons. Questions +for Class Use, a full Glossary, and an ample Index complete the book. + +Believing in a Divine Architect of the human form, the author can not +refrain from occasionally pointing out His inimitable workmanship, and +impressing the lesson of a Great Final Cause. + +The author has gleaned from every field, at home and abroad, to secure +that which would interest and profit his pupils. In general, Flint's great +work on the "Physiology of Man," an undisputed authority on both sides of +the Atlantic, has been adopted as the standard in digestion, respiration, +circulation, and the nervous system. Leidy's "Human Anatomy," and Sappey's +"Traité d'Anatomie" have been followed on all anatomical questions, and +have furnished many beautiful drawings. Huxley's "Physiology" has afforded +exceedingly valuable aid. Foster's "Text-Book of Physiology," Hinton's +"Health and its Conditions," Black's "Ten Laws of Health," Williams's +practical essay on "Our Eyes and How to Use them," Le Pileur's charming +treatise on "The Wonders of the Human Body," and that quaint volume, "Odd +Hours of a Physician," have aided the author with facts and fancies. The +writings of Draper, Dalton, Carpenter, Yalentin, Mapother, Watson, +Lankester, Letheby, Hall, Hamilton, Bell, Wilson, Bower, Cutter, +Hutchison, Wood, Bigelow, Stille, Holmes, Beigel, and others have been +freely consulted. + +PUBLISHERS' NOTE. + +An ABRIDGED EDITION of this work is published, to afford a cheaper manual +--adapted to Junior Classes and Common Schools. The abridgment contains +the essence of this text, nearly all its illustrations, and the whole of +the Temperance matter as here presented. + +ORDER "HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY, ABRIDGED." + +READING REFERENCES. + +Foster's "Text-Book of Physiology"; Leidy's "Human Anatomy"; Draper's +"Human Physiology"; Dalton's "Physiology and Hygiene"; Cutter's +"Physiology"; Johnston and Church's "Chemistry of Common Life"; Letheby's +"Food"; Tyndall "On Light," and "On Sound"; Mint's "Physiology of Man "; +Rosenthal's "Physiology of the Muscles and Nerves"; Bernstein's "Five +Senses of Man"; Huxley and Youmans's "Physiology and Hygiene"; Sappey's +"Traité d'Anatomie "; Luys's "Brain and its Functions"; Smith's "Foods"; +Bain's "Mind and Body"; Pettigrew's "Animal Locomotion"; Carpenter's +"Human Physiology," and "Mental Physiology"; Wilder and Gage's "Anatomy"; +Jarvis's "Physiology and Laws of Health." + +Hargreaves's "Alcohol and Science"; Richardson's "Ten Lectures on +Alcohol," and "Diseases of Modern Life"; Brown's "Alcohol"; Davis's +"Intemperance and Crime"; Pitman's "Alcohol and the State"; "Anti- +Tobacco"; Howie's "Stimulants and Narcotics"; Hunt's "Alcohol as Food or +Medicine"; Schützenberger's "Fermentation"; Hubbard's "Opium Habit and +Alcoholism"; Trouessart's "Microbes, Ferments, and Molds." + +CONTENTS + +INTRODUCTION + +I.--THE SKELETON + +THE HEAD + +THE TRUNK + +THE LIMBS + +II.--THE MUSCLES + +III.--THE SKIN + +THE HAIR AND THE NAILS + +THE TEETH + +IV.--RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE + +V.--THE CIRCULATION + +THE BLOOD + +THE HEART + +THE ARTERIES + +THE VEINS + +VI.--DIGESTION AND FOOD + +VII.--THE NERVOUS SYSTEM + +THE BRAIN + +THE SPINAL CORD AND THE NERVES + +THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM + +VIII.--THE SPECIAL SENSES + +TOUCH + +TASTE + +SMELL + +HEARING + +SIGHT + +IX.--HEALTH AND DISEASE.--DEATH AND DECAY + +1. HINTS ABOUT THE SICK ROOM + +2. DISINFECTANTS + +3. WHAT TO DO "TILL THE DOCTOR COMES" + +4. ANTIDOTES TO POISONS + +X.--SELECTED READINGS + +XI.--APPENDIX + +QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE + +GLOSSARY + +INDEX + +SUGGESTIONS To Teachers + +Seeing is believing--more than that, it is often knowing and remembering. +The mere reading of a statement is of little value compared with the +observation of a fact. Every opportunity should therefore be taken of +exhibiting to the pupil the phenomena described, and thus making them +real. A microscope is so essential to the understanding of many subjects, +that it is indispensable to the proper teaching of Physiology. A suitable +instrument and carefully prepared specimens, showing the structure of the +bones, the skin, and the blood of various animals, the pigment cells of +the eye, etc., may be obtained at a small cost from any good optician. + +On naming the subject of a paragraph, the pupil should be prepared to tell +all he knows about it. No failure should discourage the teacher in +establishing this mode of study and recitation. A little practice will +produce the most satisfactory results. The unexpected question and the apt +reply develop a certain sharpness and readiness which are worthy of +cultivation. The questions for review, or any others that the wit of the +teacher may suggest, can be effectively used to break the monotony of a +topical recitation, thereby securing the benefits of both systems. + +The pupil should expect to be questioned each day upon any subject passed +over during the term, and thus the entire knowledge gained will be within +his grasp for instant use. While some are reciting to the teacher, let +others write on slates or on the blackboard. At the close of the +recitation, let all criticise the ideas, the spelling, the use of +capitals, the pronunciation, the grammar, and the mode of expression. +Greater accuracy and much collateral drill may thus be secured at little +expense of valuable school time. + +The Introduction is designed merely to furnish suggestive material for the +first lesson, preparatory to beginning the study. Other subjects for +consideration may be found in the section on Health and Disease, in the +Selected Readings, and among the questions given in the Appendix. Where +time will allow, the Selected Readings may profitably be used in +connection with the topics to which they relate. Questions upon them are +so incorporated with those upon the text proper that they may be employed +or not, according to the judgment of the teacher. + +NOTE.--Interest in the study of Physiology will be much increased by the +use of the microscope and prepared slides. These may be obtained from any +good optician. + +INTRODUCTION. + +Physiological study in youth is of inestimable value. Precious lives are +frequently lost through ignorance. Thousands squander in early years the +strength which should have been kept for the work of real life. Habits are +often formed in youth which entail weakness and poverty upon manhood, and +are a cause of lifelong regret. The use of a strained limb may permanently +damage it. Some silly feat of strength may produce an irreparable injury. +A thoughtless hour of reading by twilight may impair the sight for life. A +terrible accident may happen, and a dear friend perish before our eyes, +while we stand by powerless to render the assistance we could so easily +give did we "only know what to do." The thousand little hints which may +save or lengthen life, may repel or abate disease, and the simple laws +which regulate our bodily vigor, should be so familiar that we may be +quick to apply them in an emergency. The preservation of health is easier +than the cure of disease. Childhood can not afford to wait for the lesson +of experience which is learned only when the penalty of violated law has +been already incurred, and health irrevocably lost. + +NATURE'S LAWS INVIOLABLE.--In infancy, we learn how terribly Nature +punishes a violation of certain laws, and how promptly she applies the +penalty. We soon find out the peril of fire, falls, edged tools, and the +like. We fail, however, to notice the equally sharp and certain +punishments which bad habits entail. We are quick to feel the need of +food, but not so ready to perceive the danger of an excess. A lack of air +drives us at once to secure a supply; foul air is as fatal, but it gives +us no warning. + +Nature provides a little training for us at the outset of life, but leaves +the most for us to learn by bitter experience. So in youth we throw away +our strength as if it were a burden of which we desire to be rid. We eat +anything, and at any time; do anything we please, and sit up any number of +nights with little or no sleep. Because we feel only a momentary +discomfort from these physical sins, we fondly imagine when that is gone +we are all right again. Our drafts upon our constitution are promptly +paid, and we expect this will always be the case; but some day they will +come back to us, protested; Nature will refuse to meet our demands, and we +shall find ourselves physical bankrupts. + +We are furnished in the beginning with a certain vital force upon which we +may draw. We can be spendthrifts and waste it in youth, or be wise and so +husband it till manhood. Our shortcomings are all charged against this +stock. Nature's memory never fails; she keeps her account with perfect +exactness. Every physical sin subtracts from the sum and strength of our +years. We may cure a disease, but it never leaves us as it found us. We +may heal a wound, but the scar still shows. We reap as we sow, and we may +either gather in the thorns, one by one, to torment and destroy, or we may +rejoice in the happy harvest of a hale old age. + + + + +I. + + +THE SKELETON. + +"Not in the World of Light alone, +Where God has built His blazing throne, +Nor yet alone on earth below, +With belted seas that come and go, +And endless isles of sunlit green +Is all thy Maker's glory seen-- +Look in upon thy wondrous frame, +Eternal wisdom still the same!" + +HOLMES. + +ANALYSIS OF THE SKELETON. + +NOTE.--The following Table of 206 bones is exclusive of the 8 sesamoid +bones which occur in pairs at the roots of the thumb and great toe, making +214 as given by Leidy and Draper. Gray omits the bones of the ear, and +names 200 as the total number. + +THE SKELETON. +_ +| I. THE HEAD (_28 bones._) +| _ +| | Frontal Bone (forehead). +| _ | Two Parietal Bones. +| | 1. CRANIUM..............| Two Temporal (temple) Bones. +| | (_8 bones._) | Sphenoid Bone. +| | | Ethmoid (sieve-like bone at root of nose). +| | |_Occipital Bone (back and base of skull). +| | _ +| | | Two Superior Maxillary (upper jaw) Bones. +| | | Inferior Maxillary (lower jaw) Bone. +| | | Two Malar (cheek) Bones. +| | 2. FACE.................| Two Lachrymal Bones. +| | (_14 bones._) | Two Turbinated (scroll like) Bones, each +| | | side of nose. +| | | Two Nasal Bones (Bridge of nose). +| | | Vomer (the bone between the nostrils). +| | |_Two Palate Bones. +| | _ +| | | Hammer. +| | 3. EARS.................| Anvil. +| |_ (_6 bones._) |_Stirrup. +| +| II. THE TRUNK (_54 bones._) +| _ +| | Cervical Vertebræ (seven vertebræ of the +| _ | neck). +| | 1. SPINAL COLUMN........| Dorsal Vertebræ (twelve vertebræ of the +| | | back). +| | | Lumbar Vertebræ (five vertebræ of the +| | |_ loins). +| | _ +| | | True Ribs. +| | 2. RIBS.................|_False Ribs. +| | +| | 3. STERNUM (breastbone). +| | +| | 4. OS HYOIDES (bone at the root of tongue). +| | _ +| | | Two Innominata. +| |_5. PELVIS...............| Sacrum. +| |_Coccyx. +| +| III. THE LIMBS (_124 bones._) +| _ +| _ | _Clavicle._ +| | Shoulder...|__Scapula._ +| _ | _ +| | 1. UPPER LIMBS..........| | _Humerus._ +| | (_64 bones._) | Arm........|__Ulna and Radius._ +| | | _ +| | | | _Eight Wrist or Carpal +| | | | Bones._ +| | |_Hand.......| _Five Metacarpal Bones._ +| | |__Phalanges (14 bones)._ +| | _ +| | _ | _Femur._ +| | | Leg........| _Patella._ +| | | |__Tibia and Fibula._ +| | 2. LOWER LIMBS..........| _ +| |_ (_60 bones._) | | _Seven Tarsal Bones._ +|_ | Foot.......| _Five Metatarsal Bones._ +|_ |__Phalanges (14 bones)._ + +_ +| 1. Uses. +_ | 2. Composition. +| 1. FORM, STRUCTURE, | 3. Structure. +| ETC., OF THE BONES | 4. Growth. +| | 5. Repair. +THE SKELETON | |_6. The Joints. +| _ +| 2. CLASSIFICATION OF | 1. The Head. +|_ THE BONES. | 2. The Trunk. +|_3. The Limbs. +THE SKELETON. + +I. FORM, STRUCTURE, ETC., OF THE BONES. + +(_See page 269_.) + +THE SKELETON, or framework of the "House we live in," is composed of about +200 bones. [Footnote: The precise number varies in different periods of +life. Several which are separated in youth become united in old age. Thus +five of the "false vertebræ" at the base of the spine early join in one +great bone--the sacrum; while four tiny ones below it often run into a +bony mass--the coccyx (Fig. 6); in the child, the sternum is composed of +eight pieces, while in the adult it consists of only three. While, +however, the number of the bones is uncertain, their relative length is so +exact that the length of the entire skeleton, and thence the height of the +man, can be obtained by measuring a single one of the principal bones. +Fossil bones and those found at Pompeii have the same proportion as our +own.] + +USES AND FORMS OF THE BONES.--They have three principal uses: 1. To +protect the delicate organs; [Footnote: An organ is a portion of the body +designed for a particular use, called its _function_. Thus the heart +circulates the blood; the liver produces the bile.] 2. To serve as levers +on which the muscles may act to produce motion; and 3. To preserve the +shape of the body. + +Bones differ in form according to the uses they subserve. For convenience +in walking, some are long; for strength and compactness, some are short +and thick; for covering a cavity, some are flat; and for special purposes, +some are irregular. The general form is such as to combine strength and +lightness. For example, all the long bones of the limbs are round and +hollow, thus giving with the same weight a greater strength, [Footnote: +Cut a sheet of foolscap in two pieces. Roll one half into a compact +cylinder, and fold the other into a close, flat strip; support the ends of +each and hang weights in the middle until they bend. The superior strength +of the roll will astonish one unfamiliar with this mechanical principle. +In a rod, the particles break in succession, first those on the outside, +and later those in the center. In a tube, the particles are all arranged +where they resist the first strain. Iron pillars are therefore cast +hollow. Stalks of grass and grain are so light as to bend before a breath +of wind, yet are stiff enough to sustain their load of seed. Bone has been +found by experiment to possess twice the resisting property of solid oak.] +and also a larger surface for the attachment of the muscles. + +The Composition of the Bones at maturity is about one part animal to two +parts mineral matter. The proportion varies with the age. In youth it is +nearly half and half, while in old age the mineral is greatly in excess. +By soaking a bone in weak muriatic acid, and thus dissolving the mineral +matter, its shape will not change, but its stiffness will disappear, +leaving a tough, gristly substance [Footnote: Mix a wineglass of muriatic +acid with a pint of water, and place in it a sheep's rib. In a day or two, +the bone will become so soft that it can be tied into a knot. In the same +way, an egg may be made so pliable that it can be crowded into a narrow- +necked bottle, within which it will expand, and become an object of great +curiosity to the uninitiated. By boiling bones at a high temperature, the +animal matter separates in the form of gelatine. Dogs and cats extract the +animal matter from the bones they eat. Fossil bones deposited in the +ground during the Geologic period, were found by Cuvier to contain +considerable animal matter. Gelatine was actually extracted from the +Cambridge mastodon, and made into glue. A tolerably nutritious food might +thus be manufactured from bones older than man himself.] (cartilage) which +can be bent like rubber. + +If the bone be burned in the fire, thus consuming the animal matter, the +shape will still be the same, but it will have lost its tenacity, and the +beautiful, pure-white residue [Footnote: From bones thus calcined, the +phosphorus of the chemist is made. See Steele's "Popular Chemistry," page +114. If the animal matter be not consumed, but only charred, the bone will +be black and brittle. In this way, the "boneblack" of commerce is +manufactured.] may be crumbled into powder with the fingers. + +FIG. 2. + +[Illustration: _The Thigh Bone, or Femur, sawed lengthwise._] + +We thus see that a bone receives hardness and rigidity from its mineral, +and tenacity and elasticity from its animal matter. + +The entire bone is at first composed of cartilage, which gradually +_ossifies_ or turns to bone. [Footnote: The ossification of the bones +on the sides and upper part of the skull, for example, begins by a rounded +spot in the middle of each one. From this spot the ossification extends +outward in every direction, thus gradually approaching the edges of the +bone. When two adjacent bones meet, there will be a line where their edges +are in contact with each other, but have not yet united; but when more +than two bones meet in this way, there will be an empty space between them +at their point of junction. Thus, if you lay down three coins upon the +table with their edges touching one another, there will be a three-sided +space in the middle between them; if you lay down four coins in the same +manner, the space between them will be four-sided. Now at the back part of +the head there is a spot where three bones come together in this way, +leaving a small, three-sided opening between them: this is called the +"posterior fontanelle." On the top of the head, four bones come together, +leaving between them a large, four-sided opening: this is called the +"anterior fontanelle." These openings are termed the _fontanelles_, +because we can feel the pulsations of the brain through them, like the +bubbling of water in a fountain. They gradually diminish in size, owing to +the growth of the bony parts around them, and are completely closed at the +age of four years after birth.--DALTON.] Certain portions near the joints +are long delayed in this process, and by their elasticity assist in +breaking the shock of a fall. [Footnote: Frogs and toads, which move by +jumping, and consequently receive so many jars, retain these unossified +portions (epiphyses) nearly through, life, while alligators and turtles +whose position is sprawling, and whose motions are measured do not have +them at all--LEIDY] Hence the bones of children are tough, are not readily +fractured, and when broken easily heal again; [Footnote: This is only one +of the many illustrations of the Infinite care that watches over helpless +infancy, until knowledge and ability are acquired to meet the perils of +life.] while those of elderly people are liable to fracture, and do not +quickly unite. + +FIG. 3. + +[Illustration: _A thin slice of Bone, highly magnified showing the +lacunæ, the tiny tubes (canaliculi) radiating from them, and four +Haversian canals, three seen crosswise and one lengthwise._] + +THE STRUCTURE OF THE BONES--When a bone is sawed lengthwise, it is found +to be a compact shell filled with a spongy substance This filling +increases in quantity, and becomes more porous at the ends of the bone, +thus giving greater size to form a strong joint, while the solid portion +increases near the middle, where strength alone is needed. Each fiber of +this bulky material diminishes the shock of a sudden blow, and also acts +as a beam to brace the exterior wall. The recumbent position of the +alligator protects him from falls, and therefore his bones contain very +little spongy substance. + +In the body, bones are not the dry, dead, blanched things they commonly +seem to be, but are moist, living, pinkish structures, covered with a +tough membrane, called the per-i-os'-te-um [Footnote: The relations of the +periosteum to the bone are very interesting. Instances are on record where +the bone has been removed, leaving the periosteum, from which the entire +bone was afterward renewed.] (_peri_, around, and _osteon_, a +bone), while the hollow is filled with marrow, rich in fat, and full of +blood vessels. If we examine a thin slice with the microscope, we shall +see black spots with lines running in all directions, and looking very +like minute insects. These are really little cavities, called la-cu'-næ +[Footnote: When the bone is dry, the lacunæ are filled with air, which +refracts the light, so that none of it reaches the eye, and hence the +cavities appear black.] from which radiate tiny tubes. The lacunæ are +arranged in circles around larger tubes, termed from their discoverer, +_Haversian canals_, which serve as passages for the blood vessels +that nourish the bone. + +GROWTH OF THE BONES.--By means of this system of canals, the blood +circulates as freely through the bones as through any part of the body, +The whole structure is constantly but slowly changing, [Footnote: Bone is +sometimes produced with surprising rapidity. The great Irish Elk is +calculated by Prof. Owen to have cast off and renewed, annually in its +antlers eighty pounds of bone.] old material being taken out and new put +in. A curious illustration is seen in the fact that if madder be mixed +with the food of pigs, it will tinge their bones red. + +REPAIR OF THE BONES.--When a bone is broken, the blood at once oozes out +of the fractured ends. This soon gives place to a watery fluid, which in a +fortnight thickens to a gristly substance, strong enough to hold them in +place. Bone matter is then slowly deposited, which in five or six weeks +will unite the broken parts. Nature, at first, apparently endeavors to +remedy the weakness of the material by excess in the quantity, and so the +new portion is larger than the old. But the extra matter will be gradually +absorbed, sometimes so perfectly as to leave no trace of the injury. (See +p. 271.) + +A broken limb should be held in place by splints, or a plaster cast, to +enable this process to go on uninterruptedly, and also lest a sudden jar +might rupture the partially mended break. For a long time, the new portion +consists largely of animal matter, and so is tender and pliable. The +utmost care is therefore necessary to prevent a malformation. + +THE JOINTS are packed with a soft, smooth cartilage, or gristle, which +fits so perfectly as to be airtight. Upon convex surfaces, it is thickest +at the middle, and upon concave surfaces, it is thickest at the edge, or +where the wear is greatest. In addition, the ends of the bones are covered +with a thin membrane, the _synovial_ (_sun_, with; _ovum_, +an egg), which secretes a viscid fluid, not unlike the white of an egg. +This lubricates the joints, and prevents the noise and wear of friction. +The body is the only machine that oils itself. + +The bones which form the joint are tied with stout ligaments (_ligo_, +I bind), or bands, of a smooth, silvery white tissue, [Footnote: The +general term _tissue_ is applied to the various textures of which the +organs are composed. For example, the osseous tissue forms the bones; the +fibrous tissue, the skin, tendons, and ligaments.] so strong that the +bones are sometimes broken without injuring the fastenings. + +II. CLASSIFICATION OF THE BONES. + +For convenience, the bones of the skeleton are considered in three +divisions: the _head_, the _trunk_, and the _limbs_. + +1. THE HEAD. + +THE BONES OF THE SKULL AND THE FACE form a cavity for the protection of +the brain and the four organs of sense, viz.: sight, smell, taste, and +hearing. All these bones are immovable except the lower jaw, which is +hinged [Footnote: A ring of cartilage is inserted in its joints, something +after the manner of a washer in machinery. This follows the movements of +the jaw, and admits of freer motion, while it guards against dislocation.] +at the back so as to allow for the opening and shutting of the mouth. + +THE SKULL is composed, in general, of two compact plates, with a spongy +layer between. These are in several pieces, the outer ones being joined by +notched edges, sutures (su'tyurs,), in the way carpenters term +dovetailing. (See Fig. 4.) + +FIG. 4. + +[Illustration: _The Skull._--1. _frontal bone;_ 2, _parietal bone;_ +3, _temporal bone;_ 4, _the sphenoid bone;_ 5, _ethmoid bone;_ 6, +_superior maxillary (upper jaw) bone;_ 7, _malar bone;_ 8, _lachrymal +bone;_ 9, _nasal bone;_ 10, _inferior maxillary (lower jaw) bone._] + +The peculiar structure and form of the skull afford a perfect shelter for +the brain--an organ so delicate that, if unprotected, an ordinary blow +would destroy it. Its oval or egg shape adapts it to resist pressure. The +smaller and stronger end is in front, where the danger is greatest. +Projections before and behind shield the less protected parts. The hard +plates are not easy to penetrate. [Footnote: Instances have been known +where bullets, striking against the skull, have glanced off, been +flattened, or even split into halves. In the Peninsular Campaign, the +author saw a man who had been struck in the forehead by a bullet which, +instead of penetrating the brain, had followed the skull around to the +back of the head, and there passed out.] The spongy packing deadens every +blow. [Footnote: An experiment resembling the familiar one of the balls in +Natural Philosophy ("Steele's Popular Physics," Fig. 6, p. 26), +beautifully illustrates this point. Several balls of ivory are suspended +by cords, as in Fig. 5. If A be raised and then let fall, it will transmit +the force to B, and that to C, and so on until F is reached, which will +fly off with the impulse. If now a ball of spongy bone be substituted for +an ivory one anywhere in the line, the force will be checked, and the last +ball will not stir.] The separate pieces with their curious joinings +disperse any jar which one may receive, and also prevent fractures from +spreading. + +FIG. 5. + +[Illustration] + +The frequent openings in this strong bone box afford safe avenues for the +passage of numerous nerves and vessels which communicate between the brain +and the rest of the body. + +FIG. 6. + +[Illustration: _The Spine; the seven vertebræ of the neck, cervical; the +twelve of the back, dorsal; the five of the loins, lumbar;_ a, _the +sacrum, and_ b, _the coccyx, coming the nine "false vertebræ."_ +(p. 3).] + +2 THE TRUNK. + +THE TRUNK has two important cavities. The upper part, or _chest_, +contains the heart and the lungs, and the lower part, or _abdomen_, +holds the stomach, liver, kidneys, and other organs (Fig. 31). The +principal bones are those of the _spine_, the _ribs_, and the +_hips_. + +THE SPINE consists of twenty-four bones, between which are placed pads of +cartilage. [Footnote: These pads vary in thickness from one fourth to one +half an inch. They become condensed by the weight they bear during the +day, so that we are somewhat shorter at evening than in the morning. +Their elasticity causes them to resume their usual size during the night, +or when we lie down for a time.] A canal is hollowed out of the column +for the safe passage of the spinal cord. (See Fig. 50.) Projections +(processes) at the back and on either side are abundant for the attachment +of the muscles. The packing acts as a cushion to prevent any jar from +reaching the brain when we jump or run, while the double curve of the +spine also tends to disperse the force of a fall. Thus on every side the +utmost caution is taken to guard that precious gem in its casket. + +THE PERFECTION OF THE SPINE surpasses all human contrivances. Its various +uses seem a bundle of contradictions. A chain of twenty-four bones is made +so stiff that it will bear a heavy burden, and so flexible that it will +bend like rubber; yet, all the while, it transmits no shock, and even +hides a delicate nerve within that would thrill with the slightest touch. +Resting upon it, the brain is borne without a tremor; and, clinging to it, +the vital organs are carried without fear of harm. + +FIG. 7. + +[Illustration: B, _the first cervical vertebra, the atlas;_ A, _the +atlas, and the second cervical vertebra, the axis;_ e, _the odontoid +process;_ c, _the foramen._] + +THE SKULL ARTICULATES with (is jointed to) the spine in a peculiar manner. +On the top of the upper vertebra (atlas [Footnote: Thus called because, +as, in ancient fable, the god Atlas supported the world on his shoulders, +so in the body this bone bears the head.]) are two little hollows +(_a_, _b_, Fig. 7), nicely packed and lined with the synovial +membrane, into which fit the corresponding projections on the lower part +of the skull, and thus the head can rock to and fro. The second vertebra +(axis) has a peg, _e_, which projects through a hole, _c_, in +the first. + +FIG. 8. + +[Illustration: _The Thorax or Chest._ a, _the sternum;_ b _to_ c, _the +true ribs;_ d _to_ h, _the false ribs;_ g, h, _the floating ribs;_ i, k, +_the dorsal vertebræ._] + +The surfaces of both vertebræ are so smooth that they easily glide on each +other, and thus, when we move the head side wise, the atlas turns around +the peg, _e_, of the axis. + +THE RIBS, also twenty-four in number, are arranged in pairs on each side +of the chest. At the back, they are all attached to the spine. In front, +the upper seven pairs are tied by cartilages to the breastbone (sternum); +three are fastened to each other and to the cartilage above, and two, the +floating ribs, are loose. + +The natural form of the chest is that of a cone diminishing upward. But, +owing to the tightness of the clothing commonly worn, the reverse is often +the case. The long, slender ribs give lightness, [Footnote: If the chest +wall were in one bone thick enough to resist a blow, it would be unwieldy +and heavy As it is, the separate bones bound by cartilages yield +gradually, and diffuse the force among them all, and so are rarely +broken.] the arched form confers strength, and the cartilages impart +elasticity,--properties essential to the protection of the delicate organs +within, and to freedom of motion in respiration. (See note, p. 80.) + +FIG. 9. + +[Illustration: _The Pelvis._ a, _the sacrum;_ b, b, _the right +and the left innominatum._] + +THE HIP BONES, called by anatomists the innominata, or nameless bones, +form an irregular basin styled the _pelvis_ (_pelvis_, a basin). +In the upper part, is the foot of the spinal column--a wedge-shaped bone +termed the _sacrum_ [Footnote: So called because it was anciently +offered in sacrifice.] (sacred), firmly planted here between the +widespreading and solid bones of the pelvis, like the keystone to an arch, +and giving a steady support to the heavy burden above. + +3. THE LIMBS. + +TWO SETS OF LIMBS branch from the trunk, viz.: the upper, and the lower. +They closely resemble each other. The arm corresponds to the thigh; the +forearm, to the leg; the wrist, to the ankle; the fingers, to the toes. +The fingers and the toes are so much alike that they receive the same +name, _digits_, while the several bones of both have also the common +appellation, _phalanges_. The differences which exist grow out of +their varying uses. The foot is characterized by strength; the hand, by +mobility. + +FIG. 10. + +[Illustration: _The Shoulder Joint._ a, _the clavicle;_ b, +_the scapula._] + +1. THE UPPER LIMBS.--THE SHOULDER.--The bones of the shoulder are the +collar bone (clavicle), and the shoulder blade (scapula). The +_clavicle_ (_clavis_, a key) is a long, slender bone, shaped +like the Italic _f_. It is fastened at one end to the breastbone and +the first rib, and, at the other, to the shoulder blade. (See Fig. 1.) It +thus holds the shoulder joint out from the chest, and gives the arm +greater play. If it be removed or broken, the head of the arm bone will +fall, and the motions of the arm be greatly restricted. [Footnote: Animals +which use the forelegs only for support (as the horse, ox, etc.), do not +possess this bone. "It is found in those that dig, fly, climb and seize."] + +THE SHOULDER BLADE is a thin, flat, triangular bone, fitted to the top and +back of the chest, and designed to give a foundation for the muscles of +the shoulder. + +THE SHOULDER JOINT.--The arm bone, or _humerus_, articulates with the +shoulder blade by a ball-and-socket joint. This consists of a cup-like +cavity in the latter bone, and a rounded head in the former, to fit it,-- +thus affording a free rotary motion. The shallowness of the socket +accounts for the frequent dislocation of this joint, but a deeper one +would diminish the easy swing of the arm. + +FIG. 11. + +[Illustration: _Bones of the right Forearm._ H, _the humerus;_ +R, _the radius; and_ U, _the ulna._] + +THE ELBOW.--At the elbow, the humerus articulates with the _ulna_--a +slender bone on the inner side of the forearm--by a hinge joint which +admits of motion in only two directions, _i. e._, backward and +forward. The ulna is small at its lower end; the _radius_, or large +bone of the forearm, on the contrary, is small at its upper end, while it +is large at its lower end, where it forms the wrist joint. At the elbow, +the head of the radius is convex and fits into a shallow cavity in the +ulna, while at the wrist the ulna plays in a similar socket in the radius. +Thus the radius may roll over and even cross the ulna. + +THE WRIST, or _carpus_, consists of two rows of very irregular bones, +one of which articulates with the forearm; the other, with the hand. They +are placed side to side, and so firmly fastened as to admit of only a +gliding motion. This gives little play, but great strength, elasticity, +and power of resisting shocks. + +THE HAND.--The _metacarpal_ (_meta_, beyond; _karpos_, +wrist), or bones of the palm, support each a thumb or a finger. Each +finger has three bones, while the thumb has only two. The first bone of +the thumb, standing apart from the rest, enjoys a special freedom of +motion, and adds greatly to the usefulness of the hand. + +FIG. 12. + +[Illustration: _Bones of the Hand and the Wrist._] + +The first bone (Figs. 11, 12) of each finger is so attached to the +corresponding metacarpal bone as to move in several directions upon it, +but the other phalanges form hinge joints. + +The fingers are named in order: the thumb, the index, the middle, the +ring, and the little finger. Their different lengths cause them to fit the +hollow of the hand when it is closed, and probably enable us more easily +to grasp objects of varying size. If the hand clasps a ball, the tips of +the fingers will be in a straight line. + +The hand in its perfection belongs only to man. Its elegance of outline, +delicacy of mold, and beauty of color have made it the study of artists; +while its exquisite mobility and adaptation as a perfect instrument have +led many philosophers to attribute man's superiority even more to the hand +than to the mind. [Footnote: How constantly the hand aids us in explaining +or enforcing a thought! We affirm a fact by placing the hand as if we +would rest it firmly on a body; we deny by a gesture putting the false or +erroneous proposition away from us; we express doubt by holding the hand +suspended, as if hesitating whether to take or reject. When we part from +dear friends, or greet them again after long absence, the hand extends +toward them as if to retain, or to bring them sooner to us. If a recital +or a proposition is revolting, we reject it energetically in gesture as in +thought. In a friendly adieu we wave our good wishes to him who is their +object; but when it expresses enmity, by a brusque movement we sever every +tie. The open hand is carried backward to express fear or horror, as well +as to avoid contact; it goes forward to meet the hand of friendship; it is +raised suppliantly in prayer toward Him from whom we hope for help; it +caresses lovingly the downy cheek of the infant, and rests on its head +invoking the blessing of Heaven,--_Wonders of the Human Body_.] + +FIG. 13. + +[Illustration: _The Mechanism of the Hip Joint._] + +2. THE LOWER LIMBS.--THE HIP--The thigh bone, or _femur_, is the +largest and necessarily the strongest in the skeleton, since at every step +it has to bear the weight of the whole body. It articulates with the hip +bone by a ball-and-socket joint. Unlike the shoulder joint, the cup here +is deep, thus affording less play, but greater strength. It fits so +tightly that the pressure of the air largely aids in keeping the bones in +place. [Footnote: In order to test this, a hole was bored through a hip +bone, so as to admit air into the socket, the thigh bone at once fell out +as far as the ligaments would permit. An experiment was also devised +whereby a suitably prepared hip joint was placed under the receiver of an +air pump. On exhausting the air, the weight of the femur caused it to drop +out of the socket, while the readmission of the air raised it to its +place. Without this arrangement, the adjacent muscles would have been +compelled to bear the additional weight of the thighbone every time it was +raised. Now the pressure of the air rids them of this unnecessary burden, +and hence they are less easily fatigued--WEBER] Indeed, when the muscles +are cut away, great force is required to detach the limbs. + +THE KNEE is strengthened by the patella_, or kneepan (_patella_, +little dish), a chestnut-shaped bone firmly fastened over the joint. + +The shin bone, or _tibia_, the large, triangular bone on the inner +side of the leg, articulates both with the femur and the foot by hinge +joints. The kneejoint is so made, however, as to admit of a slight rotary +motion when the limb is not extended. + +The _fibula_ (_fibula_, a clasp), the small, outside bone of the +leg, is firmly bound at each end to the tibia. (See Fig. 1.) It is +immovable, and, as the tibia bears the principal weight of the body, the +chief use of this second bone seems to be to give more surface to which +the muscles may be attached. [Footnote: A young man in the hospital at +Limoges had lost the middle part of his tibia. The lost bone was not +reproduced, but the fibula, the naturally weak and slender part of the +leg, became thick and strong enough to support the whole body.--STANLEY'S +_Lectures_.] + +THE FOOT.--The general arrangement of the foot is strikingly like that of +the hand (Fig. 1). The several parts are the _tarsus_, the +_metatarsus_, and the _phalanges_. The graceful arch of the +foot, and the numerous bones joined by cartilages, give an elasticity to +the step that could never be attained by a single, flat bone. [Footnote: +The foot consists of an arch, the base of which is more extended in front +than behind, and the whole weight of the body is made to fall on this arch +by means of a variety of joints. These joints further enable the foot to +be applied, without inconvenience, to rough and uneven surfaces.--HINTON.] +The toes naturally lie straight forward in the line of the foot. Few +persons in civilized nations, however, have naturally formed feet. The big +toe is crowded upon the others, while crossed toes, nails grown-in, +enormous joints, corns, and bunions abound. + +THE CAUSE OF THESE DEFORMITIES is found in the shape and size of +fashionable boots and shoes. The sole ought to be large enough for full +play of motion, the uppers should not crowd the toes, and the heels should +be low, flat, and broad. As it is, there is a constant warfare between +Nature and our shoemakers, [Footnote: When we are measured for boots or +shoes, we should stand on a sheet of paper, and have the shoemaker mark +with a pencil the exact outline of our feet as they bear our whole weight. +When the shoe is made, the sole should exactly cover this outline.] and we +are the victims. The narrow point in front pinches our toes, and compels +them to override one another; the narrow sole compresses the arch; while +the high heel, by throwing all the weight forward on the toes, strains the +ankle, and, by sending the pressure where Nature did not design it to +fall, causes that joint to become enlarged. The body bends forward to meet +the demand of this new motion, and thus loses its uprightness and beauty, +making our gait stiff and ungraceful. (See p. 271.) + +DISEASES, ETC.--l. _Rickets_, a disease of early life, is caused by a +lack of mineral matter in the bones, rendering them soft and pliable, so +that they bend under the weight of the body. They thus become permanently +distorted, and of course are weaker than if they were straight, [Footnote: +Just here appears an exceedingly beautiful provision. As soon as the +disproportion of animal matter ceases, a larger supply of mineral is sent +to the weak points, and the bones actually become thicker, denser, harder, +and consequently stronger at the very concave part where the stress of +pressure is greatest.--WATSON'S _Lectures_. We shall often have +occasion to refer to similar wise and providential arrangements whereby +the body is enabled to remedy defects, and to prepare for accidents.] +Rickets is most common among children who have inherited a feeble +constitution and who are ill fed, or who live in damp, ill-ventilated +houses. "Rickety" children should have plenty of fresh air and sunlight, +nourishing food, comfortable clothing, and, in short, the best of hygienic +care. + +2. _A Felon_ is a swelling of the finger or thumb, usually of the +last joint. It is marked by an accumulation beneath the periosteum and +next the bone. The physician will merely cut through the periosteum, and +let out the effete matter. + +3. _Bowlegs_ are caused by children standing on their feet before the +bones of the lower limbs are strong enough to bear their weight. The +custom of encouraging young children to stand by means of a chair or the +support of the hand, while the bones are yet soft and pliable, is a cruel +one, and liable to produce permanent deformity. Nature will set the child +on its feet when the proper time comes. + +4. _Curvature of the Spine_.--When the spine is bent, the packing +between the vertebræ becomes compressed on one side into a wedge-like +shape. After a time, it will lose its elasticity, and the spine will +become distorted. This often occurs in the case of students who bend +forward to bring their eyes nearer their books, instead of lifting their +books nearer their eyes, or who raise their right shoulder above their +left when writing at a desk which is too high. Round shoulders, small, +weak lungs, and, frequently, diseases of the spine are the consequences. +An erect posture in reading or writing conduces not alone to beauty of +form, but also to health of body. We shall learn hereafter that the action +of the muscles bears an important part in preserving the symmetry of the +spine. Muscular strength comes from bodily activity; hence, one of the +best preventives of spinal curvature is daily exercise in the open air. + +5. _Sprains_ are produced when the ligaments which bind the bones of +a joint are strained, twisted, or torn from their attachments. They are +quite as serious as a broken bone, and require careful attention lest they +lead to a crippling for life. By premature use a sprained limb may be +permanently impaired. Hence, the joint should be kept quiet, even after +the immediate pain is gone. + +6. _A Dislocation_ is the forcible displacement of a bone from its +socket. It is, generally, the result of a fall or a violent blow. The +tissues of the joint are often ruptured, while the contraction of the +muscles prevents the easy return of the bone to its place. A dislocation +should be reduced as soon as possible after the injury, before +inflammation supervenes. + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. Why does not a fall hurt a child as much as it does a grown person? + +2. Should a young child ever be urged to stand or walk? + +3. What is meant by "breaking one's neck"? + +4. Should chairs or benches have straight backs? + +5. Should a child's feet be allowed to dangle from a high seat? + +6. Why can we tell whether a fowl is young by pressing on the point of the +breastbone? + +7. What is the use of the marrow in the bones? + +8. Why is the shoulder so often put out of joint? + +9. How can you tie a knot in a bone? + +10. Why are high pillows injurious? + +11. Is a stooping posture a healthful position? + +12. Should a boot have a heel piece? + +13. Why should one always sit and walk erect? + +14. Why does a young child creep rather than walk? + +15. What is the natural direction of the big toe? + +16. What is the difference between a sprain and a fracture? A dislocation? + +17. Does the general health of the system affect the strength of the +bones? + +18. Is living bone sensitive? _Ans_.--Scrape a bone, and its vessels +bleed; cut or bore a bone, and its granulations sprout up; break a bone, +and it will heal; cut a piece away, and more bone will readily be +produced; hurt it in any way, and it inflames; burn it, and it dies. Take +any proof of sensibility but the mere feeling of pain, and it will answer +to the proof.--BELL'S _Anatomy_. Animal sensibility would be +inconvenient; it is therefore not to be found except in diseased bone, +where it sometimes exhibits itself too acutely.--TODD'S _Cyclopedia of +Anatomy_. + +19. Is the constitution of bone the same in animals as in man? +_Ans_.--The bones of quadrupeds do not differ much from those of man. +In general they are of a coarser texture, and in some, as in those of the +elephant's head, we find extensive air cells.--TODD'S _Anatomy_. + + + + +II. + + +THE MUSCLES. + +"Behold the outward moving frame, +Its living marbles jointed strong +With glistening band and silvery thong, +And link'd to reason's guiding reins +By myriad rings in trembling chains, +Each graven with the threaded zone +Which claims it as the Master's own." + +HOLMES. + +ANALYSIS OF THE MUSCLES. + +_ +| 1. The Use of the Muscles. +| 2. Contractility of the Muscles. +_ | 3. Arrangement of the Muscles. +| 1. THE USE, STRUCTURE | 4. The two Kinds of Muscles. +| AND ACTION OF THE | 5. The Structure of the Muscles. +| MUSCLES. | 6. The Tendons for Fastening Muscles. +| | 7. The Muscles and Bones as Levers. +| | 8. The Effect of Big Joints. +| | 9. Action of the Muscles in Walking. +| |_10. Action of the Muscles in Walking. +| +| 2. THE MUSCULAR SENSE. +| _ +| 3. HYGIENE OF THE | 1. Necessity of Exercise. +| MUSCLES. | 2. Time for Exercise. +| |_ 3. Kinds of Exercise. +| +| 4. WONDERS OF THE MUSCLES. +| _ +| | 1. St. Vitus's Dance. +| | 2. Convulstions. +| | 3. Locked-jaw. +|_5. DISEASES. | 4. Gout. +| 5. Rheumatism. +| 6. Lumbago. +|_ 7. A Ganglion. + +FIG. 14. + +[Illustration] + +THE MUSCLES. + +THE USE OF THE MUSCLES.--The skeleton is the image of death. Its unsightly +appearance instinctively repels us. We have seen, however, what uses it +subserves in the body, and how the ugly-looking bones abound in nice +contrivances and ingenious workmanship. In life, the framework is hidden +by the flesh. This covering is a mass of muscles, which by their +arrangement and their properties not only give form and symmetry to the +body, but also produce its varied movements. + +In Fig. 14, we see the large exterior muscles. Beneath these are many +others; while deeply hidden within are tiny, delicate ones, too small to +be seen with the naked eye. There are, in all, about five hundred, each +having its special use, and all working in exquisite harmony and +perfection. + +CONTRACTILITY.--The peculiar property of the muscles is their power of +contraction, whereby they decrease in length and increase in thickness. +[Footnote: The maximum force of this contraction has been estimated as +high as from eighty-five to one hundred and fourteen pounds per square +inch.] This may be caused by an effort of the will, by cold, by a sharp +blow, etc. It does not cease at death, but, in certain cold-blooded +animals, a contraction of the muscles is often noticed long after the head +has been cut off. + +ARRANGEMENT OF THE MUSCLES. [Footnote: "Could we behold properly the +muscular fibers in operation, nothing, as a mere mechanical exhibition, +can be conceived more superb than the intricate and combined actions that +must take place during our most common movements. Look at a person running +or leaping, or watch the motions of the eye. How rapid, how delicate, how +complicated, and yet how accurate, are the motions required! Think of the +endurance of such a muscle as the heart, that can contract, with a force +equal to sixty pounds, seventy-five times every minute, for eighty years +together, without being weary."]--The muscles are nearly all arranged in +pairs, each with its antagonist, so that, as they contract and expand +alternately, the bone to which they are attached is moved to and fro. (See +p. 275.) + +If you grasp the arm tightly with your hand just above the elbow joint, +and bend the forearm, you will feel the muscle on the inside (biceps, +_a_, Fig. 14) swell, and become hard and prominent, while the outside +muscle (triceps, _f_) will be relaxed. Now straighten the arm, and +the swelling and hardness of the inside muscle will vanish, while the +outside one will, in turn, become rigid. So, also, if you clasp the arm +just below the elbow, and then open and shut the fingers, you can feel the +alternate expanding and relaxing of the muscles on opposite sides of the +arms. + +If the muscles on one side of the face become palsied, those on the other +side will draw the mouth that way. Squinting is caused by one of the +straight muscles of the eye (Fig. 17) contracting more strongly than its +antagonist. + +KINDS OF MUSCLES.--There are two kinds of muscles, the _voluntary_, +which are under the control of our will, and the _involuntary_, +which are not. Thus our limbs stiffen or relax as we please, but the +heart beats on by day and by night. The eyelid, however, is both +voluntary and involuntary, so that while we wink constantly without +effort, we can, to a certain extent, restrain or control the motion. + +STRUCTURE OF THE MUSCLES.--If we take a piece of lean beef and wash out +the red color, we can easily detect the fine fibers of which the meat is +composed. In boiling corned beef for the table, the fibers often separate, +owing to the dissolving of the delicate tissue which bound them together. +By means of the microscope, we find that these fibers are made up of +minute filaments (_fibrils_), and that each fibril is composed of a +row of small cells arranged like a string of beads. This gives the muscles +a peculiar striped (striated) appearance. [Footnote: The involuntary +muscles consist generally of smooth, fibrous tissue, and form sheets or +membranes in the walls of hollow organs. By their contraction they change +the size of cavities which they inclose. Some functions, however, like the +action of the heart, or the movements of deglutition (swallowing), require +the rapid, vigorous contraction, characteristic of the voluntary muscular +tissue--FLINT.] (See p. 276.) The cells are filled with a fluid or +semifluid mass of living (protoplasmic) matter. + +FIG. 15. + +[Illustration: _Microscopic view of a Muscle, showing, at one end, the +fibrillæ; and, at the other, the disks, or cells, of the fiber._] + +The binding of so many threads into one bundle [Footnote: We shall learn +hereafter how these fibers are firmly tied together by a mesh of fine +connective tissue which dissolves in boiling, as just described] confers +great strength, according to a mechanical principle that we see +exemplified in suspension bridges, where the weight is sustained, not by +bars of iron, but by small wires twisted into massive ropes. + +FIG. 16. + +[Illustration: _Tendons of the Hand._] + +THE TENDONS.--The ends of the muscles are generally attached to the bone +by strong, flexible, but inelastic tendons. [Footnote: The tendons may be +easily seen in the leg of a turkey as it comes on our table; so we may +study Physiology while we pick the bones.] The muscular fibers spring from +the sides of the tendon, so that more of them can act upon the bone than +if they went directly to it. Besides, the small, insensible tendon can +better bear the exposure of passing over a joint, and be more easily +lodged in some protecting groove, than the broad, sensitive muscle. This +mode of attachment gives to the limbs strength, and elegance of form. +Thus, for example, if the large muscles of the arm extended to the hand, +they would make it bulky and clumsy. The tendons, however, reach only to +the wrist, whence fine cords pass to the fingers (Fig. 16). + +Here we notice two other admirable arrangements. 1. If the long tendons at +the wrist on contracting should rise, projections would be made and thus +the beauty of the slender joint be marred. To prevent this, a stout band +or bracelet of ligament holds them down to their place. 2. In order to +allow the tendon which moves the last joint of the finger to pass through, +the tendon which moves the second joint divides at its attachment to the +bone (Fig. 16). This is the most economical mode of packing the muscles, +as any other practicable arrangement would increase the bulk of the +slender finger. + +FIG. 17. + +[Illustration: _Muscles of the Right Eye:_ A, _superior +straight,_ B, _superior oblique passing through a pulley,_ D; G, +_inferior oblique,_ H, _external straight, and, back of it, the +internal straight muscle._] + +Since the tendon can not always pull in the direction of the desired +motion, some contrivance is necessary to meet the want. The tendon (B) +belonging to one of the muscles of the eye, for example, passes through a +ring of cartilage, and thus a rotary motion is secured. + +FIG. 18. + +[Illustration: _The three classes of Levers, and also the foot as a +Lever._] + +THE LEVERS OF THE BODY. [Footnote: A _lever_ is a stiff bar resting +on a point of support, called the _fulcrum_ (_F_), and having connected +with it a _weight_ (_W_) to be lifted, and a _power_ (_P_) to move it. +There are three classes of levers according to the arrangement of the +power, weight, and fulcrum. In the first class, the _F_ is between the +_P_ and _W_; in the second, the _W_ is between the _P_ and _F_; and in +the third, the _P_ is between the _W_ and _F_ (Fig. 18). A pump handle +is an example of the first; a lemon squeezer, of the second; and a +pair of fire tongs, of the third. See "Popular Physics," pp. 81-83, for a +full description of this subject, and for many illustrations.]--In +producing the motions of the body, the muscles use the bones as levers. We +see an illustration of the _first class_ of levers in the movements +of the head. The back or front of the head is the weight to be lifted, the +backbone is the fulcrum on which the lever turns, and the muscles at the +back or front of the neck exert the power by which we toss or bow the +head. + +FIG. 19. + +[Illustration: _The hand as a Lever of the third class._] + +When we raise the body on tiptoe, we have an instance of the _second +class_. Here, our toes resting on the ground form the fulcrum the +muscles of the calf (gas-troc-ne'-mi-us, _j_ and so-le'-us, Fig. 14), +acting through the tendon of the heel, [Footnote: This is called the +Tendon of Achilles (_k_, Fig. 14) and is so named because, as the +fable runs, when Achilles was an infant his mother held him by the heel +while she dipped him in the River Styx, whose water had the power of +rendering one invulnerable to any weapon. His heel, not being wet, was his +weak point, to which Paris directed the fatal arrow--"This tendon," says +Mapother, "will bear one thousand pounds weight before it will break." The +horse is said to be "hamstrung," and is rendered useless, when the Tendon +of Achilles is cut. (see p. 284.)] are the power and the weight is borne +by the ankle joint. + +An illustration of the _third class_ is found in lifting the hand +from the elbow. The hand is the weight, the elbow the fulcrum, and the +power is applied by the biceps muscle at its attachment to the radius (A, +Fig. 19.) In this form of the lever there is great loss of force, because +it is applied at such a distance from the weight, but there is a gain of +velocity, since the hand moves so far by such a slight contraction of the +muscle. The hand is required to perform quick motions, and therefore this +mode of attachment is desirable. + +The nearer the power is applied to the resistance, the more easily the +work is done. In the lower jaw, for example, the jaw is the weight, the +fulcrum is the hinge joint at the back, and the muscles (temporal, +_d_, and the mas'-se'ter, _e_, Fig. 14) on each side are the +power. [Footnote: We may feel the contraction of the masseter by placing +our hand on the face when we work the jaw, while the temporal can be +readily detected by putting the fingers on the temple while we are +chewing. The tendon of the muscle (digastric)--one of those which open the +jaw--passes through a pulley (_c_, Fig. 14) somewhat like the one in +the eye.] They act much closer to the resistance than those in the hand, +since here we desire force, and there, speed. + +FIG. 20. + +[Illustration: _The Kneejoint;_ k, _the patella;_ f, _the +tendon._] + +THE ENLARGEMENT OF THE BONES AT THE JOINTS not only affords greater +surface for the attachment of the muscles, as we have seen, but also +enables them to work to better advantage. Thus, in Fig. 20 it is evident +that a muscle acting in the line _f b_ would not bend the lower limb +so easily as if it were acting in the line _f k_, since in the former +case its force would be about all spent in drawing the bones more closely +together, while in the latter it would pull more nearly at a right angle. +Thus the tendon _f_, by passing over the patella, which is itself +pushed out by the protuberance _b_ of the thigh bone, pulls at a +larger angle, [Footnote: The chief use of the processes of the spine (Fig. +6) and other bones is, in the same way, to throw out the point on which +the power acts as far from the fulcrum as possible. The projections of the +ulna ("funny bone") behind the elbow, and that of the heel bone to which +the Tendon of Achilles is attached, are excellent illustrations (Fig. 1).] +and so the leg is thrown forward with ease in walking and with great force +in kicking. + +HOW WE STAND ERECT.--The joints play so easily, and the center of gravity +in the body is so far above the foot, that the skeleton can not of itself +hold our bodies upright. Thus it requires the action of many muscles to +maintain this position. The head so rests upon the spine as to tend to +fall in front, but the muscles of the neck steady it in its place. +[Footnote: In animals the jaws are so heavy, and the place where the head +and spine join is so far back, that there can be no balance as there is in +man. There are therefore large muscles in their necks. We readily find +that we have none if we get on "all fours" and try to hold up the head. On +the other hand, gorillas and apes can not stand erect like man, for the +reason that their head, trunk, legs, etc., are not balanced by muscles, so +as to be in line with one another.] The hips incline forward, but are held +erect by the strong muscles of the back. The trunk is nicely balanced on +the head of the thigh bones. The great muscles of the thigh acting over +the kneepan tend to bend the body forward, but the muscles of the calf +neutralize this action. The ankle, the knee, and the hip lie in nearly the +same line, and thus the weight of the body rests directly on the keystone +of the arch of the foot. So perfectly do these muscles act that we never +think of them until science calls our attention to the subject, and yet to +acquire the necessary skill to use them in our infancy needed patient +lessons, much time, and many hard knocks. + +FIG. 21. + +[Illustration: _Action of the Muscles which keep the body erect._] + +HOW WE WALK.--Walking is as complex an act as standing. It is really a +perilous performance, which has become safe only because of constant +practice. We see how violent it is when we run against a post in the dark, +and find with what headlong force we were hurling ourselves forward. +Holmes has well defined walking as a perpetual falling with a constant +self-recovery. Standing on one foot, we let the body fall forward, while +we swing the other leg ahead like a pendulum. Planting that foot on the +ground, to save the body from falling farther, we then swing the first +foot forward again to repeat the same operation. [Footnote: It is a +curious fact that one side of the body tends to outwalk the other; and so, +when a man is lost in the woods, he often goes in a circle, and at last +comes round to the spot whence he started.] + +The shorter the pendulum, the more rapidly it vibrates; and so short- +legged people take quicker and shorter steps than long-legged ones. +[Footnote: In this respect, Tom Thumb was to Magrath, whose skeleton, +eight and one half feet high, is now in the Dublin Museum, what a little +fast-ticking, French mantel clock is to a big, old-fashioned, upright, +corner timepiece.] We are shorter when walking than when standing still, +because of this falling forward to take a step in advance. [Footnote: +Women find that a gown that will swing clear of the ground when they are +standing still, will drag the street when they are walking. The length of +the step may be increased by muscular effort, as when a line of soldiers +keep step in spite of their having legs of different lengths. Such a mode +of walking is necessarily fatiguing. (See p. 280.)] + +In running, we incline the body more, and so, as it were, fall faster. +When we walk, one foot is on the ground all the time, and there is an +instant when both feet are planted upon it; but in running there is an +interval of time in each step when both feet are off the ground, and the +body is wholly unsupported. As we step alternately with the feet, we are +inclined to turn the body first to one side and then to the other. This +movement is sometimes counterbalanced by swinging the hand on the opposite +side. [Footnote: In ordinary walking the speed is nearly four miles an +hour, and can be kept up for a long period. But exercise and a special +aptitude for it enable some men to walk great distances in a relatively +short space of time. Trained walkers have gone seventy-five miles in +twenty hours, and walked the distance of thirty-seven miles at the rate of +five miles an hour. The mountaineers of the Alps are generally good +walkers, and some of them are not less remarkable for endurance than for +speed. Jacques Balmat, who was the first to reach the summit of Mont +Blanc, at sixteen years of age could walk from the hamlet of the Pélerins +to the mountain of La Côte in two hours,--a distance which the best- +trained travelers required from five to six hours to get over. At the time +of his last attempt to reach the top of Mont Blanc, this same guide, then +twenty years old, passed six days and four nights without sleeping or +reposing a single moment. One of his sons, Édouard Balmat, left Paris to +join his regiment at Genoa; he reached Chamouni the fifth day at evening, +having walked three hundred and forty miles. After resting two days, he +set off again for Genoa, where he arrived in two days. Several years +afterward, this same man left the baths at Louèche at two o'clock in the +morning, and reached Chamouni at nine in the evening, having walked a +distance equal to about seventy-five miles in nineteen hours. In 1844, an +old guide of De Saussure, eighty years old, left the hamlet of Prats, in +the valley of Chamouni, in the afternoon, and reached the Grand-Mulets at +ten in the evening; then, after resting some hours, he climbed the glacier +to the vicinity of the Grand Plateau, which has an altitude of about +thirteen thousand feet, and then returned to his village without +stopping.--_Wonders of the Body_.] + +THE MUSCULAR SENSE.--When we lift an object, we feel a sensation of +weight, which we can compare with that experienced in lifting another +body. [Footnote: If a small ivory ball be allowed to roll down the cheek +toward the lips, it will appear to increase in weight. In general, the +more sensitive parts of the body recognize smaller differences in weight, +and the right hand is more accurate than the left. We are very apt, +however, to judge of the weight of a body from previous conceptions. Thus, +shortly after Sir Humphrey Davy discovered the metal potassium, he placed +a piece of it in the hand of Dr. Pierson, who exclaimed: "Bless me! How +heavy it is!" Really, however, potassium is so light that it will float on +water like cork.] By balancing it in the hand. The muscular sense is +useful to us in many ways. It guides us in standing or moving. We gratify +it when we walk erect and with an elastic step, and by dancing, jumping, +skating, and gymnastic exercises. + +NECESSITY OF EXERCISE.--The effect of exercise upon a muscle is very +marked. [Footnote: The greater size of the breast (pectoral muscle) of a +pigeon, as compared with that of a duck, shows how muscle increases with +use. The breast of a chicken is white because it is not used for flight, +and therefore gets little blood.] By use it grows larger, and becomes +hard, compact, and darker-colored; by disuse it decreases in size, and +becomes soft, flabby, and pale. + +Violent exercise, however, is injurious, since we then tear down faster +than nature can build up. Feats of strength are not only hurtful, but +dangerous. Often the muscles are strained or ruptured, and blood vessels +burst in the effort to outdo one's companions. [Footnote: Instances have +been known of children falling dead from having carried to excess so +pleasant and healthful an amusement as jumping the rope, and of persons +rupturing the Tendon of Achilles in dancing. The competitive lifting of +heavy weights is unwise, sometimes fatal.] (See p. 278.) + +Two thousand years ago, Isocrates, the Greek rhetorician, said: "Exercise +for health, not for strength." The cultivation of muscle for its own sake +is a return to barbarism, while it enfeebles the mind, and ultimately the +body. The ancient gymnasts are said to have become prematurely old, and +the trained performers of our own day soon suffer from the strain they put +upon their muscular system. Few men have sufficient vigor to become both +athletes and scholars. Exercise should, therefore, merely supplement the +deficiency of our usual employment. _A sedentary life needs daily, +moderate exercise, which always stops short of fatigue_. This is a law +of health. (See p. 280.) + +No education is complete which fails to provide for the development of the +muscles. Recesses should be as strictly devoted to play as study hours are +to work. Were gymnastics or calisthenics as regular an exercise as grammar +or arithmetic, fewer pupils would be compelled to leave school on account +of ill health; while spinal curvatures, weak backs, and ungraceful gaits +would no longer characterize so many of our best institutions. + +TIME FOR EXERCISE.--We should not exercise after long abstinence from +food, nor immediately after a meal, unless the meal or the exercise be +very light. There is an old-fashioned prejudice in favor of exercise +before breakfast--an hour suited to the strong and healthy, but entirely +unfitted to the weak and delicate. On first rising in the morning, the +pulse is low, the skin relaxed, and the system susceptible to cold. Feeble +persons, therefore, need to be braced with food before they brave the +outdoor air. + +WHAT KIND OF EXCERCISE TO TAKE.--For children, games are unequaled. +Walking, the universal exercise, [Footnote: The custom of walking, so +prevalent in England, has doubtless much to do with the superior physique +of its people. It is considered nothing for a woman to take a walk of +eight or ten miles, and long pedestrian excursions are made to all parts +of the country. The benefits which accrue from such an open-air life are +sadly needed by the women of our own land. A walk of half a dozen miles +should be a pleasant recreation for any healthy person.] is beneficial, as +it takes one into the open air and sunlight. Running is better, since it +employs more muscles, but it must not be pushed to excess, as it taxes the +heart, and may lead to disease of that organ. Rowing is more effectual in +its general development of the system. Swimming employs the muscles of the +whole body, and is a valuable acquirement, as it may be the means of +saving life. Horseback riding is a fine accomplishment, and refreshes both +mind and body. Gymnastic or calisthenic exercises bring into play all the +muscles of the body, and when carefully selected, and not immoderately +employed, are preferable to any other mode of indoor exercise. [Footnote: +The employment of the muscles in exercise not only benefits their especial +structure, but it acts on the whole system. When the muscles are put in +action, the capillary blood vessels with which they are supplied become +more rapidly charged with blood, and active changes take place, not only +in the muscles, but in all the surrounding tissues. The heart is required +to supply more blood, and accordingly beats more rapidly in order to meet +the demand. A larger quantity of blood is sent through the lungs, and +larger supplies of oxygen are taken in and carried to the various tissues. +The oxygen, by combining with the carbon of the blood and the tissues, +engenders a larger quantity of heat, which produces an action on the skin, +in order that the superfluous warmth may be disposed of. The skin is thus +exercised, as it were, and the sudoriparous and sebaceous glands are set +at work. The lungs and skin are brought into operation, and the lungs +throw off large quantities of carbonic acid, and the skin large quantities +of water, containing in solution matters which, if retained, would produce +disease in the body. Wherever the blood is sent, changes of a healthful +character occur. The brain and the rest of the nervous system are +invigorated, the stomach has its powers of digestion improved, and the +liver, pancreas, and other organs perform their functions with more vigor. +By want of exercise, the constituents of the food which pass into the +blood are not oxidized, and products which produce disease are engendered. +The introduction of fresh supplies of oxygen induced by exercise oxidizes +these products, and renders them harmless. As a rule, those who exercise +most in the open air will live the longest.--LANKESTER.] (See p. 280.) + +THE WONDERS OF THE MUSCLES.--The grace, ease, and rapidity with which the +muscles contract are astonishing. By practice, they acquire a facility +which we call mechanical. The voice may utter one thousand five hundred +letters in a minute, yet each requires a distinct position of the vocal +organs. We train the muscles of the fingers till they glide over the keys +of the piano, executing the most exquisite and difficult harmony. In +writing, each letter is formed by its peculiar motions, yet we make them +so unconsciously that a skillful penman will describe beautiful curves +while thinking only of the idea that the sentence is to express. The mind +of the violinist is upon the music which his right hand is executing, +while his left determines the length of the string and the character of +each note so carefully that not a false sound is heard, although the +variation of a hair's breadth would cause a discord. In the arm of a +blacksmith, the biceps muscle may grow into the solidity almost of a club; +the hand of a prize fighter will strike a blow like a sledge hammer; while +the engraver traces lines invisible to the naked eye, and the fingers of +the blind acquire a delicacy that almost supplies the place of the missing +sense. + +DISEASES, ETC.--l. _St. Vitus's Dance_ is a disease of the voluntary +muscles, whereby they are in frequent, irregular, and spasmodic motion +beyond the control of the will. All causes of excitement, and especially +of fear, should be avoided, and the general health of the patient +invigorated, as this disease is closely connected with a derangement of +the nervous system. + +2. _Convulsions_ are an involuntary contraction of the muscles. +Consciousness is wanting, while the limbs may be stiff or in spasmodic +action. (See p. 261.) + +3. _Locked-jaw_ is a disease in which there are spasms and a +contraction of the muscles, usually beginning in the lower jaw. It is +serious, often fatal, yet it sometimes follows as trivial an injury as the +stroke of a whip lash, the lodgment of a bone in the throat, a fishhook in +the finger, or a tack in the sole of the foot. + +4. _Gout_ is characterized by an acute pain located chiefly in the +small joints of the foot, especially those of the great toe, which become +swollen and extremely sensitive. It is generally accompanied by an excess +of uric acid in the blood, and a deposit of urate of soda about the +affected joint. Gout is often the result of high living, and of too much +animal food. It is frequently inherited. + +5. _Rheumatism_ affects mainly the connective, white, fibrous tissue +of the larger joints. While gout is the punishment of the rich who live +luxuriously, rheumatism afflicts alike the poor and the rich. There are +two common forms of rheumatism--the inflammatory or acute, and the +chronic. The latter is of long continuance; the former terminates more +speedily. The acute form is probably a disease of the blood, which carries +with it some poisonous matter that is deposited where the fibrous tissue +is most abundant. The disease flies capriciously from one joint to +another, and the pain caused by even the slightest motion deprives the +sufferer of the use of the disabled part and its muscles. Its chief danger +lies in the possibility of its affecting the vital organs. Chronic +rheumatism--the result of repeated attacks of the acute--leads to great +suffering, and oftentimes to disorganization of the joints and an +interference with the movements of the heart. + +6. _Lumbago_ is an inflammation of the lumbar muscles and fascia. +[Footnote: Lumbago is really a form of myalgia, a disease which, has its +seat in the muscles, and may thus affect any part of the body. Doubtless +much of what is commonly called "liver" or "kidney complaint" is only, in +one case, myalgia of the chest or abdominal walls near the liver, or, in +the other, of the back and loins near the kidneys. Chronic liver disease +is comparatively rare in the Northern States, and pain in the side is not +a prominent symptom; while certain diseases of the kidneys, which are as +surely fatal as pulmonary consumption, are not attended by pain in the +back opposite these organs.--WEY.] It may be so moderate as to produce +only a "lame back," or so severe as to disable, as in the case of what is +popularly termed a "crick in the back." Strong swimmers who sometimes +drown without apparent cause are supposed to be seized in this way. + +7. _A Ganglion_, or what is vulgarly called a "weak" or "weeping" +sinew, is the swelling of a bursa. [Footnote: A bursa is a small sack +containing a lubricating fluid to prevent friction where tendons play over +hard surfaces. There is one shaped like an hourglass on the wrist, just at +the edge of the palm. By pressing back the liquid it contains, this bursa +may be clearly seen.] It sometimes becomes so distended by fluid as to be +mistaken for bone. If on binding something hard upon it for a few days it +does not disappear, a physician will remove the liquid by means of a +hypodermic syringe, or perhaps cause it to be absorbed by an external +application of iodine. + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. What class of lever is the foot when we lift a weight on the toes? + +2. Explain the movement of the body backward and forward, when resting +upon the thigh bone as a fulcrum. + +3. What class of lever do we use when we lift the foot while sitting down? + +4. Explain the swing of the arm from the shoulder. + +5. What class of lever is used in bending our fingers? + +6. What class of lever is our foot when we tap the ground with our toes? + +7. What class of lever do we use when we raise ourselves from a stooping +position? + +8. What class of lever is the foot when we walk? + +9. Why can we raise a heavier weight with our hand when lifting from the +elbow than from the shoulder? + +10. What class of lever do we employ when we are hopping, the thigh bone +being bent up toward the body and not used? + +11. Describe the motions of the bones when we are using a gimlet. + +12. Why do we tire when we stand erect? + +13. Why does it rest us to change our work? + +14. Why and when is dancing a beneficial exercise? + +15. Why can we exert greater force with the back teeth than with the front +ones? + +16. Why do we lean forward when we wish to rise from a chair? + +17. Why does the projection of the heel bone make walking easier? + +18. Does a horse travel with less fatigue over a flat than a hilly +country? + +19. Can you move your upper jaw? + +20. Are people naturally right or left-handed? + +21. Why can so few persons move their ears by the muscles? + +22. Is the blacksmith's right arm healthier than the left? + +23. Boys often, though foolishly, thrust a pin into the flesh just above +the knee. Why is it not painful? + +24. Will ten minutes' practice in a gymnasium answer for a day's exercise? + +25. Why would an elastic tendon be unfitted to transmit the motion of a +muscle? + +26. When one is struck violently on the head, why does he instantly fall? + +27. What is the cause of the difference between light and dark meat in a +fowl? + + + + +III. + + +THE SKIN. + +A protection from the outer world, it is our only means of communicating +with it. Insensible itself, it is the organ of touch. It feels the +pressure of a hair, yet bears the weight of the body. It yields to every +motion of that which it wraps and holds in place. It hides from view the +delicate organs within, yet the faintest tint of a thought shines through, +while the soul paints upon it, as on a canvas, the richest and rarest of +colors. + +ANALYSIS OF THE SKIN. + +_ +_ | 1. The Cutis; its Composition and Character. +| 1. THE STRUCTURE | 2. The Cuticle; its Composition and Character. +| OF THE SKIN. | 3. The Value of the Cuticle. +| |_4. The Complexion. +| _ +| | a. _Description._ +| _ | b. _Method of Growth._ +| | 1. The Hair.....| c. _As an Instrument of +| | | Feeling._ +| 2. THE HAIR AND | | d. _Indestructibility of +| THE NAILS. | |_ the Hair._ +| | _ +| |_2. The Nails....| a. _Uses._ +| |_b. _Method of Growth._ +| _ +| 3. THE MUCOUS | 1. The Structure. +| MEMBRANE | 2. Connective Tissue. +| |_3. Fat. +| _ +| | 1. Number and Kinds of Teeth. +| | _ +| | 1. The Two Sets.| 1. _The Milk Teeth._ +| | |_2. _The Permanent Teeth._ +| | +| 4. THE TEETH. | 2. Structure of the Teeth. +| | 3. The Setting of the Tooth in the Jaw. +| | 4. The Decay of the Teeth. +| |_5. The Preservation of the Teeth. +| _ _ +| | 1. The Two Kinds.| 1. _Oil Glands._ +| | |_2. _Perpiratory Glands._ +| | +| 5. THE GLANDS | 2. The Perspiration. +| | 3. The Absorbing Power of the Skin. (See +| |_ Lymphatics.) +| _ +| | 1. About Washing and Bathing. +| | 2. The Reaction. +| | 3. Sea Bathing. _ +| 6. HYGIENE | | a. _General Principles._ +| | | b. _Linen._ +| | | c. _Cotton._ +| |_4. Clothing.......| d. _Woolen._ +| | e. _Flannel._ +| | f. _Color of Clothing._ +| | g. _Structure of +| | Clothing._ +| | h. _Insufficient +| _ |_ Clothing._ +| | 1. Erysipelas. +| | 2. Salt Rheum. +|_7. DISEASES. | 3. Corns. +| 4. Ingrowing Nails. +| 5. Warts. +|_6. Chilblains. + +THE SKIN. + +THE SKIN is a tough, thin, close-fitting garment for the protection of the +tender flesh. Its perfect elasticity beautifully adapts it to every motion +of the body. We shall learn hereafter that it is more than a mere +covering, being an active organ, which does its part in the work of +keeping in order the house in which we live. It oils itself to preserve +its smoothness and delicacy, replaces itself as fast as it wears out, and +is at once the perfection of use and beauty. + +1. STRUCTURE OF THE SKIN. + +CUTIS AND CUTICLE.--What we commonly call the skin--viz., the part raised +by a blister--is only the cuticle [Footnote: _Cuticula_, little skin. +It is often styled the scarfskin, and also the epidermis (_epi_, +upon; and _derma_, skin).] or covering of the cutis or true skin. The +latter is full of nerves and blood vessels, while the former neither +bleeds [Footnote: We notice this in shaving; for if a razor goes below the +cuticle, it is followed by pain and blood. So insensible is this outer +layer that we can run a pin through the thick mass at the roots of the +nails without discomfort.] nor gives rise to pain, neither suffers from +heat nor feels the cold. + +The cuticle is composed of small, flat cells or scales. These are +constantly shed from the surface in the form of scurf, dandruff, etc., but +are as constantly renewed from the cutis [Footnote: We see how rapidly +this change goes on by noticing how soon a stain of any kind disappears +from the skin. A snake throws off its cuticle entire, and at regular +intervals.] below. + +Under the microscope, we can see the round cells of the cuticle, and how +they are flattened and hardened as they are forced to the surface. The +immense number of these cells surpasses comprehension. In one square inch +of the cuticle, counting only those in a single layer, there are over a +billion horny scales, each complete in itself.--HARTING. + +FIG. 22. + +[Illustration: A _represents a vertical section of the Cuticle._ B, +_lateral view of the cells._ C, _flat side of scales like_ d, +_magnified 250 diameters, showing the nucleated cells transformed into +broad scales._] + +VALUE OF THE CUTICLE.--In the palm of the hand, the sole of the foot, and +other parts especially liable to injury, the cuticle is very thick. This +is a most admirable provision for their protection. [Footnote: We can hold +the hand in strong brine with impunity, but the smart will quickly tell us +when there is even a scratch in the skin. Vaccine matter must be inserted +beneath the cuticle to take effect. This membrane doubtless prevents many +poisonous substances from entering the system.] By use, it becomes callous +and horny. The boy who goes out barefoot for the first time, "treading as +if on eggs," can soon run where he pleases among thistles and over stones. +The blacksmith handles hot iron without pain, while the mason lays stones +and works in lime, without scratching or corroding his flesh. + +THE COMPLEXION.--In the freshly made cells on the lower side of the +cuticle, is a pigment composed of tiny grains. [Footnote: These grains are +about 1/2000 of an inch in diameter, and, curiously enough, do not appear +opaque, but transparent and nearly colorless.--MARSHALL.] In the varying +tint of this coloring matter, lies the difference of hue between the +blonde and the brunette, the European and the African. In the purest +complexion, there is some of this pigment, which, however, disappears as +the fresh, round, soft cells next the cutis change into the old, flat, +horny scales at the surface. + +Scars are white, because this part of the cuticle is not restored. The sun +has a powerful effect upon the coloring matter, and so we readily "tan" on +exposure to its rays. If the color gathers in spots, it forms freckles. +[Footnote: This action of the sun on the pigment of the skin is very +marked. Even among the Africans, the skin is observed to lose its intense +black color in those who live for many months in the shades of the forest. +It is said that Asiatic and African women confined within the walls of the +harem, and thus secluded from the sun, are as fair as Europeans. Among the +Jews who have settled in Northern Europe, are many of light complexion, +while those who live in India are as dark as the Hindoos. Intense heat +also increases this coloring matter, and thus a furnace-man's skin, even +where protected by clothing, becomes completely bronzed. The black pigment +has been known to disappear during severe illness, and a lighter color to +be developed in its place. Among the negroes, are sometimes found people +who have no complexion, _i. e._, there is no coloring matter in their +skin, hair, or the iris of their eyes. These persons are called Albinos.] + +II. HAIR AND NAILS. + +The Hair and the Nails are modified forms of the cuticle. + +FIG. 23. + +[Illustration: A _Hair, magnified 600 diameters._ S, _the sac +(follicle);_ P, _the papilla, showing the cells and the blood +vessels:_ V.] + +THE HAIR is a protection from heat and cold, and shields the head from +blows. It is found on nearly all parts of the body, except the palms of +the hands and the soles of the feet. The outside of a hair is hard and +compact, and consists of a layer of colorless scales, which overlie one +another like the shingles of a house; the interior is porous, [Footnote: +In order to examine a hair, it should be put on the slide of the +microscope, and covered with a thin glass, while a few drops of alcohol +are allowed to flow between the cover and the slide. This causes the air, +which fills the hair and prevents our seeing its structure, to escape.] +and probably conveys the liquids by which it is nourished. + +Each hair grows from a tiny bulb (papilla), which is an elevation of the +cutis at the bottom of a little hollow in the skin. From the surface of +this bulb, the hair is produced, like the cuticle, by the constant +formation of new cells at the bottom. When the hair is pulled out, this +bulb, if uninjured, will produce a new one; but, when once destroyed, it +will never grow again. [Footnote: Hair grows at the rate of about five to +seven inches in a year. It is said to grow after death. This appearance is +due to the fact that by the shrinking of the skin the part below the +surface is caused to project, which is especially noticeable in the +beard.] The hair has been known to whiten in a single night by fear, +fright, or nervous excitement. When the color has once changed, it can not +be restored. [Footnote: Hair dyes, or so-called "hair restorers," are +almost invariably deleterious substances, depending for their coloring +properties upon the action of lead or lunar caustic. Frequent instances of +hair poisoning have occurred, owing to the common use of such dangerous +articles. If the growth of the hair be impaired, the general constitution +or the skin needs treatment. This is the work of a skillful physician, and +not of a patent remedy. Dame Fashion has her repentant freaks as well as +her ruinous follies, and it is a healthful sign that the era of universal +hair dyeing has been blotted out from her present calendar, and the gray +hairs of age are now honored with the highest place in "style" as well as +in good sense and cleanliness.] (See p. 285.) + +Wherever hair exists, tiny muscles are found, interlaced among the fibers +of the skin. These, when contracting under the influence of cold or +electricity, pucker up the skin, and cause the hair to stand on end. +[Footnote: In horses and other animals which are able to shake the whole +skin, this muscular tissue is much more fully developed than in man.] The +hairs themselves are destitute of feeling. Nerves, however, are found in +the hollows in which the hair is rooted, and so one feels pain when it is +pulled. [Footnote: These nerves are especially abundant in the whiskers of +the cat, which are used as feelers.] Thus the insensible hairs become +wonderfully delicate instruments to convey an impression of even the +slightest touch. + +FIG. 24. + +[Illustration: A, _a perspiratory tube with its gland;_ B, _a hair +with a muscle and two oil glands;_ C, _cuticle;_ D, _the +papillæ;_ and E, _fat cells._] + +Next to the teeth and bones, the hair is the least destructible part of +the body, and its color is often preserved for many years after the other +portions have gone to decay. [Footnote: Fine downy hairs, such as are +general upon the body, have been detected in the little fragments of skin +found beneath the heads of the nails by which, centuries ago, certain +robbers were fastened to the church doors, as a punishment for their +sacrilege.] + +THE NAILS protect the ends of the tender finger, and toe, and give us +power more firmly to grasp and easily to pick up any object we may desire. +They enable us to perform a hundred little, mechanical acts which else +were impossible. At the same time, their delicate color and beautiful +outline give a finish of ornament to that exquisite instrument, the hand. +The nail is firmly set in a groove (matrix) in the cuticle, from which it +grows at the root in length [Footnote: By making a little mark on the nail +near the root we can see, week by week, how rapidly this process goes on, +and so form some idea of what a multitude of cells must be transformed +into the horny matter of the nail.] and from beneath in thickness. So long +as the matrix at the root is uninjured, the nail will be replaced after +any accident. (See p. 288.) + +III. THE MUCOUS MEMBRANE. + +STRUCTURE.--At the edges of the openings into the body, the skin seems to +stop and give place to a tissue which is redder, more sensitive, more +liable to bleed, and is moistened by a fluid, or mucus, as it is called. +Really, however, the skin does not cease, but passes into a more delicate +covering of the same general structure, viz., an outer, hard, bloodless, +insensible layer, and an inner, soft, sanguine, nervous one. [Footnote: +With a dull knife, we can scrape from the mucous membrane which lines the +mouth some of the cuticle for examination under the microscope. In a +similar way, we can obtain cuticle from the surface of the body for study +and comparison.] Thus every part of the body is wrapped in a kind of +double bag, made of tough skin on the outside, and tender mucous membrane +on the inside. + +CONNECTIVE TISSUE.--The cutis and the corresponding layer of the mucous +membrane consist chiefly of a fibrous substance interlaced, like felt. It +is called connective tissue, because it connects all the different parts +of the body. It spreads from the cutis, invests muscles, bones, and +cartilages, and thence passes into the mucous membrane. So thoroughly does +it permeate the body, that, if the other tissues were destroyed, it would +give a perfect model of every organ. [Footnote: It is curious to notice +how our body is wrapped in membrane. On the outside, is the skin +protecting from exterior injury, and, on the inside, is the mucous +membrane reaching from the lips to the innermost air cell of the lungs. +Every organ is enveloped in its membrane. Every bone has its sheath. Every +socket is lined. Even the separate fibers of muscles have their covering +tissue. The brain and the spinal cord are triply wrapped, while the eye is +only a membranous globe filled with fluid. These membranes protect and +support the organs they enfold, but, with that wise economy so +characteristic of nature everywhere, they have also an important function +to perform. They are the _filters_ of the body. Through their pores +pass alike the elements of growth, and the returning products of waste. On +one side, bathed by the blood, they choose from it suitable food for the +organ they envelop, and many of them in their tiny cells, by some +mysterious process, form new products,--put the finishing touches, as it +were, upon the material ere it is deposited in the body.] It can be seen +in a piece of meat as a delicate substance lying between the layers of +muscle, where it serves to bind together the numerous fibers of which they +are composed. + +Connective tissue yields gelatine on boiling, and is the part which tans +when hides are manufactured into leather. It is very elastic, so that when +you remove your finger after pressing upon the skin, no indentation is +left. [Footnote: In dropsy, this elasticity is lost by distension, and +there is a kind of "pitting," as it is called, produced by pressure.] It +varies greatly in character,--from the mucous membrane, where it is soft +and tender, to the ligaments and tendons which it largely composes, where +it is strong and dense. [Footnote: The leather made from this tissue +varies as greatly, from the tough, thick oxhide, to the soft, pliable kid +and chamois skin.] + +FAT is deposited as an oil in the cells [Footnote: So tiny are these +cells, that there are over sixty-five million in a cubic inch of fat. As +they are kept moist, the liquid does not ooze out, but, on drying, it +comes to the surface, and thus a piece of fat feels oily when exposed to +the air. The quantity of fat varies with the state of nutrition. In +corpulent persons, the masses of fat beneath the skin, in the mesentery, +on the surface of the heart and great vessels, between the muscles, and in +the neighborhood of the nerves, are considerably increased. Conversely, in +the emaciated we sometimes find beneath the skin nucleated cells, which +contain only one oil drop. Many masses of fat which have an important +relation to muscular actions--such as the fat of the orbit or the cheek-- +do not disappear in the most emaciated object. Even in starvation, the +fatty substances of the brain and spinal cord are retained.--VALENTIN.] of +this tissue, just beneath the skin (Fig. 24), giving roundness and +plumpness to the body, and acting as an excellent nonconductor for the +retention of heat. It collects as pads in the hollows of the bones, around +the joints, and between the muscles, causing them to glide more easily +upon each other. As marrow, it nourishes the skeleton, and also +distributes the shock of any jar the limb may sustain. + +It is noticeable, however, that fat does not gather within the cranium, +the lungs, or the eyelids, where its accumulation would clog the organs. + +IV. THE TEETH. + +THE TEETH [Footnote: Although the teeth are always found in connection +with the skeleton, and are, therefore, figured as a part of it (Fig. 1), +yet they do not properly belong to the bones of the body, and are merely +set in the solid jaw to insure solidity. They are hard, and resemble bony +matter, yet they are neither true bone nor are they formed in the same +manner. "They are properly appendages of the mucous membrane, and are +developed from it."--LEIDY. "They belong to the Tegumentary System, which, +speaking generally of animals, includes teeth, nails, horns, scales, and +hairs."--MARSHALL. They are therefore classed with the mucous membrane, as +are the nails and hair with the skin.] are thirty-two in all,--there being +eight in each half jaw, similarly shaped and arranged. In each set of +eight, the two nearest the middle of the jaw have wide, sharp, chisel-like +edges, fit for cutting, and hence are called _incisors_. The next one +corresponds to the great tearing or holding tooth of the dog, and is +styled the _canine_, or eye-tooth. The next two have broader crowns, +with two points, or cusps, and are hence termed the _bicuspids_. The +remaining three are much broader, and, as they are used to crush the food, +are called the _grinders_, or _molars_. The incisors and +eyeteeth have one fang, or root; the others have two or three fangs. + +THE MILK TEETH.--We are provided with two sets of teeth. The first, or +milk teeth, are small and only twenty in number. In each half jaw there +are two incisors, one canine, and two molars. The middle incisors are +usually cut about the age of seven months, the others at nine months, the +first molars at twelve months, the canines at eighteen months, and the +remaining molars at two or three years of age. The lower teeth precede the +corresponding upper ones. The time often varies, but the order seldom. + +THE PERMANENT TEETH.--At six years, when the first set is usually still +perfect, the jaws contain the crowns of all the second, except the wisdom +teeth. About this age, to meet the wants of the growing body, the crowns +of the permanent set begin to press against the roots of the milk teeth, +which, becoming absorbed, leave the loosened teeth to drop out, while the +new ones rise and occupy their places. [Footnote: If the milk teeth, do +not promptly loosen on the appearance of the second set, the former should +be at once removed to permit the permanent teeth to assume their natural +places. If any fail to come in regularly, or if they crowd the others, a +competent dentist should be consulted.] + +FIG. 25. + +[Illustration: _The teeth at the age of six and one half years._ I, +_the incisors;_ O, _the canine;_ M, _the molars; the last +molar is the first of the permanent teeth;_ F, _sacs of the permanent +incisors;_ C, _of the canine;_ B, _of the bicuspids;_ N, +_of the second molar; the sac of the third molar is empty._-- +MARSHALL.] + +The central incisors appear at about seven years of age; the others at +eight; the first bicuspids at nine, the second at ten; the canines at +eleven or twelve; the second [Footnote: The first molar appears much +earlier. (See Fig. 25.)] molars at twelve or thirteen, and the last, or +wisdom teeth, are sometimes delayed until the twenty-second year, or even +later. + +STRUCTURE OF THE TEETH.--The interior of the tooth consists principally of +_dentine_, a dense substance resembling bone. [Footnote: In the tusk +of the elephant this is known as ivory.] The crown of the tooth, which is +exposed to wear, is protected by a sheath of _enamel_. This is a +hard, glistening, white substance, containing only two and a half per cent +of animal matter. The fang is covered by a thin layer of true bone +(cement). + +FIG. 26. + +[Illustration: _Vertical section of a Molar Tooth, moderately +magnified._ a, _enamel of the crown, the lines of which indicate the +arrangement of its columns;_ b, _dentine;_ c, _cement;_ d, +_pulp cavity._] + +At the center of the tooth is a cavity filled with a soft, reddish-white, +pulpy substance full of blood vessels and nerves. This pulp is very +sensitive, and toothache is caused by its irritation. + +THE FITTING OF THE TOOTH INTO THE JAW is a most admirable contrivance. It +is not set like a nail in wood, having the fang in contact with the bone; +but the socket is lined with a membrane which forms a soft cushion. While +this is in a healthy state, it deadens the force of any shock, but, when +inflamed, it becomes the seat of excruciating pain. + +THE DECAY OF THE TEETH [Footnote: Unlike the other portions of the body, +there is no provision made for any change in the permanent teeth. That +part, however, which is thus during life most liable to change, after +death resists it the longest. In deep-sea dredgings teeth are found when +all traces of the frame to which they belonged have disappeared. Yet hard +and incorruptible as they seem, their permanence is only relative. Exposed +to injury and disease, they break or decay. Even if they escape accident, +they yet wear at the crown, are absorbed at the fang, and, in time, drop +out, thus affording another of the many signs of the limitations +Providence has fixed to the endurance of our bodies and the length of our +lives.] is commonly caused (1) by portions of the food which become +entangled between them, and, on account of the heat and moisture, quickly +decompose; and (2) by the saliva, as it evaporates, leaving on the teeth a +sediment, which we call tartar. This collects organic matter that rapidly +changes, and also affords a soil in which a sort of fungus speedily +springs up. From both these causes, the breath becomes offensive, and the +teeth are injured. + +PRESERVATION OF THE TEETH.--Children should early be taught to brush their +teeth at least every morning with tepid water, and twice a week with white +castile soap and powdered orris root, or with some dentifrice recommended +by a responsible dentist. They should also be instructed to remove the +particles of food from between the teeth, after each meal, by means of a +quill or wooden toothpick. + +The enamel once injured is never restored, and the whole interior of the +tooth is exposed to decay. We should not, therefore, crack hard nuts, bite +thread, or use metal toothpicks, gritty tooth powders, or any acid which +"sets the teeth on edge," _i. e._. that acts upon the enamel. It is +well also to have the teeth examined yearly by a dentist, that any small +orifice may be filled, and further decay prevented. + +V. THE GLANDS OF THE SKIN. + +1. THE OIL GLANDS are clusters of tiny sacs which secrete an oil that +flows along the duct to the root of the hair, and thence oozes out on the +cuticle (Fig. 24). [Footnote: This secretion is said to vary in different +persons, and on that account the dog is enabled to trace his master by the +scent.] This is nature's efficient hair-dressing, and also keeps the skin +soft and flexible. These glands are not usually found where there is no +hair, as on the palm of the hand, and hence at those points only can water +readily soak through the skin into the body. They are of considerable size +on the face, especially about the nose. When obstructed, their contents +become hard and dark-colored, and are vulgarly called "worms." [Footnote: +Though they are not alive, yet, under the microscope, they are sometimes +found to contain a curious parasite, called the pimple mite, which is +supposed to consume the superabundant secretion.] + +II. THE PERSPIRATORY GLANDS are fine tubes about 1/300 of an inch in +diameter, and a quarter of an inch in length, which run through the cutis, +and then coil up in little balls (Fig. 24). They are found in all parts of +the body, and in almost incredible numbers. In the palm of the hand, there +are about two thousand eight hundred in a single square inch. On the back +of the neck and trunk, where they are fewest, there are yet four hundred +to the square inch. The total number on the body of an adult is estimated +at about two and a half million. If they were laid end to end, they would +extend nearly ten miles. [Footnote: The current statement, that they would +extend twenty-eight miles, is undoubtedly an exaggeration. Krause +estimates the total number at 2,381,248, and the length of each coil, when +unraveled, at 1/10 of an inch, which would make the total length much less +than even the statement in the text. Seguin states that the proportion of +impurities thrown off by the skin and the lungs, is eleven to seven.] The +mouths of these glands--"pores," as we commonly call them--may be seen +with a pocket lens along the fine ridges which cover the palm of the hand. + +THE PERSPIRATION.--From these openings, there constantly passes a vapor, +forming what we call the insensible perspiration. Exercise or heat causes +it to flow more freely, when it condenses on the surface in drops. The +perspiration consists of about ninety-nine parts water, and one part solid +matter. The amount varies greatly, but on the average is, for an adult, +not far from two pounds per day. Any suppression of this constant drainage +will lead to disagreeable and even dangerous results. If it be entirely +and permanently checked, death will inevitably ensue. [Footnote: Once, on +an occasion of great solemnity at Rome, a child was, it is said, +completely covered with gold leaf, closely applied to the skin, so as to +represent, according to the idea of that age, the golden glory of an angel +or seraph. In a few hours, after contributing to this pageant, the child +died; the cause being suffocation, from stopping the exhalation of the +skin; although, in the ignorance of the common people of those days, the +death was attributed to the anger of the Deity, and looked upon as a +circumstance of evil omen.] + +THE ABSORBING POWER OF THE SKIN.--We have already described two uses of +the skin: (1) Its _protective_, (2) its _exhaling_, and now we +come to (3) its _absorbing_ power. This is not so noticeable as the +others, and yet it can be illustrated. Persons frequently poison their +hands with the common wood ivy. Contagious diseases are taken by touching +a patient, or even his clothing, especially if there be a crack in the +cuticle. [Footnote: If one is called upon to handle a dead body, it is +well, especially if the person has died of a contagious disease, to rub +the hand with lard or olive oil. Poisonous matter has been fatally +absorbed through the breaking of the cuticle by a hangnail, or a simple +scratch. There is a story that Bonaparte, when a lieutenant of artillery, +in the heat of battle, seized the rammer and worked the gun of an +artilleryman who had fallen. From the wood which the soldier had used, +Bonaparte absorbed a poison that gave him a skin disease, by which he was +annoyed the remainder of his life.] Painters absorb so much lead through +the pores of their hands that they are attacked with colic. [Footnote: +Cosmetics, hair dyes, etc., are exceedingly injurious, not only because +they tend to fill the pores of the skin, but because they often contain +poisonous matters that may be absorbed into the system, especially if they +are in a solution.] Snuff and lard are frequently rubbed on the chest of a +child suffering with the croup, to produce vomiting. It is said that +seamen in want of water drench their clothing in salt spray, when the skin +will absorb enough moisture to quench thirst (see Lymphatic System). + +By carefully conducted experiments, it has been found that the skin acts +in the same way as the lungs (see Respiration) in absorbing oxygen from +the air, and giving off carbonic acid to a small but appreciable amount. +Indeed, the skin has not inaptly been styled the third lung. Hence, the +importance of absolute cleanliness and a frequent ablution of the entire +body. + +VI. HYGIENE. + +HINTS ABOUT WASHING AND BATHING.--The moment of rising from bed is the +proper time for the full wash or bath with which one should commence the +day. The body is then warm, and can endure moderately cold water better +than at any other time; it is relaxed, and needs bracing; and the nerves, +deadened by the night's repose, require a gentle stimulus. If the system +be strong enough to resist the shock, cold water is the most invigorating; +if not, a tepid bath will answer. [Footnote: Many persons have not the +conveniences for a bath. To them, the following plan, which the author has +daily employed for years, is commended. The necessities are: a basin full +of soft water, a mild soap, a large sponge or a piece of flannel, and two +towels--one soft, the other rough. The temperature of the water should +vary with the season of the year--cold in summer and tepid in winter. Rub +quickly the entire body with the wet sponge or flannel. (If more +agreeable, wash and wipe only a part at a time, protecting the rest in +cold weather with portions of clothing.) Dry the skin gently with a soft +towel, and when quite dry, with the rough towel or flesh brush rub the +body briskly four or five minutes till the skin is all aglow. The chest +and abdomen need the principal rubbing. The roughness of the towel should +be accommodated to the condition of the skin. Enough friction, however, +must be given to produce at least a gentle warmth, indicative of the +reaction necessary to prevent subsequent chill or languor. An invalid will +find it exceedingly beneficial if a stout, vigorous person produce the +reaction by rubbing with the hands.] + +Before dressing, the whole body should be thoroughly rubbed with a coarse +towel or flesh brush. At first, the friction may be unpleasant, but this +sensitiveness will soon be overcome, and the keenest pleasure be felt in +the lively glow which follows. A bath should not be taken just before nor +immediately after a meal, as it will interfere with the digestion of the +food. Soap should be employed occasionally, but its frequent use tends to +make the skin dry and hard. + +REACTION.--After taking a cold bath, there should be a prompt reaction. +When the surface is chilled by cold water, the blood sets to the heart and +other vital organs, exciting them to more vigorous action, and then, being +thrown back to the surface, it reddens, warms, and stimulates the skin to +an unwonted degree. This is called the reaction, and in it lies the +invigorating influence of the cold bath. When, on the contrary, the skin +is heated by a hot bath, the blood is drawn to the surface, less blood +goes to the heart, the circulation decreases, and languor ensues. A dash +of cold water is both necessary and refreshing at the close of a hot bath. +[Footnote: The Russians are very fond of vapor baths, taken in the +following manner. A large room is heated by stoves. Red-hot stones being +brought in, water is thrown upon them, filling the room with steam. The +bathers sit on benches until they perspire profusely, when they are rubbed +with soapsuds and dashed with cold water. Sometimes, while in this state +of excessive perspiration, they run out of doors and leap into snow +banks.] + +If, after a cold bath, there be felt no glow of warmth, but only a +chilliness and depression, we are thereby warned that either proper means +were not taken to bring on this reaction, or that the circulation is not +vigorous enough to make such a bath beneficial. The general effect of a +cool bath is exhilarating, and that of a warm one depressing. [Footnote: +The sudden plunge into a cold bath is good for the strong and healthy, but +too severe for the delicate. One should always wet first the face, neck, +and chest. It is extremely injurious to stand in a bath with only the feet +and the lower limbs covered by the water, for the blood is thus sent from +the extremities to the heart and internal organs, and they become so +burdened that reaction may be out of their power. A brisk walk, or a +thorough rubbing of the skin, before a cold bath or swim, adds greatly to +its value and pleasure.] Hence the latter should not ordinarily be taken +oftener than once a week, while the former may be enjoyed daily. (See p. +289.) + +SEA BATHING is exceedingly stimulating, on account of the action of the +salt and the exciting surroundings. Twenty minutes is the utmost limit for +bathing or swimming in salt or fresh water. A chilly sensation should be +the signal for instant removal. It is better to leave while the glow and +buoyancy which follow the first plunge are still felt. Gentle exercise +after a bath is beneficial. + +CLOTHING in winter, to keep us warm, should repel the external cold and +retain the heat of the body. In summer, to keep us cool, it should not +absorb the rays of the sun, and should permit the passage of the heat of +the body. At all seasons, it should be porous, to give ready escape to the +perspiration, and a free admission of air to the skin. We can readily +apply these essential conditions to the different kinds of clothing. + +_Linen_ is soft to the touch, and is a good conductor of heat. Hence +it is pleasant for summer wear, but, being apt to chill the surface too +rapidly, it should not be worn next the skin. + +_Cotton_ is a poorer conductor of heat and absorber of moisture, and +is therefore warmer than linen. It is sufficiently cool for summer wear, +and affords better protection against sudden changes. + +_Woolen_ absorbs moisture slowly, and contains much air in its pores. +It is therefore a poor conductor of heat, and guards the wearer against +the vicissitudes of our climate. + +The outer clothing may be adapted largely to ornament, and may be varied +to suit our fancy and the requirements of society. The underclothing +should always be sufficient to keep us warm. Woolen should be worn next +the skin at all times; light gossamer garments in the heat of summer, and +warm, porous flannels in midwinter. + +Light-colored clothing is not only cooler in summer, but warmer in winter. +As the warmth of clothing depends greatly on the amount of air contained +in its fibers, fine, loose, porous cloth with a plenty of nap is best for +winter wear. Firm and heavy goods are not necessarily the warmest. Furs +are the perfection of winter clothing, since they combine warmth with +lightness. Two light woolen garments are warmer than one heavy one, as +there is between them a layer of nonconducting air. + +All the body except the head should be equally protected by clothing. +Whatever fashion may dictate, no part covered to-day can be uncovered +tonight or to-morrow, except at the peril of health. It is a most +barbarous and cruel custom to leave the limbs of little children +unprotected, when adults would shiver at the very thought of exposure. +Equally so is it for children to be thinly clad for the purpose of +hardening them. To go shivering with cold is not the way to increase one's +power of endurance. The system is made more vigorous by exercise and food; +not by exposure. In winter, we should wear warm shoes with thick soles, +and rubbers when it is damp. At night, and after exercise, we require +extra clothing. (See p. 295.) + +DISEASES, ETC.--l. _Erysipelas_ is an inflammation (see Inflammation) +of the skin, and often begins in a spot not larger than a pin head, which +spreads with great rapidity. It is very commonly checked by the +application of a solution of iodine. The burning and contracting sensation +may be relieved by cloths wrung out of hot water. + +2. _Eczema_ (Salt Rheum, etc.) is of constitutional origin. It is +characterized by an itching, burning, reddened eruption, in which a serous +discharge exudes and dries into crusts or scales. The skin thickens in +patches, and painful fissures are formed, which are irritated by exposure +to air or water. Eczema denotes debility. It occurs in various forms, and, +like erysipelas, should be treated by a physician. + +3. _Corns_ are thickened cuticle, caused by pressure or friction. +They most frequently occur on the feet; but are produced on the +shoemaker's knee by constant hammering, and on the soldier's shoulder by +the rubbing of his musket. This hard portion irritates the sensitive cutis +beneath, and so causes pain. A corn will soften in hot water, when it may +be pared with a sharp knife. If the cause be removed, the corn will not +return. + +4. _Ingrowing Nails_ are caused by pressure, which forces the edge of +the toe nail into the flesh. They may be cured by carefully cutting away +the part which has mal-grown, and then scraping the back of the nail till +it is thin, making a small incision in the center, at the top. The two +portions, uniting, will draw away the nail from the flesh at the edge. +Ingrowing nails may be prevented by wearing broad-toed shoes. + +5. _Warts_ are overgrown papillæ (Fig. 24). They may generally be +removed by the application of glacial acetic acid, or a drop of nitric +acid, repeated until the entire structure is softened. Care must be taken +to keep the acid from touching the neighboring skin. The capricious +character of warts has given rise to the popular delusion concerning the +influence of charms upon them. + +6. _Chilblain_ is a local inflammation affecting generally the feet, +the hands, or the lobes of the ear. Liability to it usually passes away +with manhood. It is not caused by "freezing the feet," as many suppose, +though attacks are brought on, or aggravated, by exposure to cold, +followed by sudden warming. Chilblain is subject to daily congestion (see +Congestion), manifested by itching, soreness, etc., commonly occurring at +night. The best preventive is a uniform temperature, and careful +protection against the cold by warm clothing, especially for the feet. + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. If a hair be plucked out, will another grow in its place? + +2. What causes the hair to "stand on end" when we are frightened? + +3. Why is the skin roughened by riding in the cold? + +4. Why is the back of a washerwoman's hand less water-soaked than the +palm? + +5. What would be the length of the perspiratory tubes in a single square +inch of the palm, if placed end to end? + +6. What colored clothing is best adapted to all seasons? + +7. What is the effect of paint and powder on the skin? + +8. Is waterproof clothing healthful for constant wear? + +9. Why are rubbers cold to the feet? + +10. Why does the heat seem oppressive when the air is moist? + +11. Why is friction of the skin invigorating after a cold bath? + +12. Why does the hair of domestic animals become roughened in winter? + +13. Why do fowls spread their feathers before they perch for the night? + +14. How can an extensive burn produce congestion of the lungs? + +15. Why do we perspire so profusely after drinking cold water? + +16. How can we best prevent skin diseases, colds, and rheumatism? + +17. What causes the difference between the hard hand of a blacksmith and +the soft hand of a woman? + +18. Why should a painter avoid getting paint on the palm of his hand? + +19. Why should we not use the soap or the soiled towel at a hotel? + +20. Which teeth cut like a pair of scissors? + +21. Which teeth cut like a chisel? + +22. Which should be clothed the warmer, a merchant or a farmer? 23. Why +should we not crack nuts with our teeth? + +24. Do the edges of the upper and the lower teeth meet? + +25. When fatigued, would you take a cold bath? + +26. Why is the outer surface of a kid glove finer than the inner? + +27. Why will a brunette endure the sun's rays better than a blonde? + +28. Does patent leather form a healthful covering for the feet? + +29. Why are men more frequently bald than women? + +30. On what part of the head does baldness commonly occur? Why? + +31. What does the combination in our teeth of canines and grinders suggest +as to the character of our food? + +32. Is a staid, formal promenade suitable exercise? + +33. Is there any danger in changing the warm clothing of our daily wear +for the thin one of a party? + +34. Should we retain our overcoat, shawl, or furs when we come into a warm +room? + +35. Which should bathe the oftener, students or outdoor laborers? + +36. Is abundant perspiration injurious? + +37. How often should the ablution of the entire body be performed? + +38. Why is cold water better than warm, for our daily ablution? + +39. Why should our clothing always fit loosely? + +40. Why should we take special pains to avoid clothing that is colored by +poisonous dyestuffs? (See p. 296.) + +41. What general principles should guide us as to the length and frequency +of baths In salt or fresh water? + +42. What is the beneficial effect of exercise upon the functions of the +skin? + +43. How can we best show our admiration and respect for the human body? + +44. Why is the scar of a severe wound upon a negro sometimes white? + + + + +IV. + + +RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. + +"The smooth soft air with pulse-like waves +Flows murmuring through its hidden caves, +Whose streams of brightening purple rush, +Fired with a new and livelier blush; +While all their burden of decay +The ebbing current steals away." + +ANALYSIS OF RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. + +_ +| 1. The Larnyx. +_ | 2. The Vocal Cords. +| 1. ORGANS OF VOICE.....| 3. Different Tones of Voice. +| | 4. Speech. +| |_5. Formation of Vocal Sounds. +| _ +| | 1. The Trachea. +| | 2. The Bronchial Tubes. +| 2. ORGANS OF RESPIRA- | 3. The Cells. +| TION.........| 4. The Lung Wrapping. +| |_5. The Cilia. +| _ +| | 1. Inspiration. +| 3. HOW WE BREATHE......|_2. Expiration. +| _ +| | 1. Sighing. +| | 2. Coughing. +| | 3. Sneezing. +| 4. MODIFICATIONS OF | 4. Snoring. +| THE BREATH.......| 5. Laughing, and Crying. +| | 6. Hiccough. +| |_7. Yawning. +| +| 5. CAPACITY OF THE LUNGS. +| _ +| | 1. The Need of Air. +| | 2. Action of Air in the Lungs. +| | 3. Tests of the Breath. +| | 4. Analysis of Expired Air. +| | 5. Effect of Rebreathed Air. +| | _ +| 6. HYGIENE.............| | a. _The Sources of +| | | Impurity._ +| | | b. _The Sick Room._ +| | 6. Concerning | c. _The Sitting Room._ +| | the Need of | d. _The Bedroom._ +| |_ Ventilation.| e. _The Church._ +| | f. _The Schoolroom._ +| | g. _How we should +| |_ Ventilate._ +| +| 7. THE WONDERS OF RESPIRATION. +| _ +| | 1. Constriction of the Lungs. +| | 2. Bronchitis. +| | 3. Pleurisy. +| | 4. Pneumonia. +|_8. DISEASES............| 5. Consumption +| 6. Asphyxia. +| 7. Diptheria. +| 8. Croup. +|_9. Stammering. + +RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. + +The Organs of Respiration and the Voice are the _larynx_, the +_trachea_, and the _lungs_. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF THE VOICE.--l. _The Larynx_.--In the +neck, is a prominence sometimes called Adam's apple. It is the front of +the _larynx_. This is a small triangular, cartilaginous box, placed +just below the root of the tongue, and at the top of the windpipe. The +opening into it from the throat is called the _glottis_; and the +cover, the _epiglottis_ (_epi_, upon; _glotta_, the tongue). The +latter is a spoon-shaped lid, which opens when we breathe, but, by +a nice arrangement, shuts when we try to swallow, and so lets our +food slip over it into the _œsophagus_ (e-sof'-a-gus), the tube leading +from the pharynx to the stomach (Fig. 27). + +If we laugh or talk when we swallow, our food is apt to "go the wrong +way," _i. e._, little particles pass into the larynx, and the +tickling sensation which they produce forces us to cough in order to expel +the intruders. + +2. _The Vocal Cords_.--On each side of the _glottis_ are the so- +called _vocal cords_. They are not really cords, but merely elastic +membranes projecting from the sides of the box across the opening. +[Footnote: The cartilages and vocal cords may be readily seen in the +larynx of an ox or sheep. If the flesh be cut off, the cartilages will +dry, and will keep for years.] When not in use, they spread apart and +leave a V-shaped orifice (Fig. 28), through which the air passes to and +from the lungs. If the cords are tightened, the edges approach sometimes +within 1/100 of an inch of each other, and, being thrown into vibration, +cause corresponding vibrations in the current of air. Thus sound is +produced in the same manner as by the vibrations of the tongues of an +accordion, or the strings of a violin, only in this case the strings are +scarcely an inch long. + +FIG. 27. + +[Illustration: _Passage to the Œsophagus and Windpipe._ c, _the +tongue;_ d, _the soft palate, ending in_ g, _the uvula;_ h, +_the epiglottis;_ i, _the glottis;_ I, _the œsophagus;_ f, +_the pharynx._] + +DIFFERENT TONES OF THE VOICE.--The higher tones of the voice are produced +when the cords are short, tight, and closely in contact; the lower, by the +opposite conditions. Loudness is regulated by the quantity of air and +force of expulsion. A falsetto voice is thought to be the result of a +peculiarity in the pharynx (Fig. 27) at the back part of the nose; it is +more probably produced by some muscular maneuver not yet fully understood. +When boys are about fourteen years of age, the larynx enlarges, and the +cords grow proportionately longer and coarser; hence, the voice becomes +deeper, or, as we say, "changes." The peculiar harshness of the voice at +this time seems to be due to a congestion of the mucous membrane of the +cords. The change may occur very suddenly, the voice breaking in a single +night. + +FIG. 28. + +[Illustration: e, e, _the vocal cords;_ d, _the epiglottis._] + +Speech is voice modulated by the lips, tongue, [Footnote: The tongue is +styled the "unruly member," and held responsible for all the tattling of +the world; but when the tongue is removed, the adjacent organs in some way +largely supply the deficiency, so that speech is still possible. Huxley +describes the conversation of a man who had two and one half inches of his +tongue preserved in spirits, and yet could converse intelligibly. Only the +two letters _t_ and _d_ were beyond his power; the articulation +of these involves the employment of the tip of the tongue; hence, "tin" he +converted into "fin," and "dog" into "thog."] palate, and teeth. +[Footnote: An artificial larynx may be made by using elastic bands to +represent the vocal cords, and by placing above them chambers which by +their resonance will produce the same effect as the cavities lying above +the larynx. An artificial speaking machine was constructed by Kempelen, +which could pronounce such sentences as, "I love you with all my heart," +in different languages, by simply touching the proper keys.] Speech and +voice are commonly associated, but speech may exist without the voice, for +when we whisper we articulate the words, although there is no +vocalization, _i. e._, no action of the larynx. [Footnote: We can +observe this by placing the hand on the throat, and noticing the absence +of vibrations when we whisper, and their presence when we talk. The +difference between vocalization and non-vocalization is seen in a sigh and +a groan, the latter being the former vocalized. Whistling is a pure mouth +sound, and does not depend on the voice. Laughter is vocal, being the +aspirated vowels, a, e, or o, convulsively repeated.] (See p. 297.) + +FIG. 29. + +[Illustration: _The Lungs, showing the Larynx._ A, _the +windpipe;_ B, _the bronchial tubes._] + +FORMATION OF VOCAL SOUNDS.--The method of modulating voice into speech may +be seen by producing the pure vowel sounds _a, e_, etc., from one +expiration, the mouth being kept open while the form of the aperture is +changed for each vowel by the tongue and the lips. _H_ is only an +explosion, or forcible throwing of a vowel sound from the mouth. +[Footnote: When, in sounding a vowel, the sound coincides with a sudden +change in the position of the vocal cords from one of divergence to one of +approximation, the vowel is pronounced with the _spiritus asper_. +When the vocal cords are brought together before the blast of air begins, +the vowel is pronounced with the _spiritus lenis._--FOSTER.] + +The consonants, or short sounds, may also be made without interrupting the +current of air, by various modifications of the vocal organs. In sounding +singly any one of the letters, we can detect its peculiar requirements. +Thus _m_ and _n_ can be made only by blocking the air in the +mouth and sending it through the nose; _l_ lets the air escape at the +sides of the tongue; _r_ needs a vibratory movement of the tongue; +_b_ and _p_ stop the breath at the lips; _k_ and _g_ (hard), at the +back of the palate. Consonants like _b_ and _d_ are abrupt, or, like +_l_ and _s_, continuous. Those made by the lips are termed _labials_; +those by pressing the tongue against the teeth, _dentals_; those by the +tongue, _linguals_. + +The child gains speech slowly, first learning to pronounce the vowel +_a_, the consonants _b, m_, and _p_, and then their unions --_ba, ma, pa_. + +DESCRIPTION OF THE ORGANS OF RESPIRATION.--Beneath the larynx is the +windpipe, or _trachea_ (see Fig. 29), so called because of its +roughness. It is strengthened by C-shaped cartilages with the openings +behind, where they are attached to the œsophagus. At the lower end, the +trachea divides into two branches, called the right and left +_bronchi_. These subdivide in the small bronchial tubes, which ramify +through the lungs like the branches of a tree, the tiny twigs of which at +last end in clusters of cells so small that there are six hundred million +in all. This cellular structure renders the lungs exceedingly soft, +elastic, and sponge-like. [Footnote: The lungs of slaughtered animals are +vulgarly called "lights," probably on account of their lightness. They are +similar in structure to those of man. They will float on water, and if a +small piece be forcibly squeezed between the fingers (notice the creaking +sound it gives), it will retain sufficient air to make it buoyant.] + +FIG. 30. + +[Illustration: _Bronchial Tubes, with clusters of cells._] + +The stiff, cartilaginous rings, so noticeable in the rough surface of the +trachea and the bronchi, disappear as we reach the smaller bronchial +tubes, so that while the former are kept constantly open for the free +admission of air, the latter are provided with elastic fibers by which +they may be almost closed. + +WRAPPING OF THE LUNGS.--The lungs are invested with a double covering--the +_pleura_--one layer being attached to the lungs and the other to the +walls of the chest. It secretes a fluid which lubricates it, so that the +layers glide upon each other with perfect ease. [Footnote: These pleural +sacs are distinct and closed; hence, when the ribs are raised, a partial +vacuum being formed in the sacs, air rushes in, and distends the pulmonary +lobules.] The lungs are lined with mucous membrane, exceedingly delicate +and sensitive to the presence of anything except pure air. We have all +noticed this when we have breathed any thing offensive. + +FIG. 31. + +[Illustration: A, _the heart;_ B, _the lungs drawn aside to show +the internal organs;_ C, _the diaphragm;_ D, _the liver;_ E, +_the gall cyst;_ F, _the stomach;_ G,_ the small intestines;_ H, +_the transverse colon._] + +THE CILIA.--Along the air passages are minute filaments (_cilia_, +Fig. 32), which are in constant motion, like a field of grain stirred by a +gentle breeze. They serve to fan the air in the lungs, and produce an +outward current, which is useful in catching dust and fine particles swept +inward with the breath. + +HOW WE BREATHE.--Respiration consists of two acts--taking in the air, or +_inspiration_, and expelling the air, or _expiration_. + +FIG. 32. + +[Illustration: B, _a section of the mucous membrane, showing the cilia +rising from the peculiar epithelial cells on the outside of the mucous +membrane lining the tubes;_ A, _a single cell more highly +magnified._] + +1. _Inspiration_.--When we draw in a full breath, we straighten the +spine and throw the head and shoulders back, so as to give the greatest +advantage to the muscles. [Footnote: If we examine the bony cage of the +thorax or chest in Fig. 8, we shall see that the position of the ribs may +alter its capacity in two ways. + +1. As they run obliquely downward from the spine, if the sternum or +breastbone be lifted in front, the diameter of the chest will be +increased. + +2. The ribs are fastened by elastic cartilages, which stretch as the +muscles that lift the ribs contract, and so increase the breadth of the +chest.] + +At the same time, the diaphragm [Footnote: The diaphragm is the muscular +partition between the chest and the abdomen. It is always convex toward +the former, and concave toward the latter (Fig. 31). Long muscular fibers +extend from its center toward the ribs in front and the spine at the back. +When these contract, they depress and flatten the diaphragm; when they +relax, it becomes convex again. In the former case, the bowels are pressed +downward and the abdomen pushed outward; in the latter, the bowels spring +upward, and the abdomen is drawn inward.] descends and presses the walls +of the abdomen outward. Both these processes increase the size of the +chest. Thereupon, the elastic lungs expand to occupy the extra space, +while the air, rushing in through the windpipe, pours along the bronchial +tubes and crowds into every cell. [Footnote: It is said that in drawing a +full breath, the muscles exert a force equal to raising a weight of seven +hundred and fifty pounds. When we are about to make a great effort, as in +striking a heavy blow, we naturally take a deep inspiration, and shut the +glottis. The confined air makes the chest tense and firm, and enables us +to exert a greater force. As we let slip the blow, the glottis opens and +the air escapes, often with a curious aspirated sound as is noticeable in +workmen. To make a good shot with a rifle, we should take aim with a full +chest and tight breath, since then the arms will have a steadier support.] + +2. _Expiration_.--When we forcibly expel the air from our lungs, the +operation is reversed. We bend forward, draw in the walls of the abdomen, +and press the diaphragm upward, while the ribs are pulled downward,--all +together diminishing the size of the chest, and forcing the air outward. + +Ordinary, quiet breathing is performed mainly by the diaphragm,--one +breath to every four beats of the heart, or eighteen per minute. (See p. +299.) + +MODIFICATIONS OF THE BREATH.--_Sighing_ is merely a prolonged +inspiration followed by an audible expiration. _Coughing_ is a +violent expiration in which the air is driven through the mouth. +_Sneezing_ differs from coughing, the air being forced through the +nose. _Snoring_ is produced by the passage of the breath through the +pharynx when the tongue and soft palate are in certain positions. +[Footnote: The soft palate must have fallen back in such a manner as +nearly or quite to close the entrance to the nasal cavity from the throat, +and the tongue must also be thrown back so far as to leave only a narrow +opening between it and the soft palate. The noise is produced by the air +being forced either inward or outward through this opening. A snore +results also when, with a closed mouth, the air is forced between the soft +palate and the back wall of the pharynx into the nasal cavity. With deep +breathing, perhaps accompanied by a variation in the position of the soft +palate, a rattling noise may be heard in addition to the snoring, which is +due to a vibration of the soft palate.--F. A. FERNALD, in "How we Sneeze, +Laugh, Stammer, and Sigh."--_Popular Science Monthly_, Feb., 1884.] +_Laughing_ and _crying_ are very much alike. The expression of +the face is necessary to distinguish between them. The sounds are produced +by short, rapid contractions of the diaphragm. _Hiccough_ is confined +to inspiration. It is caused by a contraction of the diaphragm and a +constriction of the glottis; the current of air just entering, as it +strikes the closed glottis, gives rise to the well-known sound. +_Yawning_, or _gaping_, is like sighing. [Footnote: The +usefulness of a yawn lies in bringing up the arrears, as it were, of +respiration, when it has fallen behindhand, either through fatigue or +close attention to other occupation. The stretching of the jaws and limbs +may also serve to equalize the nervous influence, certain muscles having +become uneasy on account of being stretched or contracted for a long +time.] It is distinguished by a wide opening of the mouth and a deep, +profound inspiration. Both processes furnish additional air, and therefore +probably meet a demand of the system for more oxygen. Frequently, however, +they are like laughing, sobbing, etc., merely a sort of contagion, which +runs through an audience, and seems almost irresistible. + +THE CAPACITY OF THE LUNGS.--If we take a deep inspiration, and then +forcibly exhale all the air we can expel from the lungs, this amount, +which is termed the _breathing capacity_, will bear a very close +correspondence to our stature. For a man of medium height (five feet eight +inches) it will be about two hundred and thirty cubic inches, [Footnote: +Of this amount, one hundred cubic inches can be forced in only by an extra +effort, and is available for emergencies, or for purposes of training, as +in singing, climbing, etc. It is of great importance, since, if the +capacity of the lungs only equaled our daily wants, the least obstruction +would prove fatal.] or a gallon, and for each inch of height between five +and six feet there will be an increase of eight cubic inches. In addition, +it is found that the lungs contain about one hundred cubic inches which +can not be expelled, thus making their entire contents about three hundred +and thirty cubic inches, or eleven pints. The extra amount always on hand +in the lungs is of great value, since thereby the action of the air goes +on continuously, even during a violent expiration. In ordinary breathing, +only about twenty or thirty cubic inches (less than a pint) of air pass in +and out. + +THE NEED OF AIR.--The body needs food, clothing, sunshine, bathing, and. +drink; but none of these wants is so pressing as that for air. The other +demands may be met by occasional supplies, but air must be furnished every +moment or we die. Now the vital element of the atmosphere is oxygen gas. +[Footnote: See "Steele's Popular Chemistry," p. 30. The atmosphere +consists of one fifth oxygen and four fifths nitrogen. The former is the +active element; and the latter, the passive. Oxygen alone would be too +stimulating, and must be restrained by the neutral nitrogen. Separately, +either element of the air would kill us.] This is a stimulating, life- +giving principle. No tonic will so invigorate as a few full, deep breaths +of cold, pure air. Every organ will glow with the energy of the fiery +oxygen. + +ACTION OF THE AIR IN THE LUNGS.--In the delicate cells of the lungs, the +air gives up its oxygen to the blood, and receives in turn carbonic-acid +[Footnote: More properly _Carbon dioxide_.] gas and water, foul with +waste matter which the blood has picked up in its circulation through the +body. The blood, thus purified and laden with the inspiring oxygen, goes +bounding through the system, while the air we exhale carries off the +impurities. In this process, the blood changes from purple to red. If we +examine our breath, we can readily see what it has removed from the blood. + +TESTS OF THE BREATH.--1. Breathe into a jar, and on lowering into it a +lighted candle, the flame will be instantly extinguished; thus indicating +the presence of carbonic-acid gas. 2. Breathe upon a mirror, and a film of +moisture will show the vapor. [Footnote: There is a close relation between +the functions of the skin, the lungs, and the kidneys--the scavengers of +the body. They all carry off water from the blood, and when the function +of one of the three is, in this respect, interfered with, the others are +called upon to perform its functions. When the function of perspiration is +deranged, the lungs and kidneys are required to perform heavier duty, and +this may lead to disease (see p. 62).] 3. If breath be confined in a +bottle, the animal matter will decompose and give off an offensive odor. + +ANALYSIS OF THE EXPIRED AIR shows that it has lost about twenty-five per +cent of its oxygen, and gained an equal amount of carbonic-acid gas, +besides moisture, and organic impurities. Our breath, then, is air robbed +of its vitality, and containing in its place a gas as fatal to life +[Footnote: Carbonic-acid gas can not be breathed when undiluted, as the +glottis closes and forbids its passage into the lungs. Air containing only +three or four per cent acts as a narcotic poison (MILLER), and a much +smaller proportion will have an injurious effect. The great danger, +however, lies in the organic particles constantly exhaled from the lungs +and the skin, which, it is believed, are often direct and active poisons.] +as it is to a flame, and effete matter which is disagreeable to the smell, +injurious to the health, and which may contain the germs of serious +disease. + +THE EVIL EFFECT OF REBREATHING the air can not be overestimated. We take +back into our bodies that which has just been rejected. The blood +thereupon leaves the lungs, bearing, not the invigorating oxygen, but +refuse matter to obstruct the whole system. We soon feel the effect. The +muscles become inactive. The blood stagnates. The heart acts slowly. The +food is undigested. The brain is clogged. The head aches. Instances of +fatal results are only too frequent. [Footnote: During the English war in +India, in the eighteenth century, one hundred and forty-six prisoners were +shut up in a room scarcely large enough to hold them. The air could enter +only by two narrow windows. At the end of eight hours, but twenty-three +persons remained alive, and these were in a most deplorable condition. +This prison is well called "The Black Hole of Calcutta."--Percy relates +that after the battle of Austerlitz, three hundred Russian prisoners were +confined in a cavern, where two hundred and sixty of them perished in a +few hours.--The stupid captain of the ship _Londonderry_, during a +storm at sea, shut the hatches. There were only seven cubic feet of space +left for each person, and in six hours ninety of the passengers were +dead.] The constant breathing of even the slightly impure air of our +houses can not but tend to undermine the health. The blood is not +purified, and is thus in a condition to receive the seeds of disease at +any time. The system uninspired by the energizing oxygen is sensitive to +cold. The pale cheek, the lusterless eye, the languid step, speak but too +plainly of oxygen starvation. In such a soil, catarrh, scrofula, and +kindred diseases run riot. [Footnote: One not very strong, or unable +powerfully to resist conditions unfavorable to health, and with a +predisposition to lung disease, will be sure, sooner or later, by partial +lung starvation and blood poisoning, to develop pulmonary consumption. +_The lack of what is so abundant and so cheap--good, pure air--is +unquestionably the one great cause of this terrible disease_.--BLACK'S +_Ten Laws of Health_.] + +CONCERNING THE NEED FOR VENTILATION.--The foul air which passes off from +the lungs and through the pores of the skin does not fall to the floor, +but diffuses itself through the surrounding atmosphere. A single breath +will to a trifling but certain extent taint the air of a whole room. +[Footnote: This grows out of a well-known philosophical principle called +the Diffusion of Gases, whereby two gases tend to mix in exact +proportions, no matter what may be the quantity of each.--STEELE'S +_Popular Chemistry,_ p. 86, and _Popular Physics,_ p. 52.] A +light will vitiate as much air as a dozen persons. Many breaths and lights +therefore rapidly unfit the air for our use. + +The perfection of ventilation is reached when the air of a room is as pure +as that out of doors. To accomplish this result, it is necessary to allow +for each person six hundred cubic feet of space, while ventilation is +still going on in the best manner known. + +In spite of these well-known facts, scarcely any pains are taken to supply +fresh air, while the doors and windows where the life-giving oxygen might +creep in are hermetically stopped. + +How often is this true of the sick room. Yet here the danger of bad air is +intensified. The expired breath of the patient is peculiarly threatening +to himself as well as to others. Nature is seeking to throw off the poison +of the disease. The scavengers of the body are all at work. The breath and +the insensible perspiration are loaded with impurities. [Footnote: The +floating dust in the air, revealed to us by the sunbeam shining through a +crack in the blinds, shows the abundance of these impurities, and also the +presence of germs which, lodging in the lungs, may implant disease, unless +thrown off by a vigorous constitution. "On uncovering a scarlet fever +patient, a cloud of fine dust is seen to rise from the body--contagious +dust, that for days will retain its poisonous properties."--YOUMANS. (See +p. 300.)] The odor is oftentimes exceedingly offensive. Sick and well +alike need an abundance of fresh air. But, too often, it is the only want +not supplied. + +Our sitting rooms, heated by furnaces or red-hot stoves, generally have no +means of ventilation, or, if provided, they are seldom used. A window is +occasionally dropped to give a little relief, as if pure air were a +rarity, and must be doled out to the suffering lungs in morsels, instead +of full and constant draughts. The inmates are starved by scanty lung +food, and stupefied by foul air. The process goes on year by year. The +weakened and poisoned body at last succumbs to disease, while we, in our +blindness and ignorance, talk of the mysterious Providence which thus +untimely cuts down the brightest intellects. The truth is, death is often +simply the penalty for violating nature's laws. Bad air begets disease; +disease begets death. + +In our churches, the foul air left by the congregation on Sunday is shut +up during the week, and heated for the next Lord's day, when the people +assemble to rebreathe the polluted atmosphere. They are thus forced, with +every breath they take, to violate the physical laws of Him whom they meet +to worship,--laws written not three thousand years ago upon Mount Sinai on +tables of stone, but to-day engraved in the constitution of their own +living, breathing bodies. On brains benumbed and starving for oxygen, the +purest truth and the highest eloquence fall with little force. + +We sleep in a small bedroom from which every breath of fresh air is +excluded, because we believe night air to be unhealthy, [Footnote: There +is a singular prejudice against the night air. Yet, as Florence +Nightingale aptly says, what other air can we breathe at night? We then +have the choice between foul air within and pure air without. For, in +large cities especially, the night air is far more wholesome than that of +the daytime. To secure fresh air at night, we must open the windows of our +bedroom.] and so we breathe its dozen hogsheads of air over and over +again, and then wonder why we awaken in the morning so dull and +unrefreshed! Return to our room after inhaling the fresh, morning air, and +the fetid odor we meet on opening the door, is convincing proof how we +have poisoned our lungs during the night. + +Each room should be supplied with two thousand feet of fresh air per hour +for every person it contains. Our ingenuity ought to find some way of +doing this advantageously and pleasantly. A moiety of the care we devote +to delicate articles of food, drink, and dress would abundantly meet this +prime necessity of our bodies. + +Open the windows a little at the top and the bottom. Put on plenty of +clothing to keep warm by day and by night, and then let the inspiring +oxygen come in as freely as God has given it. Pure air is the cheapest +necessity and luxury of life. Let it not be the rarest! + +SCHOOLROOM VENTILATION.--Who, on going from the open air of a clear, +bracing winter's day, into a crowded schoolroom, late in the session, has +not noticed the disagreeable odor, and been for a moment nauseated and +half stifled by the oppressive atmosphere! It is not strange. See how many +causes here combine to pollute the air. If the room is heated by a stove, +quantities of carbonic-oxide and carbonic-acid gases, as well as other +products of combustion, driven by downward drafts in the flue, escape +through seams and cracks and the occasionally opened door of the stove. In +the case of a furnace, the same effect is too often experienced, and the +odor of coal gas is a common one, especially when the fire is replenished. +The insensible perspiration is more active in children than in adults; +they, moreover, rush in with their clothing saturated with the +perspiration induced by their sports; so that, on the average, each pupil, +during school hours, loads the air with about half a pint of aqueous +vapor. The children come, oftentimes, from homes that are close, ill- +ventilated, and uncleanly; and frequently from sick rooms, bringing in +their clothing the germs of disease. (See p. 304.) Some of the pupils may +even bear traces of illness, or have unsound organs, and so their breath +and exhalations be poisonous. + +In addition to all this, the air is filled with dust brought in and kept +astir by many busy feet; with ashes floating from the stove or furnace; +and especially with chalk dust. The modern method of teaching requires a +large amount of blackboard work, and the air of the schoolroom is thus +loaded with chalk particles. These collect in the nasal passages, and the +upper part of the larynx, and irritate the membrane, perhaps laying the +foundation of catarrh. + +The usual schoolroom atmosphere bears in the pupils the natural fruit of +frequent headaches, inattention, weariness, and stupor; but in the teacher +its frightful influence is most apparent. His labor is severe, his worry +of mind is constant, and, when he finishes his day's work, he is generally +too tired to take proper physical exercise. He consequently labors on with +impaired health, or is forced to abandon his profession. + +Instead of six hundred feet of space being allowed for each pupil, as +perfect ventilation demands--the lowest estimate being two hundred and +fifty feet--often not over one hundred feet are afforded. Instead of two +thousand cubic feet of fresh air being supplied every hour for each +person, and as much foul air removed, which, all physiologists assert, is +needed for perfect health, perhaps no means of ventilation at all are +provided, and none is secured except what an occasionally opened door, or +the benevolent cracks and chinks in the building furnish the suffering +lungs. [Footnote: Imagine fifty pupils put into a class room thirty feet +long, twenty-five feet wide, and ten feet high. This would generally be +considered a very liberal provision. Such a room contains seven thousand +five hundred cubic feet of air. But it furnishes only one hundred and +fifty feet of space for each pupil. Allowing ten cubic feet of air per +pupil each minute, in fifteen minutes after assembling, the entire +atmosphere of the room is tainted, and unfit to be rebreathed. The demand +of health is that at least one thousand five hundred cubic feet of pure +air should be admitted into this room every minute, and as much be +removed.] + +HOW SHALL WE VENTILATE?--The usual method of ventilation depends upon the +fact that hot air is lighter than cold air, and so the cold air tends, by +the force of gravity, to fall and compel the warm air to rise. Thus, if we +open the door of a heated room, and hold a lighted candle first at the +top, and then at the bottom, we can see, by the deflection of the flame, +that there is a current of air setting outward at the top, and another +setting inward at the bottom of the opening. A handkerchief held loosely, +or the smoke of a smoldering match, in front of a fireplace will show a +current of air passing up the chimney; this is caused by the difference of +temperature between the air in the room and the outside atmosphere. +_Upon this difference of temperature, all ordinary ventilation is +based_. [Footnote: Public buildings are sometimes ventilated by +mechanical means, _i. e._, immense fans which are turned by +machinery, and thus set the air in motion. Such methods are, however, +expensive, and rarely adopted, except where power is also used for other +purposes.] A proper treatment of this subject and its practical +applications, would require a book by itself. There is room here for only +a few general statements and suggestions. + +1. Two openings are always necessary to produce a thorough change of air. +(See "Popular Chemistry," p. 70.) Put a lighted candle in a bottle. The +flame will soon be extinguished. The oxygen of the little air in the +bottle is burned out, and carbonic acid has taken its place. Now place +over the mouth of the bottle a lamp chimney, and insert in the chimney a +strip of cardboard, thus dividing the passage. On relighting the candle, +it will burn freely. The smoke of a bit of smoldering paper will show that +two opposite currents of air are established, one setting into the bottle, +the other outward. + +2. In the winter, when our schoolrooms, churches, public halls, etc., are +heated artificially, ventilation is comparatively easy if properly +arranged. [Footnote: For the escape of bad air, Dr. Bell suggests that an +efficient foul-air shaft may be fitted to the commonest of stoves by +simply inclosing the stovepipe in a jacket--that is, in a pipe two or +three inches greater in diameter. This should be braced round the +stovepipe and left open at the end next the stove. At its entrance into +the chimney, a perforated collar should separate it from the stovepipe.] +The required difference of temperature is kept up with little difficulty. +The fresh air admitted to the room should then be heated [Footnote: +Ventilation is change of air, and, unless scientifically arranged, and +especially unless the incoming volume of air be warmed in cold weather, +such change of atmosphere means cold currents, with their attendant train +of catarrhs, bronchitis, neuralgia, rheumatism, and all the evils that +spring from these diseases. The raw, damp, frosty air of our ever-changing +winter temperature ought not to have uncontrolled and constant ingress to +our dwellings. Air out of doors is suited to out of door habits. It is +healthy and bracing when the body is coated and wrapped, and prepared to +meet it, and when exercise can be taken to keep up the circulation; but to +live under cover is to live artificially, and such essential conditions +must be observed as suit an abnormal state. All the evils attaching to +ventilation, as it is generally effected, spring from the neglect of this +consistency.--_Westminster Review_.] either by a furnace, or by +passing over a stove, or through a coil of steam pipes. This cold air +should always be taken directly from out of doors, and not from a cellar, +or from under a piazza, where contamination is possible. + +3. In order to remove the impure air, there should be ventilators provided +at or near the floor, opening into air shafts, or pipes leading upward +through the roof, with proper orifices at the top. These ventilating pipes +should be heated artificially so as to produce a draught. They may form +one of the flues of a chimney in which there is a constant fire; or be +carried upward in a large flue through the center of which runs the smoke +pipe of the furnace or stove; [Footnote: This plan has been adopted in the +newer school buildings of Elmira, N. Y. The older buildings were provided +with ventilating pipes, not heated artificially, and hence of no service. +These pipes are rendered effective, however, by conducting them into a +small room in the garret, heated by a coal stove. From this room, a large +exit pipe leads to the roof, where it terminates in an Emerson's +ventilator. So strong a draught is thus established that throughout the +building air is taken from the floors, and consequently the cooler portion +of the rooms, at a velocity of three to five feet per second or one +hundred and eighty to three hundred cubic feet per minute for each square +foot of flue opening. In perpendicular flues, heated throughout with a +smoke flue from the furnace, ten feet per second is attained.] or the +ventilating pipe be itself conveyed through the center of the larger +chimney flue. If the register for hot air be on the floor at one side of +the room, two or more ventilators may be placed near the floor on the +opposite side. The warm air will thus make the complete circuit of the +room, and thoroughly warm it before passing out. + +If the ventilating shaft be not heated artificially; the ventilator must +be placed at the top of the room in order that the hot air may escape +through it, thus producing an upward draught. But the objection to this +method is that it allows the warmer air to escape, while economy requires +that the cooler air at the bottom of the room should be removed and the +warm air be made to descend, thus securing uniformity of temperature. + +4. In the summer, ventilation may be commonly provided for by opening +windows _at the top and the bottom_, on the sheltered side of the +building, so as to avoid draughts of air injurious to the occupants. On a +dull, still, hot day, when there is little difference of temperature +between the inner and the outer air, ventilation can be secured only by +having a fire provided in the ventilating shaft; this, by exhausting the +air from the room, will cause a fresh current to pour in through the open +windows. At recess, all the children should, if the weather permit, be +sent out of doors, to allow their clothing to be exposed to the purifying +influence of the open air; meantime, the windows should be thrown wide +open, that the room may be thoroughly ventilated during their absence. In +bad weather, rapid marching or calisthenic exercises will furnish +exercise, and also permit the airing of the room. + +5. The school and the church are the centers for spreading contagious +diseases. The former offers especially dangerous facilities for scattering +disease germs. Great pains, therefore, should be taken to exclude pupils +attacked by or recovering from diphtheria, scarlet fever, whooping cough, +etc., and even those who live in houses where such sickness exists. + +6. In our houses [Footnote: The air of our homes is often contaminated by +decaying vegetables and other filth in the cellar; by bad air drawn up +from the soil into the cellar, by the powerful draughts that our fires +create; by defective gas and waste pipes that let the foul air from +cesspool or sewer spread through the house; and by piles of refuse, or +puddles of slops emptied at the back door. Too often, also, the water in +our wells, or in the streams that supply our towns and cities, receives +the drainage from outhouses and barnyards, and so introduces into our +systems, in the liquid--and thus easily assimilated--form, the most +dangerous poisons. The question of sanitary precautions is one that +presses upon every observant mind, and demands constant and thoughtful +attention. (See p. 305.)] open fireplaces are efficient ventilators, and +they should never be closed for any cause. Fresh air admitted by a hot-air +register and impure air passed out by a chimney, form a simple and +thorough system. Our sleeping apartments demand especial care. As soon as +the occupants leave the room, the bedclothes should be removed, and laid +on the backs of chairs to air; the bed be shaken up; and the windows +thrown open. In the summer, the windows may be closed before the sun is +high; the house is then left filled with the cool morning air. In damp and +cold weather, a fire should be lighted in sleeping apartments, +particularly if used by children [Footnote: In winter, children should +always be given a moderately warm, well-ventilated bedroom, with light, +fleecy bed coverings. Says a recent English writer: "The loving care which +prescribes for children a cold bedroom and a hot, sweltering bed is of the +nature that kills. Buried in blankets, their delicate skins become +overheated and relaxed, while they are irritated by perspiration; at the +same time, the most delicate tissues of all, in the lungs, are dealing +with air abnormally frigid. The poor little victims of combined ignorance +and kindness thus toss and dream, feverish and troubled, under a mass of +bedclothes, while the well-meaning mother, soothed by a bedroom fire, +slumbers peacefully through this working out of the sad process of the +'survival of the fittest.'"] or delicate persons, to dry the bedclothing, +and also to prevent a chill on the part of the occupants. It is not +necessary to go shivering to bed in order to harden one's constitution. + +WONDERS OF RESPIRATION.--The perfection of the organs of respiration +challenges our admiration. So delicate are they that the least pressure +would cause exquisite pain, yet tons of air surge to and fro through their +intricate passages, and bathe their innermost cells. We yearly perform at +least seven million acts of breathing, inhaling one hundred thousand cubic +feet of air, and purifying over three thousand five hundred tons of blood. +This gigantic process goes on constantly, never wearies or worries us, and +we wonder at it only when science reveals to us its magnitude. In +addition, by a wise economy, the process of respiration is made to +subserve a second use no less important, and the air we exhale, passing +through the organs of voice, is transformed into prayers of faith, songs +of hope, and words of social cheer. + +FIG. 33. + +[Illustration: A, _the natural position of the internal organs._ B +_when deformed by tight lacing Marshall says that the liver and the +stomach have, in this way, been forced downward almost as low as the +pelvis._] + +DISEASES, ETC.--1. _Constriction of the Lungs_ is produced by tight +clothing. The ribs are thus forced inward, the size of the chest is +diminished, and the amount of inhaled air decreased. Stiff clothing, and +especially a garment that will not admit of a full breath without +inconvenience, will prevent that free movement of the ribs so essential to +health. Any infraction of the laws of respiration, even though it be +fashionable, will result in diminished vitality and vigor, and will be +fearfully punished by sickness and weakness through the whole life. + +2. _Bronchitis_ (bron-ki'-tis) is an inflammation (see Inflammation) +of the mucous membrane of the bronchial tubes. It is accompanied by an +increased secretion of mucus, and consequent coughing. + +3. _Pleurisy_ is an inflammation of the pleura. It is sometimes +caused by an injury to the ribs, and results in a secretion of water +within the membrane. + +4. _Pneumonia_ (_pneuma_, breath) is an inflammation of the +lungs, affecting chiefly the air cells. + +5. _Consumption_ is a disease which destroys the substance of the +lungs. Like other lung difficulties, it is caused largely by a want of +pure air, a liberal supply of which is the best treatment that can be +prescribed for it. [Footnote: If I were seriously ill of consumption, I +would live outdoors day and night, except in rainy weather or midwinter; +then I would sleep in an unplastered log house. Physic has no nutriment, +gaspings for air can not cure you, monkey capers in a gymnasium can not +cure you, stimulants can not cure you. What consumptives want is pure air, +not physic, plenty of meat and plenty of bread.--DR. MARSHALL HALL.] + +6. _Asphyxia_ (as-fix'-i-a).--When a person is drowned, strangled, or +choked in any way, what is called asphyxia occurs. The face turns black; +the veins become turgid; insensibility and often convulsions ensue. If +relief is not secured within a few minutes, death will be inevitable. +[Footnote: The lack of oxygen, and the presence of carbonic-acid gas, are +the combined causes. Oxygen starvation and carbonic-acid poisoning, each +fatal in itself, work together to destroy life.] (See p. 264.) + +7. _Diphtheria_ (_diphthera_, a membrane) is characterized by +fever, debility, and a peculiar sore throat, in which exuding fibrinous +matter forms a grayish white membrane, which afterward decomposes with a +fetid odor. Its sudden and insidious approach, contagious character, and +frequent fatality, render it an exceedingly dreaded disease. A +diphtheritic patient should be quarantined, and everything connected with +the sick room thoroughly disinfected. + +8. _Croup_, which often attacks young children, is an inflammation of +the mucous membrane of the larynx and trachea. It is commonly preceded by +a cold. The child sneezes, coughs, and is hoarse, but the attack +frequently comes on suddenly, and usually in the night. It is accompanied +by a peculiar "brassy," ringing cough, which, once heard, can never be +mistaken. It may prove fatal within a few hours. (See p. 260.) + +9. _Stammering_ depends, not on defects of the muscles, but on a want +of due control of the mind. When a stammerer is not too conscious of his +lack, and tries to form his words slowly, he speaks plainly, and may sing +well, for then his words must follow one another in rhythmic time. Many +persons who stammer in common conversation can talk with fluency when +making a speech. The stammerer should seek to discover the cause of his +difficulty, and to overcome it by vocal and respiratory exercise, +especially by speaking only after a full inspiration, and during a long, +slow expiration. + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. What is the philosophy of "the change of voice" in a boy? + +2. Why can we see our breath on a frosty morning? + +3. When a law of health and a law of fashion conflict, which should we +obey? + +4. If we use a "bunk" bed, should we pack away the clothes when we first +rise in the morning? + +5. Why should a clothespress be well ventilated? + +6. Should the weight of our clothing hang from the waist, or the shoulder? + +7. Describe the effects of living in an overheated room. + +8. What habits impair the power of the lungs? + +9. For full, easy breathing in singing, should we use the diaphragm and +lower ribs, or the upper ribs alone? + +10. Why is it better to breathe through the nose than the mouth? + +11. Why should not a speaker talk while returning home on a cold night +after a lecture? + +12. What part of the body needs the loosest clothing? + +13. What part needs the warmest? + +14. Why is a "spare bed" generally unhealthful? + +15. Is there any good in sighing? + +16. Should a hat be thoroughly ventilated? How? + +17. Why do the lungs of people who live in cities become of a gray color? + +18. How would you convince a person that a bedroom should be aired? +[Footnote: "If the condensed breath collected on the cool windowpanes of a +room where a number of persons have been assembled, be burned, a smell as +of singed hair will show the presence of organic matter; and if the +condensed breath be allowed to remain on the windows for a few days, it +will be found, on examination by the microscope, that it is alive with +animalculæ."] + +19. What persons are most liable to catarrhs, consumption, etc.? + +20. If a person is plunged under water, will it enter his lungs? + +21. Are bed curtains healthful? + +22. Why do some people take "short breaths" after a meal? + +23 What is the special value of public parks? + +24. Can a person become used to bad air, so that it will not injure him? + +25. Why do we gape when we are sleepy? + +26. Is a fashionable waist a model of art in sculpture or painting? + +27. Should a fireplace be closed? [Footnote: Thousands of lives would be +saved if all fireplaces were kept open. If you are so fortunate as to have +a fireplace in your room, paint it when not in use, put a bouquet of fresh +flowers in it every morning, if you please, or do anything to make it +attractive, but never _close it_; better use the fireboards for +kindling wood. It would be scarcely more absurd to take a piece of +elegantly-tinted court-plaster and stop up the nose, trusting to the +accidental opening and shutting of the mouth for fresh air, because you +thought it spoiled the looks of your face to have two such great, ugly +holes in it, than to stop your fireplace with elegantly-tinted paper, or a +Japanese fan, because it looks better.--Leeds.] + +28. Why does embarrassment or fright cause a stammerer to stutter still +more painfully? + +29. In the organs of voice, what parts have somewhat the same effect as +the case of a violin and the sounding-board of a piano? + +30. Why should we be careful not to "take the breath of a sick person"? + +31. What special care should be taken with regard to keeping a cellar +clean? + +32. How is the air strained as it passes into the lungs? + +33. Can one really "draw the air into his lungs"? + +34. How often do we breathe? + +35. Describe some approved method of ventilation. + +36. What is at once the floor of the chest and the roof of the abdomen? + +37. What would you do in a case of apparent death by drowning, or by coal +gas? (See p. 264.) + +38. What would you do in a case of croup, while the doctor was coming? +(See p. 260.) + +39. How would you treat a severe burn? (See p. 257.) + +40. Describe the various ways in which the water in a well is liable to +become unwholesome. + +FIG. 34. + +[Illustration] + + + + +V. + + +THE CIRCULATION. + +"No rest this throbbing slave may ask, +Forever quivering o'er his task, +While far and wide a crimson jet +Leaps forth to fill the woven net, +Which in unnumber'd crossing tides +The flood of burning life divides, +Then, kindling each decaying part, +Creeps back to find the throbbing heart." + +HOLMES. + +ANALYSIS OF THE CIRCULATION + +_ +_ | 1. Its Composition. +| 1. THE BLOOD | 2. Its Uses. +| | 3. Transfusion. +| |_4. Coagulation +| _ +| | 1. _Description._ +| | 2. _Movements._ +| | 3. _Auricles and Ventricles._ +| _ | _ +| | 1. The | | a. Need of. +| | Heart.| | b. Tricuspid and +| | | | Bicuspid. +| | | 4. _The | c. The Strengthen- +| | | Valves._ | ing of the +| | | | Valves. +| | | | d. Semilunar +| | |_ |_ Valves. +| | _ +| 2. ORGANS OF THE | 2. The | 1. _Description._ +| CIRCULATION | Arteries | 2. _The Arterial System._ +| | |_3. _The Pulse._ +| | _ +| | 3. The | 1. _General Description._ +| | Veins |_2. _Valves._ +| | _ +| | 4. The | 1. _Description._ +| | Capilla-| 2. _Use._ +| |_ ries |_3. _Under the Microscope._ +| _ +| | 1. The Lesser. +| 3. THE CIRCULATION.| 2. The Greater. +| |_3. The Velocity of the Blood. +| _ +| 4. THE HEAT OF THE | 1. Distribution. +| BODY. |_2. Regulation. +| +| 5. LIFE BY DEATH. +| +| 6. CHANGE OF OUR BODIES. +| +| 7. THE THREE VITAL ORGANS. +| +| 8. WONDERS OF THE HEART. +| _ +| | 1. Description +| 9. THE LYMPHATIC | 2. The Glands. +| CIRCULATION. | 3. The Lymph. +| |_4. The Office of the Lymphatics. +| _ +| | 1. Congestion. +| | 2. Inflammation. +| | 3. Bleeding. +| 10. DISEASES. | 4. Scrofula. +| | 5. A Cold. +| |_6. Catarrh. +| _ +| | 1. Effect of Alcohol upon the Circulation. +| 11. ALCOHOLIC | 2. Effect of Alcohol upon the Heart. +| DRINKS AND | 3. Effect of Alcohol upon the Membrane. +|_ NARCOTICS. | 4. Effect of Alcohol upon the Blood. +|_5. Effect of Alcohol upon the Lungs. + +THE CIRCULATION. + +THE ORGANS OF THE CIRCULATION are the _heart_, the _arteries_, +the _veins_, and the _capillaries_. + +FIG. 35. + +[Illustration: A, _corpuscles of human blood, highly magnified;_ B, +_corpuscles in the blood of an animal (a non mammal)._] + +THE BLOOD is the liquid by means of which the circulation is effected. It +permeates every part of the body, except the cuticle, nails, hair, etc. +The average quantity in each person is about eighteen pounds. [Footnote: +It is difficult to estimate the exact amount, and therefore authorities +disagree. Foster places it at about one thirteenth of the body weight.] It +is composed of a thin, colorless liquid, the _plasma_, filled with +red disks or cells, [Footnote: There is also one white globular cell to +every three or four hundred red ones. The blood is no more red than the +water of a stream would be if you were to fill it with little red fishes. +Suppose the fishes to be very, very small--as small as a grain of sand-- +and closely crowded together through the whole depth of the stream; the +water would look quite red, would it not? And this is the way in which, +blood looks red--only observe one thing; a grain of sand is a mountain in +comparison with the little red fishes in the blood. If I were to tell you +they measured about 1/3500 of an inch in diameter, you would not be much +wiser; so I prefer saying (by way of giving you a more perfect idea of +their minuteness) that there would be about a million in such a drop of +blood as would hang on the point of a needle. I say so on the authority of +a scientific microscopist--M. Bouillet. Not that he has ever counted +them, as you may suppose, any more than I have done; but this is as near +an approach as can be made by calculation to the size of 1/3500 part of an +inch in diameter.--JEAN MACE.] so small that about three thousand five +hundred placed side by side would measure only an inch, and it would take +sixteen thousand laid flatwise upon one another to make a column of that +height. Under the microscope, they are found to be rounded at the edge and +concave on both sides. [Footnote: By pricking the end of the finger with a +needle, we can obtain a drop for examination. Place it on the slide, cover +with a glass, and put it at once under the microscope. The red disks will +be seen to group themselves in rows, while the white disks will seem to +draw apart, and to be constantly changing their form. After a gradual +evaporation, the crystals (Fig. 36) may be seen. In animals, they have +various, though distinctive forms.] They have a tendency to collect in +piles like rolls of coin. The size and shape vary in the blood of +different animals. [Footnote: Authorities differ greatly in their estimate +of the size of the disks (corpuscles) in human blood. The fact is that the +size varies in different persons, probably also in the same individual. +Many of the best microscopists therefore hesitate to state whether a +particular specimen of blood belonged to a human being or to an animal. +Others claim that they can distinguish with accuracy. Evidently, the +question is one of great uncertainty. The following statement of the size +of the cells in different animals is taken from Gulliver's tables: Cat, +1/4404 of an inch in diameter; whale, 1/3100; mouse, 1/3614; hog, 1/4230; +camel, 1/3123; sheep, 1/3352; horse, 1/4800; Virginia deer, 1/5038; dog- +faced baboon, 1/4861; brown baboon, 1/3493; red monkey, 1/3396; black +monkey, 1/3530.] Disks are continually forming in the blood, and are +constantly dying--twenty million at every breath.--DRAPER. + +The plasma also contains fibrin, [Footnote: it is usual to say that fibrin +is contained in the blood. It probably does not exist as such, but there +are present in the blood certain substances known as _paraglobulin_ +and _fibrinogen_, which by the action of a third substance, _fibrin +ferment_ under certain circumstances, form fibrin and so cause +coagulation. The exact nature of the process by which fibrin is produced +by these three factors is not understood--See Foster's _Text Book of +Physiology_, p 22.] albumin--which is found nearly pure in the white of +an egg--and various mineral substances, as iron, [Footnote: Enough iron +has been found in the ashes of a burned body to form a mourning ring.] +lime, magnesia, phosphorus, potash, etc. + +FIG. 36. + +[Illustration: _Blood Crystals_] + +USES OF THE BLOOD.--The blood has been called "liquid flesh"; but it is +more than that, since it contains the materials for making every organ. +The plasma is rich in mineral matter for the bones, and in albumen for the +muscles. The red disks are the air cells of the blood. They contain the +oxygen so essential to every operation of life. Wherever there is work to +be done or repairs to be made, there the oxygen is needed. It stimulates +to action, and tears down all that is worn out. In this process, it +combines with and actually burns out parts of the muscles and other +tissues, as wood is burned in the stove. [Footnote: For the sake of +simplicity, perhaps to conceal our own ignorance, we call this process +"burning." The simile of a fire is good so far as it goes. But as to the +real nature of the change which the physiologist briefly terms +"oxidation," we know nothing. This much only can be asserted positively. A +stream of oxygen is carried by the blood to the muscles (in fact to every +tissue in the body), while, from the muscles the blood carries away a +stream of carbonic acid and water. But what takes place in the muscles, +when and what chemical change occurs, no one can tell. We see the first +and the last stage. We know that contraction of the muscles somehow comes +about, oxygen disappears, carbonic acid appears, energy is released, and +force is exhibited as motion, heat, and electricity. But the intermediate +step is hidden. + +There are certain theories advanced, however, that are worth considering. +Some physiologists hold that the muscle has the power of taking up the +oxygen from the _hemoglobin_ (a body that comprises ninety per cent +of the red corpuscles when dried, and is the oxygen carrier of the blood), +and fixing it, as well as the raw material (food) furnished by the blood, +thus forming a true contractile substance. The breaking down or +decomposition of this contractile substance in the muscle, sets free its +potential energy. The process is gentle so long as the muscle is at rest, +but becomes excessive and violent when contraction occurs. (See "Foster's +Physiology," p. 118.) It is also believed by some that the chemical change +in the muscle partakes of a fermentive character; that, under the +influence of the proper ferments, the substances break up into other and +simpler products, thus setting free heat and force; and that this chemical +change is followed by a secondary oxidation by the oxygen in the arterial +blood, thereby forming carbonic acid and water, as in all putrefactive +processes. But these and other views are not as yet fully understood; +while they utterly fail to tell us how a collection of simple cells, +filled merely with a semifluid mass of matter, can contract and set free +muscular power. The commonness of this act hides from us its wonderful +nature. But here, hidden in the cell--Nature's tiny laboratory--lies the +mystery of life. Before its closed door we ponder in vain, confessing the +unskillfulness of our labor, and fearing all the while lest the _Secret +of the Cell_ will always elude our search.] The blood, now foul with +the burned matter, the refuse of this fire, is caught up by the +circulation, and whirled back to the lungs, where it is purified, and +again sent bounding on its way. + +There are then two different kinds of the blood in the body: the red or +arterial, and the dark or venous. + +TRANSFUSION.--As the blood is really the "vital fluid" it would seem that +feeble persons might be restored to vigor by infusing healthy blood into +their veins. This hypothesis, so valuable in its possible results in +prolonging human life, has been carefully tested. Animals which have +ceased to breathe have thus had their vitality recalled. In the +seventeenth century the theory became a subject of special investigation. +A maniac was restored to reason by the blood of a calf, and the most +extravagant hopes were entertained. But many fatal accidents occurring, +experiments upon human beings were forbidden by law, and transfusion soon +fell into disuse. It has, however, been successfully practiced in several +cases within the last few years, and is a method still in repute for +saving lives. + +COAGULATION.--When blood is exposed to the air, it coagulates. This is +caused by the solidifying of the fibrin, which entangling the disks, forms +the "clot." The remaining clear, yellow liquid is the _serum_. The +value of this peculiar property of the blood can hardly be overestimated. +The coagulation soon checks all ordinary cases of bleeding. [Footnote: In +the case of the lower animals, which have no means of stopping hemorrhages +as we have, the coagulation is generally still more rapid. In some species +of birds it takes place almost instantaneously.] When a wound is made, and +bleeding commences, the fibrin forms a temporary plug, as it were, which +is absorbed when the healing process is finished. Thus we see how a Divine +foresight has provided not only for the ordinary wants of the body, but +also for the accidents to which it is liable. [Footnote: The fibrin is not +an essential ingredient of the blood. All the functions of life are +regularly performed in people whose blood lacks fibrin; and, in cases of +transfusion, where blood deprived of its fibrin was used, the vivifying +influence seemed to be the same. Its office, therefore, must mainly be to +stanch any hemorrhage which may occur.--FLINT.] + +FIG. 37. + +[Illustration: _The Heart._ A, _the right ventricle;_ B, _the +left ventricle;_ C, _the right auricle;_ D, _the left auricle._] + +THE HEART is the engine which propels the blood. It is a hollow, pear- +shaped muscle, about the size of the fist. It hangs, point downward, just +to the left of the center of the chest. (See Fig. 31.) It is inclosed in a +loose sac of serous membrane, [Footnote: The mucous membrane lines the +open cavities of the body; the serous, the closed. The pericardium is a +sac composed of two layers--a fibrous membrane on the outside, and a +serous one on the inside. The latter covers the external surface of the +heart, and is reflected back upon itself in order to form, like all the +membranes of this nature, a sac without an opening. The heart is thus +covered by the pericardial sac, but not contained inside its cavity. A +correct idea may be formed of the disposition of the pericardium around +the heart by recalling a very common and very convenient, though now +discarded headdress, the cotton nightcap. The pericardium incloses the +heart exactly as this cap covered the heads of our forefathers.-- +_Wonders of the Human Body_.] called the pericardium (_peri_, +about; and _kardia_, the heart). This secretes a lubricating fluid, +and is smooth as satin. + +THE MOVEMENTS OF THE HEART consist of an alternate contraction and +expansion. The former is called the _sys'-to-le_, and the latter the +_di-as'-to-le_. During the diastole, the blood flows into the heart, +to be expelled by the systole. The alternation of these movements +constitutes the beating of the heart which we hear so distinctly between +the fifth and sixth ribs. [Footnote: Two sounds are heard if we put our +ear over the heart,--the first and longer as the blood is leading the +organ, the second as it falls into the pockets of the two arteries, and +the valves then striking together cause it. The first sound is mainly the +noise made by the muscular tissue. During the first, the two ventricles +contract; during the second the two auricles do so. The hand may feel the +heart striking the ribs as it contracts,--a feeling called the impulse, +or, if quicker and stronger than usual, palpitation. This is not always a +sign of disease, but in hypochondriacs is often an effect of the mind on +the nerves of the heart.--MAPOTHER] + +FIG. 38. + +[Illustration: _Chambers of the Heart_ A, _right ventricle;_ B, +_left ventricle,_ C, _right auricle,_ D, _left auricle,_ E, +_tricuspid valve,_ F, _bicuspid valve;_ G, _semilunar valves,_ H, +_valve of the aorta;_ I, _inferior vena cava,_ K, _superior vena +cava,_ L, L, _pulmonary veins._] + +THE AURICLES AND VENTRICLES--The heart is divided into four chambers. In +an adult, each holds about a wineglassful. The upper ones, from appendages +on the outside resembling the ears of a dog, are called _auricles +(aures_, ears). are termed _ventricles_. The auricle and ventricle +on each side communicate with each other, but the right and left halves of +the heart are entirely distinct, and perform different offices. The left +side propels the red blood; and the right, the dark. The auricles are +merely reservoirs to receive the blood (the left auricle, as it filters in +bright and pure from the lungs; the right, as it returns dark and foul +from the tour of the body), and to furnish it to the ventricles as they +need. Their work being so light, their walls are comparatively thin and +weak. On the other hand, the ventricles force the blood (the left, to all +parts of the body; the right, to the lungs), and are, therefore, made very +strong. As the left ventricle drives the blood so much farther than the +right, it is correspondingly thicker and stronger. + +NEED OF VALVES IN THE HEART.--As the auricles do not need to contract with +much force simply to empty their contents into the ventricles below them, +there is no demand for any special contrivance to prevent the blood from +setting back the wrong way. Indeed, it would naturally run down into the +ventricle, which is at that moment open to receive it. But, when the +strong ventricles contract, especially the left one, which must drive the +blood to the extremities, some arrangement is necessary to prevent it from +returning into the auricle. Besides, when they expand, the "suction power" +would tend to draw back again from the arteries all the blood just forced +out. This difficulty is obviated by means of little doors, or valves, +which will not let it go the wrong way. [Footnote: The heart of an ox or a +sheep may be used to show the chambers and valves. The aorta should be cut +as far as possible from the heart, and then by pumping in water the +perfection of these valves will be finely exhibited. Cutting the heart +across near the middle will show the greater thickness of the left +ventricle.] + +THE TRICUSPID AND BICUSPID VALVES.--At the opening into the right +ventricle, is a valve consisting of three folds or flaps of membrane, +whence it is called the _tricuspid_ valve (_tri_, three; and +_cuspides_, points), and in the left ventricle, one containing two +flaps, and named the _bicuspid_ valve. These hang so loosely as to +oppose no resistance to the passage of the blood into the ventricles; but, +if any attempts to go the other way, it gets between the flaps and the +walls of the heart, and, driving them outward, closes the orifice. + +FIG. 39. + +[Illustration: _Diagram showing the peculiar Fibrous Structure of the +Heart and the Shape of the Valves._ A, _tricuspid valve,_ B, +_bicuspid valve;_ C, _semilunar valves of the aorta;_ D, +_semilunar valves of the pulmonary artery._] + +THESE FLAPS ARE STRENGTHENED like sails by slender cords, which prevent +their being pressed back through the opening. If the cords were attached +directly to the walls of the heart, they would be loosened in the systole, +and so become useless when most needed. They are, therefore, fastened to +little muscular pillars projecting from the sides of the ventricle; when +that contracts, the pillars contract also, and thus the cords are held +tight. + +THE SEMILUNAR VALVES.--In the passages outward from the ventricles, are +valves, called from their peculiar half-moon shape _semilunar_ valves +(_semi_, half; _Luna_, Moon). Each consists of three little +pocket-shaped folds of membrane, with their openings in the direction +which the blood is to take. When it sets back, they fill, and, swelling +out, close the passage (Fig. 40). + +THE ARTERIES [Footnote: _Aer,_ air; and _tereo,_ I contain--so +named because after death they contain air only, and hence the ancients +supposed them to be air tubes leading through the body.] are the tube-like +canals which convey the blood _from_ the heart. They carry the red +blood (see note, p. 119). They are composed of an elastic tissue, which +yields at every throb of the heart, and then slowly contracting again, +keeps up the motion of the blood until the next systole. The elasticity of +the arteries acts like the air chamber of a fire engine, which converts +the intermittent jerks of the brakes or pump into the steady stream of the +hose nozzle. + +The arteries sometimes communicate by means of branches or by meshes of +loops, so that if the blood be blocked in one, it can pass round through +another, and so get by the obstacle. [Footnote: This occurs especially +about the joints, where it serves to maintain the circulation during the +bending of a limb, or when the main artery is obstructed by disease or +injury, or has been tied by the surgeon. In the last case, the small +adjacent arteries gradually enlarge, and form what is called a collateral +circulation.] When an artery penetrates a muscle, it is often protected by +a sheath or by fibrous rings, which prevent its being pulled out of place +or compressed by the play of the muscles. + +The arteries are generally located as far as possible beneath the surface, +out of harm's way, and hence are found closely hugging the bones or +creeping through safe passages provided for them. They are generally +nearly straight, and take the shortest routes to the parts which they are +to supply with blood. + +THE ARTERIAL SYSTEM starts from the left ventricle by a single trunk--the +_aorta_--which, after giving off branches to the head, sweeps back of +the chest with a bold curve--the _arch of the aorta_ (_c_, Fig. +34)--and thence runs downward (_f_), dividing and subdividing, like a +tree, into numberless branches, which, at last, penetrate every nook and +corner of the body. + +THE PULSE.--At the wrist (_k_, radial artery) and on the temple +(temporal artery) we can feel the expansion of the artery by each little +wave of blood set in motion by the contraction of the heart. In health, +there are about seventy-two [Footnote: This number varies much with age, +sex, and individuals. Napoleon's pulse is said to have been only forty, +while it is not infrequent to find a healthy pulse at one hundred or over. +In general, the pulse is quicker in children and in old people than in the +middle-aged; in short persons than in tall; in women than in men. Shame +makes the heart send more blood to the blushing cheek, and fear almost +stops it. The will can not check the heart. There is said, however, to +have been a notable exception to this in the case of one Colonel Townsend, +of Dublin, who, after having succeeded several times in stopping the +pulsation, at last lost his life in the act.] pulsations per minute. They +increase with excitement or inflammation, weaken with loss of vigor, and +are modified by nearly every disease. The physician, therefore, finds the +pulse a good index of the state of the system and the character of the +disorder. (See p. 314.) + +THE VEINS are the tube-like canals which convey the blood _to_ the +heart. [Footnote: There is one exception to the general course of the +veins. The _portal_ vein carries the blood from the digestive organs +to the liver, where it is acted upon, thence poured into the ascending +vena cava, and goes back to the heart.] They carry the dark or venous +blood (note, p. 119). As they do not receive the direct impulse of the +heart, their walls are made much thinner and less elastic than those of +the arteries. At first small, they increase in size and diminish in number +as they gradually pour into one another, like tiny rills collecting to +form two rivers, the vena cava ascending and the vena cava descending +(_l, m_, Fig. 34), which empty into the right auricle. + +Some of the veins creep along under the skin, where they can be seen, as +in the back of the hand; while others accompany the arteries, some of +which have two or more of these companions. + +VALVES similar in construction to those already described (the semilunar +valves of the heart, page 114) are placed at convenient intervals, in +order to guide the blood in its course, and prevent its setting backward. +[Footnote: Too much standing, or tight elastics, often cause the veins in +the leg to swell, so that the valves can not work; the veins then become +_varicose_, or permanently enlarged, and, if they burst, the bleeding +may be profuse and even dangerous. Raising the leg and pressing the finger +on the bleeding spot will stay it. Walking does not encourage this +disease, for the active muscles force on the venous blood. Clerks who are +subject to varicose veins should have seats behind the counters where they +may rest when not actually employed. A deep breath helps the flow in the +veins, and a wound may suck in air with fatal effect. A maimed horse is +most mercifully killed by blowing a bubble of air into the veins of his +neck. As the deep-sea pressure would burst valves, the whale has none; +hence a small wound by the harpoon causes him to bleed to death.-- +MAPOTHER.] We can easily examine the working of these valves. On baring +the arm, blue veins may be seen running along the arm toward the hand. +Their diameter is tolerably even, and they gradually decrease in size. If +now the finger be pressed on the upper part of one of these veins, and +then passed downward so as to drive its blood backward, swellings like +little knots will make their appearance. Each of these marks the location +of a valve, which is closed by the blood we push before our finger. Remove +the pressure, and the valve will swing open, the blood set forward, and +the vein collapse to its former size. + +FIG. 40. + +[Illustration: _Valves of the Veins._] + +THE CAPILLARIES (_capillus,_ a hair) form a fine network of tubes, +connecting the ends of the arteries with the veins. They blend, however, +with the extremities of these two systems, so that it is not easy to tell +just where an artery ends and a vein begins. So closely are they placed, +that we can not prick the flesh with a needle without injuring, perhaps, +hundreds of them. The air cells of the blood deposit there their oxygen, +and receive carbonic acid, while in the delicate capillaries of the lungs +[Footnote: The capillary tubes are there so fine that the disks of the +blood have to go one by one, and are sadly squeezed at that. However, +their elasticity enables them to resume their old shape as soon as they +have escaped from this labyrinth.] they give up their load of carbonic +acid in exchange for oxygen. + +FIG. 41. + +[Illustration: _Circulation of the Blood in the Web of a Frog's Foot, +highly magnified._ A, _an artery;_ B, _capillaries crowded with +disks, owing to a rupture just above, where the disks are jammed into an +adjacent mesh;_ C, _a deeper vein; the black spots are pigment +cells._] + +If, by means of a microscope, we examine the transparent web of a frog's +foot, we can trace the route of the blood. [Footnote: With small splints +and twine, a frog's foot can be easily stretched and tied so that the +transparent web can be placed on the table of the microscope.] It is an +experiment of wonderful interest. The crimson stream, propelled by the +heart, rushes through the arteries, until it reaches the intricate meshes +of the capillaries. Here it breaks into a thousand tiny rills. We can see +the disks winding in single file through the devious passages, darting +hither and thither, now pausing, swaying to and fro with an uncertain +motion, and anon dashing ahead, until, at last, gathered in the veins, the +blood sets steadily back on its return to the heart. + +THE CIRCULATION [Footnote: The circulation of the blood was discovered by +Harvey in 1619. For several years, he did not dare to publish his belief. +When it became known, he was bitterly persecuted, and his practice as a +physician greatly decreased in consequence. He lived, however, to see his +theory universally adopted, and his name honored. Harvey is said to have +declared that no man over forty years of age accepted his views.] consists +of two parts--the _lesser_, and the _greater_. + +FIG. 42. + +[Illustration: _Diagram illustrating the Circulation of the Blood._-- +MARSHALL. A, _vena cava descending (superior);_ Z, _vena cava +ascending (inferior);_ C, _right auricle;_ D, _right ventricle;_ E, +_pulmonary artery;_ F P, _lungs and pulmonary veins;_ G, _left auricle;_ +H, _left ventricle;_ I, K, _aorta._] + +1. _The Lesser Circulation_.--The dark blood from the veins collects +in the right auricle, and, going through the tricuspid valve, empties into +the right ventricle. Thence it is driven past the semilunar valves, +through the pulmonary artery, to the lungs. After circulating through the +fine capillaries of the air cells contained in the lungs, it is returned, +bright and red, through the four pulmonary veins, [Footnote: It is +noticeable that the pulmonary set of veins circulates red blood, and the +pulmonary set of arteries circulates dark blood. Both are connected with +the lungs.] to the left auricle. + +2. _The Greater Circulation_.--From the left auricle, the blood is +forced past the bicuspid valve to the left ventricle; thence it is driven +through the semilunar valves into the great aorta, the main trunk of the +arterial system. Passing through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, it +returns through the venæ cavæ, ascending and descending, gathers again in +the right auricle, and so completes the "grand round" of the body. Both +these circulations are going on constantly, as the two auricles contract, +and the two ventricles expand simultaneously, and _vice versa_. + +THE VELOCITY OF THE BLOOD varies so much in different parts of the body, +and is influenced by so many circumstances, that it can not be calculated +with any degree of accuracy. It has been estimated that a portion of the +blood will make the tour of the body in about twenty-three seconds +(FLINT), and that the entire mass passes through the heart in from one to +two minutes. [Footnote: The total amount of blood in an adult of average +weight is about eighteen pounds. Dividing this by five ounces, the +quantity discharged by the left ventricle at each systole, gives fifty- +eight pulsations as the number necessary to transmit all the blood in the +body. This, however, is an extremely unreliable basis of calculation, as +the rapidity of the blood is itself so variable. Chauvreau has shown by +experiments with his instrument that, corresponding to the first dilation +of the vessels, the blood moves with immense rapidity; following this, the +current suddenly becomes nearly arrested; this is succeeded by a second +acceleration in the current, not quite so rapid as the first; and after +this there is a gradual decline in the rapidity to the time of the next +pulsation.] (See p. 314.) + +DISTRIBUTION AND REGULATION OF THE HEAT OF THE BODY.--1. +_Distribution_.--The natural temperature is not far from 98°. +[Footnote: The average temperature is, however, easily departed from. +Through some trivial cause the cooling agencies may be interfered with, +and then, the heating processes getting the superiority, a high +temperature or fever comes on. Or the reverse may ensue. In Asiatic +cholera, the constitution of the blood is so changed that its disks can no +longer carry oxygen into the system, the heat-making processes are put a +stop to, and, the temperature declining, the body becomes of a marble +coldness, characteristic of that terrible disease.--DRAPER.] This is +maintained, as we have already seen, by the action of the oxygen within +us. Each capillary tube is a tiny stove, where oxygen is combining with +the tissues of the body (see note, p. 107). Every contraction of a muscle +develops heat, the latent heat being set free by the breaking up of the +tissue. The warmth so produced is distributed by the circulation of the +blood. Thus the arteries, veins, and capillaries form a series of hot- +water pipes, through which the heated liquid is forced by a pump--the +heart--while the heat is kept up, not by a central furnace and boiler, but +by a multitude of little fires placed here and there along its course. + +2. _Regulation_.--The temperature of the body is regulated by means +of the pores of the skin and the mucous membrane in the air passages. When +the system becomes too warm, the blood vessels on the surface expand, the +blood fills them, the fluid exudes into the perspiratory glands, pours out +upon the exterior, and by evaporation cools the body. [Footnote: Just as +water sprinkled on the floor cools a room.--_Popular Physics_, p. +255.] When the temperature of the body is too low, the vessels contract, +less blood goes to the surface, the perspiration decreases, and the loss +of heat by evaporation diminishes. [Footnote: Thus one is enabled to go +into an oven where bread is baking, or into the arctic regions where the +mountains are snow and the rivers ice. Even by these extremes the +temperature of the blood will be but slightly affected. In the one case, +the flood gates of perspiration will be opened and the superfluous heat +expended in turning the water to vapor; and, in the other, they will be +tightly closed and all the heat retained.] + +LIFE BY DEATH.--The body is being incessantly corroded, and portions borne +away by the tireless oxygen. The scales of the epidermis are constantly +falling off and being replaced by secretion from the cutis. The disks of +the blood die, and new ones spring into being. On the continuance of this +interchange depend our health and vigor. Every act is a destructive one. +Not a bend of the finger, not a wink of the eye, not a thought of the +brain but is at some expense of the machine itself. Every process of life +is thus a process of death. The more rapidly this change goes on, and +fresh, vigorous tissue takes the place of the old, the more elasticity and +strength we possess. + +CHANGE OF OUR BODIES.--There is a belief that our bodies change once in +seven years. From the nature of the case, the rate must vary with the +labor we perform; the organs most used altering oftenest. Probably the +parts of the body in incessant employment are entirely reorganized many +times within a single year. [Footnote: To use a homely simile, our bodies +are like the Irishman's knife, which, after having had several new blades, +and at least one new handle, was yet the same old knife.] + +THE THREE VITAL ORGANS.--Death is produced by the stoppage of the action +of any one of the three organs--the heart, the lungs, or the brain. They +have, therefore, been termed the "Tripod of Life." Really, however, as +Huxley has remarked, "Life has but two legs to stand upon." If respiration +and circulation be kept up artificially, the removal of the brain will not +produce death. [Footnote: When death really does take place, _i. e._, +when the vital organs are stopped, it is noticeable that the tissues do +not die for some time thereafter. If suitable stimulants be applied, as +the galvanic battery, transfusion of blood, etc., the muscles may be made +to contract, and many of the phenomena of life be exhibited. Dr. Brown- +Sequard thus produced muscular action in the hand of a criminal, fourteen +hours after his execution.] + +WONDERS OF THE HEART.--The ancients thought the heart to be the seat of +love. There were located the purity and goodness as well as the evil +passions of the soul. [Footnote: Our common words, hearty, large-hearted, +courage (_cor_, the heart), are remains of this fanciful theory.] +Modern science has found the seat of the mental powers to be in the brain. +But while it has thus robbed the heart of its romance, it has revealed +wonders which eclipse all the mysteries of the past. This marvelous little +engine throbs on continually at the rate of one hundred thousand beats per +day, forty millions per year, often three billions without a single stop. +It is the most powerful of machines. "Its daily work is equal to one third +that of all the muscles. If it should expend its entire force in lifting +its own weight vertically, it would rise twenty thousand feet in an hour." +[Footnote: "The greatest exploit ever accomplished by a locomotive, was to +lift itself through less than one eighth of that distance." Vast and +constant as is this process, so perfect is the machinery, that there are +persons who do not even know where the heart lies until disease or +accident reveals its location.] Its vitality is amazing. The most tireless +of organs while life exists, it is one of the last to yield when life +expires. So long as a flutter lingers at the heart, we know the spark of +being is not quite extinguished, and there is hope of restoration. During +a life such as we sometimes see, it has propelled half a million tons of +blood, yet repaired itself as it has wasted, during its patient, +unfaltering labor. The play of its valves and the rhythm of its throb have +never failed until, at the command of the great Master Workman, the +"wheels of life have stood still." [Footnote: Our brains are seventy-five- +year clocks. The Angel of Life winds them up once for all, then closes the +case, and gives the key into the hand of the Angel of the Resurrection. +Ticktack! Ticktack! go the wheels of thought; our will can not stop them, +they can not stop themselves; sleep can not stop them; madness only makes +them go faster; death alone can break into the case, and, seizing the +ever-swinging pendulum which we call the heart, silence at last the +clicking of the terrible escapement we have carried so long beneath our +wrinkled foreheads.--HOLMES.] + +FIG. 43. + +[Illustration: _Lymphatics of the Head and Neck, showing the Glands, +and,_ B, _the thoracic duct as it empties into the left innominate +vein at the junction of the left jugular and subclavian veins._] + +THE LYMPHATIC CIRCULATION is intimately connected with that of the blood. +It is, however, more delicate in its organization, and less thoroughly +understood. Nearly every part of the body is permeated by a second series +of capillaries, closely interlaced with the blood capillaries already +described, and termed the Lymphatic system. The larger number converge +into the thoracic duct--a small tube, about the size of a goose quill, +which empties into the great veins of the neck (Fig. 43). Along their +course the lymphatics frequently pass through _glands_,--hard, +pinkish bodies of all sizes, from that of a hemp seed to an almond. These +glands are often enlarged by disease, and then are easily felt. + +_The Lymph_, which circulates through the lymphatics like blood +through the veins, is a thin, colorless liquid, very like the serum. This +fluid, probably in great measure an overflow from the blood vessels, is +gathered up by the lymphatics, undergoes in the glands some process of +preparation not well understood, and is then returned to the circulation. + +FIG. 44. + +[Illustration: _Lymphatics in the Leg, with Glands at the Hip_.] + +OFFICE OF THE LYMPHATICS.--It is thought that portions of the waste matter +of the body capable of further use are thus, by a wise economy, retained +and elaborated in the system. + +The _lacteals_, a class of lymphatics which will be described under +Digestion (p. 166), aid in taking up the food; after a meal they become +milk white. In the lungs, the lymphatics are abundant; sometimes absorbing +the poison of disease, and diffusing it through the system. [Footnote: +Persons have thus been poisoned by tiny particles of arsenic which +evaporate from green wall paper, and float in the air.] + +The lymphatics of the skin we have already spoken of as producing the +phenomena of absorption, [Footnote: Pain is often relieved by injecting +under the cuticle a solution of morphine, which is taken up by the +absorbents, and so carried through the system.] Nature in her effort to +heal a cut deposits an excess of matter to fill up the breach. Soon, the +lymphatics go to work and remove the surplus material to other parts of +the body. + +Animals that hibernate are supported during the winter by the fat which +their absorbents carry into the circulation from the extra supply they +have laid up during the summer. In famine or in sickness, a man +unconsciously consumes his own flesh. + +DISEASES, ETC.--l. _Congestion_ is an unnatural accumulation of blood +in any part of the body. The excess is indicated by the redness. If we put +our feet in hot water, the capillaries will expand by the heat, and the +blood will set that way to fill them. The red nose and purplish face of +the drunkard show a congestion of the capillaries. Those vessels have lost +their power of contraction, and so are permanently increased in size and +filled with blood. Blushing is a temporary congestion. The capillaries +being expanded only for an instant by the nervous excitement, contract +again and expel the blood. [Footnote: Blushing is a purely local +modification of the circulation of this kind, and it will be instructive +to consider how a blush is brought about. An emotion--sometimes +pleasurable, sometimes painful--takes possession of the mind; thereupon a +hot flush is felt, the skin grows red, and according to the intensity of +the emotion these changes are confined to the cheeks only, or extend to +the "roots of the hair," or "all over." What is the cause of these +changes? The blood is a red and a hot fluid; the skin reddens and grows +hot, because its vessels contain an increased quantity of this red and hot +fluid; and its vessels contain more, because the small arteries suddenly +dilate, the natural moderate contraction of their muscles being superseded +by a state of relaxation. In other words, the action of the nerves which +cause this muscular contraction is suspended. On the other hand, in many +people, extreme terror causes the skin to grow cold, and the face to +appear pale and pinched. Under these circumstances, in fact, the supply of +blood to the skin is greatly diminished, in consequence of an excessive +stimulation of the nerves of the small arteries, which causes them to +contract and so to cut off the supply of blood more or less completely.-- +Huxley's _Physiology_.] + +2. _Inflammation_ means simply a burning. If there is irritation or +an injury at any spot, the blood sets thither and reddens it. This extra +supply, both by its presence and the friction of the swiftly moving +currents, produces heat. The pressure of the distended vessels upon the +nerves frets them, and produces pain. The swelling stretches the walls of +the blood vessels, and the serum or lymph oozes through. The four +characteristics of an inflammation are redness, heat, pain, and swelling. + +3. _Bleeding_, if from an artery, will be of red blood, and will come +in jets; [Footnote: The elasticity of the arteries (p. 114) is a physical +property, as may easily be shown by removing one from a dead body. If they +were rigid and unyielding, a considerable portion of the heart's force +would be uselessly expended against their walls. Their expansion is a +passive state, and depends on the pressure of the blood within them; but +their vital contractility is an active property.--The intermittent +movement of the blood through the arteries is strikingly shown in the +manner in which they bleed when wounded. When an artery is cut across, the +blood spurts out with great force to a distance of several feet, but the +flow is not continuous. It escapes in a series of jets, the long, slender +scarlet stream rising and falling with each beat of the heart, and this +pulsation of the blood stream tells at once that it comes from a wounded +artery. But as the blood traverses these elastic tubes, the abruptness of +the heart's stroke becomes gradually broken and the current equalized, so +that the greater the distance from the heart the less obvious is the +pulsation, until at length in the capillaries the rate of the stream +becomes uniform.] if from the veins, it will be of dark blood, and will +flow in a steady stream. If only a small vessel be severed, it may be +checked by a piece of cloth held or bound firmly upon the wound. If a +large trunk be cut, especially in a limb, make a knot in a handkerchief +and tie it loosely about the limb; then, placing the knot on the limb, +with a short stick twist the handkerchief tightly enough to stop the flow. +If you have a piece of cloth to use as a pad, the knot will be +unnecessary. If it be an artery that is cut, the pressure should be +applied between the wound and the heart; if a vein, beyond the wound. If +you are alone, and are severely wounded, or in an emergency, like a +railroad accident, use the remedy which has saved many a life upon the +battlefield--bind or hold a handful of dry earth upon the wound, elevate +the part, and await surgical assistance. + +4. _Scrofula_ is generally inherited. It is a disease affecting the +lymphatic glands, most commonly those of the neck, forming "kernels," as +they are called. It is, however, liable to attack any organ. Persons +inheriting this disease can hope to ward off its insidious approaches only +by the utmost care in diet and exercise; by the use of pure air and warm +clothing, and by avoiding late hours and undue stimulus of all kinds. +Probably the most fatal and common excitants of the latent seeds of +scrofula are insufficient or improper food, and want of ventilation. + +5. _A COLD_.--We put on a thinner dress than usual, or, when heated, +sit in a cool place. The skin is chilled, and the perspiration checked. +The blood, no longer cleansed and reduced in volume by the drainage +through the pores, sets to the lungs for purification. That organ is +oppressed, breathing becomes difficult, and the extra mucus secreted by +the irritated surface of the membrane is thrown off by coughing. The +mucous membrane of the nasal chamber sympathizes with the difficulty, and +we have "a cold in the head," or a catarrh. In general, the excess of +blood seeks the weakest point, and develops there any latent disease +[Footnote: A party go out for a walk and are caught in a rain, or, coming +home heated from some close assembly, throw off their coats to enjoy the +deliciously cool breeze. The next day, one has a fever, another a slight +headache, another pleurisy, another pneumonia, another rheumatism, while +some of the number escape without any ill feeling whatever. The last had +vital force sufficient to withstand the disturbance, but in the others +there were various weak points, and to these the excess of blood has gone, +producing congestion.] Where one person has been killed in battle, +thousands have died of colds. + +To restore the equipoise must be the object of all treatment. We put the +feet in hot water and they soon become red and gorged with the blood which +is thus called from the congested organs. Hot footbaths have saved +multitudes of lives. It is well in case of a sudden cold to go immediately +to bed, and with hot drinks and extra clothing open the pores, and induce +free perspiration. This calls the blood to the surface, and, by equalizing +and diminishing the volume of the circulation, affords relief. [Footnote: +Severe colds may often be relieved in their first stages by using lemons +freely during the day, and taking at night fifteen or twenty grains of +sodium bromide. Great care, however, should be observed in employing the +latter remedy, except under the advice of a physician.] + +6. _Catarrh_ commonly manifests itself by the symptoms known as those +of a "cold in the head," and is produced by the same causes. It is an +inflammation of the mucous membrane lining the nasal and bronchial +passages. One going out from the hot dry air of a furnace-heated room into +the cold damp atmosphere of our climate can hardly avoid irritating and +inflaming this tender membrane. If our rooms were heated less intensely, +and ventilated more thoroughly, so that we had not the present hothouse +sensitiveness to cold air, this disease would be far less universal, and +perhaps would disappear entirely. [Footnote: Dr. Gray gives the following +table: + +===================================================================== +Rooms Occupied by Letter-press Printers. | Number | Subject to +| per cent | Catarrh +| Spitting | +| Blood. | +------------------------------------------+------------+------------- +104 men having less than 500 cubic feet | | +of air to breathe | 12.50 | 12.50 +| | +115 men having from 500 to 600 cubic feet | | +of air to breathe | 4.35 | 3.58 +| | +101 men having more than 600 cubic feet | | +of air to breathe | 3.96 | 1.98 +---------------------------------------------------------------------] +(See p. 315.) + +ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND NARCOTICS. + +1. ALCOHOL. + +That we may understand fully the effect of alcohol upon the human system, +let us first consider its nature and the process by which harmless fruits +and grains are made to produce a substance so unlike themselves in its +deleterious effects. + +HOW ALCOHOL IS MADE.--When any substance containing sugar, as fruit juice, +is caused to ferment, the elements of which the sugar is composed, viz., +hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen, so rearrange themselves as to form carbon +dioxide (carbonic acid), alcohol, and certain volatile oils and ethers. +[Footnote: The precise relation between chemical phenomena and the +physiological functions of the organic ferment is still to be discovered; +and all that has been said, written, and brought forward to decide the +question, need experimental proof.--SCHÜTZENBERGER.] The carbonic acid +partly evaporates and partly remains in the liquor; the alcohol is the +poisonous or intoxicating principle, while the oils and ethers impart the +peculiar flavor and odor. Thus wine is fermented grape juice, and cider is +fermented apple juice, each having its distinctive taste and smell, and +each containing, as one product of fermentation, more or less of the +inebriating alcohol. Wines are also made from other fruits and vegetables, +such as oranges, currants, tomatoes, and rhubarb, but the alcohol which +they contain is of the same nature in all cases, whether the fermented +liquor has been manufactured in great quantities, by large presses, or by +a simple domestic process for home consumption. It is important to +remember this fact, as many people do not associate alcohol with such +beverages as domestic wines and home-brewed ales, whereas it is always +present with the same treacherous qualities which attach to it everywhere. +An apple is a wholesome and useful fruit, and its simple juice, fragrant +and refreshing, is a delight to the palate; but apple juice converted into +cider and allowed to enter upon alcoholic fermentation, loses its +innocence, and becomes a dangerous drink, because it is the nature of the +alcohol it now contains to create an appetite for more alcohol. (See p. +185.) + +WHAT IS A FERMENT?--Ferments, of which there are many varieties in nature, +are minute living organisms analogous to the microscopic objects called +bacteria or microbes, [Footnote: There is no well-defined limit between +ferments and bacteria, any more than between ferments and fungi, or again, +between fungi and bacteria. Their smaller size is the principal difference +which separates bacteria from ferments, although there are bacteria of +large size, such as are so frequently found in the mouth of even a healthy +man, and which much resemble in their mode of growth some of the lower +fungi.--Trouessart.] of which we have heard much in late years, especially +in connection with the famous researches and experiments of the great +French investigator, M. Pasteur. He tells us that "Every fermentation has +its specific ferment. This minute being produces the transformation which +constitutes fermentation by breathing the oxygen of the substance to be +fermented, or by appropriating for an instant the whole substance, then +destroying it by what may be termed the secretion of the fermented +products." [Footnote: What we call spontaneous fermentation often occurs, +as when apple juice turns to hard cider by simple exposure to the air. +Science teaches us, however, that this change is always effected by the +action of the busy little ferments which, wandering about, drop into the +liquid, begin their rapid propagation, and, in the act of growing, evolve +the products of the fermentation. "If the above liquids be left only in +contact with air which has been passed through a red-hot platinum tube, +and thus the living sporules destroyed; or if the air be simply filtered +by passing through cotton wool, and the sporules prevented from coming +into the liquid, it is found that these fermentable liquids may be +preserved for any length of time without undergoing the slightest +change."--Roscoe.] The effect, therefore, of fermentation is to change +entirely the character of the substance upon which it acts; hence it is an +error to assume that fermented liquors, as beer, wine, and cider, are safe +drinks because the grains or fruits from which they are produced are +healthful foods. + +YEAST is a ferment which causes alcoholic fermentation. It consists of +microscopic plants, which increase by the formation of multitudes of tiny +cells not more than 1/2400 of an inch in diameter. In the brewing of beer +they grow in great abundance, making common brewer's yeast. Ferments or +their spores float in the air ready to enter any fermentable liquid, and +under favorable conditions they multiply with great activity and energy. +The favorable conditions include the presence of oxygen or sugar; +[Footnote: Yeast, like ordinary plants, buds and multiplies even in the +absence of fermentable sugar, when it is furnished with free oxygen. This +multiplication, however, is favored by the presence of sugar, which is a +more appropriate element than non-fermentable hydrocarbon compounds. Yeast +is also able to bud and multiply in the absence of free oxygen, but in +this case a fermentable substance is indispensable.--SCHÜTZENBERGER'S +_Fermentation_.] oxygen being, as we know, necessary for the +development and the reproduction of all cell life (p. 107), and ferments +having the power to resolve sugar, which penetrates by endosmose into the +interior of the cell, into alcohol, carbonic acid, glycerine, succinic +acid, and oxygen. + +BEER.--The barley used for making beer is first malted, _i. e._, +sprouted, to turn a part of its starch into sugar. When this process has +gone far enough, it is checked by heating the grain in a kiln until the +germ is destroyed. The malt is then crushed, steeped, and fermented with +hops and yeast. The sugar gradually disappears, alcohol is formed, and +carbonic acid escapes into the air. The beer is then put into casks, where +it undergoes a second, slower fermentation, and the carbonic acid gathers; +when the liquor is drawn, this gas bubbles to the surface, giving to the +beer its sparkling, foamy look. + +WINE is generally made from the juice of the grape. The juice, or +_must_, as it is called, is placed in vats in the cellar, where the +low temperature favors a slow fermentation. If all the sugar be converted +into alcohol and carbonic-acid gas, a dry wine will remain; if the +fermentation be checked, a sweet wine will result; and if the wine be +bottled while the change is still going on, a brisk effervescing liquor +like champagne, will be formed. All these are dangerous beverages because +of the alcohol they contain. + +DISTILLATION.--Alcohol is so volatile that, by the application of heat, it +can be driven off as a vapor from the fermented liquid in which it has +been produced. Steam and various fragrant substances will accompany it, +and, if they are collected and condensed in a cool receiver, a new and +stronger liquor will be formed, having a distinctive odor. + +In this way whiskey is distilled from fermented corn, rye, barley, or +potatoes; the alcohol of commerce is distilled from whiskey; brandy, from +wine; rum, from fermented molasses; and gin, from fermented barley and +rye, afterward distilled with juniper berries. + +VARIETIES AND PROPERTIES OF ALCOHOL.--There are several varieties of +alcohol produced from distillation of various substances. Thus Methyl +Alcohol is obtained from the decomposition of hard wood when exposed to +intense heat with little or no oxygen present. It is a light, volatile +liquid, which closely resembles ordinary alcohol in all its properties. It +is used in the manufacture of aniline dyes, in making varnishes, and for +burning in spirit lamps. Amyl Alcohol [Footnote: The odor of amylic +alcohol is sweet, nauseous, and heavy. The sensation of its presence +remains long. In taste it is burning and acrid, and it is itself +practically insoluble in water. When it is diluted with common alcohol it +dissolves freely in water, and gives a soft and rather unctuous flavor, I +may call it a fruity flavor, something like that of ripe pears. Amyl +alcohol, introduced as an adulterant, is an extremely dangerous addition +to ordinary alcohol, in whatever form it is presented. From the quantities +of it imported into this country, it is believed to be employed largely in +the adulteration of wines and spirits.--RICHARDSON.] is the chief +constituent of "fusel oil," found in whiskey distilled from potatoes. It +is often present in common alcohol, giving a slightly unpleasant odor when +it evaporates from the hand. Fusel oil is extremely poisonous and lasting +in its effects, so that when contained in liquors it greatly increases +their destructive and intoxicating properties. + +Ethyl Alcohol, which is that which we have described as obtained from +fermentation of fruits and grains, is the ordinary alcohol of commerce. We +have spoken of its volatility. This property permits it to pass into vapor +at 56° Fahr. It boils at 173° Fahr. (Water boils at 212°.) Like Methyl +Alcohol, it burns without smoke and with great heat, [Footnote: Pour a +little alcohol into a saucer and apply an ignited match. The liquid will +suddenly take fire, burning with intense heat, but feeble light. In this +process, alcohol takes up oxygen from the air, forming carbonic-acid gas, +and water.--Hold a red-hot coil of platinum wire in a goblet containing a +few drops of alcohol, and a peculiar odor will be noticed. It denotes the +formation of _aldehyde_--a substance produced in the slow oxidation +of alcohol. Still further oxidized, the alcohol would be changed into +_acetic acid_--the sour principle of vinegar.--Put the white of an +egg--nearly pure albumen--into a cup, and pour upon it some alcohol, or +even strong brandy; the fluid albumen will coagulate, becoming hard and +solid. In this connection, it is well to remember that albumen is +contained in our food, while the brain is largely an albuminous +substance.] and is therefore of much value in the arts. Its great solvent +power over fats and mixed oils renders it a useful agent in many +industrial operations. It is also a powerful antiseptic, and no one who +visits a museum of natural history will be likely to forget the rows of +bottles within which float reptilian and batrachian specimens, preserved +in alcohol. + +To alcohol, also, we are indebted for various anæsthetic agents, which, +when not abused (p. 340), are of inestimable value. Thus, if certain +proportions of alcohol and nitric acid be mixed together and heated, +nitrite of amyl, so serviceable in relieving the agonizing spasms peculiar +to that dread disease, angina pectoris, will be obtained. If, instead of +nitric, we use sulphuric acid, we shall get ether; if chlorine be passed +through alcohol, hydrate of chloral is the result; and, if chloride of +lime and alcohol be treated together, the outcome is chloroform. + +One of the most striking properties of alcohol, and one which we shall +hereafter consider in its disastrous effects upon the tissues of our body, +is its affinity for water. [Footnote: Suppose, then, a certain measure of +alcohol be taken into the stomach, it will be absorbed there, but, +previous to absorption, it will have to undergo a proper degree of +dilution with water; for there is this peculiarity respecting alcohol when +it is separated by an animal membrane from a watery fluid like the blood, +that it will not pass through the membrane until it has become charged, to +a given point of dilution, with water. Alcohol is itself, in fact, so +greedy for water that it will pick it up from watery textures, and deprive +them of it until, by its saturation, its power of reception is exhausted, +after which it will diffuse into the current of circulating fluid. + +To illustrate this fact of dilution I perform a simple experiment. Into a +bladder is placed a mixture consisting of equal parts of alcohol and +distilled water. Into the neck of the bladder a long glass tube is +inserted and firmly tied. Then the bladder is immersed in a saline fluid +representing an artificial serum of blood. The result is, that the alcohol +in the bladder absorbs water from the surrounding saline solution, and +thereby a column of fluid passes up into the glass tube. A second mixture +of alcohol and water, in the proportion this time of one part of alcohol +to two of water, is put into another bladder immersed in like manner in an +artificial serum. In this instance a little fluid also passes from the +outside into the bladder, so that there is a rise of water in the tube, +but less than in the previous instance. A third mixture, consisting of one +part of alcohol with three parts of water, is placed in another little +bladder, and is also suspended in the artificial serum. In this case there +is, for a time, a small rise of fluid in the tube connected with the +bladder; but after a while, owing to the dilution which took place, a +current from within outward sets in, and the tube becomes empty. Thus each +bladder charged originally with the same quantity of fluid contains at +last a different quantity. The first contains more than it did originally, +the second only a little more, the third a little less. From the third, +absorption takes place, and if I keep changing and replacing the outer +fluid which surrounds the bladder with fresh serum, I can in time, owing +to the double current of water into the bladder through its coats, and of +water and alcohol out of the bladder into the serum, remove all the +alcohol. In this way it is removed from the stomach into the circulating +blood after it has been swallowed. When we dilute alcohol with water +before drinking it, we quicken its absorption. If we do not dilute it +sufficiently, it is diluted in the stomach by transudation of water in the +stomach, until the required reduction for its absorption; the current then +sets in toward the blood, and passes into the circulating canals by the +veins.--RICHARDSON.] When strong alcohol is exposed to the air, it absorbs +moisture and becomes diluted; at the same time, the spirit itself +evaporates. The commercial or proof spirit is about one half water; the +strongest holds five per cent; and to obtain absolute or waterless +alcohol, requires careful distillation in connection with some substance, +as lime, that has a still greater affinity for water, and so can despoil +the alcohol. + +ALCOHOL IN ITS DESTRUCTIVE RELATION TO PLANT AND ANIMAL LIFE.--If we pour +a little quantity of strong spirits upon a growing plant in our garden or +conservatory, we shall soon see it shrivel and die. If we apply it to +insects or small reptiles which we may have captured for specimens in our +cabinet, the same potent poison will procure for them a speedy death. If +we force one of our domestic animals to take habitual doses of it, the +animal will not only strongly protest against the unnatural and nauseous +potion, but it will gradually sicken and lose all power for usefulness. +"If I wished," says a distinguished English physician, "by scientific +experiment to spoil for work the most perfect specimen of a working +animal, say a horse, without inflicting mechanical injury, I could choose +no better agent for the purpose of the experiment than alcohol." +[Footnote: "The effects produced by alcohol are common, so far as I can +discover, to every animal. Alcohol is a universal intoxicant, and in the +higher orders of animals is capable of inducing the most systematic +phenomena of disease. But it is reserved for man himself to exhibit these +phenomena in their purest form, and to present, through them, in the +morbid conditions belonging to his age, a distinct pathology. Bad as this +is, it might be worse; for if the evils of alcohol were made to extend +equally to animals lower than man, we should soon have none that were +tamable, none that were workable, and none that were eatable."] + +ALCOHOL IN WINE, BEER, AND CIDER IDENTICAL WITH ALCOHOL IN ARDENT +SPIRITS.--In all liquors the active principle is alcohol. It comprises +from six to eight per cent of ale and porter, seven to seventeen per cent +of wine, and forty to fifty per cent of brandy and whiskey. All these may +therefore be considered as alcohol more or less diluted with water and +flavored with various aromatics. The taste of different liquors--as +brandy, gin, beer, cider, etc.--may vary greatly, but they all produce +certain physiological effects, due to their common ingredient--alcohol. +"In whatever form it enters," says Dr. Richardson, "whether as spirit, +wine, or ale, matters little when its specific influence is kept steadily +in view. To say this man only drinks ale, that man only drinks wine, while +a third drinks spirits, is merely to say, when the apology is unclothed, +that all drink the same danger." In other words, the poisonous nature of +alcohol, and the effects which result when it is taken into the stomach, +are definite and immutable facts, which are not dependent upon any +particular name or disguise under which the poison finds entrance. + +We shall learn, as we study the influence of alcohol upon the human +system, that one of its most subtle characteristics is the progressive +appetite for itself (p. 185) which it induces, an appetite which, in many +cases, is formed long before its unhappy subject is aware of his danger. +The intelligent pupil, who knows how to reason from cause to effect, needs +hardly to be told, in view of this physical truth, of the peril that lies +in the first draught of _any_ fermented liquor, even though it be so +seemingly harmless as a glass of home-brewed beer or "slightly-beaded" +cider. Few of us really understand our own inherent weakness or the +hereditary proclivities (p. 186) that may be lurking in our blood, ready +to master us when opportunity invites; but we may be tolerably certain +that if we resolutely refuse to tamper with cider, beer, or wine, we shall +not fall into temptation before rum, gin, or brandy. Since we know that in +all fermented beverages there is present the same treacherous element, +alcohol, we are truly wise only when we decline to measure arms in any way +with an enemy so seductive in its advances, so insidious in its influence, +and so terrible in its triumph. [Footnote: Aside from all considerations +of physical, mental, and moral injury wrought by the use of alcoholic +drinks, every young man may well take into account the damaging effect of +such a dangerous habit upon his business prospects. Careful business men +are becoming more and more unwilling to take into their employ any person +addicted to liquor drinking. Within the past few years the officers of +several railroads, having found that a considerable portion of their +losses could be directly traced to the drinking habits of some one or more +of their employés, have ordered the dismissal of all persons in their +service who were known to use intoxicants, with the additional provision +that persons thus discharged should never be reinstated. Many Eastern +manufactories have adopted similar rules. All mercantile agencies now +report the habits of business men in this respect, and some life insurance +companies refuse to insure habitual drinkers, regarding such risks as +"extra-hazardous."] + +Let us now consider the physiological effects of alcohol upon the organs +immediately connected with the circulation of the blood. + +GENERAL EFFECT OF ALCOHOL UPON THE CIRCULATION.--During the experiment +described on page 118, the influence of alcohol upon the blood may be +beautifully tested. Place on the web of the frog's foot a drop of dilute +spirit. The blood vessels immediately expand--an effect known as +"_Vascular enlargement_." Channels before unseen open, and the blood +disks fly along at a brisker rate. Next, touch the membrane with a drop of +pure spirit. The blood channels quickly contract; the cells slacken their +speed; and, finally, all motion ceases. The flesh shrivels up and dies. +The circulation thus stopped is stopped forever. The part affected will in +time slough off. Alcohol has killed it. + +The influence of alcohol upon the human system is very similar. When +strong, as in spirits, it acts as an irritant, narcotic poison (p. 142, +note). Diluted, as in fermented liquors, it dilates the blood vessels, +quickens the circulation, hastens the heart throbs, and accelerates the +respiration. + +THE EFFECT OF ALCOHOL UPON THE HEART.--What means this rapid flow of the +blood? It shows that the heart is overworking. The nerves that lead to the +minute capillaries and regulate the passage of the vital current through +the extreme parts of the body, are paralyzed by this active narcotic. The +tiny blood vessels at once expand. This "Vascular enlargement" removes the +resistance to the passage of the blood, and a rapid beating of the heart +results. [Footnote: Dr. B. W. Richardson's experiments tend to prove that +this apparently stimulating action of alcohol upon the heart is due to the +paralysis of the nerves that control the capillaries (Note, p. 208), which +ordinarily check the flow of the blood (p. 117). The heart, like other +muscles under the influence of alcohol, really loses power, and contracts +less vigorously (p. 183). Dr. Palmer, of the University of Michigan, also +claimed that alcohol, in fact, diminishes the strength of the heart. Prof. +Martin, of Johns Hopkins University, from a series of carefully conducted +experiments upon dogs, concluded that blood containing one fourth per cent +of alcohol almost invariably diminishes within a minute the work done by +the heart; blood containing one half per cent always diminishes it, and +may reduce the amount pumped out by the left ventricle so that it is not +sufficient to supply the coronary arteries. One hundred years ago, alcohol +was always spoken of as a stimulant. Modern experiment and investigation +challenged that definition, and it is now classified as a narcotic. There +are, however, able physicians who maintain that, taken in small doses, and +under certain physical conditions, it has the effect of a stimulant. All +agree that, when taken in any amount, it tends to create an appetite for +more.] + +Careful experiments show that two ounces of alcohol--an amount contained +in the daily potations of a very moderate ale or whiskey drinker--increase +the heart beats six thousand in twenty-four hours;--a degree of work +represented by that of lifting up a weight of seven tons to a height of +one foot. Reducing this sum to ounces and dividing, we find that the heart +is driven to do extra work equivalent to lifting seven ounces one foot +high one thousand four hundred and ninety-three times each hour! No wonder +that the drinker feels a reaction, a physical languor, after the earliest +effects of his indulgence have passed away. The heart flags, the brain and +the muscles feel exhausted, and rest and sleep are imperatively demanded. +During this time of excitement, the machinery of life has really been +"running down." "It is hard work," says Richardson, "to fight against +alcohol; harder than rowing, walking, wrestling, coal heaving, or the +treadmill itself." + +All this is only the first effect of alcohol upon the heart. Long- +continued use of this disturbing agent causes a "Degeneration of the +muscular fiber," [Footnote: This "Degeneration" of the various tissues of +the body, we shall find, as we proceed, is one of the most marked effects +of alcoholized blood. The change consists in an excess of liquid, or, more +commonly, in a deposit of fat. This fatty matter is not an increase of the +organ, but it takes the place of a part of its fiber, thus weakening the +structure, and reducing the power of the tissue to perform its function. +Almost everywhere in the body we thus find cells--muscle cells, liver +cells, nerve cells, as the case may be--changing one by one, under the +influence of this potent disorganizer, into unhealthy fat cells. "Alcohol +has been well termed," says the _London Lancet_, "the 'Genius of +Degeneration.'" + +The cause of this degeneration can be easily explained. The increased +activity of the circulation compels a correspondingly increased activity +of the cell changes: but the essential condition of healthful change--the +presence of additional oxygen--is wanting (see p. 143), and the operation +is imperfectly performed.--BRODIE.] so that the heart loses its old power +to drive the blood, and, after a time, fails to respond even to the spur +of the excitant that has urged it to ruin. + +INFLUENCE UPON THE MEMBRANES.--The flush of the face and the bloodshot +eye, that are such noticeable effects of even a small quantity of liquor, +indicate the condition of all the internal organs. The delicate linings of +the stomach, heart, brain, liver, and lungs are reddened, and every tiny +vein is inflamed, like the blushing nose itself. If the use of liquor is +habitual, this "Vascular enlargement," that at first slowly passed away +after each indulgence, becomes permanent, and now the discolored, blotched +skin reveals the state of the entire mucous membrane. + +We learned on page 55 what a peculiar office the membrane fills in +nourishing the organs it enwraps. Anything that disturbs its delicate +structure must mar its efficiency. Alcohol has a wonderful affinity for +water. To satisfy this greed, it will absorb moisture from the tissues +with which it comes in contact, as well as from their lubricating juices. +The enlargement of the blood vessels and their permanent congestion must +interfere with the filtering action of the membrane. In time, all the +membranes become dry, thickened, and hardened; they then shrink upon the +sensitive nerve, or stiffen the joint, or enfeeble the muscle. The +function of these membranes being deranged, they will not furnish the +organs with perfected material, and the clogged pores will no longer +filter their natural fluids. Every organ in the body will feel this +change. + +EFFECT UPON THE BLOOD. [Footnote: Alcohol acts upon the oxygen carrier, +the coloring matter of the red corpuscles, causing it to settle in one +part of the globule, or even to leave the corpuscle, and deposit itself in +other elements of the blood. Thus the red corpuscle may become colorless, +distorted, shrunken, and even entirely broken up--Dr. G. B. HARRIMAN.]-- +From the stomach, alcohol passes directly into the circulation, and so, in +a few minutes, is swept through the entire system. If it be present in +sufficient amount and strength, its eager desire for water will lead it to +absorb moisture from the red corpuscles, causing them to shrink, change +their form, harden, and lose some of their ability to carry oxygen; it may +even make them adhere in masses, and so hinder their passage through the +tiny capillaries.--RICHARDSON. + +With most persons who indulge freely in alcoholic drinks, the blood is +thin, the avidity of alcohol for water causing the burning thirst so +familiar to all drinkers, and hence the use of enormous quantities of +water, oftener of beer, which unnaturally dilutes the blood. The blood +then easily flows from a wound, and renders an accident or surgical +operation very dangerous. + +When the blood tends, as in other cases of an excessive use of spirits, to +coagulate in the capillaries, [Footnote: The blood is rendered unduly +thin, or is coagulated, according to the amount of alcohol that is carried +into the circulatory system. "The spirit may fix the water with the +fibrin, and thus destroy the power of coagulation; or it may extract the +water so determinately as to produce coagulation. This explains why, in +acute cases of poisoning by alcohol, the blood is sometimes found quite +fluid, at other times firmly coagulated in the vessels."--B. W. +RICHARDSON.] + +Reckless persons have sometimes drunk a large quantity of liquor for a +wager, and, as the result of their folly, have died instantly. The whole +of the blood in the heart having coagulated, the circulation was stopped, +and death inevitably ensued.] there is a liability of an obstruction to +the flow of the vital current through the heart, liver, lungs, etc., that +may cause disease, and in the brain may lay the foundation of paralysis, +or, in extreme cases, of apoplexy. + +Wherever the alcoholized blood goes through the body, it bathes the +delicate cells with an irritating narcotic poison, instead of a bland, +nutritious substance. + +EFFECT UPON THE LUNGS.--Here we can see how certainly the presence of +alcohol interferes with the red corpuscles in their task of carrying +oxygen. "Even so small a quantity as one part of alcohol to five hundred +of the blood will materially check the absorption of oxygen in the lungs." + +The cells, unable to take up oxygen, retain their carbonic-acid gas, and +so return from the lungs, carrying back, to poison the system, the refuse +matter the body has sought to throw off. Thus the lungs no longer furnish +properly oxygenized blood. + +The rapid stroke of the heart, already spoken of, is followed by a +corresponding quickening of the respiration. The flush of the cheek is +repeated in the reddened mucous membrane lining the lungs. + +When this "Vascular enlargement" becomes permanent, and the highly +albuminous membrane of the air cells is hardened and thickened as well as +congested, the Osmose of the gases to and fro through its pores can no +longer be prompt and free as before. Even when the effect passes off in a +few days after the occasional indulgence, there has been, during that +time, a diminished supply of the life-giving oxygen furnished to the +system; weakness follows, and, in the case of hard drinkers, there is a +marked liability to epidemics. [Footnote: There is no doubt that alcohol +alters and impairs tissues so that they are more prone to disease.--DR. G. +K. SABINE. A volume of statistics could be filled with quotations like the +following: "Mr. Huber, who saw in one town in Russia two thousand one +hundred and sixty persons perish with the cholera in twenty days, said: +'It is a most remarkable circumstance that persons given to drink have +been swept away like flies. In Tiflis, with twenty thousand inhabitants, +every drunkard has fallen,--all are dead, not one remaining.'"] + +Physicians tell us, also, that there is a peculiar form of consumption +known as Alcoholic Phthisis caused by long-continued and excessive use of +liquor. It generally attacks those whose splendid physique has enabled +them to "drink deep" with apparent impunity. This type of consumption +appears late in life and is considered incurable. Severe cases of +pneumonia are also generally fatal with inebriates. [Footnote: The +Influence of Alcohol is continued in the chapter on Digestion.] + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. Why does a dry, cold atmosphere favorably affect catarrh? + +2. Why should we put on extra covering when we lie down to sleep? + +3. Is it well to throw off our coats or shawls when we come in heated from +a long walk? + +4. Why are close-fitting collars or neckties injurious? + +5. Which side of the heart is the more liable to inflammation? + +6. What gives the toper his red nose? + +7. Why does not the arm die when the surgeon ties the principal artery +leading to it? + +8. When a fowl is angry, why does its comb redden? + +9. Why does a fat man endure cold better than a lean one? + +10. Why does one become thin, during a long sickness? + +11. What would you do if you should come home "wet to the skin"? + +12. When the cold air strikes the face, why does it first blanch and then +flush? + +13. What must be the effect of tight lacing upon the circulation of the +blood? + +14. Do you know the position of the large arteries in the limbs, so that +in case of accident you could stop the flow of blood? + +15. When a person is said to be good-hearted, is it a physical truth? + +16. Why does a hot footbath relieve the headache? + +17. Why does the body of a drowned or strangled person turn blue? + +18. What are the little "kernels" in the armpits? + +19. When we are excessively warm, would the thermometer show any rise of +temperature in the body? + +20. What forces besides that of the heart aid in propelling the blood? + +21. Why can the pulse be best felt in the wrist? +22. Why are starving people exceedingly sensitive to any jar? + +23. Why will friction, an application of horse-radish leaves, or a blister +relieve internal congestion? + +24. Why are students very liable to cold feet? + +25. Is the proverb that "blood is thicker than water" literally true? + +26. What is the effect upon the circulation of "holding the breath"? + +27. Which side of the heart is the stronger? + +28. How is the heart itself nourished? [Footnote: The coronary artery, +springing from the aorta just after its origin, carries blood to the +muscular walls of the heart; the venous blood comes back through the +coronary veins, and empties directly into the right auricle.] + +29. Does any venous blood reach the heart without coming through the venæ +cavæ? + +30. What would you do, in the absence of a surgeon, in the case of a +severe wound? (See p. 258.) + +31. What would you do in the case of a fever? (See p. 263.) + +32. What is the most injurious effect of alcohol upon the blood? + +33. Are our bodies the same from day to day? + +34. Show how life comes by death. + +35. Is not the truth just stated as applicable to moral and intellectual, +as to physical life? + +36. What vein begins and ends with capillaries? _Ans_. The portal +vein commences with capillaries in the digestive organs, and ends with the +same kind of vessels in the liver. (See p. 166.) + +37. By what process is alcohol always formed? Does it exist in nature? + +38. What percentage of alcohol is contained in the different kinds of +liquor? + +39. Does cider possess the same intoxicating principle as brandy? + +40. Describe the general properties of alcohol. + +41. Show that alcohol is a narcotic poison. + +42. If alcohol is not a stimulant, how does it cause the heart to +overwork? + +43. Why is the skin of a drunkard always red and blotched? + +44. What danger is there in occasionally using alcoholic drinks? + +45. What is meant by a fatty degeneration of the heart? + +46. What keeps the blood in circulation between the beats of the heart? + +47. What is the office of the capillaries? (See note, p. 373.) + +48. Does alcohol interfere with this function? + +49. How does alcohol interfere with the regular office of the membranes? + +50. How does it check the process of oxidation? + + + + +VI. + + +DIGESTION AND FOOD. + +"A man puts some ashes in a hill of corn and thereby doubles its yield. +Then he says, 'My ashes have I turned into corn.' Weak from his labor, he +eats of his corn, and new life comes to him. Again, he says, 'I have +changed my corn into a man.' This also he feels to be the truth. + +"It is the problem of the body, remember, that we are discussing. A man is +more than the body; to confound the body and the man is worse than +confounding the body and the clothing."--JOHN DARBY. + +ANALYSIS OF DIGESTION AND FOOD + +_ +| 1. WHY WE NEED FOOD. +| +| 2. WHAT FOOD DOES. +| _ _ +| | 1. Nitrogenous. |_a. _The Sugars._ +| 3. KINDS OF FOOD....| 2. Carbonaceous....|_b. _The Fats._ +| |_3. Minerals +| +| 4. ONE KIND is INSUFFICIENT. +| +| 5. OBJECT OF DIGESTION. +| _ +| | --General Description +| | _ +| | 1. Mastication and | a. _The Saliva._ +| | Insalvation......| b. _Process of +| | |_ Swallowing._ +| | _ +| | | a. _The Stomach._ +| | 2. Gastric | b. _The Gastric +| | Digestion........| Juice._ +| | |_c. _The Chyme_ +| 6. PROCESSES OF | _ +| DIGESTION........| | --Description +| | | a. _The Bile_ +| | 3. Intestional | b. _The Pancreatic +| | Digestion........| Juice._ +| | | c. _The Small +| | |_ Intestine._ +| | _ +| | | a. _By the Veins._ +| | 4. Absorption.......| b. _By the +| |_ |_ Lacteals._ +| +| 7. COMPLEXITY OF THE PROCESS OF DIGESTION. +| _ +| | 1. Length of Time required. +| | _ +| | | a. _Beef._ +| | | b. _Mutton._ +| | | c. _Lamb._ +| | 2. Value of dif- | d. _Pork._ +| | ferent kinds | e. _Fish._ +| | of food.........| f. _Milk._ +| | | g. _Cheese._ +| | |_h. _Eggs, etc._ +| | _ +| 8. HYGIENE..........| | a. _Coffee._ +| | 3. The Stimulants...| b. _Tea._ +| | |_C. _Chocolate._ +| | 4. Cooking of Food. +| | 5. Rapid Eating. +| | 6. Quantity and Quality of Food. +| | 7. When Food should be taken. +| | 8. How Food should be taken. +| |_9. Need of a Variety +| +| 9. THE WONDERS OF DIGESTION. +| _ +| | 1. Dyspepsia. +| 10. DISEASES........|_2. The Mumps. +| _ +| | 1. Is Alcohol a Food? +| | 2. Effect upon the Digestion. +| | 3. Effect upon the Liver. +| 11. ALCOHOLIC | 4. Effect upon the Kidneys. +| DRINKS AND | 5. Does Alcohol impart heat? +| NARCOTICS.......| 6. Does Alcohol impart strength? +|_ | 7. The Effect upon the Waste of the Body. +| 8. Alcohol creates a progressive appetite +| for itself. +|_9. Law of Heredity. + +DIGESTION AND FOOD. + +WHY WE NEED FOOD.--We have learned that our bodies are constantly giving +off waste matter--the products of the fire, or oxidation, as the chemist +terms the change going on within us (Note, p. 107). A man without food +will starve to death in a few days, _i. e._, the oxygen will have +consumed all the available flesh of his body. [Footnote: The stories +current in the newspapers of persons who live for years without food, are, +of course, untrue. The case of the Welsh Fasting Girl, which excited +general interest throughout Great Britain, and was extensively copied in +our own press, is in point. She had succeeded in deceiving not only the +public, but, as some claim, her own parents. At last a strict watch was +set by day and night, precluding the possibility of her receiving any food +except at the hands of the committee, from whom she steadily refused it. +In a few days she died from actual starvation. The youth of the girl, the +apparent honesty of the parents, and the tragical sequel, make it one of +the most remarkable cases of the kind on record.] To replace the daily +outgo, we need about two and a quarter pounds of food, and three pints of +drink. [Footnote: Every cell in the tissues is full of matter ready to set +free at call its stored-up energy--derived from the meat, bread, and +vegetables we have eaten. This energy will pass off quietly when the +organs are in comparative rest, but violently when the muscles contract +with force. When we send an order through a nerve to any part of the body, +a series of tiny explosions run the entire length of the nerve, just as +fire runs through a train of gunpowder. The muscle receives the stimulus, +and, contracting, liberates its energy. The cells of nerve or muscle, +whose contents have thus exploded, as it were, are useless, and must be +carried off by the blood, just as ashes must be swept from the hearth, and +new fuel be supplied to keep up a fire.] + +Including the eight hundred pounds of oxygen taken from the air, a man +uses in a year about a ton and a half of material. [Footnote: The +following is the daily ration of a United States soldier. It is said to be +the most generous in the world: + +Bread or flour . . . . . . . . . 22 ounces. +Fresh or salt beef (or pork or bacon, 12 oz.) . 20 " +Potatoes (three times per week) . . . . . 16 " +Rice . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 " +Coffee (or tea, 0.24 oz.) . . . . . . 1.6 " +Sugar . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 " +Beans . . . . . . . . . . . 0.64 gill. +Vinegar . . . . . . . . . . 0.32 " +Salt . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.16 "] + +Yet during this entire time his weight may have been nearly uniform. +[Footnote: If, however, he were kept on the scale pan of a sensitive +balance, he would find that his weight is constantly changing, increasing +with each meal, and then gradually decreasing.] Our bodies are but molds, +in which a certain quantity of matter, checked for a time on its ceaseless +round, receives a definite form. They may be likened, says Huxley, to an +eddy in the river, which retains its shape for a while, yet every instant +each particle of water is changing. + +WHAT FOOD DOES.--We make no force ourselves. We can only use that which +nature provides for us. [Footnote: We draw from Nature at once our +substance, and the force by which we operate upon her; being, so far, +parts of her great system, immersed in it for a short time and to a small +extent. Enfolding us, as it were, within her arms, Nature lends us her +forces to expend; we receive them, and pass them on, giving them the +impress of our will, and bending them to our designs, for a little while; +and then--Yes; then it is all one. The great procession pauses not, nor +flags a moment, for our fall. The powers which Nature lent to us she +resumes to herself, or lends, it may be, to another; the use which we have +made of them, or might have made and did not, is written in her book +forever.--_Health and its Conditions_.] All our strength comes from +the food we eat. Food is force--that is, it contains a latent power which +it gives up when it is decomposed. [Footnote: This force is chemical +affinity. It binds together the molecules which compose the food we eat. +When oxygen tears the molecules to pieces and makes them up into smaller +ones, the force is set free. As we shall learn in Physics, it can be +turned, into heat, muscular motion, electricity, etc. The principle that +the different kinds of force can be changed into one another without loss, +is called the Conservation of Energy, and is one of the grandest +discoveries of modern science.--_Popular Physics_, pages 35, 39, +278.] Oxygen is the magic key which unlocks for our use this hidden store. +[Footnote: We have spoken of the mystery that envelops the process of the +conversion of food force into muscular force (note, p. 107). All +physiologists agree that muscular power has its source in the chemical +decomposition of certain substances whereby their potential energy is +released. Probably some of the food undergoes this chemical change before +it passes out of the alimentary canal; possibly some is broken up by the +oxygen while it is being swept along by the blood; but, probably by far +the largest part is converted into the various tissues of the body, and +finally becomes a waste product only after there takes place in the tissue +itself that chemical disorganization that sets free its stored-up power.-- +FOSTER'S _Physiology_.] Putting food into our bodies is like placing +a tense spring within a watch; every motion of the body is only a new +direction given to this food force, as every movement of the hand on the +dial is but the manifestation of the power of the bent spring in the +watch. We use the pent-up energies of meat, bread, and vegetables which +are placed at our service, and transfer them to a higher theater of +action. [Footnote: It is a grand thought that we can thus transform what +is common and gross into the refined and spiritual; that out of waving +wheat, wasting flesh, running water, and dead minerals, we can realize the +glorious possibilities of human life.] + +KINDS OF FOOD NEEDED.--From what has been said it is clear that, in order +to produce heat and force, we need something that will burn, _i. e._, +with which oxygen can combine. Experiment has proved that to build up +every organ, and keep the body in the best condition, we require three +kinds of food. + +1. _Nitrogenous Food_.--As nitrogen is a prominent constituent of the +tissues of the body, food which contains it is therefore necessary to +their growth and repair. [Footnote: Since this kind of food closely +resembles albumen, it is sometimes called _Albuminous_. The term +Proteid is also used.] The most common forms are whites of eggs--which are +nearly pure albumen; casein--the chief constituent of cheese; lean meat; +and gluten--the viscid substance which gives tenacity to dough. Bodies +having a great deal of nitrogen readily oxidize. Hence the peculiar +character of the quick-changing, force-exciting muscle. + +2. _Carbonaceous Food_--_i. e._, food containing much carbon-- +consists of two kinds, viz., the _sugars_, and the _fats_. + +(1) The _sugars_ contain hydrogen and oxygen in the proportion to +form water, and about the same amount of carbon. They may, therefore, be +considered as water, with carbon diffused through it. In digestion, starch +and gum are changed to sugar, and so are ranked with this class. + +(2) The _fats_ are like the sugars in composition, but contain less +oxygen, and not in the proportion to form water. They combine with more +oxygen in burning, and so give off more heat. + +The non-nitrogenous elements of the food have, however, other uses than to +develop heat. [Footnote: The heat they produce in burning may be turned +into motion of the muscles, according to the principle of the Conservation +of Energy (p. 153, note); while all the structures of the body in their +oxidation develop heat.] Fat is essential to the assimilation of the food, +while sugar and starch aid in digestion and may be converted into fat. +[Footnote: In Turkey, the ladies of the harem are fed on honey and thick +gruel, to make flesh, which is considered to enhance their beauty. The +negroes on the sugar plantations of the South always grow fat during the +sugar-making season.] Fat and carbonaceous material both enter into the +composition of the various tissues, and when, by the breaking up of the +contractile substance of the muscle, their latent energy is set free, they +become the source of muscular force, as well as heat. While the tendency +of the albuminous food is to excite chemical action, and hence the release +of energy, the fats and carbonaceous food may be laid up in the body to +serve as a storehouse of energy to supply future needs. + +3. _Mineral Matters_.--Food should contain water, and certain common +minerals, such as iron, [Footnote: While the body can build up a solid +from liquid materials on the one hand, on the other it can pour iron +through its veins and reduce the hardest textures to blood.--HINTON.] +sulphur, magnesia, phosphorus, salt, and potash. About three pints of +water are needed daily to dissolve the food and carry it through the +circulation, to float off waste matter, to lubricate the tissues, and by +evaporation to cool the system (see p. 317). It also enters largely into +the composition of the body. A man weighing one hundred and fifty-four +pounds contains one hundred pounds of water, about twelve gallons--enough, +if rightly arranged, to drown him. [Footnote: It is said that Blumenbach +had a perfect mummy of an adult Teneriffian, which with the viscera +weighed only seven and a half pounds.] + +Iron goes to the blood disks; lime combines with phosphoric and carbonic +acids to give solidity to the bones and teeth; phosphorus is essential to +the activity of the brain. Salt is necessary to the secretion of some of +the digestive fluids, and also to aid in working off from the system its +waste products. These various minerals, except iron--sometimes given as a +medicine, and salt--universally used as a condiment, [Footnote: Animals +will travel long distances to obtain salt. Men will barter gold for it; +indeed, among the Gallas and on the coast of Sierra Leone, brothers will +sell their sisters, husbands their wives, and parents their children for +salt. In the district of Accra, on the gold coast of Africa, a handful of +salt is the most valuable thing upon earth after gold, and will purchase a +slave. Mungo Park tells us that with the Mandingoes and Bambaras the use +of salt is such a luxury that to say of a man "he flavors his food with +salt," it is to imply that he is rich; and children will suck a piece of +rock salt as if it were sugar. No stronger mark of respect or affection +can be shown in Muscovy, than the sending of salt from the tables of the +rich to their poorer friends. In the book of Leviticus it is expressly +commanded as one of the ordinances of Moses, that every oblation of meat +upon the altar shall be seasoned with salt, without lacking; and hence it +is called the Salt of the Covenant of God. The Greeks and Romans also used +salt in their sacrificial cakes; and it is still used in the services of +the Latin church--the "_parva mica_" or pinch of salt, being in the +ceremony of baptism, put into the child's mouth, while the priest says, +"Receive the salt of wisdom, and may it be a propitiation to thee for +eternal life." Everywhere and almost always, indeed, it has been regarded +as emblematical of wisdom, wit, and immortality. To taste a man's salt, +was to be bound by the rites of hospitality; and no oath was more solemn +than that which was sworn upon bread and salt. To sprinkle the meat with +salt was to drive away the devil, and to this day, nothing is more unlucky +than to spill the salt.--LETHEBY, _On Food_.] are contained in +small, but sufficient quantities in meat, bread, and vegetables. + +ONE KIND OF FOOD IS INSUFFICIENT.--A person fed on starch alone, would +die. It would be a clear case of nitrogen starvation. On the other hand, +as nitrogenous food contains carbon, the elements of water, and various +mineral matters, life could be supported on that alone. But such a +prodigious quantity of lean meat, for example, would be required to +furnish the other elements, that not only would it be very expensive, but +it is likely that after a time the labor of digestion would be too +onerous, and the system would give up the task in despair. The need of a +diet containing both nitrogenous and carbonaceous elements is shown in the +fact that even in the tropical regions oil is relished as a dressing upon +salad. Instinct everywhere suggests the blending. Butter is used with +bread; rice is boiled with milk; cheese is eaten with macaroni, and beans +are baked with pork. + +FIG. 45. + +[Illustration: _The Stomach and Intestines._ 1, _stomach;_ 2, +_duodenum;_ 3, _small intestine;_ 4, _termination of the +ileum;_ 5, _cœcum;_ 6, _vermiforn appendix;_ 7, _ascending +colon;_ 8, _transverse colon;_ 9, _descending colon;_ 10, +_sigmoid flexure of the colon;_ 11, _rectum;_ 12, _spleen--a +gland whose action is not understood._--LEIDY'S _Anatomy._] + +THE OBJECT OF DIGESTION.--If our food were cast directly into the blood, +it could not be used. For example, although the chemist can not see +wherein the albumen of the egg differs from the albumen of the blood, yet +if it be injected into the veins it is unavailable for the purposes +required, and is thrown out again. In the course of digestion the food is +modified in various ways whereby it is fitted for the use of the body, +into which it is finally incorporated. We call this change of food into +flesh _assimilation_, a name for a work done solely by the vital +organs, and so mysterious in its nature that the wisest physiologist gets +only glimpses here and there of its operations. + +THE GENERAL PLAN OF DIGESTION.--Nature has provided for this purpose an +entire laboratory, furnished with a chemist's outfit of knives, mortars, +baths, chemicals, filters, etc. The food is (1) chewed, mixed with the +saliva in the mouth, and swallowed; (2) it is acted upon by the gastric +juice in the stomach; (3) it is passed into the intestines, where it +receives the bile, pancreatic juice, and other liquids which completely +dissolve it; [Footnote: Digestion, says Berzelius, is a process of +rinsing. The digestive apparatus secretes, and again absorbs with the food +which it has dissolved, not less than three gallons of liquid per day.-- +BARNARD, BIDDER, SCHMIDT, and others.] (4) the nourishing part is absorbed +in the stomach and intestines, and thence thrown into the blood vessels, +whence it is whirled through the body by the torrent of the circulation. +These processes take place within the _alimentary canal_, a narrow +tortuous tube which commences at the mouth, and is about thirty feet long. +[Footnote: The digestive apparatus is lined with mucous membrane that +possesses functions similar to those of the outer skin. It absorbs certain +substances and rejects waste matter. On account of this close connection +between the inner and the outer skin, it is not surprising to find that in +the lowest animals digestion is performed by means of the external skin. +The amœba, which is merely a gelatinous mass, when it takes its food, +extemporizes a stomach for the occasion. It simply wraps itself around the +morsel, and, like an animated apple dumpling with the apple for food and +the crust for animal, goes on with the process until the operation is +completed, when it unrolls itself again and lets the indigestible residue +escape. The common hydra of our brooks can live when turned inside out, +like a glove; either side serving for skin or stomach, as necessity +requires.] + +FIG. 46. + +[Illustration: _The Parotid--one of the salivary glands._] + +I. MASTICATION AND INSALIVATION.--l. _The Saliva_.--The food while +being cut and ground by the teeth is mixed with the saliva. This is a +thin, colorless, frothy, slightly alkaline liquid, secreted [Footnote: By +secretion is meant merely a separation or picking out from the blood.] by +the mucous membrane lining the mouth, and by three pairs of salivary +glands (parotid, submaxillary, and sublingual) opening into the mouth +through ducts, or tubes. The amount varies, but on the average is about +three pounds per day, and in health is always sufficient to keep the mouth +moist. [Footnote: The presence and often the thought of food will "make +one's mouth water." Fear checks the flow of saliva, and hence the East +Indians sometimes attempt to detect theft by making those who are +suspected chew rice. The person from whom it comes out driest is adjudged +the thief.] It softens and dissolves the food, and thus enables us to get +the flavor or taste of what we eat. It contains a peculiar organic +principle called _ptyalin_, [Footnote: One part of ptyalin will +convert eight thousand parts of starch into sugar.--MIALEE. + +The saliva has no chemical action on the fats or the albuminous bodies. +Its frothiness enables it to carry oxygen into the stomach, and this is +thought to be of service. The action of the ptyalin commences with great +promptness, and sugar has been detected, it is said, within half a minute +after the starch was placed in the mouth. The process, however, is not +finished there, but continues after reaching the stomach.--VALENTIN. The +saliva thus prepares a small portion of food for absorption at once, and +so insures at the very beginning of the operation of digestion a supply of +force-producing material for the immediate use of the system.] which, +acting upon the starch of the food, changes it into glucose or grape +sugar. + +2. _The Process of Swallowing._--The food thus finely pulverized, +softened, and so lubricated by the viscid saliva as to prevent friction as +it passes over the delicate membranes, is conveyed by the tongue and cheek +to the back of the mouth. The soft palate lifts to close the nasal +opening; the epiglottis shuts down, and along this bridge the food is +borne, without danger of falling into the windpipe or escaping into the +nose. The muscular bands of the throat now seize it and take it beyond our +control. The fibers of the œsophagus contract above, while they are lax +below, and convey the food by a worm-like motion into the stomach. +[Footnote: We can observe the peculiar motion of the œsophagus by watching +a horse's neck when he is drinking.] + +II. GASTRIC DIGESTION.--1. _The Stomach_ is an irregular expansion of +the digestive tube. Its shape has been compared to that of a bagpipe. It +holds about three pints, though it is susceptible of some distension. It +is composed of an inner, mucous membrane, which secretes the digestive +fluids; an outer, smooth, well-lubricated serous one, which prevents +friction, and between them a stout, muscular coat. The last consists of +two principal layers of longitudinal and circular fibers. When these +contract, they produce a peculiar churning motion, called the +_peristaltic_ (_peri_, round; _stallein_, to arrange) movement, which +thoroughly mixes the contents of the stomach. At the farther end, the +muscular fibers contract and form a gateway, the _pylorus_ (a gate), +as it is called, which carefully guards the exit, and allows no food +to pass from the stomach until properly prepared. [Footnote: With a +wise discretion, however, it opens for buttons, coins, etc., swallowed +by accident; and when we overload the stomach, it seems to become weary of +constantly denying egress, and, finally, giving up in despair, lets +everything through.] + +FIG. 47. + +[Illustration: _Diagram of the Digestion of the Food. Notice how the +food is submitted to the action of alkaline, acid, and then alkaline +fluids. (See note, p._ 165.)] + +2. _The Gastric Juice_.--The lining of the stomach is soft, velvety, +and of a pinkish hue; but, as soon as food is admitted, the blood vessels +fill, the surface becomes of a bright red, and soon there exudes from the +gastric glands a thin, colorless fluid--the gastric juice. (See p. 319.) +This is secreted to the amount of twelve pounds per day. [Footnote: The +amount secreted by a healthy adult is variously estimated from five to +thirty-seven pounds. As it is reabsorbed by the blood, there is no loss.] +Its acidity is probably due to muriatic or lactic acid--the acid of sour +milk. It contains a peculiar organic principle called _pepsin_ +[Footnote: Pepsin is prepared and sold as an article of commerce. The best +is said to be made from the stomachs of young, healthy pigs, which, just +before being killed, are excited with savory food that they are not +allowed to eat. One grain is sufficient to dissolve eight hundred grains +of coagulated white of egg. A temperature of 130° renders pepsin inert.] +(_peptein_, to digest), which acts as a ferment to produce changes in +the food, without being itself modified. + +The flow of gastric juice is influenced by various circumstances. Cold +water checks it for a time, and ice for a longer period. Anger, fatigue, +and anxiety delay and even suspend the secretion. The gastric juice has no +effect on the fats or the sugars of the food; its influence being mainly +confined to the albuminous bodies, which it so changes that they become +soluble in water. [Footnote: The question is often asked why the stomach +itself is not digested by the gastric juice, since it belongs to the +albuminous substances. Some have assigned as the probable reason that life +protects that organ, and assert that living tissues can not be digested; +but the fallacy of this has been clearly shown by experiments that have +been made with living tissues in the course of scientific research. The +latest opinion is that the blood which circulates so freely through the +vessels of the lining of the stomach, being alkaline, protects the tissue +against the acidity of the gastric juice.] + +The food, reduced by the action of the gastric juice to a grayish, soupy +mass, called _chyme_ (kime), escapes through that jealously guarded +door, the pylorus. + +Fig. 48. + +[Illustration: _A vertical Section of the Duodenum, highly +magnified._ 1, _a fold-like villus;_ 2, epithelium, or cuticle;_ +3, _orifices of intestinal glands;_ 5, _orifice of duodenal glands;_ +4, 7, _more highly magnified sections of the cells of a duodenal gland._] + +III. INTESTINAL DIGESTION--The structure of the intestines is like that +of the stomach. There is the same outer, smooth, serous membrane +(peritoneum) to prevent friction, the lining of mucous membrane to secrete +the digestive fluids, and the muscular coating to push the food forward. +The intestines are divided into the _small_ and the _large_. The +first part of the former opens out of the stomach, and is called the +_du-o-de'-num_, as its length is equal to the breadth of twelve +fingers. Here the chyme is acted upon by the _bile_, and the +_pancreatic juice_. + +FIG. 49. + +[Illustration: _The Mucous Membrane of the Ilium, highly magnified._ +1, _cellular structure of the epithelium, or outer layer;_ 2, _a +vein;_ 3, _fibrous layer;_ 4, _villi covered with epithelium;_ 5, +_a villus in section, showing its lining of epithelium, with its +blood vessels and lymphatics;_ 6, _a villus partially uncovered;_ +7, _a villus stripped of its epithelium;_ 8, _lymphatics or lacteals;_ +9, _orifices of the glands opening between the villi;_ 10, 11, 12, +_glands;_ 13, _capillaries surrounding the orifices of the gland._] + +1. _The Bile_ is secreted by the liver. This gland weighs about four +pounds, and is the largest in the body. It is located on the right side, +below the diaphragm. The bile is of a dark, golden color, and bitter +taste. About three pounds are secreted per day. When not needed for +digestion, it is stored in the gall cyst. [Footnote: A gall bladder can be +obtained from a butcher, and the contents kept in a bottle for +examination.] Its action on the food, though not fully understood, is +necessary to life. [Footnote: The bile is produced, unlike all the other +animal secretions, from venous blood; that is, the already contaminated +blood of the portal vein. Its complete suppression produces symptoms of +poisoning analogous to those which follow the stoppage of respiration, and +the patient dies, usually in a comatose condition, at the end of ten or +twelve days.--DALTON. The alkaline bile neutralizes the acid contents of +the stomach as they flow into the duodenum, and thus prepares the way for +the pancreatic juice. It has also a slight emulsifying power (note, p. +167).] + +2. _The Pancreatic Juice_ is a secretion of the pancreas, or +"sweetbread"--a gland nearly as large as the hand, lying behind the +stomach. It is alkaline, and contains a ferment called _trypsin_. +This juice has the power of changing starch to sugar. Its main work, +however, is in breaking up the globules of fat into myriads of minute +particles, that mix freely with water, and remain suspended in it like +butter in new milk. The whole mass now assumes a milky look, whence it is +termed _chyle_ (kile) and passes on to the small intestine. +[Footnote: It is curious to observe that while the gastric juice is +decidedly acid, the fluids with which the food next comes into contact are +alkaline. It is thus submitted to the operation alternately of alkaline, +acid, and again of alkaline secretions. In the herbivora there is also a +second acid juice. The reason of these alternations is not known, but it +can hardly be doubted that they serve to make the digestion of the food +more perfect. And although the solvent power of the gastric juice is +placed in abeyance when its acidity is neutralized by the alkaline fluids, +yet it appears to be the case here, as in respect to the saliva, that +effects are produced by the mixture of the various secretions which are +poured together into the digestive tube, that would not result from either +alone.--HINTON.] + +3. _The Small Intestine_ is an intricately folded tube, about twenty +feet long, and from an inch to an inch and one half in diameter. As the +chyle passes through this tortuous channel, it receives along the entire +route secretions which seem to combine the action of all the previous +ones--starch, fat, and albumen being equally affected. + +IV. ABSORPTION is performed in two ways, by the _veins_, and the +_lacteals_. (1.) The veins in the stomach [Footnote: The veins and +the lacteals are separated from the food by a thin, moist membrane, +through the pores of which the fluid food rapidly passes, in accordance +with a beautiful law ("Popular Physics," p. 53) called the _Osmose_ +of liquids. If two liquids of different densities are separated by an +animal membrane, they will mix with considerable force. There is a similar +law regulating the interchange of gases through a porous partition, in +obedience to which the carbonic acid of the blood, and the oxygen of the +lungs, are exchanged through the thin membrane of the air cells.] +immediately begin to take up the water, salt, grape sugar, and other +substances that need no special preparation. The starch and the albuminous +bodies are also absorbed as they are properly digested, and this process +continues along the whole length of the alimentary canal. In the small +intestine, there is a multitude of tiny projections (_villi_) from +the folds of the mucous membrane, more than seven thousand to the square +inch, giving it a soft, velvety look. These little rootlets, reaching out +into the milky fluid, drink into their minute blood vessels the nutritious +part of every sort of food. (2.)The lacteals [Footnote: From _lac_, +milk, because of the milky look given to their contents by the chyle.] (p. +126), a set of vessels starting in the villi side by side with the veins, +absorb the principal part of the fat. They convey the chyle through the +lymphatics and the thoracic duct (Fig. 43) to the veins, and so within the +sweep of the circulation. + +The Portal Vein [Footnote: So named because it enters the liver by a sort +of gateway.] carries to the liver the food absorbed by the veins of the +stomach and the villi of the intestines. On the way, it is greatly +modified by the action of the blood itself. In the cells of the liver, it +undergoes as mysterious a process as that performed by the lymphatic +glands, and is then cast into the circulation. [Footnote: In these cells, +the sugar is changed into a kind of starch called _glycogen_. This is +insoluble, and so is stored up in the liver, and even in the substance of +the muscles, until it is needed by the body, when it is once more +converted into soluble sugar and taken up by the circulation. The liver +also changes the waste and surplus albuminous matter into bile, and into +urea and uric acid--the forms in which nitrogenized waste is excreted by +the kidneys.] The food, potent with force, is now buried in that river of +life from which the body springs momentarily afresh. + +THE COMPLEXITY of the process of digestion, as compared with the +simplicity of respiration and circulation, is very marked. The mechanical +operation of mastication; the lubrication of the food by mucus; the +provision for the security of the respiratory organs; the grasping by the +muscles of the throat; the churning movement of the stomach; the +guardianship of the pylorus; the timely introduction by safe and protected +channels of the saliva, the gastric juice, the bile, the pancreatic juice, +and the intestinal fluids, each with its special adaptation; the curious +peristaltic motion of the intestines; the twofold absorption by the veins +and the lacteals; the final transformation in the lymphatics, the portal +vein, and the liver,--all these present a complexity of detail, the +necessity of which can be explained only when we reflect upon the variety +of the substances we use for food, and the importance of its thorough +preparation before it is allowed to enter the blood. + +THE LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED for digesting a full meal is from two to four +hours. It varies with the kind of food, state of the system, perfection of +mastication, etc. In the celebrated observations made upon Alexis St. +Martin [Footnote: In 1822, Alexis St. Martin, a Canadian in the employ of +the American Fur Company, was accidentally shot in the left side. Two +years after, the wound was entirely healed, leaving, however, an opening +about two and a half inches in circumference into the stomach. Through +this the mucous membrane protruded, forming a kind of valve which +prevented the discharge of food, but could be readily depressed by the +finger, thus exposing the interior. For several years he was under the +care of Dr. Beaumont, a skillful physician, who experimented upon him by +giving various kinds of food, and watching their digestion through this +opening. By means of these observations, and others performed on Katherine +Kutt, a woman who had a similar aperture in the stomach, we have very +important information as to the digestibility of different kinds of food.] +by Dr. Beaumont, his stomach was found empty in two and a half hours after +a meal of roast turkey, potatoes, and bread. Pigs' feet and boiled rice +were disposed of in an hour. Fresh, sweet apples took one and a half +hours; boiled milk, two hours; and unboiled, a quarter of an hour longer. +In eggs, which occupied the same time, the case was reversed,--raw ones +being digested sooner than cooked. Roast beef and mutton required three +and three and a quarter hours respectively; veal, salt beef, and broiled +chicken remained for four hours; and roast pork enjoyed the bad +preeminence of needing five and a quarter hours. + +VALUE OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF FOOD.--_Beef_ and _Mutton_ +possess the greatest nutritive value of any of the meats. _Lamb_ is +less strengthening, but more delicate. Like the young of all animals, it +should be thoroughly cooked, and at a high temperature, properly to +develop its delicious flavor. _Pork_ has much carbon. It sometimes +contains a parasite called trichina, which may be transferred to the human +system, producing disease and often death. The only preventive is thorough +cooking. _Fish_ is more watery than flesh, and many find it difficult +of digestion. Like meat, it loses its mineral constituents and natural +juices when salted, and is much less nourishing. Oysters are highly +nutritious, but are more easily assimilated when raw than when cooked. +_Milk_ is a model food, as it contains albumen, starch, fat, and +mineral matter. No other single substance can sustain life for so long a +time. _Cheese_ is very nourishing--one pound being equal in value to +two of meat, but it is not adapted to a weak stomach. (See p. 322.) +_Eggs_ are most easily digested when the white is barely coagulated +and the yolk is unchanged. _Bread_ [Footnote: Very fresh bread, warm +biscuit, etc., are condensed by mastication into a pasty mass that is not +easily penetrated by the gastric juice, and hence they are not healthful. +In Germany bread is not allowed to be sold at the baker's till it is +twenty-four hours old--a wise provision for those who have not strength to +resist temptation. This rule of eating may well be adopted by every one +who cares more for his health than for a gratification of his appetite.] +should be made of unbolted flour. The bran of wheat furnishes the mineral +matter we need in our bones and teeth, gives the bulk so essential to the +proper distension of the organs, and by its roughness gently stimulates +them to action. _Corn_ is rich in fat. It contains, however, more +indigestible matter than any other grain, except oats, and is less +nutritious than wheat. [Footnote: Persons unaccustomed to the use of corn +find it liable to produce derangement of the digestive organs. This was +made fearfully apparent in the prisons of Andersonville during the late +civil war. The vegetable food of the Federal prisoners had hitherto been +chiefly wheat bread and potatoes--the corn bread so extensively used at +the South being quite new to most of them as a constant article of diet. +It soon became not only loathsome, but productive of serious diseases. On +the other hand, it was the principal article in the rations of the +Confederate soldiers, to whom habit made it a nutritious and wholesome +form of food, as was shown by their endurance.--FLINT, _Physiology of +Man_, Vol. II, page 41.] The _Potato_ is two thirds water,--the +rest being mainly starch. _Ripe Fruits_, and those vegetables usually +eaten raw, dilute the more concentrated food, and also supply the blood +with acids, which are cooling in summer, and useful, perhaps, in +assimilation. + +THE STIMULANTS.--_Coffee_ is about half nitrogen, and the rest fatty, +saccharine, and mineral substances. It is, therefore, of much nutritive +value, especially when taken with milk and sugar. Its peculiar stimulating +property is due to a principle called _caffeine_. Its aroma is +developed by browning, but destroyed by burning. No other substance so +soon relieves the sense of fatigue. [Footnote: In the late civil war, the +first desire of the soldiers upon halting after a wearisome march, was to +make a cup of coffee. This was taken without milk, and often without +sugar, yet was always welcome.] Taken in moderation, it clears the +intellect, tranquilizes the nerves, and usually leaves no unpleasant +reaction. It serves also as a kind of negative food, since it retards the +process of waste. + +In some cases, however, it produces a rush of blood to the head, and +should be at once discarded. At the close of a full meal it hinders +digestion, and at night produces wakefulness. In youth, when the vital +powers are strong, and the functions of nature prompt in rallying from +fatigue, it is not needed, and may be injurious in stimulating a sensitive +organization. + +_Tea_ possesses an active principle called _theine_. When used +moderately, its effects are similar to those of coffee, except that it +exerts an astringent action. It contains tannin, which, if the tea is +strong, coagulates the albumen of the food--_tans_ it--and thus +delays digestion. In excess, tea causes nervous tremor, disturbed sleep, +palpitation of the heart, and indigestion. [Footnote: Tea and coffee +should be made with, boiling water, but should not be boiled afterward. +During the "steeping" process, so customary in this country, the volatile +aroma is lost and a bitter principle extracted. In both England and China +it is usual to infuse tea directly in the urn from which it is to be +drawn. The tannin in tea is shown when a drop falls on a knife blade. The +black spot is a tannate of iron--a compound of the acid in the tea and the +metal.] (See p. 322.) + +_Chocolate_ contains much fat, and also nitrogenous matter resembling +albumen. Its active principle, _theobromine_, [Footnote: It is said +that Linnæus, the great botanist, was so fond of chocolate that he named +the cocoa tree "Theobroma," the food of the gods.] has some of the +properties of caffeine and theine. + +THE COOKING OF FOOD breaks the little cells, and softens the fibers of +which it is composed. In broiling or roasting meat, it should be exposed +to a strong heat at once, in order to coagulate the albumen upon the +outside, and thus prevent the escape of the nutritious juices. The cooking +may then be finished at a lower temperature. The same principle applies to +boiling meat. In making soups, on the contrary, the heat should be applied +slowly, and should reach the boiling point for only a few moments at the +close. This prevents the coagulation of the albumen. Frying is an +unhealthful mode of cooking food, as thereby the fat becomes partially +disorganized. + +RAPID EATING produces many evil results. 1. There is not enough saliva +mixed with the food; 2. The coarse pieces resist the action of the +digestive fluids; 3. The food is washed down with drinks that dilute the +gastric juice, and hinder its work; 4. We do not appreciate the quantity +we eat until the stomach is overloaded; 5. Failing to get the taste of our +food, we think it insipid, and hence use condiments that overstimulate the +digestive organs. In these various ways the appetite becomes depraved, the +stomach vexed, the system overworked, and the foundation of dyspepsia is +laid. [Footnote: When one is compelled to eat in a hurry, as at a railway +station, he would do well to confine himself principally to meat; and to +dilute this concentrated food with fruit, crackers, etc., taken afterward +more leisurely.] (See p. 324.) + +THE QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF FOOD required vary with the age and habits of +each individual. The diet of a child [Footnote: In youth, repair exceeds +waste; hence the body grows rapidly, and the form is plump. In middle +life, repair and waste equal each other, and growth ceases. In old age, +waste exceeds repair; hence the powers are enfeebled and the skin lies in +wrinkles on the shrunken form.] should be largely vegetable, and more +abundant than that of an aged person. A sedentary occupation necessitates +less food than an outdoor life. One accustomed to manual labor, on +entering school, should practice self-denial until his system becomes +fitted to the new order of things. He should not, however, fall into the +opposite error. We read of great men who have lived on bread and water, +and the conscientious student sometimes thinks that, to be great, he, too, +must starve himself. [Footnote: As Dr. Holland well remarks, the +dispensation of sawdust has passed away. If we desire a horse to win the +race, we must give him plenty of oats.] On the contrary, many of the +greatest workers are the greatest eaters. A powerful engine needs a +corresponding furnace. Only, we should be careful not to use more fuel +than is needed to run the machine. (See p. 325.) + +The season should modify our diet. In winter, we need highly carbonaceous +food, plenty of meat, fat, etc.; but in summer we should temper the heat +in our corporeal stoves with fruits and vegetables. + +The climate also has its necessities. The inhabitants of the frigid north +have an almost insatiable longing for fat. [Footnote: Dr. Hayes, the +arctic explorer, says, that the daily ration of the Esquimaux was from +twelve to fifteen pounds of meat, one third being fat. On one occasion, he +saw a man eat ten pounds of walrus flesh and blubber at a single meal. The +low temperature had a remarkable effect on the members of his own party, +and some of them were in the habit of drinking the contents of the oil +kettle with evident relish. Other travelers narrate the most incredible +stories of the voracity of the inhabitants of arctic regions. Saritcheff, +a Russian admiral, tells of a man who in his presence ate, at a meal, a +mess of twenty-eight pounds of boiled rice and butter, although he had +already partaken of his breakfast. Captain Cochrane further adds, in +narrating this statement, that he has himself seen three of the savages +consume a reindeer at a sitting.] Thus, in 1812, when the Allies entered +Paris, the Cossacks drank all the oil from the lamps, and left the streets +in darkness. In tropical regions, a low, unstimulating diet of fruits +forms the chief dependence. [Footnote: A natural appetite for a particular +kind of food is an expression not only of desire, but of fitness. Thus the +craving of childhood for sugar indicates a need of the system. It is +questionable how far it is proper to force or persuade one to eat that +which he disrelishes, or his stomach loathes. Life within is linked with +life without. Each organ requires its peculiar nutriment, and there is +often a peculiar influence demanded of which we can have no notice except +by natural instinct. Yet, as we are creatures of habit and impulse, we +need common sense and good judgment to correct the too often wayward +promptings of an artificial craving.] + +WHEN FOOD SHOULD BE TAKEN.--On taking food, the blood sets at once to the +alimentary canal, and the energies are fixed upon the proper performance +of this work. We should not, therefore, undertake hard study, labor, or +exercise directly after a hearty meal. We should give the stomach at least +half an hour. He who toils with brain or muscle, and thus centers the +blood in any particular organ, before eating should allow time for the +circulation to become equalized. There should be an interval of four to +five hours between our regular meals, and there should be no lunching +between times. With young children, where the vital processes are more +rapid, less time may intervene. As a general rule, nothing should be eaten +within two or three hours of retiring. (See p 336.) + +HOW FOOD SHOULD BE TAKEN.--A good laugh is the best of sauces. The +mealtime should be the happiest hour of the day. Care and grief are the +bitter foes of digestion. A cheerful face and a light heart are friends to +long life, and nowhere do they serve us better than at the table. God +designed that we should enjoy eating, and that, having stopped before +satiety was reached, we should have the satisfaction always attendant on a +good work well done. + +NEED OF VARIETY.--Careful investigations have shown that any one kind of +food, however nutritious in itself, fails after a time to preserve the +highest working power of the body. Our appetite palls when we confine our +diet to a regular routine. Nature demands variety, and she has furnished +the means of gratifying it. [Footnote: She opens her hand, and pours forth +to man the treasures of every land and every sea, because she would give +to him a wide and vigorous life, participant of all variety. For him the +cornfields wave their golden grain--wheat, rye, oats, maize, or rice, each +different, but alike sufficing. Freely for him the palm, the date, the +banana, the breadfruit tree, the pine, spread out a harvest on the air; +and pleasant apple, plum, or peach solicit his ready hand. Beneath his +foot lie stored the starch of the potato, the gluten of the turnip, the +sugar of the beet; while all the intermediate space is rich with juicy +herbs. + +Nature bids him eat and be merry; adding to his feast the solid flesh of +bird, and beast, and fish, prepared as victims for the sacrifice: firm +muscle to make strong the arm of toil, in the industrious temperate zone; +and massive ribs of fat to kindle inward fires for the sad dwellers under +arctic skies.--_Health and its Conditions_.--HINTON.] + +THE WONDERS OF DIGESTION.--We can understand much of the process of +digestion. We can look into the stomach and trace its various steps. +Indeed, the chemist can reproduce in his laboratory many of the +operations; "a step further," as Fontenelle has said, "and he would +surprise nature in the very act." Just here, when he seems so successful, +he is compelled to pause. At the threshold of life the wisest physiologist +reverently admires, wonders, and worships. + +How strange is this transformation of food to flesh! We make a meal of +meat, vegetables, and drink. Ground by the teeth, mixed by the stomach, +dissolved by the digestive fluids, it is swept through the body. Each +organ, as it passes, snatches its particular food. Within the cells of the +tissues [Footnote: As the body is composed of individual organs, and each +organ of separate tissues, so each tissue is made up of minute cells. Each +cell is a little world by itself, too small to be seen by the naked eye, +but open to the microscope. It has its own form and constitution as much +as a special organ in the body. It absorbs from the blood such food as +suits its purposes. Moreover, the number of cells in an organ is as +constant as the number of organs. As the organs expand with the growth of +the body, so the cells of each tissue enlarge, but shrink again with age +and the decline of life. Life begins and ends in a cell.--See +_Appletons' Cyclopedia_, Art. "Absorption."] it is transformed into +the soft, sensitive brain, or the hard, callous bone; into briny tears, or +bland saliva, or acrid perspiration; bile for digestion, oil for the hair, +nails for the fingers, and flesh for the cheek. + +Within us is an Almighty Architect, who superintends a thousand builders, +which make in a way past all human comprehension, here a fiber of a +muscle, there a filament of a nerve; here constructing a bone, there +uniting a tendon,--fashioning each with scrupulous care and unerring +nicety. [Footnote: See COOKE'S _Religion and Chemistry_, page 236.] +So, without sound of builder or stroke of hammer, goes up, day by day, the +body--the glorious temple of the soul. + +DISEASES ETC.--1. _Dyspepsia_, or indigestion of food, is generally +caused by an overtaxing of the digestive organs. Too much food is used, +and the entire system is burdened by the excess. Meals are taken at +irregular hours, when the fluids are not ready. A hearty supper is eaten +when the body, wearied with the day's labor, demands rest. The appetite +craves no food when the digestion is enfeebled, but stimulants and +condiments excite it, and the unwilling organs are oppressed by that which +they can not properly manage. + +Strong tea, alcoholic drinks, and tobacco derange the alimentary function. + +Too great variety of dishes, rich food, tempting flavors,--all lead to an +overloading of the stomach. This patient, long-suffering member at last +wears out. Pain, discomfort, diseases of the digestive organs, and +insufficient nutrition are the penalties of violated laws. (See p. 328.) + +2. _The Mumps_ are an inflammation of the parotid and submaxillary +glands (see p. 159). The disease is generally epidemic, and is believed to +be contagious; the patient should therefore be carefully secluded for the +sake of others as well as himself. The swelling may be allowed to take its +course. Relief from pain is often experienced by applying flannels wrung +out of hot water. Great care should be used not to check the inflammation, +and, on first going out after recovery, not to take cold. + +ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND NARCOTICS. + +1. ALCOHOL (Continued from p. 147). + +RELATION OF ALCOHOL TO THE DIGESTIVE ORGANS.--_Is Alcohol a Food?_ To +answer this question, let us make a comparison. If you receive into your +stomach a piece of bread or beef, Nature welcomes its presence. The juices +of the system at once take hold of it, dissolve it, and transform it for +the uses of the body. A million tiny fingers (lacteals and veins) reach +out to grasp it, work it over, and carry it into the circulation. The +blood bears it onward wherever it is needed to mend or to build "The house +you live in." Soon, it is no longer bread or beef; it is flesh on your +arm; its chemical energy is imparted to you, and it becomes your strength. + +If, on the other hand, you take into your stomach a little alcohol, it +receives no such welcome. Nature treats it as a poison, and seeks to rid +herself of the intruder as soon as possible. [Footnote: Food is digested, +alcohol is not. Food warms the blood, directly or indirectly; alcohol +lowers the temperature. Food nourishes the body, in the sense of +assimilating itself to the tissues; alcohol does not. Food makes blood; +alcohol never does anything more innocent than mixing with it. Food feeds +the blood cells; alcohol destroys them. Food excites, in health, to normal +action only; alcohol tends to inflammation and disease. Food gives force +to the body; alcohol excites reaction and wastes force, in the first +place, and in the second, as a true narcotic, represses vital action and +corresponding nutrition.--If alcohol does not act like food, neither does +it behave like water. Water is the subtle but innocent vehicle of +circulation, which dissolves the solid food, holds in play the chemical +and vital reactions of the tissues, conveys the nutritive solutions from +cell to cell, from tube to tube, and carries off and expels the effete +matter. Water neither irritates tissue, wastes force, nor suppresses vital +action: whereas alcohol does all three. Alcohol hardens solid tissue, +thickens the blood, narcotizes the nerves, and in every conceivable +direction antagonizes the operation and function of water--LEES.] The +juices of the system will flow from every pore to dilute and weaken it, +and to prevent its shriveling up the delicate membranes with which it +comes in contact. The veins will take it up and bear it rapidly through +the system. Every organ of elimination, all the scavengers of the body-- +the lungs, the kidneys, the perspiration glands, at once set to work to +throw off the enemy. So surely is this the case, that the breath of a +person who has drunk only a single glass of the lightest beer will betray +the fact. + +The alcohol thus eliminated is entirely unchanged. Nature apparently makes +no effort to appropriate it. [Footnote: It was formerly a question +considerably discussed, whether alcohol exists in the brain, or in the +fluid found in the ventricles, in intoxicated persons. This was settled by +Percy, who found alcohol in the brain and liver of dogs poisoned with +alcohol, and of men who had died after excessive drinking. In these +experiments, the presence of alcohol was determined by distillation, and +the distilled substance burned with a blue flame, and dissolved camphor.-- +FLINT'S _Physiology of Man_.] It courses everywhere through the +circulation, and into the great organs, with all its properties +unmodified. + +Alcohol, then, is not, like bread or beef, taken hold of, broken up by the +mysterious process of digestion, and used by the body. [Footnote: Because +of the difficulties of such an experiment, we have not yet been able to +account satisfactorily by the excretions for all the alcohol taken into +the stomach. This remains as yet one of the unsolved problems of +physiological chemistry. To collect the whole of the insensible +perspiration, for example, is well-nigh impossible. It was supposed at one +time that a part of the alcohol is oxidized--_i. e._, burned, in the +system. But such a process would impart heat, and it is now proved that +alcohol cools, instead of warms, the blood. Moreover, the closest analysis +fails to detect in the circulation any trace of the products of alcoholic +combustion, such as aldehyde and acetic acid. "The fact," says Flint, +"that alcohol is always eliminated, even when drunk in minute quantity, +and that its elimination continues for a considerable time, gradually +diminishing, renders it probable that all that is taken into the body is +removed."] "It can not therefore be regarded as an aliment," or food.-- +FLINT. "Beer, wine, and spirits," says Liebig, "contain no element capable +of entering into the composition of the blood or the muscular fiber." +[Footnote: The small amount of nutritive substance, chiefly sugar derived +from the grain or fruit used in the manufacture of beer or wine, can not, +of course, be compared with that contained in bread or beef at the same +cost. Liebig says, in his Letters on Chemistry, "We can prove, with +mathematical certainty, that as much flour as can lie on the point of a +table knife is more nutritious than eight quarts of the best Bavarian +beer."] "That alcohol is incapable of forming any part of the body," +remarks Cameron, "is admitted by all physiologists. It can not be +converted into brain, nerve, muscle, or blood." + +EFFECT UPON THE DIGESTION. [Footnote: The medical value of alcohol in its +relations to digestion is not discussed in this book. The experiments of +Dr. Henry Munroe, of Hull, published in the London _Medical Journal_, +are here summarized as showing that the tendency to retard digestion is +common to all forms of alcoholic drinks. + +_______________________________________________________________________ +Finely Minced | | | | +Beef | 2d Hour | 4th Hour | 6th Hour | +_______________________________________________________________________ +I. | | Digesting | | +Gastric Juice | Beef | and | Beef much | +and _water_. | opaque. | separating. | loosened. | +_______________________________________________________________________ +| | Slightly | Slight | +II. | No alteration | opaque, but | coating on | +Gastric Juice | perceptible. | beef | beef. | +with _alcohol_. | | unchanged. | | +_______________________________________________________________________ +III. | | Cloudy, | beef | +Gastric Juice | No change. | with fur | partly | +and _pale ale_. | | on beef. | loosened. | +_______________________________________________________________________ +______________________________________________________ +Finely Minced | | | +Beef | 8th Hour | 10th Hour | +______________________________________________________ +I. | | | +Gastric Juice | Beef | Broken up | +and _water_. | opaque. | into shreds. | +______________________________________________________ +| | Solid on | +II. | No visible | cooling | +Gastric Juice | change. | _Pepsin_ | +with _alcohol_. | | precipitated. | +______________________________________________________ +III. | | No digestion | +Gastric Juice | No further | _Pepsin_ | +and _pale ale_. | change. | precipitated. | +______________________________________________________] + +--Experiments tend to prove that alcohol coagulates and precipitates the +pepsin from the gastric juice, and so puts a stop to its great work in the +process of digestion. + +The greed of alcohol for water causes it to imbibe moisture from the +tissues and juices, and to inflame the delicate mucous membrane. It shows +the power of Nature to adapt herself to circumstances, that the soft, +velvety lining of the throat and stomach should come at length to endure +the presence of a fiery liquid which, undiluted, would soon shrivel and +destroy it. In self-defense, the juices pour in to weaken the alcohol, and +it is soon hurried into the circulation. Before this can be done, "it must +absorb about three times its bulk of water"; hence, very strong liquor may +be retained in the stomach long enough to interfere seriously with the +digestion, and to injure the lining coat. Habitual use of alcohol +permanently dilates the blood vessels; thickens and hardens the membranes; +in some cases, ulcerates the surface; and, finally, "so weakens the +assimilation that the proper supply of food can not be appropriated." +--FLINT. [Footnote: The case of St. Martin (p. 168) gave an excellent +opportunity to watch the action of alcohol upon the stomach. Dr. Beaumont +summarized his experiments thus: "The free, ordinary use of any +intoxicating liquor, when continued for some days, invariably produced +inflammation, ulcerous patches, and, finally, a discharge of morbid matter +tinged with blood." Yet St. Martin never complained of pain in his +stomach, the narcotic influence of the alcohol preventing the signal of +danger that Nature ordinarily gives.] + +EFFECT UPON THE LIVER.--Alcohol is carried by the portal vein directly to +the liver. This organ, after the brain, holds the largest share. The +influence of the poison is here easily traced. "The color of the bile is +soon changed from yellow to green, and even to black;" the connective +tissue between the lobules becomes inflamed; and, in the case of a +confirmed drunkard, hardened and shrunk, the surface often assuming a +nodulated appearance known as the "hobnailed liver." Morbid matter is +sometimes deposited, causing what is called "Fatty degeneration," so that +the liver is increased to twice or thrice its natural size. + +EFFECT UPON THE KIDNEYS.--The kidneys, like the liver, are liable in time +to undergo, through the influence of alcohol, a "Fatty degeneration," in +which the cells become filled with particles of fat; [Footnote: Disabled +by the fatty deposits, the kidneys are unable to separate the waste matter +coming to them for elimination from the system. The poisonous material is +poured back into the circulation, and often delirium ensues.--HUBBARD. +Richardson states that his experience "is to the effect that seven out of +every eight instances of kidney disease are attributable to alcohol."] the +vessels lose their contractility; and, worst of all, the membranes may be +so modified as to allow the albuminous part of the blood to filter through +them, and so to rob the body of one of its most valuable constituents. +[Footnote: This deterioration of structure frequently gives rise to what +is known as "Bright's Disease."--RICHARDSON.] + +DOES ALCOHOL IMPART HEAT?--During the first flush after drinking wine, for +example, a sense of warmth is felt. This is due to the tides of warm blood +that are being sent to the surface of the body, owing to the vascular +enlargement and to the rapid pumping of the heart. There is, however, no +fresh heat developed. On the contrary, the bringing the blood to the +surface causes it to cool faster, reaction sets in, a chilliness is +experienced as one becomes sober, and a delicate thermometer placed under +the tongue of the inebriate may show a fall of even two degrees below the +standard temperature of the body. Several hours are required to restore +the usual heat. + +As early as 1850, Dr. N. S. Davis, of Chicago, ex-President of the +American Medical Association, instituted an extensive series of +experiments to determine the effect of the different articles of food and +drinks on the temperature of the system. He conclusively proved that, +during the digestion of all kinds of food, the temperature of the body is +increased, but when alcohol is taken, either in the form of fermented or +distilled beverages, the temperature begins to fall within a half hour, +and continues to decrease for two or three hours, and that the reduction +of temperature, in extent as well as in duration, is in exact proportion +to the amount of alcohol taken. + +It naturally follows that, contrary to the accepted opinion, liquor does +not fortify against cold. The experience of travelers at the North +coincides with that of Dr. Hayes, the Arctic explorer, who says: "While +fat is absolutely essential to the inhabitants and travelers in arctic +countries, alcohol is, in almost any shape, not only completely useless, +but positively injurious. I have known strong, able-bodied men to become +utterly incapable of resisting cold in consequence of the long-continued +use of alcoholic drink." + +DOES ALCOHOL IMPART STRENGTH?--Experience shows that alcohol weakens the +power of undergoing severe bodily exertion. [Footnote: Dr. McRae, in +speaking of Arctic exploration, at the meeting of the American Association +for the Advancement of Science, held at Montreal in 1856, said: "The +moment that a man had swallowed a drink of spirits, it was certain that +his day's work was nearly at an end. It was absolutely necessary that the +rule of total abstinence be rigidly enforced, if we would accomplish our +day's task. The use of liquor as a beverage when we had work on hand, in +that terrific cold, was out of the question."] Men who are in training for +running, rowing, and other contests where great strength is required, deny +themselves all liquors, even when they are ordinarily accustomed to their +use. + +Dr. Richardson made some interesting experiments to show the influence of +alcohol upon muscular contraction. He carefully weighted the hind leg of a +frog, and, by means of electricity, stimulating the muscle to its utmost +power of contraction, he found out how much the frog could lift. Then +administering alcohol, he discovered that the response of the muscle to +the electrical current became feebler and feebler, as the narcotic began +to take effect, until, at last, the animal could raise less than half the +amount it lifted by the natural contraction when uninfluenced by alcohol. + +EFFECT UPON THE WASTE OF THE BODY.--The tendency of alcohol is to cause a +formation of an unstable substance resembling fat, [Footnote: The +molecular deposits equalizing the waste of the system do not go on +regularly under the influence of alcohol; the tissues are not kept up to +their standard; and, in time, their composition is changed by a deposit of +an amorphous matter resembling fat. This is an unstable substance, and the +functions of animal life all retrograde.--HUBBARD, _The Opium Habit and +Alcoholism_.] and so the use of liquor for even a short time will +increase the weight. But a more marked influence is to check the ordinary +waste of the system, so that "the amount of carbonic acid exhaled from the +lungs may be reduced as much as thirty to fifty per cent."--HINTON. The +life process is one of incessant change. Its rapidity is essential to +vigor and strength. When the functions are in full play, each organ is +being constantly torn down, and as constantly rebuilt with the materials +furnished from our food. Anything that checks this oxidation of the +tissues, or hinders the deposition of new matter, disturbs the vital +functions. Both these results are the inevitable effects of alcohol; for, +since the blood contains less oxygen and more carbonic acid, and the power +of assimilating the food is decreased, it follows that every process of +waste and repair must be correspondingly weakened. The person using liquor +consequently needs less bread and beef, and so alcohol seems to him a +food--a radical error, as we have shown. + +ALCOHOL CREATES A PROGRESSIVE APPETITE FOR ITSELF.--When liquor is taken, +even in the most moderate quantity, it soon becomes necessary, and then +arises a craving demand for an increased amount to produce the original +effect. No food creates this constantly augmenting want. A cup of milk +drank at dinner does not lead one to go on, day by day, drinking more and +more milk, until to get milk becomes the one great longing of the whole +being. Yet this is the almost universal effect of alcohol. Hunger is +satisfied by any nutritious food: the dram-drinker's thirst demands +alcohol. The common experience of mankind teaches us the imminent peril +that attends the formation of this progressive poison habit. A single +glass taken as a tonic may lead to the drunkard's grave. + +Worse than this, the alcoholic craving may be transmitted from father to +son, and young persons often find themselves cursed with a terrible +disease known as alcoholism--a keen, morbid appetite for liquor that +demands gratification at any cost--stamped upon their very being through +the reckless indulgence of this habit on the part of some one of their +ancestors. [Footnote: The American Medical Association, at their meeting +in St. Paul, Minnesota (1883), restated in a series of resolutions their +conviction, that "alcohol should be classed with other powerful drugs; +that when prescribed medically, it should be done with conscientious +caution and a sense of great responsibility; that used as a beverage it is +productive of a large amount of physical and mental disease; that it +_entails diseased and enfeebled constitutions upon offspring_, and +that it is the cause of a large percentage of the crime and pauperism of +our large cities and country."] + +THE LAW OF HEREDITY is, in this connection, well worth consideration. "The +world is beginning to perceive," says Francis Galton, "that the life of +each individual is, in some real sense, a continuation of the lives of his +ancestors." "Each of us is the footing up of a double column of figures +that goes back to the first pair." "We are omnibuses," remarks Holmes, "in +which all our ancestors ride." We inherit from our parents our features, +our physical vigor, our mental faculties, and even much of our moral +character. Often, when one generation is skipped, the qualities will +reappear in the following one. The virtues, as well as the vices, of our +forefathers, have added to, or subtracted from, the strength of our brain +and muscle. The evil tendencies of our natures, which it is the struggle +of our lives to resist, constitute a part of our heirlooms from the past. +Our descendants, in turn, will have reason to bless us only if we hand +down to them a pure healthy physical, mental, and moral being. + +"There is a marked tendency in nature to transmit all diseased conditions. +Thus, the children of consumptive parents are apt to be consumptives. But +of all agents, alcohol is the most potent in establishing a heredity that +exhibits itself in the destruction of mind and body. [Footnote: Nearly all +the diseases springing from indulgence in distilled and fermented liquors +are liable to become hereditary, and to descend to at least three or four +generations, unless starved out by uncompromising abstinence. But the +distressing aspect of the heredity of alcohol is the transmitted drink- +crave. This is no dream of an enthusiast, but the result of a natural law. +Men and women upon whom this dread inheritance has been forced are +everywhere around us, bravely struggling to lead a sober life.--DR. +NORMAN KERR.] Its malign influence was observed by the ancients long +before the production of whiskey or brandy, or other distilled liquors, +and when fermented liquors or wines only were known. Aristotle says, +'Drunken women have children like unto themselves,' and Plutarch remarks, +'One drunkard is the father of another.' The drunkard by inheritance is a +more helpless slave than his progenitor, and his children are more +helpless still, unless on the mother's side there is an untainted blood. +For there is not only a propensity transmitted, but an actual disease of +the nervous system."--DR. WILLARD PARKER. [Footnote: The subject of +alcohol is continued in the chapter on the Nervous System.] + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. How do clothing and shelter economize food? + +2. Is it well to take a long walk before breakfast? + +3. Why is warm food easier to digest than cold? + +4. Why is salt beef less nutritious than fresh? [Footnote: The French +Academicians found that flesh soaked in water so as to deprive it of its +mineral matter and juices, lost its nutritive value, and that animals fed +on it soon died. Indeed, for all purposes of nutrition, Liebig said it was +no better than stones, and the utmost torments of hunger were hardly +sufficient to induce them to continue the diet. There was plenty of +nutritive food, but there was no medium for its solution and absorption, +and hence it was useless.] 5. What should be the food of a man recovering +from a fever? + +6. Is a cup of black coffee a healthful close to a hearty dinner? + +7. Should iced water be used at a meal? + +8. Why is strong tea or coffee injurious? + +9. Should food or drink be taken hot? + +10. Are fruitcakes, rich pastry, and puddings wholesome? + +11. Why are warm biscuit and bread hard of digestion? + +12. Should any stimulants be used in youth? + +13. Why should bread be made spongy? + +14. Which should remain longer in the mouth, bread or meat? + +15. Why should cold water be used in making soup, and hot water in boiling +meat? + +16. Name the injurious effects of overeating. + +17. Why do not buckwheat cakes, with syrup and butter, taste as well in +July as in January? + +18. Why is a late supper injurious? + +19. What makes a man "bilious"? + +20. What is the best remedy? _Ans_. Diet to give the organs rest, and +active exercise to arouse the secretions and the circulation. + +21. What is the practical use of hunger? + +22. How can jugglers drink when standing on their heads? + +23. Why do we relish butter on bread? + +24. What would you do if you had taken arsenic by mistake? (See Appendix.) + +25. Why should ham and sausage be thoroughly cooked? + +26. Why do we wish butter on fish, eggs with tapioca, oil on salad, and +milk with rice? + +27. Explain the relation of food to exercise. + +28. How do you explain the difference in the manner of eating between +carnivorous and herbivorous animals? + +29. Why is a child's face plump and an old man's wrinkled? + +30. Show how life depends on repair and waste. + +31. What is the difference between the decay of the teeth and the constant +decay of the body? + +32. Should biscuit and cake containing yellow spots of soda be eaten? + +33. Tell how the body is composed of organs, how organs are made up of +tissues, and how tissues consist of cells. + +34. Why do we not need to drink three pints of water per day? + +35. Why, during a pestilence, are those who use liquors as a beverage the +first, and often the only victims? + +36. What two secretions seem to have the same general use? + +37. How may the digestive organs be strengthened? + +38. Is the old rule, "after dinner sit awhile," a good one? + +39. What would you do if you had taken laudanum by mistake? Paris Green? +Sugar of lead? Oxalic acid? Phosphorus from matches? Ammonia? Corrosive +sublimate? (See p. 265.) + +40. What is the simplest way to produce vomiting, so essential in case of +accidental poisoning? + +41. In what way does alcohol interfere with the digestion? + +42. Is alcohol assimilated? + +43. What is the effect of alcohol on the albuminous substances? + +44. Is there any nourishment in beer? + +45. Show how the excessive use of alcohol may first increase, and, +afterward, decrease, the size of the liver. + +46. Will liquor help one to endure cold and exposure? + +47. What is a fatty degeneration of the kidneys? + +48. Contrast the action of alcohol and water in the body. + +49. Is alcohol, in any proper sense of the term, a food? + +50. Does liquor strengthen the muscles of a working man? + +51. Is liquor a wholesome "tonic"? + +52. Is it a good plan to take a glass of liquor before dinner? + + + + +VII. + + +THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. + +"Mark then the cloven sphere that holds +All thoughts in its mysterious folds, +That feels sensation's faintest thrill, +And flashes forth the sovereign will; +Think on the stormy world that dwells +Lock'd in its dim and clustering cells; +The lightning gleams of power it sheds +Along its hollow, glassy threads!" + +"As a king sits high above his subjects upon his throne, and from it +speaks behests that all obey, so from the throne of the brain cells is all +the kingdom of a man directed, controlled, and influenced. For this +occupant, the eyes watch, the ears hear, the tongue tastes, the nostrils +smell, the skin feels. For it, language is exhausted of its treasures, and +life of its experience; locomotion is accomplished, and quiet insured. +When it wills, body and spirit are goaded like overdriven horses. When it +allows, rest and sleep may come for recuperation. In short, the slightest +penetration may not fail to perceive that all other parts obey this part, +and are but ministers to its necessities."--Odd Hours of a Physician. +ANALYSIS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. + +_ +| 1. THE STRUCTURE +| _ +| _ | 1. _Description._ +| | 1. The Brain........| 2. _The Cerebrum._ +| | |_3. _The Cerebellum._ +| | _ +| | 2. The Spinal Cord..| 1. _Its Composition._ +| | |_2. _Medulla Oblongata._ +| | _ +| 2. ORGANS OF | | 1. _Description._ +| THE NERV- | | 2. _Motory and Sensory._ +| OUS SYSTEM..| | 3. _Transfer of Pain._ +| | | 4. _The Spinal Nerves-- +| | | 31 Pairs._ +| |_3. The Nerves.......| 5. _The Cranial Nerves-- +| | 12 Pairs._ +| | 6. _Sympathetic System._ +| | 7. _Crossing of Cords._ +| | 8. _Reflex Action._ +| | 9. _Uses of Reflex +| |_ Action_ +| _ +| | 1. Brain Exercise. +| | 2. Connection between Brain Growth and Body Growth. +| 3. HYGIENE.....| 3. Sleep. +| | 4. Effect of Sleeping Draughts. +| |_5. Sunlight. +| +| 4. WONDERS OF THE BRAIN. +| _ +| | 1. Alcohol (Con'd.) +| | _ | 1. _Stage of Excitement._ +| || | 2. _Stage of Muscular +| || | Weakness._ +| || 1. Effect of Alco- | 3. _Stage of Mental +| || hol upon the | Weakness._ +| || Nervous System | 4. _Stage of Unconscious- +| || |_ ness._ +| || +| || 2. Effect upon the Brain +| ||_3. Effect upon the Mental and Moral Powers. +| | +| | 2. Tobacco. +| | _ +| || 1. Constituents of Tobacco. +| 5. ALCOHOLIC || 2. Physiological Effects. +| DRINKS AND|| 3. Possible Disturbances produced by Smoking. +|_ NARCOTICS.|| 4. Influence upon the Nervous System. +|| 5. Is Tobacco a Food? +||_6. Influence of Tobacco on Youth. +| _ +| | 1. _Description._ +| 3. Opium............| 2. _Physiological +| |_ Effects._ +| 4. Chloral Hydrate. +| 5. Chloroform. +|_6. Cocaine. + +THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. [Footnote: The organs of circulation, respiration, and +digestion, of which we have already spoken, are often called the +vegetative functions, because they belong also to the vegetable kingdom. +Plants have a circulation of sap through their cells corresponding to that +of the blood through the capillaries. They breathe the air through their +leaves, which act the part of lungs, and they take in food which they +change into their own structure by a process which answers to that of +digestion. The plant, however, is a mere collection of parts incapable of +any combined action. On the other hand, the animal has a nervous system +which binds all the organs together.] + +STRUCTURE.--The nervous system includes the _brain_, the _spinal +cord_, and the _nerves_. It is composed of two kinds of matter-- +the _white_, and the _gray_. The former consists of minute, +milk-white, glistening fibers, sometimes as small as 1/25000 of an inch in +diameter; the latter is made up of small, ashen-colored cells, forming a +pulp-like substance of the consistency of blancmange. [Footnote: In +addition to the cells, the gray substance contains also nerve fibers +continuous with the white fibers, but generally much smaller. These form +half the bulk of the gray substance of the spinal cord, and a large part +of the deeper layer of the gray matter in the brain.--LEIDY'S +_Anatomy_, p. 507.] This is often gathered in little masses, termed +ganglions (_ganglion_, a knot), because, when a nerve passes through +a group of the cells, they give it the appearance of a knot. The nerve +fibers are conductors, while the gray cells are generators, of nervous +force. [Footnote: What this force is we do not know. In some respects it +is like electricity, but, in others, it differs materially. Its velocity +is about thirty three meters per second.--_Popular Physics_, p. 244, +Note.] The ganglia, or nervous centers, answer to the stations along a +telegraphic line, where messages are received and transmitted, and the +fibers correspond to the wires that communicate between different parts. + +FIG. 50. + +[Illustration: _The Nervous System._ A, _cerebrum_; B, +_cerebellum._] + +The BRAIN is the seat of the mind. [Footnote: In proportion to the rest +of the nervous matter in the body, it is larger in man than in any of the +lower animals. It is the function which the brain performs that +distinguishes man from all other animals, and it is by the action of his +brain that he becomes a conscious, intelligent, and responsible being. The +brain is the seat of that knowledge which we express when we say _I_. +I know it, I feel it, I saw it, are expressions of our individual +consciousness, the seat of which is the brain. It is when the brain is at +rest in sleep that there is least consciousness. The brain may be put +under the influence of poisons, such as alcohol and chloroform, and then +the body is without consciousness. From these and other facts the brain is +regarded as the seat of _consciousness_.--LANKESTER.] Its average +weight is about fifty ounces. [Footnote: Cuvier's brain weighed 64 1/2 +ounces; Webster's, 53 1/2 ounces; James Fisk's, 58 ounces; Ruloff's, 59 +ounces; an idiot's, 19 ounces. See Table in FLINT'S _Nervous +System_.] It is egg-shaped, and, soft and yielding, fills closely the +cavity of the skull. It reposes securely on a water bed, being surrounded +by a double membrane _(arachnoid)_, delicate as a spider's web, which +forms a closed sac filled, like the spaces in the brain itself, with a +liquid resembling water. Within this, and closely investing the brain, is +a fine tissue (_pia mater_), with a mesh of blood vessels which dips +down into the hollows, and bathes them so copiously that it uses one fifth +of the entire circulation of the body. Around the whole is wrapped a tough +membrane (_dura mater_), which lines the bony box of the skull, and +separates the various parts of the organ by strong partitions. The brain +consists of two parts--the _cerebrum_, and the _cerebellum_. + +The CEREBRUM fills the front and upper part of the skull, and comprises +about seven eighths of the entire weight of the brain. As animals rise in +the scale of life, this higher part makes its appearance. It is a mass of +white fibers, with cells of gray matter sprinkled on the outside, or +lodged here and there in ganglia. It is so curiously wrinkled and folded +as strikingly to resemble the meat of an English walnut. This structure +gives a large surface for the gray matter,--sometimes as much as six +hundred and seventy square inches. The convolutions are not noticeable in +an infant, but increase with the growth of the mind, their depth and +intricacy being characteristic of high mental power. + +FIG. 51. + +[Illustration: _Surface of the Cerebrum._] + +The cerebrum is divided into two hemispheres, connected beneath by fibers +of white matter. Thus we have two brains, [Footnote: This doubleness has +given rise to some curious speculations. In the case of the hand, eye, +etc, we know that the sensation is made more sure. Thus we can see with +one eye, but not so well as with both. It is perhaps the same with the +brain. We may sometimes carry on a train of thought, "build an air castle" +with one half of our brain, while the other half looks on and watches the +operation; or, we may read and at the same time think of something else. +So in delirium, a patient often imagines himself two persons, thus showing +a want of harmony between the two halves.--DRAPER, _Human +Physiology_, p. 320.] as well as two hands and two eyes. This provides +us with a surplus of brains, as it were, which can be drawn upon in an +emergency. A large part of one hemisphere has been destroyed without +particularly injuring the mental powers, [Footnote: A pointed iron bar, +three and a half feet long and one inch and a quarter in diameter, was +driven by the premature blasting of a rock completely through the side of +the head of a man who was present. It entered below the temple, and made +its exit at the top of the forehead, just about the middle line. The man +was at first stunned, and lay in a delirious, semistupefied state for +about three weeks. At the end of sixteen months, however, he was in +perfect health, with wounds healed and mental and bodily functions +unimpaired, except that sight was lost in the eye of the injured side.-- +DALTON. It is noticeable, however, that the man became changed in +disposition, fickle, impatient of restraint, and profane, which he was not +before. He died epileptic, nearly thirteen years after the injury. The +tamping iron and the skull are preserved in the Warren Anatomical Museum, +Boston.]--just as a person has been blind in one eye for a long time +without having discovered his loss. The cerebrum is the center of +intelligence and thought. [Footnote: In man, the cerebrum presents an +immense preponderance in weight over other portions of the brain; in some +of the lower animals, the cerebrum is even less in weight than the +cerebellum. Another interesting point is the development of cerebral +convolutions in certain animals, by which the relative amount of gray +matter is increased. In fishes, reptiles, and birds, the surface of the +hemispheres is smooth; but, in many mammalia, especially in those +remarkable for intelligence, the cerebrum presents a greater or less +number of convolutions, as it does in the human subject.--FLINT. The +average weight of the human brain in proportion to the entire body is +about 1 to 36. The average of mammalia is 1 to 186; of birds, 1 to 212; of +reptiles, 1 to 1,321; and of fishes, 1 to 5,668. There are some animals in +which the weight of the brain bears a higher proportion to the body than +it does in man; thus in the blue-headed tit, the proportion is as 1 to 12; +in the goldfinch, as 1 to 24; and in the field mouse, as 1 to 31. "It does +not hence follow, however, that the _cerebrum_ is larger in +proportion; in fact, it is probably not nearly so large; for in birds and +rodent animals the sensory ganglia form a very considerable portion of the +entire brain. M. Baillarger has shown that the _surface_ and the +_bulk_ of the cerebral hemispheres are so far from bearing any +constant proportion to each other in different animals that, +notwithstanding the depth of the convolutions in the human cerebrum, its +bulk is two and a half times as great in proportion to its surface as it +is in the rabbit, the surface of whose cerebrum is smooth. The _size_ +of the cerebrum, considered alone, is not, however, a fair test of its +intellectual power. This depends upon the quantity of _vesicular +matter_ which it contains, as evinced not only by superficial area, but +by the number and depth of the convolutions and by the thickness of the +cortical layer."--CARPENTER.] Persons in whom it is seriously injured or +diseased often become unable to converse intelligently, both from +inability to remember words and from loss of power to articulate them. + +THE CEREBELLUM lies below the cerebrum, and in the back part of the head +(Fig. 50). It is about the size of a small fist. Its structure is similar +to that of the brain proper, but instead of convolutions it has parallel +ridges, which, letting the gray matter down deeply into the white matter +within, give it a peculiar appearance, called the _arbor vitæ_, or +tree of life (Fig. 55). This part of the brain is the center for the +control of the voluntary muscles, [Footnote: The exact nature of the +functions of the cerebellum is one of those problems concerning which +there is no unanimity of opinion amongst physiologists. It may be +premised, however, that the knowledge we at present possess does enable us +to come to one very important conclusion with respect to the functions of +the cerebellum,--it enables us to say that this organ has no independent +function either in the province of mind or in the province of motility. +And we may perhaps safely affirm still further, that the cerebellum is +much more intimately concerned with the production of bodily movements +than with the evolution of mental phenomena. The anatomical distinctness +of the cerebellum from the larger brain and other parts of the nervous +system is more apparent than real....That there is an habitual community +of action between the cerebellum and the spinal cord is, I believe, +doubted by none, and the fact that an intimate functional relationship +exists between the cerebrum and the cerebellum is shown by the +circumstance that atrophy of one cerebral hemisphere entails a +corresponding atrophy of the opposite half of the cerebellum. The +subordinate or supplementary nature of the cerebellar function, however, +in this latter relation seems equally well shown by the fact that atrophy +of one side of the cerebellum (when it occurs as the primary event) does +not entail any appreciable wasting in the opposite half of the cerebrum. +What other conclusion can be drawn? If the cutting off of certain cerebral +stimuli leads to a wasting of the opposite half of the cerebellum, this +would seem to show that each half of the cerebellum is naturally called +into activity in response to, or conjointly with, the opposite cerebral +hemisphere. Whilst conversely, if atrophy of one half of the cerebellum +does not entail a relative diminution in the opposite cerebral hemisphere, +this would go to show that the cerebral hemispheres do not act in response +to cerebellar stimuli, since their nutrition does not suffer when such +stimuli are certainly absent. The action of the cerebrum is therefore +shown to be primary, whilst that of the cerebellum is secondary or +subordinate in the performance of those functions in which they are both +concerned.--H. CHARLTON BASTIAN, _Paralysis from Brain Disease_.] +particularly those of locomotion. Persons in whom it is injured or +diseased walk with tottering and uncertain movements as if intoxicated, +and can not perform any orderly work. + +THE SPINAL CORD occupies the cavity of the backbone. It is protected by +the same membranes as the brain, but, unlike it, the white matter is on +the outside, and the gray matter is within. Deep fissures separate it into +halves (Fig. 50), which are, however, joined by a bridge of the same +substance. Just as it starts from the brain, there is an expansion called +the _medulla oblongata_ (Fig. 55). + +THE NERVES are glistening, silvery threads, composed, like the spinal +cord, of white matter without and gray within. They ramify to all parts of +the body. Often they are very near each other, yet are perfectly distinct, +each conveying its own impression. [Footnote: Press two fingers together, +and, closing the eyes, let some one pass the point of a pin lightly from +one to the other; you will be able to tell which is touched, yet if the +nerves came in contact with each other anywhere in their long route to the +brain, you could not thus distinguish.] Those which carry the orders of +the mind to the different organs are called the _motory_ nerves; +while those which bring back impressions which they receive are styled +_sensory_ nerves. If the sensory nerve leading to any part be cut, +all sensation in that spot will be lost, while motion will remain; if the +motory nerve be cut, all motion will be destroyed, while sensation will +exist as before. + +TRANSFER OF PAIN.--Strictly speaking, pain is not in any organ, but in the +mind, since only that can feel. When any nerve brings news to the brain of +an injury, the mind refers the pain to the end of the nerve. A familiar +illustration is seen in the "funny bone" behind the elbow. Here the nerve +(_ulnar_) gives sensation to the third and fourth fingers, in which, +if this bone be struck, the pain will seem to be. Long after a limb has +been amputated, pain will be felt in it, as if it still formed a part of +the body--any injury in the stump being referred to the point to which the +nerve formerly led. [Footnote: Only about five per cent. of those who +suffer amputation lose the feeling of the part taken away. There is +something tragical, almost ghastly, in the idea of a spirit limb haunting +a man through his life, and betraying him in unguarded moments into some +effort, the failure of which suddenly reminds him of his loss. A gallant +fellow, who had left an arm at Shiloh, once, when riding, attempted to use +his lost hand to grasp the reins while with the other he struck his horse. +A terrible fall was the result of his mistake. When the current of a +battery is applied to the nerves of an arm stump, the irritation is +carried to the brain, and referred to all the regions of the lost limb. On +one occasion a man's shoulder was thus electrized three inches above the +point where the limb was cut off. For two years he had ceased to be +conscious of his limb. As the electric current passed through, the man, +who had been profoundly ignorant of its possible effects, started up, +crying, "Oh, the hand! the hand!" and tried to seize it with the living +grasp of the sound fingers. No resurrection of the dead could have been +more startling.--DR. MITCHELL _on "Phantom Limbs" in Lippincott's +Magazine_.] + +The nerves are divided into three general classes--the _spinal_, the +_cranial_, and the _sympathetic_. + +FIG. 54. + +[Illustration: P, _posterior root of a spinal nerve;_ G, +_ganglion;_ A, _anterior root;_ S, _spinal nerve. The white +portions of the figure represent the white fibers; and the dark, the +gray._] + +THE SPINAL NERVES, of which there are thirty-one pairs, issue from the +spinal cord through apertures provided for them in the backbone. Each +nerve arises by two roots; the anterior is the motory, and the posterior +the sensory one. The posterior alone connects directly with the gray +matter of the cord, and has a small ganglion of gray matter of its own at +a little distance from its origin. These roots soon unite, _i. e_., +are bound up in one sheath, though they preserve their special functions. +When the posterior root of a nerve is cut, the animal loses the power of +feeling, and when the anterior root is cut, that of motion. + +THE CRANIAL NERVES, twelve pairs in number, spring from the lower part of +the brain and the medulla oblongata. + +1. The _olfactory_, or first pair of nerves, ramify through the +nostrils, and are the nerves of smell. + +2. The _optic_, or second pair of nerves, pass to the eyeballs, and +are the nerves of vision. + +3, 4, 6. The _motores oculi_ (eye movers) are three pairs of nerves +used to move the eyes. + +5. The _trifacial_, or fifth pair of nerves, divide each into three +branches--hence the name--the first to the upper part of the face, eyes, +and nose; the second to the upper jaw and teeth; the third to the lower +jaw and the mouth, where it forms the nerve of taste. These nerves are +implicated when we have the toothache or neuralgia. + +7. The _facial_, or seventh pair of nerves, are distributed over the +face, and give it expression. [Footnote: If it is palsied, on one side +there will be a blank, while the other side will laugh or cry, and the +whole face will look funny indeed. There were some cruel people in the +middle ages who used to cut the nerve and deform children's faces in this +way, for the purpose of making money of them at shows. When this nerve was +wrongly supposed to be the seat of neuralgia, or tic douloureux, it was +often cut by surgeons. The patient suffered many dangers, and no relief of +pain was gained.--MAPOTHER.] + +FIG. 55. + +[Illustration: _The Brain and the origin of the twelve pairs of Cranial +Nerves._ F, E, _the cerebrum;_ D, _the cerebellum, showing the +arbor vitæ;_ G, _the eye;_ H, _the medulla oblongata;_ A, +_the spinal cord;_ C and B, _the first two pairs of spinal +nerves._] + +8. The _auditory_, or eighth pair of nerves, go to the ears, and are +the nerves of hearing. + +9. The _glos-so-pha-ryn'-ge-al_, or ninth pair of nerves, are +distributed over the mucous membrane of the pharynx, tonsils, etc. + +10. The _pneu-mo-gas'-tric_, or tenth pair of nerves, preside over +the larynx, lungs, liver, stomach, and one branch extends to the heart. +This is the only nerve which goes so far from the head. + +11. The _accessory_, or eleventh pair of nerves, rise from the spinal +cord, run up to the medulla oblongata, and thence leave the skull at the +same opening with the ninth and tenth pairs. They regulate the vocal +movements of the larynx. + +12. The _hyp-o-glos'-sal_, or twelfth pair of nerves, give motion to +the tongue. + +FIG. 56. + +[Illustration: _Spinal Nerve, Sympathetic Cord, and the Network of +Sympathetic Nerves around the Internal Organs_. K, _aorta;_ A, +_œophagus;_ B, _diaphragm;_ C, _stomach._] + +THE SYMPATHETIC SYSTEM contains the nerves of organic life. It consists of +a double chain of ganglia on either side of the backbone, extending into +the chest and abdomen. From, these, delicate nerves, generally soft and of +a grayish color, run to the organs on which life depends--the heart, +lungs, stomach, etc.--to the blood vessels, and to the spinal and cranial +nerves over the body. Thus the entire system is bound together with cords +of sympathy, so that, "if one member suffers, all the members suffer with +it." + +Here lies the secret of the control exercised by the brain over all the +vital operations. Every organ responds to its changing moods, especially +those of respiration, circulation, digestion, and secretion,--processes +intimately linked with this system, and controlled by it. (See p. 330.) + +CROSSING OF CORDS.--Each half of the body is presided over, not by its own +half of the brain, but that of the opposite side. The motory nerves, as +they descend from the brain, in the medulla oblongata, cross each other to +the opposite side of the spinal cord. So the motor nerves of the right +side of the body are connected with the left side of the brain, and +_vice versa_. Thus a derangement in one half of the brain may +paralyze the opposite half of the body. The nerves going to the face do +not thus cross, and therefore the face may be motionless on one side, and +the limbs on the other. Each of the sensory fibers of the spinal nerves +crosses over to the opposite side of the spinal cord, and so ascends to +the brain; an injury to the spinal cord may, therefore, cause a loss of +motion in one leg and of feeling in the other. + +REFLEX ACTION.--Since the gray matter generates the nervous force, a +ganglion is capable of receiving an impression, and of sending back or +_reflecting_ it so as to excite the muscles to action. This is done +without the consciousness of the mind. [Footnote: Instances of an +unconscious working of the mind are abundant. An illustration, often +quoted, is given, as follows, by Dr. Abercrombie, in his _Intellectual +Powers_: + +"A lawyer had been excessively perplexed about a very complicated +question. An opinion was required from him, but the question was one of +such difficulty that he felt very uncertain how he should render it. The +decision had to be given at a certain time, and he awoke in the morning of +that day with a feeling of great distress. He said to his wife, 'I had a +dream, and the whole thing was clearly arranged before my mind, and I +would give anything to recover the train of thought.' His wife said to +him, 'Go and look on your table.' She had seen him get up in the night and +go to his table and sit down and write. He did so, and found there the +opinion which he had been most earnestly endeavoring to recover, lying in +his own handwriting. There was no doubt about it whatever." + +In this case the action of the brain was clearly automatic, _i. e._, +reflex. The lawyer had worried his brain by his anxiety, and thus +prevented his mind from doing its best. But it had received an impulse in +a certain direction, and when left to itself, worked out the result. (See +Appendix for other illustrations.)] Thus we wink involuntarily at a flash +of light or a threatened blow. [Footnote: A very eminent chemist a few +years ago was making an experiment upon some extremely explosive compound +which he had discovered. He had a small quantity of this compound in a +bottle, and was holding it up to the light, looking at it intently; and +whether it was a shake of the bottle or the warmth of his hand, I do not +know, but it exploded in his hand, and the bottle was shivered into a +million of minute fragments, which were driven in every direction. His +first impression was that they had penetrated his eyes, but to his intense +relief he found presently that they had only struck the outside of his +eyelids. You may conceive how infinitesimally short the interval was +between the explosion of the bottle and the particles reaching his eyes; +and yet in that interval the impression had been made upon his sight, the +mandate of the reflex action, so to speak, had gone forth, the muscles of +his eyelids had been called into action, and he had closed his eyelids +before the particles had reached them, and in this manner his eyes were +saved. You see what a wonderful proof this is of the way in which the +automatic action of our nervous apparatus enters into the sustenance of +our lives, and the protection of our most important organs from injury.-- +DR. CARPENTER.] We start at a sudden sound. We jump back from a precipice +before the mind has time to reason upon the danger. The spinal cord +conducts certain impressions to the brain, but responds to others without +troubling that organ. [Footnote: There is a story told of a man, who, +having injured his spinal cord, had lost feeling and motion in his lower +extremities. Dr. John Hunter experimented upon him. Tickling his feet, he +asked him if he felt it; the man, pointing to his limbs, which were +kicking vigorously about, answered, "No, but you see my legs do." +Illustrations of this independent action of the spinal cord are common in +animals. A headless wasp will ply its sting energetically. A fowl, after +its head is cut off, will flap its wings and jump about as if in pain, +although, of course, all sensation has ceased. "A water beetle, having had +its head removed, remained motionless as long as it rested on a dry +surface, but when cast into water, it executed the usual swimming motions +with great energy and rapidity, striking all its comrades to one side by +its violence, and persisting in these for more than half an hour."] The +medulla oblongata carries on the process of respiration. The great +sympathetic system binds together all the organs of the body. + +USES OF REFLEX ACTION.--We breathe eighteen times every minute; we stand +erect without a consciousness of effort; [Footnote: In this way we account +for the perilous feats performed by the somnambulist. He is not conscious, +as his operations are not directed by the cerebrum, but by the other +nervous centers. Were he to attempt their repetition when awake, the +emotion of fear might render it impossible.] we walk, eat, digest, and at +the same time carry on a train of thought. Our brain is thus emancipated +from the petty detail of life. If we were obliged to attend to every +breath, every pulsation of the heart, every wink of the eye, our time +would be wasted in keeping alive. Mere standing would require our entire +attention. Besides, an act which at first demands all our thought soon +requires less, and at last becomes mechanical, [Footnote: "As every one +knows," says Huxley, "it takes a soldier a long time to learn his drill-- +for instance, to put himself into the attitude of 'attention' at the +instant the word of command is heard. But, after a time, the sound of the +word gives rise to the act, whether the soldier be thinking of it or not. +There is a story, which is credible enough, though it may not be true, of +a practical joker, who, seeing a discharged veteran carrying home his +dinner, suddenly called out 'Attention!' whereupon the man instantly +brought his hands down and lost his mutton and potatoes in the gutter. The +drill had been thorough, and its effects had become embodied in the man's +nervous structure."] as we say, _i. e._, reflex. Thus we play a +familiar tune upon an instrument and carry on a conversation at the same +time. All the possibilities of an education and the power of forming +habits are based upon this principle. No act we perform ends with itself. +It leaves behind it in the nervous centers a tendency to do the same thing +again. Our physical being thus conspires to fix upon us the habits of a +good or an evil life. Our very thoughts are written in our muscles, so +that the expression of our face and even our features grow into harmony +with the life we live. + +BRAIN EXERCISE.--The nervous system demands its life and activity. The +mind grows by what it feeds on. One who reads mainly light literature, who +lolls on the sofa or worries through the platitudes of an idle or +fashionable life, decays mentally; his system loses tone, and physical +weakness follows mental poverty. On the other hand, an excessive use of +the mind withdraws force from the body, whose weakness, reacting on the +brain, produces gradual decay and serious diseases. (See p. 331.) + +The brain grows by the growth of the body. The body grows through good +food, fresh air, and work and rest in suitable proportion. For the full +development and perfect use of a strong mind, a strong body is essential. +Hence, in seeking to expand and store the intellect, we should be equally +thoughtful of the growth and health of the body. + +SLEEP [Footnote: Sleep procured by medicine is rarely as beneficial as +that secured naturally. The disturbance to the nervous system is often +sufficient to counterbalance all the good results. The habit of seeking +sleep in this way, without the advice of a physician, is to be most +earnestly deprecated. The dose must be constantly increased to produce the +effect, and thus great injury may be caused. Often, too, where laudanum or +morphine is used, the person unconsciously comes into a terrible and fatal +bondage. (See p. 342.) Especially should infants never be dosed with +cordials, as is a common family practice. The damage done to helpless +childhood by the ignorant and reckless use of soothing syrups is frightful +to contemplate. All the ordinary sleeping draughts have life-destroying +properties, as is proved by the fatal effects of an overdose. At the best, +they paralyze the nerve centers, disorder the digestion, and poison the +blood. Their promiscuous use is therefore full of danger.] is as essential +as food. During the day, the process of tearing down goes on; during the +night, the work of building up should make good the loss. In youth more +sleep is needed than in old age, when nature makes few permanent repairs, +and is content with temporary expedients. The number of hours required for +sleep must be decided by each person. Napoleon took only five hours, but +most people need from six to eight hours,--brain workers even more. In +general, one should sleep until he naturally wakes. If one's rest be +broken, it should be made up as soon as possible. (See p. 334.) + +SUNLIGHT.--The influence of the sun's rays upon the nervous system is very +marked. [Footnote: The necessity of light for young children is not half +appreciated. Many of their diseases, and nearly all the cadaverous looks +of those brought up in great cities, are ascribable to the deficiency of +light and air. When we see the glass room of the photographers in every +street, in the topmost story, we grudge them their application to what is +often a mere personal vanity. Why should not a nursery be constructed in +the same manner? If parents knew the value of light to the skin, +especially to children of a scrofulous tendency, we should have plenty of +these glass house nurseries, where children might run about in a proper +temperature, free from much of that clothing which at present seals up the +skin--that great supplementary lung--against sunlight and oxygen. They +would save many a weakly child who now perishes from lack of these +necessaries of infant life.--DR. WINTER.] It is said also to have the +effect of developing red disks in the blood. All vigor and activity come +from the sun. Vegetables grown in subdued light have a bleached and faded +look. An infant kept in absolute darkness would grow into a shapeless +idiot. That room is the healthiest to which the sun has the freest access. +Epidemics frequently attack the inhabitants of the shady side of a street, +and exempt those on the sunny side. If, on a slight indisposition, we +should go out into the open air and bright sunlight, instead of shutting +ourselves up in a close, dark chamber, we might often avoid a serious +illness. The sun bath is doubtless a most efficient remedy for many +diseases. Our window blinds and curtains should be thrown back and open, +and we should let the blessed air and sun stream in to invigorate and +cheer. No house buried in shade, and no room with darkened windows, is fit +for human habitation. In damp and darkness, lies in wait almost every +disease to which flesh is heir. The sun is their only successful foe. (See +p. 336.) + +WONDERS OF THE BRAIN.--After having seen the beautiful contrivances and +the exquisite delicacy of the lower organs, it is natural to suppose that +when we come to the brain we should find the most elaborate machinery. How +surprising, then, it is to have revealed to us only cells and fibers! The +brain is the least solid and most unsubstantial looking organ in the body. +Eighty per cent of water, seven of albumen, some fat, and a few minor +substances constitute the instrument which rules the world. Strangest of +all, the brain, which is the seat of sensation, is itself without +sensation. Every nerve, every part of the spinal cord, is keenly alive to +the slightest touch, yet "the brain may be cut, burned, or electrified +without producing pain." + +ALCOHOLIC DRINKS AND NARCOTICS. + +ALCOHOL (Continued from p. 187). + +EFFECT UPON THE NERVOUS SYSTEM.--In the progressive influence of alcohol +upon the nervous system, there are, according to the researches of Dr. +Richardson, four successive stages. + +1. THE STAGE OF EXCITEMENT. [Footnote: The pupil should be careful to note +here that alcohol does not act upon the heart directly, and cause it to +contract with more force. The idea that alcohol gives energy and activity +to the muscles is entirely false. It really, as we have seen (p. 183), +weakens muscular contraction. The enfeeblement begins in the first stage, +and continues in the other stages with increased effect. The heart beats +quickly merely because the resistance of the minute controlling vessels is +taken off, and it works without being under proper regulation. _What is +called a stimulation or excitement is, in absolute fact, a relaxation, a +partial paralysis_ of one of the most important mechanisms in the +animal body. Alcohol should be ranked among the narcotics.--RICHARDSON.]-- +The first effect of alcohol, as we have already described on page 144, is +to paralyze the nerves that lead to the extreme and minute blood vessels, +and so regulate the passage of the blood through the capillary system. The +vital force, thus drawn into the nervous centers, drives the machinery of +life with tremendous energy. The heart jumps like the mainspring of a +watch when the resistance of the wheels is removed. The blood surges +through the body with increased force. Every capillary tube in the system +is swollen and flushed, like the reddened nose and cheek. + +In all this there is exhilaration, but no nourishment; there is animation, +but no permanent power conferred on brain or muscle. Alcohol may cheer for +the moment. It may set the sluggish blood in motion, start the flow of +thought, and excite a temporary gayety. "It may enable a wearied or feeble +organism to do brisk work for a short time. It may make the brain briefly +brilliant. It may excite muscle to quick action, but it does nothing at +its own cost, fills up nothing it has destroyed, and itself leads to +destruction." Even the mental activity it has excited is an unsafe state +of mind, for that just poise of the faculties so essential to good +judgment is disturbed by the presence of the intruder. Johnson well +remarked, "Wine improves conversation by taking the edge off the +understanding." + +2. THE STAGE OF MUSCULAR WEAKNESS.--If the action of the alcohol be still +continued, the spinal cord is next affected by this powerful narcotic. The +control of some of the muscles is lost. Those of the lower lip usually +fail first, then those of the lower limbs, and the staggering, uncertain +steps betray the result. The muscles themselves, also, become feebler as +the power of contraction diminishes. The temperature, which, for a time, +was slightly increased, soon begins to fall as the heat is radiated; the +body is cooled, and the well-known "alcoholic chill" is felt. + +3. THE STAGE OF MENTAL WEAKNESS.--The cerebrum is now implicated. The +ideal and emotional faculties are quickened, while the will is weakened. +The center of thought being overpowered, the mind is a chaos. Ideas flock +in thick and fast. The tongue is loosened. The judgment loses its hold on +the acts. The reason giving way, the animal instincts generally assume the +mastery of the man. The hidden nature comes to the surface. All the gloss +of education and social restraint falls off, and the lower nature stands +revealed. The coward shows himself more craven, the braggart more +boastful, the bold more daring, and the cruel more brutal. The inebriate +is liable to become the perpetrator of any outrage that the slightest +provocation may suggest. + +4. THE STAGE OF UNCONSCIOUSNESS.--At last, prostration ensues, and the +wild, mad revel of the drunkard ends with utter senselessness. In common +speech, the man is "dead drunk." Brain and spinal cord are both benumbed. +Fortunately, the two nervous centers which supply the heart and the +diaphragm are the slowest to be influenced. So, even in this final stage, +the breathing and the circulation still go on, though the other organs +have stopped. Were it not for this, every person thoroughly intoxicated +would die. [Footnote: Cold has a wonderful influence in hastening this +stage, so that a person, previously only in the first stage of excitement, +on going outdoors on a winter night, may rapidly sink into a lethargy +(become _comatose_), fall, and die. He is then commonly said to have +perished with cold. The signs of this coma are of great practical +importance, since so many persons die in police stations and elsewhere who +are really comatose, when they are supposed to be only sound asleep. The +pulse is slow, and almost imperceptible. The face is pale, and the skin +cold. "If the arm be pinched, it is not moved; if the eyeballs are +touched, the lids will not sink." The respiration becomes slower and +slower, and, if the person dies, it is because liquid collects in the +bronchial tubes, and stops the passage of the air. The man then actually +drowns in his own secretions.] + +EFFECT UPON THE BRAIN.--Alcohol seems to have a special affinity for the +brain. This organ absorbs more than any other, and its delicate structure +is correspondingly affected. The "Vascular enlargement" here reaches its +height. The tiny vessels become clogged with blood that is unfitted to +nourish, because loaded with carbonic acid, and deprived of the usual +quantity of the life-giving oxygen.--HINTON. The brain is, in the language +of the physiologist, malfunctioned. The mind but slowly rallies from the +stupor of the fourth stage, and a sense of dullness and depression remains +to show with what difficulty the fatigued organ recovers its normal +condition. So marked is the effect of the narcotic poison, that some +authorities hold that "a once thoroughly intoxicated brain never fully +becomes what it was before." + +In time, the free use of liquor hardens and thickens the membrane +enveloping the nervous matter; the nerve corpuscles undergo a "Fatty +degeneration"; the blood vessels lose their elasticity; and the vital +fluid, flowing less freely through the obstructed channels, fails to +afford the old-time nourishment. The consequent deterioration of the +nervous substance--the organ of thought--shows itself in the weakened mind +[Footnote: The habitual use of fermented liquors, even to an extent far +short of what is necessary to produce intoxication, injures the body, and +diminishes the mental power.--Sir Henry Thompson.] that we so often notice +in a person accustomed to drink, and at last lays the foundation of +various nervous disorders--epilepsy, paralysis, and insanity. [Footnote: +Casper, the great statistician of Berlin, says: "So far as that city is +concerned, one third of the insane coming from the poorer classes, were +made so by spirit drinking."] The law of heredity here again asserts +itself, and the inebriate's children often inherit the disease which he +has escaped. + +Chief among the consequences of this perverted and imperfect nutrition of +the brain is that intermediate state between intoxication and insanity, +well known as Delirium Tremens. "It is characterized by a low, restless +activity of the cerebrum, manifesting itself in muttering delirium, with +occasional paroxysms of greater violence. The victim almost always +apprehends some direful calamity; he imagines his bed to be covered with +loathsome reptiles; he sees the walls of his apartment crowded with foul +specters; and he imagines his friends and attendants to be fiends come to +drag him down to a fiery abyss beneath."--CARPENTER. (See p. 287.) + +INFLUENCE UPON THE MENTAL AND MORAL POWERS.--So intimate is the relation +between the body and the mind, that an injury to one harms the other. The +effect of alcoholized blood is to weaken the will. The one habitually +under its influence often shocks us by his indecision and his readiness to +break a promise to reform. The truth is, he has lost, in a measure, his +power of self-control. At last, he becomes physically unable to resist the +craving demand of his morbid appetite. + +Other faculties share in this mental wreck. The intellectual vision +becomes less penetrating, the decisions of the mind less reliable, and the +grasp of thought less vigorous. The logic grows muddy. A thriftless, +reckless feeling is developed. Ere long, self-respect is lost, and then +ambition ceases to allure, and the high spirit sinks. + +Along with this mental deterioration comes also a failure of the moral +sense. The fine fiber of character undergoes a "degeneration" as certain +as that of the muscles themselves. Broken promises tell of a lowered +standard of veracity, and a dulled sense of honor, quite as much as of an +impaired will. Under the subtle influence of the ever-present poison, +signs of spiritual weakness multiply fast. Conscience is lulled to rest. +Reason is enfeebled. Customary restraints are easily thrown off. The +sensibilities are blunted. There is less ability to appreciate nice shades +of right and wrong. Great moral principles and motives lose their power to +influence. The judgment fools with duty. The future no longer reaches back +its hand to guide the present. The better nature has lost its supremacy. + +The wretched victim of appetite will now gratify his tyrannical passion +for drink at any expense of deceit or crime. He becomes the blind +instrument of his insane impulses, and commits acts from which he would +once have shrunk with horror. [Footnote: Richardson sums up the various +diseases caused by alcohol, as follows: "(_a_). Diseases of the brain +and nervous system, indicated by such names as apoplexy, epilepsy, +paralysis, vertigo, softening of the brain, delirium tremens, dipsomania +or inordinate craving for drink, loss of memory, and that general failure +of the mental power, called dementia. (_b_). Diseases of the lungs: +one form of consumption, congestion, and subsequent bronchitis. +(_c_). Diseases of the heart: irregular beat, feebleness of the +muscular walls, dilatation, disease of the valves. (_d_). Diseases of +the blood: scurvy, excess of water or dropsy, separation of fibrin. +(_e_). Diseases of the stomach: feebleness of the stomach, +indigestion, flatulency, irritation, and sometimes inflammation. +(_f_). Diseases of the bowels: relaxation or purging, irritation. +(_g_). Diseases of the liver: congestion, hardening and shrinking, +cirrhosis. (_h_). Diseases of the kidneys: change of structure into +fatty or waxy-like condition and other results leading to dropsy, or +sometimes to fatal sleep. (_i_). Diseases of the muscles: fatty +change in the muscles, by which they lose their power for proper active +contraction. (_j_). Diseases of the membranes of the body: thickening +and loss of elasticity, by which the parts wrapped up in the membrane are +impaired for use, and premature decay is induced."] Sometimes he even +takes a malignant pleasure in injuring those whom Nature has ordained he +should protect. [Footnote: It has been argued that a man should not be +punished for any crime he may commit during intoxication, but rather for +knowingly giving up the reins of reason and conscience, and thus +subjecting himself to the rule of his evil passions. Voluntarily to +stimulate the mind and put it into a condition where it may drive one to +ruin, is very like the act of an engineer who should get up steam in his +engine, and then, having opened the valves, desert his post, and let the +monster go thundering down the track to sure destruction. Certain persons +are thrown into the stage of mental weakness by a single glass of liquor. +How can they be excused when the fact of their peculiar liability lends +additional force to the argument of abstemiousness, and they know that +their only safety lies in total abstinence?--CARPENTER'S +_Physiology._] + +2. TOBACCO. + +The Constituents of Tobacco Smoke are numerous, but the prominent ones are +carbonic-acid, carbonic-oxide, and ammonia gases; carbon, or soot; and +nicotine. The proportion of these substances varies with different kinds +of tobacco, the pipe used, and the rapidity of the combustion. Carbonic +acid tends to produce sleepiness and headache. Carbonic oxide, in +addition, causes a tremulous movement of the muscles, and so of the heart. +Ammonia bites the tongue of the smoker, excites the salivary glands, and +causes dryness of the mouth and throat. Nicotine is a powerful poison. The +amount contained in one or two strong cigars, if thrown directly into the +blood, would cause death. Nicotine itself is complex, yielding a volatile +substance that gives the odor to the breath and clothing; and also a +bitter extract which produces the sickening taste of an old pipe. In +smoking, some of the nicotine is decomposed, forming pyridine, picoline, +and other poisonous alkaloids. [Footnote: The analysis of tobacco as given +by different authorities varies greatly. The one stated in the text +suffices for the purposes of this chapter. Von Eulenberg names several +other products of the combustion. One hundred pounds of the dry leaf may +yield as high as seven pounds of nicotine. Havana tobacco contains about +two per cent, and Virginia about six per cent.--See JOHNSTON & CHURCH'S +_Chemistry of Common Life_, and MILLER'S _Organic Chemistry_.] + +PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS.--The poison of tobacco, set free by the process +either of chewing or smoking, when for the first time it is swept through +the system by the blood, powerfully affects the body. Nausea is felt, and +the stomach seeks to throw off the offending substance. The brain is +inflamed, and headache follows. The motor nerves becoming irritated, +giddiness ensues. Thus Nature earnestly protests against the formation of +this habit. But, after repeated trials, the system adjusts itself to the +new conditions. A "tolerance" of the poison is finally established, and +smoking causes none of the former symptoms. Such powerful substances can +not, however, be constantly inhaled without producing marked changes. The +three great eliminating organs--the lungs, the skin, and the kidneys-- +throw off a large part of the products, but much remains in the system. +When the presence of the poison is constant, and especially when the +smoking or chewing is excessive, the disturbance that at first is merely +functional, must necessarily, in many cases at least, lead to a chronic +derangement. + +Probably in this, as in the case of other deleterious articles of diet, +the strong and healthy will seem to escape entirely, while the weak and +those predisposed to disease will be injured in direct proportion to the +extent of the indulgence. Those whose employment leads to active, outdoor +work, will show no sign of nicotine poisoning, while the man of sedentary +habits will sooner or later be the victim of dyspepsia, sleeplessness, +nervousness, paralysis, or other organic difficulties. Even where the user +of tobacco himself escapes harm, the law of heredity asserts itself, and +the innocent offspring only too often inherit an impaired constitution, +and a tendency to nervous complaints. + +THE VARIOUS DISTURBANCES produced in different individuals and +constitutions by smoking have been summed up by Dr. Richardson as follows: +"(_a_) In the blood, it causes undue fluidity, and change in the red +corpuscles; (_b_) in the stomach, it gives rise to debility, nausea, +and vomiting; (_c_) in the mucous membrane of the mouth, it produces +enlargement and soreness of the tonsils--smoker's sore throat--redness, +dryness, and occasional peeling of the membrane, and either unnatural +firmness and contraction, or sponginess of the gums; and, where the pipe +rests on the lips, oftentimes 'epithelial cancer'; (_d_) in the +heart, it causes debility of the organ, and irregular action; (_e_) +in the bronchial surface of the lungs, when that is already irritable, it +sustains irritation, and increases the cough; (_f_) in the organs of +sense, it produces dilation of the pupils of the eye, confusion of vision, +bright lines, luminous or cobweb specks, and long retention of images on +the retina, with analogous symptoms affecting the ear, viz., inability to +define sounds clearly, and the occurrence of a sharp, ringing noise like a +whistle; (_g_) in the brain, it impairs the activity of the organ, +oppressing it if it be nourished, but soothing it if it be exhausted; +(_h_) it leads to paralysis in the motor and sympathetic nerves, and +to over-secretion from the glands which the sympathetic nerves control." + +IS TOBACCO A FOOD?--Here, as in the case of alcohol, the reply is a +negative one. Tobacco manifests no characteristic of a food. It can not +impart to the blood an atom of nutritive matter for building up the body. +It does not add to, but rather subtracts from, the total vital force. It +confers no potential power upon muscle or brain. It stimulates by cutting +off the nervous supply from the extremities and concentrating it upon the +centers. But stimulation is not nourishment; it is only a rapid spending +of the capital stock. There is no greater error than to mistake the +exciting of an organ for its strengthening. + +THE INFLUENCE UPON YOUTH.--Here, too, science utters no doubtful voice. +Experience asserts only one conviction. _Tobacco retards the development +of mind and body._ [Footnote: Cigarettes are especially injurious from +the irritating smoke of the paper covering, taken into the lungs, and also +because the poison fumes of the tobacco are more directly inhaled. In case +of the cheap cigarettes often smoked by boys the ingredients used are +harmful, while one revolts at the thought of the filthy materials, refuse +cigar stumps, etc., employed in their manufacture.] The law of nature is +that of steady growth. It can not admit of a daily, even though it be +merely a functional, disturbance that weakens the digestion, that causes +the heart to labor excessively, that prevents the perfect oxidation of the +blood, that interferes with the assimilation, and that deranges the +nervous system. [Footnote: There is one influence of tobacco that every +young man should understand. In many cases, like alcohol, it seems to +blunt the sensibilities, and to make its user careless of the rights and +feelings of others. This is often noticed in common life. We meet +everywhere "devotees of the weed," who, ignoring the fact that tobacco is +disagreeable to many persons, think only of the gratification of their +selfish appetite. They smoke or chew in any place or company. They permit +the cigar fumes to blow into the faces of passers-by. They sit where the +wind carries the smoke of their pipes so that others must inhale it. They +expectorate upon the floor of cars, hotels, and even private homes. They +take no pains to remove the odor that lingers about their person and +clothing. They force all who happen to be near, their companions, their +fellow-travelers, to inhale the nauseating odor of tobacco. Everything +must be sacrificed to the one primal necessity of such persons--a smoke. +Now, a young man just beginning life, with his fortune to make, and his +success to achieve, can not afford to burden himself with a habit that is +costly, that will make his presence offensive to many persons, and that +may perhaps render him less sensitive to the best influences and +perceptions of manhood.] No one has a right thus to check and disturb +continually the regular processes of his physical and mental progress. +Hence, the young man (especially if he be of a nervous, sensitive +organization) who uses tobacco deliberately diminishes the possible energy +with which he might commence the work of life; [Footnote: In the +Polytechnic School at Paris, the pupils were divided into two classes--the +smokers, and the non-smokers. The latter not only excelled on the entrance +examinations, but during the entire course of study. Dr. Decaisne examined +thirty-eight boys who smoked, and found twenty-seven of them diseased from +nicotine poisoning. So long ago as 1868, in consequence of these results, +the Minister of Public Instruction forbade the use of tobacco by the +pupils. + +Dr. Gihon, medical director of the Naval Academy at Annapolis, in his +report for 1881, says: "The most important matter in the health history of +the students is that relating to tobacco, and its interdiction is +absolutely essential to their future health and usefulness. In this view I +have been sustained by my colleagues, and by all sanitarians in civil and +military life whose views I have been able to obtain."] while he comes +under the bondage of a habit that may become stronger than his will, and +under the influence of a narcotic that may beguile his faculties and palsy +his strength at the very moment when every power should be awake. + +Another peril still lies in the wake of this masterful poison habit. +Tobacco causes thirst and depression that only too often and naturally +lead to the use of liquor. (See p. 338.) + +3. OPIUM. + +Opium is the dried juice of the poppy. In Eastern countries, this flower +is cultivated in immense fields for the sake of this product. When a cut +is made in the poppy head, a tiny tear of milky juice exudes, and hardens. +These little drops are gathered and prepared for the market, an acre +yielding, it is said, about twenty-five pounds. Throughout the East, opium +is generally smoked; but in Western countries laudanum and paregoric +(tinctures of opium), and morphine--a powerful alkaloid contained in +opium, are generally used. The drug itself is also eaten. + +PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT.--Opium, in its various forms, acts directly upon the +nerves, a small dose quieting pain, and a larger one soothing to sleep. It +arouses the brain, and fires the imagination to a wonderful pitch. +[Footnote: So far as its effects are concerned, it matters little in what +form opium is taken, whether solid as in pills, liquid as in laudanum, or +vaporized, as when inhaled from a pipe. The opium slave is characterized +by trembling steps, a curved spine, sunken glassy eyes, sallow withered +features, and often by contraction of the muscles of the neck and fingers. +In the East, when the drug ceases its influence, the opium eater renews it +with corrosive sublimate till, finally, this also fails of effect, and he +gradually sinks into the grave.] The reaction from this unnatural excitant +is correspondingly depressing; and the melancholy, the "overwhelming +horror" that ensues, calls for a renewal of the stimulus. The dose must be +gradually increased to produce the original exhilaration. [Footnote: The +victim of opium is bound to a drug from which he derives no benefits, but +which slowly deprives him of health and happiness, finally to end in +idiocy or premature death. Whatever the victim's condition or surroundings +may be, the opium must be taken at certain times with inexorable +regularity. The liquor or tobacco user can, for a time, go without the use +of these agents, and no regular hours are necessary. During sickness, and +more especially during the eruptive fevers, he does not desire tobacco or +liquor. The opium eater has no such reprieves; his dose must be taken, +and, in painful complications affecting the stomach, a large increase is +demanded to sustain the system. If, in forming the habit, two doses are +taken each day, the victim is obliged to maintain that number. It is the +unceasing, everlasting slavery of regularity that humiliates opium eaters +by a sense of their own weakness.--HUBBARD _on The Opium Habit and +Alcoholism._] The seductive nature of the drug leads the unfortunate +victim on step by step until he finds himself fast bound in the fetters of +one of the most tyrannical habits known to man. + +To go on is to wreck all one's powers--physical and mental. To throw off +the habit, requires a determination that but few possess. Yet even when +the custom is broken, the system is long in recovering from the shock. +There seems to be a failure of every organ. The digestion is weakened, +food is no longer relished, the muscles waste, the skin shrivels, the +nervous centers are paralyzed, and a premature old age comes on apace. De +Quincey, four months after he had cast away the opium bonds, wrote, "Think +of me as one still agitated, writhing, throbbing, palpitating, shattered." + +No person can be too careful in the use of laudanum, paregoric, and +morphine. They may be taken on a physician's prescription as a sedative +from racking pain, [Footnote: Many persons learn to inject morphine +beneath the skin by means of a "hypodermic syringe." The operation is +painless, and seems an innocent one. It throws the narcotic directly into +the circulation, and relief from pain is often almost instantaneous. But +the danger of forming the opium habit is not lessened, and the effect of +using the drug in this form for a long time is just as injurious as opium +smoking itself. Opium in one of its forms enters largely into the +composition of many of the painkillers and patent medicines so freely +advertised for domestic use in the present day, and for this reason the +greatest care is needed in having recourse to any of them. Taken, perhaps, +in the first instance, to alleviate the torments of neuralgia or +toothache, what proves to be a remedy soon becomes a source of +gratification, which the wretchedness that follows on abstinence renders +increasingly difficult to lay aside. The same must be said of bromide of +potassium and hydrate of chloral, frequently resorted to as a remedy for +sleeplessness: the system quickly becomes habituated to their use, and +they can then be relinquished only at the cost of much suffering. Indeed, +the last mentioned of these two drugs obtains over the mind a power which +may be compared to that of opium, and is, moreover, liable to occasion the +disease known as chloralism, by which the system ultimately becomes a +complete wreck. Looking at the whole question of the medicinal use of +narcotics, it is perhaps not too much to say that they should never be +employed except with the authority of a competent medical adviser.-- +_Chambers's Journal_.] but if followed up for any length of time, the +powerful habit may be formed ere one is aware. Then comes the opium +eater's grave, or the opium eater's struggle for life! + +4. CHLORAL HYDRATE. + +CHLORAL HYDRATE is a drug frequently used to cause sleep. It leaves behind +no headache or lassitude, as is often the case with morphine. It is, +however, a treacherous remedy. It is cumulative in its effects, _i. +e._, even a small and harmless dose, persisted in for a long period, +may produce a gradual accumulation of evil results that in the end will +prove fatal. + +THE PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT of its prolonged use is very marked. The appetite +becomes capricious. The secretions are unnatural. Nausea and flatulency +often ensue. Then the nervous system is involved. The heart is affected. +Sleep, instead of responding to the drug, as at first, is broken and +disturbed. The eyesight fails. The circulation is enfeebled, and the pulse +becomes weak, rapid, and irregular. There is a tendency to fainting and to +difficult respiration. Sometimes the impoverished blood induces a disease +resembling scurvy, the ends of the fingers ulcerate, and the face is +disfigured by blotches. An excessive dose may result in death. + +Prolonged habitual use of chloral hydrate tends to debase the mind and +morals of the subject in the same manner as indulgence in alcohol, ether, +or chloroform. + +5. CHLOROFORM. + +CHLOROFORM is an artificial product generally obtained, by distillation, +from a mixture of chloride of lime, water, and alcohol. It was discovered +in 1831 by Samuel Guthrie, of Sackett's Harbor, New York. It is a +colorless, transparent volatile liquid, with a strong ethereal odor. + +PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT.--Chloroform is a powerful anæsthetic, which, when +inhaled, causes a temporary paralysis of the nervous system, and thus a +complete insensibility to pain. There is great peril attending its use, +even in the hands of the most skillful and experienced practitioners. It +is sometimes prescribed by a physician, and afterward (as in the case of +laudanum, morphine, and chloral) the sufferer, charmed with the release +from pain and the peaceful slumber secured, buys the Lethean liquid for +himself. Its use soon becomes an apparent necessity. The craving for the +narcotic at a stated time is almost irresistible. The patient, compelled +to give up the use of chloroform, will demand, entreat, pray for another +dose, in a heartrending manner, never to be forgotten. Paleness and +debility, the earliest symptoms, are followed by mental prostration. +Familiarity with this dangerous drug begets carelessness, and its victims +are frequently found dead in their beds, with the handkerchief from which +they inhaled the volatile poison clutched in their lifeless hands. + +6. COCAINE. + +Cocaine is an alkaloid prepared from the erythroxylon coca, a shrub, five +or six feet high, found wild in the mountainous regions of Ecuador and +Peru, where it is also cultivated by the natives. The South American +Indians, for centuries, have chewed coca leaves as a stimulant, but the +highly poisonous principle, now called cocaine, to which the plant owes +its peculiar effects, was not discovered till 1859. Within a few years +this drug has come into favor as an agent to produce local anæsthesia, and +has proved exceedingly valuable in surgical operations upon the eye and +other sensitive organs. It has already, however, been diverted from its +legitimate use as a benefaction, and to the other evils of the day is now +added the "cocaine habit," which is, perhaps, even more dangerous and +difficult to abandon than either the alcohol or the opium habit. + +PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECT.--Applied locally, cocaine greatly lessens and even +annihilates pain. Taken internally, it acts as a powerful stimulant to the +nervous system, its physiological action being similar to that of theine +(p. 170), caffeine, and theobromine. Used hypodermically, its immediate +effect, says one to whom it was thus administered, is to cause "great +pallor of countenance, profuse frontal perspiration, sunken eyes, enlarged +pupils, lessened sensitiveness of the cornea and conjunctiva, lowered +arterial tension, and a feeble pulse and heart beat. Under its influence I +could not reason. Everything seemed to run through my brain, and in vain I +summoned all my will power to overcome an overwhelming sleepiness." A few +doses of this drug will in some persons produce temporary insanity. Used +to excess, it leads to permanent madness or idiocy. "Cocaine," says a +writer in the _Medical Review_, "is a dangerous therapeutic toy not to +be used as a sensational plaything. If it should come into as general use +as the other intoxicants of its class, it will help to fill the asylums, +inebriate and insane." + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. Why is the pain of incipient hip disease frequently felt in the knee? + +2. Why does a child require more sleep than an aged person? + +3. When you put your finger in the palm of a sleeping child, why will he +grasp it? + +4. How may we strengthen the brain? + +5. What is the object of pain? + +6. Why will a blow on the stomach sometimes stop the heart? + +7. How long will it take for the brain of a man six feet high to receive +news of an injury to his foot, and to reply? + +8. How can we grow beautiful? + +9. Why do intestinal worms sometimes affect a child's sight? + +10. Is there any indication of character in physiognomy? + +11. When one's finger is burned, where is the ache? + +12. Is a generally closed parlor a healthful room? + +13. Why can an idle scholar read his lesson and at the same time count the +marbles in his pocket? + +14. In amputating a limb, what part, when divided, will cause the keenest +pain? + +15. What is the effect of bad air on nervous people? + +16. Is there any truth in the proverb that "he who sleeps dines"? + +17. What does a high, wide forehead indicate? + +18. How does indigestion frequently cause a headache? + +19. What is the cause of one's foot being "asleep"? [Footnote: Here the +nervous force is prevented from passing by compression. Just how this is +done, or what is kept from passing, we can not tell. If a current of +electricity were moving through a rubber tube full of mercury, a slight +squeeze would interrupt it. These cases may depend on the same general +principle, but we can not assert it.--HUXLEY. The tingling sensation +caused by the compression is transferred to the foot, whence the nerve +starts.] + +20. When an injury to the nose has been remedied by transplanting skin +from the forehead, why is a touch to the former felt in the latter? + +21. Are closely curtained windows healthful? + +22. Why, in falling from a height, do the limbs instinctively take a +position to defend the important organs? + +23. What causes the pylorus to open and close at the right time? + +24. Why is pleasant exercise most beneficial? + +25. Why does grief cause one to lose his appetite? + +26. Why should we never study directly after dinner? + +27. What produces the peristaltic movement of the stomach? + +28. Why is a healthy child so restless and full of mischief? + +29. Why is a slight blow on the back of a rabbit's neck fatal? + +30. Why can one walk and carry on a conversation at the same time? + +31. What are the dangers of overstudy? + +32. What is the influence of idleness upon the brain? + +33. State the close relation which exists between physical and mental +health and disease. + +34. In what consists the value of the power of habit? + +35. How many pairs of nerves supply the eye? + +36. Describe the reflex actions in reading aloud. + +37. Under what circumstances does paralysis occur? + +38. If the eyelids of a profound sleeper were raised, and a candle brought +near, would the iris contract? + +39. How does one cough in his sleep? + +40. Give illustrations of the unconscious action of the brain. + +41. Is chewing tobacco more injurious than smoking? + +42. Ought a man to retire from business while his faculties are still +unimpaired? + +43. Which is the more exhaustive to the brain, worry or severe mental +application? + +44. Is it a blessing to be placed beyond the necessity for work? + +45. Show how anger, hate, and the other degrading passions are destructive +to the brain. [Footnote: "One of the surest means for keeping the body and +mind in perfect health consists in learning to hold the passions in +subservience to the reasoning faculties. This rule applies to every +passion. Man, distinguished from all other animals by the peculiarity that +his reason is placed above his passions to be the director of his will, +can protect himself from every mere animal degradation resulting from +passionate excitement. The education of the man should be directed not to +suppress such passions as are ennobling, but to bring all under +governance, and specially to subdue those most destructive passions, +anger, hate, and fear."] + +46. Are not amusements, to repair the waste of the nervous energy, +especially needed by persons whose life is one of care and toil? + +47. Is not severe mental labor incompatible with a rapidly growing body? + +48. How shall we induce the system to perform all its functions regularly + +49. How does alcohol interfere with the action of the nerves? + +50. What is the general effect of alcohol upon the character? + +51. Does alcohol tend to produce clearness and vigor of thought? + +52. What is the general effect of alcohol on the muscles? + +53. Does alcohol have any effect on the bones? The skin? + +54. What is the cause of the "alcoholic chill"? + +55. Show how alcohol tends to develop man's lower, rather than his higher, +nature. + +56. When we wish really to strengthen the brain, should we use alcohol? + +57. Why is alcohol used to preserve anatomical specimens? + +58. What is meant by an inherited taste for liquor? + +59. Ought a person to be punished for a crime committed during +intoxication? + +60. Should a boy ever smoke? + +61. To what extent are we responsible for the health of our body? + +62. Why does alcohol tend to collect in the brain? + +63. Does the use of alcohol tend to increase crime and poverty? + + + + +VIII. + + +THE SPECIAL SENSES. + +"See how yon beam of seeming white +Is braided, out of seven-hued light; +Yet in those lucid globes no ray +By any chance shall break astray. +Hark, how the rolling surge of sound, +Arches and spirals circling round, +Wakes the hush'd spirit through thine ear +With music it is heaven to hear." + +HOLMES. + + +"Let us remember that if we get a glimpse of the details of natural +phenomena, and of those movements which constitute life, it is not in +considering them as a whole, but in analyzing them as far as our limited +means will permit. In the vibrations of the globe of air which surrounds +our planet, as in the undulations of the ether which fills the immensity +of space, it is always by molecules which are intangible for us, put in +motion by nature, always by the infinitely little, that she acts in +exciting the organs of sense, and she has modeled these organs in a +proportion which enables them to partake in the movement which she +impresses upon the universe. She can paint with equal facility on a +fraction of a line of space on the retina, the grandest landscape or the +nervelets of a rose leaf; the celestial vault on which Sirius is but a +luminous point, or the sparkling dust of a butterfly's wing; the roar of +the tempest, the roll of thunder, the echo of an avalanche, find equal +place in the labyrinth whose almost imperceptible cavities seem destined +to receive only the most delicate sounds." + +_ _ +| 1. THE TOUCH...| 1. Description of the Organ. +| |_2. Its Uses. +| _ +| 2. THE TASTE...| 1. Description of the Organ. +| |_2. Its Uses. +| _ +| 3. THE SMELL...| 1. Description of the Organ. +| |_2. Its Uses. +| _ _ +| | 1. Description of the | a. _External Ear._ +| | Organ...............| b. _Middle Ear._ +| 4. THE HEARING.| |_c. _Internal Ear._ +| | 2. How we Hear +| |_3. Hygiene of the Ear. +| _ +| | 1. Description of the Organ. +| | 2. Eyelids, and Tears. +| | 3. Structure of the Retina. +|_5. THE SIGHT...| 4. How we see. +| 5. The Use of the Crystalline Lens. +| 6. Near and Far Sight. +| 7. Color Blindness. +|_8. Hygiene of the Eyes. + + +THE SPECIAL SENSES + +1. TOUCH. + +DESCRIPTION.--Touch is sometimes called the "common sense," since its +nerves are spread over the whole body. It is most delicate, however, in +the point of the tongue and the tips of the fingers. The surface of the +cutis is covered with minute, conical projections called _papillæ_ +(Fig. 24). [Footnote: In the palm of the hand, where there are at least +twelve thousand in a square inch, we can see the fine ridges along which +they are arranged.] Each one of these papillæ contains its tiny nerve +twigs, which receive the impression and transmit it to the brain, where +the perception is produced. + +USES.--Touch is the first of the senses used by a child. By it we obtain +our idea of solidity, and throughout life rectify all other sensations. +Thus, when we see anything curious, our first desire is to handle it. + +The sensation of touch is generally relied upon, yet, if we hold a marble +in the manner shown in Fig. 57, it will seem like two marbles; and if we +touch the fingers thus crossed to our tongue, we shall seem to feel two +tongues. Again, if we close our eyes and let another person move one of +our fingers over a plane surface, first lightly, then with greater +pressure, and then lightly again, we shall think the surface concave. + +FIG. 57. + +[Illustration:] + +This organ is capable of wonderful cultivation. The physician acquires by +practice the _tactus eruditus_, or learned touch, which is often of +great service, while the delicacy of touch possessed by the blind almost +compensates the loss of the absent sense. [Footnote: The sympathy between +the different organs shows how they all combine to make a home for the +mind. When one sense fails, the others endeavor to remedy the defect. It +is touching to see how the blind man gets along without eyes, and the deaf +without ears. Cuthbert, though blind, was the most efficient polisher of +telescopic mirrors in London. Saunderson, the successor of Newton as +professor of mathematics at Cambridge, could distinguish between real and +spurious medals. There is an instance recorded of a blind man who could +recognize colors. The author knew one who could tell when he was +approaching a tree, by what he described as the "different feeling of the +air."] (See p. 346.) + +2. TASTE. + +DESCRIPTION.--This sense is located in the papillæ of the tongue and +palate. These papillaæ start up when tasting, as you can see by placing a +drop of vinegar on another person's tongue, or your own before a mirror. +The velvety look of this organ is given by hair-like projections of the +cuticle upon some of the papillæ. They absorb the liquid to be tasted, and +convey it to the nerves. [Footnote: An insoluble substance is therefore +tasteless.] The back of the tongue is most sensitive to salt and bitter +substances, and, as this part is supplied by the ninth pair of nerves +(Fig. 56), in sympathy with the stomach, such flavors, by sympathy, often +produce vomiting. The edges of the tongue are most sensitive to sweet and +sour substances, and as this part is supplied by the fifth pair of nerves, +which also goes to the face, an acid, by sympathy, distorts the +countenance. + +FIG. 58. + +[Illustration: _The Tongue, showing the several kinds of Papillæ--the +conical_ (D) _the whip like_ (K, I), _the circumvallate or entrenched_ +(H, L); E, F, G, _nerves;_ C, _glottis._--LANKESTER.] + +THE USE OF THE TASTE was originally to guide in the selection of food; +but this sense has become so depraved by condiments and the force of habit +that it would be a difficult task to tell what are one's natural tastes. + +3. SMELL. [Footnote: The sense of smell is so intimately connected with +that of taste that we often fail to distinguish between them. Garlic, +vanilla, coffee and various spices, which seem to have such distinct +taste, have really a powerful odor, but a feeble flavor.] + +DESCRIPTION.--The nose, the seat of the sense of smell, is composed of +cartilage covered with muscles and skin, and joined to the skull by small +bones. The nostrils open at the back into the pharynx, and are lined by a +continuation of the mucous membrane of the throat. The olfactory nerves +(first pair, Fig. 55) enter through a sieve-like, bony plate at the roof +of the nose, and are distributed over the inner surface of the two +olfactory chambers. (See p. 346.) The object to be smelled need not touch +the nose, but tiny particles borne on the air enter the nasal passages. +[Footnote: Three quarters of a grain of musk placed in a room will cause a +powerful smell for a considerable length of time without any sensible +diminution in weight, and the box in which musk has been placed retains +the perfume for almost an indefinite period. Haller relates that some +papers which had been perfumed by a grain of ambergris, were still very +odoriferous after a lapse of forty years. Odors are transported by the air +to a considerable distance. A dog recognizes his master's approach by +smell even when he is far away; and we are assured by navigators that the +winds bring the delicious odors of the balmy forests of Ceylon to a +distance of ten leagues from the coast. Even after making due allowance +for the effects of the imagination, it is certain that odors act as an +excitant on the brain, which may be dangerous when long continued. They +are especially dreaded by the Roman women. It is well known that in +ancient times the women of Rome indulged in a most immoderate use of baths +and perfumes; but those of our times have nothing in common with them in +this respect; and the words of a lady are quoted, who said on admiring an +artificial rose, "It is all the more beautiful that it has no smell." We +are warned by the proverb not to discuss colors or tastes, and we may add +odors also. Men and nations differ singularly in this respect. The +Laplander and the Esquimaux find the smell of fish oil delicious. Wrangel +says his compatriots, the Russians, are very fond of the odor of pickled +cabbage, which forms an important part of their food; and asafœtida, it is +said, is used as a condiment in Persia, and, in spite of its name, there +are persons who do not find its odor disagreeable any more than that of +valerian.--_Wonders of the Human body_.] + +FIG. 59. + +[Illustration: A, b, c, d, _interior of the nose, which is lined by a +mucous membrane;_ n, _the nose;_ e, _the wing of the nose;_ +q, _the nose bones;_ o, _the upper lip;_ g, _section of the +upper jaw-bone;_ h, _the upper part of the mouth, or hard palate;_ +m, _frontal bone of the skull;_ k, _the ganglion or bulb of the +olfactory nerve in the skull, from which are seen the branches of the +nerve passing in all directions._] + +THE USES of the sense of smell are to guide us in the choice of our food, +and to warn us against bad air, and unhealthy localities. (See p. 348.) + +4. HEARING. + +DESCRIPTION.--The ear is divided into the _external_, _middle_, +and _internal_ ear. + +1. _The External Ear_ is a sheet of cartilage curiously folded for +catching sound. The auditory canal, _B_, or tube of this ear trumpet, +is about an inch long. Across the lower end is stretched _the membrane +of the tympanum_ or drum, which is kept soft by a fluid wax. + +FIG. 60. + +[Illustration: _The Ear._] + +2. _The Middle Ear_ is a cavity, at the bottom of which is the +Eustachian tube, _G_, leading to the mouth. Across this chamber hangs +a chain of three singular little bones, _C_, named from their shape +the _hammer_, the _anvil_, and the _stirrup_. All together +these tiny bones weigh only a few grains, yet they are covered by a +periosteum, are supplied with blood vessels, and they articulate with +perfect joints (one a ball-and-socket, the other a hinge), having synovial +membranes, cartilages, ligaments, and muscles. + +3. _The Internal Ear_, or labyrinth, as it is sometimes called from +its complex character, is hollowed out of the solid bone. In front, is the +vestibule or antechamber, _A_, about as large as a grain of wheat; +from it open three _semicircular canals_, _D_, and the winding +stair of the _cochlea_, or snail shell, _E_. Here expand the +delicate fibrils of the auditory nerve. Floating in the liquid which fills +the labyrinth is a little bag containing hair-like bristles, fine sand, +and two ear stones (_otoliths_). All these knocking against the ends +of the nerves, serve to increase any impulse given to the liquid in which +they lie. Finally, to complete this delicate apparatus, in the cochlea are +minute tendrils, named the fibers of Corti, from their discoverer. These +are regularly arranged,--the longest at the bottom, and the shortest at +the top. Could this spiral plate, which coils two and a half times around, +be unrolled and made to stand upright, it would form a beautiful +microscopic harp of three thousand strings. If it were possible to strike +these cords as one can the keyboard of a piano, he could produce in the +mind of the person experimented upon every variety of tone which the ear +can distinguish. + +HOW WE HEAR.--Whenever one body strikes another in the air, waves are +produced, just as when we throw a stone into the water a series of +concentric circles surrounds the spot where it sinks. These waves of air +strike upon the membrane. This vibrates, and sends the motion along the +chain of bones in the middle ear to the fluids of the labyrinth. Here +bristles, sand, and stones pound away, and the wondrous harp of the +cochlea, catching up the pulsations, [Footnote: The original motion is +constantly modified by the medium through which it passes. The bristles, +otoliths, and Cortian fibers of the ear, and the rods and cones of the eye +(p. 239) serve to convert the vibrations into pulsations which act as +stimuli of the appropriate nerve. The molecular change thus produced in +the nerve fibers is propagated to the brain.--See _Popluar +Physics_, p. 182.] carries them to the fibers of the auditory nerve, +which conveys them to the brain, and gives to the mind the idea of sound. + +CARE OF THE EAR.--The delicacy of the ear is such that it needs the +greatest care. Cold water should not be allowed to enter the auditory +canal. If the wax accumulate, never remove it with a hard instrument, lest +the delicate membrane be injured, but with a little warm water, after +which turn the head to let the water run out, and wipe the ear dry. The +hair around the ears should never be left wet, as it may chill this +sensitive organ. If an insect get in the external ear, pour in a little +oil to kill it, and then remove with tepid water. The object of the +Eustachian tube is to admit air into the ear, and thus equalize the +pressure on the membrane. If it become closed by a cold, or if, from any +cause, the pressure be made unequal, so as to produce an unpleasant +feeling in the ear, relief may often be obtained by grasping the nose and +forcibly swallowing. (See p. 350.) + +5. SIGHT. + +FIG. 61. + +[Illustration: _The Eye._] + +DESCRIPTION.--The eye is lodged in a bony cavity, protected by the +overhanging brow. It is a globe, about an inch in diameter. The ball is +covered by three coats--(l) the _sclerotic_, _d_, a tough, horny +casing, which gives shape to the eye, the convex, transparent part in +front forming a window, the _cornea_, _d_; (2) the _choroid_, _e_, a +black lining, to absorb the superfluous light [Footnote: Neither white +rabbits nor albinos have this black lining, and hence their sight is +confused.] and (3) the _retina_, _b_, a membrane in which expand fibers +of the _optic nerve_, _o_. The _crystalline lens_, _a_, brings the rays +of light to a focus on the retina. The lens is kept in place by the +ciliary processes, _g_, arranged like the rays in the disk of a passion +flower. Between the cornea and the crystalline lens is a limpid fluid +termed the _aqueous humor_; while the _vitreous humor_--a transparent, +jelly-like liquid fills the space (_h_) back of the crystalline lens. +The pupil, _k_, is a hole in the colored, muscular curtain, _i_, the +_iris_ (rainbow). (See p. 352.) + +FIG. 62. + +[Illustration: _The Eyelashes and the Tear Glands._] + +EYELIDS AND TEARS.--The eyelids are close-fitting shutters to screen the +eye. The inner side is lined with a mucous membrane that is exceedingly +sensitive, and thus aids in protecting the eye from any irritating +substance. The looseness of the skin favors swelling from inflammation or +the effusion of blood, as in a "black eye." The eyelashes serve as a kind +of sieve to exclude the dust, and, with the lids, to shield against a +blinding light. Just within the lashes are oil glands, which lubricate the +edges of the lids, and prevent them from adhering to each other. The tear +or _lachrymal_ gland, _G_, is an oblong body lodged in the bony +wall of the orbit. It empties by several ducts upon the inner surface, at +the outer edge of the upper eyelid. Thence the tears, washing the eye, run +into the _lachrymal lake_, _D_, a little basin with a rounded +border fitted for their reception. On each side of this lake two canals, +_C_, _C_, drain off the overplus through the duct, _B_, +into the nose. In old age and in disease, these canals fail to conduct the +tears away, and hence the lachrymal lake overflows upon the face. + +FIG. 63. + +[Illustration: _Structure of the Retina._] + +STRUCTURE OF THE RETINA.--In Fig. 63 is shown a section of the retina, +greatly magnified, since this membrane never exceeds 1/80 an inch in +thickness. On the inner surface next to the vitreous humor, is a lining +membrane not shown in the cut. Next to the choroid and comprising about +1/4 the entire thickness of the retina, is a multitude of transparent, +colorless, microscopic rods, _a_, evenly arranged and packed side by +side, like the seeds on the disk of a sunflower. Among them, at regular +intervals, are interspersed the cones, _b_. Delicate nerve fibers +pass from the ends of the rods and cones, each expanding into a granular +body, _c_, thence weaving a mesh, _d_, and again expanding into +the granules, _f_. Last is a layer of fine nerve fibers, _g_, +and gray, ganglionic cells, _h_, like the gray matter of the brain, +whence filaments extend into _i_, the fibers of the optic nerve. (See +p. 354.) + +The layer of rods and cones is to the eye what the bristles, otoliths, and +Cortian fibers are to the ear. Indeed, the nerve itself is insensible to +light. At the point where it enters the eye, there are no rods and cones, +and this is called the _blind spot_. A simple experiment will +illustrate the fact. Hold this book directly before the face, and, closing +the left eye, look steadily with the right at the left-hand circle in Fig. +64. Move the book back and forth, and a point will be found where the +right-hand circle vanishes from sight. At that moment its light falls upon +the spot where the rods and cones are lacking. + +FIG. 64. + +[Illustration:] + +HOW WE SEE.--There is believed to be a kind of universal atmosphere, +termed _ether_, filling all space. This substance is infinitely more +subtle than the air, and occupies its pores, as well as those of all other +substances. As sound is caused by waves in the atmosphere, so light is +produced by waves in the ether. A lamplight, for example, sets in motion +waves of ether, which pass in through the pupil of the eye, to the retina, +where the rods and cones transmit the vibration through the optic nerve to +the brain, and then the mind perceives the light. (Note, p. 236.) + +THE USE OF THE CRYSTALLINE LENS. [Footnote: The uses of the eye and ear +are dependent upon the principles of Optics and Acoustics. They are +therefore best treated in Physics.]--A convex lens, as a common burning +glass, bends the rays of light which pass through it, so that they meet at +a point called the _focus_. The crystalline lens converges the rays +of light which enter the eye, and brings them to a focus on the retina. +[Footnote: The cornea and the humors of the eye act in the same manner as +the crystalline lens, but not so powerfully.] The healthy lens has a power +of changing its convexity so as to adapt [Footnote: The simplest way of +experimenting on the "adjustment of the eye" is to stick two stout needles +upright into a straight piece of wood,--not exactly, but nearly in the +same straight line, so that, on applying the eye to one end of the piece +of wood, one needle (A) shall be seen about six inches off, and the other +(B) just on one side of it, at twelve inches distance. If the observer +looks at the needle B he will find that he sees it very distinctly, and +without the least sense of effort; but the image of A is blurred, and more +or less double. Now, let him try to make this blurred image of the needle +A distinct. He will find he can do so readily enough, but that the act is +accompanied by a sense of fatigue. And in proportion as A becomes +distinct, B will become blurred. Nor will any effort enable him to see A +and B distinctly at the same time.--HUXLEY.] itself to near and to distant +objects. (See Fig. 66.) + +FIG. 65. + +[Illustration: _Diagram showing how an image of an object is formed upon +the Retina by the Crystalline Lens._] + +NEAR AND FAR SIGHT.--If the lens be too convex, it will bring the rays to +a focus before they reach the retina; if too flat, they will reach the +retina before coming to a focus. In either case, the sight will be +indistinct. A more common defect, however, is in the shape of the globe of +the eye, which is either flattened or elongated. In the former case (see +_G_, Fig. 67), objects at a distance can be seen most distinctly-- +hence that is called farsightedness. [Footnote: This should not be +confounded with the long sight of old people, which is caused by the +stiffness of the ciliary muscles, whereby the lens can not adapt itself to +the varying distances of objects.] In the latter, objects near by are +clearer, and hence this is termed nearsightedness. Farsightedness is +remedied by convex glasses; nearsightedness, by concave. When glasses will +improve the sight they should be worn; [Footnote: Dr. Henry W. Williams, +the celebrated ophthalmologist, says that, in some cases, glasses are more +necessary at six or eight years of age than to the majority of healthy +eyes at sixty. Sometimes children find accidentally that they can see +better through grandmother's spectacles. They should then be supplied with +their own.] any delay will be liable to injure the eyes, by straining +their already impaired power. Cataract is a disease in which there is an +opacity of the crystalline lens or its capsules, which obscures the +vision. The lens may be caused to be absorbed, or may be removed by a +skillful surgeon and the defect remedied by wearing convex glasses. + +FIG. 66. + +[Illustration: _Adjustment of the Crystalline Lens._--A, _for far +objects, and_ B, _for near._] + +FIG. 67. + +[Illustration: _Diagram illustrating the position of the Retina._--B, +_in natural sight;_ G, _in far sight; and_ C, _in near sight._] + +COLOR-BLIND PERSONS receive only two of the three elementary color +sensations (green, red, violet). The spectrum appears to them to consist +of two decidedly different colors, with a band of neutral tint between. +The extreme red end is invisible, and a bright scarlet and a deep green +appear alike. They are unable to distinguish between the leaves of a +cherry tree and its fruit by the color of the two, and see no difference +between blue and yellow cloth. Whittier, the poet, it is said, could not +tell red from green unless in direct sunlight. Once he patched some +damaged wall paper in his library by matching a green vine in the pattern +with one of a bright autumnal crimson. This defect in the eye is often +unnoticed, and many railway accidents have doubtless happened through an +inability to detect the color of signal lights. + +CARE OF THE EYES.--The shape of the eye can not be changed by rubbing and +pressing it, as many suppose, but the sight may thus be fatally injured. +Children troubled by nearsightedness should not lean forward at their +work, as thereby the vessels of the eye become overcharged with blood. +They should avoid fine print, and try, in every possible way, to spare +their eyes. If middle age be reached without especial difficulty of sight, +the person is comparatively safe. Most cases of squinting are caused by +longsightedness, the muscles being strained in the effort to obtain +distinct vision. In childhood, it may be cured by a competent surgeon, who +will generally cut the muscle that draws the eye out of place. + +After any severe illness, especially after measles, scarlatina, or typhoid +fever, the eyes should be used with extreme caution, since they share in +the general debility of the body, and recover their strength slowly. +Healthy eyes even should never be used to read fine print or by a dim +light. Serious injury may be caused by an imprudence of this kind. Reading +upon the cars is also a fruitful source of harm. The lens, striving to +adapt itself to the incessantly varying distance of the page, soon becomes +wearied. Whenever the eyes begin to ache, it is a warning that they are +being overtaxed and need rest. + +Objects that get into the eye should be removed before they cause +inflammation; rubbing in the meantime only irritates and increases the +sensitiveness. If the eye be shut for a few moments, so as to let the +tears accumulate, and the upper lid be then lifted by taking hold of it at +the center, the cinder or dust is often washed away at once. Trifling +objects can be removed by simply drawing the upper lid as far as possible +over the lower one; when the lid flies back to its place, the friction +will detach any light substance. If it becomes necessary, turn the upper +lid over a pencil, and the intruder may then be wiped off with a +handkerchief. "Eye-stones" are a popular delusion. When they seem to take +out a cinder, it is only because they raise the eyelid, and allow the +tears to wash it out. No one should ever use an eyewash, except by medical +advice. The eye is too delicate an organ to be trifled with, and when any +disease is suspected, a reliable physician should be consulted. This is +especially necessary, since, when one eye is injured, the other, by +sympathy, is liable to become inflamed, and perhaps be destroyed. + +When reading or working, the _light should be at the left side, or at +the rear; never in front_. + +The constant increase of defective eyesight among the pupils in our +schools is an alarming fact. Dr. Agnew considers that our schoolrooms are +fast making us a spectacle-using people. Nearsightedness seems to increase +from class to class, until in the upper departments, there are sometimes +as high as fifty per cent of the pupils thus afflicted. The causes are +(1), desks so placed as to make the light from the windows shine directly +into the eyes of the scholars; (2), cross lights from opposite windows; +(3), insufficient light; (4), small type that strains the eyes; and (5), +the position of the pupil as he bends over his desk or slate, causing the +blood to settle in his eyes. All these causes can be remedied; the +position of the desks can be changed; windows can be shaded, or new ones +inserted; books and newspapers that try the eyes can be rejected; and +every pupil can be taught how to sit at study. + +PRACTICAL QUESTIONS. + +1. Why does a laundress test the temperature of her flatiron by holding it +near her cheek? + +2. When we are cold, why do we spread the palms of our hands before the +fire? + +3. What is meant by a "furred tongue"? + +4. Why has sand or sulphur no taste? + +5. What was the origin of the word palatable? + +6. Why does a cold in the head injure the flavor of our coffee? + +7. Name some so-called flavors that are really sensations of touch. + +8. What is the object of the hairs in the nostrils? + +9. What use does the nose subserve in the process of respiration? + +10. Why do we sometimes hold the nose when we take unpleasant medicine? + +11. Why was the nose placed over the mouth? + +12. Describe how the hand is adapted to be the instrument of touch. + +13. Besides being the organ of taste, what use does the tongue subserve? + +14. Why is not the act of tasting complete until we swallow? + +15. Why do all things have the same flavor when one's tongue is "furred" +by fever? + +16. Which sense is the more useful--hearing or sight? + +17. Which coat is the white of the eye? + +18. What makes the difference in the color of eyes? + +19. Why do we snuff the air when we wish to obtain a distinct smell? + +20. Why do red-hot iron and frozen mercury (-40°) produce the same +sensation? + +21. Why can an elderly person drink tea which to a child would be +unbearably hot? + +22. Why does an old man hold his paper so far from his eyes? + +23. Would you rather be punished on the tips of your fingers than on the +palm of your hand? + +24. What is the object of the eyelashes? Are the hairs straight? + +25. What is the use of winking? + +26. When you wink, do the eyelids touch at once along their whole length? +Why? + +27. How many rows of hairs are there in the eyelashes? + +28. Do all nations have eyes of the same shape? + +29. Why does snuff taking cause a flow of tears? + +30. Why does a fall cause one to "see stars"? + +31. Why can we not see with the nose, or smell with the eyes? + +32. What causes the roughness of a cat's tongue? + +33. Is the cuticle essential to touch? + +34. Can one tickle himself? + +35. Why does a bitter taste often produce vomiting? + +36. Is there any danger in looking "crosseyed" for fun? + +37. Should schoolroom desks face a window? + +38. Why do we look at a person to whom we are listening attentively? + +39. Do we really feel with our fingers? + +40. Is the eye a perfect sphere? (See Fig. 61.) + +41. How often do we wink? + +42. Why is the interior of a telescope or microscope often painted black? + +43. What is "the apple of the eye"? + +44. What form of glasses do old people require? + +45. Should we ever wash our ears with cold water? + +46. What is the object of the winding passages in the nose? + +47. Can a smoker tell in the dark, whether or not his cigar is lighted? + +48. Will a nerve reunite after it has been cut? + +49. Will the sight give us an idea of solidity? [Footnote: A case occurred +a few years ago, in London, where a friend of my own performed an +operation upon a young woman who had been born blind, and, though an +attempt had been made in early years to cure her, it had failed. She was +able just to distinguish large objects, the general shadow, as it were, +without any distinct perception of form, and to distinguish light from +darkness. She could work well with her needle by the touch, and could use +her scissors and bodkin and other implements by the training of her hand, +so to speak, alone Well, my friend happened to see her, and he examined +her eyes, and told her that he thought he could get her sight restored; at +any rate, it was worth a trial. The operation succeeded; and, being a man +of intelligence and quite aware of the interest of such a case, he +carefully studied and observed it; and he completely confirmed all that +had been previously laid down by the experience of similar cases. There +was one little incident which will give you an idea of the education which +is required for what you would suppose is a thing perfectly simple and +obvious. She could not distinguish by sight the things that she was +perfectly familiar with by the touch, at least when they were first +presented to her eyes. She could not recognize even a pair of scissors. +Now, you would have supposed that a pair of scissors, of all things in the +world, having been continually used by her, and their form having become +perfectly familiar to her hands, would have been most readily recognized +by her sight; and yet she did not know what they were; she had not an idea +until she was told, and then she laughed, as she said, at her own +stupidity. No stupidity at all; she had never learned it, and it was one +of those things which she could not know without learning. One of the +earliest cases of this kind was related by the celebrated Cheselden, a +surgeon of the early part of last century. Cheselden relates how a youth +just in this condition had been accustomed to play with a cat and a dog; +but for some time after he attained his sight he never could tell which +was which, and used to be continually making mistakes. One day, being +rather ashamed of himself for having called the cat the dog, he took up +the cat in his arms and looked at her very attentively for some time +stroking her all the while; and in this way he associated the impression +derived from the touch, and made himself master (so to speak) of the whole +idea of the animal. He then put the cat down, saying: "Now, puss, I shall +know you another time."--CARPENTER.] + +50. Why can a skillful surgeon determinate the condition of the brain and +other internal organs by examining the interior of the eye? [Footnote: +This is done by means of an instrument called the ophthalmoscope. Light is +thrown into the eye with a concave mirror, and the interior of the organ +examined with a lens.] + +51. Is there any truth in the idea that the image of the murderer can be +seen in the eye of the dead victim? + +52. What is the length of the optic nerve? _Ans_. About three fourths +of an inch. + +53. Why does an injury to one eye generally affect the other eye? +_Ans_. The optic nerves give off no branches in passing from their +origin in two ganglia situated between the cerebrum and the cerebellum, +and their termination in the eyeballs; but, in the middle of their course, +they _decussate_, or unite in one mass. The fibers of the two nerves +here pass from side to side, and intermingle. The two ganglia are also +united directly by fibers. Thus the eyes are not really separate organs of +sight, but a kind of double organ to perform, a single function. + + + + +IX. + + +HEALTH AND DISEASE.--DEATH AND DECAY. + +"Health is the vital principle of bliss." + +THOMSON. + +"There are three wicks to the lamp of a man's life: brain, blood, and +breath. Press the brain a little, its light goes out, followed by both the +others. Stop the heart a minute, and out go all three of the wicks. Choke +the air out of the lungs, and presently the fluid ceases to supply the +other centers of flame, and all is soon stagnation, cold, and darkness." + +O. W. HOLMES. + +"Calmly he looked on either Life, and here +Saw nothing to regret, or there to fear; +From Nature's temp'rate feast rose satisfy'd, +Thank'd Heaven that he had lived, and that he died." + +POPE. + +HEALTH AND DISEASE.--DEATH AND DECAY. + +VALUE OF HEALTH.--The body is the instrument which the mind uses. If it be +dulled or nicked, the effect of the best labor will be impaired. The +grandest gifts of mind or fortune are comparatively valueless unless there +be a healthy body to use and enjoy them. The beggar, sturdy and brave with +his outdoor life, is really happier than the rich man in his palace with +the gout to twinge him amid his pleasures. The day has gone by when +delicacy is considered an element of beauty. Weakness is timid and +irresolute; strength is full of force and energy. Weakness walks or +creeps; strength speeds the race, wins the goal, and rejoices in the +victory. + +FALSE IDEAS OF DISEASE.--It was formerly supposed that diseases were +caused by evil spirits, who entered the body, and deranged its action. +Incantations, spells, etc., were resorted to in order to drive them out. +By others, disease was thought to come arbitrarily, or as a special +visitation of an overruling power. Hence, it was to be removed by fasting +and prayer. Modern science teaches us that disease is not a thing, but a +state. When our food is properly assimilated, the waste matter promptly +excreted, and all the organs work in harmony, we are well; when any +derangement of these functions occurs, we are sick. Sickness is discord, +as health is concord. If we abuse or misuse any instrument, we impair its +ability to produce a perfect harmony. A suffering body is simply the +penalty of violated law. + +PREVENTION OF DISEASE.--Doubtless a large proportion of the ills which now +afflict and rob us of so much time and pleasure might easily be avoided. A +proper knowledge and observance of hygienic laws would greatly lessen the +number of such diseases as consumption, catarrh, gout, rheumatism, +dyspepsia, etc. There are parts of England where one half the children die +before they are five years old. Every physiologist knows that at least +nine tenths of these lives could be saved by an observance of the simple +laws of health. Professor Bennet, in a lecture at Edinburgh, estimated +that one hundred thousand persons die annually in Great Britain from +causes easily preventable. + +With the advance of science, the causes of many diseases have been +determined. Vaccination has been found to prevent or mitigate the ravages +of smallpox. Scurvy, formerly so fatal among sailors that it was deemed "a +mysterious infliction of Divine Justice against which man strives in +vain," is now entirely avoided by the use of vegetables or lime juice. +Cholera, whose approach still strikes dread, and for which there is no +known specific, is but the penalty for filthy streets, bad drainage, and +overcrowded tenements, and may be controlled, if not prevented, by +suitable sanitary measures. It was, no doubt, the intention that we should +wear out by the general decay of all the organs, [Footnote: So long as the +phenomena of waste and repair are in harmony--so long, in other words, as +the builder follows the scavenger--so long man exists in integrity and +repair--just, indeed, as houses exist. Derange nutrition, and at once +degeneration, or rather let us say, alteration begins. Alas! that we are +so ignorant that there are many things about our house, which, seeing +them, weaken, we know not how to strengthen. About the brick and the +mortar, the frame and the rafters, we are not unlearned; but within are +many complexities, many chinks and crannies, full in themselves of +secondary chinks and crannies, and these so small, so deep, so recessed, +that it happens every day that the destroyer settles himself in some place +so obscure, that, while he kills, he laughs at defiance. You or I meet +with an accident in our watch. We consult the watchmaker, and he repairs +the injury. If we were all that watchmakers, like ourselves, should be, a +man could be made to keep time until he died from old age or annihilating +accident. This I firmly and fully believe.--_Odd Hours of a +Physician_.] rather than by the giving out of any single part, and that +all should work together harmoniously until the vital force is exhausted. + +CURE OF DISEASE.--The first step in the cure of any disease is to obey the +law of health which has been violated. If medicine be taken, it is not to +destroy the disease, since that is not a thing to be destroyed, but to +hold the deranged action in check while nature repairs the injury, and +again brings the system into harmonious movement. This tendency of nature +is our chief reliance. The best physicians are coming to have diminished +confidence in medicine itself, and to place greater dependence upon +sanitary and hygienic measures, and upon the efforts which nature always +makes to repair injuries and soothe disordered action. They endeavor only +to give to nature a fair chance, and sometimes to assist her by the +intelligent employment of proper medicines. The indiscriminate use of +patent nostrums and sovereign remedies of whose constituents we know +nothing, and by which powerful drugs are imbibed at haphazard, can not be +too greatly deprecated. When one needs medicine, he needs also a competent +physician to advise its use. + +DEATH AND DECAY.--By a mystery we can not understand, life is linked with +death, and out of the decay of our bodies they, day by day, spring afresh. +At last the vital force which has held death and decay in bondage, and +compelled them to minister to our growth, and to serve the needs of our +life, faints and yields the struggle. These powers which have so long time +been our servants, gather about our dying couch, and their last offices +usher us into the new life and the grander possibilities of the world to +come. This last birth, we who see the fading, not the dawning, life, call +death. + +"O Father! grant Thy love divine, +To make these mystic temples Thine, +When wasting age and wearying strife +Have sapp'd the leaning walls of life; +When darkness gathers over all, +And the last tottering pillars fall, +Take the poor dust Thy mercy warms, +And mold it into heavenly forms." + +HOLMES. + +HINTS ABOUT THE SICK ROOM + +A SICK ROOM should be the lightest and cheeriest in the house. A small, +close, dark bedroom or a recess is bad enough for one in health, but +unendurable for a sick person. In a case of fever, and in many acute +diseases, it should be remote from the noise of the family; but when one +is recovering from an accident, and in all attacks where quiet is not +needed, the patient may be where he can amuse himself by watching the +movements of the household, or looking out upon the street. + +_The ventilation must be thorough._ Bad air will poison both the sick +and the well. A fireplace is, therefore, desirable. Windows should open +easily. By carefully protecting the patient with extra blankets, the room +may be frequently aired. If there be no direct draught, much may be done +to change the air, by simply swinging an outer door to and fro many times. + +A bare floor, with strips of carpet here and there to deaden noise, is +cleanest, and keeps the air freest from dust. Cane-bottomed chairs are +preferable to upholstered ones. All unnecessary furniture should be +removed out of the way. A straw bed or a mattress is better than feathers. +The bed hangings, lace curtains, etc., should be taken down. Creaking +hinges should be oiled. Sperm candles are better than kerosene lamps. + +_Never whisper in a sick room._ All necessary conversation should be +carried on in the usual tone of voice. Do not call a physician +unnecessarily, but if one be employed, _obey his directions +implicitly_. Never give nostrums overofficious friends may suggest. Do +not allow visitors to see the patient, except it be necessary. Never +bustle about the room, nor go on tiptoe, but move in a quiet, ordinary +way. Do not keep the bottles in the continued sight of the sick person. +Never let drinking water stand in the room. + +Do not raise the patient's head to drink, but have a cup with a long +spout, or use a bent tube, or even a straw. Do not tempt the appetite when +it craves no food. Bathe frequently, but let the physician prescribe the +method. Give written directions to the watchers. Have all medicines +carefully marked. Remove all soiled clothing, etc., at once from the room. +Change the linen much oftener than in health. When you wish to change the +sheets, and the patient is unable to rise, roll the under sheet tightly +lengthwise to the middle of the bed; put on the clean sheet, with half its +width folded up, closely to the other roll; lift the patient on to the +newly-made part, remove the soiled sheet, and then spread oat the clean +one. + +DISINFECTANTS. + +Remember, first, that deodorizers and disinfectants are not the same. A +bad smell, for instance, may be smothered by some more powerful odor, +while its cause remains uninfluenced. Bear also in mind the fact that no +deodorizer and no disinfectant can take the place of perfect cleanliness +and thorough ventilation. No purifyer can rival the oxygen contained in +strong and continued currents of fresh, cold air, and every disinfectant +finds an indispensable ally in floods of scalding water. + +An excellent disinfectant may be made by dissolving in a pail of water +either of the following: (1), a quarter of a pound of sulphate of zinc and +two ounces of common salt for each gallon of water; (2), a pound and a +half of copperas, for each gallon of water. Towels, bed linen, +handkerchiefs, etc., should be soaked at least an hour, in a solution of +the first kind, and then be boiled, before washing. [Footnote: It is +_best_ to burn all articles which have been in contact with persons +sick with contagious or infectious diseases. + +In using the zinc solution, place the articles in it as soon as they are +removed from the patient, and before they are taken from the room; if +practicable, have the solution boiling hot at the time. In fumigating +apartments, all the openings should be made as nearly air-tight as +possible. The articles to be included in the fumigation should be so +exposed and spread out that the sulphurous vapor may penetrate every +portion of them. For a room about ten feet square, at least two pounds of +sulphur should be used; for larger rooms, proportionally increased +quantities. Put the sulphur in iron pans supported upon bricks placed in +washtubs containing a little water, set it on fire by hot coals or with +the aid of a spoonful of alcohol, or by a long fuse set on train as the +last opening to the room is closed. Allow the apartment to remain sealed +for twenty-four hours. Great care should be taken not to inhale the +poisonous fumes in firing the sulphur. After the fumigation, allow free +currents of air to pass through the apartment; expose all movable articles +for as long time as may be to the sun and the wind out of doors; beat and +shake the carpets, hangings, pillows, etc. + +The disinfectants and the instructions for using them, as given above, are +mainly those recommended by the National Board of Health.] Vaults, drains, +vessels used in the sick room, etc., should be disinfected by a solution +of the second kind; chloride of lime may also be used for the same +purpose. Rooms, furniture, and articles that can not be treated with the +solution of the first kind, should be thoroughly fumigated with burning +sulphur. Where walls are unpapered, re-whitewash with pure, freshly +slacked quicklime, adding one pint of the best fluid carbolic acid to +every gallon of the fluid whitewash. Powdered stone lime sprinkled on +foul, wet places, or placed in pans in damp rooms, will absorb the +moisture; and dry, fresh charcoal powder may be combined with it to absorb +noxious gases. + +WHAT TO DO TILL THE DOCTOR COMES. + +The following instructions are intended simply to aid in an emergency. +When accidents or a sudden severe illness occur, there is necessarily, in +most cases, a longer or shorter interval before a physician can arrive. +These moments are often very precious, and life may depend upon a little +knowledge and much self-possession. The instructions are therefore given +as briefly as possible, that they may be easily carried in the memory. A +few suggestions in regard to common ailments are included. + +BURNS.--When a person's clothes catch fire, quickly lay him on the ground, +wrap him in a coat, mat, shawl, carpet, or in his own garments, as best +you can to extinguish the flame. Pour on plenty of water till the half- +burned clothing is cooled. Then carry the sufferer to a warm room, lay him +on a table or a carpeted floor, and with a sharp knife or scissors remove +his clothing. + +The treatment of a burn consists in protecting from the air. [Footnote: It +is a great mistake to suppose that salves will "draw out the fire" of a +burn, or heal a bruise or cut. The vital force must unite the divided +tissue by the deposit of material and the formation of new cells.] An +excellent remedy is to apply soft cloths kept wet with sweet oil, or with +tepid water _which contains all the "cooking soda" that it will +dissolve_. Afterward dress the wound with carbolic acid salve. Wrap a +dry bandage upon the outside. Then remove the patient to a bed and cover +warmly. [Footnote: In case of a large burn, lose no delay in bringing a +physician. If a burn be near a joint or on the face, even if small, let a +doctor see it, and do not be in any hurry about having it healed. Remember +that with all the care and skill which can be used, contractions will +sometimes take place. The danger to life from a burn or scald is not in +proportion to its severity, but to its extent--that is, a small part, such +as a hand or a foot, may be burned so deeply as to cripple it for life, +and yet not much endanger the general health; but a slight amount of +burning, a mere scorching, over two thirds of the body, may prove fatal.-- +HOPE.] Apply cool water to a small burn till the smart ceases, and then +cover with ointment. Do not remove the dressings until they become stiff +and irritating; then take them from a part at a time; dress and cover +again quickly. + +CUTS, WOUNDS, ETC.--The method of stopping the bleeding has been described +on page 128. If an artery is severed, a physician should be called at +once. If the bleeding is not profuse, apply cold water until it ceases, +dry the skin, draw the edges of the wound together, and secure them by +strips of adhesive plaster. Protect with an outer bandage. This dressing +should remain for several days. In the meantime wet it frequently with +cool water to subdue inflammation. When suppuration begins, wash +occasionally with tepid water and Castile soap. + +Dr. Woodbridge, of New York, in a recent address, gave the following +directions as to "What to do in case of a sudden wound when the surgeon is +not at hand." "An experienced person would naturally close the lips of the +wound as quickly as possible, and apply a bandage. If the wound is +bleeding freely, but no artery is spouting blood, the first thing to be +done is to wash it with water at an ordinary temperature. To every pint of +water add either five grains of corrosive sublimate, or two and a half +teaspoonfuls of carbolic acid. If the acid is used, add two tablespoonfuls +of glycerine, to prevent its irritating the wound. If there is neither of +these articles in the house, add four tablespoonfuls of borax to the +water. Wash the wound, close it, and apply a compress of a folded square +of cotton or linen. Wet it in the solution used for washing the wound and +bandage quickly and firmly. If the bleeding is profuse, a sponge dipped in +very hot water and wrung out in a dry cloth should be applied as quickly +as possible. If this is not available, use ice, or cloths wrung out in ice +water. If a large vein or artery is spouting, it must be stopped at once +by compression. This may be done by a rubber tube wound around the arm +tightly above the elbow or above the knee, where the pulse is felt to +beat; or an improvised 'tourniquet' may be used. A hard apple or a stone +is placed in a folded handkerchief, and rolled firmly in place. This +bandage is applied so that the hard object rests on the point where the +artery beats, and is then tied loosely around the arm. A stick is thrust +through the loose bandage and turned till the flow of blood ceases." + +BLEEDING FROM THE NOSE is rarely dangerous, and often beneficial. When it +becomes necessary to stop it, sit upright and compress the nostrils +between the thumb and forefinger, or with the thumb press upward upon the +upper lip. A piece of ice, a snowball, or a compress wet with cold water +may be applied to the back of the neck. + +A SPRAIN [Footnote: "A sprain," says Dr. Hope, in that admirable little +book entitled _Till the Doctor comes and How to help Him_, "is a very +painful and very serious thing. When you consider that from the tips of +the fingers to the wrist, or from the ends of the toes to the leg, there +are not less than thirty separate bones, all tied together with straps, +cords, and elastic bands, and about twenty hinges, all to be kept in good +working order, you will not wonder at sprains being frequent and sometimes +serious."] is often more painful and dangerous than a dislocation. Wrap +the injured part in flannels wrung out of hot water, and cover with a dry +bandage, or, better, with oiled silk. Liniments and stimulating +applications are injurious in the first stages, but useful when the +inflammation is subdued. _Do not let the limb hang down, keep the joint +still_. Without attention to these points, no remedies are likely to be +of much service. A sprained limb must be kept quiet, even after all pain +has ceased. If used too soon, dangerous consequences may ensue. Many +instances have been known in which, from premature use of an injured limb, +the inflammation has been renewed and made chronic, the bones at the joint +have become permanently diseased, and amputation has been necessitated. + +DIARRHEA, CHOLERA MORBUS, ETC., are often caused by eating indigestible or +tainted food, such as unripe or decaying fruit, or stale vegetables; or by +drinking impure water or poisoned milk (see p. 321). Sometimes the +disturbance may be traced to a checking of the perspiration; but more +frequently to peculiar conditions of the atmosphere, especially in large +cities. Such diseases are most prevalent in humid weather, when the days +are hot and the nights cold and moist. Especial attention should at such +times be paid to the diet. If an attack comes on, ascertain, if possible, +its cause. You can thereby aid your physician, and, if the cause be +removable, can protect the rest of the household. If the limbs are cold, +take a hot bath, followed by a thorough rubbing. Then go to bed and lie +quietly on the back. In ordinary cases, rest is better than medicine. If +there be pain, have flannels wrung out of hot water applied to the +abdomen. [Footnote: If it be difficult to manage the foments, lay a hot +plate over the flannels and cover with some protection. By having a change +of hot plates, the foments can be kept at a uniform high temperature. This +plan will be found useful in all cases where foments are needed.] A +mustard poultice will serve the same purpose if more convenient. Eat no +fruit, vegetables, pastry, or pork. Use water sparingly. If much thirst +exist, give small pieces of ice, or limited quantities of cold tea or +toast water. Take particular pains with the diet for some days after the +bowel irritation has ceased. + +CROUP.--There are two kinds of croup--true and false. True croup comes on +gradually, and is less likely to excite alarm than false croup, which +comes on suddenly. True croup is attended with fever and false membrane in +the throat; false croup is not attended with fever or false membrane. True +croup is almost always fatal in four or five days; false croup recovers, +but is liable to come on again. The great majority of cases of the so- +called croup are simply cases of spasm of the glottis. "Croupy children" +are those who are liable to these attacks of false croup, which are most +frequent during the period of teething.--DR. GEO. M. BEARD. Croup occurs +commonly in children between the ages of two and seven years. At this +period, if a child has a hollow cough, with more or less fever, flushed +face, red watery eyes, and especially _if it have a hoarse voice, and +show signs of uneasiness about the throat_, send at once for a doctor. +Induce mild vomiting by doses of syrup of ipecac. Put the feet in a hot +mustard-and-water bath. Apply hot fomentations, rapidly renewed, to the +chest and throat. A "croupy" child should be carefully shielded from all +physical excitation, sudden waking from sleep, and any punishment that +tends to awaken intense fear or terror. Irritation of the air passages +through faulty swallowing in drinking hastily, should be guarded against. +Good pure air, warm clothing, and a nourishing diet are indispensable. + +COMMON SORE THROAT.--Wrap the neck in a wet bandage, and cover with +flannel or a clean woolen stocking. Gargle the throat frequently with a +solution of a teaspoonful of salt in a pint of water, or thirty grains of +chlorate of potash in a wineglass of water. + +FITS, APOPLEXY, EPILEPSY, ETC.--These call for immediate action and prompt +medical attendance. Children who are teething, or troubled with intestinal +worms, or from various causes, are sometimes suddenly seized with +convulsions. Apply cloths wet in cold water--or, better still, ice wrapped +in oiled silk--to the head, and _especially to the back of the neck_, +taking care, however, that the ice or wet cloths do not remain too long. +Apply mustard plasters to the stomach and legs. A full hot bath is +excellent if the cold applications fail. Endeavor to induce vomiting. Seek +to determine the cause, and consult with your physician for further +guidance. + +Apoplexy may be distinguished from a fainting fit by the red face, hot +skin, and labored breathing; whereas, in a faint, the face and lips lose +color, and the skin becomes cold. In many cases, death follows so quickly +upon an apoplectic seizure, that little effectual service can be given. +Call the nearest physician, loosen the clothing, and raise the head and +shoulders, taking care not to bend the head forward on the neck. Keep the +head cool. Do not move the patient unnecessarily. + +In a common fainting fit, give the patient as much air as possible. Lay +him flat upon the floor or ground, and keep the crowd away. + +All that can be done in a fit of epilepsy is to prevent the patient from +injuring himself; especially put something in his mouth to keep him from +biting his tongue. A cork, a piece of India rubber, or even a tightly- +rolled handkerchief, placed between the teeth will answer this purpose. +Give the sufferer fresh air; loosen his clothing, and place him in a +comfortable position. Epilepsy may be due to various causes,--improper +diet, overexcitement, etc. Consult with a physician, and study to avoid +the occasion. + +CONCUSSION OF THE BRAIN generally arises from some contusion of the head, +from violent blows, or from a shock received by the whole body in +consequence of falling from a height. In any case of injury to the head +where insensibility ensues, a doctor should be called at once. Remove the +patient to a quiet room; loosen his clothing; strive to restore +circulation by gentle friction, using the hand or a cloth for this +purpose; apply cold water to the head, and, if the patient's body be cold +and his skin clammy, put hot bottles at his feet. Ammonia may be +cautiously held to the nose. Beyond this, it is not safe for a non- +professional to go, in case of a severe injury to the head. Concussion is +more or less serious, according to the injury which the brain has +sustained; but even in slight cases, when a temporary dizziness appears to +be the only result, careful treatment should be observed both at the time +of the injury and afterward. Cases of head injury are often more grave in +their consequences than in their immediate symptoms. Sometimes the patient +appears to be getting better when really he is worse. Rest and quiet +should be observed for several weeks after an accident which has in any +way affected the brain. + +TOOTHACHE AND EARACHE.--Insert in the hollow tooth cotton wet with +laudanum, spirits of camphor, or chloroform. When the nerve is exposed, +wet it with creosote or carbolic acid. Hot cloths or a hot brick wrapped +in cloth and held to the face will often relieve the toothache. In a +similar manner treat the ear, wetting the cloth in hot water, and letting +the vapor pass into the ear. + +CHOKING.--Ordinarily a smart blow between the shoulders, causing a +compression of the chest and a sudden expulsion of the air from the lungs, +will throw out the offending substance. If the person can swallow, and the +object be small, give plenty of bread or potato, and water to wash it +down. Press upon the tongue with a spoon, when, perhaps, you may see the +object, and draw it out with your thumb and finger, or a blunt pair of +scissors. If neither of these remedies avail, give an emetic of syrup of +ipecac or mustard and warm water. + +FROSTBITES are frequently so sudden that one is not aware when they occur. +In Canada it is not uncommon for persons meeting in the street to say, +"Mind, sir, your nose looks whitish." The blood cools and runs slowly, and +the blood vessels become choked and swollen. _Keep from the heat_. +Rub the part quickly with snow, if necessary for hours, till the natural +color is restored. If one is benumbed with cold, take him into a cold +room, remove the wet clothes, rub the body dry, cover with blankets, and +give a little warm tea or other suitable drink. On recovering, let him be +brought to a fire gradually. [Footnote: If you are caught in a snowstorm, +look for a snow bank in the lee of a hill, or a wood out of the wind, or a +hollow in the plain filled with snow. Scrape out a hole big enough to +creep into, and the drifting snow will keep you warm. Men and animals have +been preserved after days of such imprisonment. Remember that if you give +way to sleep in the open field, you will never awake.] + +FEVERS, and many acute diseases, are often preceded by a loss of appetite, +headache, shivering, "pains in the bones," indisposition to work, etc. In +such cases, sponge with tepid water, and rub the body till all aglow. Go +to bed, place hot bricks to the feet, take nothing but a little gruel or +beef tea, and drink moderately of warm, cream-of-tartar water. If you do +not feel better the next morning, call a physician. If that be impossible, +take a dose of castor oil or Epsom salts. + +SUNSTROKE is a sudden prostration caused by intense heat. The same effect +is produced by the burning rays of the sun and the fierce fire of a +furnace. When a person falls under such circumstance, place your hand on +his chest. If the skin be cool and moist, it is not a sunstroke; but if it +be dry and "biting hot," there can be no mistake. Time is now precious. At +once carry the sufferer to the nearest pump or hydrant, and dash cold +water on the head and chest until consciousness is restored.--DR. H. C. +WOOD. + +To prevent sunstroke, wear a porous hat, and in the top of it place a wet +handkerchief; also drink freely of water, not ice cold, to induce abundant +perspiration. + +ASPHYXIA, or apparent death, whether produced by drowning, suffocation, +bad air, or coal gas, requires very similar treatment. Send immediately +for blankets, dry clothing, and a physician. Treat upon the spot, if the +weather be not too unfavorable. + +1. Loosen the clothing about the neck and chest, separate the jaws, and +place between them a cork or bit of wood. + +2. Turn the patient on his face, place his arm under his forehead to raise +the head, and press heavily with both hands upon the ribs to squeeze out +the water. + +3. Place the patient on his back, wipe out the mouth and nostrils, and +secure the tongue from falling backward over the throat. Kneel at his +head, grasp his arms firmly above the elbows, and pull them gently upward +until they meet over the head, in order to draw air into the lungs; +reverse this movement to expel the air. Repeat the process about fifteen +times per minute. Alternate pressure upon the chest, and blowing air into +the mouth through a quill or with a pair of bellows, may aid your efforts. +Use snuff or smelling salts, or pass hartshorn under the nose. Do not lose +hope quickly. Life has been restored after five hours of suspended +animation. [Footnote: Another simple method of artificial respiration is +described in the _British Medical Journal_. The body of the patient +is laid on the back, with clothes loosened, and the mouth and nose wiped; +two bystanders pass their right hands under the body at the level of the +waist, and grasp each other's hand, then raise the body until the tips of +the fingers and the toes of the subject alone touch the ground; count +fifteen rapidly; then lower the body flat to the ground, and press the +elbows to the side hard; count fifteen again; then raise the body again +for the same length of time; and so on, alternately raising and lowering. +The head, arms, and legs are to be allowed to dangle down freely when the +body is raised.] + +4. When respiration is established, wrap the patient in dry, warm clothes, +and rub the limbs under the blankets or over the dry clothing +energetically _toward the heart_. Apply heated flannels, bottles of +hot water, etc., to the limbs, and mustard plasters [Footnote: The best +mustard poultice is the paper plaster now sold by every druggist. It is +always ready, and can be carried by a traveler. It has only to be dipped +in water, and applied at once.] to the chest. + +FOREIGN BODIES IN THE EAR.--Insects may be killed by dropping a little +sweet oil into the ear. Beans peas, etc., may generally be removed by so +holding the head that the affected ear will be toward the ground, and then +_cautiously_ syringing tepid water into it from below. Do not use +much force lest the tympanum be injured. If this fail, dry the ear, stick +the end of a little linen swab into thick glue, let the patient lie on one +side, put this into the ear until it touches the substance, keep it there +three quarters of an hour while it hardens, and then draw them all out +together. Be careful that the glue does not touch the skin at any point, +and that you are at work upon the right ear. Children often deceive one as +to the ear which is affected. + +FOREIGN BODIES IN THE NOSE, such as beans, cherry pits, etc., may +frequently be removed by closing the opposite nostril, and then blowing +into the child's mouth forcibly. The air, unable to escape except through +the affected nostril, will sweep the obstruction before it. + +ANTIDOTES TO POISONS. + +ACIDS: _Nitric_ (aqua fortis), _hydrochloric_ (muriatic), +_sulphuric_ (oil of vitriol), _oxalic_, etc.--Drink a little +water to weaken the acid, or, still better, take strong soapsuds. Stir +some magnesia in water, and drink freely. If the magnesia be not at hand, +use chalk, soda, lime, whiting, soap, or even knock a piece of plaster +from the wall, and scraping off the white outside coat pound it fine, mix +with milk or water, and drink at once. Follow with warm water, or flaxseed +tea. + +ALKALIES: _Potash, soda, lye, ammonia_ (hartshorn).--Drink weak +vinegar or lemon juice. Follow with castor or linseed oil, or thick cream. + +ANTIMONY: _Antimonial wine, tartar emetic_, etc.--Drink strong, green +tea, and in the meantime chew the dry leaves. The direct antidote is a +solution of nutgall or oak bark. + +ARSENIC: _Cobalt, Scheele's green, fly powder, ratsbane_, etc.--Give +_plenty of milk, whites of eggs_, or induce vomiting by mustard and +warm water; [Footnote: See that the mustard is well mixed with the water, +in the proportion of about half an ounce of the former to a pint of the +latter.] or even soapsuds. + +BITE OF A SNAKE OR A MAD DOG.--Tie a bandage above the wound, if on a +limb. Wash the bite thoroughly, and, if possible, let the person suck it +strongly. Rub some lunar caustic or potash in the wound, or heat the point +of a small poker or a steel sharpener white hot, and press it into the +bite for a moment. It will scarcely cause pain, and will be effectual in +arresting the absorption of the poison, unless a vein has been struck. + +COPPER: _Sulphate of copper_ (blue vitriol), _acetate of copper_ +(verdigris).--Take whites of eggs or soda. Use milk freely. + +LAUDANUM: _Opium, paregoric, soothing cordial, soothing syrup_, etc. +--Give an emetic at once of syrup of ipecac, or mustard and warm water, +etc. After vomiting, use strong coffee freely. _Keep the patient +awake_ by pinching, pulling the hair, walking about, dashing water in +the face, and any expedient possible. + +LEAD: _White lead, acetate of lead_ (sugar of lead), _red +lead_.--Give an emetic of syrup of ipecac, or mustard and warm water, +or salt and water. Follow with a dose of Epsom salts. + +MATCHES: _Phosphorus_.--Give magnesia, chalk, whiting, or even flour +in water, and follow with mucilaginous drinks. + +MERCURY: _Calomel, chloride of mercury_ (corrosive sublimate, bug +poison), _red precipitate_.--Drink milk copiously. Take the whites of +eggs, or stir flour in water, and use freely. + +NITRATE OF SILVER (lunar caustic).--Give salt and water, and follow with +castor oil. + +NITRATE OF POTASH (saltpeter, niter).--Give mustard and warm water, or +syrup of ipecac. Follow with flour and water, and cream or sweet oil. + +PRUSSIC ACID (oil of bitter almonds), _cyanide of potassium_.--Take a +teaspoonful of hartshorn in a pint of water. Apply smelling salts to the +nose, and dash cold water in the face. + +STING OF AN INSECT.--Apply a little hartshorn or spirits of camphor, or +soda moistened with water, or a paste of clean earth and saliva. + +SULPHATE OF IRON (green vitriol).--Give syrup of ipecac, or mustard and +warm water, or any convenient emetic; then magnesia and water. + + + + +X. + + +SELECTED READINGS + +TO ILLUSTRATE AND SUPPLEMENT THE TEXT. + +_Arranged in order of the subjects to which they refer_. + +"Read not to contradict and confute, nor to believe and take for granted, +nor to find talk and discourse, but to weigh, and consider." + +LORD BACON. + +"He who learns the rules of wisdom without conforming to them in his life, +is like a man who labored in his fields but did not sow." + +SAADI. + +SELECTED READINGS. + +_The figures indicate the pages in the text upon which the corresponding +subjects will be found_. + +THE SKELETON. + +MAN, AS COMPARED WITH OTHER VERTEBRATE ANIMALS (p. 3).--Man, the lord of +the animal kingdom, is constructed after the same type as the cat that +purrs at his feet, the ox that he eats, the horse that bears his burden, +the bird that sings in his cage, the snake that crawls across his pathway, +the toad that hides in his garden, and the fish that swims in his +aquarium. All these are but modifications of one creative thought, showing +how the Almighty Worker delights in repeating the same chord, with +infinite variations. There are marked physical peculiarities, however, +which distinguish man from the other mammals. Thus, the position of the +spinal opening in the middle third of the base of the skull, thereby +balancing the head and admitting an upright posture; the sigmoid S-curve +of the vertebral column; the ability of opposing the well-developed thumb +to the fingers; the shortened foot, the sole resting flat on the ground; +the size and position of the great toe; the length of the arms, reaching +halfway from the hip to the knees; the relatively great development of the +brain; the freedom of the anterior extremities from use in locomotion, and +the consequent erect and biped position. In addition, man is the only +mammal that truly walks; that is endowed with the power of speech; and +that is cosmopolitan, readily adapting himself to extremes of heat and +cold, and making his home in all parts of the globe.--STEELE'S _Popular +Zoology_. + +FIG. 68. + +[Illustration: _Skeleton of Orang, Chimpanzee, and Man._] + +UNION OF FRACTURES (p. 8).--In the course of a week after a fracture, +there is a soft yet firm substance, something between ligament and +cartilage in consistence, which surrounds the broken extremities of the +bone, and adheres to it above and below. The neighboring muscles and +tendons are closely attached to its surface, and the fractured extremities +of the bone lie, as it were, loose in a cavity in the center, with a small +quantity of vascular albumen, resembling a semitransparent jelly. + +Here, then, is a kind of splint which nature contrives, and which is +nearly completed within a week from the date of the accident. We call this +new formation the _callus_. This process goes on, the surrounding +substance becoming thicker and of still firmer consistence. In the course +of a few days more, the thin jelly which lay in contact with the broken +ends of the bone has disappeared, and its place is supplied by a callus +continuous with that which formed the original capsule. This is the +termination of the first stage of curative progress. The broken ends of +the bones are now completely imbedded in a mass of vascular organized +substance or callus, something between gristle and cartilage in +consistence; and as yet there are no traces of bony matter in it. At this +time, if you remove the adventitious substance, you will find the broken +ends of bone retaining exactly their original figure and presenting the +same appearance as immediately after the fracture took place. + +At the end of about three weeks, if you make a section of the callus, +minute specks of earthy matter are visible, deposited in it here and +there, and at the same time some of the callus, appears to disappear on +the outside, so that the neighboring muscles and tendons no longer adhere +to it. The specks of bone become larger and more numerous until they +extend into each other; and thus by degrees the whole of the callus is +converted into bone. Even at this period, however, there is not absolute +bony union, for although the whole of the callus has become bone, it is +not yet identified with the old bone, and you might still pick it off with +a penknife, leaving the broken extremities not materially altered from +what they were immediately after the injury. This may be regarded as the +end of the second stage of the process by which a fracture is repaired. +Now a third series of changes begins to take place. The broken extremities +of the bones become intimately united by bony matter passing from one to +the other. The mass of new bone on the outside, formed by the ossification +of the callus, being no longer wanted, is absorbed; by degrees the whole +of it disappears, and the bone is left having the same dimensions which it +had before the occurrence of the accident. + +The process of union is completed in young persons sooner than in those +advanced in life; in the upper extremities sooner than in the lower; and +in smaller animals more speedily than in man. In human subjects a broken +arm or forearm will be healed in from six to eight weeks, while a leg or +thigh will occupy nine or ten weeks.--SIR B. C. BRODIE. + +FIG. 69. + +[Illustration: FIG. 69. a. _Monkey's Hand and Foot._ b. _Human Hand +and Foot._] + +THE HAND AND THE FOOT (p. 2l).--_Man Compared with the_ _Ape_.-- +The peculiar prehensible power possessed by the hand of man is chiefly +dependent upon the size and power of the thumb, which is more developed in +him than it is in the highest apes. The thumb of the human hand can be +brought into exact opposition to the extremities of all the fingers, +whether singly or in combination; while in those quadrumana which most +nearly approach man, the thumb is so short, and the fingers so much +elongated, that their tips can scarcely be brought into opposition; and +the thumb and the fingers are so weak that they can never be opposed to +each other with any degree of force. Hence, though well suited to cling +round bodies of a certain size, such as the small branches of trees, the +anterior extremities of the quadrumana can neither seize very minute +objects with such precision nor support large ones with such firmness as +are essential to the dexterous performance of a variety of operations for +which the hand of man is admirably adapted. + +The human foot is, in proportion to the size of the whole body, larger, +broader, and stronger than that of any other mammal, save the kangaroo. +The surface of the astragalus (ankle bone) which articulates with the +tibia, looks almost vertically upward, and hardly at all inward, when the +sole is flat upon the ground; and the lateral facets are more nearly at +right angles to this surface than in any ape. The plane of the foot is +directed at right angles to that of the leg; and its sole is concave, so +that the weight of the body falls on the summit of an arch, of which the +os calcis (heel bone) and the metatarsal bones form the two points of +support. This arched form of the foot, and the contact of the whole +plantar surface with the ground, are particularly noticeable in man, most +of the apes having the os calcis small, straight, and more or less raised +from the ground, while they touch, when standing erect, with the outer +side only of the foot. The function of the _hallux_, or great toe, +moreover, is strikingly contrasted in man and the ape; for, while in the +latter it is nearly as opposable as the thumb, and can be used to almost +the same extent as an instrument of prehension, it chiefly serves in the +former to extend the basis of support, and to advance the body in +progression.--DR. W. B. CARPENTER. + +FIG. 70. + +[Illustration: _The Leg in standing._] + +_The Natural Flexibility of the Toes, and How it is Destroyed_.--We +often admire the suppleness of the fingers by means of which we can +perform such a variety of acts with swiftness and delicacy. Did it ever +occur to you that the toes, which in most feet seem incapable of a free +and graceful motion, even when they are not stiffened and absolutely +deformed by the compression of the modern shoe, are also provided by +Nature with a considerable degree of flexibility? The phalanges of the +toes, though more feebly developed, have really the same movements among +themselves as those of the fingers, and, in case of necessity, their +powers can be strengthened and educated to a surprising degree. There are +well-known instances of persons who, born without hands, or having lost +them by accident, have successfully supplied the deficiency by a +cultivated use of their feet. Some of these have distinguished themselves +in the world of art. Who that has been so fortunate as to visit the +Picture Gallery in Antwerp on some fine morning when the armless artist, +M. Felu, was working at his easel, can forget the wonderful dexterity with +which he wielded his brushes, mixed the oils on his palette, and shaded +the colors on his canvas, all with his agile feet? The writer well +remembers the ease and grace with which, at the close of a pleasant +interview, this cultured man put the tip of his foot into his coat pocket, +drew out a visiting card, wrote his name and address upon it, and +presented it to her between his toes! + +Contrast this intelligent adaptation of a delicate physical mechanism with +the barbarous treatment it too commonly receives. The Chinese are at least +consistent. They cripple and distort the feet of their highborn daughters +until they crush out all the power and gracefulness of nature in the +artificial formation of what they term a "golden lily"; but they never +expect these golden-lilied women to make their withered feet useful. With +us, on the contrary, every girl would like to walk well, to display in her +general movements something of the "poetry of motion"; yet the absurd and +arbitrary fashion of our foot gear not only makes an elastic step one of +the rarest of accomplishments, but renders oftentimes the simple act of +walking a painful burden. The calluses, corns, bunions, ingrowing nails, +and repulsive deformities that are caused by and hidden under the narrow- +toed, high-heeled instruments of torture we often wear for fashion's sake +are uncomfortable suggestions that our practices are not greatly in +advance of those of our Celestial sisters. Dowie, a sensible Scotch +shoemaker, satirizes the shape of a fashionable boot as suited only to +"the foot of a goose with the great toe in the middle." The error which +may have led to the adoption of this conventional shape appears to lie in +a misconception of the natural formation of the foot, and of the relation +of the two feet to each other. It is true, that when the toes are covered +with their soft parts, the second toe appears a little longer than the +first, and this appearance, emphasized and exaggerated, is perhaps +responsible for a practical assumption that Nature intended an even-sided, +tapering foot. On the contrary, the natural foot gradually expands in +breadth from the instep to the toes and, in the skeleton itself, the great +toe is the longest. + +"There is no law of beauty," says Dr. Ellis, "which makes it necessary to +reduce the foot to even-sided symmetry. An architect required to provide +more space on one than on the other side of a building would not seek to +conceal or even to minimize the difference; he would seek rather to +accentuate it, and give the two sides of the structure distinctive +features....Moreover, the sense of symmetry is, or ought to be, satisfied +by the exact correspondence of the two feet, which, taken jointly, may be +described as the two halves of an unequally expanded dome."--E. B. S. + +THE MUSCLES. + +ATTACHMENT OF THE MUSCLES TO THE BONES (p. 30).--One of the two bones to +which a muscle is attached is usually less mobile than the other, so that +when the muscle shortens, the latter is drawn down against the former. In +such a case, the point of attachment of the muscle to the less mobile bone +is called its origin, while the point to which it is fixed on the more +mobile bone is called its attachment....A muscle is not always extended +between two contiguous bones. Occasionally, passing over one bone it +attaches itself to the next. This is the case with several muscles which, +originating from the pelvic bone, pass across the upper thigh bone, and +attach themselves to the lower thigh bone. In such cases the muscle is +capable of two different movements: it can either stretch the knee, +previously bent, so that the upper and the lower thigh bones are in a +straight line; or it can raise the whole extended leg yet higher, and +bring it nearer to the pelvis. But the points of origin and of attachment +of muscles may exchange offices. When both legs stand firmly on the +ground, the above-mentioned muscles are unable to raise the thigh; +instead, on shortening, they draw down the pelvis, which now presents the +more mobile point, and thus bend forward the whole upper part of the body. + +One important consequence of the attachment of the muscles to the bones is +the extension thus effected. If the limb of a dead body is placed in the +position which it ordinarily occupied during life, and if one end of a +muscle is then separated from its point of attachment, it draws itself +back, and becomes shorter. The same thing happens during life, as is +observable in the operation of cutting the tendons, as practiced by +surgeons to cure curvatures. The result being the same during life and +after death this phenomenon is evidently due to the action of elasticity. +It thus appears that the muscles are stretched by reason of their +attachment to the skeleton, and that, on account of their elasticity, they +are continually striving to shorten. Now, when several muscles are +attached to one bone in such a way that they pull in opposite directions, +the bone must assume a position in which the tension of all the muscles is +balanced, and all these tensions must combine to press together the +socketed parts with a certain force, thus evidently contributing to the +strength of the socket connection....This balanced position of all the +limbs, which thus depends on the elasticity of the muscles, may be +observed during sleep, for then all active muscular action ceases. It will +be observed that the limbs are then generally slightly bent, so that they +form very obtuse angles to each other. + +Not all muscles are, however, extended between bones. The tendons of some +pass into soft structures, such as the muscles of the face. In this case, +also, the different muscles exercise a mutual power of extension, though +it is but slight, and they thus effect a definite balanced position of the +soft parts, as may be observed in the position of the mouth opening in the +face.--ROSENTHAL, _Muscles and Nerves_. + +MUSCULAR FIBERS (p. 3l).--The anatomical composition of flesh is very +similar in every kind of creature, whether it be the muscle of the ox or +of the fly; that is to say, there are certain tubes which are filled with +minute parts or elements, and the adhesion of the tubes together makes up +the substance of the flesh. These tubes may be represented grossly by +imagining the finger of a glove, to be called the sarcolemma, or muscle- +fiber pouch, and this to be so small as not to be apparent to the naked +eye, but filled with nuclei and the juices peculiar to each animal. +Hundreds of such fingers attached together would represent a bundle of +muscular fibers. The tubes are of fine tissue, but are tolerably +permanent; whilst the contents are in direct communication with the +circulating blood and pursue an incessant course of chemical change and +physical renewal.--EDWARD SMITH, _Foods_. + +FIG. 71. + +[Illustration: _Smooth Muscle Fibers (300 times enlarged)._] + +THE SMOOTH MUSCLE FIBERS consist of long, spindle-shaped cells, the ends +of which are frequently spirally twisted, and in the center of which +exists a long, rod-shaped kernel or nucleus. Unlike striated muscle, they +do not form separate muscular masses, but occur scattered, or arranged in +more or less dense layers or strata, in almost all organs. [Footnote: An +instance of a considerable accumulation of smooth, muscle fibers is +afforded by the muscle pouch of birds, which, with the exception of the +outer and inner skin coverings, consists solely of these fibers collected +in extensive layers.] Arranged in regular order, they very frequently form +widely extending membranes, especially in such tube-shaped structures as +the blood vessels, the intestine, etc., the walls of which are composed of +these smooth muscle fibers. In such cases they are usually arranged in two +layers, one of which consists of ring-shaped fibers surrounding the tube, +while the other consists of fibers arranged parallel to the tube. When, +therefore, these muscle fibers contract, they are able both to reduce the +circumference and to shorten the length of the walls of the tube in which +they occur. This is of great importance in the case of the smaller +arteries, in which the smooth muscle fibers, arranged in the form of a +ring, are able greatly to contract, or even entirely to close the vessels, +thus regulating the current of blood through the capillaries. In other +cases, as in the intestine, they serve to set the contents of the tubes in +motion. In the latter cases the contraction does not take place +simultaneously throughout the length of the tube; but, commencing at one +point, it continually propagates itself along fresh lengths of the tube, +so that the contents are slowly driven forward. + +As a rule, such parts as are provided only with smooth muscle fibers are +not voluntarily movable, while striated muscle fibers are subject to the +will. The latter have, therefore, been also distinguished as voluntary, +the former as involuntary muscles. The heart, however, exhibits an +exception, for, though it is provided with striated muscle fibers, the +will has no direct influence upon it, its motions being exerted and +regulated independently of the will. Moreover, the muscle fibers of the +heart are peculiar in that they are destitute of sarcolemma, the naked +muscle fibers directly touching each other. This is so far interesting +that direct irritations, if applied to some point of the heart, are +transferred to all the other muscle fibers. In addition to this, the +muscle fibers of the heart are branched, but such branched fibers occur +also in other places; for example, in the tongue of the frog, where they +are branched like a tree. Smooth muscle fibers being, therefore, not +subject to the will, are caused to contract, either by local irritation, +such as the pressure of the matter contained within the tubes, or by the +nervous system. The contractions of striated muscle fibers are effected, +in the natural course of organic life, only by the influence of the +nerves.--ROSENTHAL. + +OVEREXERTION AND PERSONAL IMPRUDENCE (p. 40).--Among children there is +little danger of overexertion. When a little child reaches the point of +healthy fatigue, he usually collapses into rest and sleep. But with youth +comes the spirit of ambition and emulation. A lad, for instance, is +determined to win a race, to throw his opponent in a football scramble, to +lift a heavier weight than his strength will warrant; or a girl is +stimulated by the passion she may possess for piano playing, painting, +dancing, or tennis. The moment of exhaustion comes, but the end is not +accomplished, and the will goads on the weary muscles, perhaps to one +supreme effort which terminates in a sharp and sudden illness, perhaps to +days and weeks of continued and incessant application, during which the +whole system is undermined. Thus is laid the foundation for a feeble and +suffering maturity. + +To elderly people, overexertion has peculiar dangers, dependent largely +upon the changes which gradually take place in the tissues of the body. +The walls of the blood vessels become less and less elastic, and more and +more brittle, as life advances, until at last they are ready to give way +from any severe or unusual pressure. We constantly see old people +hastening their death by personal imprudence. An old gentleman running to +catch the morning train; an old farmer hastening to turn the strayed sheep +out of a cornfield; the old sportsman having a last run with the hounds; +the last pull at the oars; the last attempt of old age to play at vigorous +manhood. + +A prominent American physician has said that between the ages of forty and +fifty every wise man will have ceased to run to "catch" trains or street +cars; and that between fifty and sixty he will have permanently discarded +haste of all kinds. Equal precautions should be observed by both young and +old, but especially by those advanced in life, in regard to extremes of +heat, cold, or storm. William Cullen Bryant, by exposing himself to a +scorching sun and refusing to permit a friend to protect him with an +umbrella while delivering an address in Central Park, received injuries to +his system that carried him to his grave. Ralph Waldo Emerson, by standing +in a chilling wind, contracted a cold and died. George Dawson, by going +thoughtlessly into a freezing atmosphere from the sweltering rooms of a +crowded reception, took cold which resulted in pneumonia and death. +Matthew Arnold, for years a sufferer from heart difficulty, in a single +instance neglected the advice of his physician not to indulge in any +violent exercise, made repeated attempts and finally succeeded in jumping +a fence, and in a few hours was a dead man. Roscoe Conkling braved the +most terrible blizzard ever known in the east and sacrificed his life. And +yet, these were all men of exceptional prudence. Probably no other five +persons in the world of like surroundings and vocations were more careful +of their health. In an unguarded moment their prudence left them, and they +paid the terrible penalty.--_Compiled_. + +EFFECTS OF INSUFFICIENT OUTDOOR EXERCISE UPON THE YOUNG (p. 41).--Children +deprived of adequate outdoor exercise are always delicate, pale, and +tender; or, in a figurative sense, they are like the sprig of vegetation +in a dark, dank hole,--bleached and spindling....An inactive indoor life +is one of the most effectual ways of weakening the young body. It renders +the growth unnaturally soft and tender, and thus susceptible to harm from +the slightest causes. It hinders the garnering of strength necessary for a +long life, and gives to the germs of disease a resistless power over an +organization so weak and deficient....Measles, scarlet fever, and +diphtheria find among such a congenial soil, and run riot among the +elements of the body held together by so frail a thread....Such children +are always at the mercy of the weather. Colds and coughs are standard +disorders in winter, headaches and habitual languor in summer....The +scapegoat for this result is the climate: if that was only better, mothers +are sure their children's health would also be better. No, it would not be +better: no earthly climate is good enough to preserve health and strength +under such unnatural training....Children of the laboring classes, often +dirty and imperfectly clad, seldom have colds, simply for the reason that, +for the greater part of the day, they have the freedom of the streets. It +is not the dirt, it is not the rags, _but the life-giving force of an +active outdoor life_ that renders such children so strong and healthy. +--BLACK, _Ten Laws of Health_. + +POPULAR MODES OF OUTDOOR EXERCISE (p. 42).--_Walking_.--Every person +has his own particular step, caused by the conformity, shape, and length +of his bones, and the height of his body. Such a thing, then, as a +regulation step is unnatural, and any attempt at equalizing the step of +individuals of different heights must result in a loss of power. + +The moment, also, that walking comes to be _uphill_, fatigue is +sensibly increased. The center of gravity of the body is changed, and the +muscular force necessary to provide for the change causes the fixing of +the diaphragm, and a rigid condition of many muscles. Respiration is +interfered with, owing to the fixing of the diaphragm, and the heart +becomes affected thereby. A person with a sensitive or diseased heart can, +during a walk, tell when the slightest rise in the ground occurs. We make +climbing more exhausting from the habit we have of suspending the breath. +Let the reader _hold his breath_ and run up twenty-four steps of a +stair, and then perform the same act _breathing freely_ and deeply. +It will be found that by the first act marked breathlessness will be +induced, whereas by the latter the effect is much less. This management of +the breath constitutes the difference between the beginner and the +experienced athlete. The enormous increase of the quantity of air consumed +during exercise will at once bring home a number of lessons. One is, that +exercise is best taken in the open air, and not in gymnasia; another, that +free play to act for the regions of the chest and abdomen must be given. +On no account must a tight belt be worn around the soft-walled abdomen. If +a belt is preferred to braces, let it be applied below the top of the +haunch bone, where the bones can resist the pressure. + +Whatever may be the pastimes indulged in by young men, walking should +never be neglected. The oarsman will become "stale" unless the method of +exercise is varied; the gymnast will develop the upper part of his body, +while his lower extremities will remain spindleshanks. So with all other +forms of exercise; success, in any form of game, sport, or gymnastic +training, can not be attained unless walking be freely taken. + +_Skating_ is simply an exaggerated swinging walk, with this +difference, that the foot on which one rests is not stationary, but moves +along at a rapid rate. The benefit to the circulation, respiration, and +digestion is even greater in skating than in walking. The dangers from +skating are: + +1. The giving way of the ice. Great caution should be used in regard to +the safety of a frozen pond or river. + +2. Taking cold from becoming overheated, and from subsequent inactive +exposure. Physiological knowledge will teach people that, when they begin +to skate, outer wraps should be laid aside, and again put on when skating +is finished. + +3. Sprains, especially of the ankle, and other minor accidents arising +from falls. Ankle boots with strong uppers should be worn during skating. +Those who have weak ankles ought to wear skates with ankle straps and +buckles, acme skates being relegated to those who are not afraid of going +"over their foot." + +_Rowing_.--The muscles employed in rowing may be summed up under two +heads--those that are used in the forward swing, and those used in the +backward. In the _forward_ swing all the joints of the lower +extremity, the hip, knee, and ankle, are flexed; the shoulder is brought +forward; the elbow is straightened; and the wrist is first extended and +then flexed, in feathering the oar. The body is bent forward by the +muscles in front of the abdomen and spinal column. In the _backward_ +movement the reverse takes place; the lower extremity, the hip, knee, and +ankle are straightened; the shoulder is pulled back; the elbow is flexed; +and the wrist is held straight. The body is bent backward by the muscles +at the lower part of the back, and by those of the spine in general. It +will be seen that the enormous number of joints put into use, and the +varying positions employed, call into play nearly every muscle of the +limbs and trunk. Rowing gives more work to the muscles of the back than +any other kind of exercise. This is of the first importance to both men +and women, but especially to women. The chief work of the muscles of the +back is to support the body in the erect position, and the better they are +developed the better will the carriage be, and the less likelihood of +stooping shoulders, contracted chests, and the like. Now, the work of the +muscles in supporting the body is largely relegated in women to the stays, +and, in consequence, the muscles undergo wasting and fatty degeneration, +in fact, atrophy; so that when the stays are left off, the muscles are +unfit to support the body. Rowing exercises these muscles condemned to +waste, and imparts a natural carriage to the girl's frame. In rowing, as +in horseback riding, the clothing should be loose, stays left off, and +flannels worn next the skin. The dress itself should be of woolen, and +there should always be in the boat a large wrap to use when one stops +rowing. The following practical rules should be observed by rowers: + +1. Never row after a full meal. + +2. Stop when fatigue comes on. + +3. _Allow the breath to escape while the oar is in the water_. A +novice usually holds his breath at each stroke, and pulls so rapidly that +in a few minutes he becomes breathless, and is forced to stop. Not only is +this uncomfortable, but it is dangerous. In the case of both young and +old, it may give rise to an abdominal rupture (hernia), dilation of the +cavities of the heart, rupture of a heart valve, varicose veins, etc. +Instead of fixing the diaphragm and holding the breath during the time of +pulling, as novices are apt to do, _do exactly the opposite_. Let the +diaphragm go loose, and allow the breath to escape. + +4. Change the clothing from the skin outward as soon as the day's rowing +is finished. + +5. Before retiring for the night, have a warm bath, temperature 92° Fahr. +This is a specific against the aches and muscular stiffness which often +follow a long pull on the water. + +_Swimming_.--A word of warning is necessary in regard to those +learning to swim in rivers. Boys at school, when they take to river +bathing, often carry it to a dangerous extent. They get into the water, +and now in, now out on the bank, sometimes remain for hours. This may take +place day after day, and if the weather continues warm and the holidays +last long enough, the boy may reduce himself to the lowest ebb of +feebleness, and possibly develop the seeds of latent disease. He may even +die from the effects of this prolonged immersion and madcap exposure. + +The muscular exertion undergone during swimming, especially by those who +swim only occasionally, is very great. The experienced swimmer conserves +his strength, as do proficients at all feats, but the occasional swimmer, +like the occasional rower, puts forth treble the energy required, and soon +becomes exhausted. In the first place, it is a new act for the muscles to +perform; they are taken off from the beaten tracks, and are grouped +together in new associations; hence they lack adjustment and adaptation. +Again, as in other feats for which one is untrained, the heart and lungs +do not work in time. Ease and speed in swimming depend upon the attainment +of harmony in the working of the muscles, heart, and lungs. + +Diving is an accomplishment attached to swimming, which involves many +dangers, and is well-nigh useless. The customary dive off a springboard +into the shallow water of a swimming bath is dangerous in the extreme. The +only place where diving should be attempted is into deep water, at least +fifteen or twenty feet, where there is no danger of striking the bottom. + +_Lawn Tennis_.--Of all modern inventions in the way of games, lawn +tennis is the best. + +The dangers attendant on lawn tennis are:-- + +1. Overexertion, causing rupture and deranged circulation, especially in +the case of those with weak hearts, or those who, being out of condition, +or too fat, suddenly engage in the game too long or too violently. + +2. Rupture of the _tendon of Achilles_, from taking a sudden bound. +In such an accident the subject falls down, with a sensation as if struck +with a club on the leg. + +3. Rupture of one of the heads of the biceps in the arm. Here the arm +drops helplessly, and a muscular knob rises up on the inner and upper part +of the arm. + +4. The tennis arm. This trouble arises from the method of manipulating the +bat. The pain is felt over the upper end of the radius. + +Many of the strains, ruptured tendons, and torn muscles in tennis players +are caused by the want of heels to tennis shoes. As, ordinarily, we walk +on heels which vary from half an inch to an inch, there must be a +considerable extra strain thrown on the muscles of the calf of the leg, +when the heels are left off. Especially during a sudden spring is this +apparent, when to rise from off the heels on to the toes requires a +greatly increased force. Tennis shoes should therefore have fairly deep, +broad heels. + +_Horseback Riding_ is a mixed exercise, partly active and partly +passive, the lower parts of the body being in some measure employed, while +the upper parts in easy cantering are almost wholly relaxed. It is +peculiarly suited to dyspeptics, from its direct action upon the abdominal +viscera, the contents of which are stimulated by the continued agitation +and succussion, consequent on the motion in riding. + +_Bicycling and Tricycling_.--While strongly recommending bicycling +and tricycling to both men and women in health, those suffering from heart +or lung affections, ruptures, scrofula, joint disease, or like maladies, +should not indulge in them without medical sanction. For abdominal +complaints, such as dyspepsia, congestion of the liver, constipation, and +the like, the exercise is excellent. + +_Baseball_ is an essentially American game, which brings into play +nearly all the muscles of the body. Its chief danger lies in being hit by +the hard, forcibly pitched ball, and, for weak persons, in the violence of +the exercise. + +_Football_ is a rough-and-tumble game, suited only to that class of +boys and men, who, brimming over with animal life, take small heed of the +accidents liable to occur. + +_Light and Heavy Gymnastics_.--For wet weather, and when outdoor +exercise is not practicable, gymnastics are most advisable. Boys and +girls, at the age of fifteen or sixteen, often shoot up and become tall +and lanky; they want filling out, and are troubled with growing pains. +Even men, when tall and thin, are seldom very erect, their muscles are too +weak; and there is only one way of overcoming this weakness--by exercising +them. Nothing more is wanted than a pair of very light Indian clubs, a +pair of light wooden dumb bells, a long wooden rod, and a pair of wooden +rings,--the last for combined exercises. Indeed, a systematic motion of +the body itself, without any extra artificial resistance, is quite +sufficient for the purposes of physical education. In nearly all our large +cities are found gymnasia, provided with competent instructors, and every +facility for both light and heavy gymnastics. Exercise in a gymnasium is +open to the objection of being too brief and too severe, and of simply +causing an increase of muscular development. Besides, it is generally +unequal in its results, being better adapted to the cultivation of +strength in the upper extremities and portion of the body than in the +lower. Nevertheless, during inclement weather, or with persons in whom the +muscles of the arms and chest are defective, moderate gymnastic exercise +is far better than no exercise.--_Compiled_. (_Mostly from "The +Influence of Exercise" in The Book of Health_.) + +THE SKIN. + +THE HAIR (p. 52).--_Baldness, and its Causes_.--Various reasons are +assigned for the baldness which is so prevalent among comparatively young +men in our country. One writer says: "The premature baldness and grayness +of the Americans as a people is in great measure owing to the +nonobservance of hygienic rules, and to excess of mental and physical +labor in a climate foreign to the race." Others attribute it to the close +unventilated hats commonly worn by men. Dr. Nichols, in the _Popular +Science News_, gives his opinion thus: + +"In our view, it is largely due to modern methods of treatment of the hair +and scalp. The erroneous idea prevails, that the skin which holds the hair +follicles and the delicate secretory organs of the scalp must be kept as +'clean,' so to speak, as the face or hands; consequently young men +patronize barbers or hairdressers, and once or twice a week they have what +is called a 'shampoo' operation performed. This consists in a thorough +scouring of the hair and scalp with dilute ammonia, water, and soap, so +that a heavy 'lather' is produced, and the glandular secretions, which are +the natural protection of the hair, and promotive of its growth, are +saponified and removed. No act could be more directly destructive of a +healthy growth of hair than this....Women do not shampoo or wash the hair +as often as the other sex, and consequently they are in a large degree +exempt from baldness in middle life. It is true, however, that many women +in cities make frequent visits to the hairdressers, and subject their +tresses to the 'scouring' process. If this becomes common, it will not be +long before baldness will overtake the young mothers as well as the +fathers, and the time will be hastened when even children will have no +hair to destroy with ammonia or other caustic cosmetics. + +"The advice we have to offer to young men and maidens is,--let your hair +alone; keep at a safe distance from hair-dressing rooms and drug shops, +where are sold oils, alkaline substances, alcoholic mixtures, etc., for +use upon the hair. They are all pernicious, and will do you harm. The head +and hair may be washed occasionally with soft, tepid water, without soap +of any kind. As a rule, the only appliances needed in the care of the hair +are good combs and brushes: and they should not be used harshly, so as to +wound the scalp. Avoid all 'electric' and wire-made brushes. No +electricity can be stored in a hairbrush: if it could be, it is not +needed." + +_Sudden Blanching of the Hair from Violent Emotions_.--The color of +the hair depends mainly upon the presence of pigment granules, which range +in tint from a light yellow to an intense black. A recent investigator has +succeeded in extracting the coloring matter of the hair, and has found +that all the different shades are produced by the mixture of three primary +colors--red, yellow, and black. "In the pure golden yellow hair there is +only the yellow pigment; in red hair the red pigment is mixed with more or +less yellow, producing the various shades of red and orange; in dark hair +the black is always mixed with yellow and red, but the latter are +overpowered by the black; and it seems that even the blackest hair, such +as that of the negro, contains as much red pigment as the very reddest +hair." Hence, "if in the negro the black pigment had not been developed, +the hair of all negroes would be a fiery red."--DR. C. H. LEONARD. _The +Hair: Its Diseases and Treatment_. + +The gradual disappearance of this pigment causes the gray or white hair of +old age. This natural change in color does not necessarily denote loss of +vitality in the hair, as it often continues to grow as vigorously as +before it began to whiten. Cases of sudden blanching of the hair from +extreme grief or terror are often quoted,--those of Sir Thomas More and of +Marie Antoinette being well-known instances in point. An interesting +circumstance has been discovered with regard to such cases, namely, that +the change of color is not dependent upon the disappearance of the pigment +of the hair, which always takes place slowly, but upon the sudden +development in its interior of a number of air bubbles, that hide and +destroy the effect of the pigment, which itself remains unaltered. Dr. +Landois mentions the case of a German printer whom he attended, at a +hospital, in the summer of 1865. + +This man had long been intemperate in his habits, in consequence of which +he was seized with delirium tremens. The delirium, as is usual in such +cases, was of an extremely terrifying nature, and lasted four days. On the +evening of the fourth day the hair was unaltered, but on the morning of +the fifth the delirium had disappeared, and his hair, which previously was +fair, had become gray. It was examined with the microscope, when it was +found that the pigment was still present, but that the central streak of +each was filled with air bubbles. + +How this superabundance of air finds its way into the hair in these cases +of sudden blanching, physiologists have not yet been able satisfactorily +to explain.--In this connection, however, it may be observed that air +bubbles exist, more or less, in all hair, mingled with the pigment +granules. + +The feathers of birds owe their bright colors to an oily secretion +corresponding to the pigment in hair, and microscopical observation has +revealed the fact that when these colors fade the oily secretion +disappears, and is replaced by air. That extreme terror may blanch +feathers as well as hair is shown in the case of a poor little starling, +which upon being rescued from the claws of a cat became suddenly white. + +THE NAILS (p. 54).--The nails are mere modifications of the scarfskin, +their horny appearance and feeling being due to the fact that the scales +or plates of which they are composed are much harder and more closely +packed. The root of the nail lies embedded, to the extent of about the +twelfth part of an inch, in a fold of the sensitive skin, and, as may be +observed from an inspection of the part, the scarfskin is not exactly +continuous with the nail, but projects a little above it, forming a narrow +margin. + +The nail, like the scarfskin, rests upon, and is intimately connected +with, a structure almost identical with the sensitive skin; this is, +however, thrown into ridges, which run parallel to one another, except at +the back part, where they radiate from the center of the root. On +examining the surface of the nail, a semicircular whitish portion is +detected near its root; its color is dependent upon the fact that the +ridges there contain fewer blood vessels, and therefore less blood, and on +account of its half-moon shape it is called the _lunula_. + +The nail is constantly increasing in length, owing to the formation of new +cells at the root, which push it forward, while the increase in its +thickness is due to the secretion of new cells from the sensitive layer +beneath, so that the farther the nail grows from the root, the thicker it +becomes. Its nutrition, and consequently its growth, suffers in disease, +the portion growing during disease being thinner than that growing in +health; and accordingly a transverse groove is seen upon the nail, +corresponding to the time of an illness. It will thus be seen that by a +mere examination of the nail we can astonish our friends by telling them +when they have been ill; and it has been estimated that the nail of the +thumb grows from its root to its free extremity in five months, that of +the great toe in twenty months, so that a transverse groove in the middle +of the former indicates an illness about two and a half months before, and +in the middle of the latter, about ten months. + +The culture of the nails, which when perfect constitute so great a beauty, +is of much importance; but the tendency is to injure them by too much +attention. The scissors should never be used except to pare the free edges +when they have become ragged or too long, and the folds of scarfskin which +overlap the roots should not, as a rule, be touched, unless they be +frayed, when the torn edges may be snipped off, so as to prevent their +being torn further, which may cause much pain, and even inflammation. The +upper surfaces of the nails should on no account be touched with the +knife, as is so often done, the nailbrush being amply sufficient to keep +them clean, without impairing their smooth and polished surfaces.--HINTON. + +BATHS AND BATHING (p. 65).--_Physical Cleanliness Promotes Moral +Purity_.--The old adage that cleanliness is next to godliness, must +have had its origin in the feeling of moral elevation which generally +accompanies scrupulous bodily purity. Frequent bathing promotes purity of +mind and morals. The man who is accustomed to be physically clean shrinks +instinctively from contact with all uncleanliness. Personal neatness, when +grown into a habit, draws after it so many excellences, that it may well +be called a social virtue. Without it, refined intercourse would be +impossible; for its neglect not only indicates a want of proper self- +respect, but a disrespect of the feelings of others which argues a low +tone of the moral sense. All nations, as they advance in civilization and +refinement of manners, pay increased attention to the purity of the +person. + +What, then, shall we say of people who, after all that has been said and +written upon the subject, seldom or never bathe, who allow the pores of +the skin to get blocked up with a combination of dust and perspired +matter, which is as effectual in its way as plaster to the walls of a +building? Could they but once be tempted to taste the delights which arise +from a perfectly clean and well-acting skin: the cheerfulness, nay, the +feeling of moral as well as physical elevation, which accompanies the +sense of that cleanliness, they would soon esteem the little time and +trouble spent in the bath, and in the proper care of the surface of the +body, as time and labor very well spent--DR. STRANGE. + +The feet, particularly, should receive daily attention, if it be no more +than a vigorous rubbing with a wet cloth, followed by a dry one. After a +long walk, also, nothing is more refreshing, especially in summer, than a +generous footbath in cool or tepid water, followed by an entire change in +shoes and stockings. This is really a necessary precaution, if the feet +have become wet from the dampness of the ground; and if the walk has +heated the body so that the stockings are moist with perspiration, it is +not only an act of prudence, but an instinct of personal neatness. + +_Ancient Greek and Roman Baths_.--From the earliest historic times +the necessity for frequent and thorough ablution has been recognized by +artificial provisions for this purpose. The Greeks had "steaming baths" +and "fragrant anointing oils," as far back as Homer's time, a thousand +years before Christ, but the Romans surpassed all preceding and subsequent +nations by their magnificent and luxuriously equipped Thermæ, in which a +bath cost less than a cent, and was often free. A full Roman bath included +hot air, dry rubbing, hot, tepid, and cold water immersions, scraping with +bronze instruments, and anointing with precious perfumes. + +_The Modern Russian_ and _Turkish baths_ are the nearest +approaches we have to the Roman bath. These are found in nearly all our +larger cities. + +_The Turkish Bath_ is conducted in a modified form in this country, +generally with hot air instead of steam. Its frequent use not only tends +to keep the body in a state of perfect cleanliness, but it imparts a +clear, fresh color to the complexion which is hardly attained by other +means. + +"Its most important effect," says a writer in the _Popular Science +Monthly_, "is the stimulation of the emunctory action of the skin. By +this means we are enabled to wash as it were the solid and fluid tissues, +and especially the blood and skin, by passing water through them from +within outward to the surface of the body. Hence, in practice, one of the +most essential requisites is copious draughts of water during the +sweating." + +During the operation of a Turkish bath, the novice is often astonished at +the amount of effete matter eliminated from the pores of the skin. "A +surprising quantity of scarfskin, which no washing could remove, peels +off, especially if a glove of camel's-hair or goat's-hair be used, as they +are in the East, where also the soles of the feet are scraped with pumice. +The deposit of this skin of only a week's date, when collected, is often +as large as one's fist. Much more solid matter is contained in the +perspiration of those who take the bath for the first time, or after a +long interval. Nothing escapes through the skin, save what is noxious if +retained. This bath should never be used in case of advanced lung +diseases, great debility, acute inflammations, or persons who labor under +any form of heart disease; but I think its influence is directly curative +in rheumatic, gouty, and scrofulous affections, some skin diseases, and +the earlier stages of feverish colds and ague. It is said to have calming +effects in the treatment of insanity, and the use of it was suggested from +the heavy smell the skin of persons thus afflicted often has."--MAPOTHER'S +_Lectures on Public Health_. + +A somewhat heroic bath, used in Siberia to drive away a threatened fever, +consists of a thorough parboiling, within an inch or two of a steaming +furnace, after which the subject is "drubbed and flogged for about half an +hour with a bundle of birch twigs, leaf and all." A douche of cold water +is then dashed over the exhausted bather, when he is ready to be put into +bed. + +_Sea Bathing_.--Before the age of seven years, and after fifty-five, +sea baths should be used with the greatest caution. All persons +unaccustomed to sea bathing should begin with a warm or tepid bath, in +doors, proceeding by degrees to the cold indoor bath, and then to the open +sea. + +The sea bath should be taken, if possible, when the sun is shining, when +the water has been warmed by contact with the heated sands, and never +during the digestion of the principal meal, or late in the evening. +Immediately on plunging into the water, which need not, except in persons +of full habit, cover the head, brisk motion of some kind should be used. +Those who can swim should do so; those who can not, should make as much +exertion of the limbs as possible, or rub the body with their hands. The +delicate, and particularly those who are recovering from illness, should +remove from the bath _as soon as the glow arrives;_ or, if that be +not felt at all, then after _one_ plunge. + +_Danger in Bathing when Overheated_.--It is unwise to bathe when +copious perspiration has continued for an hour or more, unless the heat of +the weather be excessive, or the sweating has been induced by loading with +clothes, rather than by exertion. When much perspiration has been produced +by muscular exercise, it is unsafe to bathe, because the body is so +fatigued and exhausted, that the reaction can not be insured, and the +effect may be to congest the internal organs, and notably the nerve +centers. The latter gives cramp. If the weather be chilly, or there be a +cold wind, so that the body may be rapidly cooled at the surface while +undressing, it is not safe to bathe. Under such conditions, the further +chill of immersion in cold water will take place at the precise moment at +which the reaction consequent upon the chill of exposure by undressing +ought to take place, and this second chill will not only delay or +altogether prevent the reaction, but will convert the bath from a mere +stimulant to a depressant, ending in the abstraction of a large amount of +animal heat and congestion of the internal organs and nerve centers. The +aim must be to avoid two chills, and to make sure that the body is in such +a condition as to secure a quick reaction on emerging from the water, +without relying too much on the possible effect of friction by rubbing. +The actual temperature of the water does not affect the question so much +as its relative temperature in comparison with that of the surrounding +air. It ought to be much lower than that of the air. These maxims receive +a striking reenforcement from the case of a young soldier who a few days +ago plunged into the river near Manchester, England, after having heated +himself by rowing. He was immediately taken with cramps, and was drowned. +When taken out, his body was found "twisted," and the vessels of his head +showed every evidence of congestion.--_Popular Science Monthly, +September, 1883_. + +_Bather's Cramp_.--Cramp is a painful and tonic muscular spasm. It +may occur in any part of the body, but it is especially apt to take place +in the lower extremities, and in its milder forms it is limited to a +single muscle. The pain is severe, and the contracted muscles are hard and +exquisitely tender. In a few minutes the spasm and pain cease, leaving a +local sensation of fatigue and soreness. When cramp affects only one +extremity, no swimmer or bather endowed with average presence of mind need +drown; but when cramp seizes the whole of the voluntary muscular system, +as it probably does in the worst cases, nothing in the absence of prompt +and efficient extraneous assistance can save the individual from drowning. +[Footnote: Even this is often unavailable, as in the case of the Cornell +University postgraduate drowned in Hall Creek, Ithaca, June 10, 1888. In +this instance the day was hot and oppressive, and the victim sank soon +after entering the water. "His companions at once hastened to his relief, +and recovered his body in a few minutes. Professor Wilder, of the +University, was hurriedly summoned, and every possible method was resorted +to in order to induce respiration, but the vital spark had fled. An attack +of cramps is supposed to have been the cause of drowning."] Prolongation +of muscular exertion, as in continued swimming, and forcible and sudden +muscular exertion, as in swimming with very vigorous and rapid strokes, +are efficient and frequent causes of cramp. These muscular conditions, +however, usually give rise only to the slighter and more localized forms. +Serious cramp is a peril which menaces most persons with highly developed +muscles. Its most powerful and most avoidable cause is the sudden +immersion of the body, when its surface is highly heated, in water of a +relatively low temperature.--_Popular Science News._ + +_Protection of the Ear in Sea Bathing_.--Special attention should be +paid by bathers to the exclusion of salt water from the mouth and ears. +Many cases of inflammation of the ear, followed by severe and lasting +trouble, even to deafness, are chargeable to the neglect of this +precaution. Incoming waves should never be received in the face or the +ears, and the sea water which enters the ears when floating or diving +should be wiped out by soft cotton; indeed, the best plan is to plug the +openings of the ears with cotton, which is to be kept there during the +bath.--_Science_. + +_How one who Knows not how to Swim can Escape Drowning_.--It is well +for every one to learn the art of swimming, yet it is a knowledge +possessed by comparatively few people. Mr. Henry MacCormac, a writer in +_Nature_, gives some common sense instructions that, if heeded, may +be of great service to those persons who, not knowing how to swim, may +find themselves accidentally precipitated into the water. We condense from +his article, adding some directions, as follows: + +In order to escape drowning, it is necessary only to do as the brute does, +namely, to walk or tread the water. The brute has no advantage over man in +regard to his relative weight, and yet the man perishes while the brute +survives. The ignorance of so simple a possibility as that of treading +water strikes me as one of the most singular things in the history of man. +Perhaps something is to be ascribed to the vague meaning which is attached +to the word _Swim_. The dog is wholly incapable of _swimming_ as +a man swims, but nothing is more certain than that a man, without previous +training or instruction, can swim just as a dog swims, and that by so +doing without fear or hesitancy, he will be just as safe as is the dog. +The brute thus circumstanced continues to go on all fours, as if he were +on land, _keeping his head well out of the water_. So with the man +who wishes to save his life and can not otherwise swim. He must strike +alternately, with hand and foot,--_one, two, one, two,_--without +hurry or precipitation, exactly as the brute does. Whether he be provided +with paw or hoof, the beast swims with perfect ease and buoyancy. So, too, +can the human being, if he will, with the further immense advantage of +having a paddle-formed hand, and of being able, when tired, to rest +himself by floating, an act of which the animal has no conception. The +printed direction should be pasted up in all boathouses, on every boat, at +every bathing place, and in every school: _Tread water when you find +yourself out of your depth_. This is all that need be said, unless, +indeed, we add: _Float when you are tired_. To float, one needs only +to turn upon his back, keeping--as always when in the water--the mouth and +chin well up and the lungs full of air.--Every one of us, of whatever age +and however encumbered with clothing, may tread water, even in a breaking +sea, with as much facility as a fourfooted animal. The position of the +water treader is, really, very much safer and better than the sprawling +attitude of the ordinary swimmer. But the chief advantage lies in the fact +that we can tread water without preliminary teaching, whereas, though we +recommend all to learn how to swim, it involves time and pains, entails +considerable fatigue, and is, after all, very seldom adequately acquired. + +HINTS ON CLOTHING (p. 67).--_Advantages of Woolen Fabrics_.--Wool is +more irritating than cotton, on account of the stiffness of the hairs with +which it bristles; but the excitation it produces becomes a therapeutic +means whenever the skin needs a stimulant. + +The use of wool is particularly desirable in some countries and under some +conditions of life. Professor Brocchi, a writer well known for his +investigations in malaria, attributes the good health and vigor of the +ancient Romans to their habit of wearing coarse woolen clothes; when they +began to disuse them, and to wear lighter goods and silks, they became +less vigorous and less able to resist the morbid influence of bad air. It +was at about the time the women began to dress in notably fine tissues +that the insalubrity of the Roman air began first to be complained of. "In +the English army and navy," says Dr. Balestra, "the soldiers of garrisons +in unhealthy places are obliged constantly to wear wool next to the skin, +and to cover themselves with sufficient clothing, for protection against +paludine fevers, dysentery, cholera, and other diseases." According to +Patissier, similar measures have been found effectual in preserving the +health of workmen employed on dikes, canals, and ditches, in marshy lands; +while, previous to the employment of these precautions, mortality from +fevers was considerable among them. + +Dr. Balestra has proved by direct experiments in marshy regions that thick +and hairy woolen garments arrest in their down a portion of the germs +borne in by the air, which thus reaches the skin filtered and purified. +The ancient Romans wore ample over-garments over their tunics, and never +put them away. It is no less important to be well covered during the +night; and precautions of this kind should be recommended to all who live +in a swampy country. We are sometimes astonished when we see the natives +of particularly warm countries enveloped in woolen, as the Arab in his +burnoose, or the Spanish peasant in his tobacco-colored cloak. Such +materials protect both against the rays of the sun and against the +coolness of the night, and are excellent regulators of heat. It is +dangerously imprudent to travel in southern countries without provision of +warm clothing.--_Revue des Deux Mondes_. + +_Weight is not Warmth_.--While speaking of the warmth of clothing for +inclement weather, it would be incorrect not to speak of weight in +relation to warmth. Many persons mistake weight for warmth, and thus +feeble people are actually borne down and weakened by the excess of heavy +clothing which is piled on them. Good woolen or fur fabrics retain the +heat, and yet are light. When fabrics intended for sustaining warmth are +made up of cotton, the mistake of accepting weight for warmth is made. The +same errors are often made in respect to bed coverings, and with the same +results. + +_Poisonously Dyed Clothing_.--The introduction of wearing apparel, +socks, stockings, and flannels which have been made, by new processes of +dyeing, to assume a rich red or yellow color, has led to a local disease +of the skin, attended, in rare cases, with slight constitutional symptoms. +This disease is due to the dyestuffs. The chief poisonous dyes are the red +and yellow coralline, substances derived from that series of chemical +bodies which have been obtained of late years from coal tar, and commonly +known as the aniline series. + +The coloring principle is extremely active as a local poison. It induces +on the skin a reddish, slightly raised eruption of minute round pimples +which stud the reddened surface, and which, if the irritation be severe +and long-continued, pass into vesicles discharging a thin watery ichor and +producing a superficial sore. The disease is readily curable if the cause +of it be removed, and, as a general rule, it is purely local in character. +I have, however, once seen it pass beyond the local stage. A young +gentleman consulted me for what he considered was a rapidly developed +attack of erysipelas on the chest and back. He was, indeed, covered with +an intensely red rash, and he was affected with nervous symptoms, with +faintness and depression of pulse, of a singular and severe kind. I traced +both the local eruption and the general malady to the effect of the +organic dye in a red woolen chest and back "comforter." On removing the +"comforter" all the symptoms ceased. Similar and even fatal cases have +been known from the wearing of highly colored hose. + +_Uncleanliness of Dress_.--Uncleanly attire creates conditions +favorable to disease. Clothing worn too long at a time becomes saturated +with the excretions and exhalations of the body, and, by preventing the +free transpiration from the surface of the skin, induces oppression of the +physical powers and mental inactivity. This observation will be accepted +by most persons as true in respect to underclothing; it is equally true in +regard to those outer garments which are often worn, unremittingly, until +the linings, torn and soiled, are unfit altogether for contact with the +cleaner garments beneath them. Health will not be clothed in dirty +raiment. They who wear such raiment suffer from trains of minor +complaints; from oppression, dullness, headache, nausea, which, though +trifling in themselves, taken one by one, when put together greatly reduce +that standard of perfect health by which the value of life is correctly +and effectively maintained.--RICHARDSON. + +RESPIRATION. + +THE VOCAL ORGANS.--_Musical Tones in Speaking_ (p. 76).--Voice is +divided into singing and speaking voice. One differs from the other almost +as much as noises do from musical sounds. In speaking, the sounds are too +short to be easily appreciable, and are not separated by fixed and regular +intervals, like those of singing; they are linked together, generally by +insensible transitions; they are not united by the fixed relations of the +gamut, and can only be noted with difficulty. That it is the short +duration of speaking sounds which distinguished them from those of +singing, is proved by this, that if we prolong the intonation of a +syllable, or utter it like a note, the musical sound becomes evident. So, +if we pronounce all the syllables of a phrase in the same tone, the +speaking voice closely resembles psalm singing. Every one must have +noticed this in hearing schoolboys recite or read in a monotone, and the +analogy is complete when the last two or three syllables are pronounced in +a different tone. Spoken voice is, moreover, always a chant more or less +marked, according to the individual and the sentiment which the words +express....It is related of Gretry, that he amused himself by noting as +exactly as possible the "Bonjour, monsieur!" (Good day, sir!) of the +persons who visited him; and these words expressed by their intonation, in +fact, the most opposite sentiments, in spite of the constant identity of +the literal sense. + +_Speech without a Tongue_.--De Jussieu relates that he saw a girl +fifteen years old, in Lisbon, who was born without a tongue, and yet who +spoke so distinctly as not to excite in the minds of those who listened to +her the least suspicion of the absence of that organ. + +The Transactions of the Royal Society of London (1742) contain an account +of a woman who had not the slightest vestige of a tongue, but who could, +notwithstanding, drink, eat, and speak as well and as distinctly as any +one, and even articulate the words in singing. Other instances have been +known where individuals, after losing a portion of the tongue by accident +or disease, have again been able to speak after a longer or shorter +period.--LE PILEUR. + +_Stimulants and the Voice_.--"The Drinker's Throat" is a recognized +pathological condition, and the Germans have a popular phrase, "He drinks +his throat away." Isambert has pointed out the directly local irritant +effect of both alcohol and tobacco on the throat, and also the mode by +which these agents, on absorption into the system, re-manifest their +presence by predisposing to local pharyngeal inflammations. Dr. Krishaber +affirms: "It is generally admitted that alcoholic beverages and tobacco +irritate the mucous membrane of the throat, directly affect the voice, and +leave on it ineffaceable traces. We hold with equal certainty that tea and +coffee, although not directly affecting the voice, do so indirectly by +acting on the nervous system, and through it the vocal organs, as well as +by, some general nervous derangement not very pronounced, but great enough +to deprive the singer of the full powers and capabilities of his voice." + +Dr. Mackenzie says: "The influence of the general health upon the voice is +very marked. Alcohol and tobacco should never be used. The hoarse tones of +the confirmed votary of Bacchus are due to chronic inflammation of the +lining membrane of the larynx; the originally smooth surface being +roughened and thickened by the irritation of alcohol, the vocal cords have +less freedom of movement, and their vibrations are blurred, or rather +muffled, by the unevenness of their contiguous edges." + +A young American lady of marked musical gifts once asked Adelina Patti's +advice upon preparing for the stage. She found the great singer wrapped in +furs, although the weather was not severe. After hearing her visitor, +Patti replied: "Are you willing to give up _everything_ for your art? +If you wish to succeed, you must learn to eat moderately, take no +stimulants--not even tea or coffee--keep as regular hours as possible +consistent with your public appearance, and even deny yourself the luxury +of friends. When you hear of a great vocalist giving extravagant wine +suppers, you may be sure that the singer herself takes nothing. To be a +successful _artiste_ you must be married, soul and body, to your +art." Like the young man to whom Christ spake, the young woman "went away +sorrowful," and, balancing the terms, concluded to forego the contest. + +ABDOMINAL RESPIRATION (p. 8l).--It has often been stated that the +respiration of woman differs from that of man, in being limited almost +entirely to the chest. In order to investigate this subject +scientifically, Dr. Mays, of Philadelphia, devised an ingenious instrument +for examining the respiration of the native Indian girls in the Lincoln +Institution. The girls had not yet been subjected to the restrictions of +civilized dress. He says: + +"In all, I examined the movements of eighty-two chests, and in each case +took an abdominal and a costal tracing. The girls were partly pure and +partly mixed with white blood, and their ages ranged from between ten and +twenty years. Thus there were thirty-three full-blooded Indians, five one +fourth, thirty-five one half, and two three fourths white. _Seventy- +five_ showed a _decided abdominal_ type of breathing, three a +costal type, and three in which both were about even. _Those who showed +the costal type, or a divergence from the abdominal type, came from the +more civilized tribes_, like the Mohawks and Chippewas, and were either +_one half_ or _three fourths white_; while in _no single +instance_ did a full-blooded Indian girl possess this type of +breathing. + +"From these observations it obviously follows that, so far as the Indian +is concerned, the abdominal is the original type of respiration in both +male and female, and that the costal type in the civilized female is +developed through the constricting influence of dress around the abdomen. +While these tracings were taken an incident occurred which demonstrated +that abdominal constriction could modify the movements of the thorax +during respiration. At my first visit to the institution I obtained an +exceptional costal type of respiration from a full-blooded Indian girl. At +my next visit I concluded to repeat this observation, and found that, +contrary to my instructions concerning loose clothing, etc., this girl at +my first visit had worn three tight belts around her abdomen. After these +were removed she gave the abdominal type of breathing, which is +characteristic of nearly all the Indian girls." + +To us these facts are invaluable. It shows the faulty construction of +modern female dress, which restricts the motion of abdominal respiration. +It explains why, as experience has taught us, it is necessary to restore +this abdominal rhythm, by proper movements, in order permanently to cure +the affections of the lower portion of the trunk. It demonstrates +conclusively that woman's dress, to be injurious, needs only to interfere +with the proper motion of respiration, even though it exercises not the +slightest compression.--_Health Record_. + +THE GERM THEORY OF DISEASE (p. 86).--_What are Disease Germs?_-- +Microscopical investigation has revealed throughout Nature, in the air, in +water--especially when it contains organic matter, and even within the +bodies of persons and animals, myriads of infinitesimal active organisms +which live, multiply, and die in endless succession. These have been named +_bacteria_ (bacterium, a rod, so called from the general rod shape +first observed), and also _microbes_ (microbe, a small living +object). Some investigators apply the latter term as a general one, +limiting the former to such microbes as are believed to be special disease +producers. The "Germ Theory" teaches that the seeds or _spores_ of +bacteria, floating in the air we breathe or in the water we drink, are +taken into our bodies where, under conditions favorable to their growth, +they develop, multiply, and, each after its own species, produce +distinctive evil results.--Thus, according to this theory, there are +special varieties of microbes that cause, respectively, diphtheria, +erysipelas, scarlatina, cholera, etc.--One of the most common microbes in +nature is the bacterium of putrefaction, found everywhere in decaying +organic matter. [Footnote: This is the microbe found in impure water. If +we take half a glass of spring or river water, and leave it uncovered for +a few days, we shall observe upon it a thin coating of what appears to be +a fine dust. Place, now, a drop of this dusty water under a cover glass, +and examine it under a microscope with a magnifying power of about five +hundred diameters. The revelation is astonishing. "The whole field of the +microscope is in motion; hundreds of bacteria, resembling minute +transparent worms, are swimming in every direction with an undulatory +motion like that of an eel or snake. Some are detached, others united in +pairs, others in chains or chaplets or cylindrical rods....All these forms +represent the different transformations of _Bacterium termo_, or the +microbe of putrefaction. Those which are dead appear as small, rigid, and +immovable rods."--TROUESSART.] + +By the species of microbes called ferments all fermented liquors are +artificially produced (see p. 132); these also cause the "rising" of +bread.--These wonderful little existences are thus made to perform an +important part in the economy of Nature. "Nourished at the expense of +putrefying organic matter, they reduce its complex constituents into +soluble mineral substances, which they return to the soil to serve afresh +for the nourishment of similar plants. Thus they clear the surface of the +earth from dead bodies and fecal matter, and from all the useless +substances which are the refuse of life; and thus they unite animals and +plants in an endless chain."--TROUESSART. + +_How Disease Germs Grow_.--Experiments having shown that no life is +known to spring from inanimate matter, we may reasonably suppose that just +as wheat does not grow except from seed, so no disease occurs without some +disease germ to produce it. Then, again, we may logically assume that each +disease is due to the development of a particular kind of germ. If we +plant smallpox germs, we do not reap a crop of scarlatina or measles; but, +just as wheat springs from wheat, each disease has its own distinctive +germs. Each comes from a parent stock, and has existed somewhere +previously....Under ordinary circumstances, these germs, though nearly +always present, are comparatively few in number, and in an extremely dry +and indurated state. Hence, they may frequently enter our bodies without +meeting with the conditions essential to their growth; for experiments +have shown that it is very difficult to moisten them, and till they are +moistened, they do not begin to develop. In a healthy system they remain +inactive. But anything tending to weaken or impair the bodily organs, +furnishes favorable conditions, and thus epidemics almost always originate +and are most fatal in those quarters of our great cities where dirt, +squalor, and foul air render sound health almost an impossibility.... +Having once got a beginning, epidemics rapidly spread. The germs are then +sent into the air in great numbers, and in a moist state; and the +probabilities of their entering, and of their establishing themselves +even in healthy bodies, are vastly increased....Climate and the weather +have also much influence on the vitality of these germs. Cold is a +preventive against some diseases, heat against others. Tyndall found that +sunlight greatly retarded and sometimes entirely prevented putrefaction; +while dirt is always favorable to the growth and development of germs. +_Sunshine and cleanliness are undoubtedly the best and cheapest +preventives against disease.--"Disease Germs" Chambers's Journal_. + +You know the exquisitely truthful figures employed in the New Testament +regarding leaven. A particle hid in three measures of meal leavens it all. +A little leaven leaveneth the whole lump. In a similar manner a particle +of contagium spreads through the human body, and may be so multiplied as +to strike down whole populations. Consider the effect produced upon the +system by a microscopic quantity of the virus of smallpox. That virus is +to all intents and purposes a seed. It is sown as leaven is sown, it grows +and multiplies as leaven grows and multiplies, and it always reproduces +itself....Contagia are living things, which demand certain elements of +life, just as inexorably as trees, or wheat, or barley; and it is not +difficult to see that a crop of a given parasite may so far use up a +constituent existing in small quantities in the body, but essential in the +growth of the parasite, as to render the body unfit for the production of +a second crop. The soil is exhausted; and until the lost constituent is +restored, the body is protected from any further attack from the same +disorder. To exhaust a soil, however, a parasite less vigorous and +destructive than the really virulent one may suffice; and if, after +having, by means of a feebler organism, exhausted the soil without fatal +result, the most highly virulent parasite be introduced into the system, +it will prove powerless. This, in the language of the germ theory, is the +whole secret of vaccination.--TYNDALL. + +_Disease Germs Contained in Atmospheric Dust_.--Take the extracted +juice of beef or mutton, so prepared as to be perfectly transparent, and +entirely free from the living germs of bacteria. Into the clear liquid let +fall the tiniest drop of an infusion charged with the bacteria of +putrefaction. Twenty-four hours subsequently, the clear extract will be +found muddy throughout, the turbidity being due to swarms of bacteria +generated by the drop with which the infusion was inoculated. At the same +time the infusion will have passed from a state of sweetness to a state of +putridity. Let a drop similar to that which has produced this effect fall +into an open wound: the juices of the living body nourish the bacteria as +the beef or mutton juice nourished them, and you have putrefaction +produced within the system. The air, as I have said, is laden with +floating matter which, when it falls upon the wound, acts substantially +like the drop....A few years ago I was bathing in an Alpine stream, and, +returning to my clothes from the cascade which had been my shower bath, I +slipped upon a block of granite, the sharp crystals of which stamped +themselves into my naked shin. The wound was an awkward one, but, being in +vigorous health at the time, I hoped for a speedy recovery. Dipping a +clean pocket handkerchief into the stream, I wrapped it round the wound, +limped home, and remained for four or five days quietly in bed. There was +no pain, and at the end of this time I thought myself quite fit to quit my +room. The wound, when uncovered, was found perfectly clean, uninflamed, +and entirely free from pus. Placing over it a bit of gold beater's skin, I +walked about all day. Toward evening, itching and heat were felt; a large +accumulation of pus followed, and I was forced to go to bed again. The +water bandage was restored, but it was powerless to check the action now +set up; arnica was applied, but it made matters worse. The inflammation +increased alarmingly, until finally I was ignobly carried on men's +shoulders down the mountain, and transported to Geneva, where, thanks to +the kindness of friends, I was immediately placed in the best medical +hands. On the morning after my arrival in Geneva, Dr. Gautier discovered +an abscess in my instep, at a distance of five inches from the wound. The +two were connected by a channel, or _sinus_, as it is technically +called, through which he was able to empty the abscess without the +application of the lance. + +By what agency was that channel formed--what was it that thus tore asunder +the sound tissue of my instep, and kept me for six weeks a prisoner in +bed? In the very room where the water dressing had been removed from my +wound and the gold beater's skin applied to it, I opened this year a +number of tubes, containing perfectly clear and sweet infusions of fish, +flesh, and vegetable. These hermetically sealed infusions had been exposed +for weeks, both to the sun of the Alps and to the warmth of a kitchen, +without showing the slightest turbidity or signs of life. But two days +after they were opened, the greater number of them swarmed with the +bacteria of putrefaction, the germs of which had been contracted from the +dust-laden air of the room. And, had the pus from my abscess been +examined, my memory of its appearance leads me to infer that it would have +been found equally swarming with these bacteria--that it was their germs +which got into my incautiously opened wound. They were the subtile workers +that burrowed down my shin, dug the abscess in my instep, and produced +effects which might well have proved fatal to me.--TYNDALL. + +_Disease Germs Carried in Soiled Clothing_ (p. 89).--The conveyance +of cholera germs by bodies of men moving along the lines of human +communication, without necessarily affecting the individuals who transport +them, is now easy to understand; for it is well established that clothes +or linen soiled by cholera patients may not only impart the germs with +which they are contaminated to those who handle them when fresh, but that, +after having been dried and packed, they may infect persons at any +distance who incautiously unfold them. Thus, while the nurses of cholera +patients may, with proper precautions, enjoy an absolute immunity from +attack, the disease germs may be introduced into new localities without +any ostensible indication of their presence. It is obvious that the only +security against such introduction consists in the destruction or thorough +disinfection of every scrap of clothing or linen which has been about the +person of a cholera patient.--DR. CARPENTER. + +I have known scarlet fever to be carried by the clothing of a nurse into a +healthy family, and communicate the disease to every member of the family. +I have known cholera to be communicated by the clothes of the affected +person to the women engaged in washing the clothes. I have known smallpox +conveyed by clothes that had been made in a room where the tailor had by +his side sufferers from the terrible malady. I have seen the new cloth, +out of which was to come the riding habit for some innocent child to +rejoice in as she first wore it, undergo the preliminary duty of forming +part of the bed clothing of another child stricken down with fever. +Lastly, I have known scarlet fever, smallpox, typhus, and cholera, +communicated by clothing contaminated in the laundry.--DR. RICHARDSON. + +THE SANITARY HOME (see p. 94).--1. _The Site_.--First and foremost of +all the things you are to consider, is the healthfulness of a situation. +The brightest house and cheeriest outlook in nature will be made somber by +the constant presence of a doctor, and the wandering around of an unseen, +but ever felt, specter in the shape of miasm....Malaria-malus, bad; aria, +air--means, in its common definition, simply bad air. Miasma is its +synonym,--infecting effluvia floating in the air. Because, as everybody +knows, certain places have always chills and fever associated with them, +and other places have not, it follows that between such places there is +some fact of difference; this fact is the presence of miasm, a cause of +disease, having a signification associative with the locality.... + +Vegetation, heat, and moisture: these are the three active agents in the +production of miasma, to which a fourth is to be added, in the influence +of non-drainage, either by the way of the atmosphere or running water. The +strongest example of a malarious locality one might make would be in +suggesting a marshy valley in a tropical climate, so overrun with fixed +water as to destroy a prolific vegetation, yet not covering it enough to +protect the garbage from the putrefying influences of the sun; this +valley, in turn, so environed with hills as to shut off a circulation of +air....Ground newly broken is not unapt to generate miasm. This results +from the sudden exposure of long-buried vegetable matter to the influences +of moisture and heat....It may readily be conceived that malarious +situations exist where the miasm is not sufficient in quantity to produce +the effects of intermittent or bilious fever, yet where there is quite +enough of it to keep a man feeling good for nothing,--he is not sick, but +he is never well. I know of one country seat of this kind, where forty +thousand dollars would not pay for the improvements put upon it, and +where, I am free to declare, I would not think of living, even if, as an +inducement, a free gift were made to me of the place....Besides miasm, +there are other atmospheric associations to be considered. I recall this +moment a distillery, where attempt was made to get clear of the mash by +throwing it into a running stream, with the anticipation of its being +carried to the river, but where, on the contrary, it became a stagnant +putrescent mass, impregnating the air for miles with its unendurable odor, +and inducing such a typhoid tendency that half the countryside were down +with fever....There are, again, situations where the filth and debris of +sewage exercise a poisoning influence on the surrounding atmosphere. This +has its principal application to the neighborhood of cities and towns +drained into adjoining streams. London and the Thames furnish a notable +illustration. A cove, attractive as it is, may prove a receptacle for the +accumulation of dead fish and other offal, which shall make untenable the +charming cottage upon the bank. A deep cove has rarely healthy +surroundings, the circulation of its water being too sluggish to insure +freshness and vitality. Water, like blood, to be healthy, must be in a +state of continuous movement. + +A nonobservant man, purchasing a beautiful stream, may be completely +disappointed by finding that the opacity of its water depends upon a +factory, of which he had never so much as heard; he may not let his +children bathe in it, for he may well fear for them the fate of the fish +he so plentifully finds lying dead upon the shore. A poisoned rural stream +is as sad a sight as it has grown to be a common one. Always, before +buying water, know what there is up stream, or what there is likely to be. + +Never buy a country house without seeing to it that the foundation stands +upon a higher level than some channel which may drain it, and this, by the +way, is not to consider alone the dry summer day on which you go first to +visit the place; you are to think of the winter and spring. Look to it +that no excess of water shall be able to drown you out; some places, which +in dry weather are glorious, are, in winter and spring, ankle deep in +slush and mire, and everything about them is as wet as a soaked board. +Open the front door of such a house, and a chill strikes you instantly. A +fire must be kept the year round, or otherwise you live in the moisture of +a vault. Places there are of this class where the question of the water +from the kitchen pump comes to absorb the attention of the whole +household. + +No shade is an abomination. A bilious fever fattens in the sun as does +miasm in a marshy valley. Too much shade, on the contrary, and too near +the house, is equally of ill import; it keeps things damp, and dampness is +a breeder of pestilence. An atmosphere confined about a house by too dense +foliage is, like the air of an unventilated room, not fit for practical +purposes. The sporadic poisons have an intimate relationship with +dampness; miasm lives in it as does a snail in his shell. Besides this, it +shuts out the cool breath of the summer nights, and makes restless +swelterers where even a blanket might be enjoyed.--DR. JOHN DARBY, _Odd +Hours of a Physician_. + +2. _The House_.--So construct the dwelling from foundation to roof +that no dampness can result. Give to the cellar dry walls, a cement floor, +and windows enough to insure constant currents of air. Insist upon such a +system of immediate and perfect sewerage as shall render contamination +impossible. If "modern improvements" are afforded, see that the plumbing +embraces the latest and most scientific sanitary inventions. Do not +economize on this point; health, perhaps life, depends upon the perfect +working of the various traps. Having employed the most skilled and +intelligent plumbers, overlook their work so that you may fully understand +the principle applied. + +Provide for ample ventilation in every apartment, above and below. Let the +sleeping rooms be above stairs, and furnished with appliances for moderate +warmth in winter. Treat yourself and your family to as many fireplaces as +possible. Indulge in a spacious piazza, so placed that it will not cut off +the light from the family sitting room, and, if you can, include a balcony +or two, large enough to hold a chair and a table, or a workbasket. +Remember that a house is for convenience and protection _only when you +can not be in the open air_. + +3. _The kitchen and the Dust Heap.--Removal of Household Refuse_.--It +has to be assumed, especially where servants are not carefully overlooked, +that the dust heap of most houses will contain more or less decomposing +organic matter, such as bits of meat, scales and refuse of fish, tea and +coffee grounds, and the peelings of vegetables, which, though quite out of +place in the ash heap, are apt surreptitiously to be thrown upon it. Such +matter soon becomes offensive and even dangerous, and a few days' +retention of it in warm weather constitutes a legal nuisance. Household +refuse should be carted away as often as once in two days; in extreme hot +weather, daily. Where it is inexpedient to remove it frequently, it should +be kept covered to the depth of two or three inches with a layer of +powdered charcoal, or freshly burnt lime, or, at least, of clear dry +earth. All soil which has become foul by the soakage of decaying or +vegetable matter should be similarly treated. The refuse heap should be +protected from rain, and liquids should never be thrown upon it. Where +obnoxious matter has been allowed to accumulate, its disturbance for +removal should be conducted with special precaution, both on account of +its temporary offensiveness of odor and the more serious results which may +follow. It can not be too distinctly understood that cleanliness, +ventilation, and dryness are the best of all deodorizers. One of the first +of household regulations should be to see that no unsanitary rubbish +remains in or about the dwelling. Keep the dust heap itself at the +farthest practicable remove from the house. Sow grass seed plentifully +upon the back premises, and induce tidiness in the domestics by having the +kitchen door open upon a well-kept lawn. + +_Burning of Garbage_.--The easiest, quickest, and most sanitary +method of disposing of household garbage is to burn it This plan has been +officially recommended by the Boards of Health in various cities. Many +housekeepers have adopted it, and find it so practicable that in New York +City there has become a marked decrease in the amount of household refuse +collected by the scavengers. If, after every meal, the draughts of the +range be opened, and all waste matter be deposited within, a few moments, +or at most, a half hour, will effectually dispose of it, and prevent all +the dangers that arise from its retention and accumulation. In the +country, where there is plenty of ground, nearly all rubbish can be +destroyed in this way and by outside fires, with the additional advantage +that the--E. R. S. + +4. _The Sewers and Drains.--How to Keep out Sewer Air_.--The most +perfectly flushed sewers that are made, under the latest and fullest +sanitary light, must, owing to the constant entrance of greasy and other +adhesive material, contain more or less of particles that "stick," and +also more or less of fungi and mold; so that here, shut away from light +and air, goes on the peculiar fermentation that fits it for the soil or +habitat of the malarial germ. These germs, the soil once ready, take +possession and multiply, whether that soil be a sewer or the blood of a +person who sits calmly unconscious in a gorgeous chamber above, with a +small continuation of the sewer extending untrapped up to his washbowl.-- +DR. DERBY. + +Keep constant watch of your traps and drains. Cultivate the faculty of +detecting sewer gas in the house. Always fear a smell; trace it to its +source and provide a remedy. At the same time, bear in mind that it is not +always the foul smell that is most dangerous. There is a close, sweet odor +often present in bathrooms, and about drains, that is deadly as the Upas +tree. Bad air from neglected drains causes not only fevers, dysentery, and +diphtheria, but asthma and other chronic disorders. Illuminating gas, +escaping from pipes and prevented from exuding by frozen earth, has been +known to pass sidewise for some distance into houses. Thus also the air +from cesspools and porous or broken drains finds its way, when an +examination of the household entrance to the drain fails to reveal the +cause of an existing effluvia. But, however bad the drain may be outside +the house, there is little to fear provided the gas can escape externally. +Every main drain should have a ventilating pipe carried from it directly +outside the house to the top of the highest chimney. The soil pipe inside +the house should be carried up through the roof and be open at the top. + +Digging for drains or other purposes should not be allowed when the +mercury stands above 60°; but if, as in repairs of pipes, it becomes +necessary to dig about the house in hot weather, let it be done in the +middle of the day, and replace the turf as speedily as possible. If the +soil be damp, or the district malarious, sprinkle quicklime upon the earth +as fast as it is turned. + +_How to Clear Waste Pipes_.--The "sewer gas," about which so much has +been written, and which is so justly dreaded, is not, as many suppose, the +exclusive product of the sewer. Indeed, the foul and dangerous gases are +not only found in the sewers themselves, but in the unventilated waste +pipes, and those which are in process of being clogged by the foul matter +passing through them. Any obstruction in the soil or waste pipes is +therefore doubly dangerous, because it may produce an inflow of foul gas +into the pipe, even though the entrance to the sewer itself has been +entirely cut off. + +In pipes leading from the house to the cesspool, there is a constant +accumulation of grease. This enters as a liquid, but hardens as the water +cools, and is deposited on the bottom and sides of the pipes. As these +accumulations increase, the water way is gradually contracted, till the +pipe is closed. + +When the pipe is entirely stopped, or allows the water to fall away by +drops only, proceed thus: Empty the pipe down to the trap, as far as +practicable, by "mopping up" with a cloth. If the water flows very slowly, +begin when the pipe has at last emptied itself. Fill the pipe up with +potash, crowding it with a stick. Then allow hot water to trickle upon the +potash, or pour the hot water upon it in a small stream, stopping as soon +as the pipe appears to be filled. As the potash dissolves and disappears, +add more water. At night a little heap of potash may be placed over the +hole, and water enough poured on so that a supply of strong lye will flow +into the pipe during the night. + +Pipes that have been stopped for months may be cleaned out by this method, +though it may call for three or four pounds of potash. The crudest kind, +however, appears to act as well as the best. If the pipe is partially +obstructed, a lump of crude potash should be placed where water will drip +slowly upon it, and so reach the pipe. As water comes in contact with the +potash, it becomes hot, thus aiding in dissolving the grease. Potash, in +combination with grease, forms a "soft" or liquid soap, which easily flows +away. It is also destructive to all animal and most mineral matters. + +Some of the most dangerous gases come from wash-basin pipes, being, +perhaps, the result of the decay of the soap and the animal matter washed +from the skin. + +When a pipe is once fairly cleaned out, the potash should be used from +time to time, in order to dissolve the greasy deposits as they form, and +carry them forward to the cesspool or sewer.--_Artisan_. + +_What Came from a Neighbor's Cesspool_.--Keep watch not only of your +own premises, but stand on guard against those of your neighbors. Dr. +Carpenter cites a case wherein "four members of a certain household were +attacked with typhoid fever, one of whom narrowly escaped with her life. +The circumstances left no doubt in the mind of the attending physician +that the malady originated in the opening of an old cesspool belonging to +a neighboring house, then in course of demolition. The house in which the +outbreak took place is large and airy, and stands by itself in a most +salubrious situation. The most careful examination failed to disclose any +defect either in its drainage or its water supply; there was no typhoid in +the neighborhood; and the milk supply was unexceptional. But the +neighboring house being old, and having been occupied by a school, its +removal had been determined on to make way for a house of higher class; +and as the offensive odor emanating from the uncovered cesspool was at +once perceived in the next garden, and the outbreak of typhoid followed at +the usual interval, the case seems one which admits of no reasonable +question." + +5. _The Cellar_.--_A Typical Bad Cellar_.--Did the reader ever, +when a child, see the cellar afloat at some old home in the country? You +creep part way down the cellar stairs with only the light of a single +tallow candle, and behold by its dim glimmer an expanse of dark water, +boundless as the sea. On its surface, in dire confusion, float barrels and +boxes, butter firkins and washtubs, boards, planks, hoops, and staves +without number, interspersed with apples, turnips, and cabbages, while +half-drowned rats and mice, scrambling up the stairway for dear life, +drive you affrighted back to the kitchen....Now consider the case of one +of these old farmhouse cellars that has been in use fifty years or more. +In it have been stored all the potatoes, turnips, cabbages, onions, and +other vegetables for family food. The milk and cream, the pork and beef, +and cider and vinegar, have all met with various accidents, and from time +to time have had their juices, in various stages of decay, absorbed by the +soil of the cellar bottom. The cats have slept there to fight the rats and +the mice, who have had their little homes behind the walls for half a +century; and the sink spouts have for the same term poured into the soil +close by, their fragrant fluids. The water rushes upward and sideways into +the cellar, forming, with the savory ingredients at which we have +delicately hinted, a sort of broth, quite thin and watery at first, but +growing thicker as the water slowly subsides and leaves its grosser parts +pervading the surface of the earth, walls, and partitions. All this time +the air rushes in at the openings of the cellar, and presses constantly +upward, often lifting the carpets from the floors, and is breathed day and +night by all who dwell in the house. Does it require learned doctors or +boards of health to inform any rational person that these conditions are +unfavorable to health?--MRS. PLUNKETT, _Women, Plumbers, and +Doctors_. + +_What Came from a Crack in a Cellar Wall_.--A few years ago a Boston +gentleman inherited a house, situated on one of the most desirable streets +of the city. Resolving to make a healthy as well as a beautiful home, he. +spent a large sum, and gave personal supervision to all the details of an +elaborate system of plumbing. He moved in. Imagine his grief and +disappointment when member after member of his family succumbed to +diphtheria, and an infant and a grown daughter died. Though so deeply +smitten, he did not lose his belief in the connection between cause and +effect. He ordered a minute investigation of the premises by experts. A +slight crack, so small as to have escaped ordinary observation, was found +in the cellar wall. Investigation of the premises next door--the inmates +of which were also suffering from diphtheria--showed a choked-up drain, +which ought to have connected with the sewer, but did not. The filthy ooze +from this was pouring out, just where its effluvium and its disease germs +could pass without any hindrance through the crack. + +Now that it is shown that gases pass through bricks and many kinds of +stone, it is easy to see that the sanitary welfare of one is the sanitary +welfare of all.--MRS. PLUNKETT. + +6. _The Bedroom_.--_The Bed a Night Garment_.--There is still +one of our garments to be considered, which generally is not regarded as +such. I mean the bed--that piece of clothing in which we spend such a +great part of our time. + +The bed is not only a place of rest; it is especially our sleeping +garment, and has often to make up for privations endured during the day +and the day's work, and to give us strength for to-morrow. Like our day +garments, the bed covering must be airy and warm at the same time. We +warm the bed by our body, just as we warm our clothes, and the bed warms +the air which is continually flowing through it from below, upward. The +regulating strata must be more powerful in their action than in our day +clothes, because during rest and sleep the metamorphosis of our tissues +and the resulting heat become less; and because in a horizontal position +we lose more heat by an ascending current of air than in a vertical +position, where the warm ascending current is in more complete and longer +contact with our upright body. + +The warmth of the bed sustains the circulation in our surface to a certain +degree for the benefit of our internal organs at a time when our +production of heat is at its lowest ebb. Hence the importance of the bed +for our heat and blood economy. Several days without rest in a bed not +only make us sensible of a deficiency in the recruiting of our strength, +but very often produce quite noticeable perturbations in our bodily +economy, from which the bed would have protected us.--DR. MAX VON +PETTENKOFFER. + +_Bed Ventilation_.--It often happens that the desire of the energetic +housekeeper to have her work done at an early hour in the morning, causes +her to leave one of the most important items of neatness undone. The most +effectual purifying of bed and bedclothes can not take place, if the +proper time is not allowed, for the free circulation of pure air, to +remove all human impurities which have collected during the hours of +slumber. At least two or three hours should be allowed for the complete +removal of atoms of insensible perspiration which are absorbed by the bed. +Every day the airing should be done; and, occasionally, bedding constantly +used should be carried into the open air, and left exposed to the sun and +wind for half a day.--_Home and Health_. + +CIRCULATION. + +THE PULSE (p. 116).--The pulse which is felt by the finger does not +correspond precisely with the beat of the heart, but takes place a little +after it, and the interval is longer, the greater the distance of the +artery from the heart. The beat of the artery on the inner side of the +ankle, for example, is a little later than the beat of the artery in the +temple.--HUXLEY. + +The pulse is increased by exertion, and thus is more rapid in a standing +than in a sitting, and in a sitting than in a lying posture. It is +quickened by meals, and while varying thus from time to time during the +day, is on the whole quicker in the evening than in early morning. It is +said to be quicker in summer than in winter. Even independently of +muscular exertion, it seems to be quickened by great altitude. Its rate is +also profoundly influenced by mental conditions.--FOSTER. + +CIRCULATION OF THE BLOOD IN THE BRAIN (p. l20).--Signer Mosso, who has +been engaged on the subject for six years, has published some new +observations on the different conditions of the circulation of the blood +in the brain. He has had the privilege of observing three patients who had +holes in their skulls, permitting the examination of the encephalic +movements and circulation. No part of the body exhibits a pulsation so +varied in its form as the brain. The pulsation may be described as +tricuspid; that is, it consists of a strong beat, preceded and followed by +lesser beats. It gathers strength when the brain is at work, corresponding +with the more rapid flow of blood to the organ. The increase in the volume +of the brain does not depend upon any change in the respiratory rhythm; +for, if we take the pulse of the forearm simultaneously with that of the +brain, we can not perceive that the cerebral labor exercises any influence +upon the forearm, although the pulsation in the brain may be considerably +modified. The emotions have a similar effect upon the circulation of the +brain to that of cerebral labor. Signor Mosso has also observed and +registered graphically the variations of the cerebral pulse during sleep. +Generally the pulses of the wrist and the brain vary oppositely. At the +moment of waking, the pulse of the wrist diminishes, while that of the +brain increases. The cerebral pulsations diminish as sleep grows deeper, +and at last become very weak. Outward excitations determine the same +modifications during sleep as in the waking state, without waking the +sleeper. A deep inspiration always produces a diminution in the volume of +the brain, in consequence, probably, of the increased flow of blood into +the veins of the thoracic cavity; the increase of volume in the brain, +when it takes place, is, on the contrary, due to a more abundant flow of +arterial blood to the encephalus.--_Popular Science Monthly, March, +1882_. + +CATARRHAL COLDS (p. l30).--I maintain that it can be proved, with as +absolute certainty as any physiological fact admits of being proved, that +warm, vitiated indoor air is the cause, and cold outdoor air the best +cure, of catarrh....Fresh cold air is a tonic that invigorates the +respiratory organs when all other stimulants fail, and, combined with arm +exercise and certain dietetic alternatives, it is the best remedy for all +disorders of the lungs and upper air passages....A combination of the +three specifics,--exercise, abstinence, and fresh air,--will cure the most +obstinate cold....Frost is such a powerful disinfectant, that in very cold +nights the lung-poisoning atmosphere of few houses can resist its +purifying influence; in spite of padded doors, in spite of "weatherstrips" +and double windows, it reduces the indoor temperature enough to paralyze +the floating disease germs. The penetrative force of a polar night frost +exercises that function with such resistless vigor that it defies the +preventive measures of human skill; and all Arctic travelers agree that +among the natives of Iceland, Greenland, and Labrador pulmonary diseases +are actually unknown. Protracted cold weather thus prevents epidemic +catarrhs, but during the first thaw Nature succumbs to art: smoldering +stove fires add their fumes to the effluvia of the dormitory, tight- +fitting doors and windows exclude the means of salvation; superstition +triumphs; the lung poison operates, and the next morning a snuffling, +coughing, and red-nosed family discuss the cause of their affliction....It +is a mistake to suppose that "colds" can be propagated only by direct +transmission or the breathing of recently Vitiated air. Catarrh germs, +floating in the atmosphere of an ill-ventilated bedroom, may preserve +their vitality for weeks after the house has been abandoned; and the next +renter of such a place should not move in till wide-open windows and doors +and a thorough draught of several days have removed every trace of a +"musty" smell.--DR. FELIX L. OSWALD, _Remedies of Nature, Popular +Science Monthly, March, 1884_. + +CATCHING COLD.--The phrase "to catch cold," so often in the mouths of +physicians and patients, is a curious solecism. It implies that the term +"cold" denotes something positive--a sort of demon which does not catch, +but is caught by the unfortunate victims....If most persons outside of the +medical profession were to be asked what they consider as chiefly to be +avoided in the management of sick people, the answer would probably be +"catching cold." I suspect that this question would be answered in the +same way by not a few physicians. Hence it is that sick rooms are poorly +ventilated, and patients are oppressed by a superabundance of garments and +bedclothes. The air which patients are made to breathe, having been +already breathed and rebreathed, is loaded with pulmonary exhalations. +Cutaneous emanations are allowed to remain in contact with the body, as +well as to pervade the atmosphere. Patients not confined to the bed, +especially those affected with pulmonary disease, are overloaded with +clothing, which becomes saturated with perspiration, and is seldom +changed, for fear of the dreaded "cold."... + +A reform is greatly needed in respect to "catching cold." Few diseases are +referable to the agency of cold, and even the affection commonly called a +cold is generally caused by other agencies, or, perhaps, by a special +agent, which may prove to be a microbe. Let the axiom, _A fever patient +never catches cold_, be reiterated until it becomes a household phrase. +Let the restorative influence of cool, fresh, pure atmosphere be +inculcated. Let it be understood that in therapeutics, as in hygiene, the +single word _comfort_ embodies the principles which should regulate +coverings and clothing.--AUSTIN FLINT, M.D., _in a Lecture printed in +The New York Medical Journal_. + +DIGESTION AND FOOD. + +THE WATER WE DRINK (p. l55).--_Qualities of Pure Water_.--"A good +drinking water," says Dr. Simpson (in _The Water We Drink_), "should +possess the following physical characters: it should be entirely free from +color, taste, or odor; it should, moreover, be cool, well aerated, soft, +bright, and entirely free from all deposit. But it should be remembered +that a water having all these characteristics may yet be more or less +polluted by organic matter, owing to the proximity of drains and +sewers....Disease has frequently been traced to the use of perfectly +bright and clear water, where there was no sediment, and where the animal +organic matter was held in a state of solution." + +In the case of diseases, such as typhoid, which attack the stomach, +disease germs are removed along with the excreta; and if, as is often the +case, the drainage of an infected town flows into a river, and that river +is used in some after portion of its course as a water supply, there is +great danger of such diseases being communicated. For, however well the +water may be purified and filtered, we have no guarantee that it will not +contain some of these disease germs, which are so small that they pass +through the finest filters. It is in this way that almost all the great +cholera and typhoid epidemics have spread.--_Chambers's Journal_. + +_Well Water Often Dangerous_.--A densely crowded population soon +impregnates the soil to some depth with filth, which drains into the water +course below, especially if such water is near the surface. This surface +water easily penetrates a loosely walled well. Every well, therefore, +should not only be widely separated from barnyards, cesspools, pens, +sinks, and similar places, but should be made water-tight with cement, so +that nothing can reach its interior except water that has been filtered +through dense beds of unpolluted ground below. If these precautions are +neglected, the best and deepest well may become continually contaminated +by infiltration from the surrounding surface. This impure water, even when +not used for family drinking, is sometimes supplied to cows, or used for +washing dairy pans, or employed in diluting milk for the market, and there +are many known cases in which disease has thus been disseminated. Thus, an +epidemic of typhoid fever in Cambridge, Mass., was definitely traced to a +dairy which supplied the victims with milk. Upon investigation it was +found that a short time before there had been a typhoid patient in the +farmhouse, and that the well from which water was taken to wash the milk +pans had become contaminated with the specific poison brought into it from +the surrounding drainage. + +All suspected water should be thoroughly boiled before using it to drink. +Some physicians insist that the boiling should continue for one or two +hours in order entirely to destroy the bacterial germs. The heaviness and +insipidity incident to boiled water may be somewhat relieved by afterward +filtering it. Filtering, of itself, however, will do little toward ridding +the water of microbes, which are much too minute to be arrested by the +ordinary apparatus.--When journeying, where one must often take a hasty +meal at a railway station, drink hot water in preference to cold. A +convenient portable filter may be arranged with a bottle of powdered +charcoal, and a piece of filtering paper. A traveler by briskly stirring a +tablespoonful of the charcoal into a pint of water, allowing it to stand +five or ten minutes, and then filtering it through the paper, may venture +to relieve his thirst in almost any part of the country. + +_Water an Absorbent of Foul Gases_.--If a pitcher of water be left +uncovered in an occupied apartment for only a few hours, it will become +foul from the absorption of the respired and perspired gases in the room. +The colder the water, the greater the capacity to contain these gases. +Water kept in a room over night is therefore unfit for drinking, and +should not be used even to brush the teeth or to gargle in the throat. + +_Impure Ice, a Breeder of Disease_.--We generally take the purity of +our ice for granted, and, like the alligator in the bayou, close our +mouths and swallow it. In the country, I have seen during the ice- +harvesting season, wagon after wagon passing me on the road, laden with +ice that had been collected from canals, rivers, and streams receiving +sewerage, and from ponds that are in the summer time reeking with slime, +and often offensive from the quantity of decomposed vegetable and animal +matter brought in by the washing from the meadow. These streams would be +shunned as a source of water supply. + +Should you interview a native regarding the slimy mud puddle before you, +called Mr. So-and-so's private "ice pond," he would say that "in winter it +is much better, and when frozen, you know, it makes fine ice," presenting +that popular though ignorant belief that while in the act of +crystallizing, water rids itself of all its injurious qualities, however +offensive it may be in its liquid state. Unfortunately, there is enough +truth in the current idea of the elimination of noxious and foreign matter +during the process of freezing to give color to the popular belief, but +not enough to make it a safe reliance; therefore all means should be used +to enlighten the public regarding this subject. Experiment has shown that +freezing produces little change or effect in overcoming the poisonous +influences, and ice has often served as a vehicle to convey the germs of +typhoid and other low forms of fever. Pure ice can be procured only from +water free from impurities, and ice for domestic or surgical purposes +should never be collected from ponds or streams which contain animal or +vegetable refuse, or stagnant and muddy material.--_Journal of +Reconstructives, Oct., 1887_. + +THE GLANDULAR COAT OF THE STOMACH, AND HOW IT WEEPS (p. l62).--While the +food is thus being continually moved about, it is at the same time +subjected to the action of the chemical sac. This is, as we have said, a +glandular sac. It is of some thickness, and is made of little glands bound +up together with that stringy fibrous packing material which anatomists +call _connective tissue_. + +If we were to imagine many gross of small India-rubber vials all placed +side by side, and bound together with hay or straw into a great mat, and +the mat rolled up into a sac, with all the mouths of the vials turned +inward, we should have a large and coarse, but tolerably fair image of the +glandular coat of the stomach. Each vial would then represent one of the +glands of this coat, one of the gastric or peptic glands, as they are +called. Each gland, however, is not always a simple tube, but is often +branched at the bottom end, and all of them are lined, except just at +their mouths, with large rounded bodies, which not unfrequently almost +choke up their cavity. + +FIG. 72. + +[Illustration: BRANCHED GASTRIC GLAND a. _The peptic cells._ b. +_The inert cells._] + +The rounded masses, or cells, as they are called, in the interior of each +gland, form the really active part of the apparatus. Each cell is a little +laboratory, which concocts out of the material brought to it or near it by +the blood a certain potent, biting fluid, and is hence called a peptic or +digestive cell. Each cell is born at the bottom of the tube, and in +process of time travels upward toward the mouth. When it reaches the +mouth, it bursts, and pours into the stomach the fluid it has elaborated, +or perhaps may give it out without bursting, while it is still within its +tube. + +In those cases in which it has been possible to look in upon the stomach +while at work (as in the famous case of Alexis St. Martin), and where the +orifices of the tiny glands (for though we have compared them to bottles, +they are exceedingly small) appear like little dots, tears were seen to +start at the mouths of the glands, gather into drops, and finally trickle +down into the lowest part of the stomach. The stomach, as it were, weeps, +and indeed the weeping of tears is just such another effect of glandular +activity--only ordinary tears form a mild and, chemically speaking, +impotent fluid; while the fluid which the tears of the stomach weep--the +_gastric juice_--is a sharp, piercing water of excessive chemical +power.--Hinton. + +POISONOUS MILK, CHEESE, AND ICE CREAM (p. l69).--In late years there have +been many cases of poisoning by ice cream, cheese, and milk. The poisonous +principle sometimes developed in these articles of food has been made a +subject of special investigation, and it has been found to be due to +natural causes. Dr. Vaughan, of Michigan, after spending several months in +experimenting upon samples of twelve different cheeses, which had caused +three hundred cases of poisoning, finally succeeded in isolating certain +poison crystals, which he calls _Tyrotoxicon_. He says: "A few drops +of an aqueous solution of these crystals placed upon the tongue produces +all the symptoms observed in those who had been made sick by eating of the +cheese. This was tried repeatedly upon myself, and upon some of my +students who kindly offered themselves for experimentation." Dr. Vaughan +afterward procured the poison crystals from milk which had stood some +months in a closed bottle, and also from a sample of ice cream by which +eighteen persons had been made ill. It was learned in the latter case that +the custard, of which the ice cream was made, had been allowed to stand in +a foul atmosphere for two hours before it was frozen. By placing small +bits of this poisonous cream in good milk, and allowing it to stand +twenty-four hours, the whole became vitiated. This proved that the poison +is due to the growth of some ferment. In the autumn of 1886, many persons +in different hotels at Long Branch were poisoned by milk obtained from a +certain milkman. In this case it was found that the cows were milked at +noon, the warm milk being immediately placed in cans and carted eight +miles during the warmest part of the day, in a very hot month. In June, +1887, nineteen persons in New York city were similarly poisoned by milk +which also came from one dairy. Many of these persons had narrow escapes +from death. These, and many other like instances, teach us the importance +of the greatest care in every detail of milk handling. A little dried milk +formed along the seam of a tin pail, or any similar lodging place, may be +the starting point of poison generation. A month after his first +experiments with the ice cream mentioned above, Dr. Vaughan put small +pieces of the dried custard in pans of milk, and afterward made custard +from this milk. This yielded tyrotoxicon as before, showing the tenacious +vitality of the poison, and also explaining the fact that the precise +cause of poisoning is in many cases so difficult to trace. + +FISH AS FOOD (p. 169).--It is not desirable that fish should be the sole +kind of nitrogenous food eaten by any nation; and even if milk and eggs be +added thereto, the vigor of such a people will not be equal to that of +flesh-eating nations. At the same time, the value of fish as a part of a +dietary is indicated by the larger proportion of phosphorus which it +contains, and which renders it especially fitted for the use of those who +perform much brain work, or who are the victims of much anxiety and +distress.--EDWARD SMITH, _in "Foods_." + +For the mentally exhausted, the worried, the "nervous," and the distressed +in mind, fish is not simply a food; it acts as physic. The brain is +nourished by it, the "nerves"--to use the term in its popular sense--are +"quieted"; the mind grows stronger, the temper less irritable, and the +whole being healthier and happier when fish is substituted for butcher's +meat....I find persons who are greatly excited, even to the extent of +seeking to do violence to themselves or to those around them, who can not +sleep, and who are in an agony of irritability, become composed and +contented when fed almost exclusively on fish. In such cases I have +withdrawn butter, milk, eggs, and all the varieties of warm-blooded animal +food; and, carefully noting the weight and strength, I find no diminution +of either, while fish is supplied in such quantities as fully to satisfy +the appetite.--J. MORTIMER GRANVILLE, M.D., "_Fish as Food and +Physic_." + +COFFEE AND TEA (p. 170).--Besides the alkaloid _Caffeine_ which +coffee contains, it also develops, in roasting, a volatile oil called +Caffeone, to which is due its characteristic aroma. The main effects of +coffee are due to both the caffeine and the caffeone, which are +antagonistic, though not contemporaneous, in action. The volatile oil +reduces arterial tension, allows a brisker flow of blood, and so increases +the rapidity of the heart's action. It also acts upon the brain, and +intellectual faculties in general; keeps one awake, and his mind clear. +Caffeine, on the other hand, like digitalis, produces a high arterial +tension, and slows the heart beat. It exerts its chief effect upon the +spinal cord, to which, like strychnia, it is an excitant. The shaking hand +of the inveterate coffee drinker is caused by caffeine. Thus a cup of +coffee produces on the drinker a double effect,--of the oil and the +alkaloid; the former sooner and transient, the latter later and +lasting....Coffee is not in itself nutritious to any marked degree; but it +saves food, and also maintains life, by its exhilarating effect upon the +nervous system. It is an excellent antidote to opium, producing the +wakefulness that antagonizes the narcotic sleep of the drug; is now and +then curative of sick headache, and is one of the standard remedies for +certain forms of nausea. + +To the chemist, _Tea_ is much the same thing as coffee. It contains +considerably more tannin, a volatile oil, and an alkaloid (theine) +indistinguishable from caffeine. That the injurious effects of overdoses +are due as much to the volatile oil as to the alkaloid, is shown by the +fact that tea packers are made ill by long breathing of air filled with +it, and that tea tasters in China, who avoid swallowing the infusion, can +endure their trade but a few years, and leave the country with shattered +nerves. + +Probably every one numbers among his friends women who are actual slaves +of the tea habit, and who would find tea as hard to forsake as men find +tobacco. It is not unlikely that the functional cardiac disorder, often +spoken of as the "tobacco heart," due to nervous derangement, and +accompanied by palpitation and pain in the cardiac region, is more often +due to tea than tobacco. In fact, the disorders induced by excessive tea +drinking have been grasped as a special disease, to which has been given +the name of _Theism_. This includes a train of symptoms, usually +progressive, loss of appetite, pain after meals, headache, constipation, +palpitation, cardiac distress, hysterical manifestations, dizziness, and +paresis.--DR. MAURICE D. CLARKE, _Popular Science News_. + +Tea drinkers, as a rule, express doubts as regards the correctness of +alleged poisonous properties of tea. Numerous instances of individuals of +this class have been noticed who were themselves suffering from tea +poisoning. Their nerves were in a deplorably abnormal condition, the heart +and brain were functionally disturbed, and the sleep less in quantity and +less refreshing than it should be....One's opinion of the physical +disturbances which may be caused by rum, tobacco, or tea, are not worth +much, when the opinion comes from a victim of the excessive use of these +agents. + +The tannin found in tea does not differ from that found in oak and other +barks which the tanners use to convert the raw hides of animals into +leather. It is a powerful astringent, which accounts for some of the +peculiar physical evils to which confirmed tea drinkers are subject. + +_Theine_ does not differ essentially from _Cocaine_ (see p. +223). They both produce exaltation of the nervous system and increased +powers of physical endurance. The brain is largely influenced in its +functions, and long periods of wakefulness are induced. Continued use of +strong infusions of either coca or tea result in great disturbance of +nervous centers and functional offices, and either will produce fatal +results by persistent use of inordinate quantities. + +A cup of tea as served at tea tables contains usually only a trace of the +alkaloidal principle, but infinitesimal quantities are capable of exerting +baneful effects upon some tea drinkers....Poisons act in a variety of +ways, some slowly, and without producing pain; others act violently, and +with speedy, fatal results. Inasmuch as we do not observe a very large +number of clearly proved cases of acute poisoning by tea, we must conclude +that it is characteristically a slow poison, and also that its influence +is unlike in different individuals....Four or six cups of tea, however, +taken during each twenty-four hours, will in time produce tea poisoning, +and greater or less evil effects. + +Tea is well enough, when its use is kept under absolute, intelligent +control; but if it becomes master in any case, then it must be promptly +abandoned, for danger attends the intemperate tea drinker every hour of +his life. Those advanced in life crave its stimulating effects, and it is +well for them to use it in moderation; but the young should abstain from +it entirely.--_Abridged from "Tea Poisoning," by_ DR. NICHOLS, _in +Popular Science News, December, 1887_. + +CAUSES AND EFFECTS OF INDIGESTION (p. l72).--When a light breakfast is +eaten, a solid meal is requisite in the middle of the day. If the +digestive organs are left too long unemployed, they secrete an excess of +mucus, which greatly interferes with their normal functions. One meal has +a direct influence on the next; and a poor breakfast leaves the stomach +over-active for dinner. This is the secret of much excess in eating. The +point to bear in mind is that not to eat a sufficiency at one meal makes +you too hungry for the next; and that when you are too hungry, you are apt +to overload the stomach, and to give the gastric juices more to do than +they have the power to perform. + +To eat too often, and to eat irregularly, are other sources of +indigestion. People who dine at uncertain hours, and eat one meal too +quickly on the last, must expect the stomach to retaliate in the long run. +A very fruitful cause of dyspepsia is imperfect mastication. We remember +one old gentleman who used always to warn young people on this point by +saying: "Remember you have no teeth in your stomach." Nervous people +nearly always eat fast, and as nearly always are the victims of nervous +irritability, produced by dyspepsia....To sit much in a stooping posture +interferes with the stomach's action. Well-marked dyspepsia has been +traced to sitting immediately after dinner in a low armchair, so that the +body was curved forward, and the stomach compressed.... + +The skin, core, and kernels of fruit should be avoided. Some people are +not able to digest raw apples; and dyspepsia has been sometimes greatly +aggravated by eating pears. The latter fruit, in its ripest state, +contains an abundance of gritty material, which, as it can not be +separated in the mouth, on being swallowed irritates the mucous +membrane.... + +Of food itself, bear in mind that hot meat is more digestible than cold; +the flesh of full-grown animals than that of young ones; that land birds +are more digestible than waterfowl; wild animals than domestic ones; and +that in game, newly killed birds are easier of digestion than those which +have been kept a long time.--_Hints to Dyspeptics, Chambers's +Journal_. + +HOW FOOD DEVELOPS ENERGY (p. 173).--It may appear strange that the small +amount of food we eat should suffice to carry our large and bulky bodies +through all the varied movement of the day. But this difficulty disappears +at once, when we recollect how large an amount of dormant energy can be +laid by in a very small piece of matter. A lump of coal no bigger than +one's fist, if judiciously employed, will suffice to keep a small toy +engine at work for a considerable time. Now, our food is matter containing +large amounts of dormant energy, and our bodies are engines so constructed +as to utilize all the energy to the best advantage. A single gramme of +beef fat if completely burned (that is, if every atom unites with oxygen), +is capable of developing more than 9,000 heat units; and each heat unit, +if employed to perform mechanical work, is capable of lifting a weight of +one gramme to a height of 424 meters; or, what comes to the same thing, +424 grammes to a height of one meter. Accordingly, the energy contained in +one gramme of beef, and the oxygen with which it unites, would be +sufficient to raise the little bit of fat itself to a height of 3,816 +kilometers, or almost as high as the distance from London to New York.-- +GRANT ALLEN _in "Why do we Eat our Dinner_?" + +_Danger of Too High Pressure_.--A prudent fire engineer, when his +water hose is old and weak, would not try to force as much water as he +could into it. No; to prevent a rupture he would work it at a low +pressure. But men seldom think of carrying out the same simple mechanical +principle when there is reason to believe that the vessels of the brain +are getting weak and brittle. They eat and drink just as much as they feel +inclined to, and sometimes a little more. With a good digestion, nearly +all they consume is converted into blood, to the yet further distention of +vessels already over-distended. This high-pressure style of living +produces high-pressure results. Its effects were painfully illustrated by +the death of Charles Dickens. The brain work he performed was immense; he +lived generously, taking his wine as he did his meat, with a liberal hand. +He disregarded the signs of structural decay, forcing his reluctant brain +to do what it had once done with spontaneous ease, until all at once, +under a greater tension than ordinary, a weak vessel gave way, flooding +the brain with blood.--J. R. BLACK, M.D., _in "Apoplexy," Popular +Science Monthly, April, 1875_. + +_Evils of Gluttony_.--"Is it not strange," says Dr. Hunt, "how +people, even the most considerate, will trifle with their stomachs? Many a +person seems to prefer taking medicine to avoiding it by a proper +regulation of the appetite. You may stuff the stomach to the full, year +after year, but as sure as effects follow causes, so sure will you reap +the accumulating penalty." A physician of extensive practice declares that +he has never lived through a Christmas or Thanksgiving without frequently +being consulted for ailments produced by excessive eating. He says: "It +would seem as if multitudes thought they had a gluttonous license once a +year, and that the most appropriate method of expressing gratitude, was by +stuffing the stomach. Excessive eating produces scrofula. Surfeiting +among children results in mental stupidity and unmanageable temper....I am +acquainted with a family, in which about the average amount of stuffing is +indulged. To my expostulations, the mother has replied: "I may not be able +to give my children as much education as some folks, and I may not be able +to give them any property, but as long as we can get it, they shall have +what they want to eat. I have spoken of their black teeth, bad breath, +eruptions, and frequent sickness. "Yes," she has replied, "I know all +that, but would you have me stop them before their appetites are half +satisfied, and tell them, 'there, that is all you can have'? No; as long +as I can get it, my children shall have enough to eat; it never shall be +said that I have starved them." This indulgence of children to the full +extent of their undiscriminating appetites is extreme folly and genuine +unkindness. Pampered with a variety of dishes, they eat enormously, which +engenders a craving for another large meal, and so on--their youthful and +elastic constitutions enabling them to bear the excess without immediate +serious injury. Let them be confined to one or two plain dishes at a meal, +and the quantity be determined for them; it will then be found that a +growing child does not need to be stuffed, and that his appetite will soon +become reasonable; and if the food be plain, and mostly or entirely +vegetable, it will soon be observed that the child's teeth are whiter, its +breath sweeter, its skin clearer, its tongue cleaner, its eyes brighter, +its sleep quieter, its brains sharper, and its temper more amiable. There +are few changes in the management of children which would prove so +beneficial as that from the present mode of cramming with a multitude of +rich foods, to a plain vegetable diet, eaten in regular and moderate +quantities.--DIO LEWIS, _in Weak Lungs, and How to Make them Strong_. + +REGULAR PHYSICAL HABITS (p. 177).--Constipation lies at the root of a host +of chronic ailments, which seem especially to beset American women. +Impaired blood, nervous excitability, sick headaches, mental depression, +sleeplessness, and a long train of untold sufferings may be directly +traced to this physical sin. We say _sin_, for in the large majority +of instances this habit may be prevented; or, if already formed, may, by +proper attention, be cured. The principal causes which lead to this +deplorable state of the system are: + +1. Errors in Food. + +2. Errors in Exercise. + +3. Inattention to Nature's laws. + +_Errors in Food_ have much to do with the evil in question. Our diet +is, in general, too concentrated. We indulge ourselves with animal food +two or three times a day, accompanying it with spices, condiments, greasy +gravies, fine wheat bread, and a sparse amount of vegetables. We wind up +our dinners with rich and heavy pastry, and our luncheons or our suppers +with sugared sweetmeats and that indigestible compound often offered under +the name of cake. A few cups of strong tea intensify the error. Coffee has +a less astringent effect, and therefore can not be so severely arraigned +for this particular consequence. When we think what delicious meals can be +enjoyed from any of the cereals, well cooked, and taken with milk or +cream, bread from unbolted flour, plenty of unsugared fruit, and pure rain +or spring water, filtered and cooled or taken hot, with or without milk, +we wonder that so many people consent day after day to use greasy pork, +fried steaks, fried potatoes, hot biscuit, and in many cases poorly made +coffee and tea. These are the people who make up the grand army of sallow- +faced sufferers upon which the venders of patent pills and nauseous +compounds thrive. + +A wise mother will not allow mere culinary convenience to take precedence +of the requirements of health. She will study the peculiar physical needs +of each one of her children, that she may provide for each the food best +suited to his or her constitution. This is not a difficult matter. "Water, +not only by itself, but in some of its combinations," says Dr. Oswald, "is +an effective aperient; in watermelons, and whey, for instance, but still +more in conjunction with a dish of peas, or beans. No constipation can +long withstand the suasion of a dose of pea soup, or baked beans, flavored +with a modicum of brown butter, and glorified with a cup of cold spring +water. Moreover, the aperient effect thus produced is not followed by an +astringent reaction, as in the case of drugs,--the cure, once effected, is +permanent." + +_Errors in Exercise_ may lie in two directions, and overexertion, +viz., exercise carried to the point of nervous exhaustion, is as +mischievous in its effect as is the other extreme. A too long walk, for +instance, may cause the very evil it is intended to cure. + +As a rule, however, sedentary habits are chargeable with the greater share +of influence in this unhappy state of the system. Light gymnastics within +doors, a brisk walk or horseback ride without, both taken in garments +suspended from the shoulders, and devoid of all constriction so that the +abdominal viscera can partake in the general movement of the body, are +advisable. For invalids or those incapacitated for active exercise, +friction or massage treatment daily, including a vigorous kneading of the +abdomen, or a relaxation of the entire muscles of the body with especial +thought directed to the desired result, are often of great service. + +_Inattention to Physical Laws_ is perhaps the prime culprit. Nature +always inclines to regularity, and when we do not respect her dictates, we +invite the retribution which, sooner or later, she invariably inflicts. +The elimination of waste from the system is an imperative necessity, and +whenever it is thwarted, evil must and will follow. Aside from the +avoidance of positive discomforts, suffering, and disease, there is the +not unimportant consideration of bodily elasticity and a fine complexion. +Let every young woman who would possess and retain a fair, delicate +complexion, remember that the most important factor in its formation and +retention is a clean system. + +Proper diet, plenty of fruits, plenty of wholesome drink, enough exercise +to send the blood pleasurably bounding through the veins, followed up and +enforced by prompt recognition of the immutable laws of Health in this as +well as all other organic functions, will soon work a reform that could +not be so successfully effected by all the drugs in Christendom.--E. B. S. + +THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. + +EFFECT OF VIOLENT PASSIONS UPON HEALTH (p. 202).--The man who is given to +outbursts of anger is sure to experience a rapid change of the physical +organs, in case he does not die in a fit of rage. + +Death under such circumstances is of frequent occurrence. Sylla, +Valentinian, Nerva, Wenceslas, and Isabeau of Bavaria, all died in +consequence of an access of passion. The medical annals of our own time +recount many instances of fatal effects following the violent brain +disturbance caused by anger. The symptoms usually are pulmonary and +cerebral congestions. Still such fatal accidents as these are exceptional; +as a rule, the passions of hate and anger deteriorate the constitution by +slow, but sure degrees. + +How, then, do we explain those morbid phenomena which have their origin in +misplaced affection, in disappointed ambition, in hatred, or in anger, and +which culminate either in serious chronic maladies, or in death or +suicide? They all seem to start from an impairment of the cerebro-spinal +centers. The continual excitation of these by ever-present emotions +determines a paralysis of the central nerve substance, and thus affects +its connections with the nerves extending out to the various organs. These +nerves next degenerate by degrees, and soon the great functions are +compromised. The heart and the lungs cease to act with their normal +rhythm, the circulation grows irregular and languishing. Appetite +disappears, the amount of carbonic acid exhaled decreases, and the hair +grows white, owing to the interruption of the pigmentary secretion. This +general disturbance in nutrition and secretion is attended with a fall of +the body's temperature and anæmia. The flesh dries up and the organism +becomes less and less capable of resisting morbific influences. At the +same time, in consequence of the reaction of all these disturbances on the +brain, the psychic faculties become dull or perverted, and the patient +falls into a decline more or less complicated and aggravated by grave +symptoms. Under these conditions he dies or makes away with himself. + +Two organs, the stomach and the liver, are often affected in a peculiar +and characteristic way in the course of this pathological evolution. The +modifications produced in the innervation, under the influence of cephalic +excitement, cause a disturbance of the blood circulation in the liver. +This disturbance is of such a nature that the bile, now secreted in larger +quantity, is resorbed into the blood instead of passing into the biliary +vesicle. Then appears what we call jaundice. The skin becomes pale, then +yellow, owing to the presence in the blood of the coloring matter of the +bile. This change in the liver is usually developed slowly: sometimes, +however, jaundice makes its appearance suddenly. Villeneuve mentions the +case of two youths who brought a discussion to an end by grasping their +swords; suddenly one of them turned yellow, and the other, alarmed at this +transformation, dropped his weapon. The same author speaks of a priest who +became jaundiced on seeing a mad dog jump at him. Whatever may be said of +these cases, we must reckon painful affections of the soul among the +efficient causes of chronic diseases of the liver. + +The digestion, says the author of a work published some years ago, is +completely subjected to the influence of the moral and intellectual state. +When the brain is wearied by the passions, appetite and digestion are +almost gone....There is nowhere perfect health, save when the passions are +well regulated, harmonized, and equipoised. Moral temperance is as +indispensable to a calm and tranquil life as physiological +temperance....If it is your desire that your circulatory, respiratory, and +digestive functions should be discharged properly, normally, if you want +your appetite to be good, your sleep sound, your humor equable, avoid all +emotions that are overstrong, all pleasures that are too intense, and meet +the inevitable sorrows and the cruel agonies of life with a firm and +resigned soul. Ever have some occupation to employ and divert your mind, +and to make it proof against the temptations of want or of desire. Thus +will you attain the term of life without overmuch disquiet and +affliction.--FERNAND PAPILLON, _in the Revue des Deux Mondes_. + +BRAIN WORK, OVERWORK, AND WORRY (p. 205).--_Overstimulation of the Brain +in Childhood_.--Most civilized communities have enacted laws against +the employment of children in severe physical labor. This is well enough, +for the muscles of young persons are tender and weak, and not, therefore, +adapted to the work to which cupidity or ignorance would otherwise subject +them. But no such fostering care does the State take of the brains of the +young. There are no laws to prevent the undeveloped nervous system being +overtasked and brought to disease, or even absolute destruction. Every +physician sees cases of the kind, and wonders how parents of intelligence +can be so blind to the welfare of their offspring as to force, or even to +allow, their brains to be worked to a degree that, in many cases, results +in idiocy or death. Only a few months ago I saw for the first time a boy +of five years of age, with a large head, a prominent forehead, and all the +other signs of mental precocity. He had read the first volume of Bryant's +"History of the United States," and was preparing to tackle the other +volumes! He read the magazines of the day with as much interest as did his +father, and conversed with equal facility on the politics of the period. +But a few weeks before I saw him he had begun to walk in his sleep, then +chorea had made its appearance, and on the day before he was brought to me +he had had a well-marked epileptic paroxysm. Already his mind is weakened +--perhaps permanently so. Such cases are not isolated ones. They are +continually occurring. + +The period of early childhood--say up to seven or eight years of age--is +that during which the brain and other parts of the nervous system are most +actively developing, in order to fit them for the great work before them. +It is safe to say that the only instruction given during this time should +be that which consists in teaching children how to observe. The perceptive +faculties alone should be made the subjects of systematic attempts at +development. The child should be taught how to use his senses, and +especially how to see, hear, and touch. In this manner, knowledge would be +acquired in the way that is preeminently the natural way, and ample food +would be furnished for the child's reflective powers.--DK. WM. A. HAMMOND, +_Popular Science Monthly, November, 1884_. + +_Reserve Force_.--The part which "a stock of energy" plays in brain +work can scarcely be exaggerated. Reserves are of high moment everywhere +in the animal economy, and the reserve of mental force is in a practical +sense more important than any other....Without this reserve, healthy brain +work is impossible. Pain, hunger, anxiety, and a sense of mind weariness, +are warning tokens of exhaustion. When the laborious worker, overcome with +fatigue, "rouses" himself with alcohol, coffee, tea, or any other agent +which may chance to suit him, he does not add a unit of force to his stock +of energy; he simply narcotizes the sense of weariness, and, the guard +being drugged, he appropriates the reserve....Meanwhile, the effort to +work becomes daily more laborious, the task of fixing the attention grows +increasingly difficult, thoughts wander, memory fails, the reasoning power +is enfeebled; physical nerve or brain disturbance may supervene, and the +crash will then come suddenly, unexpected by on-lookers, perhaps +unperceived by the sufferer himself. + +_Overwork and Worry_.--The miseries of "overwork," pure and simple, +are few and comparatively insignificant....The natural safeguards are so +well fitted for their task that neither body nor mind is exposed to the +peril of serious exhaustion so long as their functions are duly performed. +Overwork is _impossible_ so long as the effort made is natural....There +is then no excuse for idleness in the pretense of possible injury. If +insane asylums were searched for the victims of "overwork," they would +nearly all be found to have fallen a prey to "worry," or to the degeneracy +which results from lack of purpose in life, and of steady employment +....The cause or condition which most commonly exposes the reserve of +mental energy to loss and injury is worry. When a strong and active mind +breaks down suddenly in the midst of business, it is usually worn out by +this cause rather than by the other....Work in the teeth of worry is +fraught with peril. The unhappy victim is ever on the verge of a +catastrophe; if he escape, the marvel is not at his strength of intellect +so much as at his good fortune. Worry is disorder, however induced, and +disorderly work is abhorred by the laws of nature, which leave it wholly +without remedy. + +The pernicious system of _Cram_ slays its thousands, because +uneducated, undeveloped, inelastic intellects are burdened and strained +with information adroitly deposited in the memory,--as an expert valet +packs a portmanteau, with the articles likely to be first wanted on the +top. _Desultory occupation_, mere play with objects of which the true +interest is not appreciated, ruins a still larger number. But +_worry_, that bane of brain work and mental energy, counts its +victims by tens of thousands.--DR. J. MORTIMER GRANVILLE, _in "Worry," +Nineteenth Century_. + +SLEEP (p. 206).--_Some Curiosities of Sleep_.--One of the most +refined and exquisite methods of torture is long continued deprivation of +sleep. The demand for unconscious rest is so imperious that nature will +accommodate itself to the most unfavorable surrounding conditions. Thus, +in forced marches, regiments have been known to sleep while walking; men +have slept soundly in the saddle; and persons will sometimes sleep during +the din of battle. It is remarkable how noises to which we have been +accustomed will fail to disturb our natural rest. Those who have been long +habituated to the endless noise of a crowded city frequently find +difficulty in sleeping in the oppressive stillness of the country. +Prolonged exposure to intense cold induces excessive somnolence, and if +this be induced, the sleep passes into stupor, the power of resistance to +cold becomes rapidly diminished, and death is the inevitable result. +Intense heat often produces drowsiness, but, as is well known, is not +favorable to natural sleep....It is difficult to determine with exactness +the phenomena of sleep that are absolutely physiological, and to separate +those that are slightly abnormal. We can not assert, for example, that a +dreamless sleep is the only normal condition of repose of the system; nor +can we determine what dreams are due to previous trains of thought, or to +such impressions from the external world received during sleep as are +purely physiological, and what are due to abnormal nervous influence, +disordered digestion, etc. + +The most remarkable experiments upon the production of dreams of a +definite character, by subjecting a person during sleep to peculiar +influences, are those of Maury. The hallucinations produced in this way +are called hypnagogic (from its derivation this term is properly applied +only to phenomena observed at the instant when we fall asleep, or when we +are imperfectly awakened, and not to the period of most perfect repose), +and they occur when the subject is not in a condition favorable to sound +sleep. + +The experiments made by Maury upon himself are so curious and interesting +that we quote the most striking of them in full. + +_First Observation_.--I am tickled with a feather successively on the +lips and inside of the nostrils. I dream that I am subjected to a horrible +punishment, that a mask of pitch is applied to my face, and then roughly +torn off, tearing the skin of the lip, the nose, and the face. + +_Second Observation_.--A pair of pincers is held at a little distance +from my ear, and rubbed with steel scissors. I dream that I hear the +ringing of bells; this soon becomes a tocsin, and I imagine myself in the +days of June, 1848. (The time of the French Revolution.) + +_Third Observation_.--I am caused to inhale Cologne water. I dream I +am in a perfumer's shop; the idea of perfumes doubtless awakens the idea +of the East; I am in Cairo, in the shop of Jean Farina.... + +_Fifth Observation_.--I am slightly pinched on the nape of the neck. +I dream that a blister is applied, which recalls to my mind a physician +who had treated me in infancy. + +_Seventh Observation_....The words Azar, Castor, Leonore, were +pronounced in my ear; on awaking I recollected that I had heard the last +two words, which I attributed to one of the persons who had conversed with +me in my dream.--FLINT'S _Physiology of Man_. + +The transition stage between the dream simple and the dream acted is +witnessed in the spasmodic movements which a vivid dream produces in the +limbs or person of the sleeper. The dreamer engages in a fierce struggle, +and twitchings of his legs and arms indicate the feeble response of body +to the promptings of mind removed from its wonted power over the frame. +Even the dog, as he sleeps, apparently dreams of the chase, and gives vent +to his sensations by the short, sharp bark, or sniffs the air, and starts +in his slumber as if in response to the activity with which, in his +dreaming, he is hurrying along after the object of pursuit....Persons have +been known to swim for a considerable time in the somnambulistic state +without waking at the termination of their journey; others have safely +descended the shaft of a mine, while some have ascended steep cliffs, and +have returned home in safety during a prolonged sleep vigil. (See p. +204.)--DR. ANDREW WILSON, F.R.S.E., _What Dreams are Made of_. + +_Sleep and Conscience_.--Edward Everett Hale says: Never go to bed in +any danger of being hungry. People are kept awake by hunger quite as much +as by a bad conscience. Remembering that sleep is the essential force +which starts the whole system, decline tea or coffee within the last six +hours before going to bed. Avoid all mathematics or intricate study of any +sort in the last six hours. This is the stuff dreams are made of, and hot +heads, and the nuisances of waking hours. Keep your conscience clear. +Remember that because the work of life is infinite, you can not do the +whole of it in any limited period of time, and that therefore you may just +as well leave off in one place as another. + +_The Art of Rising Early_.--The proper time to rise is when sleep +ends. Dozing should not be allowed. True sleep is the aggregate of sleeps, +or is a state consisting in the sleeping or rest of all the several parts +of the organism. Sometimes one and at other times another part of the +body, as a whole, may be the least fatigued, and so the first to awake; or +the most exhausted, and therefore the most difficult to arouse. The secret +of good sleep is, the physiological conditions of rest being established, +so to work and weary the several parts of the organism as to give them a +proportionately equal need of rest at the same moment. To wake early, and +feel ready to rise, a fair and equal start of the sleepers should be +secured; and the wise self-manager should not allow a drowsy feeling of +unconsciousness, or weary senses, or an exhausted muscular system, to +beguile him into the folly of going to sleep again when once he has been +aroused. After a few days of self-discipline, the man who resolves not to +doze, that is, not to allow some sleepy part of his body to keep him in +bed after his brain has once awakened, will find himself, without knowing +why, an early riser. + +INFLUENCE OF SUNLIGHT (p. 207).--Light is an essential element in +producing the grand phenomena of life, though its action is ill +understood. Where there is light there is life, and any deprivation of +this principle is rapidly followed by disease of the animal frame, and the +destruction of the mental faculties. We have proof of this in the squalor +of those whose necessities compel them to labor in places to which the +blessings of sunshine never penetrate, as in our coal mines, where men +having everything necessary for health, except light, exhibit a singularly +unhealthy appearance. The state of fatuity and wretchedness to which those +individuals have been reduced, who have been subjected for years to +incarceration in dark dungeons, may be referred to the same deprivation.-- +ROBERT HUNT, _Poetry of Science_. + +_Effect of Dungeon Life_.--"You can not imagine, Mr. Kennan," said a +condemned revolutionist to me in Siberia, "the misery of prolonged +confinement in a casemate of the fortress under what are known as dungeon +conditions. My casemate was sometimes cold, generally damp, and always +gloomy. Day after day, week after week, month after month, I lay there in +solitude, hearing no sound save that of the high-pitched, melancholy bells +of the fortress cathedral, which slowly chimed the quarter hours, and +which always seemed to say: 'Here thou liest--lie here still.' I had +absolutely nothing to do except to pace my cell from corner to corner, and +think. For a long time I used to talk to myself in a whisper; to repeat +softly everything in the shape of literature that I could remember, and to +compose speeches which, under certain imagined conditions, I would +deliver; but I finally ceased to have energy enough to do even this, and +used to sit for hours in a sort of stupor, in which, so far as I can now +remember, I was not conscious of thinking at all. Before the end of the +first year, I grew so weak, mentally and physically, that I began to +forget words. I knew what ideas I desired to express, but some of the +words that I needed had gone from me, and it was with the greatest +difficulty that I could recover them. It seemed sometimes as if my own +language were a strange one to me, or one which, from long disuse, I had +forgotten. I greatly feared insanity, and my apprehension was increased by +the fact that two or three of my comrades in cells on the same corridor +were either insane or subject to hallucinations; and I was often roused at +night and thrown into a violent chill of nervous excitement by their +hysterical weeping, their cries to the guard to come and take away +somebody, or something which they imagined they saw, or their groans and +entreaties when, in cases of violent delirium, they were strapped to their +beds by the _gendarmes_."--GEORGE KENNAN, _in Russian State +Prisoners, The Century, March, 1888_. + +THE GROWTH AND POWER OF POISON HABITS (p. 218).--In order to distinguish a +poison stimulant from a harmless and nutritive substance, Nature has +furnished us three infallible tests: + +1. The first taste of every poison is either insipid or repulsive. + +2. The persistent obtrusion of the noxious substance changes that aversion +into a specific craving. + +3. The more or less pleasurable excitement produced by a gratification of +that craving is always followed by a depressing reaction.... + +One radical fallacy identifies the stimulant habit in all its disguises: +its victims mistake a process of irritation for one of invigoration.... +Sooner or later the tonic is sure to pall while the morbid craving +remains, and forces its victims either to increase the quantity of +the wonted stimulant, or else to resort to a stronger poison. A boy begins +with ginger beer and ends in ginger rum; the medical "tonic" delusion +progresses from malt extract to Mumford's Elixir; and the nicotine habit +once introduced, the alcohol habit often follows. The tendency of every +stimulant habit is toward a stronger tonic....We have found that the road +to the rum shop is paved with "mild stimulants," and that every bottle of +medical bitters is apt to get the vender a permanent customer. We have +found that cider and mild ale lead to strong ale, to lager beer, and +finally to rum, and the truth at last dawns upon us that the only safe, +consistent, and effective plan is Total Abstinence from all Poisons. + +...More than the hunger after bread, more than the frenzy of love or +hatred, the poison hunger overpowers every other instinct, even the fear +of death. Dr. Isaac Jennings has illustrated this by the following +example: A clergyman of his acquaintance attempted to dissuade a young man +of great promise from habits of intemperance. "Hear me first a few words," +said the young man, "and then you may proceed. I am sensible that an +indulgence in this habit will lead to the loss of property, the loss of +reputation and domestic happiness, to premature death, and to the +irretrievable loss of my immortal soul; and now, with all this conviction +resting firmly on my mind and flashing over my conscience like lightning, +if I still continue to drink, do you suppose anything you can say will +deter me from the practice?" + +...Ignorance is a chief cause of intemperance. The seductions of vice +would not mislead so many of our young men if they could realize the +significance of their mistake. There is still a lingering belief that, +with due precaution against excess and adulteration, a dram drinker might +"get ahead" of Nature, and, as it were, trick her out of some extra +enjoyment. There is no hope of a radical reform till intelligent people +have realized the fact that this "trick" is in every instance a losing +game, entailing penalties which far outweigh the pleasures that the novice +may mistake for enjoyments. For the depression of the vital energy +increases with every repetition of the stimulating process, and in a year +after the first dose all the "grateful and exhilarating tonics" of our +professional poison venders can not restore the vigor, the courage, and +the cheerfulness which the mere consciousness of perfect health imparts to +the total abstainer. A great plurality of all beginners underrate the +difficulty of controlling the cravings of a morbid appetite. They remember +that their natural inclinations at first opposed, rather than encouraged, +the indulgence; and they feel that at the present stage of its development +they could abjure the passion without difficulty. But they overlook the +fact that the moral power of resistance decreases with each repetition of +the dose, and that the time will come when only the practical +impossibility of procuring their wonted tipple will enable them to keep +their pledge of total abstinence. It is true that, by the exercise of a +constant self-restraint, a person of great will force may resist the +progressive tendency of the poison habit and confine himself for years to +a single cigar or a single bottle of wine per day....But the attempt to +resist that bias will overtask the strength of most individuals. According +to the allegory of the Grecian myth, the car of Bacchus was drawn by +tigers; and it is a significant circumstance that war, famine, and +pestilence have so often been the forerunners of veritable alcohol +epidemics....The explanation is that, after the stimulant habit has once +been initiated, every unusual depression of mental or physical vigor calls +for an increased application of the accustomed method of relief....Nations +who are addicted to the worship of a poison god will use his temple as a +place of refuge from every calamity; and children whose petty ailments +have been palliated with narcotics, wine, and cordials, will afterward be +tempted to drown their greater sorrows in deeper draughts of the same +nepenthe.--FELIX L. OSWALD, M.D., _Remedies of Nature, Popular Science +Monthly, October and November, 1883_. + +DANGERS FROM THE USE OF NARCOTICS.--It may seem a paradox, it is a truism, +to say that in the value of narcotics lies their peril. Because they have +such power for good, because the suffering which they alleviate is in its +lighter forms so common, because neuralgia and sleeplessness are ailments +as familiar to the present generation as gout, rheumatism, and catarrh +were to our grandfathers, therefore the medicines which immediately +relieve sleeplessness and neuralgic pain are among the most dangerous +possessions, the most subtle temptations of civilized life. Every one of +these drugs has, besides its instant and beneficial effect, other and +injurious tendencies. The relief which it gives is purchased at a certain +price; for, at each repetition of the dose, the immediate relief is +lessened or rendered uncertain, while the mischievous influence is +enhanced and aggravated; till, when the drug has become a necessity of +life it has lost the greater part, if not the whole, of its value, and +serves only to satisfy the need which itself alone has created....We read +weekly of men and women poisoned by an overdose of some favorite sedative, +burned to death or otherwise fatally injured, while insensible from self- +administered ether or chloroform....The narcotist keeps chloroform or +chloral always at hand, forgetful or ignorant that one sure effect of the +first dose is to produce a semistupor more dangerous than actual +somnolence. In that semistupor the patient is aware, or fancies, that the +dose has failed. The pain that has induced a lady to hold a chloroformed +handkerchief under her nostrils returns while her will and her judgment +are half paralyzed. She takes the bottle from the table beside her bed, +intending to pour an additional supply upon her handkerchief. The unsteady +hand perhaps spills a quantity on the sheet, perhaps sinks with the +unstoppered bottle under her nostrils, and in a few moments she has +inhaled enough utterly to stupefy, if not to kill. The sleepless brain +worker also feels that his usual dose of chloral has failed to bring +sleep; he is not aware how completely it has stupefied the brain, to which +it has not given rest. His judgment is gone, so is his steadiness of hand; +and he pours out a second and too often a fatal dose....But the cases that +end in a death terrible to the family, though probably involving little or +no suffering to the victim himself, are by no means the worst. A life +poisoned, paralyzed, rendered worthless for all the uses of intellectual, +rational, we might almost say of human existence, is worse for the +sufferer himself and for all around him than a quick and painless death; +and for one such death there must be twenty, if not a hundred, instances +of this worst death in life....The demoralization of the narcotist is not, +like that of the drunkard, rapid, violent, and palpable; but gradual, +insidious, perceptible at first only to close observers and intimate +friends. Here and there we find a constitution upon which opium exerts few +or none of its characteristic effects. Such cases are, of course, wholly +exceptional; but their very existence is a danger to others, misleading +them into the idea that they may dally with the tempter without falling +under its yoke, or may fall under that yoke and find it a light one. I +doubt, however, whether the most fortunate of its victims would encourage +the latter idea; whether there be an opium eater who would not give a limb +never to have known what opium slavery means....Besides, no one can be +sure, or indeed reasonably hope, that the mischief will be confined to the +individual victim. That the children of drunkards are often predisposed to +insanity is notorious; that the children of habitual opium eaters inherit +an unmistakable taint, whether in a diseased brain, in morbid cravings, or +simply in a will too weak to resist temptation, is less notorious, but +equally certain.--PERCY GREG, _Narcotics and Stimulants, Contemporary +Review_. + +Thus also in America scarcely a week passes but we see announced in the +public prints deaths or suicides resulting from the use of narcotics. Now, +it is from tobacco: A Yale College student dies from excessive smoking; +another student in the same college, and as a result of the same habit, +commits suicide; a third young man is found dead in his bed in New York, +from heart disease induced by cigarettes; and so, month by month, and year +by year, grows in rapid increase the list of tobacco deaths.--Or, again, +it is from opium. A Harvard student with two of his college companions in +search of a new sensation, tries opium smoking one fatal night and dies +before morning; a woman in Ohio, belonging to a prominent family, dies at +the age of thirty-three years, from an overdose of morphine, her body +covered with hypodermic scars; another, once the respected wife of a +Baptist clergyman, becomes a morphine drunkard, drifts, step by step, into +a Central New York Almshouse, and there hangs herself; a third, young, +accomplished, and wealthy, falls first a victim to the morphine habit, +then to opium smoking, finally becomes the frequenter of a New York opium +joint, and so is lost forever to home, friends, and respectability.-- +Occasionally it is cocaine, as in the case of the Chicago physician, who, +for the purposes of investigation, experiments with this new drug upon +himself, his wife, and finally upon his innocent children; the entire +family being found unconscious from the effects of the subtle narcotic. +These are but solitary instances in an appallingly long list of similar +cases, most of which have occurred within the last two years (1887-'88). + +_Cigarette Smoking_ is chargeable with a growing demoralization and +mortality among boys and young men. It is no uncommon sight to see lads of +ten years old and under, with the irresponsibility of ignorant childhood, +puffing the dangerous cigarette, and thus undermining health and intellect +at the very outset of useful existence. Even when told of the near and +remote perils thus incurred, they scarcely listen, for do not they see +their elders smoke and prosper?--Most of them do not understand that there +is more danger to the young than to the old in the tobacco habit, more +danger to some constitutions than to others, and more danger in the +cigarette than even in the pipe or the cigar. Pause a moment to consider +it, boys, when you are tempted to light the clean-looking, paper-covered +roll and place it in your mouth. Think of the heated smoke irritating the +delicate membrane in your throat, dulling your brain, and vitiating the +blood which should be bounding fresh and pure through your veins. Think of +the many filthy and diseased mouths from which have been cast away the +tobacco refuse, picked up in streets and public places to reappear in the +"Cheap and Popular Brand" which looks to you so innocent and so +attractive. It is astonishing, indeed, how an otherwise cleanly boy will +consent to defile himself with these vile abominations. And yet, I have +known lads who--not always with perfect politeness--would fastidiously +refuse "hash" at their mother's breakfast table, but who would shortly +afterward serenely place one of these unknowable compounds between their +lips and walk away with the air of superior manhood! + +_Of Chloral Hydrate_, Dr. Fothergill remarks: "When this was +announced with a flourish of trumpets as a perfectly innocuous narcotic, +the sleepless folk hailed its advent with eager acclamation. But a little +experience soon demonstrated that the innocuous, harmless drug was far +from the boon it was proclaimed. In fact, the impression of its +harmlessness was the outcome of ignorance of its properties. Death after +death, even among medical men themselves, as well as nonprofessional +persons, have already resulted from the use, or rather misuse, of this +narcotic agent." + +_The Bromides_ (of Soda or Potash), also, should be used with +caution, and only on the prescription of a conscientious physician. "The +bromide of potash," says Percy Greg, "is claimed not to produce sleep by +stupefaction, like chloral or opium, but, at least in small doses, to +allay the nervous irritability which is often the sole cause of +sleeplessness. But in larger quantities and in its ultimate effects, it is +scarcely less to be dreaded than chloral." Overdoses of the bromides will +produce among other evil effects a peculiar eruption upon the face, which, +though generally temporary, is liable to reappear from time to time under +certain conditions of the system, and especially upon a subsequent dose, +however dilute. + +_Absinthe_ is a compound of absinthium (the essence of wormwood), +various aromatic oils, and alcohol. Absinthium, taken in small doses, +induces trembling, stupor, and insensibility; in larger doses, epilepsy. +When, therefore, this dangerous essence is added to alcohol, it +strengthens its influence to specific disease. Absinthe drinking is +recognized in France as such a serious vice that it has been officially +prohibited in the army and navy. + +_Hasheesh_ is a syrup prepared from the leaves and flowers of Indian +Hemp. Though its use in this country is comparatively small, instances are +not unknown in which reckless or curious persons have fatally experimented +with it. As a medicine, it is in limited use, and with results not always +satisfactory. It acts in a peculiar manner upon the nervous centers, +occasioning that strange condition of the nervous system called catalepsy, +in which the limbs of the unconscious patient remain stationary in +whatever position they may be placed. After an average dose of hasheesh, +the subject becomes the helpless victim of rapidly shifting ideas, a +prominent characteristic of which is an entire loss of judgment as to time +and place. A larger dose produces hallucinations and delirium, with that +distressing sensation of falling through endless space which is induced in +some people by opium. [Footnote: In an article entitled "An Overdose of +Hasheesh" (_Popular Science Monthly_, February, 1884), Miss MARY A. +HUNGERFORD gives a vivid description of a painful experience with this +drug, some portion of which is as follows: + +"Being one of the grand army of sufferers from headache, I took, last +summer, by order of my physician, three small daily doses of hasheesh in +the hope of holding my intimate enemy in check....I grew to regard the +drug as a harmless medicine, and one day, when I was assured by some +familiar symptoms that my headache was about to assume an aggravated form, +I took a larger quantity than had been prescribed. Twenty minutes later I +was seized with a strange sinking or faintness which gave my family so +much alarm that they telephoned at once for the doctor. + +"...One terrible reality--I can hardly term it a fancy even now--that came +to me again and again, was so painful that it must, I fear, always be a +vividly remembered agony....I died, as I believed, although by a strange +double consciousness I knew that I should again reanimate the body I had +left. In leaving it I did not soar away, as one delights to think of the +freed spirits soaring....I sank, an intangible, impalpable shape, through +the bed, the floors, the cellar, the earth, down, down, down! Like a +fragment of glass dropping through the ocean, I dropped uninterruptedly +through the earth and its atmosphere, and then fell on and on +forever....As time went on, and my dropping through space continued, I +became filled with the most profound loneliness, and a desperate fear took +hold of me that I should be thus alone for evermore, and fall and fall +eternally....There was, it seemed to me, a forgotten text which, if +remembered, would be the spell to stop my fatal falling. I sought in my +memory for it, I prayed to recall it, I fought for it madly, wrestling +against the terrible fate which seemed to withhold it. Single words of it +came to me in disconnected mockery, but erased themselves instantaneously. +Mentally, I writhed in such hopeless agony that, in thinking of it, I +wonder I could have borne such excess of emotion and lived....I began, +then, without having reached any goal, to ascend. As I rose, a great and +terrible voice from a vast distance pronounced my doom: 'Fall, fall, fall, +to rise again in hopeless misery, and sink again in lonely agony forever.' +...Then ensued a wild and terrible commingling of unsyllabled sounds, so +unearthly that it is not in the power of language to fitly describe them. +It was something like a mighty Niagara of shrieks and groans, combined +with the fearful din and crash of thousands of battles and the thunderous +roar of a stormy sea....I fought my upward way in an agony which resembled +nothing so much as the terrible moment when, from strangling or +suffocation, all the forces of life struggle against death, and wrestle +madly for another breath. In place of the woeful sounds now reigned a +deadly stillness, broken only at long but regular intervals by a loud +report, as if a cannon, louder than any I ever heard on earth, were +discharged at my side, almost shot into me, I might say, for the sound +appeared to rend me from head to foot, and then to die away into the dark +chaos about me in strange, shuddering reverberations. Even in the misery +of my ascending I was filled with a dread expectancy of the cruel sound. +It gave me a feeling of acute physical torture, with a lingering intensity +that bodily suffering could not have. It was repeated an incredible number +of times, and always with the same suffering and shock to me. At last the +sound came oftener, but with less force, and I seemed again nearing the +shores of time. Dimly in the far distance I saw the room I had left, +myself lying still and deathlike upon the bed, and the friends watching +me....Then, silently and invisibly I floated into the room, and was one +with myself again. + +"...'She is conscious now,' I heard one of the doctors say, and he gently +lifted the lids of my eyes and looked into them. I tried my best to throw +all the intelligence I could into them, and returned his look with one of +recognition. But, even with my eyes fixed on his, I felt myself going +again in spite of my craving to stay. I longed to implore the doctor to +save me, to keep me from the unutterable anguish of falling into the +vastness and vagueness of that shadowy sea of nothingness again. I clasped +my hands in wild entreaty; I was shaken by horrible convulsions--so, at +least, it seemed to me at the time--but, beyond a slight quivering of the +fingers, no movement was discernible by the others....For five hours I +remained in the same condition--short intervals of half-consciousness and +then long lapses into the agonizing experiences I have described....Coming +out of the last trance, I discovered that the measured rending report like +the discharge of a cannon, which attended my upward way, was the throbbing +of my own heart."] + +Concerning all these and other narcotics, it should never be forgotten +that they are true poisons, sold with the mark of skull and crossbones, +useful, like strychnine and henbane, in the hands of a skillful physician, +but fraught with deadly danger when otherwise employed. Their private use +is never safe. The weak and nervous invalid, who can not by hygienic means +build up new strength, need never hope to gain it by surreptitiously +indulging in popular narcotics. Instead, he will soon discover that he has +but added to his list of ills a new and fatal one.--E. B. S. + +THE SPECIAL SENSES. + +AN EDUCATED SENSE OF TOUCH (p. 230).--Laura Dewey Bridgman, teacher in the +Perkins Institute for the Blind, South Boston, lost her sight, hearing, +and sense of smell, when she was two years of age. At the age of eight +years she was taken to the institution where she yet remains. At this +time, by following her mother around the house she had become familiar +with home appointments, and by feeling her mother's hands and arms had +also learned to sew and knit. When she first became an inmate of the +Perkins Institute, she was bewildered by her strange surroundings, but +after she had become used to place and people, through her one and only +sense, her education was carefully begun. Through indomitable effort on +the part of her preceptor, she was taught to write, read, and spell, by +means of her fingers, and thus to exchange sentiments with her teachers +and with others skilled in the mysterious language of the blind and the +mute. She is now as proficient in the ordinary branches of learning as is +the average person, possessed of all the senses. Her studies include +geography, arithmetic, algebra, geometry, history, and philosophy. She +makes her own clothing, can run a sewing machine, and observes great +neatness in her dress and the arrangements of her room. Her character is +religious, and she has great success as a teacher. Not long since, she +celebrated, on the same day, her fifty-eighth birthday and the fiftieth +anniversary of her entrance to the Perkins Institute. During her earlier +years, it was her practice to keep a journal, and she now has about forty +manuscript books of her own making. She has also written three +autobiographical sketches, several poems, and is an accomplished +correspondent. When Miss Bridgman expresses pleasure, she clasps her hands +and smiles. So keen and refined are her sensibilities, that it is said she +can, in a small way, appreciate the beauty of music by means of the sound +vibrations on the floor.--MRS. GEORGE ARCHIBALD. (Laura D. Bridgman died +in 1889.) + +THE NOSE (p. 232).--_The Anatomy of the Nose_.--Probably most of us +look upon the nose as a double hole in the head, by which we get, with +more or less acuteness, a sense of smell, and through which we +occasionally breathe. The intricate mechanism, and the skillful adaptation +of means to end, which, in common with the other organs of special sense, +it exhibits, naturally do not reveal themselves to any but the students of +anatomy and physiology. Its fourteen bones are probably better hidden than +any other fourteen bones of the body, and assist in converting what would +otherwise be a mere channel of communication, into a series of cavities +designed and adapted for particular purposes. The arch of four bones which +forms the bridge of the nose, and which is of such strength as to enable +the gymnast of the circus to perform the feat of supporting with it a man +on a ladder, is pieced on with cartilage to form the nostrils, through +which the nose communicates with the outer air. Similar openings behind +connect it with the upper and posterior parts of the mouth. The space +between these anterior and posterior openings makes a large chamber, +divided by a vertical wall into halves, each of which is still further +separated into three irregular cavities by three bones, called spongy, +from the porosity and delicacy of their texture. The ceiling of these +chambers is formed by a bone of the thinness of paper, upon which lies the +front part of the brain,--a fact the Egyptians made use of in embalming +their corpses, easily crushing this bone, and extracting the brain through +the nostrils. This bone is called cribriform (sieve-like), because it is +perforated by many minute holes, through which, from the olfactory bulbs +(specialized parts of the brain in which is resident the capacity of +smell) that rest on its upper surface, issue the delicate filaments of the +olfactory nerves, to spread themselves over the lining membrane of the two +upper spongy bones. It is in the upper chambers of the nose, therefore, +that the function of smell is performed; the nerves that supply the lower +spongy bone being entirely unconnected with the organs of smell. Over +these latter, however, sweep in and out the currents of air when the act +of respiration is properly carried out, and it is these that are +especially concerned in its abnormal performance. Usually but a very +little of the volume of air that traverses the lower chamber of the nose +has any influence upon its upper regions; and therefore, when our +attention is attracted by an odor, we sniff, in order to bring a larger +quantity of air into contact with the higher parts of the nose, or +olfactory cavities, where odors are perceived. + +But the half has not been told of the anatomical and physiological +arrangements of the nose. By minute openings its chambers have +communication with many other parts of the head,--with the hollow that +forms the greater part of the cheek bone; with the eye by a minute spout +that carries off the lachrymal secretion, unless the tears are so abundant +as to roll down the cheeks; with the front of the roof of the mouth; with +the abundant cells of the bone that makes the forehead, and the congestion +of whose lining membrane probably accounts for the severe headache that so +often accompanies and aggravates a "cold in the head." The gateway to the +inner air passages, its abundant surfaces raise the air inspired to the +temperature of the body, supply it with the moisture it lacks, and sift +from it more or less of the mechanical impurities with which the +atmosphere of our houses and shops is laden.--MAURICE D. CLARKE, M.D., +_Popular Science News, April, 1888_. + +_Smell Necessary to Taste_.--What we are in the habit of calling a +"taste," is in most cases a compound of smell, taste, temperature, and +touch--these four sensations ranking in gastronomic importance in the +order in which they are here named....Amusing experiments may be made, +showing that without the sense of smell it is commonly quite impossible to +distinguish between different articles of food and drink. Blindfold a +person and make him clasp his nose tightly, then put successively into his +mouth small pieces of beef, mutton, veal, and pork, and it is safe to +predict that he will not be able to tell one morsel from another. The same +result will be obtained with chicken, turkey, and duck; with pieces of +almond, walnut, and hazel-nut; with slices of apple, peach, and pear; or +with different kinds of cheese, if care be taken that such kinds are +chosen as do not, by their peculiar composition, betray their identity +through the nerves of touch in the mouth. To hold an article of food under +the nose at table would be justly considered a breach of etiquette. But +there is a second way of smelling, of which most people are quite +unconscious, viz., by _exhaling through the nose_ while eating and +drinking....It is well known that only a small portion of the mucous +membrane which lines the nostrils is the seat of the endings of the nerves +of smell. In ordinary expiration, the air does not touch this olfactory +region, but by a special effort it can be turned into that +direction....Instinct teaches most persons while eating to guide the air, +impregnated with the fragrance of the food, to a part of the nostrils +different from that used during ordinary exhalation; but, being +unaccustomed to psychologic analysis of their sensations, they remain +quite unconscious of this proceeding, and are, indeed, in the habit of +confusing their sensations of taste, smell, touch, and temperature in a +most absurd manner.... + +In trying to ascertain by experiment how far smell, touch, and temperature +enter into this compound sensation, popularly known as "taste," it is best +to make use of the pungent condiments. Mustard and horse-radish, for +example, have little or no taste, but reserve their pungent effect for the +mucous membrane of the nose during expiration. It is an advantage to know +this, for if care is taken to breathe only through the mouth, we need no +longer prepare to shed tears every time we help ourselves to the mustard. +The pungent quality of mustard, the fiery quality of ginger, and the cool +sensation in the mouth after eating peppermint, are due to the nerves of +touch and temperature, which are commonly classed as one sense, though +they are quite as distinct sensations as sight and hearing, or taste and +smell.... + +There are two ways in which the effort to extract all its fragrance from a +morsel of food confers a benefit. + +(1.) It is necessary to keep the morsel in the mouth as long as possible. +Now the habit thus formed of eating very slowly is of the utmost +importance, for if farinaceous articles of food are swallowed before the +saliva has had time to act on them, they are little better than so much +waste material taken into the system; and if meat is not thoroughly +masticated, the stomach is overloaded with work which should have been +done by the teeth; the result, in either case, is dyspepsia. It has been +suggested that Mr. Gladstone owes his remarkable physical vigor to certain +rules for chewing food, which he adopted in 1848, and to which he has +adhered ever since. "He had always," we are told, "paid great attention to +the requirements of Nature, but he then laid down as a rule for his +children that thirty-two bites should be given to each mouthful of meat, +and a somewhat lesser number to bread, fish, etc." + +(2.) Besides this indirect advantage resulting from the effort to get at +the fragrant odors of food, there is a still more remarkable direct +advantage. It is one of the most curious psychologic facts that odors +exert a strong influence on our system, either exhilarating or depressing. +While an unpleasant odor may cause a person to faint, the fumes of the +smelling bottle will restore him to consciousness. The magic and value of +gastronomic odors lies in this, that they stimulate the flow of saliva and +other alimentary juices, thus making sure that the food eaten will be +thoroughly utilized in renovating the system.--HENRY T. FINCK, _in "The +Gastronomic Value of Odors_." HYGIENE OF THE EAR (p. 236).--_Never +Box a Child's Ear_.--Children and grown persons alike may be entirely +deafened by falls or heavy blows upon the head. Boxing the ears produces a +similar effect, though more slowly and in less degree, and tends to dull +the sensibility of the nerve, even if it does not hurt the membrane. I +knew a youth who died from a terrible disease of the ear. There had been a +discharge from it since he was a child. Of course his hearing had been +dull; and _his father had often boxed his ear for inattention!_ Most +likely that boxing on the ear, diseased as it was, had much to do with his +death. And this brings me to the second point. Children should never be +blamed for being inattentive, until it has been found out whether they are +not a little deaf. This is easily done by placing them at a few yards' +distance, and trying whether they can understand what is said to them in a +rather low tone of voice. Each ear should be tried, while the other is +stopped by the finger. Three things should be remembered here: 1. That +slight degrees of deafness, often lasting only for a time, are very common +among children, especially during or after colds. 2. That a slight +deafness, which does not prevent a person from hearing when he is +expecting to be spoken to, will make him very dull to what he is not +expecting. 3. That there is a kind of deafness in which a person can hear +pretty well while listening, but is really very hard of hearing when not +listening. + +_Avoid Direct Draughts in the Ear_.--There are some exposures +especially to be guarded against. One is sitting or driving with the ear +exposed to a side wind. Deafness has also been known to come from letting +rain or sleet drive into the ear. + +_Do not Remove the Earwax_.--It ought to be understood that the +passage of the ear does not require cleaning by us. Nature undertakes that +task, and, in the healthy state, fulfills it perfectly. Her means for +cleansing the ear is _the wax_. Perhaps the reader has never wondered +what becomes of the earwax. I will tell him. It dries up into thin fine +scales, and these peel off, one by one, from the surface of the passage, +and fall out imperceptibly, leaving behind them a perfectly clean, smooth +surface. In health the passage of the ear is never dirty; but, if we +attempt to clean it, we infallibly make it so. Washing the ear out +frequently with soap and water keeps the wax moist when it ought to become +dry and scaly, increases its quantity unduly, and makes it absorb the dust +with which the air always abounds. But the most hurtful thing is +introducing the corner of the towel, screwed up, and twisting it round. +This does more harm to ears than all other mistakes together. It drives +down the wax upon the membrane, much more than it gets it out. But this +plan does much more mischief than merely pressing down the wax. It +irritates the passage, and makes it cast off small flakes of skin, which +dry up, and become extremely hard, and these also are pressed down upon +the membrane. Often it is not only deafness which ensues, but pain and +inflammation, and then matter is formed which the hard mass prevents from +escaping, and the membrane becomes permanently diseased. + +_The Eustachian Tube_.--The use of this tube is twofold. First, it +supplies the drum with air, and keeps the membrane exactly balanced, and +free to move, with equal air pressure on each side; and, secondly, it +carries off any fluid which may be in the drum, and prevents it from being +choked by its own moisture. It is not always open, however, but is opened +during the act of swallowing, by a little muscle which is attached to it +just as it reaches the throat. Most persons can distinctly feel that this +is the case, by gently closing the nose and swallowing, when a distinct +sensation is felt in the ears. This sensation is due to a little air being +drawn out of the ears through the open tube during swallowing; and it +lasts for a few minutes, unless the air is again restored by swallowing +with the nose unclosed, which allows for the moment a free communication +between the ear and the throat. We thus see a reason for the tube being +closed. If it were always open, all the sounds produced in the throat +would pass directly into the drum of the ear, and totally confuse us. We +should hear every breath, and live in a constant bewilderment of internal +sounds. At the same time the closure, being but a light contact of the +walls of the tube, easily allows a slight escape of air _from_ the +drum, and thus not only facilitates and regulates the oscillations of the +air before the vibrating membrane, but provides a safety valve, to a +certain extent, against the injurious influence of loud sounds. + +The chief use of the Eustachian tube is to allow a free interchange of air +between the ear and the throat, and it is very important that its use in +this respect should be understood. Persons who go down in diving bells +soon begin to feel a great pressure in the ears, and, if the depth is +great, the feeling becomes extremely painful. This arises from the fact +that in the diving bell the pressure of the air is very much increased, in +order to balance the weight of the water above; and thus it presses with +great force upon the membrane of the drum, which, if the Eustachian tube +has been kept closed, has only the ordinary uncompressed air on the inner +side to sustain it. It is therefore forced inward and put upon the +stretch, and might be even broken. Many cases, indeed, have occurred of +injury to the ear, producing permanent deafness, from descents in diving +bells, undertaken by persons ignorant of the way in which the ear is made; +though the simple precaution of frequent swallowing suffices to ward off +all mischief. For, if the Eustachian tube is thus opened, again and again, +as the pressure of the outside air increases, the same compressed air that +exists outside passes also into the inside of the drum, and the membrane +is equally pressed upon from both sides by the air, and so is free from +strain. The same precaution is necessary in ascending lofty mountains.-- +DR. JAMES HINTON. + +THE COLORED CURTAIN IN THE EYE (p. 238).--This ring-like curtain in the +eye, of gray, green, bluish-green, brown, and other colors, is one among +the very many remarkable contrivances of the organic world. The eye can +not bear the entrance of too much light, and the colored curtain so +regulates its own movements as to serve this requirement. The dark +circular aperture in the center, known as the pupil, is consequently +forever altering in size; on a bright, sunshiny day, out in the open, it +may be only the size of a pin's head, but at night, when there is no light +stronger than starlight, it is even bigger than a pea. The eye curtain is +fixed at its outer edge, leaving the inner edge to contract or expand, +which it does automatically and quite independent of the will, ever +preserving its circular outline. Its movements may be watched in a variety +of ways, some of which we shall describe. + +The common way of watching the movements of the iris is to regard it +closely in a looking-glass while the amount of light entering the eyes is +varied. Place yourself before a looking-glass and with your face to the +window. Probably the iris will be expanded, and there will only be a very +small opening or pupil in the center. Now shut one eye suddenly, while +narrowly watching the other in the glass all the time. At the moment the +light is cut off from one eye, the iris of the other contracts or is drawn +up so as to enlarge the pupil. This shows that there is a remarkable +interdependence between the curtains of the two eyes, as well as that they +are affected by variations in the quantity of light falling on them. + +Perhaps one of the most interesting ways of watching the movements of +these sympathetic eye curtains is one which may be followed while you are +out walking on the street some dark winter night. A gas lamp seen at a +distance is, comparatively speaking, a point of light, with bars of light +emanating from it in many directions. These bars, which give the peculiar +spoked appearance to a star, are probably formed by optical defects of the +lens within the eye, or by the tear fluid on the exterior surface of the +eye, or by a combination of all these causes. Be that as it may, the +lengths of the spokes of light are limited by the inner margin of the eye +curtain; if the curtain be drawn up, then the spokes are long; if the +curtain be let down, or, in other words, if the pupil be very small and +contracted, then one can not see any spokes at all. Hence, as I look at a +distant gaslight, with its radiating golden spokes, I am looking at +something which will give me a sure indication of any movements of the eye +curtains. I strike a match and allow its light to fall into the eyes; the +spokes of the distant gas lamp have retreated into the point of flame as +if by magic; as I take the burning match away from before my eyes, the +spokes of the gas-lamp venture forth again. The experiment may be utilized +to see how much light is required to move the window curtains of the eyes. +Suppose you are walking toward two gas lamps, A and B; B about fifty yards +behind A. If you steadfastly look at B and at the golden spokes apparently +issuing from it, you may make these spokes a test of how soon the light of +A will move your iris. As you gradually approach A, you come at last to a +position where its light is strong enough to make the spokes of B begin to +shorten; a little nearer still and they vanish altogether. I have found +that about a third of the light which is competent to contract the pupil +very markedly will serve to commence its movement.--WILLIAM ACKROYD. + +PURKINJE'S FIGURES (p. 222).--Stand in a dark room with a lighted candle +in hand. Shutting the left, hold the candle very near the right eye, +within three or four inches, obliquely outward and forward, so that the +light shall strongly illuminate the retina. Now move the light about +gently, upward, downward, back and forth, while you gaze intently on the +wall opposite. Presently the field of view becomes dark from the intense +impression of the light, and then, as you move the light about, there +appears projected on the wall and covering its whole surface, a shadowy, +ghost-like image, like a branching, leafless tree, or like a great +bodiless spider with many branching legs. What is it? It is an exact but +enlarged image of the _blood vessels of the retina_. These come in at +the entrance of the optic nerve, ramify in the middle layer, and therefore +in the strong light cast their shadows on the bacillary layer of the +retina. The impression of these shadows is projected outward into the +field of view, and seen there as an enlarged shadowy image. These have +been called Purkinje's Figures, from the discoverer.--PROF. JOSEPH LE +CONTE, _in Sight_. + + + + +XI. + + +APPENDIX. + +QUESTIONS FOR CLASS USE. + +_The questions include the Notes and the Selected Readings. The figures +refer to the pages_. + +INTRODUCTION. + +Illustrate the value of physiological knowledge. Why should physiology be +studied in youth? When are our habits formed? How do habits help us? Why +should children prize the lessons of experience? How does Nature punish a +violation of her laws? Name some of Nature's laws. What is the penalty of +their violation? Name some bad habits and their punishments. Some good +habits and their rewards. How do the young ruin their health? Compare +one's constitution with a deposit in the bank. Can one in youth lay up +health as he can money for middle or old age? Is not the preservation of +one's health a moral duty? What is suicide? + +THE SKELETON. + +3. How many bones are there in the body? Is the number fixed? Is the +length of the different bones proportional? What is an organ? A function? +Name the three uses of the bones. Why do the bones have such different +shapes? + +4. Why are certain bones hollow? Round? Illustrate. Compare the resisting +property of bone with that of solid oak. What is the composition of bone? +How does it vary? How can you remove the mineral matter? The animal +matter? Why is a burned bone white and porous? What food do dogs find in +bones? + +5. What is the use of each of the constituents of a bone? What is +"boneblack"? What is ossification? Why are not the bones of children as +easily broken as those of aged persons? Why do they unite so much quicker? +What are the fontanelles? + +6. Describe the structure of a bone. What is the object of the filling? +Why does the amount vary in different parts of a bone? What is the +appearance of a bone seen through a microscope? + +7. What is the periosteum? Is a bone once removed ever restored? What are +the lacunæ? The Haversian canals? Why so called? _Ans_. From their +discoverer, Havers. Define a bone. [Footnote: Bone structure may be +summarized as follows: A bone is a collection of _Haversian +elements_, or rods. An Haversian element consists of a tube surrounded +by _lamellæ_, which contain _lacunæ_, connected by _canaliculi_.--DR. +T. B. STOWELL.] What occupies the lacunæ? _Ans_. The bone cells +(osteoblasts). How do bones grow? + +8. Illustrate. How does a broken bone heal? How rapidly is bone produced? +Illustrate. Objects of "splints"? Describe how a joint is packed. +Lubricated. + +9. How are the bones tied together? What is a tissue? Illustrate. Name the +three general divisions of the bones. What is the object of the skull? +Which bone is movable? How is the lower jaw hinged? Describe the +construction of the skull. What is a suture? + +10. Tell how the peculiar form and structure of the skull adapt it for its +use. Illustrate the impenetrability of the skull. + +11. Describe the experiment of the balls. What does it show? What two +cavities are in the trunk? Name its principal bones. Describe the spine. + +12. What is the object of the processes? Of the pads? Why is a man shorter +at night than in the morning? Describe the perfection of the spine. + +13. Describe the articulation of the skull with the spine. Why is the +atlas so called? + +14. Describe the ribs. What is the natural form of the chest? Why is it +made in separate pieces? How does the oblique position of the ribs aid in +respiration? (See note, p. 80.) + +15. How do the hipbones give solidity? What two sets of limbs branch from +the trunk? State their mutual resemblance. Name the bones of the shoulder. +Describe the collar bone. + +16. Describe the shoulder blade. Can you describe the indirect +articulation of the shoulder blade with the trunk? Name the bones of the +arm. Describe the shoulder joint. The elbow-joint. + +17. Describe the wrist. Name the bones of the hand. How many bones in the +fingers? The thumb? What gives the thumb its freedom of motion? + +18, 19. Name and describe the fingers. In what lies the perfection of the +hand? How do the gestures of the hand enforce our ideas and feelings? +Describe the hip joint. What gives the upper limbs more freedom of motion +than the lower? How does the pressure of the air aid us in walking? +Illustrate. + +20. Name the bones of the lower limbs. Describe the knee joint. The +patella. What is the use of the fibula? Can you show how the lower +extremity of the fibula, below its juncture with the tibia, is prolonged +to form a part of the ankle joint? Name the bones of the foot. What is the +use of the arch of the foot? What makes the step elastic? Describe the +action of the foot as we step. + +21. In graceful walking, should the toes or the heel touch the ground +first? What are the causes of deformed feet? What is the natural position +of the big toe? Did you ever see a big toe lying in a straight line with +the foot, as shown in statuary and paintings? How should we have our boots +and shoes made? What are the effects of high heels? Of narrow heels? Of +narrow toes? Of tight-laced boots? Of thin soles? What are the rickets? +Cause of this disease? Cure? Is there any provision for remedying defects +in the body? Name one. + +22, 23. What is a felon? Cure? Cause of bowlegs? How can they be +prevented? Causes of spinal curvature? Cure? What is the correct position +in sitting at one's desk? Is there any necessity for walking and sitting +erect? Any advantage aside from health? Describe the bad effects of a +stooping position. What is a sprain? Why does it need special care? What +is a dislocation? How is it generally caused? How soon should it be +treated? + +269. What relation does man, in his general structure, bear to other +vertebrates? Mention some marked physical peculiarities which distinguish +him from the lower mammals. + +270, 271. Describe the state of a fracture a week after its occurrence. +What is this new formation called? What marks the termination of the first +stage of curative progress? How do the broken ends of the bone now appear? +What is the state of the fracture at the end of the second stage? What is +the condition of the callus at this time? Describe the third and last +series of changes. Is the process of union completed sooner in old people +or in young? In the upper or lower extremities? In smaller animals or man? +What length of time is required to heal a broken arm? A broken leg? + +272. What gives the human hand its peculiar prehensile power? What +advantage has the human thumb over that of the ape? Compare the foot of +man with that of the ape. What peculiarity of the foot is particularly +noticeable in man? Contrast the function of the great toe in man and in +the ape. + +273. Are the toes naturally flexible? How are their powers crippled? Give +an instance in which the toes were trained to do the work of the fingers. + +274. Why are an elastic step and a graceful carriage such rare +accomplishments? What is the natural shape of the foot? Which is the +longer, the great toe or the second toe? Is an even-sided symmetry +necessary to the beauty of a boot? + +THE MUSCLES. 29. What relations do the skeleton and the muscles bear to +each other? How is the skeleton concealed? Why is it the image of death? +What are the muscles? How many are there? What peculiar property have +they? Name other properties of muscles. _Ans_. Tonicity, elasticity. + +30. How are they arranged? Where is the biceps? The triceps? How do the +muscles move the limbs? Illustrate. What is the cause of squinting? Cure? +(See p. 244.) + +31. Name and define the two kinds of muscles. Illustrate each. What is the +structure of a muscle? Of what is a fibril itself composed? How does the +peculiar construction of the muscle confer strength? + +32. Describe the tendons. What is their use? Illustrate the advantages of +this mode of attachment. + +33. What two special arrangements of the tendons in the hand? Their use? +How is the rotary motion of the eye obtained? + +34, 35. What is a lever? Describe the three classes of levers. Illustrate +each. Describe the head as a lever. What parts of the body illustrate the +three kinds of levers? Give an illustration of the second class of levers. +The third class. Why is the Tendon of Achilles so named? What is the +advantage of the third class of levers? Why desirable in the hand? What +class of lever is the lower jaw? + +36. What advantages are gained by the enlargement of the bones at the +joints? Illustrate. How do we stand erect? Is it an involuntary act? + +37. Why can not a child walk at once, as many young animals do? Why can we +not hold up the head easily when we walk on "all fours"? Why can not an +animal stand erect as man does? + +38. Describe the process of walking. Show that walking is a process of +falling. Describe the process of running. What causes the swinging of the +hand in walking? Why are we shorter when walking? [Footnote: Stand a boy +erect against a wall. Mark his height with a stick. Now have him step off +a part of a pace, and then several whole paces. Next, let him close his +eyes, and walk to the wall again. He will be perceptibly lower than the +stick, until he straightens up once more from a walking position.] Why +does a person when lost often go in a circle? In which direction does one +always turn in that case? [Footnote: Take several boys into a smooth grass +lot. Set up a stick at a distance for them to walk toward. Test the boys, +to find which are left-handed, or right-handed; which left-legged or +right-legged. Then blindfold the boys and let them walk, as they think, +toward the mark. See who varies toward the right, and who turns to the +left.] + +39. What is the muscular sense? Value of educating it? How do we gratify +it? + +40. What effect has exercise upon a muscle? Is there any danger in violent +exercise? For what purpose should we exercise? Should exercise be in the +open air? What is the rule for exercise? Is a young person excusable, who +leads a sedentary life, and yet takes no daily outdoor exercise? What will +be Nature's penalty for such a violation of her law? Will a postponement +of the penalty show that we have escaped it? + +41. Ought a scholar to study during the time of recess? Will a promenade +in the vitiated air of the schoolroom furnish suitable exercise? What is +the best time for taking exercise? What class of persons can safely +exercise before breakfast? + +42. What are the advantages of the different kinds of exercise? Should we +not walk more? What is the general influence upon the body of vigorous +exercise? + +43. State some of the wonders of the muscles. What is the St. Vitus's +Dance? Cure? + +44. What are convulsions? What is the locked-jaw? Causes? The gout? Cause? +Cure? The rheumatism? Its two forms? Peculiarity of the acute? + +45. Danger in acute rheumatism? In what does chronic rheumatism often +result? What is lumbago? Give instances. What is a ganglion? Its cure? A +bursa? + +275. What is meant by the origin of a muscle? The attachment? Is a muscle +always extended between two contiguous bones? Give an illustration. Can +the points of origin and of attachment change offices? Illustrate. What is +an important consequence of the attachment of the muscles to the bones? +If, in the limb of a dead body, one end of a muscle is separated from its +point of attachment, what occurs? Would the result be the same during +life? To what is this phenomenon due? + +276. Why are the muscles continually striving to shorten? Describe the +effect when several opposing muscles are attached to one bone. When is the +balanced position of the limbs best observed? Are the muscles always +attached to bones? Give example. How does the flesh of man differ from +that of an ox? How may the structure of muscular fibers be rudely +illustrated? Describe smooth muscle fibers. How do they differ from +striated muscle fibers? + +277. In what form do smooth muscle fibers frequently occur? In such cases, +how are they usually arranged? What is the effect of their contraction? Of +what especial use is this power in case of the smaller arteries? In case +of the intestine? + +278. In the latter instance, how does the contraction take place? Are the +striated muscle fibers voluntary or involuntary? Name an exception to this +rule. Give other peculiarities of the muscle fibers of the heart. What +causes the contraction of smooth muscle fibers? Of striated muscle fibers? +Why do little children seldom injure themselves by overexertion? How is +the danger increased in youth? + +279. What class of people are in most peril from violent or excessive +exercise? Why? At what age should one cease from haste of all kinds? Give +instances of valuable lives lost from personal imprudence. + +280. What are the effects of insufficient exercise upon the young? How +does it predispose to disease? What makes the children of the laboring +classes so hardy? Is a regulation step desirable in walking? Why not? Why +is it more fatiguing to walk uphill than on level ground? + +281. How does the management of the breath affect this fatigue? How should +a belt be worn, if used during exercise? Can other forms of exercise be +successfully substituted for walking? Why not? What is the difference in +movement between walking and skating? Which is the better exercise? What +are the dangers from skating? What precaution should be used by those who +have weak ankles? + +282. Name the different action of the muscles in the forward and backward +movements in rowing. What is the comparative value of rowing as an +exercise? Why is it especially desirable for women? How should women dress +when rowing, horseback riding, tennis playing, etc.? What rules should be +observed by rowers? Why should the breath be allowed to escape while the +oar is in the water? + +283. What sanitary measures should be observed after a row? What effect +has too frequent and too prolonged immersion on young swimmers? Does +swimming require much muscular exertion? Why? Why does an occasional +swimmer become exhausted sooner than an experienced one? On what do ease +and speed in swimming depend? Is the habit of diving desirable? Should +diving ever be practiced in shallow water? + +284. Why is lawn tennis the most desirable of outdoor games? _Ans_. +Not only because nearly every muscle of the body is brought into exercise, +but because it is one of the few field sports in which women can +gracefully join. In this it shares the honor with croquet. What are the +dangers attendant on lawn tennis? From what do many of them arise? Why +should tennis shoes have heels? To what class of people is horseback +riding particularly suited? What class of invalids should not indulge in +bicycling and tricycling? To what class is it peculiarly beneficial? + +285. What are the dangers attendant on baseball games? Football? When may +light and heavy gymnastics be profitably employed? Name a sufficient +apparatus. What are the objections to gymnasium exercise? Its advantages? + +THE SKIN. + +49. What are the uses of the skin? Describe its adaptation to its place. +What is its function as an organ? Describe the structure of the skin. The +sensitiveness of the cutis. The insensitiveness of the cuticle. + +50. How is the skin constantly changing? The shape and number of the +cells? Value of the cuticle? How is the cuticle formed? _Ans_. By +secretion from the cutis. + +51. What is the complexion? Its cause? Why is a scar white? What is the +cause of "tanning"? What are freckles? Albinos? Describe the action of the +sun on the skin. + +52. Why are the hairs and the nails spoken of under the title of the skin? +Uses of the hair? Its structure? How can it be examined? What is the hair +bulb? What is it called? How does a hair grow? At what rate? When can it +be restored, if destroyed? Does hair grow after death? + +53. When hair has become gray, can its original color be naturally +restored? What is the danger of hair dyes? Are they of any real value? How +can the hair stand on end? How do horses move their skin? Is there any +feeling in a hair? + +54. Illustrate the indestructibility of the hair. What are the uses of the +nails? How do the nails grow? What is the mucous membrane? + +55. Its composition? The connective tissue? Why so called? What uses does +it subserve? + +56. What is its character? How does the fat exist in the body? Its uses? +State the various uses of membrane in the body. Where is there no fat? +Where is there always fat? + +57. Why are the teeth spoken of in connection with the mucous membrane? +Name and describe the four kinds of teeth. What are the milk teeth? +Describe them. What teeth appear first? + +58. Give the order and age at which they appear. When do the permanent +teeth appear? Describe their growth. Which one comes first? Last? + +59. Describe the structure of the teeth. How are the teeth fitted in the +jaw? + +60. Why do the teeth decay? What care should be taken of the teeth? What +caution should be observed? What are the oil glands? + +61. Use of this secretion? What are the perspiratory glands? State their +number. Their total length. What are the "pores" of the skin? + +62, 63. What is the perspiration? What is the constitution of the +perspiration? Illustrate its value. Name the three uses of the skin. +Illustrate the absorbing power of the skin. What precaution should be +observed in handling a dead body? Why are cosmetics and hair dyes +injurious? What relation exists between the skin and the lungs? What +lesson does this teach? When is the best time for a bath? Why? + +64, 65. What is the value of friction? Why should not a bath be taken just +before or after a meal? Is an excess of soap beneficial? What is the +"reaction"? Explain its invigorating influence. How is it secured? General +effect of a cold bath? Of a warm bath? If we feel chilly and depressed +after a bath, what is the teaching? Describe the Russian vapor bath. Why +is the sea bath so stimulating? + +66. How long should one remain in any bath? How does clothing keep us +warm? Explain the use of linen as an article of clothing. Cotton. Wool. +Flannel. How can we best protect ourselves against the changes of our +climate? + +67. What colored clothing is best adapted for all seasons? Value of the +nap? Furs? Thick _vs_. thin clothing? Should we wear thick clothing +during the day, and in the evening put on thin clothing? Can children +endure exposure better than grown persons? What is the erysipelas? How +relieved? + +68, 69. Eczema? What do its various forms denote? Corns? Cause? Cure? +Ingrowing nails? Cure? Warts? Cure? Chilblain? Cause? Preventive? + +286. Name some causes of baldness. Give Dr. Nichols's opinion. Why is +frequent shampooing inadvisable? One probable reason why women are less +frequently bald than men? What is the best general treatment for the hair +and scalp? Upon what does the color of the hair mainly depend? + +287. In cases of sudden blanching of the hair what is the effect upon the +pigment? Give an illustration. How do the extra air bubbles find their way +into the hair? Does air naturally exist in the hair? What relation do the +nails bear to the scarfskin? + +288. What causes the horny appearance of the nails? Describe the root of +the nail in its relation to the sensitive and the scarfskin. Upon what +does the nail rest? What is its appearance? What is the lunula? Why is it +lighter than the rest of the nail? How does the nail increase in length? +In thickness? Where is the greatest thickness? How does the growth of the +nail during disease compare with its growth in health? + +289. How long does it take the thumb nail to grow from its root to its +free extremity? The great toe? Give general rules for the care of the +nails. How does physical cleanliness promote moral purity? What does its +neglect indicate? + +290. What especial care should be taken in regard to the feet? Why? Are +baths a modern refinement? What can you say about the ancient Greek and +Roman baths? What constitutes the value of the Turkish bath? + +291. What class of people should never use this bath? To what class of +invalids is it particularly beneficial? Is sea bathing advisable for +persons of all ages? How should an inexperienced sea bather begin? When +should the sea bath be taken? + +292. How long should a delicate person remain in the water? State the +danger of bathing when overheated. Under what conditions of body and of +temperature should sea or river bathing be avoided? Why? Give illustration +of the English soldier. How should the temperature of the water, in +bathing, compare with that of the air? Of the body? + +293. Describe the bathers' cramp. What are its causes? What precaution +should be used by bathers in regard to the mouth and ears? Why? + +294. How can a person who does not know how to swim, save himself from +drowning? + +295. What are the advantages of woolen clothing? Why is it particularly +desirable in malarial countries? What double purpose does woolen clothing +serve in semitropical climates? + +296. Does the warmth of clothing depend on its weight? What errors are +often made and with what effect? State what is said in regard to poisonous +dyes in wearing apparel. Give illustration. + +297. What effect has uncleanly attire on the health? Does this apply to +outer as well as under garments? + +RESPIRATION AND THE VOICE. + +73. Name the organs of respiration and the voice. Describe the larynx. The +epiglottis. The œsophagus. What is meant by food "going the wrong way"? + +74. Describe the vocal cords. Their use. How is sound produced? + +75. How are the higher tones of the voice produced? The lower? Upon what +does loudness depend? A falsetto voice? What is the cause of the voice +"changing"? What is speech? Is the tongue necessary to speech? Illustrate. +(See also page 298.) + +76. What is vocalization? How are talking machines made? + +77. How is _a_ formed by the voice? What is _h_? Difference +between a sigh and a groan? What vowel sounds are made in laughing? Does +whistling depend on the voice? Tell how the various consonants are formed. +What are the labials? The dentals? The linguals? What vowels does a child +pronounce first? + +78. Describe the windpipe. The bronchi. The bronchial tubes. Why is the +trachea so called? Describe the structure of the lungs. What are the lungs +of slaughtered animals called? Why will a piece of the lungs float on +water? + +79. Name the wrappings of the lungs. Describe the pleura. How is friction +prevented? What are the cilia? Their use? + +80. What two acts constitute respiration? In what two ways may the +position of the ribs change the capacity of the chest? Describe the +process of inspiration. Describe the diaphragm. + +81. What is the process of expiration? How often do we breathe? What is +sighing? Coughing? Sneezing? Snoring? Laughing? Crying? + +82. Describe hiccough. Yawning. Its value? What is meant by the breathing +capacity? How does it vary? How much, in addition, can the lungs expel +forcibly? How much of the breathing capacity is available only through +practice? Value of this extra supply? Can we expel all the air from our +lungs? Value of this constant supply? + +83. How constant is the need of air? What is the vital element of the air? +Describe the action of the oxygen in our lungs. What does the blood give +up? Gain? What are the constituents of the air? What are the peculiar +properties and uses of each? + +84. How can we test the air we exhale? What does its analysis reveal? +Which is the most dangerous constituent? What occurs when we rebreathe +exhaled air? + +85. Describe its evil effects. What is denoted by the "Black Hole of +Calcutta"? Give other illustrations of the dangers of bad air. Describe +the need of ventilation. Will a single breath pollute the air? + +86-95. How can we detect the floating impurities in the air? What is the +influence of a fire or a light? Of a hot stove? When is the ventilation +perfect? What diseases are largely owing to bad air? Should the windows +and doors be tightly closed, if we have no other means of ventilation? Is +not a draught of air dangerous? How can we prevent this, and yet secure +fresh air? What is the general principle of ventilation? Must pure air +necessarily be cold air? Are schoolrooms always properly ventilated? What +is the effect? Are churches? Are our bedrooms? Should children or delicate +people sleep in cold rooms? Can we, at night, breathe anything but night +air? Is the night air out of doors ever injurious? _Ans_. In times +and places of malaria, and also in very damp weather, it should be +avoided, even at the risk of bad air in doors. Describe some of the +wonders of respiration. + +96. How is constriction of the lungs produced? When may clothing be +considered tight? What are the dangers of tight lacing? Which would make +the stronger, more vigorous, and longer-lived person, the form shown in +_A_ or _B_, Fig. 33? Is it safe to run any risk in this +dangerous direction? + +97. What is Bronchitis? Pleurisy? Pneumonia? Consumption? What is one +great cause of Consumption? How may a constitutional tendency to this +disease be warded off in youth? _Ans_. Besides plenty of fresh air +and exercise, care should be taken in the diet. Rich pastry, unripe fruit, +salted meat, and acid drinks should be avoided, and a certain quantity of +fat should be eaten at each meal.--BENNETT. What is asphyxia? Describe the +process for restoring such a person. (See p. 264.) + +98. What is diphtheria? Its peculiarities? Danger? The croup? Its +characteristics? Remedy? (See p. 260.) Causes of stammering? How cured? + +297. How does the singing voice differ from the speaking voice? How can +you prove the effect of duration of sound in speaking and singing? How do +the intonations of the voice affect the meaning of words? + +298. Give illustrations of speech in persons without a tongue. What is the +effect of alcohol and tobacco on the throat? Do they have an influence on +the voice? Does the excessive use of tea and coffee ever affect the voice? +How? To what is the hoarse tone of an inebriate due? + +299, 300. What was Adelina Patti's advice with regard to stimulants and +late hours? Does the respiration of woman differ from that of man? Give +experiments with Indian women. What lessons do we draw from these facts? +What rule should be observed in regard to the size of a bodice? What are +bacteria or microbes? How is their existence revealed? What does the Germ +Theory of Disease teach in regard to microbes? + +301. What can you say about the microbe of putrefaction? How can you +obtain it for examination? What office in Nature do bacteria seem to +serve? Give the theory in regard to propagation of special disease germs. +Do they always cause disease when taken into the body? [Footnote: Of the +immense number and variety of microorganisms found in Nature, only very +few are disease producing. Dr. Austin Flint says in _The Forum_, for +December, 1888: "It is probable that future investigations into the +physiology of digestion, will show that bacteria play an important part in +this function. Pasteur has recently isolated no less than seventeen +different microorganisms in the mouth, which were not destroyed by the +gastric juice. Some of these dissolved albumen, gluten, and caseine, and +some transformed starch into sugar. Bacteria normally exist in great +number and variety in the intestines, although the part which they take in +intestinal digestion has not been accurately determined."--The number of +spores introduced into the human system by respiration, when the health is +perfectly sound, has been estimated at three hundred thousand a day.] + +302. State some conditions which favor the growth of disease germs. Which +prevent or retard their growth. Relate the effect of vaccination, +according to the germ theory. + +303. 304. If a drop of an infusion charged with bacteria be put in the +extract of beef or mutton, what is the result? What would be the effect +upon an open wound? Give Dr. Tyndall's personal experience. Name some +efficient antidote against the bacteria of putrefaction. _Ans_. +Carbolic acid solution is extensively used for this purpose. How are +disease germs often disseminated? State the necessity of disinfection in +regard to soiled clothing. + +305. Illustrate how disease has been communicated by clothing. What is the +first necessary condition to a sanitary home? What is the meaning of the +word malaria? What are three active agents in the production of malaria? A +fourth? Describe a typical malarious locality. How does newly broken +ground induce malaria? + +306. State the different ways in which running water can be contaminated. +What care should be taken in regard to the level of building site? + +307. Give some of the results of a wet foundation. What rules should be +observed in regard to shade? What is the effect of too dense foliage about +a dwelling? In building a house, what precautions should be taken against +dampness? What about the cellar? Sewerage? Plumbing? Ventilation? +Fireplaces? Piazzas and balconies? Sleeping rooms? + +308. What general purpose does a house serve? What care should be taken in +regard to the dust or ash heap? What is the effect if liquids or table +refuse be thrown upon it? Where should it be situated? How often should +refuse be carted away? If its frequent removal be inexpedient, what +precaution should be used? What are the best of all deodorizers? How +should the back premises be cared for? What is the best way to dispose of +household garbage? + +309. How can this be done? With what additional advantage? Give Dr. +Derby's remarks in regard to sewers, their condition, and the results. How +should traps and drains be cared for? How should bad smells be treated? Is +a foul smell always the most dangerous? How do poisonous gases often find +entrance to a house? What rule should be observed in regard to ventilating +and soil pipes? + +310. What precautions should be observed in digging about a dwelling? How +do waste pipes often become closed? How may they be cleared? What dangers +arise from unventilated waste pipes? How are washbasin pipes contaminated? +Tell what came from a neighbor's cesspool. Can you name similar instances +which have come under your own observation? + +311, 312. Describe the condition and effects of a neglected cellar. Tell +what came from a crack in a cellar wall. + +313. What effect have brick and mortar in keeping out gases? How do bed +coverings take the place of day garments? What kind of bed covering is +desirable? Is a comfortable bed necessary to perfect health? How often and +for how long time should a bed be ventilated? + +THE CIRCULATION. + +105. Name the organs of the circulation. Does the blood permeate all parts +of the body? What is the average amount in each person? Its composition? +The plasma? The red corpuscles? The white? + +106. What is the size of a red cell? Are the shape and size uniform? Value +of this? Illustrate. Are the disks permanent? What substances are +contained in the plasma? What is fibrin? + +107. In what sense is the blood "liquid flesh"? What is the use of the red +disks? What is the office of the oxygen in the body? Where is the blood +purified? + +108. What is transfusion? Is it of value? + +109. Give some illustrations. What is the cause of coagulation of the +blood? Value of this property? Has the fibrin any other use? + +110. What organ propels the blood? What is the location of the heart? How +large is it? Put your hand over it. What is the pericardium? Describe the +systole. + +111. The diastole. How many chambers in the heart? What is their average +size? What is meant by the right and left heart? What are the auricles? +Why so called? The ventricles? + +112. What is the use of the auricles? The ventricles? Which are made the +stronger? Show the need of valves in the ventricles. Why are there no +valves in the auricles? Draw on the board the form of the valves. Name +them. + +113. Describe the tricuspid valve. The bicuspid. How are these valves +strengthened? + +114. What peculiarity in the attachment of these cords? Describe the +semilunar valves. What are the arteries? Why so named? What is their use? +Their structure? How does their elasticity act? What is meant by a +"collateral circulation"? + +115. How are the arteries protected? Where are they located? Give a +general description of the arterial system. What is the aorta? What is the +pulse? On which arteries can we best feel it? What is the average number +of beats per minute? How and why does this vary? + +116. Why does a physician feel a patient's pulse? What are the veins? What +blood do they carry? Describe the venous system. What vein does not lead +toward the heart? Describe the valves of the veins. What valves of the +heart do they resemble? What are varicose veins? + +117. Where and how can we see the operation of these valves? What are the +capillaries? What is the function of the capillaries? [Footnote: The +distinctive function of the capillaries is to offer peripheral resistance +to the circulation of the blood. This insures "blood pressure," a +condition indispensable to the "heart beat," and also causes leakage +(transudation). This leakage brings the nutriment in contact with the +tissue cells, whereby they are renewed. In the same way the air passes +from the blood to the cells.] What changes take place in this system? + +118. Describe the circulation of the blood as seen in the web of a frog's +foot. + +119. Who discovered the circulation of the blood? How was the discovery +received? What remark did Harvey make? What does that show? Name the two +divisions of the circulation. Describe the route of the blood by the +diagram. 1. The lesser circulation. 2. The greater circulation. + +120. What is the velocity of the blood? How long does it require for all +the blood to pass through the heart? How long does it take the blood to +make the tour of the body? What is the average temperature of the body? +How much does this vary in health? _Ans_. Not more than 2°, even in +the greatest extremes of temperature.--FLINT. + +121. How and where is the heat of the body generated? How is it +distributed? In what diseases is the variation of temperature marked? How +is the temperature of the body regulated? + +122. In what way does life exist through death? Is not this as true in the +moral as in the physical world? What does it teach? How rapidly do our +bodies change? What are the three vital organs? + +123. Name some of the wonders of the heart. + +124-126. What is the lymphatic circulation? What is the thoracic duct? The +lymph? The glands? What is the office of the lymphatics? What are the +lacteals? Give some illustrations of the action of the lymphatics of the +different organs. Should we use care in selecting wall paper? What is +meant by the subcutaneous insertion of morphine? How do hibernating +animals live during the winter? What is a congestion? Its cause? + +127. What is blushing? Why does terror cause one to grow cold and pale? +How is an inflammation caused? Name its four characteristics. + +128. How may severe bleeding be stopped? How can you tell whether the +blood comes from an artery or a vein? Why should you know this? What is +the scrofula? What are "kernels"? + +129, 130. How may a scrofulous tendency of the system be counteracted? +What kinds of food stimulate this disease? What is the cause of a "cold"? +Why does exposure sometimes cause a cold in the head, sometimes on the +lungs, and at others bring on a rheumatic attack? Why is a cold dangerous? +_Ans_. It weakens the system and paves the way for other diseases. +What is the theory of treating a cold? Describe the method. What is +catarrh? Cause? + +131, 132. How is alcohol produced? Is alcohol present in domestic wines +and home-brewed ales? Are they, then, harmless drinks? What is a ferment? +(See also pp. 300, 301.) What is the difference between ferments, +bacteria, microbes, and fungi? _Ans_. A few investigators still look +upon the microorganisms known as bacteria and microbes as animal +existences, but the larger part now concede them to be vegetable. + +133. What is the effect of fermentation? What can you say concerning +yeast? + +134. Explain the process of making beer. Wine. What is distillation? + +135, 136. Is there more than one kind of alcohol? What can you say of +methyl alcohol? Amyl? Ethyl? Which is the ordinary alcohol of commerce? +What is the peculiar effect of fusel oil? Is it often found in wines and +spirits? Has alcohol any beneficial properties? + +137, 138. Describe one of the striking effects of alcohol. What is the +effect of alcohol on plant and animal life? + +139, 140. What is the difference between the alcohol present in beer and +cider, and that in gin and whiskey? Name another dangerous effect of +alcoholic drinks. What business consideration should deter young men from +liquor drinking? + +141-143. Illustrate the general effect of alcohol upon the circulation. +Upon the heart. Is alcohol a stimulant or a narcotic? Describe how alcohol +becomes the "Genius of Degeneration." Explain what is meant by "Vascular +Enlargement." + +144, 145. Describe the effect of alcohol upon the membranes. Upon the +blood. Does it render the blood thin or heavy? What is the difference +between pure and alcoholized blood? + +145-147. Describe the effect of alcohol upon the lungs. What form of +consumption does it induce? Are liquor drinkers more or less liable to +epidemic diseases? + +314. How does the pulse felt by the finger correspond with the beat of the +heart? Name some agencies that influence the pulse beat? Which part of the +body has the most varied form of pulsation? + +315. Compare the pulses of the wrist and brain in the sleeping and the +waking states. How do catarrhal colds generally arise? How are they best +cured? + +316. What is said of the vitality of catarrh germs? What is a popular +fallacy with regard to the care of sick rooms? Give Dr. Austin Flint's +remarks in this connection. + +DIGESTION AND FOOD. + +151. Why do we need food? Why will a person starve without food? Are the +current stories of people who live without food to be relied upon? How +much food is needed per day by an adult in active exercise? + +152. How much in a year? How does this amount vary? Describe the body as a +mold. As an eddy. What does food do for us? What does food contain? + +153. How is this force set free? What force is this? How can it be turned +into muscular motion, mental vigor, etc.? Do we then draw all our power +from nature? What becomes of these forces when we are done with them? Do +we destroy the force we use? _Ans_. No matter has been destroyed, so +far as we know, since the creation, and force is equally indestructible. +Compare our food to a tense spring. + +154. What three kinds of food do we need? What is nitrogenous food? Name +the common forms. What is the characteristic of nitrogenous food? Why +called albuminous? What is carbonaceous food? Its two kinds? Constituents +of sugar? Where are starch and gum ranked? Why? Use of carbonaceous food? +What becomes of this heat? Composition of fat? How does fat compare with +sugar in producing heat? + +155. Name the other uses of carbonaceous food. From what kind of food does +the body derive the greatest strength? Name the mineral matters which +should be contained in our food. What can you say of the abundance and +necessity of water? Ought we not to exercise great care in selecting the +water we drink? [Footnote: Water which has passed through lead pipes is +apt to contain salts of that metal, and is therefore open to suspicion. +Metallic lined ice pitchers, galvanized-iron reservoirs, and many soda- +water fountains, are liable to the same objection. (See pp. 317, 318.)] +Does the character of our food influence the quantity of water we need? + +156. What are the uses of the different minerals contained in food? +Illustrate the importance of salt. Could a person live on one kind of food +alone? Illustrate. + +157. Describe the effect of living on lean meat. Show the necessity of a +mixed diet. Illustrate. Show the need of digestion. Illustrate. + +158. What is assimilation? Describe the general plan of digestion. What +did Berzelius call digestion? Why? What amount of liquid is daily secreted +by the alimentary canal? What is the alimentary canal? How is it lined? +How does the amœba digest its food? + +159. The hydra? Define secretion. Describe the saliva. How is it secreted? +What is the amount? Its organic principle? Its use? How soon does it act? +How long? What tends to check or increase the flow of saliva? + +160. Describe the process of swallowing. The stomach. Its size. Its +construction. What is the peristaltic movement? + +162. What is the pylorus? For what does this open? What is the gastric +juice? How abundant is it? To what is its acidity due? What organic +principle does it contain? How is pepsin prepared? How is the flow of +gastric juice influenced? + +163. What is its use? Appearance of the food as it passes through the +pylorus? Why is not the stomach itself digested? What is the construction +of the intestines? How are the intestines divided? What is the duodenum? +Why so called? What juices are secreted here? + +164. What is the bile? Describe the liver. What is its weight? Its +construction? _Ans_. It consists of a mass of polyhedral cells only +1/100 to 1/2000 of an inch in diameter, filling a mesh of capillaries. The +capillaries carry the blood to and fro, and the cells secrete the bile. +What is the cyst? What does the liver secrete from the blood besides the +bile? Is the bile necessary to life? Illustrate. What is its use? + +165. What is the pancreatic juice? Its organic principle? Its use? +Appearance of the food when it leaves the duodenum? Describe the small +intestine. What is absorption? In what two ways is the food absorbed? + +166. Where does the process commence? How long does it last? Describe the +lacteals. Of what general system do they form a part? What do the veins +absorb? Where do they carry the food? How is it modified? + +167. What is glycogen? Describe the complexity of the process of +digestion. What length of time is required for digestion in the stomach? + +168. May not food which requires little time in the stomach need more in +the other organs, and _vice versa_? Tell the story of Alexis St. +Martin. What time was required to digest an ordinary meal? Apples? Eggs, +raw and cooked? Roast beef? Pork? Which is the king of the meats? What is +the nutritive value of mutton? Lamb? How should it be cooked? Objection to +pork? What is the trichina? + +169. Should ham ever be eaten raw? Value of fish? Oysters? Milk? Cheese? +Eggs? Bread? Brown bread? Are warm biscuit and bread healthful? Nutritive +value of corn? + +170. Of the potato? Of ripe fruits? Of coffee? To what is its stimulating +property due? Its influence on the system? When should it be discarded? +Should children use any stimulants? + +171. Effects of tea? Influence of strong tea? What is the active principle +of tea? Nutritive value of chocolate? What is its active principle? Story +of Linnæus? How should tea be made? What is the effect of cooking food? +What precaution in boiling meat? In roasting? Object of this high +temperature? What precaution in making soup? Why is frying an unhealthful +mode of cooking? + +172. State the five evil results of rapid eating. What disease grows out +of it? If one is compelled to eat a meal rapidly, as at a railroad +station, what should he take? Why? Why does a child need more food +proportionately than an old person? State the relation of waste to repair +in youth, in middle, and in old age. What kind and quantity of food does a +sedentary occupation require? What caution should students who have been +accustomed to manual labor observe? Must a student starve himself? + +173. Is there not danger of overeating? Would not an occasional abstinence +from a meal be beneficial? Do not most people eat more than is for their +good? How should the season regulate our diet? The climate? Illustrate. +What does a natural appetite indicate? How are we to judge between a +natural and an artificial longing? What does the craving of childhood for +sugar indicate? [Footnote: It does not follow from this, however, that the +free use of sugar in its separate form is desirable. The ordinary articles +of vegetable food contain sugar (or starch, which in the body is converted +into sugar), in large proportion; and there is good reason to believe that +in its naturally combined form it is both more easily digested, and more +available for the purposes of nutrition, than when crystallized. The +ordinary sugar of commerce, moreover, derived from the sugar cane, is not +capable of being directly applied to physiological purposes. Cane sugar is +converted within the body into another kind of sugar, identical with that +derived from the grape, before it can enter into the circuit of the vital +changes.] + +174. What is the effect upon the circulation of taking food? Should we +labor or study just before or after a meal? Why not? What time should +intervene between our meals? Is "lunching" a healthful practice? Eating +heartily just before retiring? Is it never wise to eat at this time? (See +p. 337.) Why should care be banished from the table? Will a regular +routine of food be beneficial? + +175, 176. Describe some of the wonders of digestion. What are the +principal causes of dyspepsia? How may we avoid that disease? + +177. What are the mumps? What care should be taken? Is alcohol a food? +Illustrate. + +178-187. Compare the action of alcohol with that of water. Is the alcohol +taken into the stomach eliminated unchanged? Does alcohol contain any +element needed by the body? What is the effect of alcohol upon the +digestion? Will pepsin act in the presence of alcohol? What is the effect +of alcohol upon the liver? What is "Fatty Degeneration"? What is the +effect of alcohol upon the kidneys? Does alcohol impart heat to the body? +Does it confer strength? What does Dr. Kane say? Describe Richardson's +experiments. Tell what peculiar influence alcohol exerts. What is +alcoholism? What is heredity? + +317. What characteristics should good drinking water possess? Are these +always proof of its purity? Will filters remove all danger of +contamination? How may a river infect the entire population of a town? +State how well water may become a dangerous drink. + +318. Relate how cases of fever have been caused by carelessness in +dairies. How should suspected water be treated? Describe a convenient +portable filter. Tell how water is affected by foul air. + +319. Tell how ice may breed disease. What caution should be observed in +engaging ice for our summer supply? Illustrate the structure of the +glandular coat of the stomach. + +320. What is the office of the cells? Describe the life history of a cell. +How does the stomach weep, and what is the character of its tears? + +321. What is tyrotoxicon? Give Dr. Vaughan's experiments with cheese, +milk, and ice cream. Tell how milk may be poisoned. + +322. Compare the vigor of exclusively fish-eating with flesh-eating +people. What is the peculiar value of fish as a diet? To what class of +people is it best suited? Name examples. Describe the principles contained +in coffee. What is the effect of caffeone? Of caffeine? Give some of the +specific effects of coffee. How does tea differ from coffee? Describe the +injurious effects of excessive tea drinking. + +324. Compare theine and cocaine. Should children drink tea and coffee? + +325. Give some causes of indigestion. Why are nervous people prone to +dyspepsia? Give the comparative digestibility of various meats. + +326. Describe how our food sustains our bodies. Illustrate the energy +contained in one gramme of beef fat. Why is there danger in a "high- +pressure" style of living? Illustrate. + +327. State the effects of gluttony. Why is it unkindness to indulge +inordinate appetites in children? What should be the rule in regard to +their food? What effects would follow its observance? + +THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. + +191. What are the organs of the nervous system? What is the general use of +this system? How does it distinguish animals from plants? What are the +vegetative functions? What is the gray matter? Its use? The white matter? +Its use? + +193. Describe the brain. What is its office? Its size? How does it vary? +Illustrate. Name its two divisions. + +194, 195. Describe the cerebrum. The convolutions. The membranes which +bind the brain together. What can you say of the quantity of blood which +goes to the brain? What does it show? What do the convolutions indicate? +What is the use of the two halves of the brain? What theories have been +advanced concerning it? Is every injury to the brain fatal? Illustrate. +Compare the human brain with the brains of some animals. + +196. What is the effect of removing the cerebrum? Describe the cerebellum. +What is the arbor vitæ? What does this part of the brain control? What are +the peculiar functions of the cerebellum? Give Dr. Bastian's remarks. + +197. What is the effect of an injury to the cerebellum? Describe the +spinal cord. What is the medulla oblongata? Describe the nerves. Is each +part of the body supplied with its own nerve? Prove it. + +198. What are the motory nerves? The sensory? When will motion be lost and +feeling remain, and _vice versa?_ What is meant by a transfer of +pain? Illustrate. + +199. Name the three classes of nerves. What are the spinal nerves? +Describe the origin of the spinal nerve. + +199-201. What are the cranial nerves? How many pairs are there? Describe +them. + +201, 202. Describe the sympathetic system. What is its use? How does the +brain control all the vital processes? What is meant by the crossing of +the cords? What is the effect? What exception in the seventh pair of +cranial nerves? + +203, 204. What is reflex action? Give illustrations. Give instances of the +unconscious action of the brain. [Footnote: The cerebellum has its +unconscious action in the processes of respiration and in the involuntary +movements which are made in response to the senses, as in winking, +starting back at a sound, etc. The cerebrum acts automatically in oases +familiar to all. A large part of our mental activity consists of this +unconscious brain work. There are many cases in which the mind has +obviously reasoned more clearly and more successfully in this automatic +condition, when left entirely to itself, than when we have been cudgeling +our brains, so to speak, to get the solution. Oliver Wendell Holmes has +aptly expressed this fact. "We wish," he says, "to remember something in +the course of conversation. No effort of the will can reach it; but we +say, 'Wait a minute, and it will come to me,' and we go on talking. Some +minutes later, the idea we are in search of comes all at once into the +mind, delivered like a prepaid parcel, or like a foundling in a basket, +laid at the door of consciousness. How it came there, we know not. The +mind must have been at work, groping and feeling for it in the dark; it +can not have come of itself. Yet, all the while, our consciousness, _so +far as we are conscious of our consciousness_, was busy with other +thoughts." + +Some interesting personal experiences upon this point are given in an +article entitled "The Antechamber of Consciousness," by Francis Speir, +Jr., in the _Popular Science Monthly_ for March, 1888.] Can there be +feeling or motion in the lower limbs when the spinal cord is destroyed? +What does the story told by Dr. John Hunter show? Give illustrations of +the independent action of the spinal cord in animals. What are the uses of +reflex action? + +205. State its value in the formation of habits. How does the brain grow? +What laws govern it? What must be the effect of constant light reading? Of +overstudy or mental labor? + +206. State the relation of sleep to repair and waste. How many hours does +each person need? What kind of work requires most sleep? + +206-208. What is the influence of sunlight on the body? Illustrate. Name +some of the wonders of the brain. + +208-213. What four stages are there in the effect of alcohol on the +nervous system? Describe each. Does alcohol confer any permanent strength? +What is the physiological effect of alcohol on the brain? On the mental +and moral powers? What is the Delirium Tremens? Should a man be punished +for a crime he commits while drunk? + +214-218. What are the principal constituents of tobacco? What are its +physiological effects? Who are most likely to escape injury? Is tobacco a +food? What is its influence upon youth? Why are cigarettes specially +injurious? What effect does tobacco have on the sensibilities? Name +illustrations of the injurious effect of tobacco on young men. + +219-221. How is opium obtained? What is its physiological effect? Which +form of using it is most injurious? Can one give up the use of opium when +he pleases? How do people sometimes take opium without knowing it? + +221. What is the harmful influence of chloral hydrate? Describe its +different physiological effects. + +222. Compare its influence with that of alcohol. How is chloroform +obtained? Does its use require great caution? Illustrate its effects. + +223, 224. What is cocaine? What is its value? Its physiological effect? +Its dangers? + +331-333. What is the effect of extreme anger? Give the physiological +explanation of this deterioration. What two organs particularly suffer? +Illustrate. To what cause are many suicides referable? How can one secure +a calm and tranquil life? What is the effect of forcing the brain in +childhood? + +334. Illustrate. How should a child be taught? + +334, 335. Why should we not exhaust our energies to the last degree? What +warnings does Nature give us? Do stimulants supply force? What is the +effect of mental exhaustion? Which is the most common, overwork or worry? +Most dangerous? What is worry? Its effect? What other causes often induce +insanity? + +336-338. State some curiosities of sleep. Some conditions necessary to +sound and healthful slumber. How may we acquire the habit of early rising? + +338, 339. Give some of the results of dungeon life. + +339-347. What can you say of the growth and power of poison habits? +Illustrate. How does physiological ignorance often cause intemperance? +What is the usual result of a stimulant habit? In what virtue lies the +peril of narcotics? Balance the good and the evil in their use. Illustrate +how death often results from chloroform and chloral. What common result is +worse than death? Compare the demoralization in the cases of the opium +user and the alcohol drinker. What principle of heredity attaches to the +use of opium? Give instances of deaths from tobacco, opium, etc. What can +you say of cigarette smoking? Chloral hydrate? The bromides? Absinthe? +Hasheesh? + +THE SPECIAL SENSES. + +229, 230. What is a sense? Name the five senses. To what organ do all the +senses minister? If the nerve leading to any organ of sense be cut, what +would be the effect? [Footnote: Each, organ is adapted to receive a +peculiar kind of impression. Hence we can not smell with, the eyes nor see +with the nose. Thus, if the nerve communicating between the brain and any +organ be destroyed, that means of knowledge is cut off.] Sometimes persons +lose feeling in a limb, but retain motion; why is this? What is the sense +of touch sometimes called? Describe the organ of touch. What are the +papillæ? Where are they most abundant? [Footnote: If we apply the points +of a compass blunted with cork to different parts of the body, we can +distinguish the two points at one twenty-fourth of an inch apart on the +tongue, one sixteenth, of an inch on the lips, one twelfth of an inch on +the tips of the fingers, and one half inch on the great toe; while, if +they are one inch on the cheek, and two inches on the back, they will +scarcely produce a separate sensation.--HUXLEY.] What are the uses of this +sense? What special knowledge do we obtain by it? Why do we always desire +to handle any curious object? Can the sense of touch always be relied +upon? Illustrate. What is the _tactus eruditus_? Tell how one sense +can take the place of another. Give illustrations of the delicacy of touch +possessed by the blind. + +230-232. Describe the sense of taste. How can you see the papillæ of +taste? What causes the velvety look of the tongue? Why do salt and bitter +flavors induce vomiting? Why does an acid "pucker" the face? What +substances are tasteless? Illustrate. Has sulphur any taste? Chalk? Sand? +What is the use of this sense? Does it not also add to the pleasures of +life? Why are the acts of eating, drinking, etc., thus made sources of +happiness? + +232, 233. Describe the organ of smell. State the intimate relation which +exists between the senses of smell and taste. Name some common mistakes +which occur in consequence. Must the object to be smelled touch the nose? +What is the theory of smell? How do you account for the statement made in +the note concerning musk and ambergris? What are the uses of this sense? +Are agreeable odors healthful, and disagreeable ones unhealthful? + +234-236. Describe the organ of hearing. Describe the external ear. What is +the tympanum or drum of the ear? Describe the middle ear. Name the bones +of the ear. Describe their structure. Describe the internal ear. By what +other name is it known? What substances float in the liquid which fills +the labyrinth? What is their use? Describe the fibers of Corti. What do +they form? Use of this microscopic harp? Give the theory of sound. Where +is the sound, in the external object or in the mind? Can there be any +sound, then, where there is no mind? What advice is given concerning the +care of the ear? How can insects be removed? Which sense would you rather +lose, hearing or sight? Does not a blind person always excite more +sympathy than a deaf one? How does the sight assist the hearing? +[Footnote: In _hearing_, the attention is more or less characteristic. +If we wish to distinguish a distant noise, or perceive a sound, the +head inclines and turns in such a manner as to present the external +ear in the direction of the sound, at the same time the eyes are +fixed and partially closed. The movement of the lips of his interlocutor +is the usual means by which the deaf man supplies the want of hearing; the +eyes and the entire head, from its position, having a peculiar and painful +expression of attention. In looking at the portrait of La Condamine, it +was easily recognized as that of a deaf person. Even when hearing is +perfect, the eyes act sometimes as auxiliaries to it. In order to +understand an orator perfectly, it seems necessary to see him--the +gestures and the expression of the face seeming to add to the clearness of +the words. The lesson of a teacher can not be well understood if any +obstacle is interposed between him and the eyes of the listening pupil. So +that if a pupil's eyes wander, we know that he is not attentive.-- +_Wonders of the Human Body_.] + +236, 237. Describe the eye. Name the three coats of which it is composed. +Is it a perfect sphere? _Ans_. The cornea projects in front, and the +optic nerve at the back sticks out like a handle, while the ball itself +has its longest diameter from side to side. How is the interior divided? +Object of the crystalline lens? How is the crystalline lens kept in place? +Describe the liquids which fill the eye. + +238. What is the pupil? Describe the eyelids. Why is the inner side of the +eyelid so sensitive? What is the cause of a black eye? Use of the +eyelashes? Where are the oil glands located? What is their use? Describe +the lachrymal gland. The lachrymal lake. What causes the overflow in old +age? + +239. Explain the structure of the retina. Use of the rods and cones. What +is the blind spot? + +240. Illustrate. What is the theory of sight? Illustrate. + +241, 242. State the action of the crystalline lens. Its power of +adaptation. Do children ever need spectacles? + +243. What is the cataract? How cured? What is color blindness? Illustrate. +What care should be taken of the eyes? Should one constantly lean forward +over his book or work? What special care should nearsighted children take? +By what carelessness may we impair our sight? + +244. How is squinting caused? Cured? What care should be used after an +illness? Should we ever read or write at twilight? Danger of reading upon +the ears? What course should we take when objects get into the eye? How +may they be removed? + +245. Are "eyestones" useful? Why should we never use eyewashes except upon +the advice of a competent physician? What rule should be observed with +regard to the direction of the light when we are at work? Name some causes +of near-sightedness. Remedies. + +346. Give the account of Laura Bridgman. + +347-350. Describe the anatomy of the nose. In what part of the nose is the +function of smell performed? Why do we "sniff" when our attention is +attracted by an odor? Give some experiments which illustrate the +connection between smell, taste, and touch. Why should we retain our food +in the mouth as long as possible? Of what use are gastronomic odors? + +350. Why should a child's ear never be boxed? Illustrate. How can we +detect inattention from deafness in a child? What should we consider in +this respect? + +351. Why should we avoid direct draughts in the ear? Explain the use of +earwax. What common habit is very injurious? Why? + +352, 353. What is the office of the Eustachian tube? Illustrate. + +353, 354. Describe the action of the "eye curtain." Give experiments. What +are "Purkinje's Figures"? Describe experiment. + +HEALTH AND DISEASE. + +251-254. State some of the benefits of health. Contrast it with sickness. +How were diseases formerly supposed to be caused? What remedies were used? +What does modern science teach us to be the nature of disease? Give some +illustrations showing how diseases may be prevented. Is it probable that +the body was intended to give out in any one of its organs? What is the +first step to be taken in the cure of a disease? What should be the object +of medicine? What is now the chief dependence of the best physicians? What +do you think concerning the common use of patent nostrums? Ought we not to +use the greatest care in the selection of our physician? + +GLOSSARY. + +Ab do' men (_abdo_, I conceal). The largest cavity in the body, in +which are hidden the intestines, stomach, etc. + +Ab sorb' ent (_ab_, from _sorbeo_, I suck up). + +Ac' e tab' u lum (_acetum_, vinegar). The socket for holding the head +of the thigh bone, shaped like an ancient vinegar vessel. + +A ce' tic (_acetum_, vinegar). + +Ad' i pose. Fatty. + +Al bu' men (_albus_, white). A substance resembling the white of egg. + +Al bu' mi nous substances contain much albumen. + +Al' i men' ta ry. Pertaining to food. + +Al' ka line (-lin) substances neutralize acids. + +An' æs thet' ic. A substance that destroys the feeling of pain. + +A or' ta. The largest artery of the body. + +Ap' o plex y (pleks y). A disease marked by loss of sensation and +voluntary motion. + +A' que ous (a'-kwe-us). Watery. + +A rach' noid (_arachne_, a spider; _eidos_, form). A membrane +like a spider's web covering the brain. + +Ar' bor vi'tæ means "the tree of life." + +Ar' tery (_aer_, air; _tereo_, I contain). So named because +after death the arteries contain air only, and hence the ancients supposed +them to be air tubes leading through the body. + +Ar tic' u late (_articulo_, I form a joint). + +Ar tic' u la tion. A joint. + +As phyx' ia (-fix-i-a). Literally, no pulse; apparent death. + +As sim' i la' tion is the process of changing food into flesh, etc. + +At' las. So called because, as in ancient fable the god Atlas supported +the globe on his shoulders, so in the body this bone bears the head. + +Au' di to ry Nerve. The nerve of hearing. + +Au' ri cle (-kl) (_auris_, ear) of the heart. So named from its +shape. + +Bi' ceps. A muscle with two heads, or origins. + +Bi cus' pid. Tooth with two points; also a valve of the heart. + +Bron' chi (-ki). The two branches of the windpipe. + +Bron' chi al Tubes. Subdivisions of bronchi. + +Bur sa (a purse). Small sac containing fluid near a joint. + +Ca nine' (_canis_, a dog) teeth are like dog's teeth. + +Cap' il la ries (_capillus_, a hair). A system of tiny blood vessels. + +Car' bon. Pure charcoal. + +Car bon' ic Acid. A deadly gas given off by the lungs and by fires. + +Ca rot' ids (_karos_, lethargy). Arteries of the neck, so named +because the ancients supposed them to be the seat of sleep. + +Car' pus. The wrist. + +Car' ti lage. Gristle. + +Cell. A minute sac, usually with soft walls and fluid contents. + +Cel' lu lar (_cellula_, a little cell). Full of cells. + +Cer' e bel' lum. The little brain. + +Cer' e brum. A Latin word meaning brain. + +Cer' vi cal. Relating to the neck. + +Chlo' ral (klo) Hy' drate. A drug used to induce sleep. + +Cho' roid. The second coat of the eye. + +Chyle (kile). A milky juice formed in digestion. + +Chyme (kime). From _chumos_, juice. + +Cir' cu la' tion. The course of the blood through the body. + +Cil' i a (the plural of _cilium_, an eyelash). Hair-like projections +in the air passages. + +Clav' i cle (klav'-i-kl). From _clavis_, a key. + +Co ag' u la'tion. A clotting of blood. + +Coc' cyx (a cuckoo). A bony mass below the sacrum. + +Coch' le a. A Latin word meaning snail shell. See Ear + +Com' pound. A substance composed of two or more elements. + +Con ta' gious diseases are those caught by contact, the breath, etc. + +Con' trac til' i ty (_con_, together; _traho_, I draw). + +Con' vo lu' tion (_con_, together; _volvo_, I roll). + +Cor' ne a (_cornu_, a horn). A transparent, horn-like window in the +eye. + +Cor' pus cle (kor'-pus-l). From a Latin word meaning a little body. It is +applied to the disks of the blood. + +Cra' ni al. Relating to the skull. + +Crys'tal line (_crystallum_, a crystal). + +Cu ta' ne ous (_cutis_, skin). Pertaining to the skin. + +Cu' ti cle (ku'-ti-kl). From a Latin word meaning little skin. + +Cu' tis, the true skin. + +Den' tal (_dens, dentis_, a tooth). + +Di' a phragm (-fram). The muscle dividing the abdomen from the chest. + +Di as' to le (_diastello_, I put asunder). Dilation of the heart. + +Dis' lo ca' tion. A putting out of joint. + +Dor' sal (_dorsum_, the back). + +Duct. A small tube. + +Du o de' num (_duodeni_, twelve each). + +Du' ra Ma' ter (_durus_, hard; _mater_, mother). The outer +membrane of the brain. + +Dys pep' si a is a difficulty of digestion + +E lim' i nate. To expel. + +Ep' idem' ic. A disease affecting a great number of persons at once. + +Ep' i der' mis. The cuticle. + +Ep' i glot' tis (_epi_, upon; _glottis_, the tongue). The lid of +the windpipe. + +Ep' i the' li um. The outer surface of mucous or serous membranes. + +Eu sta' chi an (u-sta'-ki-an) Tube. So named from its discoverer, an +Italian physician. + +Ex cre' tion. Waste particles thrown off by the excretory organs. + +Fer' men ta' tion. The process by which sugar is turned into alcohol. + +Fi' brin (_fibra_, a fiber). + +Fil' a ment (_filum_, a thread). + +Func' tion. See Organ. + +Gan' gli on (gang'-gli-on). From _ganglion_, a knot; plu. ganglia. + +Gas' tric (_gaster_, stomach). + +Glands (_glandz_). From _glans_, a Latin word meaning acorn. +Their object, is to secrete in their cells some liquid from the blood. + +Glot' tis. The opening at the top of the larynx. + +Hu' me rus. The arm bone. + +Hu' mor. A Latin word meaning moisture. + +Hy' dro gen. The lightest gas known, and one of the elements of water. + +Hy' gi ene. From a Greek word meaning health. + +Hyp' o glos' sal. Literally "under the tongue"; a nerve of the tongue. + +In ci' sor (_incido_, I cut) teeth are cutting teeth. + +In' spi ra' tion (_in_ and _spiro_, I breathe in). + +In tes' tine (-tin). From _intus_, within. + +Lach' ry mal (_lachryma_, a tear). Pertaining to tears. + +Lac' te al (_lac_, _lactis_, milk). So called from the milky +look of the chyle during digestion. + +La cu' na, plu. lacunæ (_lakos_, a hole). Cavities in the bone +structure. + +Lar' ynx (lar'-inx). The upper part of the windpipe. + +Lig' a ments (_ligo_, I bind) tie bones together. + +Lu' bri cate. To oil in order to prevent friction. + +Lum' bar (_lumbus_, a loin). Pertaining to the loins. + +Lymph (limf). From _lympha_, pure water. + +Lym phat' ic (lim-fat-ik). + +Mas' ti ca' tion. The act of chewing. + +Me dul' la Ob lon ga' ta. The upper part of the spinal cord. + +Mam' brane. A thin skin, or tissue. + +Mes' en tery. The membrane by which the intestines are fastened to the +spine. + +Met' a car' pal (_meta_, after; _karpos_, wrist). + +Met' a tar' sal (_meta_, after; _tarsos_, the instep). + +Mi' cro scope (_mikros_, small; _skopeo_, I see). + +Mo'lar (_mola_, a mill) teeth are the grinders. + +Morp' hine (_Morpheus_, the Greek god of sleep). + +Mo' tor. Giving motion. + +Mu' cous (-kus) Membrane. A thin tissue, or skin, covering the open +cavities of the body. See Serous. + +Mu' cous. A fluid secreted by a membrane and serving to lubricate it. + +Mus' cle (mus-l). A bundle of fibers covered by a membrane. + +My o' pi a (_muo_, I contract; _ops_, the eye). + +Nar cot' ic. A drug producing sleep. + +Na' sal (na'-zal). From _nasus_, the nose. + +Nerve (neuron, a cord). + +Ni' tro gen Gas is the passive element of the air. + +Ni trog' e nous. Containing nitrogen. + +Nu tri' tion. The process by which the body is nourished. + +Œ soph' agus (e-sof'-a-gus). The gullet; literally, a "food-carrier." + +Ol fac' to ry. Pertaining to the smell. + +Or' gan. An organ is a portion of the body designed for a particular use, +which is called its _function_; thus the heart circulates the blood. + +Os' se ous. Bone-like. + +Os' si fy (_ossa_, bones; _facio_, I make). + +Ox i da' tion. The process of combining with oxygen. + +Ox' y gen. The active element of the air. + +Pal' ate (_palatum_, the palate). Roof of the mouth. + +Pan' cre as (_pas_, all; _kreas_, flesh). An organ of digestion. + +Pa pil' la, plu. papillæ. Tiny cone-like projections. + +Pa ral' y sis. A disease in which one loses sensation, or the power of +motion, or both. + +Pa rot' id (_para_, near; _ous_, _otos_, ear). One of the +salivary glands. + +Pa tel' la (a little dish). The kneepan. + +Pec' to ral. Pertaining to the chest. + +Pep' sin (_pepto_, I digest). The chief constituent of the gastric +juice. + +Per' i car' di um (_peri_, around; _kardia_, the heart). The +membrane wrapping the heart. + +Per' i os' te um (_peri_, around; _osteon_, bone). The membrane +around the bone. + +Per' i stal' tic (_peri_, round; _stallein_, to arrange). +Applied to the worm-like movement of the alimentary canal. + +Phar' ynx (far'-inx). From _pharugx_, the throat. + +Pi' a Ma' ter (tender mother). See Brain. + +Pig' ment. A paint. + +Plas' ma (plaz'-ma). The nutritious fluid of the blood. + +Pleu' ra (plu'-ra). From _pleuar_, a rib. The membrane that lines the +chest and wraps the lungs. + +Pres by o' pi a (_presbus_, old; _ops_, the eye). A defect in +the eye common to old age. + +Proc' ess. A projection. Sometimes it retains its ordinary meaning of +"operation." + +Py lo' rus (a gate). The doorway through which the food passes from the +stomach. + +Pul' mo na ry (_pulmo_, the lungs). Pertaining to the lungs. + +Ra' di us. A Latin word meaning the spoke of a wheel, a ray, etc. + +Ram' i fy. To spread like the branches of a tree. + +Res' pi ra´ tion (_re_, again; _spiro_, I breathe). Act of +breathing. + +Ret' i na (_rete_, a net). The expansion of the optic nerve in the +eye. + +Sa' crum (sacred). So named, it is said, because this bone of the pelvis +was anciently offered in sacrifice. + +Sa li' va. A Latin word meaning spittle; the fluid secreted by the +salivary glands. + +Scap' u la. The shoulder blade. + +Scav' en ger. A street sweeper. + +Sele rot' ic (skie-rot'-ic). The outer coat of the eye. + +Se cre' tion (_secretum_, to separate). + +Sed' en ta ry persons are those who sit much. + +Sen' so ry Nerves. The nerves of feeling. + +Se' rous Membrane. A thin tissue, or skin, covering the cavities of the +body that are not open to the external air. + +Se' rum. The thin part of the blood. + +Sub cla' vi an. Located under the clavicle. + +Sub lin' gual (_sub_, under: _lingua_, the tongue). The salivary +gland located under the tongue. + +Sub max' il la ry (_sub_, under; _maxilla_, jawbone). The +salivary gland located under the jaw. + +Syn o' vi a (_sun_, with; _oon_, egg). A fluid that lubricates +the joints. + +Syn o' vi al Membrane packs the joints. + +Sys' to le (_sustello_, I contract). Contraction of the heart. + +Tem' po ral. An artery on the temple (_tempus_, time), so called +because, as is said, the hair whitens first at that point. + +Ten' dons (_tendo_, I stretch). The cords conveying motion from the +muscle to the bone. + +Tho' rax (a breastplate). The cavity containing the lungs, etc. + +Tib' ia. The shin-bone. + +Tis' sue. A general term applied to the textures of which the different +organs are composed; osseous tissue forms bones. + +Tra' che a (tra'-ke-a). Means rough, alluding to the roughened surface of +the windpipe. + +Tri' ceps. A muscle with three heads, or origins. + +Tri' cus' pid (_tres_, three; _cuspis_, point). A valve of the +heart. + +Tym' pa num (a drum) of the ear. + +Vas' cu lar (_vasculum_, little vessel). Full of small blood vessels. + +Ven' tri cle (-kl). A cavity of the heart. + +Ver' te bra, plu. vertebræ (_verto_, I turn). A term applied to each +one of the bones of the spine. + +Vil' lus (_villus_, tuft of hair), plu. villi. + +Vi' ti ate. To taint. To spoil. + +Vit' re ous (_vitrium_, glass). Glassy. + +Vo' mer (plowshare). A bone of the nose. + + + + +*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK, HYGIENIC PHYSIOLOGY *** + +This file should be named 6986-8.txt or 6986-8.zip + +Project Gutenberg eBooks are often created from several printed +editions, all of which are confirmed as Public Domain in the US +unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we usually do not +keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper edition. + +We are now trying to release all our eBooks one year in advance +of the official release dates, leaving time for better editing. +Please be encouraged to tell us about any error or corrections, +even years after the official publication date. + +Please note neither this listing nor its contents are final til +midnight of the last day of the month of any such announcement. +The official release date of all Project Gutenberg eBooks is at +Midnight, Central Time, of the last day of the stated month. A +preliminary version may often be posted for suggestion, comment +and editing by those who wish to do so. + +Most people start at our Web sites at: +https://gutenberg.org or +http://promo.net/pg + +These Web sites include award-winning information about Project +Gutenberg, including how to donate, how to help produce our new +eBooks, and how to subscribe to our email newsletter (free!). + + +Those of you who want to download any eBook before announcement +can get to them as follows, and just download by date. This is +also a good way to get them instantly upon announcement, as the +indexes our cataloguers produce obviously take a while after an +announcement goes out in the Project Gutenberg Newsletter. + +http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext04 or +ftp://ftp.ibiblio.org/pub/docs/books/gutenberg/etext04 + +Or /etext03, 02, 01, 00, 99, 98, 97, 96, 95, 94, 93, 92, 92, 91 or 90 + +Just search by the first five letters of the filename you want, +as it appears in our Newsletters. + + +Information about Project Gutenberg (one page) + +We produce about two million dollars for each hour we work. The +time it takes us, a rather conservative estimate, is fifty hours +to get any eBook selected, entered, proofread, edited, copyright +searched and analyzed, the copyright letters written, etc. Our +projected audience is one hundred million readers. If the value +per text is nominally estimated at one dollar then we produce $2 +million dollars per hour in 2002 as we release over 100 new text +files per month: 1240 more eBooks in 2001 for a total of 4000+ +We are already on our way to trying for 2000 more eBooks in 2002 +If they reach just 1-2% of the world's population then the total +will reach over half a trillion eBooks given away by year's end. + +The Goal of Project Gutenberg is to Give Away 1 Trillion eBooks! +This is ten thousand titles each to one hundred million readers, +which is only about 4% of the present number of computer users. + +Here is the briefest record of our progress (* means estimated): + +eBooks Year Month + + 1 1971 July + 10 1991 January + 100 1994 January + 1000 1997 August + 1500 1998 October + 2000 1999 December + 2500 2000 December + 3000 2001 November + 4000 2001 October/November + 6000 2002 December* + 9000 2003 November* +10000 2004 January* + + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been created +to secure a future for Project Gutenberg into the next millennium. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +As of February, 2002, contributions are being solicited from people +and organizations in: Alabama, Alaska, Arkansas, Connecticut, +Delaware, District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Illinois, +Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Massachusetts, +Michigan, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New +Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio, +Oklahoma, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina, South +Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Virginia, Washington, West +Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming. + +We have filed in all 50 states now, but these are the only ones +that have responded. + +As the requirements for other states are met, additions to this list +will be made and fund raising will begin in the additional states. +Please feel free to ask to check the status of your state. + +In answer to various questions we have received on this: + +We are constantly working on finishing the paperwork to legally +request donations in all 50 states. If your state is not listed and +you would like to know if we have added it since the list you have, +just ask. + +While we cannot solicit donations from people in states where we are +not yet registered, we know of no prohibition against accepting +donations from donors in these states who approach us with an offer to +donate. + +International donations are accepted, but we don't know ANYTHING about +how to make them tax-deductible, or even if they CAN be made +deductible, and don't have the staff to handle it even if there are +ways. + +Donations by check or money order may be sent to: + +Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation +PMB 113 +1739 University Ave. +Oxford, MS 38655-4109 + +Contact us if you want to arrange for a wire transfer or payment +method other than by check or money order. + +The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation has been approved by +the US Internal Revenue Service as a 501(c)(3) organization with EIN +[Employee Identification Number] 64-622154. Donations are +tax-deductible to the maximum extent permitted by law. As fund-raising +requirements for other states are met, additions to this list will be +made and fund-raising will begin in the additional states. + +We need your donations more than ever! + +You can get up to date donation information online at: + +https://www.gutenberg.org/donation.html + + +*** + +If you can't reach Project Gutenberg, +you can always email directly to: + +Michael S. Hart <hart@pobox.com> + +Prof. Hart will answer or forward your message. + +We would prefer to send you information by email. + + +**The Legal Small Print** + + +(Three Pages) + +***START**THE SMALL PRINT!**FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS**START*** +Why is this "Small Print!" statement here? You know: lawyers. +They tell us you might sue us if there is something wrong with +your copy of this eBook, even if you got it for free from +someone other than us, and even if what's wrong is not our +fault. So, among other things, this "Small Print!" statement +disclaims most of our liability to you. It also tells you how +you may distribute copies of this eBook if you want to. + +*BEFORE!* YOU USE OR READ THIS EBOOK +By using or reading any part of this PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm +eBook, you indicate that you understand, agree to and accept +this "Small Print!" statement. If you do not, you can receive +a refund of the money (if any) you paid for this eBook by +sending a request within 30 days of receiving it to the person +you got it from. If you received this eBook on a physical +medium (such as a disk), you must return it with your request. + +ABOUT PROJECT GUTENBERG-TM EBOOKS +This PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook, like most PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBooks, +is a "public domain" work distributed by Professor Michael S. Hart +through the Project Gutenberg Association (the "Project"). +Among other things, this means that no one owns a United States copyright +on or for this work, so the Project (and you!) can copy and +distribute it in the United States without permission and +without paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth +below, apply if you wish to copy and distribute this eBook +under the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark. + +Please do not use the "PROJECT GUTENBERG" trademark to market +any commercial products without permission. + +To create these eBooks, the Project expends considerable +efforts to identify, transcribe and proofread public domain +works. Despite these efforts, the Project's eBooks and any +medium they may be on may contain "Defects". Among other +things, Defects may take the form of incomplete, inaccurate or +corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other +intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged +disk or other eBook medium, a computer virus, or computer +codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment. + +LIMITED WARRANTY; DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES +But for the "Right of Replacement or Refund" described below, +[1] Michael Hart and the Foundation (and any other party you may +receive this eBook from as a PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm eBook) disclaims +all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including +legal fees, and [2] YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE OR +UNDER STRICT LIABILITY, OR FOR BREACH OF WARRANTY OR CONTRACT, +INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE +OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE +POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES. + +If you discover a Defect in this eBook within 90 days of +receiving it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) +you paid for it by sending an explanatory note within that +time to the person you received it from. If you received it +on a physical medium, you must return it with your note, and +such person may choose to alternatively give you a replacement +copy. If you received it electronically, such person may +choose to alternatively give you a second opportunity to +receive it electronically. + +THIS EBOOK IS OTHERWISE PROVIDED TO YOU "AS-IS". NO OTHER +WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, ARE MADE TO YOU AS +TO THE EBOOK OR ANY MEDIUM IT MAY BE ON, INCLUDING BUT NOT +LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A +PARTICULAR PURPOSE. + +Some states do not allow disclaimers of implied warranties or +the exclusion or limitation of consequential damages, so the +above disclaimers and exclusions may not apply to you, and you +may have other legal rights. + +INDEMNITY +You will indemnify and hold Michael Hart, the Foundation, +and its trustees and agents, and any volunteers associated +with the production and distribution of Project Gutenberg-tm +texts harmless, from all liability, cost and expense, including +legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the +following that you do or cause: [1] distribution of this eBook, +[2] alteration, modification, or addition to the eBook, +or [3] any Defect. + +DISTRIBUTION UNDER "PROJECT GUTENBERG-tm" +You may distribute copies of this eBook electronically, or by +disk, book or any other medium if you either delete this +"Small Print!" and all other references to Project Gutenberg, +or: + +[1] Only give exact copies of it. Among other things, this + requires that you do not remove, alter or modify the + eBook or this "small print!" statement. You may however, + if you wish, distribute this eBook in machine readable + binary, compressed, mark-up, or proprietary form, + including any form resulting from conversion by word + processing or hypertext software, but only so long as + *EITHER*: + + [*] The eBook, when displayed, is clearly readable, and + does *not* contain characters other than those + intended by the author of the work, although tilde + (~), asterisk (*) and underline (_) characters may + be used to convey punctuation intended by the + author, and additional characters may be used to + indicate hypertext links; OR + + [*] The eBook may be readily converted by the reader at + no expense into plain ASCII, EBCDIC or equivalent + form by the program that displays the eBook (as is + the case, for instance, with most word processors); + OR + + [*] You provide, or agree to also provide on request at + no additional cost, fee or expense, a copy of the + eBook in its original plain ASCII form (or in EBCDIC + or other equivalent proprietary form). + +[2] Honor the eBook refund and replacement provisions of this + "Small Print!" statement. + +[3] Pay a trademark license fee to the Foundation of 20% of the + gross profits you derive calculated using the method you + already use to calculate your applicable taxes. If you + don't derive profits, no royalty is due. Royalties are + payable to "Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation" + the 60 days following each date you prepare (or were + legally required to prepare) your annual (or equivalent + periodic) tax return. Please contact us beforehand to + let us know your plans and to work out the details. + +WHAT IF YOU *WANT* TO SEND MONEY EVEN IF YOU DON'T HAVE TO? +Project Gutenberg is dedicated to increasing the number of +public domain and licensed works that can be freely distributed +in machine readable form. + +The Project gratefully accepts contributions of money, time, +public domain materials, or royalty free copyright licenses. +Money should be paid to the: +"Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation." + +If you are interested in contributing scanning equipment or +software or other items, please contact Michael Hart at: +hart@pobox.com + +[Portions of this eBook's header and trailer may be reprinted only +when distributed free of all fees. Copyright (C) 2001, 2002 by +Michael S. Hart. Project Gutenberg is a TradeMark and may not be +used in any sales of Project Gutenberg eBooks or other materials be +they hardware or software or any other related product without +express permission.] + +*END THE SMALL PRINT! FOR PUBLIC DOMAIN EBOOKS*Ver.02/11/02*END* + diff --git a/6986-8.zip b/6986-8.zip Binary files differnew file mode 100644 index 0000000..0d4529a --- /dev/null +++ b/6986-8.zip diff --git a/LICENSE.txt b/LICENSE.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6312041 --- /dev/null +++ b/LICENSE.txt @@ -0,0 +1,11 @@ +This eBook, including all associated images, markup, improvements, +metadata, and any other content or labor, has been confirmed to be +in the PUBLIC DOMAIN IN THE UNITED STATES. + +Procedures for determining public domain status are described in +the "Copyright How-To" at https://www.gutenberg.org. + +No investigation has been made concerning possible copyrights in +jurisdictions other than the United States. Anyone seeking to utilize +this eBook outside of the United States should confirm copyright +status under the laws that apply to them. diff --git a/README.md b/README.md new file mode 100644 index 0000000..e4d0c90 --- /dev/null +++ b/README.md @@ -0,0 +1,2 @@ +Project Gutenberg (https://www.gutenberg.org) public repository for +eBook #6986 (https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/6986) |