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diff --git a/old/69841-h/69841-h.htm b/old/69841-h/69841-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index 523c8bf..0000000 --- a/old/69841-h/69841-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,8744 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of The Boy’s Book of Trades and the tools used in them, by Anonymous. - </title> - - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - - <style> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; - font-size: 1.5em; -} - -h2.nobreak { - page-break-before: avoid; -} - -hr.chap { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -img.w100 { - width: 100%; -} - -div.chapter { - page-break-before: always; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.footnotes { - margin-top: 1em; - border: dashed 1px; -} - -.footnote { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; - font-size: 0.9em; -} - -.footnote .label { - position: absolute; - right: 84%; - text-align: right; -} - -.fnanchor { - vertical-align: super; - font-size: .8em; - text-decoration: none; -} - -.larger { - font-size: 150%; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.poetry-container { - text-align: center; -} - -.poetry { - display: inline-block; - text-align: left; -} - -.poetry .stanza { - margin: 1em 0em 1em 0em; -} - -.poetry .verse { - padding-left: 3em; -} - -.poetry .indent0 { - text-indent: -3em; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.tp { - margin: auto; - max-width: 30em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker img { - max-width: 100%; - width: auto; - height: auto; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .poetry { - display: block; - margin-left: 1.5em; -} - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} - - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of The boy's book of trades and the tools used in them, by Anonymous</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: The boy's book of trades and the tools used in them</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Anonymous</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 20, 2023 [eBook #69841]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Brian Coe, Thiers Halliwell, who created the book cover, which is placed in the public domain and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOY'S BOOK OF TRADES AND THE TOOLS USED IN THEM ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<div class="tp"> - -<h1><span class="smaller">THE</span><br> -<span class="larger">BOY’S BOOK OF TRADES</span><br> -<span class="smaller">AND THE</span><br> -TOOLS USED IN THEM.</h1> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> -ONE OF THE AUTHORS OF “ENGLAND’S WORKSHOPS.”</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">COMPRISING</p> - -<ul> -<li><a href="#THE_BRICKMAKER">BRICKMAKER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_MASON">MASON.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_BRICKLAYER">BRICKLAYER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_PLASTERER_AND_WHITEWASHER">PLASTERER, &c.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_CARPENTER">CARPENTER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_HOUSE_PAINTER_AND_GLAZIER">PAINTER, &c.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_PLUMBER">PLUMBER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#MANUFACTURE_OF_GAS">MANUFACTURE OF GAS.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_IRONFOUNDER">IRON FOUNDER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_BLACKSMITH">BLACKSMITH.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_BRASSFOUNDER">BRASSFOUNDER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_GILDER">GILDER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_CABINET_MAKER_AND_UPHOLSTERER">CABINET MAKER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#FLOOR-CLOTH_MANUFACTURER">FLOOR-CLOTH DITTO.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_PAPER_STAINER">PAPER STAINER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_CALICO_PRINTER">CALICO PRINTER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_TINMAN">TINMAN.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_FARRIER">FARRIER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_NEEDLE_MAKER">NEEDLE MAKER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_CALENDERER_AND_HOTPRESSER">HOTPRESSER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_CUTLER_AND_FILE-CUTTER">CUTLER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#COTTON_MANUFACTURER">COTTON MANUFACTURER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_TAILOR">TAILOR.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_TANNER">TANNER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_SHOEMAKER">SHOEMAKER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_SADDLER_AND_HARNESS_MAKER">SADDLER, &c.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_HATTER">HATTER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_MILLER">MILLER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_BAKER">BAKER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_SUGAR_REFINER">SUGAR REFINER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_DYER_AND_SCOURER">DYER AND SCOURER.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_COPPERSMITH">COPPERSMITH.</a></li> -<li><a href="#THE_GUN_MANUFACTURER">GUN MAKER.</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="titlepage">LONDON:<br> -GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS,<br> -<span class="smaller">BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL.<br> -1866.</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">LONDON<br> -R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS,<br> -BREAD STREET HILL</p> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PREFACE">PREFACE.</h2> - -</div> - -<p>Every human being born into the world will find that -happiness mainly depends upon the work that he does -and the manner in which it is done.</p> - -<p>Those who imagine that the necessity for labour is -only an evil must be either grossly ignorant or wilfully -wicked.</p> - -<p>Whoever wastes his life in idleness, either because he -need not work in order to live, or because he will not -live to work, will be a wretched creature, and at the close -of a listless existence will regret the loss of precious gifts -and the neglect of great opportunities.</p> - -<p>Our daily work, however common or humble it may -seem, is our daily duty, and by doing it well we may -even make it a part of our daily worship.</p> - -<p>For these reasons the choice of a trade is a most important -event in every boy’s life, and it is no less difficult -than important, because when a boy has just left school -he seldom knows much about the operations of any -trade, and cannot be expected to express any preference<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span> -for one more than another. Whether this book will be -of any use in this respect, by directing attention to some -of the principal industries of the country in which we -live, must after all depend upon the tastes of each particular -reader; but it may at all events claim to be useful -in making known what are the operations necessary to -some of our great manufactures, and in explaining the -method of using the tools employed by those engaged -in them.</p> - -<p>A volume like the present can scarcely be said to have -an Author, since much of its contents must necessarily -be the work of the compiler, who condenses the valuable -material supplied by other writers, and adapts it to his -purpose. It is impossible that any great part of the -<i>matter</i> can be original; and in some parts of the following -pages the writer has found it altogether inexpedient -to change even the <i>manner</i> of those who are regarded as -the principal authorities on scientific subjects. He believes, -however, that even where he has borrowed, he has borrowed -with some discretion. Whether he has succeeded in explaining -and simplifying the reader will be able to judge.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BRICKMAKER">THE BRICKMAKER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus001" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus001.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">BRICKFIELD, SHED, KILN, &C.</p> -</div> - -<p>It would be very difficult, and perhaps impossible, to -discover at what time in the history of the world the art -of brickmaking was first practised. In the earliest records of -the human race the making of bricks is mentioned; this -was part of the labour imposed upon the children of Israel, -when they were in captivity in Egypt, and bricks of -excellent quality are found in some of the most ancient -buildings, the remains of which have been discovered. -Though uncivilized nations, and even some which had made<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span> -great progress in civilization, but lived in very warm or -exceedingly cold climates, frequently built dwellings of -wood, of wattles or strips of trees and branches covered -with clay and lime, and of rough stone and earth; and -though whole tribes lived and still live under tents, or in -mere log huts and wigwams, or lodges made of the skins -of animals, the manufacture of bricks formed of clay, and -either burnt with fire or dried in the sun, is amongst the -oldest of all known trades. In our own day it has arrived -at such perfection and the varieties of bricks and tiles are -so great in order to provide for the great diversity in buildings, -that it is one of the most important branches of -English industry.</p> - -<p>We learn from the Bible that burnt bricks were used in -building the Tower of Babel, and from early historians, as -well as from recent discoveries, we know that they were also -made for the walls of Babylon. The bricks of the ancient -Egyptians were made of clay tempered with water and -mixed with chopped straw, and afterwards dried in the sun, -and the labour of the Israelites was made more severe by -their being compelled to find straw for themselves. In -Rome both burnt or kiln-dried bricks and those dried in -the sun were employed, and though at a later date the art -of brickmaking seems to have fallen into disuse, it was -revived again in Italy after some hundreds of years. The -trade seems to have been brought to England by the Romans, -and many of the most ancient buildings in this country -are made of very fine brickwork, though, till the reign of -Elizabeth, only large mansions were so built, the common -houses being formed of frame-works of timber filled in with -coarse plaster supported by laths of wood.</p> - -<p>There are few more interesting sights than a brick-field<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span> -in full work with its great sheds, its horses going slowly -round and round in the mills, grinding the clay which has -been dug out of the deep pits; its great stacks covered with -hurdles and screens made of reeds and its immense kilns, -so cleverly and evenly built, where the smoke rises lazily -from the dull fires by which the drying or burning is -completed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus002" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus002.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Clay Mill.</p> -</div> - -<p>The methods of brickmaking differ considerably in -various parts of England, but that which we most commonly -see in practice near London will very well represent them -all, and it is this which will now be described. The earth -used for making bricks is found after digging till the -labourers reach the loamy soil lying just above that blue -clay which is known as London clay; and this earth is -known as strong clay, mild clay, and malm, and this earth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span> -requires preparation by mixing with them chalk and the -dust of burnt ashes from the dust bins. These burnt ashes -the brickmakers call “breeze.”</p> - -<p>The chalk mill and the clay mill are placed close together -on large mounds, high enough to allow the “malm” (which -is a mixture of chalk and clay ground to a thin paste) to -run down to the brick earth. The chalk mill is a round -trough where the chalk is ground by heavy wheels fitted -with spikes on their tires or hoops, and turned by one or two -horses. The trough is supplied with water from a pump, -and the chalk, as it is ground, runs off by a wooden gutter -into the clay mill, where it is again stirred and ground till -it mixes with the clay; the mixture then runs through a -grating and through other gutters to the brick earth, which -has been placed in heaps to receive it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus003" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus003.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Hack Barrow. Barrow.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the earth is mixed in this way, it becomes brick-clay, -and is taken in barrows up a sloping board, to the pug -mill. The pug mill is a great tub, the top of which is -larger than the bottom, and in the centre of it there revolves -an upright iron shaft fitted with knives. These knives cut -and break the clay as it passes through the mill, and they -also force it downwards till it reaches the bottom, where it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span> -passes through a hole on to a machine called the Cuckhold, -which is a sort of table containing a trough where the clay -is cut into lumps ready for the moulder.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus004" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus004.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Pug Mill.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus005" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus005.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Barrow for carrying baked Bricks.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus006" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus006.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Kick and Stockboard. Mould. Board for Moulding. -Strike. Brick-mould.</p> -</div> - -<p>The moulder who shapes the clay into bricks uses -moulding sand,—a peculiar sort of sand brought from the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -bed of the river, and spread out in the sun, where it is -turned over and over till it is quite dry. It prevents the -clay from shrinking, gives a harder surface to the bricks, -and prevents them from sticking to the mould, or to each -other; it also gives the London bricks their grey colour. -The moulder stands at the moulding stool, which has a rim -at each end to keep the moulding sand from falling off, -and has a stockboard, which forms the bottom of the -brick-mould, and a page, or two iron rods nailed at each end -to wooden rails, used to slide the raw bricks from the moulder -to the place from which the “taking-off boy” takes them to -place on the “hack barrow,” by which they are carried -away. The moulder is served with the lumps of clay by -the “clot moulder.” The “brick-mould” is a kind of box<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span> -without top or bottom, and the moulder dashes the tempered -clay into the mould with sufficient force to make the clay -completely fill it; after which the superfluous clay is removed -from the surface of the mould with the strike. The -brick is then turned out on to a pallet or board, on which -it is wheeled by the boy to the “hack ground,” where the -bricks are built up to dry in low walls called “hacks.” The -brick moulds are made of brass or iron, and often of wood.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -Sometimes the bricks are dried on a floor under a shed, but -often in the open air, where they are covered with straw, -reed-flats, or canvas and tarpauline screens, to protect them -from wet, frost, or excessive heat. The bricks are afterwards -burnt either in “clamps” or in “kilns.” In clamp burning -the bricks are built up close together, and the bottom ones -only are heated with burning breeze or cinders, the heat -spreading to those at the top. A kiln is a sort of large -chamber in which the bricks are loosely stacked with spaces -between them for the heat to pass through, and they are -baked by fires placed either in arched furnaces under the -floors of the kiln, or in fire holes made in the side walls. -The kilns are built of various shapes, and one of the -principal arts in the trade of the Brickmaker is to construct -them that the heat may be properly distributed, and the -bricks equally and thoroughly baked.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus007" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus007.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shovel. Pick. Reed Flats.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_MASON">THE MASON.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus008" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus008.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">MASONS AT WORK.</p> -</div> - -<p>Having already given a description of the way in which -bricks are made, we come to the work of the Mason, whose -duty it is to prepare the stone work used in building and -for other purposes. In the mason’s trade great skill is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span> -required, as well as some hard manual labour, since he has -to cut the stones for arches, windows, columns, cornices, and -porches, into various shapes; and to fit the separate pieces -with perfect accuracy, that the Builder or the Architect may -be able at once to set them in their proper places. The -business of the monumental mason, who erects pedestals for -statues, tombs, and ornamental structures in parks and -gardens, is generally distinct from that of the builder or -architectural mason, although many of the same tools are -used in both trades.</p> - -<p>The stone used by the mason is of various kinds, and is -brought from different parts of the world; but our own -country contains stone of nearly every sort which can be -well employed in ordinary building. Granite comes principally -from Scotland, though a smaller quantity is brought -from Ireland; red and white sandstone is plentiful in -Yorkshire, Lancashire, and Derbyshire, as well as in Scotland -and Ireland; a sort of slate stone is found in Wales; and -the most common building stone, which is called limestone, -or free-stone, is brought from several counties in England, -where it is constantly worked. The stone is generally -found under the surface of the earth, and the places from -which it is dug are called quarries; the business of -quarrying being to extract from the ground, or from the -sides of rocks, large masses of stone or marble.</p> - -<p>When these lie directly under the ground, the earth at -the top is removed, and the stone is afterwards separated -into blocks and lifted out by machinery; but it is sometimes -necessary to mine for the stone by making galleries underground, -and leaving pillars to support the earth above -them. In large quarries, the earth at top is first removed, -and the first layer of stone, which is generally of a common<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span> -sort, is broken or blasted with gunpowder, and afterwards -taken away. The lower layers of stone are then divided -by wedges driven into them, until they split in the required -direction; the blocks are afterwards made of a regular -square, by a tool called a <i>kevel</i>, pointed at one end and flat at -the other, and are then lifted by cranes on to low waggons, -upon which they are drawn away. It is the business of the -mason to work these stones, which are to be used in building, -into their required shape; but before the mason receives -them the <i>stone cutter</i> hews and cuts the large blocks -roughly into the form in which they are wanted; and when -the block is to form top of a doorway, part of a cornice, or -any other portion of a building where ornament is necessary, -the <i>carver</i> executes these ornaments, and cuts the stone into -a pattern of fruit, flowers, or figures.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus009" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus009.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Peck or Point. Stone Axe.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the stone is valuable it is sent from the quarry to -the mason’s yard, or to the building where it is to be used -in large blocks, and there cut into slabs or thin pieces -called “scantlings,” of the required size, with a stone<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span> -mason’s saw (<a href="#illus008"><i>see large cut</i></a>). This saw differs from those -used in other trades because it has no teeth. It is a long -thin plate of steel slightly jagged on the bottom edge, and -fixed in a frame; and being drawn backwards and forwards -in a horizontal position, cuts the stone by its own weight. -To make this the easier, a heap of sharp sand is placed on a -sloping board over the stone, and water trickling upon it -from a barrel washes it into the cut made by the saw. In -large establishments the sawing of the stone is often effected -by steam machinery. Some of the freestones are so soft as -easily to be cut with a toothed saw, worked backwards and -forwards by two persons. The tools used by the mason are -the peck or point for chipping the surface of the stone, the -stone axe for breaking the irregular portions from the block, -the iron mallet and beetle, for breaking pieces from the edge -of the slab or driving in wedges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus010" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus010.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wooden Beetle. Wedge. Iron Mallet.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus011" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus011.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rubber. Mallet. Brush. Chisels.</p> -</div> - -<p>The tools used for cutting stone are the mallet and -chisels of various sizes. The mason’s mallet differs from -that used by other workmen, being of a sort of half pear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -shape, and with a short handle only just long -enough to allow it to be firmly grasped in the hand. -The rubber is used for smoothing the surface of -the stone, after it has been worked by the tools; -sand and water are placed on the stone, and the -rubber is pushed backwards and forwards for the -purpose of grinding the face of the slab to a smooth -surface; another block of stone is sometimes applied<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -to the same purpose. In London the tools used to work the -faces of the stone are—the <i>point</i>, a very small chisel only -about a quarter of an inch broad at the cutting edge; the -inch tool, which is a broader chisel; the <i>booster</i>, broader -still; and the <i>broad tool</i>, which is three inches and a half -wide: beside these, there are tools of the same kind for -working mouldings and carvings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus012" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus012.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Square. Bevel Square. Straight Edge. Trowel. Point.</p> -</div> - -<p>Besides these cutting tools, the mason uses a <i>banker</i> or -bench, on which he places his stone for convenience of -working, and <i>straight edges, squares, and bevels</i>, for marking -the shapes into which the blocks are to be cut, and seeing -that his edges and surfaces are even by trying them as the -work proceeds.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span></p> - -<p>The bevel square is a square the <i>stock</i>, or lower part, of -which is moveable, so that it may be set to any angle or -level as required. Sometimes a pattern called a <i>templet</i> is -used for cutting a block to any particular shape, and when -the work is moulded, the templet is called a <i>mould</i>. -Moulds are commonly made of sheet zinc, carefully cut to -the profile of the mouldings with shears and files.</p> - -<p>It often happens that the mason has not only to prepare -the stone, but to set it in its place in the building, and this -is properly part of his work. He then uses the trowel, for -applying the composition for cementing the stones together; -lines and pins to show whether his edges are straight and -square, the square and level for a similar purpose; and -various rules for adjusting the stone faces of upright -walls.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus013" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus013.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BRICKLAYER">THE BRICKLAYER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus014" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus014.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE BRICKLAYER.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Bricklayer has so much to do with the erection of -buildings that the Master Bricklayer is generally a Builder; -that is, he understands not only brickwork and the building -of walls, but also the other trades necessary for completing -a house, and can superintend the Mason’s, Carpenters’, and -Plumbers’ work.</p> - -<p>Of course, the first consideration in building a house is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -the preparation of the foundations, which are formed in -various ways, according to the nature of the soil on which -they are laid; unless the ground itself is firm enough to -receive the walls, sometimes thick layers of concrete (a sort -of mortar) is used, sometimes layers of planking are put -down, or even cross beams of timber, and in some cases, -where the earth is very loose and damp, timber piles are -driven into it on which to lay the foundation. The -foundation once laid, the vaults or cellars are built either in -the ordinary way, or in a series of arches of various forms; -then follow the abutments, the wing-walls, the main-walls, -with iron “Bressumers” for supporting those parts of the -walls which are above large openings like great doors or -shop fronts. The partitions, or interior walls, may be either -solid brick or stone, or may be constructed entirely of timber, -or they may be frames of timber filled in with masonry -or brickwork. Then come the floors, the roofs and roof-coverings, -and finally the ceilings and the doors and -windows. The materials used in building are principally -timber, stone, slate, bricks, tiles, mortar, lime, cement, iron, -glass, lead, zinc, colours and varnishes. Those with which -the working bricklayer has most to do are bricks, slates, -tiles, stonework, cement, and mortar, for these are principally -used in making walls and roofs, which is the greater -part of his trade. The stone and slate come from the -quarries, and we have already seen how bricks are made. -Mortar is made in the following way.</p> - -<p>1st. The soft chalky stone known as limestone, is calcined -or burnt, by exposure to strong heat in a lime kiln; the -heat drives off a gas which is contained in it (called carbonic -acid gas), and leaves it in a state in which it is known as -quick-lime.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span></p> - -<p>2d. The quick-lime is “slaked,” by pouring water upon -it, when it swells and becomes very hot, afterwards falling -into a fine powder.</p> - -<p>3d. This powder is mixed into a rather stiff paste, more -water is added, and when a certain quantity of sand is -added becomes <i>mortar</i>, and may be used for cementing -bricks together.</p> - -<p>Concrete is made by mixing gravel, sand, and ground -unslaked lime together with water; it is used for foundations, -and filling in apertures requiring strength and -firmness.</p> - -<p>Iron is used by the builder in two different states, as cast -iron and wrought iron; the <i>girders</i> for supporting roofs -and walls are mostly cast in moulds (<a href="#THE_IRONFOUNDER"><i>see Iron Founder</i></a>), -though both these and other parts of the ironwork used in -building, are frequently of iron wrought by hand.</p> - -<p>Lead is used by the mason for securing and coating the -iron clamps which hold the blocks of stone together; it is -also used in the plumbers’ work of a house (<a href="#THE_PLUMBER"><i>see Plumber</i></a>).</p> - -<p>Zinc is used in the manufacture of gutters, pipes, and -portions of roofs.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus015" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus015.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Trowel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The excavator having dug out the space where the -foundation of the house is to be laid, the work of the -bricklayer begins, and his tools are the <i>trowel</i>, to take -up and spread the mortar, and cut bricks by a sharp -blow to the requisite length; then there are the <i>brick -axe</i> or hammer, for shaping the bricks to a level; the -<i>tin saw</i> for making an incision on bricks to be cut with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span> -axe; the rubbing stone on which to rub the bricks smooth -in the parts where they have been cut, and the <i>mortar rake -and shovel</i>, for mixing the mortar and cement.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus016" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus016.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mortar Rake. Crowbar. Shovel. Brick Hammer. Pickaxe.</p> -</div> - -<p>The crowbar and pick-axe are the tools used for demolishing -old brickwork or clearing out rubbish; the sieve (<a href="#illus014"><i>see -large cut</i></a>) for sifting the lime of which the mortar is made,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -and the rammer for hardening the ground to render the -foundation firm. The <i>raker</i> is used for raking out the mortar -from the joints of old brickwork which requires re-pointing, -or the joints refilled with mortar.</p> - -<p>To “set out” the work, which means to measure the -spaces, and to keep the lines, curves, and angles, straight and -true, the bricklayer uses the <i>square</i>, the <i>level</i>, the <i>plumb-rule</i>; -the square shows whether the proper angle has been -preserved; the plumb-rule is an upright rule, with a string -at one end, to which is attached a leaden ball. If the work -is straight on its perpendicular lines, and the plumb-rule -be applied to it, this leaden ball will hang exactly in the -centre, and swing through a hole in the rule, while, if the -work be crooked, it will swing to one side. The level is a -rule on the same principle, but for testing horizontal lines, -such as a cornice on the top of a wall. The good bricklayer -will frequently test his work by these tools, and will also use -a line stretched to two pins, to guide him as he builds up -his courses of bricks.</p> - -<p>The bricks and mortar are supplied to him by a labourer, -who carries them in a <i>hod</i>. The labourer also makes the -mortar, and builds up and takes down the <i>scaffolding</i> (<a href="#illus014"><i>see -large cut</i></a>). The scaffolding, or that frame of poles and -planks erected in front of the building as it is in progress, -is constructed of <i>standards</i>, <i>ledgers</i>, and <i>putlogs</i>.</p> - -<p>The standards are poles made of fir trees, from forty to -fifty feet long, and six or seven inches thick at the butt -ends, which are firmly fixed in the ground. When one pole -is not long enough, two are lashed together, the rope lashings -being tightened by wedges driven in between the coils in -a peculiar way. The ledgers are horizontal poles placed -parallel to the walls and lashed to the standards; these<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -support the putlogs, or cross pieces, which are about six feet -long, one end of them resting in the wall, the other on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span> -ledgers. On these putlogs are fastened the scaffold boards, -which are stout boards with pieces of iron hoop placed -round the ends, to keep them from splitting.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus017" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus017.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Level. Cutting Chisel. Square. Line and Plumb. Hod.</p> -</div> - -<p>A bricklayer and his labourer will lay about a thousand -bricks, or two cubic yards of brickwork, in a day.</p> - -<p>The tools used for <i>tiling</i>, or placing the tiles on a roof, -are the lathing hammer, the iron lathing staff to clinch the -nails, the trowel, which is longer and narrower than that -used for brickwork, the <i>bosse</i>, for holding mortar and tiles, -with an iron hook to hang it to the laths or to a ladder, -and the <i>striker</i> a piece of lath about ten inches long for -clearing off the superfluous mortar at the feet of the -tiles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus018" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus018.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_PLASTERER_AND_WHITEWASHER">THE PLASTERER AND WHITEWASHER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus019" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus019.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WHITEWASHER AND PLASTERER.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the walls, or what is called the carcase of the house, -have been built, the roof made, the inner walls and partitions -set up, and the joists and woodwork of the floors laid -down, the work of the Plasterer begins. He covers the -brickwork and bare timbers of walls, ceilings, and partitions<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span> -with plaster, to prepare them for painting or papering: he -also forms the cornices for ceilings, and the mouldings and -decorations, which are usually made in plaster or cement.</p> - -<p>The materials which the Plasterer uses for these purposes -are:—1st. <i>Coarse stuff</i>, or a paste made with lime, much in the -same way as common mortar, and afterwards mixed with -hair, which is obtained from the tanner’s yard, after it has -been removed from the skins, which are there made into -leather. This hair is raked together, and mixed with the -mortar, with the <i>hair hook</i>, and a sort of three pronged -rake called the <i>drag</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus020" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus020.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Hair Hook. Fine Sieve.</p> -</div> - -<p>2d. <i>Fine stuff</i> is made from pure lime, slaked with a -small quantity of water, after which enough water is added -to bring it to a state in which it resembles cream; it is -then left to settle, the superfluous water is poured off, and -the mixture is left in a tub, till still more of the <i>water</i> has -evaporated, and it is thick enough to use. This stuff is often -used for ceilings, and then a small quantity of white hair is -mixed with it, to help to make it firmer and more binding.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span> -For these finer kinds of plaster it is necessary to use the <i>fine -sieve</i>, in order to sift the lime and other ingredients, that -only the portion which has been reduced to powder may be -retained.</p> - -<p>3d. <i>Stucco</i>, which is made by mixing fine stuff with -cleaned-washed sand. Stucco is used for house fronts, or -other finishing work, which is intended to be painted.</p> - -<p>4th. <i>Gauged stuff</i> is used for forming cornices, which run -round a ceiling, and for mouldings; it is made by mixing -fine stuff with plaster of Paris, which is a fine white powder -easily made into a paste, and drying very quickly.</p> - -<p>These are only the ordinary materials used by the -Plasterer for his work, but there are a great number of -cements, which are also applied in the course of his trade; -such as Roman and Portland cements, and mixtures made -and sold for special purposes of decoration, and the manufacture -of ornaments.</p> - -<p>These ornaments, such as centre pieces for ceilings, flowers -drooping from cornices, bosses or groups on walls, &c. are -first modelled in clay, and are afterwards cast in plaster of -Paris, placed in moulds made of wax or plaster. In this -trade, as in that of the picture frame maker, ornaments are -frequently made of <i>papier maché</i>, or the pulp of paper -(literally <i>smashed paper</i>), which is a very light, hard, and -durable substance for the purpose. The moulds for cornices -are made of sheet copper, and are fixed in a wooden -frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus021" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus021.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Gauging Trowel. Hammer. Salve. Plasterer’s Hawk. Check Line and Reel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The various tools used by the Plasterer are shown in the -engravings, and the manner in which some of them are -used may be seen by the large cut at the commencement -of this description of the Plasterer’s trade. The peculiar -<i>hammer</i>, with one edge like an axe, is used for breaking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -down old plaster, and clearing away the mortar from walls -and ceilings previous to plastering them afresh; the <i>hawk</i> -is a flat board with a handle in the centre, used for holding -the plaster or cement, which is being laid on with the -trowel. The <i>gauging trowel</i> is the long narrow trowel, used -for taking up the fine stuff for cornices and mouldings; -these trowels are of various lengths, from three to seven -inches. The <i>salve</i> is a sort of small spade, on which the -plasterer’s boy lifts the mortar or cement, and places it on -the <i>hawk</i>, which the workman holds in his hand; as the -<i>salve</i> has a long handle, the plaster can be conveyed to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -hawk even when the man is at work on a ladder. The -square is similar to that used by the bricklayer, and shows -that the corners of the work are straight and even; the -<i>compasses</i> are used for measuring distances; the <i>check line</i> -for marking out the spaces of the work to be done, and the -<i>joint rules</i> for measuring the parts where different portions -of the work come together, either at the corners, or in -making the mouldings. The <i>set square</i> is also used, for -showing that the surface or the line of the work is straight -and even.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus022" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus022.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Joint Rule. Joint Rule. Compasses. Set Square.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the Plasterer has to cover a ceiling or a partition, -he commences by lathing. This is nailing laths over the -whole space which is to receive the plaster. Laths are long -narrow strips of either oak or fir wood, of various thicknesses; -the thicker being used for ceilings, where they have -to bear a greater strain than in upright walls.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span></p> - -<p>The next operation is <i>pricking up</i>, or placing the first -coat of <i>coarse stuff</i> upon the laths; this is called -pricking up, because when the plaster is laid, its -whole surface is pricked and scratched with the end -of a lath, that it may be rough enough for the next -coat. The laying on of this second coat of plaster is -called floating, and is performed in the following way. -The surface is surrounded with narrow strips of plastering, -called <i>screeds</i>, held fast by lines of nails, and -these are made perfectly level, by means of the plumb -rule (<a href="#Page_20"><i>see Builder’s tools</i></a>), and the use of the <i>hand float</i>. -The spaces within these lines of plaster work are then -filled with coarse stuff, till the whole forms a flat surface, -which is made perfectly level, or “floated” with -the <i>floating rule</i>. Other screeds are then formed and -filled up in the same way, until the whole ceiling, or -wall, forms one flat surface. The operations are the -same for ceilings and walls, except that the plumb rule -is used for adjusting the level of walls, and the <i>level</i> -for that of ceilings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus023" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus023.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Square. Modelling Tools. Brush. Floating Rule.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>After the work has been brought to an even surface with -the floating rule, the Plasterer goes over it again with the -<i>hand float</i>, using a little soft stuff to make good any deficiencies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus024" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus024.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Hand Float.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the floating is about half dry, the setting or finishing -coat of fine stuff is laid on, and is first wetted with a -<i>brush</i>, and then worked over with a smoothing tool until -a fine surface is obtained.</p> - -<p>Stucco is laid on with the largest trowel, and worked over -with the <i>hand float</i>—being at the same time sprinkled with -water—until it becomes hard and solid; after which it is -rubbed over with a dry brush. The water has the effect -of hardening the face of the stucco; which, after several -sprinklings and trowellings, becomes very hard, and as -smooth as glass.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus025" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus025.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Setting Trowels.</p> -</div> - -<p>The commonest kind of Plasterer’s work is laying on one -coat of stuff: when this is done on brickwork it is called -<i>rendering</i>, and when on laths it is called <i>laying</i>. When -there is a second coat it is called <i>render set</i>, or <i>lath-lay -and set</i>: and when it is three-coat work it is called <i>render,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -float, and set</i>, or, <i>lath-lay, float, and set</i>; this is done in -ceilings and partitions with fine stuff mixed with hair; or, -when the walls are to be papered, with fine stuff and sand.</p> - -<p><i>Rough stucco</i> is used for finishing staircases and passages -in imitation of stone. It is mixed with a great deal of -coarse sand, and is not smoothed, the <i>hand float</i> being -covered with a piece of felt, so that when it is applied to -the stucco the grit of the sand sticks to it and is drawn -to the surface, giving the plaster the appearance of rough -stone.</p> - -<p><i>Rough casting</i> is used for outside walls, and is done by -throwing a layer of gravel, mixed with lime and water, -over the second coat of plaster while it is quite wet. In -some counties of England, and especially near Nottingham, -the plasterers use reeds instead of laths; and even floors -are often made by laying down a quantity of coarse stuff -upon a foundation of reeds.</p> - -<p>These floors are almost as hard as stone, and possess the -good quality of being almost always fireproof.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus026" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus026.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CARPENTER">THE CARPENTER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus027" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus027.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE CARPENTER’S SHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>An account of the tools and implements used for working -in wood would scarcely be complete without some remarks -upon wood itself, and you can have no better information -on this subject than that which has been written by a -gentleman<a id="FNanchor_1" href="#Footnote_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> who is thoroughly acquainted with the different -kinds of timber, and with all the materials used in building.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_1" href="#FNanchor_1" class="label">[1]</a> Mr. <span class="smcap">E. Dobson</span>, Assoc. Inst. C. E.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<p>If we examine a transverse section of the stem of a tree, -we perceive it to consist of three distinct parts; the <i>bark</i>, -the <i>wood</i>, and the <i>pith</i>. The wood appears disposed in rings -round the pith, the outer rings being softer, and containing -more sap, than those immediately round the pith, which -form what is called the <i>heart-wood</i>.</p> - -<p>These rings are also traversed by rays extending from -the centre of the stem to the bark, called <i>medullary rays</i>.</p> - -<p>The whole structure of a tree consists of minute vessels -and cells, the former conveying the sap through the wood -in its ascent, and through the bark to the leaves in its -descent; and the latter performing the functions of secretion -and nutrition during the life of the tree. The solid -parts of a tree consist almost entirely of the fibrous parts -composing the sides of the vessels and cells.</p> - -<p>By numerous experiments it has been ascertained that -the sap begins to ascend in the spring of the year, through -the minute vessels in the wood, and descends through the -bark to the leaves, and, after passing through them, is -deposited in an altered state between the bark and the last -year’s wood, forming a new layer of bark and sap-wood, -the old bark being pushed forward.</p> - -<p>As the annual layers increase in number, the sap-wood -ceases to perform its original functions; the fluid parts are -evaporated or absorbed by the new wood, and, the sides of -the vessels being pressed together by the growth of the -latter, the sap-wood becomes heart-wood or perfect wood, -and until this change takes place it is unfit for the purposes -of the builder.</p> - -<p>The vessels in each layer of wood are largest on the side -nearest the centre of the stem, and smallest at the outside. -This arises from the first being formed in the spring, when<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -vegetation is most active. The oblong cells which surround -the vessels are filled with fluids in the early growth; but, -as the tree increases in size, these become evaporated and -absorbed; and the cells become partly filled with depositions -of woody matter and indurated secretions, depending -on the nature of the soil, and affecting the -quality of the timber. Thus Honduras mahogany is full -of black specks, while the Spanish is full of minute white -particles, giving the wood the appearance of having been -rubbed over with chalk.</p> - -<p>The best time for felling trees is either in mid-winter, -when the sap has ceased to flow, or in midsummer, when -the sap is temporarily expended in the production of -leaves. An excellent plan is, to bark the timber in the -spring and fell it in winter, by which means the sap-wood -is dried up and hardened; but as the bark of most trees -is valueless, the oak tree (whose bark is used in tanning) -is almost the only one that will pay for being thus -treated.</p> - -<p>The seasoning of timber consists in the extraction or -evaporation of the fluid parts, which are liable to decomposition -on the cessation of the growth of the tree. This -is usually effected by steeping the green timber in water, to -dilute and wash out the sap as much as possible, and then -drying it thoroughly by exposure to the air in an airy situation. -The time required to season timber thoroughly in -this manner will of course much depend on the sizes of the -pieces to be seasoned; but for general purposes of carpentry, -two years is the least that can be allowed, and, in seasoning -timber for the use of the Joiner, a much longer time -is usually required.</p> - -<p>Properly seasoned timber, placed in a dry situation with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span> -a free circulation of air round it, is very durable, and has -been known to last for several hundred years without -apparent deterioration. This is not, however, the case when -exposed to moisture, which is always more or less prejudicial -to its durability.</p> - -<p>When timber is constantly under water, the action of the -water dissolves a portion of its substance, which is made -apparent by its becoming covered with a coat of slime. If -it be exposed to alternations of dryness and moisture, as in -the case of piles in tidal waters, the dissolved parts being -continually removed by evaporation and the action of the -water, new surfaces are exposed, and the wood rapidly -decays.</p> - -<p>Where timber is exposed to heat and moisture, the albumen -or gelatinous matter in the sap-wood speedily putrefies -and decomposes, causing what is called rot. The rot in -timber is commonly divided into two kinds, the <i>wet</i> and the -<i>dry</i>, but the chief difference between them is, that where -the timber is exposed to the air, the gaseous products are -freely evaporated; whilst, in a confined situation, they combine -in a new form, viz. the dry-rot fungus, which, deriving -its nourishment from the decaying timber, often grows to -a length of many feet, spreading in every direction, and -insinuating its delicate fibres even through the joints of -brick walls.</p> - -<p>In addition to the sources of decay above mentioned, -timber placed in sea water is very liable to be completely -destroyed by the perforations of the worm, unless protected -by copper sheathing, the expense of which causes it to be -seldom used for this purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span></p> - -<p>In modern houses the labours of the Builder, the Mason, -and the Plasterer, would be of little use unless they were -accompanied by that of the Carpenter, since a very large -proportion of every building consists of the woodwork of -which its interior structure is greatly composed.</p> - -<p>As it is one of the most useful, so the Carpenter’s may -be considered the most ancient of trades, for nearly all -other handicrafts require the preparation or manufacture of -the materials, but the Carpenter originally found his materials -in the forest, and at once set to work to construct -various articles from the trunks and stems of the trees best -suited for the purpose. We can only imagine one trade -older than that of the Carpenter, and that is the Tool -Maker, and as the earliest tools, or at all events some -portion of them, were probably made of hard wood, the -Tool Maker may in some sense be said to have been a -Carpenter also.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus028" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus028.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Axe. Adze.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus029" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus029.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Saw. Compasses. Plumb Rule. Hammer. Square. Mallet.</p> -</div> - -<p>Strictly speaking, the business of the Carpenter is only -with the larger portions of buildings and the rough timber -frameworks which support them, and his principal tools are -the <i>axe</i> and the <i>adze</i>, for chopping and roughly smoothing -timbers; the <i>saw</i>, for sawing beams and planks; the <i>chisel</i>, -for making mortis holes for joining beams together, and for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span> -cutting and paring wood; the <i>chalk line</i>, a line rubbed -with chalk, and used to make a straight line upon a board -or beam, to mark the direction in which it is to be sawn; -the <i>plumb rule</i>, already described amongst the Builder’s -tools; the <i>level</i>; the <i>square</i>; the <i>compasses</i>; all of which -have been described in previous trades; the <i>hammer</i>; the -<i>mallet</i>, and various sorts of nails. The other tools represented -in the engravings belong more properly to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span> -<i>Joiner</i>, but as the trades of the Carpenter and the Joiner -are almost always united, we will speak of all the tools -as belonging to one business. Carpenter’s work, then, -consists of the framing roofs, partitions, and floors, in -making the various joints used in beams, ties, rafters, and -joists for supporting floors, and the proper way of supporting -buildings by posts and girders. The Carpenter -requires to be strong and active, that he may properly -handle the heavy timbers on which he has to work; he -should have a knowledge of the science of mechanics, that -he may be able to provide for the strains and thrusts to -which the different parts of his work are exposed, and -supply the proper means of resisting them; and he should -also be able to understand how to make what are called -“<i>working drawings</i>,” that he may “set out,” or properly -draw a plan of the work he has to do, from the designs of -the Architect.</p> - -<p>The Carpenter being concerned with the portions of a -building which are made of timber, you will be better able -to understand his trade by a short description of what these -are; and we will then speak a little of the <i>Joiner</i>, whose -trade is generally confounded with that of the Carpenter.</p> - -<p>First: Partitions, or inner divisions of a building, may be -either of brick, stone, or wood; and, in the latter case, they -are generally “framed,” or supported in a more solid framework, -which should form a portion of the main building, -that is, of the outer wall; and should be quite independent -of the floors, which should not support, but be supported by -them.</p> - -<p>Second: Flooring is formed by joists or strong beams of -timber reaching from wall to wall, where they rest upon -other beams, called wall plates, which are built into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span> -walls themselves. The floor boards are nailed over the -upper edges of the joists, and the lower edges receive the -laths and plaster, which form the ceilings of the rooms -beneath. Large buildings are sometimes fitted with double -framed floors, with two sets of joists, and building joists -resting on girders; and in superior houses, the <i>wall plates</i> -are often supported by “corbels,” or, portions of the timber -projecting from the inside of the wall, which prevents the -necessity of opening the wall to admit the ends of the -joists.</p> - -<p>Third: Roofing consists of the roof covering, which is -laid upon rafters or slender beams, which are supported by -stronger horizontal beams called <i>purlins</i>; and these, again, -rest on upright <i>trusses</i>, or strong frames of timber, placed -on the walls at regular distances from each other. Upon -the strength and firmness of these trusses, and the skill of -the carpenter’s work, depends the entire safety of the roof.</p> - -<p>Large roofs are supported by cross beams, called <i>collars</i>, -or <i>tie beams</i>; and they are further strengthened by an upright -pillar in the centre, called a <i>King post</i>, from which -slanting beams, called “struts,” support the rafters.</p> - -<p>We have now only spoken of common roofs, but there -are many roofs of open timber-work in churches and other -public buildings, which are wonderful specimens of the skill -of the Carpenter and the Joiner. One of these, perhaps the -grandest as well as the most ancient, is that of Westminster -Hall; but there is one also in the Great Hall, at Hampton -Court Palace; and others may be seen in Churches and -Halls in various parts of England.</p> - -<p>The Joiner, as his name implies, frames and joins together -the wooden finishings and decorations of buildings, such as -floors, staircases, skirtings, door and window frames, sashes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span> -or, the sliding parts of windows that contain the glass, -shutters, doors, chimney-pieces, &c. This work requires -much greater nicety and finish than that of the Carpenter, -and is brought to a smooth surface with the plane wherever -it is likely to be seen, while the carpenter’s work is left rough -as it comes from the saw.</p> - -<p>The principal cutting tools used by the Joiner are, saws, -planes, and chisels.</p> - -<p>The <i>saws</i> are of various sizes, and are called rippers, half -rippers, hand saws, and panel saws, according to their shape, -and the number of teeth to each inch.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus030" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus030.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Chisel. Gouge. Screw Driver. Screw. Tenon Saw. Narrow Saw.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>tenon saw</i> is used for cutting tenons, or flat slices -from the ends of beams, that other beams cut in the same -way may rest upon them and yet leave a flat surface. The -thick back of the tenon saw keeps the blade from “buckling,” -or twisting; as it would be very likely to do while -sawing in a horizontal direction.</p> - -<p>The <i>dove-tail saw</i> is similar to the tenon saw, but smaller, -and with a brass back instead of an iron one. It is used -for dove-tailing, or cutting notches in a board or beam, into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span> -which projections in another board or beam are fitted, in -order that the two may be held together, as we see the sides -of a box are fitted to the back and front. Then there is the -<i>compass saw</i>, for circular work, and the <i>keyhole</i>, or <i>narrow -saw</i>, for cutting out holes.</p> - -<p>The planes are used for bringing the edges and sides of -beams, boards, or other wooden fitting, to a perfectly smooth -surface: the first of these, used upon the rough wood, is -called the <i>jack plane</i>; another is called the <i>trying</i> or <i>trueing -plane</i>; and a third, the <i>smoothing plane</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus031" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus031.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Trying Plane. Smoothing Plane. 2-foot Rule. Glue Pot.</p> -</div> - -<p>The plane, as you will see, is a solid piece of hard smooth -wood, with a hole in the centre containing the cutting tool, -or, as it is called, the plane iron, which is firmly fixed with -a wedge, so that its sharp cutting edge only slightly projects -at the bottom.</p> - -<p>The wood which is to be smoothed is fixed on the joiner’s<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -bench by means of a screwed board, called a shooting board, -and, by means of the handle at the top, the plane is made -to slide swiftly along its surface, so that the edge of the tool -cuts off a thin shaving.</p> - -<p>There are various sorts of planes besides these, used for -cutting various parts of the work, but they are most of them -of similar construction.</p> - -<p>Chisels are either for paring the wood, and are used with -the hand; or are intended to cut into the thickness of the -wood, and are then struck with a large wooden hammer, -called the <i>mallet</i>. The <i>gouge</i> is a curved chisel, used for -cutting mouldings or making round edges.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus032" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus032.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Clout Nail. Cut Clasp Nail. Brad. Spike Nail. Bradawl. Chisel. Gimlet.</p> -</div> - -<p>The boring tools are the bradawl, the gimlet, and the -stock and bit.</p> - -<p>The <i>bradawl</i> is a small sharp wire fixed in a handle, and -used for making holes to receive large nails, which, if driven -in at once by the <i>hammer</i>, would split the wood. Nails are -of various kinds, the difference in which may be seen in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span> -engraving. The best kinds of nails are made from thin bar -iron, pointed, cut off to the proper length, and the head -formed by stamping.</p> - -<p>The <i>gimlet</i> is a hollow blade with a screw at the end, and -fixed to a cross handle. It is used for boring a larger and -rougher hole than the bradawl, for receiving <i>screws</i>, which -are screwed into their place by the <i>screw driver</i>, a sort of -chisel, the edge or point of which enters the notch in the -head of the screw, so that the workman may turn it round.</p> - -<p>The <i>bit</i> is a tool not unlike a large bradawl, which fits -into a stock or handle. The bits are of various sizes, and -are used for boring large holes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus033" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus033.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Centre Bit.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>brace and bit</i>, or <i>centre bit</i>, is a tool with a centre -and two sharp points, one on each side; it is placed in a -bow-shaped stock with a round loose end. This loose end -the workman holds firmly, while he places the point of the -tool against the wood required to be bored; he then turns -the bow briskly round, and the two points revolving rapidly, -cut out a circular piece.</p> - -<p>The <i>pincers</i> are used for removing nails from wood, and -it is easy to see how they are applied. There are some -other tools which belong to the trade of the Joiner, but they -are used less frequently, and a description of them will be -given when we have to say something of the trade of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -Cabinet Maker, whose work resembles the finer part of that -which the Joiner does at his own workshop.</p> - -<p>The bench (<a href="#illus027"><i>see large cut</i></a>) is the great table of thick -planks supported on a timber frame, at which the Joiner -works; it is furnished with a “side-board” perforated with -holes to receive a pin, against which one end of the wood -on which he is operating rests, the other being firmly fixed -in the bench screw.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus034" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus034.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Pincers.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus035" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus035.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HOUSE_PAINTER_AND_GLAZIER">THE HOUSE PAINTER AND GLAZIER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus036" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus036.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">HOUSE-PAINTING AND GLAZING.</p> -</div> - -<p>Although we have spoken of the trade of the Plumber -separately, and have placed the Painter and Glazier together, -it generally happens that the three trades are carried on by -the same persons, and you will often have noticed “Plumber, -Painter, and Glazier” over the fronts of shops, where leaden<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -pipes and taps, casements, and squares of coloured glass, -and specimens of “graining,” or imitations of various woods -in painting, are placed for show in the windows, to represent -the different businesses carried on.</p> - -<p>It is the duty of the House Painter to cover with his -colours such portions of the Joiner’s, Smith’s, or Plasterer’s -work as require to be protected from the action of the air, -which would cause them to rust or decay. He has also to -choose the colours which will be best suited for decorating -walls and cornices, and generally to apply the proper -shades for all the ornaments of the house, and this part of -the business, which is called “decorative painting,” requires -a great degree of skill and taste in the workman, who may -properly be called an artist.</p> - -<p>The materials used by the Painter are principally white -lead, linseed oil, spirits of turpentine, “dryers,” and putty. -White lead, which forms the basis of almost all the colours -used in house painting, is prepared by exposing strips of -lead to the action of acid; but the Painter buys it ready -made, in the form of small cakes, or lumps. This white -lead is used in all the under coats of paint, and generally -makes the body of most of the colours which are afterwards -applied. Unfortunately, while it is in the half-fluid -state, when it is used by Painters, it is very poisonous and -unwholesome, and many workmen suffer severely in their -health from its use; but it will be found that this is often -caused by their own carelessness in working, and by the -want of personal cleanliness. The Painter should not only -thoroughly wash his hands before every meal, but as soon -as his work is done should entirely change his clothes, and -wash hands and face thoroughly, or even take a bath. -Beside this, he should wear, over his working clothes, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -coarse linen frock or blouse, which will protect him from -the spots of paint, and may be frequently washed.</p> - -<p>Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine are used for mixing -and thinning the colours; linseed oil is obtained from the -seeds of the flax plant, which are heated, beaten, and pressed -by machinery, until the greater part of the oil is extracted; -the seeds crushed into cakes are then used as food for cattle. -Nut oil, or the oil pressed from various kinds of nuts, such -as walnuts, hazel and beech nuts, is also frequently used -for mixing colours where they are likely to be exposed to -the weather, but linseed oil is cheaper and is most generally -adapted to the purpose.</p> - -<p>Oil of turpentine, which the Painter calls “turps,” is the -oil obtained by distilling crude turpentine; and is used by -the House Painter to make his colours work more smoothly -and freely in the brush, to cause them to dry more quickly, -and to take away that shiny unpleasant glare that would -otherwise be seen on the surface of paint mixed with -linseed oil alone.</p> - -<p>It is necessary, too, to take some means to make the -linseed oil dry more rapidly than it would in its raw -state; or the paint would remain moist and greasy upon -the walls for a very long time. For this purpose the oil -is boiled, and is then known as “boiled oil,” this is bought -ready prepared, the Painter having by him preparations -of lead or vitriol, called “dryers,” which he mixes with -his colours, after they are made, in order to increase the -rapidity with which they set upon the places where they -are applied.</p> - -<p>The Painter has only a few tools, and these are very -simple; they consist principally of the grinding stone, or -<i>slab</i> and <i>muller</i>, for grinding his colours; <i>earthen pots</i> for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -holding the paints; <i>cans</i> for oil and turps; a few tin pots, -or open cans and kettles, for colour to be applied to outside -places or walls where he has to work on ladders; a <i>palette -knife</i>, for spreading the white lead on the stone, or removing -the paint to the palette, for fine work, or to the paint pot; -and <i>brushes</i> of different sizes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus037" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus037.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Slab and Muller. Paint Pot. Palette Knife. Oil Can. Paint Pot. Paint Kettle.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p> - -<p>The various colours, which are mostly made from earths -and minerals, are purchased by the Painter in powder or -small dry lumps, and have to be brought to a fine state, and -made quite free from grit, before they can be used.</p> - -<p>The slab, or grindstone, is generally of marble or porphyry, -and must have a perfectly smooth surface; and the -muller is a large oval or egg-shaped pebble, with one end -broken off, and the surface made as smooth as that of the -slab. A small quantity of the colour which requires grinding -is placed on the stone, and moistened with a little oil; and -the muller is then worked over it, by a circular movement, -until it is gradually driven to the edge of the stone. The -colour is then removed by the spatula, or palette knife, and -placed in the paint pot.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus038" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus038.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Paint Brushes.</p> -</div> - -<p>In this state, however, the colour is too thick to use, and -of course requires to be thinned by adding the oil until it -is sufficiently fluid.</p> - -<p>In painting woodwork, the first business is called “knotting,” -that is, removing the turpentine from the knots, which -would otherwise ooze and spoil the paint. They are first -covered with fresh slaked lime, which dries up and burns -out the turpentine; this is afterwards scraped off, and the -knots painted with a mixture of red and white lead mixed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span> -with glue size, and afterwards with white lead and linseed -oil. When dry, they must be rubbed smooth with a piece -of pumice stone. The next operation is to put on the -“priming,” which is the first coat of paint, composed of -red and white lead and linseed oil. The nail-holes, and -other imperfections, are then stopped up with putty (a -mixture of linseed oil and whiting, made into a paste), -applied with the <i>stopping knife</i>; and then the other coats -of paint are laid on; three coats being generally considered -sufficient; and the last being of the required colour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus039" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus039.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Stopping Knife.</p> -</div> - -<p>The brushes used by the Painter, are either round or flat, -the latter being used in varnishing or graining; they are -made of hog’s bristles. The smaller kinds of brushes are -called <i>tools</i> or <i>fitches</i>, and are used for small surfaces, such -as ornaments and mouldings round panels, when the colour -is generally taken from a <i>palette</i>—a round slab of wood, -with a hole through which the thumb of the left hand -passes in order to hold it. The brushes must never be -allowed to get dry, but when not in use must be kept in -water: it is always best to keep a brush for each colour. -Another part of the Painter’s business which requires more -skill, is graining and marbling; or the imitation in colours -of the marks and grains of various kinds of wood, and the -veins and spots in marbles. This is of course a part of the -trade which requires a knowledge of the thing to be imitated, -and great care and taste in doing it well.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<p>Graining is generally done with “distemper colour,” that -is a kind of paint in which whiting and size are used instead -of white lead and oil, for the basis of the colour; but the -colours depend on the sort of grain to be imitated, and they -are applied in various ways and with different sorts of -brushes, some of the colour being occasionally removed -with a piece of wash leather, in order to give the appearance -of the light marks seen in the “heart” of the wood. -The appearance of the “grain” of the wood is effected by -the <i>graining comb</i>, a comb with short thick straight teeth, -which is drawn along the paint in a wavy line.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus040" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus040.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Graining Comb. Painter’s Brush.</p> -</div> - -<p>Marbles are imitated in oil if it is outside work and -exposed to the weather, but for inside work distemper -colour is frequently used.</p> - -<p>Occasionally walls are coloured in distemper, and it then -frequently happens that a pattern or some ornamental -design is painted in the centres of the panels, or round -the mouldings. This is a part of the Painter’s trade which -requires much skill, and a knowledge of artistic drawing -and design.</p> - -<p>Varnishing is an operation requiring great care to perform -it properly, since it is necessary not only to choose the right -kind of varnish, but also to apply it to the surface of the -paint with a light but firm hand. Varnishes are made of -gums or resins melted, spirits of wine, oil of turpentine, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span> -strong white drying oil. The hard varnishes dry rapidly, -and are made of the harder kinds of gums, such as copal, -mastic, &c., and the soft of Canada balsam, elemi, turpentine, -&c. The most useful for the House Painter are those -of copal, linseed oil, and turpentine.</p> - -<p>The brushes used in varnishing are generally flat, so as -to enable the workman to lay an even surface on the work. -Varnishes are usually kept in wide-mouthed bottles; from -which they are poured into little tin pans with a false -bottom above the real bottom, the space between the two -being filled with sand. The use of this is that when the -pan is placed over the fire, the sand becomes heated, and -the varnish is kept a long time from becoming chilled.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus041" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus041.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE GLAZIER.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus042" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus042.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Glazing Knife. Hacking Knife. Chisel Knife. Clicker’s Knife.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Glazier, though now very important, -was unknown in this country till the eleventh century, and -even long afterwards the use of glass for windows was -extremely rare; pieces of horn, and oiled paper, supplying -its place in almost every building except palaces and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -churches. As we have here to do with the Glazier, and not -with the manufacturer of glass, we need say little about the -method of making the materials used; so that it will -suffice to know that the “crown glass,” mostly sold for -windows of houses, is composed principally of white sand, -pearlash, and saltpetre. This glass the Glazier purchases in -sheets of a circular form, each of which is called a <i>table</i>, -since the mode in which it is made renders such a shape -necessary; and the first thing he has to learn, is how to cut -out square pieces of the proper size without wasting much -of the round edge. The glass when cut is fixed either into -lead work or sashes; the former of these is the oldest -description of glazing; and in the common kind the leaden -frames are soldered together, so as to form squares or -diamonds; the sides of the grooves in which the glass is -placed being soft enough to bend back to receive the panes, -and then bend back again to hold them firmly. In wooden<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span> -sashes, such as are now commonly used, the space or frame -for each pane of glass is “rebated,” that is, it has outside -a small groove all round to receive the pane, and a ledge -against which it rests. In this “rebate” each square of -glass is placed, and then firmly bedded and fastened -smoothly with a rim of putty filling up the groove.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus043" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus043.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rule. Square. 2-foot Rule. Tilter.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Glazier uses a <i>hacking knife</i> for cutting out old -putty from broken squares; and the <i>stopping knife</i>, or -<i>glazing knife</i>, for laying and smoothing the putty.</p> - -<p>For setting glass into lead work, the <i>setting knife</i>, or -<i>chisel knife</i>, and the broad-bladed knife is used.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p> - -<p>As much of the Glazier’s work is done outside the house, -he is sometimes compelled to use a board which is fastened -with screws, and projects from the window so that he may -sit astride on the outside. No one should ever attempt -this where the sash can be easily taken out and the work -done inside.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus044" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus044.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Diamond. Pincers.</p> -</div> - -<p>The rest of the Glazier’s tools are a <i>square</i>, and a <i>straight -edge rule</i> for cutting against, a <i>two-foot rule</i>, and compasses -for measuring; <i>pincers</i> for breaking off the edges of -glass that have been partially cut through; and the <i>diamond</i>, -which is used for cutting, and is his principal tool. This -is made of a small unpolished diamond fixed in lead, and -fastened to a handle of hard wood.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_PLUMBER">THE PLUMBER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus045" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus045.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Casting Lead.</p> -</div> - -<p>In trades connected with building, the work of the Plumber -is of so much importance that it must come next to that of -the Bricklayer, and the Carpenter. At one time the Plumber -(who takes his name from the Latin word for <i>lead</i><a id="FNanchor_2" href="#Footnote_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a>) was -principally employed in making leaden roofs of churches<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span> -or large public buildings and in forming casements for -windows; window frames being then made of strips of -lead soldered or riveted together and holding the little -diamond-shaped panes of glass between their edges. In -those days all the water used in the house was carried from -the well or from the conduit in the main street, or was -brought in casks set upon wheels from the nearest running -stream: while rain-water for washing was collected in tubs -or vats as it ran off the roofs. Not much more than a -century ago the poets wrote of the misery of the streets -of London on a wet night, when there were no waste pipes -to carry off the rain from the overcharged gutters on the -tiles, and nobody could venture out of doors without being -half drowned by the sudden discharge of a shower bath -from some overhanging gable. Then, as there was no -proper system of pipes for carrying off the wet, there was -very little drainage except by means of open gutters, and -the bye-ways, as well as some of the principal thoroughfares -and large houses, were extremely unhealthy.</p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_2" href="#FNanchor_2" class="label">[2]</a> Plumbum.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>We are not quite perfect even yet in these respects, and -there are still neighbourhoods in London where a few -Plumbers might be able to make vast improvements; but -we are a great deal better off than our great grandfathers -were. The Plumbers do not make quite so many leaden -casements as they made in the olden time, but they are -well employed in constructing roofs; carrying water into -houses by means of leaden pipes; making cisterns to contain -a good supply of it, and providing other pipes and -gutters for conveying all the dirty water and drainage into -the sewers that are under the roadway, where it runs quite -away from the streets, and (in London at least) goes into -the sea from near the mouth of the Thames at Erith.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus046" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus046.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Ladle. Grate. Soldering Iron.</p> -</div> - -<p>Now as the Plumber has to do a great deal of his work -in roofs and other places where he is liable to fall, he should -be clear-headed, and able to go up a ladder or look over a -ledge at a height from the ground without being afraid, and -this is all the more necessary because he has to handle tools, -and sometimes to pour melted solder out of a hot <i>iron ladle</i> -while he is at his work on these places. For the purpose of -melting the solder he has to carry his <i>fire grate and melting -pot</i> with him to some place near where he is at work, since -unless the solder can be used rapidly it cools, and will not -make a sound joint. The rest of the Plumber’s tools are the -<i>pouring stick</i> for applying the melted solder in the places -where it is required, the <i>soldering iron</i> which is made red-hot, -and passed over the soldered joints to smooth them and -make them all firm and sound; the <i>chisel</i>, <i>shave hooks</i>, -<i>drawing knife</i>, and <i>chipping knife</i>, for cutting the lead and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span> -scraping it on the surface, or at the edges that are to be -fastened together; the <i>hammers</i> and <i>mallets</i> for beating the -lead into shape and flattening the ridges, the <i>bossing mallet</i> -and dresser for bringing the sheet of lead to a proper shape, -and forming it over the ridge of a roof, the <i>chased wedge</i>, -the screw-driver, the <i>dunring</i> and the <i>turnpin</i> for various uses -in making roofs, laying down leaden pipes and fixing taps, -and the <i>sucker hook</i> used in repairing or fixing pumps when -the part of the pump called the sucker requires to be -rectified.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus047" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus047.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Pouring Stick. Chipping Knife. Dunring. Drawing Knife. -Chased Wedge. Shave Hook. Turnpin. Shave Hook.</p> -</div> - -<p>There are other tools beside these, such as planes for -making the surface of the lead smooth and even, gouges and -centre-bits for circular openings in the lead to receive nails<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span> -or clamps, measuring rules and compasses, and pads of -carpet or cloth to hold under a pipe when it is being -soldered, that the solder may be pressed round the joint -before it cools, and without its dropping on the ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus048" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus048.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mallet. Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>Plumbers now buy their sheet lead as well as their leaden -pipe at the warehouses, but those in a large way of business -formerly cast the lead themselves. For this purpose -they used a casting table, which is a great wooden bench -about six yards long and two yards wide, made of smooth -planks, and with a raised wooden frame round the edge. On -this table the Plumber spreads a layer of finely-sifted sand, -which was made level by a strike—a flat piece of wood -with two handles—drawn from end to end of the table; -after this the surface was made still more smooth by a planer, -which was a flat plate of copper fastened to a handle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus049" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus049.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Sucker Hook. Screwdriver. Dresser. Bossing Mallet. Chisel.</p> -</div> - -<p>A trough called the pan ran along the whole length of -the table, and into this the melted lead was poured from the -melting pot. There were two ways of making the sheet<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span> -lead: one of them was to tilt the trough up, and pour out -the lead on to the table, two men immediately passing a -wooden strike over it so as to spread it evenly over the -whole surface. In this case the thickness of the sheet of -lead depended on the distance between the edge of the -“strike” and the surface of the sand. Another way was to -have a narrow opening all along the bottom of the trough, -the trough itself moving from end to end of the table as -the lead flowed out. When this method was used the thickness -of the sheet depended on the size of the opening, and the -rapidity with which the trough was moved along the table.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -Neither of these methods are now used, the lead being -rolled into sheets by machinery.</p> - -<p>Water-pipes are made by lead being cast in moulds with -a steel rod passing through their middles, according to the -size required. The lead is poured into the space between -the rod and the mould. After it is cool the rod is drawn -out by machinery, and the mould which is made in halves -is opened and the pipe taken out. The pipe is then much -thicker and shorter than is required for use, but it is afterwards -drawn between powerful iron rollers with grooves cut -in their surfaces, an iron rod being again placed inside it. -As these grooves gradually decrease in size, and the pipe is -drawn through several, it is very considerably lengthened, -and at the same time diminished, in thickness, by the time -the operation is finished. Another method of making lead -pipes is by the use of the <i>forcing pump</i>, which pumps the -melted metal out of the boiler into a mould containing a -“mandril,” or pipe of the required size. Pipes made in -this way do not require to be rolled.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus050" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus050.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Forcing Pump.</p> -</div> - -<p>The work which the Plumber is called upon to do on the -roofs of houses requires experience before it can be properly -performed. The foundation of the roof which is to be -covered with lead is made either of boards or plaster, so -that the surface may be even, and if it be of boards they -must be thick and well seasoned to prevent their warping.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span> -The foundation slopes a little in order to carry off the rain -towards one end. When the roof is so large that it needs -two widths of lead, there are three ways of joining the -edges of the lead together: one is by fastening to the roof -long slips of wood (flat at bottom and round at top) at the -places where the lead will be joined. Over these strips the -edge of the first sheet of lead is folded and hammered -down quite close, then the edge of the second sheet is -folded and hammered over that, so that water cannot get -between them. This is called “rolling.”</p> - -<p>Another method is to bring the two edges up just as -though they were to be sewn together, then to fold them -tightly one over the other, and hammer them down: this is -called “overlapping,” but it is not so good as rolling for -keeping out the rain.</p> - -<p>The third way is to <i>solder</i> the edges together: the solder, -which is in constant use by the Plumber, being a metal -made by mixing lead and tin together. These two metals -when mixed adhere very strongly to the lead that they are -meant to join, and the surface to which they are applied is -made hot enough to unite with the solder by means of the -soldering iron, while very often a little resin, borax, or -tallow is placed on the surface of the lead to cause it to -combine more rapidly with the molten metal.</p> - -<p>Besides the fixing of roofs the Plumber makes leaden -cisterns, fixes rain-water gutters, and waste pipes, and -arranges taps and drains; and in some of these operations -he will use zinc instead of lead. Not the least important -part of his business, however, is the construction and -arrangement of pumps, and for this purpose it is necessary -that he should study mechanics, and those branches of -science which refer to the properties of water, and to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -laws which govern the air and other fluids. He is always -the best workman who goes to his business with a knowledge -of the natural laws and scientific facts connected -with it, and a very little study will save a world of -blundering; during which the ignorant man will remain a -labourer, because it takes him half a lifetime to learn his -business.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus051" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus051.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_GASFITTER">THE GASFITTER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus052" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus052.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">GASFITTERS AT WORK.</p> -</div> - -<p>As there are now few large houses which are not lighted -by gas, the trade of the Gasfitter is one of considerable -importance; and though the materials used are generally -bought ready made from the Brassfounders, the glass-works, -the Ironfounders, or the lead warehouse, considerable skill -is required, as well as some taste in properly adapting the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span> -chandeliers and burners, and skilfully adjusting the tubes -and pipes so that they may easily be repaired, or any escape -of gas quickly detected. The various tools used by the -Gasfitter are simple enough, but careful practice is necessary -for their proper use; and, as any flaw or imperfection in the -work may lead to very dangerous consequences, all the -operations should be thoroughly tested, and every joint and -fitting in the various parts made sound and strong.</p> - -<p>Before the gas is taken into a house, or as it is called in -the trade “laid on” in the house, it is of course necessary -to obtain the permission of the Company to whom the -works where the gas is made belong, and to agree to pay -for the quantity that is burnt, which is charged by the -thousand cubic feet, and varies in price according to the -cost of the coal from which it is made, and the difficulty of -conveying this coal to the works.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus053" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus053.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Spade. Crowbar. Rammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first operation is to take up the roadway in front of -the house, in order to connect the pipe which is to convey -the gas to the meter with that which conducts it from the -works to the different streets of the neighbourhood. For -this purpose the <i>spade</i> and <i>crowbar</i> are necessary, while<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -sometimes the pickaxe also has to be used; and the <i>rammer</i> -serves to beat the earth down more closely after the pipe -is laid.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus054" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus054.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Brick Bit. Brick Auger.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pipe which is joined to the larger pipe, or <i>main</i>, is -generally of iron, and is made with a screw and socket, that -it may not be easily displaced by the pressure of the -roadway or footpath, and this, passing into the basement of -the house, supplies the gas to the <i>meter</i>. The meter is a -mechanical contrivance, which is so constructed that the -quantity of gas passing through it is registered by a plate -something like a clock face, with a hand to point to the -figures which represent the number of cubic feet consumed. -There are different kinds of meters, and the construction of -them varies very considerably, but they all answer this -purpose: so that when the inspector visits the house once a -quarter he may directly see what quantity is to be charged -for. The pipe leading from the meter is fitted with a strong -tap, by turning which, all the gas may be shut off from the -tubes that convey it to the different burners in the house, -and from this pipe the smaller pipes (made of a sort of -solder or of lead) are taken to the various rooms. In order -to carry the tubes through a wall, it is necessary to use the -<i>brick bit</i> and the <i>brick auger</i> for boring a hole to receive -it, while to support it against a wall or along the top of a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span> -ceiling the Gasfitter uses <i>wall hooks</i>, the <i>hammer</i> and -the <i>tongs</i> for holding and bending the pipe to its proper -direction. In kitchens and basement rooms the pipe is -generally carried from the meter up the wall and along the -ceiling to the place where the burner is to be fixed: but -in upper rooms the pipe is taken up the house wall, and -carried under the flooring of the room above to the centre -of the middle joist, where a hole is bored quite through the -ceiling of the room below. For this purpose the <i>twisted -auger</i> is generally used; and for the preliminary work of -taking up the floor and cutting a groove in the joist to -receive the pipe, that it may not be injured by the pressure -of the boards above, the <i>saw</i> and the <i>hammer</i> are required.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus055" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus055.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wall Hooks. Nuts. Grease Pot. Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus056" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus056.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Twisted Auger. Saw. Blowpipe. Tongs.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus057" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus057.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Waxed Rushes. Rasp.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of course one length of pipe is not sufficient to go to -any great distance, and a joint has frequently to be made, -the solder used for this purpose being so easily melted and -so readily combining with the pipe itself, which is of almost -the same material, that the flame from prepared <i>tow</i> blown -to an intense heat by the <i>blow pipe</i> is sufficient for the -purpose. The rasp is used for filing the surface at the ends -of the pipes where they are to be joined, and the <i>waxed -rushes</i> to try the joints in order to see that there is no -escape of gas through some small hole. When the pipes -are all laid and brought to their proper positions the fittings -are fixed. Those which descend from the centres of ceilings -are generally called chandeliers, and consist of a tube of -metal fastened to the gas pipe, the end of which coming -through the ceiling is furnished with an iron screw to fit -the end of the tube. This tube is placed within a larger -tube, from the bottom of which a still smaller one passes -within the first. The gas therefore descends the tube from -the ceiling, and enters the smallest tube, which communicates -with the <i>burners</i> that spring from the largest. The larger -tube is intended to receive water, in which the end of the -first tube rests, so that the gas is prevented from escaping, -while by a nice adjustment of weights running over pulleys -attached to the larger, the burners can be raised or lowered, -as one tube slides within the other (<a href="#illus052"><i>see large cut</i></a>). The -<i>taps</i> are placed at the burners to turn on or turn off the -gas as it is required, and in order to fix and screw these, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -well as to fasten joints in the fittings by means of <i>screw -nuts</i>, the <i>pliers</i> and the <i>wrench</i> are used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus058" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus058.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wrench. Tow. Tap. Rimmer. Clamps. Pliers. Drill Stock.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>clamps</i> are a sort of vice with grooved holes, for -holding the taps and metal joints firmly while they are -filed or otherwise prepared; the <i>drill stock</i> is used for -boring small pipes in order to make a branch to some other -direction, and the <i>drill brace</i> is intended for boring the -main pipes, under which the large hooks are placed while a -stock and bit attached to the upper screw makes the hole; -the ordinary <i>braces</i> are fitted to a <i>ratchet</i> or cog wheel at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -one end, and are also used for making incisions by being -worked backwards and forwards.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus059" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus059.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drill Brace. Braces. Stocks and Dies.</p> -</div> - -<p>The several kinds of <i>burners</i> are pierced or cut in such a -way as to make the flame from the gas of different shapes, -such as <i>fish tail</i>, <i>cock spur</i>, <i>star</i>, or <i>argand</i>, the names of -which tell pretty well in what shape they appear. Small -rooms are sometimes fitted with “telescopes” instead of -chandeliers, the telescope being one tube sliding within -another, and the space carefully filled with a properly -adjusted cork or some other flexible and impervious substance.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span> -Bedrooms, and apartments where light is required -at the walls or chimney pieces, are furnished with brackets, -which either simply project from the wall, or are made with -an arm moving on a ball and socket joint. The manufacture -of the various portions of the apparatus used in gas -fitting will be mostly found described under the trade of -the Brassfounder.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus060" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus060.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="MANUFACTURE_OF_GAS">MANUFACTURE OF GAS.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus061" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus061.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">GASOMETERS.</p> -</div> - -<p>Very few of the readers of this book will remember the -appearance presented by London streets before the introduction -of gas; when all the thoroughfares were darker -than even the commonest streets are now, and the only -light emanated either from the shop windows or from dim -oil lamps, which the rain or the wind would frequently put -out, even when they did not burn out of themselves for -want of being trimmed and replenished. A century ago -these oil lamps were quite insufficient to light even the -main streets, and people who walked out at night generally<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -hired a “link boy” to light them as they went, with a -great flambeau of hemp and pitch, which smoked and smelt -insufferably. The nobility and gentlefolks who rode in -carriages were also attended by footmen with flambeaux of -a better sort, and outside the doors of some of the oldest -houses in London there may still be seen the great iron -extinguishers attached to the railings, where the torch-bearers -put out their lights till it was time to escort their -masters and mistresses home. The poet Gay, who wrote -the celebrated fables, describes the link boys, and gives -them rather a bad character for so often being connected -with the bands of thieves and footpads which infested -London streets, and robbed people with impunity in the -dark. He says:—</p> - -<div class="poetry-container"> -<div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="verse indent0">“Though thou art tempted by the link man’s call,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Yet trust him not along the lonely wall;</div> - <div class="verse indent0">In the midway he’ll quench the flaming brand,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">And share the booty with the pilfering band.</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Still keep the public streets, where oily rays,</div> - <div class="verse indent0">Shot from the crystal lamp, o’erspread thy ways.”</div> - </div> -</div> -</div> - -<p>Long before this, however, the inflammable nature of the -vapour which streamed from burning coal had been observed -by scientific men, and it was thought by many people that -some method might be invented for making this gas useful -for the purpose of lighting streets or houses. It had also -been observed that the air suddenly escaping from the -shafts of coal mines was often highly inflammable, and -some experiments were made in the distillation of coal as -early as 1726. In 1765 Lord Lonsdale proposed to the -magistrates of Whitehaven to convey the gas from the -neighbouring mines through pipes for lighting the town.</p> - -<p>A number of eminent men afterwards made experiments -with gas, but no decided practical result followed until a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -Mr. Murdock, of Cornwall, began to manufacture gas for -lighting his house and offices at Redruth. In 1798 the same -gentleman used gas for lighting the Soho Foundry, where four -years afterwards a public exhibition of the new invention -was made by means of an illumination to celebrate the -proclamation of peace.</p> - -<p>In 1803 a gentleman named Winsor first publicly showed -at the Lyceum Theatre, in London, a system of illumination -by gas, which was the commencement of our present -method of lighting our streets and houses; and after great -difficulties and various experiments, a company was formed -for the purpose of carrying out the undertaking of superseding -the old oil lamps and making use of the new -invention. The premises of the company and their factory -were situated in Pall Mall, where the Carlton Club now -stands, and the lights first appeared from the corner of -St. James’s Street to the Haymarket, while several jets -were placed in front of Carlton House, the residence of the -Prince Regent, afterwards George the Fourth.</p> - -<p>By slow degrees, and by the assistance of Mr. Clegg, an -eminent engineer, the manufacture of gas improved, and in -1814, when the allied sovereigns visited this country, and a -general illumination was ordered, a magnificent pagoda in -St. James’s Park was erected for the exhibition of the new -light. The following year Guildhall was fitted with gas -burners; and, although it had been predicted that the new -invention would <i>ruin the navy</i> by superseding the use of -the oil brought by the whalers, and though some people -declared that it was only a scheme for blowing up London, -the success of these experiments led to its rapid adoption -in most of the large towns of Europe.</p> - -<p>It will now be necessary to say something of coal, of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -which more than 400,000 tons are used every year for the -manufacture of gas in London alone.</p> - -<p>The name coal was originally given to any substance -used for fuel, and the use of mineral coal, or, as it was -formerly termed, <i>sea-coal</i>, from the fact of its being -brought by sea, has not prevailed for longer than 200 -years. Coal is found in this country in extensive deposits -called coal-fields, the most important of which are:—1. -Those of the great northern district, including the coal-fields -north of the river Trent. 2. Those of the central -district, including the Leicester, Warwick, Stafford, and -Shropshire coal-fields. 3. Those of the western districts -in North Wales, South Wales, and Gloucester. The coal -occurs in a number of layers, or beds, termed <i>seams</i>, -and these are separated from each other by layers of slatey -clay, called <i>shale</i>, and coarse, hard sandstone, known as -<i>grit</i>.</p> - -<p>The seams of coal are mostly comparatively thin, but -varying from a few inches to six or eight feet in thickness, -and underneath the layers is usually found a bed of mountain -limestone extending beyond the coal-field, and rising -to the surface of the ground around it.</p> - -<p>The first process for finding coal is to bore with iron -tools a perpendicular hole in the ground; then if coal is -discovered, a shaft, or pit, from ten to fifteen feet in -diameter, is sunk, and lined with brick, cast iron, or wood, -to prevent the admission of water and the falling in of the -sides. When the shaft reaches a seam of coal, passages are -made, twelve to fourteen feet wide, and varying in height -with the coal; from these proceed smaller ones, which -are again crossed by large ones, enormous blocks of coal -being left to support the earth above. As the mine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span> -becomes larger, a second shaft is sunk at some distance -from the first, in order that air may be supplied to the mine, -and that the gas that escapes from the coal may be carried -away. A current of air is caused by burning a large fire -in one shaft, and the draught is directed to the part of the -mine where it is required, by doors, which close up some of -the passages and leave others open.</p> - -<p>There are several varieties of coal found in this country. -The most important are: the common, or bituminous coal, -which soils the fingers on handling; the cannel, or candle -coal, which burns with a bright flame, but does not -soil; the anthracite, or culm coal, which burns without -flame, does not form cinder when half consumed, and is -most useful for furnaces, in consequence of its intense heat -and the absence of smoke. Although often classed amongst -the minerals, coal is evidently of vegetable origin; many -sorts of it being distinctly fibrous, and showing the grain of -the wood from which it is composed. Upon examination -with the microscope, coal shows vegetable remains; and -these are frequently so perfect that they prove its formation -from such plants as ferns and fir-trees, of a kind somewhat -different from those which now exist.</p> - -<p>The value of coal depends entirely upon its inflammable -and combustible properties. It is used as the source of -artificial warmth in our dwellings, and our manufactures -are mainly dependent on it. Without coal there would -scarcely be any working in iron, copper, lead, or other -metals, as in populous countries the supply of wood is -soon exhausted. Our potteries and our glass works are -also carried on by its use, and the power of steam which -moves all our great engines and machines is dependent on -coal for its existence.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span></p> - -<p>Great Britain produces more than one-half the coal that -is consumed in the world, and about 180,000 persons are -employed in obtaining it in our collieries.</p> - -<p>The first process in the manufacture of gas is to subject -the coal to a great heat, by which it is <i>carbonised</i>, or burnt -until only the cinder, or coke, remains after the gas has -flown off. This is done by placing the coal in retorts of -fire-clay or iron, which are previously heated. These -retorts, which occupy a building called the <i>retort house</i>, -having been charged with coal, are perfectly closed, and -the door <i>luted</i>, or stopped, with a sort of cement, so that -the gas can only escape up the <i>ascension pipe</i>, the coke -being left in the retort.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus062" style="max-width: 28.125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus062.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Retort House.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span></p> - -<p>The gas from the coal then passes through the ascension -pipe by what is called the <i>dip pipe</i>, into a main, a large -horizontal tube extending along the length of the furnaces. -This main is about half filled with water or tar, in which -the ends of the dip pipes are immersed, so that as the gas -runs in, it ascends through the liquid into the space above, -but cannot flow back again into the dip pipes. In this -way it is all collected in the upper part of the main pipe, -and is ready for purification.</p> - -<p>Where double retorts are used, each end is worked with -at least three stokers, and an extra man for preparing the -lids of the mouth-pieces. Others are required for extinguishing -the coke, wheeling the coal into the retort house, -clinkering furnaces, and attending to fires. Three stokers, -assisted by a man to extinguish the coke, will perform all -the work of taking off the lids, raking out the coke, extinguishing -and wheeling it away from a bench of seven -retorts, in twelve or thirteen minutes; they will then put -the proper charge for each retort in the <i>scoop</i>, deliver its -contents, and be ready for charging another bench in a -further space of seven minutes, while a fourth workman -will in the meantime have put on the lids, so that the -whole work of discharging and charging the seven retorts -will occupy barely twenty minutes.</p> - -<p>This extreme dexterity is of course only acquired by -long practice, and it must be admitted the labour is very -severe; but this is moderated by the time the men have -for repose between the charges. The first process in discharging -or drawing is for one or two of the men to -relieve the screws of the mouth-pieces of the retorts about -to be discharged, by giving three or four rapid turns; -another man instantly gives a knock to each of the cross<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -bars to disengage them from the ears of the lid, and at the -same time strikes the lid a blow with a piece of iron or -hammer, in order to break the luting, and a light is immediately -applied to prevent explosion, which would be likely -to crack the retort if of clay. For want of this precaution, -many lamentable accidents have happened through the gas -exploding when combined with atmospheric air. The men -then lift off the cross bar and screw of each retort, placing -them on the ground, and then each seizes hold of a lid in -both hands, lifting it by the projecting ears, and placing -it aside to cool, ready for luting for another charge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus063" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus063.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fender. Wheelbarrow. Bus.</p> -</div> - -<p>Three of the stokers then take up their <i>iron rakes</i>, which -are simply rods of ¾-inch iron, about 12 feet long, having -a handle at one end; the other end being turned at right -angles is flat, about 6 inches long, 2 inches wide, and -½-inch thick. These are inserted in the retort, and the -red-hot coke drawn to the mouth, whence it drops into the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span> -coke vault, where there is a man ready to extinguish by -throwing water on it; or when there is no vault the coke -drops into <i>iron barrows</i> placed ready to receive it, and -wheeled rapidly away when the charge is withdrawn. If -the coke were not immediately extinguished it would -smoulder, and the surface become covered with earthy ash, -and detract from its appearance and value.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus064" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus064.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rake. Clinkering Spud. Scoop. Fire Shovel. Key. Auger.</p> -</div> - -<p>Formerly, in charging retorts, the operation being comparatively -very protracted, there was a considerable loss of -gas, in addition to the time and extra fatigue to the men. -In order to remedy these inconveniences, a method has -been contrived for depositing the whole charge in the -retort at once; for this purpose an <i>iron scoop</i> is used, this<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -being a semi-cylinder of sheet iron, from 8 to 10 feet long -and 10 or 12 inches diameter, with a cross handle at the -end to assist in lifting and turning it round to empty the -coals in the retort.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus065" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus065.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shovel. Clinking Bat.</p> -</div> - -<p>The charge of coal is placed in the scoop while it rests on -the ground, having a bent rod underneath for the purpose -of lifting it: one man takes hold of the cross handle, and -two others lift the other end by the bent rod, and introduce -it into the mouth of the retort. The scoop with its contents -is then pushed forward to the further end, turned completely -over, and immediately withdrawn, leaving the coal in the -retort, which is raked into a layer of uniform thickness, -when the lid, previously luted and ready, is placed in its -position and screwed up as quickly as possible. The operation -of charging a retort with the scoop does not occupy -more than thirty or forty seconds, so that very little escape -of gas can take place. The <i>shovel</i> is used for lifting the -coal to the scoop, the <i>clinking bat</i> for breaking or removing -the coke in the vault, the spud for a similar purpose.</p> - -<p>The gas in the hydraulic main is of course very impure, -having undergone no alteration since it came from the coal -in the retort. It contains a quantity of tar and ammoniacal -liquor in vapour, and these have to be separated from it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span> -and this can be effected by what is called condensation, the -instrument used being known as a <i>condenser</i>. There are -two or three forms of condensers in use, but a common one, -which is represented in the engraving, is called the horizontal -condenser, and is a rectangular box or chest formed -of cast iron plates, put together with flanges, and perfectly -tight joints. Its interior is provided with a series of iron -trays, containing each about two inches in depth of water, -and so arranged that the gas, entering at the bottom of the -chest, passes in succession over the surface of the water in -each tray, and traversing the whole length of trough ten or -twelve times, passes off at the upper side. In the mean -time a continuous stream of water enters at the top, and in -its descent absorbs a portion of the ammonia, at the same -time cooling and condensing the vapours in combination -with the gas.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus066" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus066.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Condensers.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span></p> - -<p>Horizontal condensers are sometimes composed of a series -of pipes placed in a horizontal position, and immersed in -water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus067" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus067.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wet Purifier.</p> -</div> - -<p>The other form of condenser, which is very generally -employed, consists of a series of vertical pipes, connected -in pairs by semicircular bends at top, and attached to a -cast-iron box or chest at bottom. This chest has a series -of divisions, the ends of which are sealed by liquid placed -therein, so that the gas in its passage has to pass through -the whole series of pipes. The pipes by their contact with -the atmosphere radiate the heat acquired from the gas in its -passage, and it being in consequence cooled, deposits the -vapours as liquid in the form of tar, and water saturated -with ammonia, generally called ammoniacal liquor. This -condenser is sometimes used with an application of cold -water on its exterior, in order to increase the cooling effect.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span></p> - -<p>The other part of the purification is by a chemical process, -in which a solution of lime is used to remove other impurities -in the gas. This is called <i>wet lime purification</i>, -or when the lime is only slackened (or moistened) it is -called <i>dry lime purification</i>, and the process takes the -sulphuretted hydrogen, the carbonic acid, and other matters -from the gas before it is stored for use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus068" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus068.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Dry Purifier.</p> -</div> - -<p>The wet lime purifier consists of a cast-iron cylinder -entirely closed at top and bottom, except where the inlet -and outlet pipes join it, and where an opening is required -for charging it with lime-water, which same opening is also -used for drawing off the charge. To the inside of the cover -of this outer cylinder is bolted an inlet cylinder usually -made of wrought-iron plate. This inlet cylinder is open at -the lower part, and reaches to within a foot from the bottom<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span> -of the outer cylinder, but has bolted to its lower flange a -wide ring or dash plate of sheet iron, the outer diameter -being only 8 or 9 inches less than that of the outer cylinder, -so that a space of about 4 or 5 inches is left between the -outside of the ring and the interior of the large cylinder.</p> - -<p>The gas passes down through the inlet cylinder, and by -its pressure forces its way up through the fluid lime, the -surface of which is 8 or 9 inches above the dash plate.</p> - -<p>The wet lime purifiers are variously worked; when four -are used, two vessels are employed at one time, and when -the lime in the first is incapable of absorbing the impurity, -that purifier is put out of action, and the second and third -are worked, and so on in succession.</p> - -<p>When quick lime is slackened, reduced to powder, and -slightly moistened with water, chemically this is called the -hydrate of lime, and is often employed to absorb the sulphuretted -hydrogen and carbonic acid from the gas. The -process is termed dry lime purification.</p> - -<p>Dry lime purifiers are generally rectangular cast-iron -vessels, varying from 3 feet to 30 feet square, and from 3 -feet to 4 feet 6 inches deep. Sometimes in small works -they are made circular; this, however, is not very frequent, -and is done for convenience or economy in construction. -Each purifier contains a series of perforated shelves, trays, -or sieves, supported by suitable bearers of wrought or cast -iron, the ends of which are attached to “snuggs” cast on -the purifier. In large apparatus there are also pillars placed -at intermediate distances to carry the weight of the sieves -and purifying material.</p> - -<p>The upper part of the purifier is surrounded by a cistern -or reservoir of from 6 inches to 24 inches deep, and from 3 -inches to 6 inches wide, which is often cast with the purifier,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span> -and forms part of it, or at other times is attached thereto by -bolts and cement, and is for the purpose of containing water -to seal the cover. The cover of the purifier is of boiler -plate or cast iron, the latter being preferable on account of -its durability; but the increased weight is an impediment -to its adoption. The rim or border of the cover is rather -deeper than the cistern into which it is placed, and is -effectually sealed by the water, so preventing the gas -escaping from that point.</p> - -<p>Often the purifier is divided into two compartments, so -that the gas ascends through a set of sieves on the one side, -and descends through another set on the other side, answering -the purpose of two sets of apparatus. In all establishments, -however small they may be, two distinct purifiers at -least are necessary, to enable the impure lime to be removed -from the one whilst the gas is being purified by the other.</p> - -<p>The next subject for consideration is that of the <i>gasholders</i>, -or vessels in which the gas is stored ready for -delivery into the mains, which distribute it throughout the -districts to be lighted. These vessels were originally termed -<i>gasometers</i>, which name is sometimes even now applied to -them; but as they have nothing whatever to do with the -measurement of gas, but are mere vessels of capacity or -stores, the simple name of gasholder is more expressive and -appropriate.</p> - -<p>The gasholder is composed of two distinct parts, one -of which contains water, and is called the tank, the other -is the vessel which contains the gas, being really the -gasholder. On the Continent the former is very generally -termed the “cistern,” and the latter the “bell.”</p> - -<p>The tank is a large cylindrical vessel, constructed usually, -for the sake of economy, of brickwork or masonry,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span> -but when the ground is marshy, or when water exists -abundantly a short distance below the surface of the earth, -which would prevent the construction in masonry at a -moderate price, these tanks are made in cast-iron, and, -indeed, in small works, are often of wrought iron. In the -interior of the tank there are two vertical pipes for the -admission and egress of the gas, called the inlet and outlet -pipes; the former being in direct communication with the -manufacturing apparatus, the latter with the mains which -convey the gas to the town. These pipes rise a few inches -above the level of the top of the tank, so that the water -cannot overflow into them. A series of columns, generally -of cast-iron, but sometimes of wood, or brick piers, are -placed at equal distances around the tank for the purpose -of guiding the holder.</p> - -<p>The holder is a cylindrical vessel closed at the top, which -is termed the roof, and open at the bottom, made of sheet -iron, varying in thickness according to the dimensions of -the apparatus, the smaller sizes being constructed of thin -material in order to avoid an excess of pressure, whilst -those of very large dimensions are made of stout plates for -the purpose of obtaining sufficient pressure to expel the gas -to the burners. The holder is somewhat less in diameter, -but of the same depth as the tank in which it is placed, -sometimes being partially suspended by chains which pass -over grooved pulleys and counter-balance weights, but more -frequently only guided by rollers attached around its lower -and upper edges, which work against suitable guides in the -tank and on the columns in such a manner as to permit the -holder to ascend and descend in the tank with the greatest -freedom.</p> - -<p>The action of the gasholder is very simple. The tank<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span> -being filled with water, and the holder immersed therein -ready for use, there is a space between the surface of the -water and the roof of the holder; the gas enters by the -inlet pipe into this space, and with the force it acquires in -being expelled from the coal, pressing on the surface of the -water and underneath the roof, and over the whole area of -both, causes the holder to rise. Thus, by its own force or -pressure, the gas provides room for itself, and in proportion -to the quantity entering so does the holder rise out of the -water. For instance, a holder having 100 feet area, or -about 11 feet 4 inches diameter, in rising 10 feet will -receive 1,000 cubic feet of gas, and in descending, the same -quantity would be expelled.</p> - -<p>Gasholders, though often suspended, are never entirely -counter-balanced, having always sufficient weight to give -the necessary pressure for forcing the gas through the mains -and smaller pipes to the burners, all through the neighbourhood -which is supplied from it. The gasholder should be -so constructed that, when it is full or at its greatest height, -its lower edge will be so far under water as to prevent the -gas from escaping.</p> - -<p>The water in the tank serves three purposes; it is the -means of resistance for the gas to lift the holder, it prevents -the gas escaping or mixing with the atmosphere; and it is -the means of expelling or forcing out the gas as the holder -descends.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_IRONFOUNDER">THE IRONFOUNDER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus069" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus069.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">FOUNDRY.</p> -</div> - -<p>Having already described the various operations of the -trades employed in building and fitting a house, we will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span> -say something of the manufacture of those cast iron -columns, girders, gratings, balconies, pipes, gutters, air -traps, coal plates, stoves, and other articles which are so -necessary to the Builder before his work can be completed. -All these, as well as a great variety of other goods made -in black or bronze iron, such as gates, bridges, pieces of -furniture (like umbrella stands), iron taps, and even pots -and frying pans, are made at the <i>Iron Foundry</i>.</p> - -<p>Iron is a metal of a bluish gray colour; but in its pure -state it looks almost white when polished, and has a -brilliant lustre, while when it is broken the broken portion -looks dull and fibrous. It is the hardest of all the malleable -and ductile metals, and the most tenacious of all -metals, an iron wire of ⅟₃₆th of an inch in diameter bearing -a weight of 60 pounds.</p> - -<p>In the pure state it requires the strongest heat of what -is called a wind furnace to melt it.</p> - -<p>Iron may be called the most precious of all metals; it is -certainly the most beneficial to man, and its uses are -innumerable; indeed, there is not a branch of human -industry that could well afford to dispense with its aid and -services; nearly all the tools, implements, instruments, and -engines used by man are wholly or partly made of it, and -we could better afford to give up all the other metals than -to part with this, which is the most useful.</p> - -<p>Iron is used in two different states, as <i>cast iron</i> and -<i>wrought iron</i>, the differences between them depending on -the proportion of carbon combined with the metal, cast iron -containing the most and wrought iron the least.</p> - -<p>For the production of wrought iron in the ordinary way, -two distinct sets of processes are required; first the extraction -of the metal from the “ore” that is brought up<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span> -from the mine, which metal is cast iron; and secondly the -conversion of this cast iron into malleable or bar iron, by -remelting, <i>puddling</i>, and <i>forging</i>. Bar iron is turned into -steel by placing it in contact with charcoal in a peculiar -kind of furnace.</p> - -<p>When the ore is taken from the mine it is first burnt or -calcined, and then removed to a blast furnace to be smelted. -These blast furnaces are generally built of brick, and look -like small towers. The ore is mixed with limestone, which -causes it to melt more easily, and the fire is lighted with -pit coal or coke. The melted metal sinks to the bottom of -the furnace in consequence of its weight, while the limestone -and dross float on the top, and are allowed to run off when -they cool into a mass of what is called “slag.”</p> - -<p>The melted metal is run off from the bottom of the -furnace, either into moulds for some sort of castings, or into -a large furrow made in a bed of sand. This large furrow -has several smaller furrows on each side of it, and has -received the name of the “sow;” the smaller furrows being -called “pigs;”—and the iron when it is formed in this -shape to be afterwards made malleable is called “pig -iron.”</p> - -<p>The pig iron is taken to other and smaller furnaces called -puddling furnaces, the bottoms of which are lined with -clay mixed with the slag just mentioned, and forming a -substance which the puddlers call “bull-dog,” though it -would be difficult to discover why it received that name.</p> - -<p>About four hundred weight of the pigs is placed in the -furnace, and as it melts the puddler stands at the furnace -mouth with a long <i>iron rod</i> bent at the end, and stirs it -about, until it comes to resemble several great balls of iron -paste. These balls are removed, and fall into iron trucks<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -pushed along a small railway by boys, who wheel them at -once to the “shingling hammer,” an immensely powerful -hammer worked by steam, and this beats the iron into -small square bars called “blooms.”</p> - -<p>The blooms are next carried to the rolling mill, which -is a pair of great rollers cut into grooves of various sizes, -and between these grooves the bars are squeezed, as the -rollers turn round, until they become much longer and -narrower, when they are known as “forged bars.”</p> - -<p>Some of the rolling mills, however, are plain cylinders -without grooves, and when a slab of white-hot iron is -placed between these it comes out from the pressure in a -great broad sheet of metal.</p> - -<p>These operations require great bodily strength as well -as considerable skill on the part of the workmen, who are -obliged to seize the heated metal with long tongs, and to -catch it in the same way as it comes out from the mill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus070" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus070.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Casting Ladle.</p> -</div> - -<p>The iron which is intended for castings is melted in a -“cupola furnace,” so called on account of the dome-like -shape in which it is built, which has something to do with -the more perfect heating of the metal. When the iron is -completely melted so that it will run freely, the lower -portion of the furnace is opened, and the white-hot stream<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -is received in the <i>casting ladle</i>, or, where it has to be -carried for some distance, and the casting is large, in great -iron pails carried in a sort of frame by two men. From -the casting ladle it is at once poured into the <i>mould</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus071" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus071.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mould. Small Casting Ladle.</p> -</div> - -<p>The mould is a sort of iron box filled with a peculiar sort -of sand, into which a wooden pattern of the intended casting -is pressed, and the sand firmly rammed down and made -solid. There are, in fact, two boxes of sand, each of which -is impressed with one half of the thickness of the required -casting, so that when they are brought together, and firmly -fastened with the pins, as shown in the picture, the patterns -which have been taken out have left a half of the impression -in each box, each corresponding exactly to the other. -A hole in the box receives the melted metal, for which a -channel has been left in the sand, that it may freely run -into the hollows left by the pattern, and completely fill -them; then, when it has sufficiently cooled, the casting is -removed, and when the rough edges have been removed, -and the irregularities trimmed off, it is ready for use, and -may be fitted to its other parts, which have perhaps been -separately cast, as in the case of garden seats, fenders, chandeliers, -umbrella stands, or ornamental girders and columns.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus072" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus072.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Furnace Iron. Brush. Trowel. Bellows. Foot Rule. -Level. Shovel. Spatera. Hammer. Mould Weight. Rammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>We have only described solid castings, but as ornamental -iron work is generally made hollow, this has to be cast in -rather a different way, though the only difference is that<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -what are called “cores” are used. These cores are in fact -solid metal patterns made a little smaller than the hollow -left by the real pattern, and allowed to remain in the mould. -The melted iron then flows between the surface of the core -and the surface of the mould, and the casting is hollow, so -that when the core is removed the metal is only the thickness -of the space left between the two surfaces. You will -see what is meant by placing a small teacup inside a larger -one, and then pouring water between them.</p> - -<p>The tools used by the Ironfounder are not very numerous: -the casting ladles and mould have already been -mentioned; the uses of the <i>shovel</i> and the <i>mould weight</i>, -the <i>rammer</i>, and the <i>furnace iron</i> need no description.</p> - -<p>The designers, and pattern makers, and the mould maker -have the most important duties, and the latter will have to -use a small <i>trowel</i> and a <i>spatera</i> for arranging his sand and -loam, a <i>level</i> that it may be perfectly true, and a <i>brush</i> -and a <i>pair of bellows</i> for removing any particles of grit -from the surface of the channels where the pattern has been -impressed.</p> - -<p>Almost all irons are improved by admixture with others, -and, therefore, when superior castings are required they -should not be run direct from the smelting furnace, but the -metal should be remelted in a cupola furnace, which gives -the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron to its intended -use. Thus, for delicate ornamental work, a soft and -very fluid iron will be required, whilst for girders and -castings exposed to cross strain the metal will require to be -harder and more tenacious. For bed-plates and castings -which have merely to sustain a compressing force, the chief -point to be attended to is the hardness of the metal.</p> - -<p>Castings should be allowed to remain in the sand until<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -cool, as the quality of the metal is greatly injured by the -rapid and irregular cooling which takes place from exposure -to air if removed from the moulds in a red hot state, which -is sometimes done in small foundries to economise room.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus073" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus073.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BLACKSMITH">THE BLACKSMITH.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus074" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus074.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">FORGE.</p> -</div> - -<p>In the building and fitting of the house a large portion of -the iron work will have to be furnished by the Smith, and -as we have already given some description of iron founding, -it will be necessary to say something about the Blacksmith,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span> -or the worker in iron or black metal, whose business is -different from that of the whitesmith, which has to do -more particularly with white or yellow metal.</p> - -<p>The way in which malleable iron, that is, iron fit for the -hammer, is produced has been mentioned in connexion -with the trade of the iron founder, who in fact supplies the -Blacksmith with the raw material. It is not very easy to -tell you much about the way in which the Blacksmith -makes the great variety of articles which his trade furnishes, -for there is no business the success of which depends -more upon personal skill. As the trade of the Smith, or at -all events the worker in metal, is one of the most ancient, -and existed in times when there were few tools,—as, in -fact, it is the Smith who has to make tools,—so at the -present day, he has to depend chiefly on his own ability in -the use of the hammer and a few other simple instruments -to fashion the articles that come out of his workshop.</p> - -<p>It is he who supplies the various articles of wrought iron -work used in a building; as pileshoes, straps, screw bolts, -dog-irons, chimney-bars, gratings, and wrought-iron railings -and balustrades for staircases. Wrought iron was formerly -much used for many purposes for which cast iron is now -generally employed; the improvements made in casting -during the present century having caused a great alteration -in this respect. It is not only for building purposes that -the Blacksmith is employed, however, since there is scarcely -anything constructed of iron in which his aid is not required, -from important portions of machinery to the rough -horse-shoes which have to be finished and fitted by the -farrier. In the forge, where the great bellows suspended to -the ceiling make the furnace roar, and the sparks fly, the -clinking of hammers is heard all day long.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus075" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus075.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Hammer. Sledge Hammer. Set Hammers. Vice. Anvil. Tongs. File.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>anvil</i>, on which the iron is beaten into shape, the -bench, fitted with a <i>vice</i> for holding such portions of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span> -work as require the <i>file</i>, the <i>tongs</i>, with which the red hot -metal is held, the <i>sledge hammer</i>, and the <i>set hammers</i>, are -the principal tools.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus076" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus076.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Callipers. Compasses. Heading Tools. Gauges. Square. Bottom Tool.</p> -</div> - -<p>The sledge hammer is used for beating the metal until -it is tempered and easily formed into shape, and it is in the -tempering of the metal by beating that the great skill of the -Smith is often displayed. The set hammers are used for -setting out the work, and have heads of different shapes, -according to the form which the metal is required to -assume. The various <i>gauges</i> are placed upon the anvil for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span> -the similar purpose of shaping the work, and the <i>callipers</i>, -<i>compasses</i>, and <i>square</i>, measuring and adjusting it. The -<i>heading tools</i> consist of cutting, punching, and stamping -instruments, and are probably so called, because they are -furnished with heads to receive the blows of the heavy -hammer, by which they are forced into the hot metal on -the anvil.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus077" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus077.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Double Hooks. Punch. Slice. Fire Irons.</p> -</div> - -<p>These heading tools are held, not by handles of their -own, which would break off with the concussion of the -hammer, but by a sort of withe of birch, or some other tree -fastened loosely round them at their heads, and bound by a -ring to keep them from parting. The <i>punch</i> is used in -making bolts or rivets, the <i>slice</i> and <i>fire irons</i> for arranging -the fuel in the furnace, and removing small articles after -they are heated, the <i>double hooks</i> for removing or suspending -bars, and for some other purposes.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BRASSFOUNDER">THE BRASSFOUNDER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus078" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus078.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Casting.</p> -</div> - -<p>Next to iron, perhaps brass is the metal chiefly employed -in the manufacture of articles of daily use, and the trade -of the Brassfounder is therefore of very great importance, -especially in connexion with the small metal fittings, such -as catches, locks, bolts, hooks, screws, and other objects used -in completing and furnishing the house.</p> - -<p>Brass is not a pure metal, but is what is called an alloy, -that is, a mixture of various metals. It is composed of -copper and zinc in such proportions as may be necessary to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -obtain various degrees of hardness and colour, according to -the use for which the compound is to be employed. The -best proportions for common brass are about two parts of -copper to one part of zinc. Formerly brass was made by -heating copper with <i>calamine</i> (which is the ore of zinc) and -charcoal, but it is now formed from melting the two metals -together. It is then cast into plates, which are either broken -up for recasting into any required form, or rolled into sheets. -Common brass is very malleable, is more easily melted than -copper, and may be cast into any form. It will take a very -high polish, does not rust or tarnish by exposure to the air, -and, although it is durable in wear, is sufficiently soft to -yield readily to the file and other tools used by the workmen. -These properties make it useful for a great variety of -purposes where steel or iron could not be so well employed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus079" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus079.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Crucible. Magnet.</p> -</div> - -<p>The smelting or mixing houses where the brass is made -are fitted with air furnaces, and in some of the best workshops -the <i>crucibles</i> or melting pots are made of <i>plumbago</i> -or pure blacklead, which, although it is more expensive, is -much more durable than the Stourbridge clay, of which the -commoner crucibles are formed.</p> - -<p>A very fine quality of brass for best castings consists of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span> -three parts of best selected copper, and two of spelter, with -some best scrap brass and a little tin; while a second -quality is formed of two parts of ordinary copper and one -part of spelter, melted into ingots with a proportion of scrap -brass and brass filings. Before the latter are used the iron -filings are separated from them by a <i>magnet</i>, or by a series -of magnets fastened to a revolving chain frame.</p> - -<p>The sheet brass is procured from the mills where it is -rolled, and the brass wire is also supplied from the special -manufactories where it is drawn ready for use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus080" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus080.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Making Moulds.</p> -</div> - -<p>The method of <i>making moulds</i> for casting iron has already -been mentioned, and those employed by the Brassfounder -are quite similar, the tools used by the mould maker being -the <i>trowel</i>, <i>mallet</i>, <i>rule</i>, and <i>sand hook</i>, the <i>shovel</i> for removing -the sand, the <i>brush</i> for sweeping the surface, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span> -<i>bellows</i> for blowing off the dust, and the <i>compasses</i> for -measuring accurately.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus081" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus081.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Brush. Sand Hook. Compasses. Bellows. Shovel. Rule. Trowel. Mallet.</p> -</div> - -<p>The principal materials for making foundry moulds for -brass castings are fine sand and loam mixed in various proportions, -according to the nature of the work. New sand is -used for fine castings, old sand for ordinary work. The -requisite external support is given by a couple of shallow -rectangular iron frames without tops or bottoms, called -<i>flasks</i> or <i>casting boxes</i>.</p> - -<p>The two halves constituting a casting box carry ears -corresponding exactly with one another, one set pierced -with holes, the other furnished with points entering truly -into these holes, and which may be made fast in them by -cross-pins or wedges. One of the flasks is laid face downward -on a board longer and wider than it, and is then -rammed full of moulding sand; the surface is struck off level<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span> -with a straight metal bar or scraper, a little loose sand is -sprinkled upon it, and another board of proper size placed -over it and rubbed down close. The two boards and the -flask contained between them are turned over and the top -board is taken off; the clean surface of moist sand now -exposed is dusted over with perfectly dry fine parting sand, -or very fine red brickdust. The patterns or models are now -properly arranged on the surface of the same, the cylindrical -or thick parts being partly sunk in the latter, and care -being also taken to leave sufficient space between the several -patterns to prevent one part breaking into the other, and -also passages or <i>ingates</i>, by which to pour in the metal and -allow the air to escape. The patterns are arranged on both -sides a central passage or runner, technically called a <i>ridge</i>, -from which again small lateral passages are made, leading -into every section of the mould. The general surface is -then properly arranged with the aid of small <i>trowels</i>, and -a little fine parting sand or brickdust is shaken over it. -When this has been accomplished, the upper part of the -flask is fitted to the lower by the pins, and then also -rammed full of mould sand. The fine dry parting sand or -brickdust serves to prevent the two halves from sticking -together. A board is now placed on the top of the upper -half, and struck smartly in different places with a mallet, -after which the upper half and its board are lifted up very -gently and quite level, and then turned over, so that the -upper half rests inverted on its board. The models are -next removed, and channels scooped out from the cavities -left by them to the hollows or pouring holes (<i>ingates</i>) at -the end of the flask. Solid <i>cores</i> of sand or metal are -adjusted in the proper places when the article is required -to be cast hollow (brass cocks, for instance), and also iron<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -rails intended to have brass heads cast on them, or such -other articles of iron as are required to be solidly united -with the brass. The faces of both halves are now finally -dusted with waste flour or meal dust; the two halves are -then replaced upon each other, and the box is fixed together -by screw clamps. The moulds for <i>fine castings</i> (articles -with ornamental surfaces, as screens, sconces, bell-levers, -&c.) are faced with various fine substances, such as charcoal, -loamstone, rottenstone, &c. that they may retain a sharp -impression; after which they are most carefully dried. -For ordinary work it is generally considered better that -the sand should retain a little moisture, though great care -must be taken in this respect, to guard against the danger -of explosion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus082" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus082.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Braces. Set Moulds. Cores.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>mould</i> then is a square frame, mostly of iron, filled -with peculiar dark red sand, which is pressed into a firm -mass, in which the patterns of the casting are imbedded -and their perfect shape impressed. The casters work at a -large <i>trough</i> filled with the sand, and the workshop, with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span> -its forge, has some resemblance to a bakehouse where black -bread is being kneaded into loaves. The first mould is -made for what is called the “odd side” of the pattern—that -is to say (in solid castings), the lower, or inferior side—and -this serves as a sort of pattern to which the moulder -refers in fine castings. The pattern being lifted off or out -as soon as the sand-mould is sufficiently solid, the whole -surface, in which the chasing of the pattern is clearly -defined, is dusted with bean-floor or pounded “pot” first, -and afterwards with loam, sand, charcoal, or coal-dust. -This has the effect of making a smooth surface, and -effectually filling the interstices in the sand, so as to -prevent any raggedness in the casting. Each mould, or -rather the two sides of the mould, are then placed near -the surface and slightly baked, a channel having been made -in the edge of each for conducting the melted metal to the -pattern. The two sides are then placed together and held -firmly by their pins and sockets, and the mould is ready for -the casting. The “pots,” or crucibles of greyish clay, which -turn red by the action of the fire, are in the furnaces like -so many tall flower-pots. The dirty yellowish brass ingots, -made on the premises at a large mixing furnace, having -been first placed across the tops of the pots, that they may -expand before being melted, are about twenty minutes -afterwards reduced to a molten mass, above which hovers a -light sea-green flame mingled with streaks of brilliant colour, -like the water from a dyehouse; meanwhile the moulds -have been placed in a slanting position, with the opening -in the side upwards, against a bank of sand or brickwork, -and everything is prepared for pouring. A man, who should -be strong in the wrist, stands on the <i>furnace</i>, which has the -openings at the top, like a French cooking-stove, and taking<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -off the brick covers from the square aperture, whence rushes -out a tongue of green flame, lifts out the <i>pot</i> with a pair of -<i>tongs</i>, and after the dross is removed by the <i>skimmer</i> or -<i>grunter</i>, hands it to the pourer, who fills each mould in -succession. The fumes which rise from the midst of the -coloured fire are peculiar and penetrating, and the zinc -eliminated from the molten brass falls in a metallic snowstorm, -its flaky particles adhering to everything with which -they come in contact, while the resistance of the sand to -the metal causes a series of reports like muffled pistol-shots.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus083" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus083.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Large Tongs. Small Tongs. Pot Holes. Skimmer. Grunter.</p> -</div> - -<p>The brass cocks and plugs used in gas-fittings are all cast -in one central stem, like cherries on a stick, their hollow<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span> -forms being secured by means of <i>cores</i> made of hardened -sand placed in the shape impressed in the mould. These -are broken off the central stem with a pair of <i>pincers</i> -immediately after casting.</p> - -<p>The ornamental “vases” and larger ornaments which -form the body of ordinary gas chandeliers and lamps are -formed out of thin metal by a process called “stamping -out,” the plates of metal being placed on a hollow die, upon -which a heavy hammer, or rather weight, is brought down, -being released from a latch and worked by the foot. The -depth of the casting would make so heavy a blow necessary -that there would be danger of splitting the metal, an -accident which is prevented by the introduction of a leaden -shape and a layer of clay, which is decreased after each -blow of the hammer until the proper depth is gradually -secured without injury.</p> - -<p>The process called “reversing” is an operation which -secures a hollow casting, the inner or hollow side being -called the “reverse.” For this purpose a mould is made -from one in wax, and the impression in the mould hardened, -so that another model can be taken from it. This enables -the moulder to secure a core which fits the impression in -the mould, as one cup would stand inside another; and -between the mould containing the sunk pattern and that -with the projecting core there are placed strips of black -clay, to secure sufficient thickness of metal, by not allowing -the hollow to be too accurately filled. The pattern when -cast is “laid out” on a hollow hemisphere of iron filled with -pitch, and the irregularities of the casting removed by -hand tools, <i>files</i>, <i>rasps</i>, and <i>knives</i>. In the case of figures, -such as cupids, &c. forming ornaments for candelabra, the -various limbs have often to be modelled in separate “cores,”<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span> -which are afterwards baked hard, and put together like a -puzzle-map, imbedded in the sand of the mould previous -to casting. This requires great skill to effect successfully, -and an experienced “reverser” is a man of mark in the -factory.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus084" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus084.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fork. Vent Wire. Sleeking Tool. Rasp. File. Vice. -Pincers. Hammer. Double-headed Knife. Saw. Drawing Knife. Knife.</p> -</div> - -<p>The completed castings are now removed to the chasing-room, -where we may watch the gradual process of beautifying -to which they are subjected, and the sharpening of the ornamental -details by means of <i>tool</i> and <i>graver</i>, in a similar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span> -way to the first rough “laying-out,” which removes the -irregularities of the pattern. The arms and branches which -form a part of the gas chandelier work, as well as many of -the scroll-work ornaments, are cast in halves, which are -taken to the soldering-room, where a workman, seated at a -forge-like furnace, heats them in the burning embers, and -applies to the edges the solder, with which is mingled a -flux of borax and water to secure its melting. The heat is -increased by a blowpipe, which is in reality a double or -jacketed tube, the inner one supplying gas, and the outer -being connected with a large pair of bellows, and mixing -atmospheric air with the lighted gas at the point of combustion.</p> - -<p>The pickling room is a large shed-like place filled with -tubs, troughs, and earthen pans. Into one of these, containing -diluted aqua-fortis, the metal is plunged for the -purpose of removing the scale produced on the surface by -the action of the fire; from this it is dipped in a stronger -solution, to undergo the process called “fizzing,” and its -final baptism in pure acid restores the beautiful primrose -colour which properly belongs to it. It is still dull, however, -and goes to be “scratched,” an operation effected by -means of a revolving wire-brush, turned by a wheel and -treadle, and kept continually wet with water.</p> - -<p>The ornamental processes have next to be considered, -and these are many. Previous to burnishing, the work is -dipped in argot or tartar (the lees of wine-casks steeped in -water), so that it may be subject to a strong antioxyde. -The burnishing itself produces those bright veins and -ornamental surfaces so often seen in brass work, and is -effected by fixing the work in a vice, and rubbing the parts -of the pattern which are to be brightened with a steel tool<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span> -having a smooth bevel edge. After being treated with ox-gall, -bean flour, and acid, to remove any still adhering grease, -the work is dried, by being first dipped in hot water and -afterwards buried in a pan of warm sawdust. Then there -is lacquering, both black and white, a simple process enough, -since the lacquer is laid on with a brush, and the work -dried on a warm plate. Much of the work of the Brassfounder, -as far as regards these latter operations, is of course -effected by machinery, but the casting itself is entirely completed -by the skill of the workmen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus085" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus085.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_GILDER">THE GILDER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus086" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus086.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">A Gilder’s Workshop.</p> -</div> - -<p>When once the house is built and the work of bricklayer, -carpenter, plumber, painter, glazier, and mason is finished, -it is necessary to set about those decorations which accompany -the furnishing; and one of the first of the trades -needed for this purpose is that of the Gilder, who has to do -not only with cornices, mouldings and other ornaments, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span> -also with the frames of pictures and looking-glasses that -adorn the walls and chimney-pieces.</p> - -<p>These frames, however, have first to be made by the -joiner, and then receive the work of the carver, or the ornament -maker. The joiner does little more than put the -plain groundwork of the frame together; but the duty of -the carver is of a very artistic description; and to be a good -carver in wood requires an education and a taste very nearly -equal to that of the sculptor, with whom the artists in wood -formerly held a high rank.</p> - -<p>Most of the ornaments now used for frames, however, -are less expensive than those formerly produced by the -carver who added a fresh value to the painting or the -looking-glass by exercising his skill upon the costly settings -in which they appeared. Composition ornaments are now -in general demand for all but the most expensive frames, -and as this composition—which is formed of glue, water, -linseed oil, resin, and whiting—is pressed into moulds when -it is of about the consistence of dough, it is evident that -the mould maker has partially taken the carver’s place. -A new substance, however, has to a great extent superseded -the old composition, and this is <i>papier-mâché</i>, or the pulp -of paper (literally, mashed or beaten paper), which, from -its lightness, its greater strength and durability, and the -thinness to which ornaments made of it can be reduced, is -preferable for all large decorations.</p> - -<p>Whatever may be the size or pattern of the frame, however, -we will suppose that the ornament maker received it -from the joiner, who puts it together after it has been -covered with coatings of hot size and whiting; the size -being made from parchment cuttings or kid leather parings -boiled to a sort of jelly. The nail or screw holes are then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span> -filled up with putty by the help of the putty knife, and the -surface of the frame smoothed with pieces of pumice stone. -The ornament maker next fixes on the decorations and hands -it to the Gilder, whose first business is to wash the ornaments -carefully in order to remove any oil that may have remained -on their surface from the inside of the cast.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus087" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus087.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Size. Whiting. Putty Knife. Badger Tool. Duster. -Gold Leaf Knife. Cushion. Tip.</p> -</div> - -<p>The principal tools required by the Gilder are, first: the -<i>cushion</i>, which is a flat board covered with several layers -of woollen or flannel and afterwards with a piece of -leather, which is stretched tightly over it and nailed down<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -to the edges, thus forming a firm but soft and elastic bed. -A rim of parchment carried round one end of the cushion -serves to hold the gold leaf. Second: a <i>gold leaf knife</i>—which -is a straight smooth-edged instrument, not very -sharp, but carefully pointed at the end. Third: the <i>tip</i>—a -tool generally made of two pieces of card or very thin -board glued together and holding between them a row of -camel’s hairs. It is also necessary to have a <i>badger tool</i> -and a <i>duster</i>; the first for removing the loose edges and -flying scraps of gold leaf, after the gilding is completed, -and the latter for brushing away dust from the frame.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus088" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus088.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Miniature Burnisher. Burnisher. No. 1. Burnisher. No. 2. -Burnisher. No. 3. Chisel. Putter-down. Gold Leaf Box.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>burnishers</i> are pieces of smooth stone (flint or agate) -set in handles, and are used for rubbing some parts of the -gold, when it is set on the frame, until it attains a brilliant -polish and smoothness of surface: the bright gold portions -of a frame being known as <i>burnish</i>, and the dull parts or -“dead gold” as <i>matt</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span></p> - -<p>A <i>chisel</i> and <i>knife</i> are necessary for removing any inequalities -or overflowings of size from the edge of the -frame; the <i>feather duster</i> is used to dust the new gilding -before it is sent home; the <i>size pot</i> is the vessel in which -the size is melted, and the <i>pan</i> receives it before it is laid -on. The <i>putter-down</i> is a large soft brush used for -pressing down the gold into the ornaments, and removing -the ragged edges of the gold-leaf from those parts of the -frame where it is most difficult to place it smoothly.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus089" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus089.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Feather Duster. Size Pot. Pan. Gold Book.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>gold box</i> is of course a receptacle for the gold leaf, -and as the leaf is sent from the gold beaters in sheets placed -between leaves of paper sewn together like a volume, this is -naturally called the <i>gold book</i>.</p> - -<p>Having received his frame, then, the Gilder first gives it -two or three coatings of “thin white,” which is the name by -which the size and whiting is known in the trade. If any -part of the frame is to be burnished, it afterwards receives -a coat or two of rather thicker size.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span></p> - -<p>When these are dry, strong warm size is laid on with a -brush; this is called <i>clear cole</i>, and produces a smooth glossy -surface, which prevents the <i>oil gold size</i> from sinking -through. Oil gold size is the next coating given to the -frame, and it is made of ochre and boiled linseed oil, -ground up together into a smooth creamy liquid, which is -thinned with more boiled linseed oil, and put on very carefully -with a soft brush. In a few hours, after the oil gold -size is put on, it is sufficiently dry to receive the gold leaf; -the surface being then slightly sticky, so that it will hold it -firmly and without its own surface being disturbed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus090" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus090.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Pipkin. Rule. Gold Size Pot.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Gilder now commences the most important part of -his work by taking the cushion on his left hand, with his -thumb through a loop which is attached to the bottom of -the leather; between the fingers of the same hand he places -the tools that he will have to use,—namely, the tip, the gold -knife, and the camel-hair pencil. He then takes a gold -book and carefully blows out a leaf at a time on to the -cushion, until he has eight or ten leaves all heaped together -within the rim of parchment which holds them from flying<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span> -away. This is a very delicate operation, since if he should -blow too hard the leaves would be carried all over the room. -He next separates one of the leaves from the rest with his -knife, and without cutting or tearing it lays it down -smoothly upon the front part of the cushion, partly by -a gentle use of the knife itself, and partly by skilfully -blowing upon it. Then taking the tip in his right-hand -he carefully presses it on the leaf, to which it adheres, and -by this means transfers it to that part of the frame where -he is at work. Where the ornaments are very deep, the -same part is gilt three or four times over, and the gold is -sometimes pressed in with a wad of cotton.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus091" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus091.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Skewing Brush. Small Pencil.</p> -</div> - -<p>After the whole surface is carefully <i>skewed</i>, or gone over -with the brush which removes the ragged edges and still -further presses the gold into the ornaments, the frame is -well dusted with another soft brush, and then sized with -clear size, after which the work is complete.</p> - -<p>Supposing however that any part of the frame is to be of -burnished gilt, the clear cole and the oil gold size must not -be suffered to touch that portion,—burnish gold size, a substance -made of grease, clay, black lead, red chalk, and -bullock’s blood, is used instead of the oil gold size. Several -coats of this are laid on the part to be burnished, each being -allowed to dry, and perfectly smoothed, before the other is -applied. The surface is then washed with a sponge and -clean water, another coating of gold size is laid on, the -gold leaf is applied, and the burnishing tools used to -impart the required lustre.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CABINET_MAKER_AND_UPHOLSTERER">THE CABINET MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus092" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus092.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">CABINET MAKER’S SHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trades of the Carpenter and the Joiner having been -considered, we may now turn to that of the Cabinet Maker, -who, though he makes the furniture of the house, and -seldom has anything to do with building or fitting the -house itself, uses many of the same tools as the joiner.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus093" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus093.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Panel Plane. Veneer Plane. Smoothing Plane. Floats. -Rebate Plane. Hand Saw. Rebate Plane.</p> -</div> - -<p>As the Cabinet Maker mostly works in more costly -woods, and the operations of his trade have to be performed -with greater nicety, his implements are generally -of rather a better sort; while he has to fashion the articles -in which he deals in so many different shapes that some -of his tools, such as <i>planes</i> and <i>gouges</i>, are constructed -especially for him, like the <i>panel plane</i>, used as its name -implies in smoothing and forming the edges of panels for -wardrobes, chiffoniers, and other pieces of furniture before -they are placed in their frames, and the <i>veneer plane</i>, -intended for putting on <i>veneers</i>, or the thin slabs of costly -wood with which more common woods are frequently -covered. The <i>smoothing plane</i> and the <i>rebate plane</i>, as<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span> -well as the <i>hand saw</i>, the <i>tenon saw</i>, the <i>gimlet</i>, and the -<i>rule</i> and <i>square</i>, have already been mentioned in connexion -with the joiner’s business.</p> - -<p>Then there are moulding planes, with their blades shaped -hollow so that they will cut a strip of wood into a rounded -form, or shaped round so as to cut a hollow groove.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus094" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus094.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Square. Hand Saw. Gimlet. Rule.</p> -</div> - -<p>Sometimes boards are joined at the edges by a process -called match boarding: a groove being made along the -edge of one board while the edge of another is cut with a -tongue along the middle to fit accurately into the groove. -For this purpose a pair of match planes are used, one of -which makes the groove and the other the tongue exactly -of the proper size to fit perfectly. This kind of joint is -used for common doors, which it is not worth while to frame -together in panels. The boards after being <i>matched</i> are -nailed close together to strong cross-pieces.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span></p> - -<p>The operations of mortising and dovetailing have been -described in the description of joiner’s work. The various -fittings and joints used in making chairs, couches, tables, -cabinets, side-boards, and other furniture are adaptations of -the same kind, or differ only according to the shape and -position of the various parts. In ornamental cabinet work -the separate parts, such as pillars, legs, arms, and other pieces, -are often supplied by the turner and the wood carver, who -sometimes carry out their designs under the direction of the -Cabinet Maker.</p> - -<p>Mahogany and many other of the harder woods are -difficult to work, as the grain does not all run the same -way, so that in planing them the wood is likely to split or -chip where it should be shaved off smoothly. To remedy -this inconvenience, the Cabinet Maker’s planes are furnished -with double irons, that is, an iron with a flat dull edge is -screwed on to the face of the cutting iron, so as to prevent -the shavings chipping against the grain. The more cross-grained -the wood is the closer the workman brings down -the dull iron towards the edge of the sharp one, and his -shavings are consequently finer.</p> - -<p>The <i>veneering plane</i> is about the same size as the -<i>smoothing plane</i>, but the iron instead of having a smooth -edge is toothed like a fine saw, so that, instead of taking off -shavings, it makes scratches all along the grain of the wood. -This is applied to the veneer as well as to the wood to -which the veneer is to be glued, so that the glue may easily -hold the two rough surfaces together.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus095" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus095.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Tool Chest.</p> -</div> - -<p>Previous to the veneer being put on, the work is well -warmed before a fire, and the glue brush worked freely -over both the veneer and wood to which it is to be applied. -When the veneer is put on, it is rubbed backward and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span> -forward, at the same time being pressed down with the -hands until it sticks in the right place. There are often -lumps here and there where there is too much glue, and -these are remedied by the <i>veneering hammer</i>, the head of -which is made of wood furnished with a strip of iron plate. -This strip is laid flat on the veneer, and the head of the -hammer pressed with the hand while it is worked about by -the handle, pressing out the glue as it moves towards the -edge. When a piece of furniture is too large to be covered -with one veneer, these thin slabs of wood are laid on in -several pieces, the edges being first planed quite straight -and made to meet with the greatest accuracy. The whole -surface is afterwards worked with the toothing plane, and -then scraped with a flat square piece of steel, which takes -off a wonderfully fine thin shaving and leaves the surface -perfectly smooth. It is afterwards finished with sandpaper. -It is then <i>French polished</i> with a liquid composed mostly -of rectified spirits of wine, gum, shellac, gum seed lac, and -Venice turpentine, the furniture being previously well oiled -that it may better receive this sort of varnish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span></p> - -<p><i>Clamps</i> are a sort of screw vice for holding the various -parts of the work. The <i>bow saw</i> is a small fine blade of -steel notched like a saw, and fixed to a short handle, -from which a wooden or metal bow extends to the other -end of the blade. The bow keeps the saw from buckling -or breaking, and the tool is used for small work, like the -fretwork in front of pianos, where a corner has to be turned -and the piece sawn out. The <i>screws</i> seen in the larger -picture hanging above the Cabinet Maker’s bench are used -for holding pieces together after being glued, or on other -occasions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus096" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus096.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Bow Saw. Clamps.</p> -</div> - -<p>It is supposed that there are about 50,000 workers in -wood in London, and 350,000 in all England. About -160,000 timber trees of average size are required to make -the furniture for the new houses built every year in England -and Wales. In cabinet making there are many departments, -such as the chair maker, the bedstead maker, the -carver, the general manufacturer of tables, drawers, side-boards, -wardrobes, &c. and the fancy Cabinet Maker, who -uses costly woods and makes workboxes, desks, dressing-cases, -and similar articles.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p> - -<p>A good set of Cabinet Maker’s tools is worth from £30 -to £40.</p> - -<p>The Upholsterer, whose trade is generally joined to that -of the master Cabinet Maker, does what is called the “soft -work,” that is, he undertakes the curtains, hangings, cushions, -carpets, beds, and the stuffing of the seats of chairs. For -these operations he requires but few tools.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus097" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus097.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Upholsterer’s Shop.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus098" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus098.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Devil. Strainer. Web Strainer. Bench Screw. Square.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>devil</i> is the ugly and very absurd name given to a -machine consisting of a box, inside which a spiked wheel -turns; the use of this implement is to separate and tear<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span> -to pieces such woven substances as, when reduced to -shreds, serve for the stuffing of furniture, as also to soften -and make finer hemp or tow for the same purpose, when -horsehair, which is the best and most expensive material, is -not used. Cocoa-nut fibre is now sometimes applied for -this purpose; and in the commonest furniture hay is -frequently placed as a foundation, with a small quantity of -horsehair on the top. The <i>bench screw</i> is a kind of vice -which will hold a very thick substance, like the seat of a -chair or sofa, without injuring the woodwork; the <i>web<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span> -strainer</i> is used for stretching strong cross-pieces of webbing -across the bottom of the seats of chairs or couches, to -make a firm foundation for the stuffing to rest upon, and -with the ordinary <i>strainer</i> to bring the canvas cover that -confines the stuffing tightly and firmly to its place, an -operation which requires great care, especially when metal -springs are placed beneath the horsehair to make the seat -more elastic. The Upholsterer’s <i>hammer</i> is of such a shape -that it will drive a small nail deeply down in a space when -it is hidden by the damask or leather covering of the -furniture. The <i>punches</i> are for a similar purpose; while the -<i>needle</i> and the <i>regulator</i> are used in stuffing the seats and -properly adjusting the hair or other material.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus099" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus099.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Upholsterer’s Hammers. Punches. Float. Screwdriver. -Needle. Regulator. Bradawl.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="FLOOR-CLOTH_MANUFACTURER">FLOOR-CLOTH MANUFACTURER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus100" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus100.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">DRYING WAREHOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of manufacturing floor-cloth may be said to be -connected with the furnishing of the house, since this very -useful covering for the floors of halls and passages is now -in almost universal use. Floor-cloth is generally made in -large factories built for the purpose, since considerable space -is required, not only for preparing, painting, and putting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span> -the pattern upon the cloth, but also for drying it when it is -finished, the great lengths in which it is made rendering it -necessary to hang it from a great height, in order that it -may dry without the paint being damaged (<a href="#illus100"><i>see drying -warehouse</i></a>). The smell of the paint and other substances -also makes it desirable to have the factory well ventilated, -and situated at some distance from dwelling-houses.</p> - -<p>The cloth is made partly of hemp and partly of flax, the -former being the cheaper of the two, but the latter being -fitted to retain the oil and paint on the surface without -allowing it so easily to sink or soak through. In order to -avoid the necessity for seams or joinings in the cloth, looms -are constructed expressly for weaving canvas of the greatest -width likely to be required. When the pieces of cloth are -taken to the floor-cloth factories, they are generally either -100 yards long and 6 yards wide, 108 yards long and -7 yards wide, or 113 yards long and 8 yards wide. The -flax and hemp are spun and the canvas woven principally -in Scotland, in the town of Dundee.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus101" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus101.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shears. Cutting Knife.</p> -</div> - -<p>The canvas is cut into pieces (<a href="#illus101"><i>see cutting knife and -shears</i></a>), varying from 60 to 100 feet long, and each of -these pieces is stretched over a frame in a vertical position, -most factories having a large number of such frames, some -often 100 feet long by 18 or 20 feet high, and others of -smaller dimensions. A wash of melted size is applied by -means of a brush to each surface; and while this is wet the -surface is well rubbed with a flat piece of pumice stone, by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span> -which the little irregularities of the canvas are worn down, -and a foundation is laid for the oil and colour afterwards to -be applied.</p> - -<p>The preparation of japanned cottons, which are used for -table covers, or what is known as “oil-cloth,” is very -similar.</p> - -<p>The paint employed for floor-cloth consists of the same -mineral colours as that used in house painting, and is -mixed with linseed oil in the same way; but it is very -much thicker and stiffer in consistence, and has very little -turpentine added to it. The canvas receives several coatings -on the back as well as on the front, and is well dried and -smoothed at intervals.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus102" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus102.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Blocks. The finished Pattern. Pattern for Floor Cloth. -Back of Printing Block.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus103" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus103.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Preparing Japanned Cottons.</p> -</div> - -<p>The pattern is placed on by means of wooden blocks, on -the first of which the rudiments, or ground work, of the -design is cut, and on the rest other portions of the pattern,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]<br><a id="Page_134"></a>[134]</span> -so that, as they are covered -with paint and applied to -the cloth by the workman, -the pattern is gradually -printed, and appears in the -different colours which are -successively applied to each -block.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus104" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus104.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Printing Floor Cloth.</p> -</div> - -<p>The blocks are made of -pear-tree wood on one side -and of deal on the other, the -pear-tree wood being more -easily engraved with the -pattern.</p> - -<p>The blocks (which we -will suppose to be four for -one pattern—red, yellow, -blue, and green) being -ready, and the prepared -canvas spread out on a flat -table, the printing commences.</p> - -<p>The paint (say red) is -applied with a brush to the -surface of a pad or cushion -formed of flannel covered -with floor cloth; the block -held by a handle at the back -is placed face downwards -on this cushion, and the -layer of paint thus obtained -on the surface of the block<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_135"></a>[135]</span> -is printed on the canvas by pressing the block smartly down -upon the surface of the latter. A second impression is -made in the same way, by the side of and close to the first, -until the whole surface of the canvas is printed over with -the pattern of this first block, which is generally about 15 -inches square. Then the second block is applied, and adds -a little more to the pattern in another colour; the third -follows, adding still more; and then the fourth, which -completes the printing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus105" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus105.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Trowel. Claw. Scrubbing Brush. Palette Knife. -Paint Brushes. Roughing Comb. Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>trowel</i> and <i>palette knife</i> spreading and mixing -the paint, the <i>roughing comb</i> for patterns where the grain -of wood is imitated, and the pots, cans, and jars, for the -colours, are the principal tools besides those already described.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_136"></a>[136]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_PAPER_STAINER">THE PAPER STAINER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus106" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus106.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">PRINTING PRESS.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Paper Stainer has grown to be one of -considerable importance, and this is not to be wondered at -when we consider how much the art of paper staining has -increased the means of decorating our houses, by hanging -the walls with elegant patterns printed in beautiful colours, -instead of leaving them of one dull uniform hue, or a bare -surface of wood and plaster.</p> - -<p>In old times the walls of rooms were either of panelled -wood, sometimes carved and polished, or were hung with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_137"></a>[137]</span> -tapestry made with the needle, or with woven silk, cotton, -or linen, but the former was extremely costly, and the -latter neither cleanly nor healthy. The trade of the Paper -Stainer has to a great extent superseded both, and the -interior walls of houses are now seldom formed entirely of -wood, since they are intended to be covered with various -qualities of paper hangings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus107" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus107.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Front of Printing Block. Back of Wooden Block for Printing.</p> -</div> - -<p>The mode of printing or painting a pattern on large -sheets of paper has now been in use for nearly two hundred -years, although, of course, improved methods are at present -employed.</p> - -<p>There are three modes of producing the pattern on paper -hangings. 1st. Wooden blocks are carved with the outlines -of the figures only in relief; with these the paper is printed,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_138"></a>[138]</span> -and the pattern is afterwards finished by hand painting -with a pencil. This mode is slow and too expensive for -ordinary use. 2dly. A sheet of leather, tin, or copper, is -cut with holes in the required pattern, and a brush dipped -in colour is worked over the sheet after it is laid upon the -paper, so that the paint goes through the holes, and leaves -the pattern in colour. This is called stencilling, and is -only employed for very common hangings. The third process -consists of carving a wood block for each of the colours -used in the pattern, and printing the paper by almost -exactly the same method as that employed for printing -floor-cloth, an operation which has already been described.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus108" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus108.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Crutch. Ladle. Hand Brush. Spat. Paint Brushes.</p> -</div> - -<p>The paper is printed in pieces twelve yards long. A piece -is laid out on a long bench and the ground colour applied,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_139"></a>[139]</span> -consisting of whiting tinted with some sort of pigment and -liquefied with melted size. This is laid on with large -brushes. When the paper is dry it is ready to receive the -print at the <i>printing press</i>, where the blocks are pressed -upon it by a sort of weighted arm which comes down from -above the centre of the bench. There must generally be as -many blocks as there are colours in the pattern.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus109" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus109.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Colour Sieve. Paint Pot. Colour Drum. Size Can.</p> -</div> - -<p>Some paper hangings have a glossy or satin ground. To -produce this a ground of satin white, properly tinted, is laid -on; this ground is then rubbed with powdered French<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_140"></a>[140]</span> -chalk, and worked with a brush till a gloss is produced. -Sometimes these papers are passed between heated rollers -which have been engraved with a sort of pattern, and this -produces a pattern without any additional colour, like that -of figured or watered silk.</p> - -<p>Flock papers are those in which part of the pattern -resembles cloth. To produce this the pattern is printed, -not in paint, but in size, and then the paper being passed -through the <i>flock drum</i>, the flock (which is composed of -fragments of woollen cloth) adheres to the pattern.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus110" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus110.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drum for laying on Flock.</p> -</div> - -<p>Striped hangings are sometimes produced by the paper -being quickly passed on a roller beneath a trough, the colour -in which flows through a number of parallel slits in the -bottom; and occasionally various coloured stripes are obtained -by dividing the trough into cells, with one cell and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_141"></a>[141]</span> -one slit for each colour. Some papers, in order to bear -washing or cleaning, are printed with colours mixed with -oil or varnish instead of size.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus111" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus111.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Paper Staining Machine.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_142"></a>[142]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CALICO_PRINTER">THE CALICO PRINTER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus112" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus112.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">CYLINDER PRINTING MACHINE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Calico Printer may be said to be one of -the most important in this country, since we export such -immense quantities of cotton prints to our various colonies,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_143"></a>[143]</span> -as well as to other countries in the world, that this business -forms a very considerable part of British commerce.</p> - -<p>Calicoes, muslins, &c. intended for printing must first have -the fibres removed from their surface by the operation of -the singeing machine; which consists of a half-cylinder of -iron or copper laid horizontally, and kept at a bright heat -by a range of gas-flames or a furnace; over this half-cylinder -the length of cloth is drawn with a steady motion -till the down or fibre is singed off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus113" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus113.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Bowking Kiers.</p> -</div> - -<p>The next process is that of bleaching, because the whiter -the cotton cloth becomes, the more light it will reflect from -the surface, and the more brilliant the colour of the dyes -will appear.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_144"></a>[144]</span></p> - -<p>The principal chemical substance used for bleaching -cotton is chloride of lime, which is known as bleaching -powder; but there are several processes employed in its -application, as well as various methods which are adopted -by different manufacturers to increase its effects by mechanical -contrivances, the application of heat, or otherwise.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus114" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus114.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Dash Wheel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The first operation of bleaching, however, and that which -immediately follows singeing, is boiling the cloth in an -alkaline bath consisting of a solution of soda. For this purpose -a <i>bowking apparatus</i> is used. This machine (<a href="#illus113"><i>see cut</i></a>) is, -in fact, a large cauldron, with a flat false bottom to protect -the cloth from being scorched by the fire beneath. Through -the centre of this false bottom a vertical pipe rises from<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_145"></a>[145]</span> -near the real bottom to a height above the top of the -cauldron, and carries a conical cap like an umbrella above -its open end at top. When the liquid in the cauldron -begins to boil thoroughly the steam forces a constant stream -of liquid up the pipe, which stream is scattered by forcing -against the umbrella-shaped cap, and so falls with some -force back on to the cotton in the cauldron. When this -process has continued long enough, the liquor is allowed to -cool, and the cotton is taken to be rinsed at the <i>dash wheel</i>, -where it is subjected to the free action of water, or to a -rinsing machine, so constructed that the web travels on -rollers, and is thoroughly washed during its course.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus115" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus115.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wringing Machine.</p> -</div> - -<p>The simplest and earliest method of imprinting figures -upon calico is by means of a wooden block, upon the face -of which the design is cut in relief, as in an ordinary wood-cut.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_146"></a>[146]</span> -The block is of sycamore, holly, or pear-tree wood, or -more commonly of deal, faced with one of these woods. -The block varies in size from nine to twelve inches long, -and from four to seven inches broad, and it is furnished -on the back with a strong handle. When the design is -complicated, and a very distinct impression is required, the -figure is sometimes formed by the insertion of narrow slips -of flattened copper wire, the space between being filled -with felt.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus116" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus116.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Face of Block for Calico Printing. Back of Calico Block.</p> -</div> - -<p>The printing block, which is worked by hand, is charged -with colour by pressing it gently upon a piece of superfine -woollen cloth called the <i>sieve</i>, stretched tightly over a -wooden drum, which floats in a tub full of size or thick -varnish to give it elasticity, so that every part of the -raised device may acquire a sufficient coating of colour. -The sieve is kept uniformly covered with the colouring -matter by a boy or girl called the tearer, who takes up -with a brush a small quantity of the colour contained in a -small pot, and distributes it uniformly over the surface; -for if this were not done, the block would take up the -colour unequally.</p> - -<p>The printing shop is a long well-lighted apartment, the -air of which is kept warm for the purpose of drying the -cloth as it is printed; to insure which it is passed over -hanging rollers, so as to expose a large surface to the air.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_147"></a>[147]</span> -The printing table, which is about six feet long, is made of -some well seasoned hard wood, such as mahogany, or of -marble, or flag-stone, the object being to present a perfectly -flat hard surface. This table is covered with a blanket, -upon which the calico is extended, and the block, being -charged with colour, is applied to its surface, a blow being -given with a wooden mallet to transfer the impression fully -to the cloth. It is necessary, of course, to join the different -parts of the design with precision, and in doing so the -printer is guided by small pins at the corners of the block. -Thus, by repeated applications of the block to the woollen -cloth and to the calico alternately, the whole length of -calico is printed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus117" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus117.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drying Room.</p> -</div> - -<p>By this method, a single block prints only one colour, so<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_148"></a>[148]</span> -that, if the design contain three or more colours, three or -more blocks will be required, all of equal size, the raised -parts in each corresponding with the depressed parts in all -the others; in order, therefore, to print a piece of cloth -twenty-eight yards long, and thirty inches broad, with three -blocks, each measuring nine inches by five, no less than 672 -applications of each, or 2,016 applications of the three -blocks, are necessary. Thus it will be seen that printing by -hand is a tedious operation, requiring more diligence than -skill.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus118" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus118.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Brush.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the design, however, consists of straight parallel -stripes of different colours, they may be applied by one -block at a single impression. For this purpose the colours -are contained in as many small tin troughs as there are -colours to be printed. These troughs are arranged in a -line, and a small portion of each colour is transferred from -them to the woollen cloth by a kind of wire-brush. The -colour is distributed evenly in stripes over the surface of -the sieve by a wooden roller covered with woollen cloth. -For the rainbow style, as a peculiar pattern is called, the -colours are blended into one another at their edges by a -brush or rubber.</p> - -<p>An important improvement has been made in the construction -of hand-blocks, by the application of a stereotype<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_149"></a>[149]</span> -plate as the printing surface. A small mould is produced -from a model of the pattern, and the stereotype copies are -then made by pouring mixed metal into it. A number of -the stereotype plates are then formed into a printing block, -by being arranged in a stout piece of wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus119" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus119.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">One of the Cylinders of the Machine, showing the way by which -it is coloured.</p> -</div> - -<p>The greatest mechanical improvement in the art of -calico printing was the invention of the <i>cylinder</i> or <i>roller</i> -printing at the end of the last century. This style of -printing has been generally adopted in Lancashire, and is -the cause of the success of the English over the continental -printers. One cylinder machine, attended by one man to -regulate the rollers, is capable of printing as many pieces -as one hundred men and one hundred girls could print with -hand blocks in the same time. A mile length of calico can -be printed off with four different colours in a single hour.</p> - -<p>This cylinder machine consists of a hollow cylinder or -roller of copper, about three feet long and three or four -inches in diameter, the pattern on which has been produced -by the pressure of a mill, on which the design has been<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_150"></a>[150]</span> -originally stamped by the pressure of a hard steel roller -which has been engraved.</p> - -<p>The copper cylinders are mounted on a strong iron shaft -with a toothed wheel at its end, in order to put it in train -with the rotatory printing machine for one, two, or more -colours. On a roller at the upper part of this apparatus -are wound the calico webs stitched together, the end of -which is brought between the engraved copper cylinder and -a large centre roller covered with blankets, against which -it is made to bear with a regular pressure.</p> - -<p>The engraved cylinder turns on the top of another -cylinder covered with woollen cloth, which revolves at the -same time as the former, while its under part dips in an -oblong trough containing the dyeing matter, which is of a -pasty consistence. The engraved cylinder is in this way -supplied with plenty of printing colour, and is cleared from -the superfluity by the thin edge of a blade made of bronze, -called the <i>doctor</i>, which is applied to it as it turns, and -gently scrapes the surface. After this the cylinder acts -upon the calico, which receives the impression of the -pattern in colour, and rolls onward at a great rate of -speed.</p> - -<p>There are various kinds of colours or dye stuffs used in -calico printing, some of which impart fast colours by themselves, -and others which require the web to be first prepared -in order that they may become fixed.</p> - -<p>In almost all the modes of calico printing the processes -are very numerous to ensure the beauty and permanence of -the colours. In what is called the <i>steam colour</i> printing, the -agency of steam is applied to aid in fixing the colours to -the cloth. The cloth is first steeped in a mordant or fixing -liquor, then printed by the cylinder in various colours,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_151"></a>[151]</span> -called steam colours. It is then hung up to dry, and is -afterwards exposed to the action of steam by means of -various apparatus, which are adapted to the particular effect -intended, to be produced in fixing the dye.</p> - -<p>The designs for calico printing are very expensive, and -such a constant succession of new patterns are demanded, -that some of the Lancashire printers expend several thousands -a year on designing and engraving alone.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus120" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus120.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_152"></a>[152]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_TINMAN">THE TINMAN.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus121" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus121.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WORKSHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>Tin is never found existing in an uncombined or native -state. Tin ore occurs most abundantly in Cornwall and -Devon, the mines of these counties having been celebrated -for this metal from very ancient times. The district in -Cornwall where tin mines are most abundant is termed the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_153"></a>[153]</span> -“Stannaries.” The Prince of Wales for the time being derives -a large income from the mines, and is termed Lord Warden -of the Stannaries. The word “Stannaries” is derived from -the Latin <i>stannum</i>, tin. The amount of tin ore annually -obtained from the Cornwall and Devon mines amounts to -11,000 tons, which, at the average value of £63 per ton, is -worth £693,000. This ore yields about 7,000 tons of the -metal, having an average value of £119 per ton. About -four-fifths of all the tin raised in the world is produced in -these mines. The ore is a heavy, hard, brittle, and usually -dark brown mineral, which occurs chiefly in granular masses -of various sizes. These grains are obtained in mines, where -they occur in veins mixed with other minerals, and also -from the beds of streams, where they have been washed -out of the soil by the action of running water. In the -former case they are termed tin stone; in the latter -stream-tin.</p> - -<p>Tin is obtained from the ore by first breaking up the -latter, whilst a current of water flows over it and carries off -the impurities, which are lighter, and therefore more readily -borne away than the heavier tin ore. After being thus -freed from the admixture of other minerals, the ore is -usually roasted or burned, to drive off any traces of sulphur -it may contain; it is afterwards heated to redness with -blind coal or culm, and a small portion of lime, when the -melted metal separates from the dross, and runs into cavities -prepared for its reception. It is afterwards refined by being -remelted, and other impurities separated, which either sink or -float on the surface. The purest metal is yielded by the ore -called stream-tin, which is smelted with charcoal instead of -coal. If a block of tin thus obtained is heated slightly, and -then allowed to fall from a height, it separates into a number<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_154"></a>[154]</span> -of prisms which adhere together in pyramidal masses. In -this state it is termed grain-tin. Tin is a silvery-white -metal possessed of a high degree of metallic lustre. It is -sufficiently soft to be cut with a knife, and may be readily -bent, when it gives out a peculiar crackling noise; if repeatedly -bent and straightened, it becomes hot from the -friction of its particles with one another, and ultimately -breaks. It is inelastic and moderately ductile, but very -malleable, the thickness of tin-foil being about one thousandth -part of an inch. It has but little tenacity, a wire of one-tenth -of an inch in diameter not being able to support a -heavier weight than 49 lbs.</p> - -<p>Tin is the most easily melted of all the common metals, -and it possesses the valuable property of not rusting when -exposed at ordinary temperatures to the conjoined action of -air and water, or even to weak vegetable acids. Tin, in a -pure state, is seldom employed; but in combination with -other metals it is a substance of great value. Its most -important uses depend on its power of resisting the action -of air and moisture; it is therefore largely employed for -protecting the surfaces of copper and iron, that rust so -readily.</p> - -<p>Tin plate, or more properly tinned plate, which is so -largely employed in the manufacture of saucepans, coffee-pots, -tea-kettles, &c. by the tinman is not, as its ordinary -name seems to imply, made of tin, but is formed of the -best sheet iron, rolled out to the required thickness, and -coated on each side with a layer of tin. Copper vessels -ought to be invariably tinned inside, to prevent the rusting -of the copper by the action of acids. Tinfoil is largely -employed for the purpose of preserving moist articles from -becoming dry, and is used instead of paper for enclosing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_155"></a>[155]</span> -fancy soap, chocolate, and other substances of a similar -nature. It is also extensively used in the manufacture of -looking-glasses, and is sometimes placed behind paper-hangings -to exclude the damp of the walls. The most -important alloys into the composition of which tin enters -are bronze, pewter, bell-metal, and solder. Tin dissolved -in acids is largely employed by dyers in fixing or rendering -permanent various colours used in dyeing. The preparation -termed putty powder is a rust of tin, obtained by exposing -the melted metal to the air; it is employed in polishing -metals and other articles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus122" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus122.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mallet. Soldering Iron. Hammer. Block Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The tinning of the inner surfaces of cooking utensils and -other vessels of capacity is effected by scouring the surface -until it is perfectly bright and clean; then heating the -vessel, pouring in some melted tin and rolling it about, and -rubbing the tin all over the surface with a piece of cloth or -a handful of tow; powdered rosin is used to prevent the -formation of oxide. Bridle bits, stirrups, and many other -small articles, are tinned by immersing them in fluid tin. -Tin-plate working, or the forming sheets of tinned iron -into a variety of useful vessels and utensils, is carried on<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_156"></a>[156]</span> -by means of bench and hand <i>shears</i>, <i>mallets</i>, and <i>hammers</i>, -<i>steel heads</i> and <i>wooden blocks</i>, <i>soldering irons</i> and <i>swages</i>. -In the formation of a vessel, the first operation is to cut the -plate to the proper size and form with shears, and, when the -dimensions of the article require it, to join them together, -which is done either by simply laying the edge of one plate -over that of the other, and then soldering them together, -or by folding the edges together with laps and then soldering -them. Similar joints are required when gores or other -pieces are to be inserted, and also at the junction by which -a cylinder is closed in. The usual method of forming laps, -bends, or folds, for this or other purposes, is to lay the plate -over the edge of the bench and to bend it by repeated -strokes with a hammer; but a machine is sometimes used -for this purpose.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus123" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus123.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Straight Snips. Scotch Snips. Large Shears. Bent Snips.</p> -</div> - -<p>After a tin vessel has been rounded upon a block or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_157"></a>[157]</span> -mandril by striking it with a wooden mallet, and the seams -finished, all its exterior edges are strengthened by bending a -thick iron wire into the proper form, applying it to what -would otherwise be the raw edges of the metal, and dexterously -folding them over it with a hammer.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus124" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus124.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Two-handed Wrench. Soldering Pile. Pudding -Stake. Punches. Hatchet Stake. Tongs.</p> -</div> - -<p>A superior kind of tin ware, commonly known as block -tin ware, is carefully finished by beating or planishing with -a polished steel hammer upon a <i>metal stake</i>. The process -of swaging is resorted to as a ready means of producing -grooved or ridged borders, or other embossed ornaments. -This process consists in striking the metal between two -steel dies or swages, the faces of which bear the desired -pattern, and are made counterparts of each other. Many<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_158"></a>[158]</span> -ornamental articles are produced by embossing or stamping -tin plate, in the same manner as other metallic sheets, with -a fly-press or other machinery. Cheap coffin-plates are -manufactured at Birmingham in this way; and these and -similar articles are sometimes lacquered, painted, or japanned. -Tin forms the principal ingredients in various kinds of -pewter and other white-metal alloys, which are manufactured -into domestic utensils by casting, stamping, and -other processes.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus125" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus125.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Chisels. Charcoal Stove. Polishing Anvil.</p> -</div> - -<p>Britannia metal is a mixture of tin, antimony, copper, -and brass, which is melted, cast into slabs, and rolled into -sheets. The principal use of this metal is for candlesticks, -teapots, coffee-biggins, and other vessels for containing -liquids. The feet of candlesticks, the bodies of teapots, -and other articles containing embossed work, are stamped<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_159"></a>[159]</span> -between dies; while articles of a more globular shape are -stamped in two or more pieces, and afterwards soldered -together. The sheet metal has a ductility which enables -it to be bent into various curved forms by pressure on a -model or core: this process is called <i>spinning</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus126" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus126.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Funnel Stake. Punches. Horse. Punches. Bick Irons. Crease Iron.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_160"></a>[160]</span></p> - -<p>Many small vessels, spoons, and other articles, are cast in -an alloy somewhat harder than that which is rolled into -sheets. Most of the tools employed by the Tinman are the -<i>irons</i>, <i>stakes</i>, and <i>bickers</i>, on which the tin is hammered -into proper shape, with <i>shears</i> for cutting, the <i>punches</i> for -piercing holes, and the <i>soldering iron</i> and <i>charcoal stove</i> -for making joints.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus127" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus127.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_161"></a>[161]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_FARRIER">THE FARRIER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus128" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus128.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">FARRIER’S SHED.</p> -</div> - -<p>When we remember how usefully horses are employed for -our advantage, how generously and willingly they work, -and how docile and obedient they are when properly -treated, we shall begin to see that the trade of the -Farrier is one which should be studied very carefully, -and that nobody should follow the business who has not -become tolerably skilful. The Farrier who shoes the horses, -is very often consulted when those animals are ill, so that -he should have some knowledge of simple remedies in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_162"></a>[162]</span> -cases when the veterinary surgeon lives at a distance, or is -out of the way. Especially the Farrier should thoroughly -understand the construction of the horse’s hoof, which, hard -and simple as it may look, is very delicate, and is composed -of several important parts.</p> - -<p>One thing should never be forgotten in shoeing a horse,—first -that, although the hoof is a hard horny covering, it has -an inside portion which is very tender and liable to be hurt; -and secondly, that the hoof itself expands as the weight of -the horse presses upon it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus129" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus129.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Anvil. Stool. Staple. Pointing Stake. Punch. Shoe.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus130" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus130.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Nippers. Drawing Knife. Rasp. Buffer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Farrier’s shed is fitted with a forge, or furnace where -the iron is heated, and in which the fire is blown to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_163"></a>[163]</span> -great heat by the huge bellows fastened above it; it also -contains an <i>anvil</i>, on which the <i>horseshoes</i> are made or -shaped, a <i>stool</i> on which the Farrier sometimes sits to -examine a horse’s hoof, and <i>staples</i> and <i>rings</i>, to which the -horses’ heads are fastened by halters during the process of -shoeing. When a horse is taken to be shod, the Farrier -should begin by taking off one of the old shoes. He first -raises the clenches with a tool called the <i>buffer</i> and if the -shoe does not then come off easily, loosens some of the -nails with the <i>punch</i>, till it can be gently removed. When -the shoe is off he rasps the edge of the hoof all round, and -with the <i>nippers</i> or pincers takes out any stubs that may be -left in the hoof. He then pares the hard portions of the -foot, and this is an operation which requires great care and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_164"></a>[164]</span> -skill as well as a good deal of practice in the use of the -<i>drawing knife</i>. The Farrier must always remember the state -of the roads when he is paring the horse’s feet, for if the -roads are dry and stony he must take off very little of the -horn, or the foot will be bruised.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus131" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus131.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fulter. Damper. Slice. Pretchel. Swage. Tongs. Turning Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The horseshoes are frequently purchased by the Farrier -of the Blacksmith who makes them, but some Farriers are -also Smiths, and both make and fit the horseshoes. In -either case the Farrier keeps a stock of rough shoes which -he alters at the time that they are wanted, so that they may -fit the horse, and one of the first things to be done is to -make the groove all round the shoe, and drill the holes in it -for the nails. This groove, in which the heads of the nails<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_165"></a>[165]</span> -sink, is called the “fuller,” and the tool with which it is -made is also called the “<i>fuller</i>,” or “<i>fulter</i>.” Having cut off -the ends or heels of the shoe, made the fuller, and opened the -nail holes, the Farrier next makes what is called the “clip,” -which means turning up the toe of the shoe, to prevent its -being forced back on the hoof. In these parts of his work -he has probably used the <i>chisel</i>, <i>turning hammer</i>, <i>swage</i> and -<i>pretchel</i>, while for the work at the forge he has had to -employ the <i>poker</i>, the <i>tongs</i> for holding the shoe on the -<i>anvil</i>, the <i>slice</i> for taking small things from the fire, and the -<i>damper</i>, which is a wisp of wet straw held by wooden -tongs for lessening the heat of the shoe during hammering. -He next begins to fit the shoe, the horse being tied up to -the staple in the wall of the shed. The fitting of the shoe -is an operation requiring the greatest care and attention, and -the good Farrier will spare no pains to do his work perfectly, -as many a valuable horse has been ruined by an ill-fitting -shoe. When the shoe is fitted it is “filed up,” by which all -roughness is removed from the edges of the nail holes, and -the sharp edges of the shoe itself are taken off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus132" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus132.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Nail. Nail Bag. Shoeing Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The Farrier generally makes his own <i>nails</i> since they are -of a peculiar shape, and the heads should completely fill the -nail holes, that they may not allow the shoe to shift on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_166"></a>[166]</span> -horse’s hoof. They are made from long rods of iron called -nail rods, and when finished are spread about the smithy to -cool, because when they are allowed to cool gradually they -become harder, and less liable to break.</p> - -<p>If the nails are of a proper shape, the holes straight -through the shoe, and the shoe fits the foot, very little skill -is required to nail it on, and clench the ends of the nails to -the hoof. Before the shoe is nailed on, however, it is usual, -when the horse has tender feet, to cover the sole of the foot -with leather, gutta-percha, or felt made waterproof, “felt” -being made of woollen cloth torn to shreds which are then -pressed together and formed into sheets. In any case the -Farrier is expected to “stop the foot,” that is, to fill the -hollow and tender portion of the foot within the shoe, with -tow or oakum dipped in tar.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus133" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus133.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fleam. Stamp. Scissors. Ladle and Spatula. -Brush. Poker. Reaching Iron.</p> -</div> - -<p>The shoe is now nailed on, and a good Farrier will often -be able to secure it with only five nails.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_167"></a>[167]</span></p> - -<p>The hind shoes are of course different in shape to those -which are placed on the fore feet, and it is generally -necessary to use seven nails to fix them on to the hoofs, -since the hind foot expands less than the fore, and there is -more drag upon it when the horse is in motion, so that the -shoe is more easily shifted.</p> - -<p>The time at which a horse’s shoes want removing depends -on several causes. If a horse wear out his shoes in less than -a month they had better not be removed, but whether the -shoes are worn or not the horse’s hoofs should be looked to -by the Farrier, every three or four weeks, as the hoofs -sometimes outgrow the shoes, and the shoes require -refitting.</p> - -<p>From what has been said about the Farrier’s business it -will be seen that it is a most important one, but besides the -knowledge and experience required for the more mechanical -part of his work, he should also know something of the -diseases and ailments of horses, and be able to apply the -proper remedies.</p> - -<p>It is true that this part of the business belongs properly -to the veterinary surgeon, but the Farrier should at all events -understand what is proper to be done in any ordinary -disorder or in cases of emergency. He will of course know -how to use the <i>fleam</i> when the animals require bleeding, as -they frequently do. This instrument is a sort of knife, the -sharp part of which is the small spade-shaped pieces at the -ends of the blades. The <i>ladle</i> for melting the ingredients -of ointment, for sprains or swellings, and the <i>spatula</i> for -mixing it, or for spreading and mixing the drugs for boluses -or the large pills frequently given to horses, are some of the -instruments used in this part of the Farrier’s business.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_168"></a>[168]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_NEEDLE_MAKER">THE NEEDLE MAKER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus134" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus134.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">GRINDING NEEDLE POINTS.</p> -</div> - -<p>There is perhaps no implement of greater importance than -that smallest of all tools, the needle, and in all civilized -countries the number of needles consumed is so great, and -such an enormous supply is required for the sewing of the -clothes of mankind, that the manufacture is one of the -most remarkable in this country, whence by far the greater -part of the whole supply is derived.</p> - -<p>It will only be proper in this place for the author to -acknowledge his obligations to Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, whose<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_169"></a>[169]</span> -most useful little work on “Common Objects” affords brief -and reliable information on this as well as on many other -interesting subjects.</p> - -<p>The material from which needles are made is soft steel -wire of the requisite degree of fineness. This is obtained -from the manufacturer in large coils, each containing -sufficient wire to form several thousand needles. These -coils are first cut up into pieces of the length required to -make two needles, usually about three inches, large <i>shears</i> -being used, capable of cutting a coil of one hundred wires.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus135" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus135.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shears. Needles placed in iron rings. Soft Straight -Liner. Trowel for hardening.</p> -</div> - -<p>Five or six thousands of these lengths are made into a -bundle kept together by a ring of steel at each end. They -are then heated to redness in a furnace, and afterwards laid -upon a flat iron plate, and rubbed backwards and forwards -with a steel bar until each wire is perfectly straight.</p> - -<p>The next stage is to grind a point at each end of the -wire. This is done by the aid of grindstones about<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_170"></a>[170]</span> -eighteen inches in diameter and four inches thick; they -are made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to fly -into pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron -plates to avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident -occur. The grinder takes from fifty to sixty wires -between the thumb and forefinger of his right hand; and -as he presses them against the stone, he causes all the wires -to roll round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert -do the grinders become by practice, that they point a handful -of these wires, usually about sixty, in half a minute, or -about seven thousand in an hour. During the grinding -every wire gives out a stream of sparks, and these together -form a bright glare of light.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus136" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus136.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rubbing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Pointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the -manufacture; the fine dust is carried into the lungs of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_171"></a>[171]</span> -workmen, and destroys them in a few years, very few living -beyond the age of forty. Wet grindstones cannot be used, -as the points of the needles would be rapidly rusted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus137" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus137.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drill for making the Eyes. Smooth File for rubbing. -Hammer. Cullender. Packet of Needles. Flat File.</p> -</div> - -<p>The wires thus pointed at each end are stamped by a -heavy hammer, raised by a lever moved by the workman’s -foot. The under surface of this hammer is so formed, that -when it falls on the wire midway between the two ends it -stamps on one side the gutters, or grooves, in which the eye -is afterwards made; and the anvil on which the wire rests -when the hammer strikes it forms the two grooves on the -opposite side. This stamping also makes a slight depression -or pit on each side at the spot intended for the eye. The -wires are then passed to a boy, who takes a number of them in -his left hand, whilst with his right he works a press, moving -two hard steel points or piercers. These come down upon<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_172"></a>[172]</span> -the wire as it is placed beneath them, and pierce the eyes -for the two needles. Each wire now resembles two rough -unpolished needles united together by their heads; and as -it would require much trouble to divide them separately -into two needles, a number are threaded upon two very thin -wires, and are separated by filing and bending.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus138" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus138.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Hand Press for piercing the Eyes. Stamping.</p> -</div> - -<p>Any needles which may have been bent in the several -processes are straightened by rolling under a steel bar, and -are hardened by heating in a furnace, and suddenly cooled -in cold water or oil. After hardening they are tempered -by being slightly heated, and if any are bent during -hardening, they are straightened by being hammered on -anvils with small hammers; finally, the whole are polished -by laying twenty or thirty thousand side by side upon a -piece of thick canvas, smearing them with oil and emery,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_173"></a>[173]</span> -rolling up the canvas, and rubbing them under a press for -several hours or even days.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus139" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus139.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Soft Straightening. Needles placed ready to be -filed. Needles in different Stages of Manufacture.</p> -</div> - -<p>Drilled-eyed needles undergo another operation—a fine<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_174"></a>[174]</span> -<i>drill</i> is made to revolve rapidly in the eye of each, to take -off the rough edge and to prevent their cutting the thread -when used; finally, the points are finished on a revolving -stone, and polished on a wheel covered with leather, and -enclosed in a paper for sale.</p> - -<p>Simple as the construction of a needle may appear, it -has to pass through the hands of 120 workmen, from the -time it leaves the iron mine until the manufacture is completed.</p> - -<p>The chief seat of the needle manufacture in this country -is Redditch, in Worcestershire, where upwards of seventy -millions are made weekly. English needles are far superior -to those of foreign manufacture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus140" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus140.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_175"></a>[175]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CALENDERER_AND_HOTPRESSER">THE CALENDERER AND HOTPRESSER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus141" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus141.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">MILL.</p> -</div> - -<p>The business of the Calenderer and Hotpresser in so many -respects resembles part of that already described as preceding -the printing of calico, that only a brief notice of it will be -necessary. The singeing and bleaching of the cotton has -been explained, and calendering is the name generally -applied in the manufacturing districts to the processes of -smoothing, dressing, and glazing cotton and linen goods; -the object being either to prepare them for the operations -of the calico printer, or to impart the last finish to the -goods before they are folded and packed for the market.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_176"></a>[176]</span> -The earlier calenders, or calendering machines, closely resembled -a common mangle in their action, but were very -large and heavy, and worked by a horse-wheel or other -sufficient power, but the process was greatly improved by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_177"></a>[177]</span> -the invention of a machine in which the pressure is produced -between rollers, instead of between rollers and flat -surfaces, and in which consequently the alternating movement -is got rid of, and also it is easier to give a uniform -and equal pressure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus142" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus142.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Singeing Cotton Goods before Calendering. -Iron Plate. Roller. Windlass. Scissors. Tongs.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus143" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus143.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Embossed Roller for Machine Printing. Presses.</p> -</div> - -<p>The rollers or cylinders were formerly made of wood; -they are now usually of paper or cast iron. The paper -cylinders are formed by packing a great number of circular -pieces of stout pasteboard upon an iron axis, and compressing -them very tightly by means of iron bolts passed through<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_178"></a>[178]</span> -them, acting upon circular end-plates of cast iron. The -surface is brought to a perfectly even and polished state -by turning in a lathe. Iron rollers are made hollow and -when necessary heated from the inside. When a glazed or -polished surface is required on the goods to be calendered, -mechanism is employed to cause two adjacent rollers to -revolve with different velocities, so as to produce a rubbing -action.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus144" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus144.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Printing Press. Chair with Rollers. Tin Block.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_179"></a>[179]</span></p> - -<p>The <i>furnace</i> for heating the <i>rollers</i>, the <i>chair with -rollers</i>, the <i>presses</i> and <i>tin blocks</i> for hotpressing, and the -<i>windlass</i> for turning, are easily understood in relation to -this trade. The <i>printing press</i> and <i>embossed cylinder</i> -have been mentioned in the trade of calico printing. The -<i>mill</i>, turned by a horse, is used where steam power is not -employed to put the machinery in motion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus145" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus145.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Furnace.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_180"></a>[180]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_CUTLER_AND_FILE-CUTTER">THE CUTLER AND FILE-CUTTER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus146" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus146.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">GRINDING.</p> -</div> - -<p>Amongst all the trades that occupy the attention of mankind, -that of the Cutler, which also includes the tool maker, -is certainly one of the most essential, since without tools no -other manufactures could be carried on. Cutting instruments<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_181"></a>[181]</span> -of various kinds have been in use from the earliest -ages, if for no other purposes, for cutting food, slaughtering -animals, and making war upon each other. In ancient -times, as well as amongst some barbarous tribes at the present -day, these implements were frequently made of -shells, edged flints, or hardened wood, fashioned into sharp -weapons; at a late period, cutting as well as warlike -instruments were formed of brass or bronze; but at the -present time, in all civilized nations they are formed exclusively -of steel or iron.</p> - -<p>Steel is formed from the purest bar iron—that which -comes from the Swedish mines being preferred. This is -buried in powdered charcoal and heated to whiteness for -several days, without exposure to the air; during this time -the metal becomes much harder, whiter in colour, crystalline -in texture, and blistered on the surface. The blistered steel -so produced is prepared for use, either by binding several -bars together and hammering them into one, or by melting -them in earthenware pots, called crucibles, and pouring the -melted metal into moulds of the size required. In the -latter state it is called cast steel.</p> - -<p>Cutlery is generally understood to comprise all kinds of -knives, razors, lancets, and edge tools, including scythes, -saws, scissors, shears, spades, and many others; and the -manufacture of forks, files, and some other instruments not -possessing cutting edges, is frequently included in the -business. It will be impossible to give a detailed description -of how all these are made, so only two or three must -be selected. In a Cutler’s factory knife blades are forged -from steel bars in a number of small rooms, each containing -a fireplace or hearth, a trough to hold water, and another -trough for coke, which is specially prepared for this kind of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_182"></a>[182]</span> -work; there are also an <i>anvil</i>, <i>hammers</i>, and some other -tools.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus147" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus147.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Cutler’s Hammers. Anvil.</p> -</div> - -<p>Two persons are engaged in each room, one being called -the maker or forger, the other the striker. The forger -buries the end of the steel bar in the fire to the extent -required; and to determine when it should be removed -requires some judgment, since if it be overheated or “burnt,” -it will be quite unfit for cutting purposes. On the other -hand, it must be sufficiently heated to acquire the proper -degree of softness for the operation of shaping the blade -from it. When the end of the bar has been properly heated -it is brought to the anvil, where it is fashioned by the -striker into the required shape by means of a few blows of -the hammer. This roughly shaped blade is then cut off -from the end of the bar, which is again heated for forming -the next shape, and so on to the end.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_183"></a>[183]</span></p> - -<p>The cutting part of the blade thus rudely formed is next -welded to a piece of iron, which forms the bolster, or -<i>shoulder</i>, that is, the part that rises round the handle of -the knife. To make the shoulder of the size and shape -required, and to give it neatness and finish, it is introduced -into a <i>die</i> by the side of the anvil, and a <i>swage</i> (<a href="#THE_BLACKSMITH"><i>see Blacksmith</i></a>) -placed upon it, to which a few smart blows in the -proper direction are given by the striker.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus148" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus148.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shoulder-iron.</p> -</div> - -<p>The die and swage are called <i>prints</i> by the workpeople. -Besides the bolster, the part which fastens into the handle, -technically termed the <i>tang</i>, is also shaped from the piece of -iron welded on to the cutting part of the blade. After the -bolster and tang have been properly finished, the blade is -heated again, and then well hammered on the anvil. This -operation, which is termed <i>smithing</i>, requires particular -care and attention. It is intended to consolidate the steel, -and to render it brighter. The next process the blade has -to undergo is that of <i>marking</i>. This is done with a broad -punch made of the very best and hardest steel, and having -the name and corporate or trade mark of the firm carved -on the bottom end or point. The blade is heated to a dull -red (worm-red, as it is termed by the workmen), and the -mark cut in on one side of the blade with the punch by a -single blow of the hammer. Now comes the most important -process of all, viz. the hardening and tempering of -the blades. Upon the effectual performance of these operations<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_184"></a>[184]</span> -depends the practical value of the articles. The -Sheffield workmen have justly and deservedly acquired -the very highest reputation for peculiar skill in this -most difficult department of the cutlery business. The -hardening of the blade is effected by heating it to bright -redness, then plunging it perpendicularly into cold water, -which operation renders it extremely hard, but at the same -time very brittle, which is an inconvenience, of course, -requiring to be remedied. This is done by the process of -tempering. To this end, the hardened blades are first -rubbed with finely powdered sand, to remove scales, &c. -from the surface; they are then placed on an oblong tray -made of steel, and on this exposed to the fire until they -acquire a bright blue tint. The workman judges of the -proper degree of tempering entirely by the colour, and the -utmost attention is bestowed upon this point to ensure the -most perfect unanimity in this respect. The hardened and -tempered blades are then submitted to the manager’s inspection, -who applies various tests to them, and rejects any -that may turn out imperfect in any one point.</p> - -<p>The blades that have been examined and passed by the -manager are next taken to the grinding mill, or, as it is -technically termed, the <i>wheel</i>. Each separate shop in the -building in which the grinders work is called a <i>hull</i>. The -grinding is done on stones of various qualities and sizes, -according to the kind of articles to be ground. The rough -grit stones come mostly from Wickersley, near Rotherham; -the finer and smoother grained stones, and the so-called -<i>whitning</i> stones, come mostly from the more immediate -neighbourhood of Sheffield. The blades of table-knives are -ground on wet stones, the grinding stone being suspended, -for that purpose, in an iron trough filled with water to a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_185"></a>[185]</span> -sufficient height to make the surface of the fluid just touch -the face of the stone. The grinding stones, as well as the -glazers and polishers, are turned by machinery worked by -steam power. A <i>flat stick</i> is used by the grinder to keep the -blade pressed to the surface of the stone. The ground blades -are then glazed, which simply means that a higher degree of -lustre and smoothness is given them by grinding on a tool -termed a <i>glazer</i>. This consists of a wheel made of a number -of pieces of wood, put together in such a manner that the -edge or face always presents the end way of the wood, -which is done to preserve the circular shape by preventing -contraction of the parts. The grinding face of the wheel is -covered with so-called emery cake, which consists of a -composition of beeswax, tallow, and emery. The glazing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_186"></a>[186]</span> -wheels have a diameter of four feet. The tang of the -blade is stuck into a temporary handle to facilitate the -operation.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus149" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus149.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Grindstones. Chisel. Buskin. Flat File or Rasp. Gauge.</p> -</div> - -<p>The last process to which the blades of table-knives are -subjected in the grinding mill is that of polishing; this is -done on circular pieces of wood covered with buff leather, -with a coat of finer emery (flour emery) composition upon -it, which are made to revolve with much less velocity than -the grinding stones and the glazers. The ground blades -are again taken to the manager, who applies several very -severe tests to them, to try their temper and edge.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus150" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus150.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shears. Flat Stick. Haft Moulds.</p> -</div> - -<p>Knife-handles are made of horn, ivory, ebony, silver, -German silver, mother of pearl, &c. Two sorts of ivory are -principally used, the Egyptian and the African; the latter -is the more beautiful and transparent of the two, the -Egyptian looking more like horn. The tusks are sawn in -appropriate lengths, which are then cut by a small circular -saw into handles of the required size. The handles are -properly filed, and occasionally also carved or fluted in -different patterns. A variety of files are used for these -purposes, such as flat files, threading files, hollow files, half<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_187"></a>[187]</span> -round files, &c. The handle is then bored to receive the -tang. The bolster of the blade having been properly filed, -the tang is inserted into the bore, and fixed in by cement -in the usual way. It is afterwards farther secured by a -German silver pin passing through the handle and tang.</p> - -<p>The silver and German silver handles are stamped in -dies. The mother of pearl handles are carved or fluted in -different patterns.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus151" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus151.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fire-irons. Crooked Tongs. Tongs. Dies.</p> -</div> - -<p>The knives thus finished by the hafter are now taken -once more to the manager, to undergo a final examination -preparatory to their removal to the warehouse.</p> - -<p>The forging of razors is performed by a foreman and -striker in the same manner as in making the blades of -table-knives. The bars or rods as they come from the tilt<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_188"></a>[188]</span> -and rolling mill are about half an inch broad, and no -thicker than is sufficient for the back of the razor. The -anvil on which the razor-blades are forged is rounded at the -sides; by dexterously working the blade on the rounded -edge of the anvil, a concave surface is given to the sides, -and the edge part thus made thinner, which saves the -grinder a deal of labour. The blade having been cut off -the bar, the tang is formed by drawing out the steel. The -blade is then properly hardened and tempered. The last -and most important process which the razor-blade has to -undergo is that of grinding.</p> - -<p>The difference in the prices of blades, make all of them -of the same material, is owing entirely to the circumstance -that stones of much smaller diameter are used for grinding -the higher priced blades, and much more time and labour -are given to the operation than is the case with the cheaper -sorts.</p> - -<p>In making a fork, the end of a steel bar is first made -red-hot; it is hammered so as to give a rough approximation -to the shape of the shank or tang; it is again heated, -and a blow from a die or stamp gives the proper contour; -the prongs are cut out by a powerful blow from a stamp of -peculiar form, and the fork is finally annealed, hardened, -ground, and polished. It is this process of fork grinding -which has so often been made a subject for comment; the -fork is ground <i>dry</i> upon a stone wheel, and the particles of -steel and grit are constantly entering the lungs of the -workmen, thereby ruining the health and shortening the -duration of life.</p> - -<p>Many contrivances have been devised for obviating this -evil, but the fork-grinders have not seconded these efforts -so zealously as might have been expected.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_189"></a>[189]</span></p> - -<p>In making pen and pocket-knives, a slender rod of steel -is heated at the end, hammered to the form of a blade, and -carried through many subsequent processes. But the putting -together of these hinged knives requires more time than the -making of the blades, and affords a curious example of -minute detail. When the pieces of bone, ivory, pearl, -tortoise-shell, horn, or other substances, which are to form -the outer surface of the handle, are roughly cut to shape; -when the blade has been forged and ground, and when the -steel for the spring is procured, the whole are placed in the -hand of a workman, who proceeds to build up a clasp-knife -from the little fragments placed at his disposal. So many -are the details to be attended to, that a common two-bladed -knife has to pass through his hands seventy or eighty times -before it is finished.</p> - -<p>A file, as every one knows, is a steel instrument, having -flat or curved surfaces so notched or serrated as to produce -a series of fine teeth or cutting edges, which are employed -for the abrasion of metal, ivory, wood, &c.</p> - -<p>Steel for making files being required to be of unusual -hardness, is more highly converted than for other purposes, -and is sometimes said to be <i>double converted</i>. Small files -are mostly made of cast steel. The very large files called -<i>smiths’ rubbers</i> are generally forged immediately from the -converted bars. Smaller files are forged from bars which -are wrought to the required form and size by the action of -tilt-hammers, either from blistered bars or from ingots of -cast steel. These bars are cut into pieces suitable for -making one file each, which are heated in a forge-fire, and -then wrought to the required shape on an anvil by two -men, one of whom superintends the work while the other -acts as general assistant.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_190"></a>[190]</span></p> - -<p>The next operation upon the blanks which are to be converted -into files is that of <i>softening</i> or <i>lightening</i>, to -render the steel capable of being cut with the toothing -instruments. This is effected by a gradual heating and a -gradual cooling. The surface is then rendered smooth, -either by filing or grinding.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus152" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus152.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">File Cutting. File Cutting.</p> -</div> - -<p>The cutting of the teeth is usually performed by workmen -sitting astride upon a board or saddle-shaped seat in front<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_191"></a>[191]</span> -of a bench, upon which is fixed a kind of small anvil. -Laying the blank file across the anvil, the Cutler secures it -from moving by a strap which passes over each end and -under his feet, like the stirrup of the shoemaker. He then -takes in his left hand a very carefully ground chisel made -of the best steel, and in his right a peculiarly shaped -hammer. If the file be flat, or have one or more flat -surfaces, the operator places the steel chisel upon it at a -particular angle or inclination, and with one blow of the -hammer cuts an indentation or furrow completely across its -face from side to side, and then moves the chisel to the -requisite positions for making similar and parallel cuts. If -it be a half round file, as a straight-edged chisel is used, a -number of small cuts are necessary to extend across the file -from edge to edge. So minute are these cuts in some kinds -of files, that in one specimen about ten inches long, flat on -one side and round on the other, there are more than 20,000 -cuts, each made with a separate blow from the hammer, and -the cutting tool being shifted after each blow. The range -of manufactures afford few more striking examples of the -peculiar manual skill acquired by long practice.</p> - -<p>Several highly ingenious machines have been contrived -for superseding the tedious operation of file cutting by -hand; but suited as the process may appear to be for the -use of machinery, it has been found to present such great -difficulties, that we believe no file-cutting engine has been -brought successfully or extensively into operation. One very -serious difficulty arises from the fact that, if one part of the -file be either a little softer than the adjacent parts, or a little -narrower, so as to present less resistance to the blow of the -hammer, a machine would, owing to the perfect uniformity -of its stroke, make a deeper cut there than elsewhere.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_192"></a>[192]</span></p> - -<p>After the files have been cut, the steel is brought to a state -of great hardness; this is effected in various ways, according -to the purpose to which the file is to be applied; they are -generally coated with a sort of temporary varnish, then -heated in a stove, and then suddenly quenched. After -hardening, the files are scoured, washed, dried, and tested.</p> - -<p>It will be seen that the tools employed by the Cutler are -few, and consist mostly of the hammers, moulds, dies, anvils, -grinding stones, and others already mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus153" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus153.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_193"></a>[193]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="COTTON_MANUFACTURER">COTTON MANUFACTURER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus154" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus154.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">CARDING.</p> -</div> - -<p>The extremely valuable substance, called Cotton, which is -now raised in such abundance as to furnish the cheapest -and most extensively-used clothing, is produced in the seed -vessels of the cotton plant, of which there are many varieties; -some are herbaceous annual plants, growing from eighteen -to twenty-four inches high; others, shrubs about the size of -our currant bushes, and of from two to ten years’ duration; -whilst a third kind attain the growth of small trees, with -a height of from twelve to twenty feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_194"></a>[194]</span></p> - -<p>The leaves of the cotton plant are of a bright dark green -colour, deeply divided into five lobes; the flowers are large -and showy, of a bright sulphur or lemon colour, and closely -resemble in appearance and botanical structure those of the -single hollyhock; each flower is succeeded by a triangular -three-celled seed vessel, which attains the size of a small -walnut, and when ripe bursts open from the swelling of the -cotton contained in the three cells; the seeds, which are -rather larger than those of grapes, are inclosed in the cotton -wool, which adheres very firmly to them. One variety of -cotton, cultivated in China, and some parts of America, has -a yellow tint; this tint it preserves when woven into the -fabric called “nankeen.”</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus155" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus155.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Cotton Plant. Bale of Cotton.</p> -</div> - -<p>The cotton plant is largely cultivated in India, China, -United States, West Indies, on the shores of the Mediterranean, -and, in short, in almost all the warmer parts of the -world; it flourishes readily in soils too poor for the growth<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_195"></a>[195]</span> -of grain, and other crops, and succeeds perfectly well in dry -seasons.</p> - -<p>The cotton, when perfectly ripe, is gathered by women -and children, the seeds and wool being picked out of the -pod; it is dried in the sun, and is then ready for the -removal of the seeds. In India this operation is performed -by means of two parallel rollers, which are fixed in a frame -at a small distance apart, so that when they are turned -round the cotton is drawn through whilst the seeds, which -from their size are unable to pass, are torn off and separated. -With this simple machine a man can separate the seeds -from about fifty pounds of cotton in a day.</p> - -<p>In America a still more rapid process is adopted: the -cotton is placed in a box, one side of which is formed of -stout parallel wires, placed about one-eighth of an inch -apart; by the side of this box is a roller, carrying a number -of circular saws with curved teeth, which project through -the wires into the box. On the roller being made to -revolve, the teeth of the saws drag the cotton through the -wires, the seeds remaining behind; after being thus separated, -the cotton is powerfully compressed into bags, and -is ready for transport to this and other manufacturing -countries.</p> - -<p>The cotton is seldom unpacked until it arrives at the -mill, the purchases being all managed by samples. When -it is unpacked, the first thing to be done is the sorting, and -in this much care and skill are required; for the different -bags furnish different qualities of cotton, and it is necessary -to produce yarn of uniform quality at the cheapest rate.</p> - -<p>In order, therefore, to equalize the different qualities, the -contents of all the bags are mixed together in the following -manner. A space being cleared and marked out on the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_196"></a>[196]</span> -floor, the cotton contained in the first bag is scattered over -this space, so as exactly to cover it; the contents of the -second bag are in like manner spread over the first, and the -cotton in all the other bags is disposed in a similar manner; -men and boys tread down the heap, which is called a <i>bing</i> -or <i>bunker</i>, until at length it rises up in shape and dimensions -very much like a haystack. Whenever a supply of -cotton is taken from the bing it is torn down with a rake -from top to bottom, by which means it is evident the -contents of the different bags are collected together in a -mass of uniform quality and colour. In mixing different -qualities of cotton it is usual to bring together such only as -have a similar length of staple. A portion of the waste -cotton of the mill is also mixed in the bing, for making the -lower qualities of yarn. For higher numbers, as well as for -warps, a finer quality of cotton must be selected; and thus -it will be seen that the formation of a bing is an important -operation, the quality of the goods produced depending -upon it.</p> - -<p>In this state the cotton contains sand, dirt, and other -impurities, and the fibres are matted together by the pressure -they were subjected to in packing. To open the fibres -and get rid of the sand, &c. the cotton is put into a machine -called a <i>willow</i>. This consists of a box or case, containing -a conical wooden beam, studded over with iron spikes; this -beam is made to turn round five or six hundred times a -minute. The cotton, as it is torn down from the bing, is -put in at one end of the machine, where it is caught by the -spikes, tossed about with great violence, and gradually -driven forward to the other end. The sand and other -impurities fall out of the machine through an open grating -at the bottom; the dust and lighter matter pass off through<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_197"></a>[197]</span> -a series of wire openings, and the cleaned cotton is sent -down a shoot into the room below.</p> - -<p>If the cotton is of fine quality it is beaten, or <i>batted</i>, -with hazel or holly twigs. For this purpose, it is spread on -a frame, the upper part of which is made of cords and is -quite elastic. A woman, with a rod about three or four feet -long in each hand, beats the cotton with great violence, -and so entirely separates the fibre. Any loose impurities -which remain fall out between the cords; seeds and fragments -of seed-pods, which adhere to the cotton somewhat -firmly, are picked out by hand. By this method the cotton -is thoroughly opened, and made quite clean, without injuring -the staple.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus156" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus156.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Opening the Cotton.</p> -</div> - -<p>The coarser qualities are passed at once from the willow -to the <i>scutching</i> or <i>blowing machine</i>, which does the work -of batting, only in a more violent manner, and is therefore<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_198"></a>[198]</span> -not adapted for fine qualities; but in coarser spinning is in -general use, to prepare the cotton for the carding engine.</p> - -<p>The cotton, which is still in a confused and tangled state, -has now to be carded, upon the regularity and perfection of -which process depends much of the success of spinning, -and also the durability and beauty of the stuff to be woven. -A cotton card is a sort of brush, containing wires instead of -bristles. The cards are made of bands or fillets of leather, -or are formed of alternate layers of cotton, linen, and india-rubber -pierced with numerous holes, in which are fixed bent -pieces of iron wire, called dents or teeth.</p> - -<p>The fibres of the cotton are not yet sufficiently level to -be twisted into yarn; and it often happens that the teeth -of the card lay hold of a fibre by the middle and thus -double it together, in which state it is unfit for spinning.</p> - -<p>The cardings are therefore doubled and drawn out by a -machine called a <i>drawing frame</i>, the principle of which -depends upon different pairs of rollers revolving with -different degrees of rapidity. If, however, the riband, as it -leaves the carding-engine, were simply extended in length by -drawing it out, it would be liable to tear across, or to be of -a different thickness at different parts of its length. To -prevent the tearing and to equalize the thickness, a number -of cardings are joined together and drawn out to a length -equal to the sum of the length of all the separate cardings.</p> - -<p>The effect produced is the same as taking a piece of -cotton wool between the finger and thumb and drawing it -out many times, laying the drawn filaments over each -other, before each drawing. If the cotton be then examined -it will be found that all the fibres are parallel and -of equal length. This effect is accomplished very perfectly -in the drawing frame, which consists of a number of rollers<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_199"></a>[199]</span> -arranged in what are called <i>heads</i>, each head consisting of -three pairs of rollers, of which the second pair moves with -greater speed than the first, and the third moves quicker -than the second.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus157" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus157.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drawing. Thread Frame.</p> -</div> - -<p>By the process of doubling and drawing, the cotton is -formed into a loose porous cord, the fibres of which are -arranged side by side. This cord is still too thick for yarn, -but it cannot be reduced in size by drawing merely, for if -this were attempted it would break; a slight twist is therefore -given, which by condensing the fibres allows the -drawing to proceed. This is the commencement of the -spinning process (which is, in fact, little more than a combination -of drawing and twisting) and is called <i>roving</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus158" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus158.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Cotton Bobbins. Buffaloes with Bobbins. Roving.</p> -</div> - -<p>The bobbin-and-fly frame is an exceedingly complicated<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_200"></a>[200]</span> -machine, although the objects to be accomplished by it are -sufficiently simple; namely, to give the roving a slight -twist, and then to wind it on the bobbin. The first is -easily done by the revolutions of the spindle; the second -is more difficult. It is scarcely necessary to explain that -the bobbins now under notice differ in no way from the -reels in common use, except in being of very large size. -The spindle which holds the bobbin is a round steel rod,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_201"></a>[201]</span> -driven by a small cog-wheel, fastened on the lower part of -the spindle. The bobbin is slid upon the spindle, and the -small bed or platform on which it rests is made to revolve -by another series of small wheels. The spindle has two -arms, called the <i>fly</i> or <i>flyer</i>. This fly is fixed on the top -of the spindle in such a way that it can be taken off in an -instant, for the purpose of putting on or taking off the -bobbin. One arm of the fly is hollow, the other solid, and -all this serves to balance the machinery. One machine -contains from thirty to a hundred and twenty spindles, -which, for economy of space, are placed in two rows, each -spindle in the back row standing opposite the space left -between two spindles of the front row. The action of the -machine is this:—The sliver having been drawn by the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_202"></a>[202]</span> -rollers, is twisted by the rapid revolutions of the spindle -into a soft cord or roving; this enters a hole in the top of -the spindle, and passes down the hollow arm of the fly; it -is then twisted round a steel finger, which winds it on the -bobbin with a certain pressure.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus159" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus159.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Throstle. Flyer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>throstle machine</i> is usually made double, a row of -bobbins, spindles, &c. occupying each side of the frame. -The bobbins filled with rovings from the bobbin-and-fly -frame, are mounted at the upper part of the frame in two -ranges. The roving from each bobbin passes through three -pairs of drawing rollers, where it is stretched out to the -requisite fineness. On quitting the last pair of rollers, each -thread is guided by a little ring or a notch of smooth glass, -let into the frame, towards the spindles, which revolve with -great rapidity, producing by the motion of their flyers -through the air a low musical hum, which is supposed to -have given the name of throstle to this machine. The -roving, which may now be called yarn, passing through an -eyelet formed at the end of one of the arms of the flyer, -proceeds at once to other bobbins.</p> - -<p>The yarn is wound upon the bobbins by a curious contrivance. -The bobbin fits very loosely upon the spindle, -and rests on its end upon a kind of platform. The bobbin -is not connected with the spindle, except by the thread of -yarn, which has to be wound; therefore, as soon as the -flyer is set spinning, the thread drags the bobbin after it, -and makes it follow the motion of the spindle and fly; but -the weight of the bobbin, and its friction on the platform, -which is promoted by covering the end with coarse cloth, -causes it to hang back, and thus the double purpose is -served, of keeping the thread stretched and winding it on -the bobbin much more slowly than the flyer revolves. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_203"></a>[203]</span> -yarn is equally distributed on the bobbin by a slow up-and-down -movement of the platform.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus160" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus160.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mule.</p> -</div> - -<p>These effects are the same as were produced by the -bobbin and fly-frame, but in the throstle they are attained -by simpler means. In the former machine a distinct movement -caused the bobbin to revolve quicker than the spindle. -In the throstle the bobbin is made to revolve by the pull of -the yarn, which is now sufficiently strong for the purpose; -but the roving in the bobbin-and-fly frame would not bear -the strain. The throstle is not often employed for very -fine spinning, because fine yarn would not bear the drag of -the bobbin; but in mule-spinning the yarn is wound at -once upon the spindles without any strain. In the <i>mule</i> -the rolling is first drawn by the usual system of rollers, and -then stretched by a moveable carriage. The effect of first -drawing and then stretching is to make the yarn finer and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_204"></a>[204]</span> -more uniform, as will be explained presently. The spinning -mule is the most interesting and impressive spectacle in a -large cotton mill—on account of its vast extent, the great -quantity of work performed by it, and the wonderful complication -and ingenuity of its parts.</p> - -<p>The spinning-mule consists of two principal portions: -the first, which is fixed, contains the bobbins of rovings and -the drawing rollers; the second is a sort of carriage, moving -upon an iron railroad, and capable of being drawn out to a -distance of about five feet from the fixed frame. This -carriage carries the spindles, the number of which is half -that of the bobbins of rovings. Motion is given to the -spindles by means of vertical drums, round which are -passed slender cords, communicating with the spindles. -There is one drum to every twenty-four spindles.</p> - -<p>The carriage being run up to the point from which it -starts in spinning, the spindles are near to the roller-beam; -the rollers now begin to turn, and to give out yarn, which -is immediately twisted by the revolution of the spindles; -the carriage then moves away from the roller-beam, somewhat -quicker than the threads are delivered, so that they -receive a certain amount of stretching, which gives value -to this machine. The beneficial effect is produced in this -way,—when the thread leaves the rollers, it is thicker in -some parts than in others, and those thicker parts not being -so much twisted as the thinner ones are softer, and yield to -the stretching power of the mule, so that the twist is -equalised throughout, and the yarn becomes more uniform. -When the carriage has <i>completed</i> a <i>stretch</i>, or is drawn out -from about fifty-four to sixty-four inches from the roller-beam, -the drawing rollers cease to give out yarn, but the -spindles continue to whirl until the threads are properly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_205"></a>[205]</span> -twisted. In spinning the finer yarns, the carriage sometimes -makes what is called a <i>second stretch</i>, during which -the spindles are made to revolve much more rapidly than -before. The drawing, stretching, and twisting, of a length -of thread being thus completed, the mule disengages itself -from the parts of the machinery by which it has hitherto -been driven, and the spinner then pushes the carriage with -his knee back to the roller-beam, turning at the same time -with his right hand a fly wheel, which gives motion to the -spindles. At the same time a copping wire, as it is called, -is pressed upon the threads by the spinners’ left hand, and -they are thus made to traverse the whole length of the -spindle, upon which they are then wound or <i>built</i> in a -conical form, which is called a <i>cop</i>. These cops are used -for placing in the <i>shuttle</i> in weaving, and form the weft or -short cross threads of the cloth.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus161" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus161.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Machinery for moving Shuttle. Shuttle for Power Loom.</p> -</div> - -<p>The yarn is now disposed of in various ways, according -to the use for which it is intended; but it is often found -convenient to make it up into hanks. When the yarn is -completed it is usually sent to the doubling and twisting -mill, for the purpose of being converted into what is now -properly called thread. Although we are accustomed to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_206"></a>[206]</span> -apply the word thread to a thin narrow line of any fibrous -material, the manufacturer limits the term to that compound -cord produced by doubling or twisting two or more single -lines. The single line he calls yarn, two or more single -lines, laid parallel and twisted together, he calls thread; -and of this there are many varieties, such as <i>bobbin-net-lace</i>-thread, -stocking-thread, sewing-thread, &c.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus162" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus162.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Gassing.</p> -</div> - -<p>In fine spinning, the yarn, when doubled, is for some -purposes <i>singed</i> or <i>gassed</i>, in order to get rid of the loose -fibres, and to make it more level and compact. The process -of singeing yarn strikes a stranger as being more -remarkable than anything else in the mill. In a long room -in the upper part of the mill, or in a shed attached to it, -are several tables, lighted up with a large number of jets of -flame, about twelve inches apart, producing a singular but -pleasing effect. Above each flame is a little hood or -chimney. On entering this room the smell of burnt cotton<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_207"></a>[207]</span> -is immediately perceived, and on approaching the table, one -is surprised to see a fine delicate thread crossing each -flame in two or three directions, and apparently at rest; -but on following the course of this thread, it is found to -proceed from one bobbin, which is rapidly spinning round, -and to pass through the flame to another bobbin, which is -also in rapid motion. It is then seen that the thread is -also moving at a rapid rate, by which means alone does it -escape being consumed. The thread is led over pulleys, so -as to pass two or three times through the flame, which -singes off the loose fibres, converting them into a reddish -powder or dust, which, if blown about and inhaled, would -do great injury to the lungs; this is why the gassing-room -is in a remote or retired part of the building, to prevent the -air being disturbed by the bustle of the heavier parts.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus163" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus163.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Warping Machines.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_208"></a>[208]</span></p> - -<p>When cotton is intended to be woven into a fabric, such -as calico, &c. the first operation consists in laying the requisite -number of threads together to form the width of -the cloth; this is called <i>warping</i>. Supposing there to be -1,000 threads in the width of a piece of cloth, then the -yarn, wound on the bobbins as it leaves the hands of the -spinner, must be so unwound and laid out as to form 1,000 -lengths, constituting, when laid parallel, the warp of the -intended cloth. The ancient method was to draw out the -warp from the bobbins at full length on an open field (and -this is still practised in India and China), but the <i>warping-frame</i> -is now employed, in which the threads are arranged, -by means of a frame turning on an upright centre. When -the warp is arranged round this machine, the warper takes -it off and winds it on a stick into a ball, preparatory to the -process of beaming or winding it on the beam of the loom. -The threads in this latter process are wound as evenly as -possible on the beam; a separator, ravel, or comb being -used to lay them parallel, and to spread them out to about -the intended width of the cloth. Arrangements are then -made for <i>drawing</i> or attaching the warp-threads individually -to certain mechanism of the loom. In this process all the -threads are attached to stays fixed to two frames, called -<i>treadles</i>, in such a manner that all the alternate threads -(1st, 3d, 5th,) can be drawn up or down by one heddle, and -all the rest (2d, 4th, 6th, &c.) by the other.</p> - -<p>There are three movements attending every thread of -weft which the weaver throws across the warp. In the -first place he presses down one of the two <i>treadles</i>, by -which one of the two heddles is depressed, thereby forming -a kind of opening called the <i>shed</i>. Into this shed, at the -second movement, he throws the shuttle, containing the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_209"></a>[209]</span> -weft-thread, with sufficient force to drive it across the -whole web. Then at the third movement he grasps the -<i>batten</i>, which is a kind of frame, carrying at its lower edge -a comb-like piece, having as many teeth as there are threads -in the warp, and with this he drives up the thread of weft -close to those previously thrown. One thread of weft is -thus completed, and the weaver proceeds to throw another -in a similar way, but in a reverse order, that is, by depressing -the left treadle instead of the right, and by throwing -the shuttle from left to right, instead of from right to left. -In the commonest mode of weaving the shuttle is thrown -by both hands alternately; but, about a century ago, John -Kay invented the <i>fly-shuttle</i>, in which a string and handle -are so placed that the weaver can work the shuttle both -ways with one hand.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus164" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus164.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Weaving by hand.</p> -</div> - -<p>In 1678 M. de Gennes invented a rude kind of weaving-machine,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_210"></a>[210]</span> -intended to increase the power of the common -loom; and other looms were invented, which were to be -worked by a winch, by water power, or by some contrivance -more expeditious than common hand-weaving; but a greater -step in advance was made by the invention of Dr. Cartwright’s -<i>power-loom</i> in 1785. One cause which delayed -the adoption of power-looms was the necessity for stopping -the machine frequently, in order to dress the warp with -paste or size as it unrolled from the beam, which operation -required a person to be employed for each loom, so that -there was no saving of expense. But the successive inventions -of Radcliffe, Horrocks, Marsland, Roberts, and others, -have since brought the dressing-machine and the power-loom -to a high state of efficiency.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus165" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus165.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Power Loom.</p> -</div> - -<p>Taking a piece of calico as the representative of plain<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_211"></a>[211]</span> -fabrics generally, the mode of proceeding in power-loom -factories may be shortly sketched as follows. The warping-frame -is so arranged as to be worked by steam-power, and -to bring the yarns into a parallel layer, which is transferred -to the dressing-machine. This latter is a large piece of -mechanism, in which the threads dip into paste on their -way to the warp-beam: undergoing a process of brushing -after the dipping. After this dressing the drawing and -mounting for the loom are attended to. When the warp is -properly arranged in the loom, steam-power does all the -rest; it forms the shed or division of the warp into two -parts, it throws the shuttle, it drives up the weft with the -batten, it unwinds the warp from the warp-roller, and winds -the woven material on the cloth-roller.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus166" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus166.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Spinning by hand.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_212"></a>[212]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_TAILOR">THE TAILOR.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus167" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus167.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WORKSHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>It would perhaps be too much to say that the more -civilized a nation becomes, the greater is the attention -bestowed upon dress; since it has happened that in countries -not very far removed from barbarism, vast importance has -been given to external display, and robes and trappings<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_213"></a>[213]</span> -have been used to cover the savagery which had only just -learned to delight in the pomp and magnificence of costly -ornaments. It is certain, however, that in all civilized -nations dress is more than mere clothing, and has a significance -beyond the mere utility of protecting the body from -cold or heat, and adding to our physical comfort. It is an -old saying that some people may be clothed, but that they -are never dressed; and the meaning of this is, that dress is -frequently an expression of character, and will even make -known the disposition of the wearer. In the same way a -change of <i>fashion</i> is often an indication of an alteration in -the manners and way of living of a whole nation.</p> - -<p>It is the business of the Tailor, then, not only to make -garments, but to study the prevailing fashion, and, indeed, -to advise what alterations or slight differences in the cut -and colour of clothes will be best suited to different people, -since on the way in which our clothes are made our personal -appearance will very greatly depend, and personal appearance -is of no little importance, since there are few people -who are not strongly influenced by it.</p> - -<p>The trade of the Tailor is one of which very little can be -said in the way of explanation, since it mainly consists in -cutting out cloth to the shapes necessary to be applied to -each other in order to make the various garments; and as -this cannot be described without numerous <i>diagrams</i>, and -even with them could not easily be understood, we must -be satisfied to quote the instructions of a practical Tailor on -the subject of sewing.<a id="FNanchor_3" href="#Footnote_3" class="fnanchor">[3]</a></p> - -<div class="footnotes"> -<div class="footnote"> -<p><a id="Footnote_3" href="#FNanchor_3" class="label">[3]</a> From the Industrial Library.</p> -</div> -</div> - -<p>And, first as to the different sorts of stitches, which are:—the -basting-stitch, the back and fore-stitch, the back-stitch, -the side-stitch, and the fore-stitch; also the back<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_214"></a>[214]</span> -pricking-stitch, the fore pricking-stitch, the serging-stitch, -the cross-stitch, and the button-hole-stitch; besides which -there is a distinct kind of stitch for hemming, filling, stotting, -rantering, fine-drawing, prick-drawing, over-casting, -and also for making what are called covered buttons.</p> - -<p>The basting-stitch is a long and slight stitch, intended to -be merely temporary, or to fasten together some of the -inner and concealed parts of the garment. It is commonly -used to keep the work in its proper position while being -sewed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus168" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus168.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Sleeve Board.</p> -</div> - -<p>The back and fore-stitch is made, as the name implies, -by the union of back stitching and fore stitching; in this -stitch the needle is first put through the cloth, and turned -up in as short a space as is possible, so as to make a neat -and strong stitch when completed; it is then put through -the cloth again in the same place as at first, and again -turned up, taking care that it passes through the cloth as -nearly as possible within the same space as before. This -being done, the first back-stitch is completed. The second -stitch is made by passing the needle forward upon the -surface of the cloth, but without taking hold of it, over a -space equal to the length of the first stitch; the needle is -again put through the cloth, turned up, and brought back -to the place where it was last put through, so as to form -another back-stitch; which is followed by another putting<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_215"></a>[215]</span> -of the needle forward, or, in plainer terms, another fore-stitch, -and so on in the same order, until the seam is -finished. This kind of stitch is used for sewing linings, -pockets, flannel garments, and other thin fabrics. There is -no need to say much respecting the back-stitch, as this -may be understood from what is said above respecting the -first stitch in back and fore-stitching. This stitch is used -for seams where strength is required; it is also used for -ornament instead of the side-stitch, but in this case it must -be very neatly and regularly made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus169" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus169.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Goose. Flat Iron. French Chalk. Thimble. Measure Book. Rule.</p> -</div> - -<p>The side-stitch is used for the edges of garments, to keep -them from rolling over, or from being drawn out of shape. -It is always intended for ornament as well as use, and -requires a very quick eye and a careful hand to do it well. -In this stitch the needle is put through the cloth a little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_216"></a>[216]</span> -above or below the place from which it came out in the -former stitch, but it must be at a very little distance from -this place, or the sewing-silk will be visible on the surface -of the cloth, which is a great blemish, and yet it must be -far enough away from where it came out to prevent its -breaking through, in which case the stitch is lost both as -to use and ornament. Care must also be taken that the -stitches are at regular distances from each other, and that -the whole of them are placed at the same distance from -the edge of the cloth. In the fore-stitch, as has been -already hinted, the needle, when drawn out from the seam, -is always put forward, so that an equal quantity of thread, -or a stitch of the same length, is visible on each side of the -cloth.</p> - -<p>Serge-stitching is done by passing the needle through the -cloth from the under to the upper piece, throwing the -thread over the edges of the cloth, so as to keep them -closely together. It is also used to join selvages together, -as also to prevent taking up more space for seams than can -be spared, when the pieces are barely large enough for the -required purpose. It is not, however, much used by tailors, -except when no great degree of strength is required.</p> - -<p>The cross-stitch is formed by two parallel rows of stitches, -so placed as that the stitch in the upper row is opposite to -the vacant space in the lower one, the thread passing from -one stitch to the other in diagonal lines. It is used for -keeping open the seams of such garments as require -washing, and also for securing the edges from ravelling -out in such fabrics as are too loosely made to allow of -their edges being fastened down by the filling-stitch.</p> - -<p>In the button-hole-stitch the needle is first put through -the cloth from the inner to the outer surface, and before it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_217"></a>[217]</span> -is drawn out the twist is passed round the point of the -needle, and kept in that position till the needle be drawn -out to the full length of the twist; this forms a kind of -loop, called by Tailors the “purl,” at the top or edge of the -opening, and when regularly made is both ornamental and -useful. To increase the strength of this stitch, and also to -aid in making it true or exact, a “bar” is formed on each -side of the opening before the hole is begun to be worked. -This “bar,” as it is called, is made by passing the needle -from one end of the opening to the other (twice or three -times), so that there is a layer, if it may be so called, of -twist stretching along its whole length (and on each side) -upon which the whole is worked, the workman taking care -to keep the “bar” as near to the edge of the opening as -possible, without allowing it to come over, in which case the -button-hole would be neither strong nor neat.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus170" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus170.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Trousers Pattern Book.</p> -</div> - -<p>The filling stitch is similar to that used in hemming; the -chief difference being in the direction given to the needle. -In hemming, its point is directed outwards, or <i>from</i> the -workman, but in filling it is directed inwards, or towards -him, and in each should be a little, but only a little, slanted, -in order to give the sewing a neat appearance. This stitch<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_218"></a>[218]</span> -is used for sewing on facings, and when made with neatness, -and without showing itself much on the outer side of the -cloth, is considered to be ornamental, as well as useful.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus171" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus171.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Whisk. Measure. Hard Brush. Reel. Iron Holder.</p> -</div> - -<p>Stotting (pronounced stoating) is the stitch used for -joining pieces of cloth so neatly that the join shall be -but little visible, and yet so strongly as to prevent the -pieces from being easily parted. In this kind of seam the -pieces of cloth are not laid the one upon the other, as in -back-stitching, but are placed side by side, the edges being -carefully fitted, so as to prevent any irregularity or roughness -in the work. They are then sewn together by passing -the needle half through the thickness of the cloth. Care -must be taken to keep the stitches as near to each edge of -the cloth as can be done without incurring the danger of -its breaking through. The needle is put in on the nearest -edge of the two, and must not be slanted in the direction<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_219"></a>[219]</span> -given to it, but put as straight forward as possible. The -stitch should be drawn close enough home to prevent the -silk thread from showing itself on the right side of the -cloth, but yet not so close as to draw the edges into a -ridge. If the join be as neatly made as it may be, it will, -when properly pressed, be barely perceptible. This stitch -is used for joining the pieces of cloth of which facings, -collar-linings, and other fillings-up of the inner sides of -garments, are made, and also in other cases to prevent the -taking up too much of the cloth by making a back-stitched -seam.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus172" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus172.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Shears. Coat Pattern Book. Wax. Goose Stand. Needle and Thread.</p> -</div> - -<p>Rantering, like stotting, is intended to conceal a join in -the cloth. Here, however, it is requisite to make a strong -as well as a neat joining; and therefore a seam is first -sewn with a fore-stitch, and then the rantering-stitch is -worked upon or over this seam. It should be worked with<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_220"></a>[220]</span> -a very fine silk thread, or with twist that has had one of -the strands taken out. The needle should be both long and -slender, and must be passed forwards and backwards over -the seam, so as to catch hold of its two sides, and draw -them closely together. But in doing this care must be -taken not to take a deep hold of the cloth: the nap or wool -is all that should be taken hold of, and this must be done -with a light hand, while the stitches must be placed close to -each other, so that the seam may be well covered with -wool; when this is done, the seam has to be “rubbed up,” -that is to say, it must be held between the fore-finger and -thumb of each hand, these being placed upon the fore-stitching, -and its two edges brought as closely together as -possible. The rantering must then be slightly carded or -scratched backwards and forwards with the point of a -needle, in order to bring the wool out again where it has -been drawn in with the stitch; the seam is then ready for -pressing, and, if this operation be properly performed, will -be as much concealed as may be necessary; while it will be -much stronger than if it had been merely back-stitched.</p> - -<p>In fine-drawing, the stitch is formed in the same manner -as in rantering, but there is a difference in the way of -placing the pieces that are to be joined, <i>i.e.</i> if they be -separate pieces, for this stitch is mostly used to close up -places that have been accidentally cut, or torn; the two -edges of the place requiring to be fine-drawn are first -trimmed by cutting away the loose threads or ends of the -cloth which may be upon them; they are then placed and -kept in as level or flat a position as is possible, either with -the fingers, or by fastening them to a piece of stiff paper. -The needle should be both very small and long, and the -thread used, whether it be of silk or twist, should be very<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_221"></a>[221]</span> -slender. Greater care is here necessary than in rantering, -to avoid taking a deep hold of the cloth; the needle should -be passed forwards and backwards, over the opening, and the -thread should be drawn no closer or tighter than is quite -needful in order to hide it in the wool. The stitches must -be placed as near to each other as is possible, so as to -prevent the edges of the cloth from being visible between -them; if it be needful to make a strong as well as a neat -joining, the fine-drawing should be repeated on the under -side of the cloth, but here it will not be needful to put the -stitches so close together. When the fine-drawing is done -it must be pressed, but with as light a hand and in as short -a time as is practicable, otherwise the sewing, however -neatly done, will be visible, and so far as it is so, the design -of the fine-drawing stitch will not be answered.</p> - -<p>The stitch called prick-drawing is now but seldom used, -yet it may be proper to notice it briefly. When this stitch -is intended to be employed, the edges of the cloth are first -stotted together, after which the needle is passed backwards -and forwards in diagonal lines, under the stotting, so as to -make the join more strong and durable than it can be made -by merely stotting the pieces together.</p> - -<p>This stitch is used where the cloth is very thick, or hard -and unyielding, and, consequently, where the stotting-stitch -would quickly give way without this support. It is also -better than a back-stitch seam for cloths of this description, -inasmuch as it can be made to lie more flat, and thus to be -more neat in its appearance, than a common seam.</p> - -<p>Overcasting is used merely to secure the edges of thin -and loose fabrics from “ravelling out.” In using it, the -edges of the cloth, whether it be woollen, linen, or cotton, -are first trimmed clear of the loose threads; the needle is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_222"></a>[222]</span> -then passed through the cloth in a forward direction, at -about the distance of one-eighth part of an inch from the -edge of the cloth, and when drawn out it is carried (from -the left to the right, and not, as in other stitches, from the -right to the left) about a quarter of an inch; it is then -again put through, and on being drawn out it is made to -pass over the thread leading from the preceding stitch, so as -to form a kind of loop on the edge; which loop secures the -edge from becoming too much frayed, or ravelled.</p> - -<p>All the tools that the apprentice or even the journeyman -requires may be bought for a few shillings. A yard of -linen for a <i>lap-cloth</i>; two pairs of <i>scissors</i>, one pair moderately -large, for common use, and the other small, for button-holes; -a <i>thimble</i>; a small piece of <i>bees-wax</i>; and threepennyworth -of <i>needles</i>, are all that he will have occasion to -buy so long as he is not a master, or a journeyman working -at home, when he must procure a <i>sleeve-board</i> and an <i>iron</i>. -The more expensive part of even these few implements, viz. -the scissors, will, with tolerable care, last for a number of -years with only the trifling expense of being occasionally -sharpened by the cutler.</p> - -<p>All the implements used by the Tailor are so well known -as to need no particular description; the <i>sleeve-board</i> is -used to place in the sleeve of a coat while the seams are -pressed with the heated <i>iron</i> or the <i>goose</i>. In the <i>measure -book</i> the dimensions are written when measurement of a -customer is made, and the <i>French chalk</i> marks the direction -in which the cloth is cut to the pattern of the various -shapes, which are afterwards sewn together to make complete -garments.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_223"></a>[223]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_TANNER">THE TANNER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus173" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus173.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE PITS.</p> -</div> - -<p>Leather is a substance universally used amongst civilized -and very generally amongst barbarous nations; it is made -from the skins of animals, which are tanned, or prepared -with some substance, having the power of converting the -perishable skin, that decays readily when wet or moist, into -a lasting and comparatively imperishable leather.</p> - -<p>The preparation of skins by tanning or other similar -processes has been practised from the earliest times; and -although it has engaged the attention of several scientific -men, and has been the subject of many curious experiments, -it has received less alteration from recent improvements in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_224"></a>[224]</span> -chemical science than many other manufacturing processes. -Several plans, which have been suggested with a view to -expediting the process, which on the old system is a very -tedious one, have been found to injure the quality of the -leather, and have therefore been wholly or partially abandoned; -and others, which appear to be more successful, -are as yet adopted by a few manufacturers only.</p> - -<p>The larger and heavier skins operated upon by the Tanner, -as those of bulls, buffaloes, oxen, and cows, are technically -distinguished as <i>hides</i>, while the name <i>skins</i> is applied to -those of smaller animals, as calves, sheep, and goats. The -process necessary to convert hides into the thick hard leather -used for the soles of boots and shoes, and for similar purposes -will first be noticed. The hides are brought to the -Tanner either in a fresh state, when from animals recently -slaughtered, or, when imported from other countries, -dried or salted, and sometimes both, for the sake of preserving -them from decomposition. In the former case the -horns are removed, and the hide is scraped to cleanse it -from any small portions of flesh or fatty matter that may -adhere to the inner skin; but in the latter it is necessary -to soften the hides, and bring them as nearly as possible -to the fresh state, by steeping them in water, and repeated -rubbing or beating. After this the hair is removed, sometimes -by steeping the hides for several days in a solution of -lime and water, which has the effect of loosening the hair -and epidermis, or outer skin; and sometimes by suspending -them in a close chamber called a smoke-house, heated a -little above the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere by -means of a smouldering fire, in which case the epidermis is -loosened by a very slight putrefaction. In either case, when -the hair and epidermis, or cuticle, are sufficiently loosened,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_225"></a>[225]</span> -they are removed by scraping with a curved knife, the hide -being laid upon a convex bench or <i>beam</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus174" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus174.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Unhairing the Hides. Striking the Hides.</p> -</div> - -<p>The hides are prepared for the actual tanning, or immersion -in a solution of bark, by steeping them for a few days -in a pit containing a sour solution of rye or barley flour, or -in a very weak menstruum, consisting of one part of sulphuric -acid mixed with from five hundred to a thousand -parts of water. By this process, which is called “raising,” -the pores of the hides are distended and rendered more -susceptible of the action of the tan.</p> - -<p>Oak-bark is the substance most commonly used to supply -the astringent principle, and it is crushed or ground to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_226"></a>[226]</span> -powder in a <i>bark-mill</i>. In the old method of tanning, -which is not yet entirely abandoned, the hides and powdered -bark were laid in alternate layers in the <i>tan pit</i>, which was -then filled with water to the brim. After some months the -pit was emptied, and refilled with fresh bark and water; and -this process was repeated whenever the strength of the bark -was exhausted. In this way, the time required for impregnating -the hides varied, according to their thickness and -other circumstances, from one to four years. The process -has been greatly expedited by the improvement, introduced -in consequence of the experiments of M. Seguin, a French -chemist, of tanning with concentrated solutions of bark, -formed by passing water through a mass of powdered bark, -until, by successive filtrations, it is completely deprived of -its soluble tanning principle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus175" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus175.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Bark Box. Barrow.</p> -</div> - -<p>The variations of practice among different Tanners extend -to the substance used as an astringent, as well as to the -manner of applying it. Ground oak-bark, which was -formerly the only material in common use, and is still the -most general, produces good leather of a light fawn colour.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_227"></a>[227]</span> -Valonia, of which considerable quantities are imported for -the use of Tanners, produces leather of great solidity and -weight, the colour of which is inclined to grey, and which -is more impervious to water than that made with oak-bark. -Valonia consists of the acorns of the <i>Quercus Ægilops</i>, and -is brought from the Levant and the Morea. Catechu, or -terra japonica, the extract of the <i>Acacia Catechu</i>, produces -leather of a dark reddish fawn colour, which is light, spongy, -and very pervious to water.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus176" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus176.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fleshing Knife, and Section. Shaving Knife, and Section. -Striking Pin, and Section. Unhairing Knife, and Section.</p> -</div> - -<p>When the process is complete, the hides are hung up in a -shed and allowed to dry slowly; and while they are drying -they are compressed by beating, or rubbing, or by passing -them between rollers, to give them firmness and density. -A yellow deposit is now found upon the surface of the -leather, to which the name of “bloom” or “pitching” is -technically given.</p> - -<p>We have hitherto alluded chiefly to the preparation of -the thick hides used for sole leather, among which several<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_228"></a>[228]</span> -varieties may be found, each distinguished by a different -technical name, by which its thickness, quality, or mode of -preparation is known; but the thinnest and weakest hides, -as well as the skins of calves and other animals, are also -prepared for use as upper leathers, in which case it is -necessary to reduce their thickness by <i>shaving</i> or <i>paring</i> -them down upon the flesh or inner side, before they are -subjected to the action of the tanning infusions. Such -hides or skins also require, after leaving the hands of the -Tanner, to be rubbed, softened, and dressed by the currier, -in order to bring them to the necessary degree of flexibility -and smoothness. The currier also has recourse to shaving -or paring with a peculiarly formed <i>knife</i>, to bring the skin -to the requisite tenuity; and it is his office to blacken the -surface, which, for common shoe leather, is done on the -flesh side, although for some purposes leather is blackened -on the outer or grain side. Horse-hides, which are comparatively -weak and thin, are sometimes dressed in the -latter way, under the name of Cordovan hides, from the -circumstance of such leather having been formerly made at -Cordova, in Spain. Calf-skins supply the quality of leather -most generally preferred for the upper part of boots and -shoes.</p> - -<p>Of the thin skins prepared for ornamental purposes, many -are tanned with a substance called <i>sumach</i>, prepared from a -plant of the same name. The tanning is performed by -sewing up each skin into the form of a bag, with the grain -or hair side outwards, and nearly filling it with a strong -solution of <i>sumach</i> in water. The bag is then fully distended -by blowing into it, and the aperture is tied up; -after which it is thrown into a large shallow vessel filled -with hot water containing a little sumach. The distended<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_229"></a>[229]</span> -bags float in this vessel, and are occasionally moved about -with a wooden instrument until the solution which they -contain has thoroughly penetrated their substance. Owing -to the thinness of the skins and the heat to which they are -exposed, this operation is performed in a few hours. The -process is expedited by taking the bags out of the solution, -and piling them upon a perforated bench or rack at the side -of the tub, so that their own weight may force the confined -liquid through the pores.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus177" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus177.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Apron. Gloves. Whetter. Roller. Leoline.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_230"></a>[230]</span></p> - -<p>When the tanning is completed, the bags are opened to -remove the sediment of the sumach; the skins are washed, -rubbed on a board, and dried; after which they are ready -for dyeing and finishing with a ridged instrument, which -imparts to the surface that peculiar grain by which morocco -leather is distinguished. An inferior kind of leather, known -as “imitation morocco,” is prepared in a similar manner -from sheepskins.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus178" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus178.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Plungers. Tongs. Jet. Hook.</p> -</div> - -<p>“Tawing” is the name applied to the process by which the -skins of lambs and kids are converted into soft leather by<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_231"></a>[231]</span> -the action of alum. Of this kind of leather gloves are -usually made.</p> - -<p>The <i>jet</i> and <i>plungers</i> used for immersing the hides in -the tan, the <i>tongs</i> and <i>hook</i> for removing them, and the -other implements, are easily understood as applied to the -various processes here mentioned.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus179" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus179.jpg" alt=""> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_232"></a>[232]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_SHOEMAKER">THE SHOEMAKER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus180" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus180.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WORKSHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Shoemaker naturally follows that of the -tanner, since leather is the material principally employed -in making coverings for the feet; the tough hides of animals -being used for the same purpose in countries where the art -of tanning is either unknown or not practised. Scarcely<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_233"></a>[233]</span> -any handicraft employment engages the attention of so -many persons in this country as boot and shoe making. -From the fashionable bootmaker to the poor cobbler, who -crouches in a stall under a house in some narrow street, is a -wide interval, and this interval is filled up by numerous -grades. At Northampton boots and shoes are made on a -very large scale for the London markets; they include -chiefly the cheap varieties, but at some of the recent exhibitions -of manufactures the Northampton bootmakers have -exhibited specimens of workmanship which are considered to -be quite equal to those of London or Paris. At Edenbridge, -in Kent, and at other places, the strong coarse “hob-nailed” -shoes are made, which are so much worn by waggoners and -others.</p> - -<p>The London makers import from Paris very large quantities -of boot fronts, which, when combined with other -parts of English manufacture, constitute many of the -“French boots” which now glisten in the windows. Notwithstanding -the large number of persons employed in -these avocations in England, and the abundant supply of -leather, there is still a considerable import of boots and -shoes from abroad, chiefly France.</p> - -<p>In the old statutes a Shoemaker is called a cordwainer, -apparently a corruption of the French <i>cordonnier</i>, which -means a worker of Cordova leather. The companies of Shoemakers -in our ancient towns were incorporated under this -name; and where some of these companies now exist, they -are known by the same name. As a legal term, cordwainer -is still used.</p> - -<p>The trade, as now followed in London and other principal -places, is subdivided into about twenty branches. The -following may be set down as the chief: the shoeman,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_234"></a>[234]</span> -or maker of the sole part of the shoe; the bootman, -or maker of the sole part of the boot; and the boot closer, -or joiner together of the leg, vamp, &c. The labour of -these is especially directed to what is called the men’s line; -whilst others make the ladies’ shoes or boots. There are -many women, too, who get a livelihood by closing the shoe, -while others again follow the various sorts of binding.</p> - -<p>The mechanical processes, after marking and cutting out -the leather, consist chiefly in various kinds of strong needlework, -such as the lasting or tacking of the upper leather to -the in-sole, the sewing in of the welt, the stitching to this -welt of the out or top sole, the building and sewing down -of the heel, and the sewing or closing of boot legs. The -boot closer is the most skilful of the persons employed, and -receives the highest wages.</p> - -<p>The materials with which the Shoemaker works are generally -called the <i>grindery</i>,—they are so called at least through -England and Scotland, though in Dublin it is called <i>finding</i>.</p> - -<p>“The cause of this technicality,” says Mr. James Devlin, -in his most interesting description of the trade of the -Shoemaker in the Industrial Library, “is now, I believe, -scarcely known to any one in the trade. The relation to -whom I was apprenticed, a man of a very active and inquisitive -turn of mind, told me its history, which it may be -worth while here to relate.</p> - -<p>“Formerly, before hemp, flax, wax, hairs, or any description -of tools, were sold, as now, in shops set apart to this -particular business, the shoemaker, not using the peculiar -sort of stone rubber or the emery composition which he now -uses to sharpen his knives upon, was in the habit occasionally -of taking his knives to be ground (as the French -shoemaker does at the present day) to some of the common<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_235"></a>[235]</span> -knife-grinders of the neighbourhood. The knife-grinder -having thus the Shoemaker for a regular customer, began in -time to add to his usual business that of selling hemp, &c.; -hence his little shop being termed the <i>grindery</i>, every thing -he sold became known under this name, and is still continued.”</p> - -<p>The tools of the Shoemaker are in their collective form -denominated his <i>kit</i>. Anciently, and in the old songs of -the trade, they were called “St. Hugh’s bones,” from a now -almost forgotten, though somewhat pleasant tradition. In -Stow, and in Randle Holme’s “Academie of Armorie,” 1688, -we find this term; as, also, in the still older romance of -“Crispin and Crispianus;” and in two plays, “The Shoemaker -is a Gentleman,” and the “Shoemaker’s Holiday,” -of the beginning of the seventeenth century.</p> - -<p>The kit of the Shoemaker is, however, no longer now, as -formerly, made up of “bones”—saint or infidel, human or -brute,—but principally of good and kindly steel; purchased -ready-made at the <i>grinder’s</i>, or the grindery establishments -before spoken of, and kept afterwards (in this country, at -least, and in America) in repair and proper order by the -ingenuity and care of the workman himself; though in -France, and generally on the continent, much of this is -done by another person, to whom such occupation is the -sole means of livelihood.</p> - -<p>Under the general term <i>kit</i> is comprehended the <i>pincers</i>, -<i>nippers</i>, <i>hammer</i>, the various descriptions of <i>awls</i>, of -<i>setting irons</i>, and many other articles.</p> - -<p>It has often been a matter for great surprise that the -Shoemaker should sit in such a cramped and unhealthy -position at his work, crouched over his <i>clamps</i> as he holds -the leather in them between his knees while engaged in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_236"></a>[236]</span> -sewing, or over the block, which he holds fast to his thigh -with the <i>stirrup</i> that passes underneath his foot.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus181" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus181.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Nippers. Awl. Stirrup. Lapstone. Hammer. Clamps.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_237"></a>[237]</span></p> - -<p>Many inventions and improvements have been made for -enabling the Shoemaker to stand during a great part of his -time, and some of these seem well adapted to supersede the -old position, but at present they have been only partially -adopted.</p> - -<p>The Shoemaker’s thread being tipped with bristles, no -needle is required for sewing; but the thread itself is passed -through the hole made with the <i>awl</i>. Quickly goes in the -awl, and as quickly is out again, but not before the hair -from the fingers of the left hand has found the passage, -without being at all directed by the sight, but literally in -the dark; and hence the term <i>blind stabbing</i>, the right -hand hair immediately following in the opposite course, the -closed thumb and fore-finger of either hand nipping at the -moment the hairs from these different directions, and drawing -the same as instantly out, at once completing the stitch.</p> - -<p>A proficient closer, or closer’s boy—for here, in general, -the boy is even more expert than the man—will in the -space of half an hour stab the four side rows and the two -back rows of the counter of a boot, each inch of stitching -taking about twenty stitches, and the entire work averaging -about fifteen inches, three hundred stitches being thus put -in in thirty minutes, or fifty every five minutes, each stitch -requiring in itself six distinct operations—the skill of sight -or distance, the putting in of the awl, and again its withdrawal, -the putting in the left-hand hair, and again of the -right, and lastly, the careful though rapid drawing, or -rather twitching, out of the thread itself.</p> - -<p>The closer needs little kit: a slip of board to <i>fit</i> or -prepare the work upon; a pair of <i>clamps</i>; a <i>block</i>; a <i>knife</i>; -about three <i>awls</i>, two differently-sized closing awls, and one -stabbing awl; two <i>seam-sets</i>, or it may be three—one for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_238"></a>[238]</span> -the stabbed sides; a <i>stirrup</i>; a case of <i>needles</i> (short blunts), -and a <i>thimble</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus182" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus182.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Fore-part Iron. Seat Iron. Seat File. Gigger Iron. -Jim Crow. Breaker. Glazing Iron. Bevel Iron.</p> -</div> - -<p>The lining in all shoes, at least, but those of the very -strongest kind, is entirely the work of the woman, being -done with the needle, and elegantly it often is done. After -the lining, the <i>upper</i> has to be <i>set</i>; a matter soon effected; -the flat-seam-set, or, if stabbed, the stabbing-side-set, being -heated at a candle (though this is not necessary, and might -from the danger of the practice be well dispensed with) -and a little dissolved gum being rubbed on the seam, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_239"></a>[239]</span> -set is immediately to be somewhat forcibly and briskly -pressed along the line of stitching, which thus takes an -almost instant polish, and being also hardened, the upper -becomes ready for shop; that is, to be sent to the <i>maker</i>, -or shoeman, to finish by putting in the welt, soles, and other -parts of the shoe; the “stitching” being effected with a -square awl.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus183" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus183.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Knife. Last. Paste Horn.</p> -</div> - -<p>The number of tools used by the Boot and Shoemaker -who combines all the branches of the trade is very great, -although few of them are remarkably expensive, except -some of the patent metal or hardwood <i>lasts</i>, on which the -shoes or boots are placed. The <i>lapstone</i> on which the -leather is hammered after being damped; and the various -kinds of <i>irons</i> used for rubbing, paring, or shaping the soles -and other parts of the shoe, are the principal implements, -beside the <i>awls</i>, <i>knives</i>, <i>hammers</i>, and <i>rasp</i>.</p> - -<p>The <i>glazing iron</i> is used for burnishing the heel of the -boot or shoe; the <i>paste horn</i> for containing the paste used -in the inside lining of the shoe or boot; the <i>irons</i> for -setting up the leather beside the stitching, and the <i>Jim-crow</i>,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_240"></a>[240]</span> -which is a small toothed wheel running in a handle -for the same purpose. The <i>long stick</i> is used for “sleeking,” -or smoothing and softening the upper part of the boot or -shoe, after it has been made and placed on the block, in -order to take out any wrinkles that may remain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus184" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus184.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Long Stick. Rasp.</p> -</div> - -<p>It would be impossible to give any clear description of -all the operations of the trade of the Shoemaker in the -space devoted here to this particular business, and even -were it attempted, no very clear idea could be conveyed of -the various portions of his work; since, like the tailor, he -has first to cut out the leather to the proper shape for -making the various parts, which have afterwards to be put -together. Indeed, beyond mentioning the uses of the -various tools, most of which are simple enough, little can -be said to explain the operation of the Shoemaker that would -not require actual inspection of the different processes; -although many of them may be understood by looking at a -shoe, after having observed the accompanying pictures and -having read what has been said about the tools employed.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_241"></a>[241]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_SADDLER_AND_HARNESS_MAKER">THE SADDLER AND HARNESS MAKER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus185" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus185.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WORKSHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>The manufacture of saddles and harness for horses is one -requiring very considerable skill and no little patience, -since on the ability of the Saddler depends not only the -health and comfort of the horse, but the safety of the rider.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_242"></a>[242]</span> -The beauty and finish of the harness and its appurtenances -are so essential to the proper appearance presented by the -whole equipage, that a very great deal of attention is now -given even to the smallest details, such as buckles, mounts -and ornamental sewing on straps and traces.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus186" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus186.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Spokeshave. Cutting Gauge. Dead Punch. Compasses. -Mallet. Hand Iron.</p> -</div> - -<p>The operations in the trade of the Saddler are so similar -to those of the shoemaker, as far as the stitching and -cutting of leather are concerned, that they require very little -description. The most difficult part of his business is the -skilful making of saddles. To fit the pigskin over the iron -shape, and skilfully to arrange the padding, is often a very -troublesome task, where a horse requires some peculiarity -of make before he can be well fitted; and to ensure a perfect -smoothness and finish a skilful use of the <i>hand iron</i> and -the <i>spokeshave</i> is necessary. Similar care has to be taken -in forming the collars to which the harness is attached; and -indeed no part of the Saddler’s work can be carelessly -performed without serious risk either to the horse or its -owner.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus187" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus187.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Needle and Thread. Clamps. Lead Piece. Hand Knife. -Punch. Round Knife. Pricking Iron. Hand Knife. Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>As a great part of the Saddlers’ work consists of sewing,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_243"></a>[243]</span> -he uses the <i>clamps</i> to hold the leather between his knees, in -the same way as they are used by the shoemaker; but although -he employs the <i>sewing awl</i> for drilling holes, or, at all -events, the <i>pricking iron</i>, the sewing is done with <i>needles</i> -and strongly waxed <i>thread</i>. The various kinds of <i>knives</i> -are used for cutting and paring the leather; the <i>cutting -gauge</i> and <i>compasses</i> for regulating the cutting, the <i>hammer</i> -for driving the small nails used in the work, and the <i>mallet</i> -for striking the <i>pricking iron</i> or <i>punches</i>. The <i>punch</i> is -used for making the holes in the straps to receive the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_244"></a>[244]</span> -tongue of the buckle, and is therefore a hollow tube with a -sharp cutting edge, so that it will cut out a little round -piece of the leather. The <i>dead punch</i> is made solid, and -is not intended for cutting. The leather, when it has to be -cut with the punch, is placed on the <i>lead piece</i>, a small -square block of lead, which being soft allows a slight -yielding of the leather, and at the same time does not -blunt the edge of the punch when it has passed through -the hole.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus188" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus188.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Edging Iron. Seat Awl. Packing Awl. Sewing Awl. -Double Crease. Single Crease. Nail Claw.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>seat awl</i> and <i>packing awl</i> are used in the padding and -making of saddles and collars; the <i>nail claw</i> for removing -nails by which the leather has been fastened down.</p> - -<p>The various kinds of <i>creases</i> are for the purpose of making -channels in the leather along the edges which have to be -sewn, so that the stitches are sunk below the surface, and -the thread will not so easily wear out. The <i>edging iron</i> is -for a similar purpose. In common saddlery some of the -comparatively unimportant straps, or the smaller gear, are -not sewn at the edges, and indeed do not require it, although -a great deal of the Saddler’s sewing is for ornamental purposes. -In order to make the whole look uniform, however,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_245"></a>[245]</span> -these straps are not left plain, but are creased at the edges, -and the channels thus made are marked with the <i>pricking -iron</i>, to give them the appearance of having been stitched. -The Saddler is better off than the shoemaker, inasmuch as he -generally sits to work at a bench, and need not occupy such -a constrained and unhealthy position.</p> - -<p>Some account has already been given of the preparation -of leather, but it will be desirable here to mention other -sorts, some of which particularly belong to the business of -harness making.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus189" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus189.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Screw Crease. Varnish Pot. Sponge.</p> -</div> - -<p>Sheep-skins, when simply tanned, are employed for inferior -bookbinding, for leathering bellows, and for various -other purposes for which a cheap leather is required. All -the <i>whit-leather</i>, as it is termed, which is used for whip-lashes, -bags, aprons, &c. is of sheep-skin; as are also the -cheaper kinds of <i>wash-leather</i>, of which gloves, under-waistcoats, -and other articles of dress, are made. Mock, or -imitation morocco, and most of the other coloured and dyed -leathers used for women’s and children’s shoes, carriage-linings, -and the covering of stools, chairs, sofas, writing-tables, -&c. are also made of sheep-skin.</p> - -<p>Lamb-skins are mostly dressed white or coloured for -gloves; and those of goats and kids supply the best -qualities of light leather, the former being the material of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_246"></a>[246]</span> -the best morocco, while kid leather affords the finest -material for gloves and ladies’ shoes. Leather from goat-skins, -ornamented and sometimes gilt, was formerly used as -a hanging or covering for walls.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus190" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus190.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Harness.</p> -</div> - -<p>Deer and antelope skins, dressed in oil, are used chiefly -for riding breeches. Horse-hides, which, considering their -size, are thin, are tanned and curried, and are used by the -Harness Maker, especially for collars, and occasionally, -when pared thin, for the upper leathers of ladies’ walking -shoes. Dog-skins are thick and rough, and make excellent -leather. Seal-skins produce a leather similar but inferior to -that supplied by dog-skins; and hog-skins afford a thin but -dense leather, which is used mostly for covering the seats of -saddles.</p> - -<p>Currying is the general name given to the various -operations of dressing leather after the tanning is completed, -by which the requisite smoothness, lustre, colour, -and suppleness, are imparted. The processes of the Currier -are various. The first is styled “dipping” the leather. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_247"></a>[247]</span> -consists in moistening with water, and beating upon a -trellis-work of wooden spars with a <i>mallet</i> or <i>mace</i>. After -this beating, by which the stiffness of the hide or skin is -destroyed, it is laid over an inclined board, and scraped and -cleaned, and, wherever it is too thick, pared or shaved down -on the flesh side by the careful application of various two-handled -knives, and then thrown again into water, and -well scoured by rubbing the grain or hair side with pumice-stone, -or with a piece of slatey grit, by which means the -<i>bloom</i>, a whitish matter which is found upon the surface in -tanning, is removed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus191" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus191.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rule. Pincers. File. Pliers.</p> -</div> - -<p>The leather is then rubbed with the <i>pommel</i>, a rectangular -piece of hard wood, about twelve inches long by five broad, -grooved on the under surface, and fastened to the hand. -The Currier uses several of these instruments, with grooves -of various degrees of fineness, and also, for some purposes, -pommels of cork, which are not grooved at all. The object -of this rubbing is to give grain and pliancy to the leather. -The leather is then scraped with tools applied nearly perpendicular -to its surface, and worked forcibly with both -hands, to reduce such parts as may yet be left too thick, -to a uniform substance. After this it is dressed with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_248"></a>[248]</span> -<i>round knife</i>, a singular instrument which pares off the -coarser fleshy parts of the skin. In addition to these -operations, the Currier uses occasionally polishers of smooth -wood or glass, for rubbing the surface of the leather; and -when the leather is intended for the use of the shoemaker, -he applies to it some kind of greasy composition called -<i>dubbing</i> or <i>stuffing</i>.</p> - -<p>Leather is occasionally dressed “black on the grain,” or -having the grain side instead of the flesh coloured. The -currying operations in such a case are similar to those -above described, but the finishing processes are rather -different. The leather is rubbed with a grit-stone, to -remove any wrinkles and smooth down the coarse grain. -The grain is finally raised by repeatedly rubbing over the -surface, in different directions, with the pommel or graining -board.</p> - -<p>Japanned leather of various kinds is used in coach -making, harness making, and for various other purposes. -Patent leather is covered with a coat of elastic japan, -which gives a surface like polished glass, impermeable -to water; and hides prepared in a more perfectly elastic -mode of japanning, which will permit folding without -cracking the surface, are called enamelled leather. Such -leather has the japan annealed, something in the same -mode as glass; the hides are laid between blankets, and -subjected to the heat of an oven at a peculiar temperature -during several hours.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_249"></a>[249]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_HATTER">THE HATTER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus192" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus192.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">CUTTING MACHINE.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Hatter is confined to a few countries of -Europe; but, as the fashion of hats is at present mostly -restricted, both here and in most parts of the Continent, to -those black stiff cylindrical coverings of silk which custom -has ordained we shall wear, greatly to our own discomfort, -and at a great expense, the business is of considerable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_250"></a>[250]</span> -importance, and the making of hats has grown into a -large branch of industry. Before the introduction of that -kind of silk which bears a long pile, like velvet, and is -known as <i>plush</i>, beaver was the material principally used -for hat making; but beaver hats are much more expensive, -though they are now seldom made of the skin or fur of the -beaver, which has grown remarkably scarce, in consequence -of the land which the animals formerly occupied having -become inhabited.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus193" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus193.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Cutting out. Bowing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Beaver hats of the finest quality are made with lamb’s -wool and the fur of English rabbits. To form the body of -the hat, the wool and rabbit’s fur are separately <i>bowed</i> by -bringing a set of strings attached to a bow in contact with -a heap of the material, and then striking the strings, so as -to cause violent vibrations, and thus separate the filaments.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_251"></a>[251]</span> -The two substances are next bowed together until they are -intimately mixed; after which the mass is spread evenly, -covered with an oil-cloth, and pressed to the state of an -imperfectly tangled felt. The next process is to cover the -felt with a triangular piece of damp brown paper, and -then to fold it in a damp cloth, and work it well with -the hand, pressing and bending, rolling and unrolling it, -until the interlacing or felting is much more perfect, and -the mass is compact. The felt thus prepared is next taken -to the wide brim of a boiler charged with hot water and -beer grounds, and a small quantity of sulphuric acid; it is -well rubbed and rolled until it no longer contracts. The -felt is next stiffened with shellac, a solution of which is -applied by means of a brush to both sides of the felt; -after which it is heated in a stove, and by this means the -whole substance becomes duly impregnated with the resin; -this renders the hat nearly waterproof.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus194" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus194.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Bow for Beaver.</p> -</div> - -<p>To form the nap of a hat, one half or three-fourths of an -ounce of beaver, and some other less costly fur, are bowed -together and imperfectly felted in the manner already described, -and shaped the same as the body to which it is to -be applied; that body is then softened by immersing it in -the boiler, when the nap is applied and worked as in felting, -until the required union is effected between the two bodies.</p> - -<p>The felt thus covered is brought to the proper shape by -working it on a wooden block, and is then dyed black.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_252"></a>[252]</span> -The hat is softened by steam, the crown is strengthened by -placing in it a disc of scaleboard, and linen is pasted over -this.</p> - -<p>The nap is raised and a uniform direction given to its -fibres by means of warm irons and hair brushes. The last -processes are lining and binding, when the hat is ready to -be worn. In the low-priced hats of the present day, commoner -wool and fur, and smaller quantities of each, are -used.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus195" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus195.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Lathe. Finishing.</p> -</div> - -<p>Silk hats consist of a cover or exterior part made of silk -plush, which is laid upon a foundation of chip, stiffened -linen, or some other light material, previously blocked into -shape. The so-called velvet and satin hats deserve those -titles only so far as the plush resemble those materials. -The plush is mostly woven in the north of England. Paris -hats are for the most part made in England, the silk plush -being imported from France.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_253"></a>[253]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus196" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus196.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rounding Card, No. 1. Rounding Card, No. 2. Finishing -Iron. Brow-piece. Blistering Iron. Card. Polishing Block. Multer. Brush.</p> -</div> - -<p>The various tools employed are mostly used for shaping -the different parts of the hat. The <i>cutting machine</i>, for -dividing and preparing the felt and other materials; the -<i>block</i>, on which the body of the hat is formed previous to -its being placed in the <i>lathe</i>, where it is made perfectly -round; the <i>brow-piece</i>, for shaping the hat where it fits -the head; the <i>card</i>, a sort of wire brush for scratching up -or carding the fibre of the silk or beaver after the hat is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_254"></a>[254]</span> -made; the <i>rounding cards</i>, for pressing and completing the -hat near the brim; the <i>curler</i>, for turning up and shaping -the brim; the <i>multer</i>, <i>finishing iron</i>, and <i>blistering iron</i>, -are used for shaping and smoothing; the <i>polishing block</i> -holds the hat while it receives the final process of brushing -and smoothing with a pad of velvet called the <i>veleure</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus197" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus197.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Curler. Block. Veleure.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_255"></a>[255]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_MILLER">THE MILLER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus198" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus198.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WATER-MILL.</p> -</div> - -<p>There is scarcely a boy to be found who, when he has been -into the country and seen the wheel of the old water mill -going round, or the fans of the windmill slowly revolving -in the air, has not thought that it would be pleasant to -follow the business of a Miller.</p> - -<p>Millers are proverbially jolly fellows, and their houses and -the mills themselves are generally very picturesque, and -stand in pleasant country places; then, again, what wonderful<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_256"></a>[256]</span> -fat perch and chub and pike can be caught in the weir or -the mill stream, and what a quiet sleepy occupation it must -be to lie on the grass or in some great room in the mill, -watching the fans, or listening to the summer breeze -wafting through the sails!</p> - -<p>If anybody should think, however, that the Miller’s life is -a lazy one he had better alter his opinion; for, unless he -wishes to starve amidst plenty, the Miller must be up -betimes, and, besides working himself, keeping a good look-out -amongst his men, lest both he and his customers should -suffer by their negligence.</p> - -<p>The mortar would seem to be the earliest machine used -for the purpose of bruising or reducing grain to a powder, -or into a state fit for the making of bread. By means of -the handle the pestle would with tolerable facility be -driven round the mortar, and the grain reduced to a powder, -as is done with certain drugs by the pestle of the apothecary -of the present day.</p> - -<p>In process of time, shafts were added to these machines; -and in the opinion of Beckmann, the oldest cattle mills -resembled those described in Sonnerat’s Voyage to the East -Indies, in which the pestle of a mortar, fastened to a stake -driven into the earth, is affixed to a shaft, to which two -oxen are yoked. These oxen are driven by a man, while -another is employed in dropping the grain into the mortar -and placing it under the pestle.</p> - -<p>We have good reason for knowing that the Romans, for -a long time, used no other instrument than the pestle and -mortar.</p> - -<p>Pounding continued in use among the Romans so late as -after the era of Vespasian. This fact clearly proves that -the Romans were many ages behind the Eastern world in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_257"></a>[257]</span> -the arts of civilization, for grinding of corn into flour was -practised, we know, in the times of the patriarchs, and was -probably the invention of the antediluvian world.</p> - -<p>The subject-Britons universally adopted the Roman -name, but applied it, as we their successors apply it at -present, only to the Roman mill; still distinguishing their -own original mill as we distinguish it, by its own original -denomination of a quern. A Roman or water mill was -probably erected at every stationary town in the kingdom, -and it is quite certain that one was erected at Mancunium -(Manchester), serving equally the purposes of the town and -the uses of the garrison. One alone would be sufficient, as -the use of hand-mills was at that time very common in -both, many such having been found about the site of the -station particularly, and the use of them generally having -being retained among us very nearly to the present period. -Such mills it would be particularly necessary to have in the -station, that the garrison might be prudently provided -against a siege.</p> - -<p>The ancient Asiatic hand-mill consists of two flat round -stones, about twenty inches or two feet in diameter, kept -rolling one on the other by means of a stick, which does -the office of a handle. The corn falls down on the undermost -stone, through a hole in the middle of the uppermost, -which by its circular motion spreads it on the undermost, -where it is bruised and reduced to flour; this flour, -working out at the rim of the millstones, lights on a board -set on purpose to receive it. The bread made of it is -said to be better tasted than that made by either wind or -water mills: these hand-mills cost only a few shillings -of English money.</p> - -<p>This description of mill is frequently alluded to in the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_258"></a>[258]</span> -Scriptures, and it was the practice for the women to grind -corn every morning by means of hand-mills; and in the -East, or at least in many parts of it, it continues to be the -practice to this day.</p> - -<p>Water wheels, as far as the figure and construction are -concerned, may be reduced to three kinds, and they are -usually known by the names—overshot wheel, balance -wheel, breast wheel, and undershot wheel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus199" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus199.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mill.</p> -</div> - -<p>In an overshot wheel, the water is conducted over the -top of the wheel, and acts first by its momentum or mere -movement, or motion, and then by its weight—the weight -being its principal power in impelling the wheel round, the -mere movement or motion of the water producing in this -case little effect. The water is received into buckets placed -all around the circle of the wheel. It first strikes the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_259"></a>[259]</span> -wheel at the top, and filling the first bucket, by its momentum -or moving power, and more particularly by its -weight, it sets the wheel in motion, and consequently makes -that side heavier; and as fresh buckets rise to receive the -water, while those below have emptied themselves, a constant -tendency to motion is created, and rotation is produced.</p> - -<p>In a balance wheel, the water strikes the wheel not at -the top, but always more or less above its centre, or axle. -This wheel differs in no respect from the overshot wheel in -its construction. It is employed where there is not a -sufficient fall for an overshot wheel, which requires less -water in consequence of its commanding a much greater -leverage.</p> - -<p>In an undershot wheel the water acts only by its momentum, -or moving power. The circumference of the -wheel, instead of being supplied with buckets, as in the -overshot, and breast or balance wheels, is furnished with -floats, or float boards, as they are called, and, being exposed -to the action of a running stream, generally, if not always, -increased in rapidity by making an artificial fall, is thus -driven round, and in flour-mills its force is communicated -by cog-wheels to the stones employed in reducing corn to -meal.</p> - -<p>In a breast wheel, the water has no previous fall, and -therefore does not strike the floats at the bottom of the -wheels, as in the undershot wheel, with an increased velocity. -The breast wheel is therefore fixed in what is called a race, -formed of stone or brick work, agreeing with the curvature -of the wheel, and being thus let on from its own level, acts -both by its weight and momentum, or movement. This -wheel is unlike the undershot wheel, being close boarded -round its circumference, like an overshot or balance wheel,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_260"></a>[260]</span> -the undershot wheel being always open; in short, it is a -sort of bucket wheel; the buckets, however, being constructed -differently from those of the overshot and balance -wheels.</p> - -<p>A tide-mill, as the name imports, is worked by the -ebbing and flowing of the tide. Of these mills there are -various kinds; first, those in which the water wheel turns -one way when the tide is rising, and the other when it is -falling; secondly, those in which the wheel turns the same -way whether it is rising or falling; thirdly, those in which -the wheel itself rises or falls as the tide flows or ebbs; and -fourthly, those in which the axle of the water wheel is so -fixed, that it shall neither rise nor fall; the rotary motion -being still given to the wheel, whether it be partially or -wholly immersed in the water.</p> - -<p>All the machines for grinding corn and seeds are mills, -whatever may be their particular application. One very -common form is that of an iron machine, supported on four -legs, having a winch handle on one side, a fly wheel on -another, a hopper at the top, and a crushing apparatus in -the centre. The grain or seed is put into the hopper, the -winch handle is turned, the grain becomes crushed to -powder, and falls out at the bottom of the apparatus. -Sometimes the mill is made chiefly of wood, but with iron -wheel and crushing apparatus. One kind of wheat mill, in -addition to the usual mill apparatus, has a chest which acts -as a flour-dressing machine. Some mills are adapted for -crushing beans rather than seeds.</p> - -<p>The crushing apparatus in mills is of two kinds, either -one stone working round in contact with another, or two -metallic surfaces, between which the substance is forced, -but between which it cannot pass except in a fine state.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_261"></a>[261]</span></p> - -<p>The <i>millstones</i> employed in grinding corn require to be -made of a peculiar kind of stone. The greater proportion -of our millstones are procured from a particular spot in -Western Germany. At about ten miles from Coblentz is a -small town called Andernach, the chief trade of which is -in millstones, procured from the neighbouring quarries of -Nieder Mendig. There are several quarries, averaging -about fifty feet in depth, each quarry shaped like an -inverted cone, down the sides of which the quarrymen -descend by a spiral path. The quarrymen have to cut -away through a superincumbent layer of soft porous stone, -till they come to a layer of hard, blackish, heavy stone, -regularly porous, and yielding sparks when struck with -iron. This is the millstone, and requires good and well-prepared -tools to work it; it is supposed to be a compact -lava from some extinct volcano; and as there are fissures -or gaps at intervals, these facilitate the separation of the -stone into blocks suitable for millstones. All round the -bottom of the conical cavities, the stone has been excavated -in galleries or horizontal passages. The stones are brought -to shape by means of hammers and chisels. A deep socket -is cut through the middle of such stones as are intended -for runners, or upper stones. The furrows on the surfaces -of the stones are produced by means of a double-edged -hammer, about 14 lbs. weight.</p> - -<p>Windmills are of two kinds; in one the wind is made to -act upon vanes or sails, generally four, which are disposed -so as to revolve by that action in a plane which is nearly -vertical; and in the other, the axis of revolution being -precisely vertical, any point on the surface of a vane -revolves in a horizontal plane. The former is called a -<i>vertical</i> windmill, and the latter a <i>horizontal</i> windmill.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_262"></a>[262]</span></p> - -<p>The building for a vertical windmill is generally a wall -of timber or brickwork, in the form of a frustrum of a -cone, and terminated above by a wooden dome, which is -capable of revolving horizontally upon it. A ring of wood, -forming the lower part of the dome, rests upon a ring of -the same material at the top of the wall, and the surfaces -in contact being made very smooth, the dome may easily -be turned round upon the wall; and is prevented from -sliding off by a rim which projects from it, and descends -over the interior circumference of the lower ring. The -dome in turning carries with it the windsails and their -axle; and thus the wind sails may be adjusted to agree with -the direction of the wind, or the plane in which the radii of -the sails turn may be made perpendicular to that direction. -The revolution is sometimes accomplished by the force of a -man applied to a winch near the ground, but in general the -wind itself is made to turn the dome or the mill by means -of a set of small vanes, which are situated at the extremity -of a long horizontal arm projecting from the dome, in a -plane passing through the vertical shaft of the mill, and on -the side opposite to the great sails.</p> - -<p>A horizontal windmill is a great cylindrical frame of -timber, which is made to revolve about an upright centre, -and its convex surface is formed of boards attached in vertical -positions to the upper and lower parts of the frame. The -whole is enclosed in a fixed cylinder having the same -upright centre as the other; this consists of a <i>revolving -screen</i> or a number of boards, which are so disposed that -in whatever direction the wind may blow, it may enter -between them on one side only of a vertical plane, passing -through the axis, and thus give motion to the interior -cylinder. The effective power of the vertical windmill is,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_263"></a>[263]</span> -however, so much greater than that of the horizontal windmill, -that the latter is now seldom constructed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus200" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus200.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Dressing Machine or Bolter. Jack.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>dressing machine</i> consists of a hollow cylinder, or -frame, covered with wire cloth of different degrees of fineness, -the finest being at the elevated, or upper end of the -cylinder, which is inclined in the same way as the bolting -mill. Within the cylinder, which may be made of pieces -of wood rendered circular, and, like the ribs of an animal, -placed at certain distances from each other, a reel is placed -with its axle in the centre of the cylinder, which is fixed, or -stationary. To the rails of this reel are attached hair brushes, -which, when made to revolve, or turn round, brush against -the interior cloth wire surface of the cylinder. The machine -is provided with a shoe or jigger, very similar to that of the -millstones, to cause a regular supply of flour or meal in the -same state in which it came from the millstones through a -spout from the floor above, to which it is elevated by the -sack tackle, or elevator, after being ground. The meal by -this means being gradually let, or fed into the cylinder, is,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_264"></a>[264]</span> -by the motion of the brushes of the reel, sifted or rubbed -through the cloth wire with which the cylinder is covered. -The finest of the flour will go through the upper end, where -the finest wire cloth is placed; the next finest through -the next division of the wire cloth, which is coarser, the -middlings through the following division, the pollard, or -sharps, through the last, and the bran, not being able to get -through the wire cloth at all, on account of its coarseness, -is thrown out at the end of the cylinder. The cylinder is -enclosed in a large and close box, to prevent the waste of -flour by its going off in dust. This box is divided into -several compartments, or partitions, by means of moveable<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_265"></a>[265]</span> -boards. Some millers have more partitions than others, -and indeed they all vary the number to suit the nature or -sort of flour which they are manufacturing. In a dressing -machine of three divisions, the flour deposited in the first is -called household, or seconds, that in the second middlings, -and in the third pollard, which is not flour, but a fine -description of bran.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus201" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus201.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Revolving Screen. Jacob’s Ladder.</p> -</div> - -<p>When wheat arrives at a mill to be ground the sacks are -received in the lower part of the mill, and hoisted by -means of the sack tackle to the upper storeys, generally the -uppermost. The mode of this operation is as follows, and -it is performed with little bodily labour. The rope or chain -of the sack tackle is firmly fastened round the mouth of the -sack by the man below, who by means of a rope attached -to a lever throws the tackle into gear. The sack then -immediately ascends, without any further aid from the -man, through the different trap doors, till it has arrived at -the place of its destination. There another man is ready -to receive it, who, as soon as he has landed it by pulling it -on one side, throws the tackle out of gear, and returns the -rope or chain to the man below. The wheat is then shot -into a garner or bin, and thus the same process goes on till -the whole load or cargo is safely deposited in the bin or -garner. The wheat remains there till it is wanted to be -ground, when, by means of a spout, it is conveyed to the -hoppers below, and from thence runs in between the stones. -In its progress to the stones, it may, or may not, be subjected -to a cleansing process. The wheat being reduced to -a flour, escapes through an aperture of the floor into a -spout, by which it is conveyed to the trough. It is then -either put into sacks, and drawn up again into one of the -higher storeys, and deposited in bins over the dressing<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_266"></a>[266]</span> -machines, or this is effected by a machine called an <i>elevator</i>, -which performs the operation without the assistance of -manual labour. In this bin the flour should be left till, at -any rate, it is perfectly cold, but is will be all the better if -it remain for three or four weeks, provided it be occasionally -turned. From this bin it is passed, by means of a spout, -to the hopper of the bolting mill or dressing machine, by -which it is separated from the bran or pollard, and is then -fit for use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus202" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus202.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Smutter. Scoop. Claw.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>screening machine</i> consists of a roller-shaped sieve, -so divided, that the corn which is placed at one end passes -over a large surface of wire as the sieve revolves, and this -operation removes from it external impurities, such as sand -and dirt. When it arrives at the end of the screw the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_267"></a>[267]</span> -wheat falls into a hopper, by which it is conveyed by -spouts into small hoppers, placed over one side of each pair -of millstones. From these hoppers there are spouts placed -in nearly a horizontal line, which spouts conduct the corn -from the hoppers to the eye of the millstone. They are -attached to the hopper, so as to admit of a horizontal -motion, which is effected by a projecting part of the axle -or spindle of the stone, called a <i>damsel</i>. It is shaped like -a cross, so that, by the revolution of the millstone, it keeps -tapping the end of the spout, and gives a rapid vibratory -motion to it, which causes a regular supply of corn to enter -the eye of the stone; by the action of the stones the corn is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_268"></a>[268]</span> -reduced to flour, which passes, by means of spouts, into -the troughs on the ground floor.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus203" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus203.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Scales and Weights. Troughs.</p> -</div> - -<p>The <i>troughs</i> in which the flour is kept; the <i>scoop</i> and -<i>scales</i> for weighing small quantities; the <i>claw</i> for moving -and the <i>steelyard</i> for weighing sacks, are the other principal -objects seen in a mill. <i>Jacob’s ladder</i> is the name -given to a revolving band fitted with a number of leathern -cups. These revolve with the band through the flour and -serve to carry it up a shaft from one floor to another.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus204" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus204.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Steelyard.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_269"></a>[269]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_BAKER">THE BAKER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus205" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus205.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">BAKING OVEN AND KNEADING TROUGH.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of all the trades that are carried on in large towns there -is none more important than that of the Baker. In some -parts of the country, where people make their own bread at -home, or at all events have all the materials for making it, -and know how to mix the different ingredients, it is of less<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_270"></a>[270]</span> -consequence; but only imagine what would be our dismay -in London, if we got up some morning and heard that all the -bakers had agreed not to send in the rolls for breakfast, -and that we must be satisfied to live upon puddings and -vegetables until they set to work again to make bread.</p> - -<p>And yet, in the early part of their history, several nations -of which we read at school had no knowledge of the trade -of a Baker. Until they discovered the art of making proper -bread, and somebody showed them the use of an oven, the -Romans made their meal into a sort of porridge, or knew -no better than to mix it into flat cakes, which they cooked -on hot stones or in the wood ashes of their fires. The -Anglo-Saxons were a little better off, for they mixed leaven -with their dough, to make the cakes lighter and better; but -you will remember—by the story of King Alfred, who when -he was in disguise and going to watch the Danish camp, -was left in the neatherd’s hut to watch the cooking of the -cakes—that they were baked in the embers of burnt wood -upon the hearth.</p> - -<p>In many parts of Europe they still use a sort of cake-bread -or rolls instead of loaves; and in some parts of northern -Germany and Russia the bread of the peasants is nearly -black, and is so coarse and sour that few English people -could eat it, especially as it is kept till it grows quite hard, -and sometimes has to be cut with a saw.</p> - -<p>The Eastern nations understood the use of ovens, however, -and the Jews especially were very good Bakers, as were -probably the Egyptians, for we read of Pharaoh’s Baker, -whose dream Joseph interpreted. The trade of baking was -held in very high esteem amongst the nations of antiquity, -and included not only the making of bread, but of those -cakes and sweetmeats of which all Oriental people, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_271"></a>[271]</span> -some European people too, are so fond. By reading the -history of the Jews and the Egyptians we learn that -fermented or leavened bread was in common use amongst -them, at a very early period of their history, so that the -pulse-eating people, or the people of Europe who could only -eat grain made into porridge, or simply cooked, were for a -long time behind the Orientals in this respect. It was not -till 600 years after the establishment of the Roman state -that a public bakery was opened in Rome itself, and before -this time, which was about 167 years before the birth of -Christ, all the baking and bread making was done, amongst -the rest of the family cooking, in the kitchens of private -houses.</p> - -<p>When the public bakeries were established, however, -those who followed the trade were held in great respect, -and a code of laws was made to regulate the manner in -which their business should be conducted. The same -importance was given to the trade in England, when Bakers -first set up business in the large towns, and people began to -buy their loaves instead of making them at home. The -early statutes and laws place Bakers above mere handicraftsmen, -and ranked them with gentlemen, and very -severe punishments were inflicted on fraudulent Bakers, who -neglected to mark their loaves so that “wheaten” bread -might be distinguished from “household;” the same laws -condemned that Baker to the pillory who gave short weight, -even by so much as the fraction of an ounce, and the bakehouses -were placed under the control of the magistrates.</p> - -<p>There are many people who think that some such -stringent laws might be usefully employed now, and there -can be no doubt that the Baker has too many opportunities -of adulterating his bread, or sending short weight: the first<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_272"></a>[272]</span> -seriously injuring the health, and the second the pockets, of -his customers. One of the worst features of the Baker’s -trade in our time, however, is the dirty condition of the -bakehouses and places where bread is made, the filthy -habits which such places give rise to, and the very long hours -during which journeymen Bakers are at work. All these -matters have lately been made the subject of inquiry, and -it may be hoped that they will be greatly improved.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus206" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus206.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Egg Whisk. Flour Basket and Scoop. Egg Brush.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus207" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus207.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Sieve. Brush. Rasp. Cleaning Net. Paste Cutter. Biscuit -Marker. Knife. Iron Peel. Wooden Peel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The tools that are used in most bakeries are, beside the -<i>oven</i>, where the bread is baked, and the <i>kneading trough</i>, in -which the dough is mixed: a <i>seasoning tub</i> for mixing -other ingredients to be mingled with the dough, a <i>wire sieve</i> -for sifting the flour, and a <i>seasoning sieve</i> made of tin -pierced with small holes; a <i>flour basket</i> lined with tin, and -a <i>flour scoop</i>, a <i>pail</i>, a <i>bowl</i>, a <i>salt-bin</i>, which should be -near the oven, a <i>yeast tub</i>, a <i>dough knife</i>, <i>scales</i> and <i>weights</i> -for weighing the dough before it is moulded into a loaf, a -<i>scraper</i> for removing the dough from the trough and the -board where the loaves are shaped, wooden and iron <i>peels</i>, a<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_273"></a>[273]</span> -sort of shovels with long handles, -for placing the bread in the oven -or removing loaves, dishes and -cakes, after they are baked, a <i>rasp</i>, -like a coarse broad file with a bent -handle, for rasping off any portion -of burnt crust; a <i>dusting brush</i> -for sweeping away refuse of flour -or dust from the boards where the -loaves are made or placed after -baking, an <i>egg whisk</i> for beating -eggs used in pastry, and an <i>egg -brush</i> for putting a glazing of egg -on the outside of buns or cakes,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_274"></a>[274]</span> -differently shaped <i>tins</i> or <i>moulds</i> for rolls or other articles -of fancy bakery, coarse squares of <i>baize</i> or <i>flannel</i> for -covering the dough or the newly-made bread, and a -<i>scuttle</i>, <i>swabber</i>, or <i>cleaning net</i>, made of a quantity of -rough netting fastened on the end of a pole, and which, -after being wetted, is used for the final removal of all dirt -from the oven just before “setting the batch,” or placing -the loaves for baking. Beside these there are in most -bakehouses <i>set ups</i>, or oblong pieces of beech wood, to be -placed in the oven for the purpose of keeping the loaves in -their places.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus208" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus208.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Tin for French Rolls. Tin for Sponge Cakes.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus209" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus209.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Scales and Weights.</p> -</div> - -<p>It would be impossible to give instructions here how to -make the various sorts of bread, but the ordinary kind sold -by London Bakers is made much in the following way:—</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_275"></a>[275]</span></p> - -<p>Suppose that the Baker desires to make up a sack of flour; -he empties it into the kneading trough, and then proceeds -to sift it, in order to make it lie more lightly and to break -up any lumps.</p> - -<p>He then takes from eight to ten pounds of potatoes and -boils them, without removing the skins, afterwards mashing -them in the seasoning tub, with about half the quantity of -flour, and adding a couple of pails of water. To this -mixture he pours about two quarts of yeast, made from the -liquor of boiled hops, malt, and patent yeast already made -and sold for the purpose. This is the leaven, which makes -the difference between bread and meal-cake, or the English -loaf and the Australian “damper,” which is made only of -flour and water, and baked at a bush fire; the yeast or -leaven is, in fact, meal in its early state of decomposition.</p> - -<p>This mixture then is left in the seasoning tub, covered -with a sack for several hours, and allowed to ferment. Then -the Baker separates about a quarter of the flour in the -trough by means of a board, and piles it up at one end -apart from the larger quantity, and it is upon this that he -pours the contents of the seasoning tub, taking care that it -passes through a sieve placed on a couple of sticks across -the trough.</p> - -<p>This portion upon which the liquor has been poured -is called the <i>sponge</i>, and he proceeds to “set it” by -thoroughly mixing, and finally giving it a dust of flour at -the top, after which it is kept for five or six hours, or until -it has twice “risen,” or puffed out by means of the fermenting -liquor within it.</p> - -<p>Just as it has risen a second time, and air bubbles are -breaking through it to the surface, about three more pailfuls -of water are poured upon it, and in this water about three<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_276"></a>[276]</span> -pounds of salt have been dissolved; this is well mixed with -the sponge, and then, the board being removed, the sponge -and the rest of the flour is worked into one mass. It is -this kneading and breaking up the sponge which is the hard -labour of the Baker, and that it is hard labour may be -known from the fact that he works nearly naked, and that, -as he lifts and pummels the tenacious mass, he heaves great -sighs and groans like those with which paviors ram down -the stones in the roads. In many of the best bakehouses -now a machine is used, which supersedes this manual -labour; the mass of dough being placed in a cylinder, -within which an axle fitted with bent blades, or arms of -iron, revolves, passing through and through the dough as it -moves from end to end.</p> - -<p>By another system (that of Dr. Dauglish) the use of -yeast is dispensed with, and the bread, made by machinery, -is leavened by carbonic acid gas, which is forced into the -cylinder after the atmospheric air is pumped out, and -so goes through the dough and produces the results of -fermentation.</p> - -<p>The dough having been thoroughly mixed in the trough, -is left for an hour or two to “prove,” and then, after being -sprinkled with flour to prevent its sticking, is thrown out -upon a board, or the lid of the next trough, and cut into -pieces which are weighed, and afterwards moulded into -loaves. The moulding is only learnt by practice. The piece -of dough is cut in half and shaped according to the kind of -loaf required, one piece forming the top of the loaf, being -laid in a hollow of that which is to be the bottom, and the -joint made by a skilful turn of the knuckles. The loaves -are placed in the oven by means of the peel, and are packed -at the back and sides as closely as possible, the cottage<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_277"></a>[277]</span> -bread only being separate, that it may be crusted all -round. The batch takes about two hours to bake. Biscuits -are now mostly made by machinery, which in large establishments -turns them out ready for the oven; but when they -are wholly or partially made by hand, the dough is prepared -and afterwards moulded into shapes, and each shape pricked -with the <i>docker</i>, before being placed in the oven.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus210" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus210.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Cornfield.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_278"></a>[278]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_SUGAR_REFINER">THE SUGAR REFINER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus211" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus211.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">BOILING HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>Although sugar was known from very early times, it was -used only in medicine, and was supposed to be a sort of -honey found upon canes in India and Arabia. It is frequently -mentioned by the very early writers. The culture<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_279"></a>[279]</span> -of the canes seems to have been confined to the islands -of the Indian Archipelago, and the kingdoms of Bengal, -Siam, &c. The traffic in sugar was so lucrative that the -Indians concealed the mode of preparing it, stating to the -merchants of Ormus, who imported it with gums and spices, -that it was extracted from a reed, whereupon many unsuccessful -attempts were made to find it in the reed-like -plants of Arabia. In 1250 the great discoverer, Marco -Polo, visited the country of the sugar cane, and the merchants -afterwards sent to the place of its growth, instead of -buying it at Ormus. For a long period the use of sugar in -England was confined to medicines, or to preparing choice -dishes at feasts; and this continued till 1580, when it was -brought from Brazil to Portugal, and thence to our country.</p> - -<p>Cultivators distinguish three great varieties of canes—the -Creole, the Batavian, and the Otaheite. The Creole cane is -indigenous to India, and was transplanted thence to Sicily, -the Canary Isles, the Antilles, South America, and to the -West Indies. It has dark green leaves, and a thin but very -knotty stem. The Batavian or striped cane, which has a -dense foliage, and is covered with purpled stripes, is a native -of Java, where it is chiefly cultivated for the manufacture -of rum; it is also met with in some parts of the New World -and the West Indies. The Otaheite variety grows most -luxuriantly, is the most juicy, and yields the largest product. -It is cultivated chiefly in the West Indies and South -America; it ripens in ten months, and is hardier than the -other varieties.</p> - -<p>The sugar cane, being originally a bog-plant requires a -moist, nutritive soil, and a hot tropical or sub-tropical -climate. It is propagated by slips or pieces of the stem, -with buds on them, and about two feet long. It arrives at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_280"></a>[280]</span> -maturity in twelve or sixteen months, according to the -temperature; the leaves fall off towards the following -season, and the stem acquires a straw-yellow colour. The -cane is cut by some planters before the flowering season, but -it is more usual to cut it some weeks after. The plantations -are so arranged that the various divisions of the fields may -ripen in succession. The land should be supplied with -manure rich in nitrogen, but not containing much saline -matter. After the harvest the roots strike again, and produce -a fresh crop of canes; but in about six years they -require to be removed.</p> - -<p>The time for cutting the canes varies with the soil and -season, and the different varieties of cane. In a state of -maturity the canes are from six feet to fifteen feet in length, -and from one and a half inch to two inches in diameter. -The usual signs of maturity are a dry, smooth, brittle skin, -a heavy cane, a grey pith, and sweet and glutinous juice. -Canes should be cut in dry weather, or the juice will be -found diluted with an excess of water. When cut they are -tied up in bundles, and conveyed to the crushing mill, -particular attention being paid that the supply should not -exceed the demand, otherwise the cut canes would ferment -and spoil.</p> - -<p>The sugar cane grows from pieces or slips of itself, containing -germs, and these develop rootlets at the joints, which -draw sustenance to the young shoot as it increases. In the -course of time the buds in the radicle, or root-joints of the -first cane, throw out roots, and form a radicle for a second -stem; and in this way, under favourable circumstances, -several canes are produced from the parent stock for a -period of about six years, and sometimes for several more. -They, however, diminish every year in length of joint and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_281"></a>[281]</span> -circumference, and are inferior in appearance to the original -plant; but they yield richer juice, and produce finer sugar.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus212" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus212.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Filtering Bag.</p> -</div> - -<p>The sugar exists in the cells of the cane in a state of -solution, and is extracted therefrom by pressure. With this, -as with other branches of industry, science has of late years -stepped in, and has greatly facilitated the process of extraction -and manufacture. It may be as well to give here -a summary of the processes employed in the preparation -of raw sugar: The canes are passed through the mill, and -the juice thus extracted from them runs from the mill into -a tank, whence it is pumped to cisterns for supplying the -<i>clarifiers</i>, heated by steam, where it is purified. From thence -it is run into <i>bag filters</i>, by which the mechanical impurities -are removed. It is then run into <i>charcoal filters</i> to remove -the colouring matter of the juice. The filtered juice is then -run off into tanks and is drawn thence by vacuum into the -<i>vacuum pan</i>, where it is granulated, and from whence it is -finally discharged for packing. When the steam clarifiers -are not employed the cane juice is run into a series of pans -or <i>teaches</i> over open fires. This apparatus is also known -as a “battery,” and forms another method of purification.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus213" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus213.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Stirring Rod. Ladle. Scraper. Crowbar Wrench.</p> -</div> - -<p>The original crushing apparatus of India was a kind of -squeezing mortar, made out of the hollow trunk of a tamarind<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_282"></a>[282]</span> -tree, and worked by a yoke of oxen, the pestle or -stamper being a strong beam eighteen feet long, and rounded -at the bottom so as to squeeze or crush the canes in the -mortar. Mills similar to those used for crushing oil seeds -were used—as were also several other forms of apparatus—before -rollers were introduced. Stone and iron rollers -were first used, with the axes in a vertical position, but the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_283"></a>[283]</span> -horizontal was soon found to be the more convenient and -economical. The importance of a systematic mechanical -arrangement appears to have awakened attention during the -reign of Charles the Second, for in 1663, Lord Willoughby -and Lawrence Hyde (second son of Edward, Earl of Clarendon, -High Chancellor of England) associated themselves -with one David de Marcato, an inventor, and obtained a -patent for twenty-one years for making and framing sugar -mills. In 1691, John Tizack patented an engine for milling -sugar canes, &c.; but in this, as in the previous case, it is -not specified how the mill should be made. Later on in -1721, William Harding, a smith, of London, who had been -many years in Jamaica, and was skilled in the manufacture -of sugar mills, having observed their imperfections, how -that they were chiefly made with large wooden cogs cased -with iron, endeavoured while abroad to improve their construction, -but failed for want of competent workmen. On -his return to London he made models of sugar mills which -were approved by the Royal Society. These mills were -fitted with cast iron rollers and cog wheel gearing, and were -worked by water power; from description they appear to -be the type of mills of the present day. Some forty-five -years later, Yonge and Barclay, ironfounders, of Allhallowslane, -City, applied friction wheels to sugar mills. In 1773, -John Fleming, a mill carpenter, proposed an arrangement -of windmill sails which turned a vertical timber shaft shod -with iron, and which gave motion to two hard wooden rollers, -between which the cane was guided and squeezed. In 1807, -H. C. Newman, of St. Christopher, West Indies, designed -a mill to be worked by horse power. He used cog and -crown wheels to give motion to three upright rollers, and -the arrangement was considered one which greatly augmented<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_284"></a>[284]</span> -the power and execution of this class of machinery. -In 1821, John Collinge, of Lambeth, improved cast iron -sugar mills by casting the rollers on wrought iron shafts, -instead of keying them on, as previously done. In 1840, -James Robinson patented improvements in sugar mills, -which consisted in using four rollers, one large one and three -smaller ones beneath, placed horizontally, and gearing by -cogs into each other. Up to that time three rollers only<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_285"></a>[285]</span> -appear to have been used. He also proposed to use six -rollers, which are fed from an endless band passing over the -rollers. He cast the rollers and shafts in one piece, cored -out to admit steam to facilitate the extraction of the juice -from the cane during crushing. He also proposed to tin -the interior of vacuum pans, &c. Various other arrangements -have been patented, but it is unnecessary here to -enumerate, much less to describe, them. The foregoing -examples give an idea of the progress of the subject during -nearly two hundred years. The last ten years have seen -rapid strides made in improving the make of mills, and the -general arrangement of sugar works.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus214" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus214.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Sparla. Trowel. Chisel. Hammer. Loosening Stove. Crowbar Hammer. Scoop for filling Moulds.</p> -</div> - -<p>Cane juice, as expressed by the mill, is an opaque, slightly -viscid fluid, of a dull grey, olive, or olive green colour, and -of a sweet balmy taste. The juice is so exceedingly fermentable -that, in the climate of the West Indies, it would -often run into the acetous fermentation in twenty minutes -after leaving the mill, if the process of clarifying were not -immediately commenced.</p> - -<p>The processes followed in the West Indies for separating -the sugar from the juice are as follows: The juice is conducted -by channels from the mill to large flat-bottomed -<i>clarifiers</i>, which contain from three hundred to a thousand -gallons each. When the clarifier is filled with juice, a -little slaked lime is added to it; and when the liquor in -the clarifier becomes hot by a fire underneath, the solid -portions of the cane juice coagulate, and are thrown up in -the form of scum. The clarified juice, which is bright, clear, -and of a yellow wine colour, is transferred to the largest of -a series of evaporating coppers or pans, three or more in -number, in which it is reduced in bulk by boiling; it is -transferred from one pan to another, and heated until the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_286"></a>[286]</span> -sugar is brought to the state of a soft mass of crystals imbedded -in molasses—a thick, viscid, and uncrystallizable -fluid. The soft concrete sugar is removed from the coolers -into a range of casks, in which the molasses gradually -drains from the crystalline portion, percolating through -spongy plantain stalks placed in a hole at the bottom of -each cask, which act as so many drains to convey the liquid -to a large cistern beneath. With sugar of average quality, -three or four weeks is sufficient for this purpose. The liquid -portion constitutes molasses, which is employed to make -rum. The crystallized portion is packed in hogsheads for -shipment as raw, brown, or muscovado sugar; and in this -state it is commonly exported from our West Indian -colonies.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus215" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus215.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Besom. Lump Mould. Loaf Mould.</p> -</div> - -<p>The refining of sugar is mainly a bleaching process, conducted -on a large scale in England. There are two varieties<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_287"></a>[287]</span> -produced by this bleaching, viz. clayed and loaf sugar. For -clayed sugar, the sugar is removed from the coolers into -conical earthen moulds called formes, each of which has a -small hole at the apex. These holes being stopped up, -the forms are placed apex downwards in other earthen -vessels. The syrup, after being stirred round, is left for -from fifteen to twenty hours to crystallize. The plugs are -then withdrawn, to let out the uncrystallized syrup; and -the base of the crystallized loaf being removed, the forme -is filled up with pulverized white sugar.</p> - -<p>This is well pressed down, and then a quantity of clay -mixed with water is placed upon the sugar, the formes -being put into fresh empty pots.</p> - -<p>The moisture from the clay, filtering through the sugar, -carries with it a portion of the colouring matter, which is -more soluble than the crystals themselves. By a repetition -of this process, the sugar attains nearly a white colour, and -is then dried and crushed for sale.</p> - -<p>But loaf sugar is the kind most usually produced by the -refining processes. The brown sugar is dissolved with hot -water, and then filtered through canvas bags, from which it -exudes as a clear, transparent, though reddish syrup. The -removal of this red tinge is effected by filtering the syrup -through a mass of powdered charcoal, and we have then a -perfectly transparent colourless liquid.</p> - -<p>In the evaporation or concentration of the clarified syrup, -which forms the next part of the refining process, the -boiling is effected (under the admirable system introduced -by Mr. Howard) in a vacuum, at a temperature of about -140° Fahrenheit. The sugar pan is a large copper vessel, -with arrangements for extracting the air, admitting the -syrup, admitting steam pipes, and draining off the sugar<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_288"></a>[288]</span> -when concentrated. In using the pan a quantity of syrup -is admitted, and an air pump is set to work to extract all -the air from the pan, in order that the contents may boil at -a low temperature. The evaporation proceeds, and when -completed the evaporated syrup flows out of the pan -through a pipe into an open vessel beneath, called the -<i>granulating vessel</i>, around which steam circulates, and within -which the syrup is brought to a partially crystallized state. -From the granulators the syrup or sugar is transferred into -moulds of a conical form, which were formerly made of -coarse pottery, but are now usually of iron. In these moulds -the sugar whitens and crystallizes, the remaining uncrystallized -syrup flowing out at an opening at the bottom of the -moulds. This syrup is reboiled with raw sugar, so as to -yield an inferior quality of sugar; and, when all the crystallizable -matter has been extracted from it, the remainder is -sold as treacle. The loaves of sugar, after a few finishing -processes, are ready for sale.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_289"></a>[289]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_DYER_AND_SCOURER">THE DYER AND SCOURER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus216" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus216.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">DYERS AT WORK.</p> -</div> - -<p>The trade of the Dyer may be placed amongst the most -ancient of the arts, and the tools that are used in it are so -few that they need scarcely any description, since almost -all the apparatus required are the various coppers, vats, and -other vessels used for boiling the fabrics to be dyed, and -immersing them completely in the liquors which have been -prepared from the dye stuffs, the proper use of which is -the principal secret in the business. With regard to the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_290"></a>[290]</span> -scouring or cleaning of fabrics, whether made into garments -or not, the operation consists in applying detergents, or -substances like soap and turpentine, for removing grease -and dirt, or other liquids which have a detergent property -but will not injure the colours; the use of these, with a -<i>sponge</i> and a <i>hard brush</i>, is nearly all that is required; the -garment sent to be cleaned being stretched on a <i>frame</i> and -dried, either in the dyer’s <i>drying room</i>, or in some open -situation, where they are least likely to be soiled or spotted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus217" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus217.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Drying Room. Sponge. Hard Brush.</p> -</div> - -<p>The art of dyeing was practised to a very great extent -by the ancient Egyptians, Phœnicians, Greeks, and Romans; -and the island of Tyre was, in very early times, celebrated -for a purple dye which was, perhaps from its costliness,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_291"></a>[291]</span> -used for colouring the robes of kings and emperors, from -which practice purple became the imperial colour.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus218" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus218.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Garment Frame.</p> -</div> - -<p>The art of modern dyeing very greatly consists in the -proper use of what are called mordants, that is, substances -which, although they do not of themselves produce colour, -so act upon the dyes as to cause them to give an intenser -hue to the fabric, and also serve to make the colour permanent. -The modern dyers have obtained several dye -drugs unknown to the ancients, such as cochineal, quercitron, -Brazil and logwood, arnotts, and indigo, which was -only known to the Romans as a paint; but the vast -superiority of our dyes must be principally ascribed to the -employment of alum and solution of tin mixed with other -substances as mordants, which give depth, durability, and -lustre to the colours. Another improvement in dyeing is -the application of metallic compounds, such as Prussian -blue, chrome yellow, and manganese brown, to textile or -woven fabrics.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_292"></a>[292]</span></p> - -<p>Our readers will see from what has been said of mordants -how what are called fast colours are obtained, fast colours -meaning colours which will not be affected even by the -liquor of the dye bath. Another very necessary subject of -information in relation to dyeing is the fact that different -substances, such as silk and wool, will not be equally affected -by the dye in which they are placed, since the particles -contained in the composition of these substances have different -degrees of what is called affinity, that is, they combine -in a greater or less degree with the component matter of -the dye stuff.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus219" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus219.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Vats and Copper Pan. Wringing Machine.</p> -</div> - -<p>We have already said something of the preparation of -cotton. The operations to which silk and wool are subjected -before being dyed are intended to separate superfluous substances<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_293"></a>[293]</span> -from the animal fibre, and to make that fibre more -easily unite with the colouring particles.</p> - -<p>Silk is scoured by means of being boiled in water and -soap, whereby the animal varnish is removed from the -surface; if intended to be very white, it is bleached by -humid sulphurous acid. Wool is first washed in running -water to separate its coarse impurities, and is then freed -from the greasy animal matter secreted from the skin of the -sheep by means of ammoniacal liquor, soap and water, or -a solution of soda. It is finally bleached by the fumes of -burning sulphur, or by aqueous sulphuric acid.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus220" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus220.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Dipping Copper, Winch, Punching, &c.</p> -</div> - -<p>What are called tinctorial colours, as distinguished from -mordants, are either simple or compound. The simple are<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_294"></a>[294]</span> -black, brown or dun, blue, yellow, and red; the compounds -are grey, purple, green, orange, and others.</p> - -<p>Gall nuts, pyrolignite of iron, logwood, copperas, and verdigris, -are the chief materials for producing black. Walnuts, -sumach, madder, cochineal, cudbear, acetate of iron, catechu, -Brazil wood, arnotts, are all employed in producing brown. -Indigo, Prussian blue, and woad for blue. Fustic, Persian -berries, quercitron, turmeric, and weld for yellow. Cudbear, -Brazil wood, cochineal, kermes, lac, logwood, madder, safflower, -for red; and various compounds for purple, green, -orange, &c.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus221" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus221.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Carboy for Spirits. Syphon. Puncheon. Pole for Stirring.</p> -</div> - -<p>The dye materials imported from foreign countries are -principally cochineal, fustic, gum arabic, gum senegal, gum -animi, gum copal, gum tragacanth, indigo, lac dye, shellac, -logwood, madder, smalts, valonia, yellow berries, and zaffre.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_295"></a>[295]</span> -The tools shown in the engravings explain themselves, and, -as has been already said, principally consist of the various -coppers and vats, the <i>syphons</i> or tubes by which liquor will -flow from one vessel to another, and the <i>puncheons</i>, for -stirring and thoroughly immersing the articles in the dye -stuff.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus222" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus222.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Rail. Thermometer and Measure. Measure.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_296"></a>[296]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_COPPERSMITH">THE COPPERSMITH.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus223" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus223.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">WORKSHOP.</p> -</div> - -<p>The very great variety of purposes for which the metal -called copper is used, renders it one of the most valuable -productions of this country, and several very important -manufactures would be incomplete without it, since it is -the principal material of which many large vessels are -formed, and is also largely employed as an alloy for other -metals. Although the metal is sometimes found in a pure -or native state, its most abundant ore is that known as -copper pyrites, of which there are many kinds. The most<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_297"></a>[297]</span> -common yellow copper ore is a very abundant mineral, -found in large quantities in Cornwall, Devon, and the Isle -of Anglesea, and is a compound of about equal parts of -copper, iron, and sulphur. The mines of Devon and Cornwall -yield more than three-fourths of the copper obtained in -England, or about 190,000 tons of ore in a year, the value -of which is above a million sterling. The amount of copper -annually obtained in the United Kingdom is about 15,000 -tons, worth more than a million and a half of money. -About the same quantity is imported into this country -from Chili and Cuba, and a very valuable copper ore is also -found at the Burra Burra mines in Australia.</p> - -<p>The copper ores of Cornwall and other parts of the -country are generally shipped to Swansea, where coal is -abundant, in order to be separated from the metal. For -this purpose the ore is heated to redness, or roasted in an -open furnace, in order to burn away the sulphur, and the -fumes given out by this process are most pernicious. The -ore is afterwards melted several times to separate the other -impurities, which, when fused, float like scum on the surface -of the liquid metal, and are then easily removed.</p> - -<p>Copper has a peculiar reddish colour, and will bear a -brilliant polish; its smell and taste are both disagreeable. -It is one of the most malleable of metals, and can be so -readily worked by the hammer that it is beaten out into -thin leaves, which, under the name of “Dutch metal,” are -employed in ornamenting toys, &c. in imitation of gilding.</p> - -<p>It is also so ductile that it can be drawn out into finer -wires than any ordinary metal, except gold, silver, and iron, -and its tenacity is so great that a wire one-tenth of an inch -in diameter will bear a weight of 175 lbs. This wire is -very flexible, and not very elastic, but when rolled into<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_298"></a>[298]</span> -sheets copper is one of the most elastic, and when struck -one of the most vibratory and loud sounding metals.</p> - -<p>If taken into the animal system all preparations of copper -are violent poisons; and, as this metal is directly acted upon -by vinegar and other acids, it should not be employed for -making vessels used in cooking or preparing food.</p> - -<p>The easy malleability of copper allows it to be rolled -into thin sheets, which can easily be hammered into any -form that may be desired, and it is this operation which -belongs to the trade of the Coppersmith.</p> - -<p>Sheet copper is employed in covering the bottoms of -ships, to protect them from the attacks of marine animals; -it is also used for coins, which are punched out of the sheet -of metal and stamped with dies, and for plates on which -pictures are engraved; the metal being soft enough to -yield to the tool of the engraver, but yet sufficiently hard -to resist the pressure necessary to print the picture.</p> - -<p>As an ingredient in alloys copper is most valuable, especially -in bell metal, which is composed of three parts of -copper and one part of tin; in bronze, which is nine-tenths -copper and one-tenth tin; and in German silver, argentine, -nickel silver, and other alloys used for making forks, spoons, -dishes, &c. which are composed of copper, zinc, and nickel. -These are very beautiful alloys, closely resembling silver; -but the copper they contain is liable to be partially dissolved -by any long exposure to the action of acids.</p> - -<p>Copper is used in small quantities as an alloy for gold -and silver both in coinage and in plate, to give the requisite -degree of hardness. Gold used for coins, or what is called -standard gold, is formed of eleven parts of pure gold and one -part of copper. Being a better conductor of electricity -than any other metal, it is largely employed in the formation<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_299"></a>[299]</span> -of telegraphic wires; and, as it is not hard enough to strike -fire with flint or grit, it is used in gunpowder mills and -magazines instead of iron.</p> - -<p>The processes of casting and rolling copper into sheets -are so much like those already described in the manufacture -of iron that they need not be repeated, but the trade of the -Coppersmith is distinct from those of the workers in other -metals, though they mostly consist in forming the sheet -copper into various shapes and utensils by means of <i>hammers</i>, -of which the <i>smoothing hammer</i>, the <i>set hammer</i>, -and the <i>riveting hammer</i>, explain their own uses by their -names.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus224" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus224.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Copper Bit. Oval Wedge. Riveting Hammer. Smoothing -Hammer. Cob Hammer. Set Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>In manufacturing the large vessels with circular bottoms -which are so frequently made of copper, the metal is first -cast in a shape resembling a round spectacle glass, that is -to say, a flat cake, thick in the middle and gradually -diminishing in thickness towards the edge. It is then<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_300"></a>[300]</span> -subjected to the powerful blows of a tilt hammer, the beating -being principally confined to the centre. The effect of this -is not only to reduce the thickness of the copper, but to -cause the disc to turn up at the edges and assume the form -of a hollow dish.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus225" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus225.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Punches. Hand Vice. Cutting Punch. Spanner. Anvil. -Shears for Sheet Copper. Hand Shears.</p> -</div> - -<p>Another operation of the Coppersmith is called <i>planishing</i>, -or hammering the metal until it becomes more dense, firm,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_301"></a>[301]</span> -and tough; any one who looks at the surface of a large -copper vessel will see the marks of the hammer by which -it has been planished.</p> - -<p>It is by the combined operation of casting, rolling, -hammering, and planishing, as well as by the processes of -fastening, either with <i>rivets</i> or with <i>solder</i>, that nearly all -copper articles are made.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus226" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus226.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Plumber’s Iron. Iron Horse. Pouncing Block and Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>Of the tools used by the Coppersmith, beside those -already mentioned, the principal are <i>punches</i> for cutting -or piercing holes, <i>shears</i> for cutting the sheets of metal, the -<i>spanner</i> for turning heads of screws or nuts, the <i>anvil</i>, the -<i>blocks</i> and <i>horses</i> for receiving the work in such a position -as to operate on any part where the hammer or the punch -is required, and the <i>iron</i> for soldering. There are five -different modes of forming copper piping out of sheet -metal; in the first the edges of the sheet, which is curved -round a mandril, are made to meet without overlapping,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_302"></a>[302]</span> -and are joined with hard solder; in the second they overlap -and are united by soft solder; in the third they overlap -and are secured by rivets; in the fourth the edges are -folded one over the other, and are made close and firm by -hammering; and in the fifth both edges of the pipe are -turned back and covered with a strip of sheet metal, the -two edges of which are turned in and hammered down.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus227" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus227.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Wood Horse.</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_303"></a>[303]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="THE_GUN_MANUFACTURER">THE GUN MANUFACTURER.</h2> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus228" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus228.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">THE PROOF HOUSE.</p> -</div> - -<p>By guns, only muskets, rifles, and fowling-pieces are here -meant, since the manufacture of cannons, to which the -term guns is now commonly applied, is an entirely different -business to that of making what are called “small arms;” -the latter including, in fact, swords, pistols, bayonets, muskets, -rifles, and some other implements of war. There are -so many varieties of fire arms, and they are sold at prices<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_304"></a>[304]</span> -varying so greatly, that it would be almost impossible to -give any detailed description of each kind of piece. The -finely-finished rifle or sporting gun, fitted with the last -improvements, breech-loading or otherwise, and finished -with marvellous perfection and accuracy, is worth four times -as many pounds as the common muskets, made for exportation -to Africa for the use of the natives, are worth shillings. -We may, therefore, describe some of the ordinary processes -of the gunmaker’s trade, and the various improvements -will then be better understood when the reader has an -opportunity of seeing finished guns, in which such improvements -may be pointed out to him.</p> - -<p>The barrels of guns are either plain or twisted; twisted -barrels are made of long and very narrow strips of iron, -one of which, being moderately heated to increase -pliancy, is wrapped spirally round a cylindrical mandril in -such a way as to form a tube, which may be slipped off the -mandril at pleasure. As the rods are not usually made of -sufficient length for one to form a barrel, several are usually -joined end to end, those which form the breech being -thicker than those at the muzzle end. By heating and -hammering these pieces are welded into a continuous and -very strong and tough tube.</p> - -<p>Partially worn iron, called “scrap iron,” is best for these -purposes. The twisted barrels which are known as “wire -twist” are formed of narrow rods of iron and steel forged -together, and then rolled out to the proper thinness.</p> - -<p>Damascus barrels are composed of similar metal, but the -rods are twisted on their own centres until the fibres which -they contain have from twelve to fourteen turns in an inch -by which the rods are doubled in thickness and proportionately -reduced in length. Two such rods are welded together<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_305"></a>[305]</span> -side by side, their respective twists being reversed. There -are many modes of making twisted barrels, but these are -the most common.</p> - -<p>After being welded, the barrels are carefully examined, -and, if needful, straightened by a few blows of the hammer. -They are then bored in a machine with an angular plug of -tempered steel, which is caused to revolve rapidly within -the barrel, while a stream of water is directed upon the -outside to check the heat caused by the tremendous friction. -The outside is brought to a smooth surface either by -grinding on a large grindstone, or turning in a lathe. The -breech end of the barrel is bored with a screw-thread, to -receive the breech plug, which closes it at that end.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus229" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus229.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mandril, with Damascus Barrel in progress. Tool for -boring Barrel. Testing Barrel.</p> -</div> - -<p>The barrels are then proved by being fired at the <i>proof-house</i>, -a large building where they are loaded with a charge -five times as great as they will have to bear when in use. -A great number of barrels are fired at once by laying them -upon a strong framework of wood with their touch-holes -downwards, and connected with a train of gunpowder which -is ignited outside the building. A heap of sand is piled -inside the building, opposite the muzzles of the barrels to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_306"></a>[306]</span> -receive the bullets. Those which bear this test without -injury are marked as perfect.</p> - -<p>Guns used in field sports are often made with two barrels -fixed side by side upon one stock. The barrels are made -separately, and each with one flat side, that they may lie -close together. They are secured together by ribs running -between them from end to end.</p> - -<p>The wooden stock upon which the barrel is fixed is -generally made of walnut-tree wood. It is first shaped, and -afterwards shod with brass or steel; the trigger guard and -other fittings are let into the wood, and every part is -furnished with the proper screws and fastenings.</p> - -<p>With regard to the manufacture of rifles and other small -arms in general, the author of the present work some time -ago wrote a description of a visit to the factory at Birmingham -known as the Toledo Works, and it may be useful -to give an extract from that account of what he saw there.</p> - -<p>The steel from which the swords are made is supplied -in long pieces somewhat tapering at the ends, and having -a square portion in the middle, which, being cut through, -leaves material for two blades, the bisection of the square -leaving a shoulder at one end to receive the iron -“tang” by which the blade is afterwards fixed into the -handle. The manufacture of these blades is almost entirely -effected by the forgers, who hammer them into the required -shape upon the anvil, a mould running down the centre of -which secures the hollow which in swords extends for about -two-thirds of the length from hilt to point. In a little -street of smithies the musical clink is being sounded by a -score of stalwart arms, either forging the rough steel into -form, or hammering the formed blade into perfect shape -and symmetry, an operation which requires it to be kept at<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_307"></a>[307]</span> -a certain heat, lest the embryo blade should be injured in -the process. Once perfected as to proportion, the hardening -commences, and the blade is thrust backwards and forwards -into the furnace until it has acquired a proper and uniform -heat, at which point it is removed and instantly plunged -into cold water. This process, which has obviously suggested -the Turkish bath, renders it hard indeed, but at the -same time so extremely brittle that we whisperingly suggest -the propriety of contracting to supply our enemies with -weapons, and neglecting to carry them beyond that particular -stage of preparation, when they may be snapped -with the fingers. Carefully supported, however, the blade -is again subjected to the fiery ordeal until it attains a slaty -blue colour, and a beautiful and elastic temper, which has -been partially secured by the previous hammering. By the -process of forging it has become about six inches longer -than the pristine steel shape, and by the tempering it has -attained a springy strength which enables it to be bent in -a curve sufficient to bring the hand five inches nearer to the -point than when the blade is straight.</p> - -<p>Many of the best bayonets are forged in the same way -as the sword-blades, and, as in almost every manufacturing -process, human intelligence has an unmistakable -advantage over mere mechanical force, these possess some -superior qualities. The greater number of bayonets, however, -are made from a square bar of drawn steel, five inches -and a half long by nine-sixteenths square. This bar is -passed between a series of about sixteen pairs of rollers, -which are worked by steam power, and so grooved as gradually -to mould the blade to the required shape. Sixteen -times the short steel bar undergoes the merciless pressure of -a progressively-increased power, until its length is increased<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_308"></a>[308]</span> -from five and a half to twenty-six inches, when some -portion is cut off from the point to leave it the regulation -length.</p> - -<p>The matchets, which are made from bevel-edged steel, -passed twice through the rollers, are cut into the requisite -shape by means of powerful shears.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus230" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus230.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Steam Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>These operations are conducted in a large shed, where -the rollers stand like awful combinations of infernal machines -and patent mangles; where a boding and vengeful tilt-hammer, -worked by steam, is tended by a man, who sits -like a calm fate beside its crushing bulk, and supplies it -with fresh victims; where the awful boom seems to shatter -the very atmosphere, and deafness reigns triumphant. In -obedience to a signal, however, the monster is suddenly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_309"></a>[309]</span> -stopped, and we are enabled to hear that the great two-pot -furnace on our left is used for making the steel from those -long laths of bevel-edged iron stacked against the wall; -that the furnace is constructed with wide flues on each side -and under the bottom, while the fire-grate occupies the -centre between the two pots; that the pots themselves are -some four feet deep, and two feet and a half wide, are airtight, -contain layers of charcoal and iron covered with loam -sand, will remain seven days and nights in the furnace, -until their contents are white hot, and that at the end of -that time the iron will have been converted into steel of a -slaty-blue colour. The inexorable hammer resuming its -work at this point, we follow the bayonet to its completion, -and once more visit the forges, to witness the “shutting on” -or welding the blade to a piece of iron, which ultimately -forms the socket by which the bayonet itself is fixed on -to the barrel of the rifle or musket.</p> - -<p>There is yet another operation before the blades are taken -to the finishing shop, one of the most important, too, since -it is no other than grinding, a process which secures an -exact and uniform thickness and increases their elasticity.</p> - -<p>We are standing at the open end of a long, vast, and -gloomy shed-like building, supported by iron pillars. On -each side through the entire length a series of enormous -grindstones spin round amidst sand and water, and the -mud from both. Seated astride the bodies of wooden -horses, whose heads seem to have been transformed into -these wheels, the grinders seize upon the blades, and each -fearless rider rising in his stirrups, or, what looks much -the same, standing tiptoe till he no longer touches his -saddle, throws himself forward, and presses the sword, -matchet, or bayonet on the wheel, at the same time<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_310"></a>[310]</span> -guiding it deftly with its left hand, till its whole surface has -been smoothly ground.</p> - -<p>Along the whole line of whirling stones fly the lurid red -sparks, and the grinders, with squared elbows, seem to curb -the struggling and impetuous wheels.</p> - -<p>After polishing, which is completed by wooden wheels -bearing a coating of leather covered with emery, the swords -and matchets go to receive handles, and the bayonets locking -rings. The handles of swords are made of walnut-wood -covered with the skin of the dogfish, while the hilt and -guard are formed from a plain flat sheet of steel, in shape -not unlike one side of a pair of bellows.</p> - -<p>The solid socket of the bayonet is hammered into form, -and afterwards stamped into shape with the rim complete, -from which process it is conveyed to a shop where it is -drilled by steam power. It then only remains to secure a -smooth surface, by means of a revolving barrel, containing -an instrument with a number of flanged blades, against -which the socket of the bayonet is pressed. It is not a -little remarkable to see the solid steel pared and shaved like -wax, and no less wonderful to notice the simple machinery -by which it is accomplished. The locking rings are stamped -out by a lever and die, pierced by a punch, and afterwards -“bored,” “faced,” and their shapes secured by a triple -circular saw, worked by a lathe.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus231" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus231.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Mandril, with Common Musket Barrel in progress. -Welding by Hand. Forging Hammer.</p> -</div> - -<p>The most important manufacture in the Toledo Works, -however, is assuredly rifles, and, with the intention of -following it through its principal processes, we return to -the vicinity of the still inveterate hammer, where we are -shown a rudimentary barrel in the shape of a slab of best -wrought iron, twelve inches long, and weighing nine pounds -and a quarter. This uninviting slab is heated in a furnace,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_311"></a>[311]</span> -and roughly bent into the tubular shape by means of our -enemy the tilt-hammer, after which it is once more placed -in a furnace of an enormously high temperature, with a -small trap-opening. When sufficiently heated, the short -rudimentary tube is taken out on a long round iron rod, -fitted with a hand-guard, and looking like a huge burlesque -rapier. This rod approximates to the size of the intended -bore of the barrel, and is inserted, with the rough tube upon -it, between two steam rollers, each of which is furnished -with a series of corresponding grooves or cuts. The barrel, -which is taken up at one end by a rod, is placed between the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_312"></a>[312]</span> -first pair of grooves, and, as the rollers revolve, is drawn -out at the other side, a long, hollow, welded tube. This -much more graceful and better formed tube is then consigned -to another rod of smaller diameter, and to a corresponding -pair of grooves; until, after the eighth repetition -of the same process, the barrel has attained its proper -dimensions. The next operation, which is called “lumping,” -consists of welding a piece of wrought iron on to the breech -end of the barrel, for the purpose of forming the percussion-lump, -and is succeeded by “rough-boring.” This is -accomplished by a long, sharp-ended bit, which, being -placed in the end of the barrel, revolves at the rate of, -perhaps, a thousand turns a minute by means of a pulley -and fly-wheel, while the barrel is pushed on by a lever, and -kept cool by means of water thrown upon its surface.</p> - -<p>The “setting” of the barrel is next effected by means of -hammer and anvil, the setting meaning simply rectifying -any bend which it may have received during the previous -operation. We are not a little interested in the setting, -since the first intimation of it on entering the shop is the -sudden discovery of a number of workmen gazing resolutely -at an opposite window, through what look like attenuated -telescopes. They are engaged, however, in one of the processes -which require the greatest experience, as each of -them is expected to detect the most trifling bias in the -barrel. The “spilling-up,” or cutting the inside of the barrel -to the proper bore, is similar to the rough-boring, except -that only one edge of the bit is allowed to operate, the -others being sheathed by a half cylinder of wood, called a -<i>spill</i>; this ensures a smooth surface, and prepares for the -“fine-boring,” which is six times repeated, the final surface -being insured by keeping one edge of the bit perfectly<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_313"></a>[313]</span> -smooth, by which means the particles of steel drop in a fine -and almost soft powder.</p> - -<p>The outside of the barrel is next turned in a long lathe, -which not only reduces the roughness, but, by a beautiful -arrangement of cutting tools, gives it the required substance -or “pattern,” for a light or heavy rifle.</p> - -<p>The grinding of the barrels is effected by means of -stones, larger than those used for the sword blades, but in a -similar manner, and is preliminary to “filing,” which carries -the barrel to the shop, where it is prepared for the lock.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus232" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus232.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Grinding Gun Barrels.</p> -</div> - -<p>These preparations consist of “chambering,” or making -the chamber which holds the pin; “breeching,” or cutting -the worm intended for the breech-pin, that helps to hold -the barrel to the stock by means of a breech-nail; cutting -out the little slice into which the “sight” is to be dovetailed;<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_314"></a>[314]</span> -machining the lump; filing the tail-pin, and making the -square lump the proper shape for receiving the lock and -stock.</p> - -<p>We are not a little surprised to learn that every part of -the lock is finished by hand, the cock being cut with a die -worked by a heavy weight, and the smaller pieces being -wrought with forge, hammer, and file.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus233" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus233.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">Section of Breech. Section of Lock, &c. Bullet -Mould. Nipple Key.</p> -</div> - -<p>The great art in lock-making is to obtain a perfect -spring, and those properly tempered are so elastic that, -although when fitted in the lock, the two sides are so close -as almost to touch, they will, when released, spread to two -inches below the edge of the lock-plate. The lock and -barrel are now ready for the stock, which awaits them in -another shop, where it has been sawn out of walnut wood, -and finished by carpenters’ tools. The barrel let into its -groove, and the lock properly in its place, the stock is more -perfectly shaped and rounded before “screwing together,” or -the addition of the different parts of the “furniture,” heel-plate,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_315"></a>[315]</span> -trigger-plate and guard, trigger, nose-cap, rod, and -bayonet.</p> - -<p>We are now told that the rifle is “finished,” by which, -understanding <i>completion</i>, we are not quite prepared to -learn that it is to be taken to pieces.</p> - -<p>We suddenly remember, however, that it is not yet a -rifle at all, inasmuch as it has not been rifled. Everything -is made perfect before this delicate operation is attempted, -in order that no injury may be sustained by the barrel -when the complete rifle is again put together. The process -of rifling is similar to that of boring, except that a spiral -cutter is substituted for the bit. Previous to the reunion -of the barrel, the whole work is polished, and the stock -stained and finished ready for completion.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="illus234" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/illus234.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">“Finishing.”</p> -</div> - -<p>The pistol barrels undergo the same processes as that of -the rifle, except that, after being drilled, they are planed, -by machines which carry them along a sort of bed under<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_316"></a>[316]</span> -tools that cut them perfectly smooth, and accurately shape -the octagonal barrels. These chisels move by means of -screws over the entire surface as it is drawn backwards and -forwards on the slide.</p> - -<p>The revolver chambers are drilled out of solid iron, by -a drilling machine or lathe, with a centrebit and an eccentric -motion, which causes each barrel of the chamber-nest to -become the centre in succession; while, by means of a slide, -the motion can be made to suit either a large or small -chamber. The recesses communicating with the lock and -trigger are cut by reversing the chamber in the eccentric -“chuck,” and using a different cutting-tool, while another -alteration effects the drilling of the nipple holes.</p> - -<p class="titlepage">THE END</p> - -<p class="center smaller">R. 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