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diff --git a/old/69841-0.txt b/old/69841-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 1875176..0000000 --- a/old/69841-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6525 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The boy's book of trades and the tools -used in them, by Anonymous - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The boy's book of trades and the tools used in them - -Author: Anonymous - -Release Date: January 20, 2023 [eBook #69841] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Brian Coe, Thiers Halliwell, who created the book cover, - which is placed in the public domain and the Online - Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This - book was produced from images made available by the - HathiTrust Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOY'S BOOK OF TRADES AND -THE TOOLS USED IN THEM *** - - - - - - - THE - BOY’S BOOK OF TRADES - AND THE - TOOLS USED IN THEM. - - BY - ONE OF THE AUTHORS OF “ENGLAND’S WORKSHOPS.” - - COMPRISING - - BRICKMAKER. - MASON. - BRICKLAYER. - PLASTERER, &c. - CARPENTER. - PAINTER, &c. - PLUMBER. - MANUFACTURE OF GAS. - IRON FOUNDER. - BLACKSMITH. - BRASSFOUNDER. - GILDER. - CABINET MAKER. - FLOOR-CLOTH DITTO. - PAPER STAINER. - CALICO PRINTER. - TINMAN. - FARRIER. - NEEDLE MAKER. - HOTPRESSER. - CUTLER. - COTTON MANUFACTURER. - TAILOR. - TANNER. - SHOEMAKER. - SADDLER, &c. - HATTER. - MILLER. - BAKER. - SUGAR REFINER. - DYER AND SCOURER. - COPPERSMITH. - GUN MAKER. - - LONDON: - GEORGE ROUTLEDGE AND SONS, - BROADWAY, LUDGATE HILL. - 1866. - - LONDON - R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, - BREAD STREET HILL - - - - -PREFACE. - - -Every human being born into the world will find that happiness mainly -depends upon the work that he does and the manner in which it is done. - -Those who imagine that the necessity for labour is only an evil must be -either grossly ignorant or wilfully wicked. - -Whoever wastes his life in idleness, either because he need not work in -order to live, or because he will not live to work, will be a wretched -creature, and at the close of a listless existence will regret the loss -of precious gifts and the neglect of great opportunities. - -Our daily work, however common or humble it may seem, is our daily duty, -and by doing it well we may even make it a part of our daily worship. - -For these reasons the choice of a trade is a most important event in -every boy’s life, and it is no less difficult than important, because -when a boy has just left school he seldom knows much about the operations -of any trade, and cannot be expected to express any preference for -one more than another. Whether this book will be of any use in this -respect, by directing attention to some of the principal industries of -the country in which we live, must after all depend upon the tastes of -each particular reader; but it may at all events claim to be useful in -making known what are the operations necessary to some of our great -manufactures, and in explaining the method of using the tools employed by -those engaged in them. - -A volume like the present can scarcely be said to have an Author, since -much of its contents must necessarily be the work of the compiler, who -condenses the valuable material supplied by other writers, and adapts -it to his purpose. It is impossible that any great part of the _matter_ -can be original; and in some parts of the following pages the writer has -found it altogether inexpedient to change even the _manner_ of those who -are regarded as the principal authorities on scientific subjects. He -believes, however, that even where he has borrowed, he has borrowed with -some discretion. Whether he has succeeded in explaining and simplifying -the reader will be able to judge. - - - - -THE BRICKMAKER. - -[Illustration: BRICKFIELD, SHED, KILN, &C.] - - -It would be very difficult, and perhaps impossible, to discover at -what time in the history of the world the art of brickmaking was first -practised. In the earliest records of the human race the making of bricks -is mentioned; this was part of the labour imposed upon the children of -Israel, when they were in captivity in Egypt, and bricks of excellent -quality are found in some of the most ancient buildings, the remains of -which have been discovered. Though uncivilized nations, and even some -which had made great progress in civilization, but lived in very warm -or exceedingly cold climates, frequently built dwellings of wood, of -wattles or strips of trees and branches covered with clay and lime, and -of rough stone and earth; and though whole tribes lived and still live -under tents, or in mere log huts and wigwams, or lodges made of the skins -of animals, the manufacture of bricks formed of clay, and either burnt -with fire or dried in the sun, is amongst the oldest of all known trades. -In our own day it has arrived at such perfection and the varieties of -bricks and tiles are so great in order to provide for the great diversity -in buildings, that it is one of the most important branches of English -industry. - -We learn from the Bible that burnt bricks were used in building the Tower -of Babel, and from early historians, as well as from recent discoveries, -we know that they were also made for the walls of Babylon. The bricks of -the ancient Egyptians were made of clay tempered with water and mixed -with chopped straw, and afterwards dried in the sun, and the labour of -the Israelites was made more severe by their being compelled to find -straw for themselves. In Rome both burnt or kiln-dried bricks and those -dried in the sun were employed, and though at a later date the art of -brickmaking seems to have fallen into disuse, it was revived again in -Italy after some hundreds of years. The trade seems to have been brought -to England by the Romans, and many of the most ancient buildings in -this country are made of very fine brickwork, though, till the reign of -Elizabeth, only large mansions were so built, the common houses being -formed of frame-works of timber filled in with coarse plaster supported -by laths of wood. - -There are few more interesting sights than a brick-field in full work -with its great sheds, its horses going slowly round and round in the -mills, grinding the clay which has been dug out of the deep pits; its -great stacks covered with hurdles and screens made of reeds and its -immense kilns, so cleverly and evenly built, where the smoke rises lazily -from the dull fires by which the drying or burning is completed. - -[Illustration: Clay Mill.] - -The methods of brickmaking differ considerably in various parts of -England, but that which we most commonly see in practice near London -will very well represent them all, and it is this which will now be -described. The earth used for making bricks is found after digging till -the labourers reach the loamy soil lying just above that blue clay which -is known as London clay; and this earth is known as strong clay, mild -clay, and malm, and this earth requires preparation by mixing with them -chalk and the dust of burnt ashes from the dust bins. These burnt ashes -the brickmakers call “breeze.” - -The chalk mill and the clay mill are placed close together on large -mounds, high enough to allow the “malm” (which is a mixture of chalk and -clay ground to a thin paste) to run down to the brick earth. The chalk -mill is a round trough where the chalk is ground by heavy wheels fitted -with spikes on their tires or hoops, and turned by one or two horses. -The trough is supplied with water from a pump, and the chalk, as it is -ground, runs off by a wooden gutter into the clay mill, where it is again -stirred and ground till it mixes with the clay; the mixture then runs -through a grating and through other gutters to the brick earth, which has -been placed in heaps to receive it. - -[Illustration: Hack Barrow. Barrow.] - -When the earth is mixed in this way, it becomes brick-clay, and is taken -in barrows up a sloping board, to the pug mill. The pug mill is a great -tub, the top of which is larger than the bottom, and in the centre of it -there revolves an upright iron shaft fitted with knives. These knives cut -and break the clay as it passes through the mill, and they also force it -downwards till it reaches the bottom, where it passes through a hole on -to a machine called the Cuckhold, which is a sort of table containing a -trough where the clay is cut into lumps ready for the moulder. - -[Illustration: Pug Mill.] - -[Illustration: Barrow for carrying baked Bricks.] - -[Illustration: Kick and Stockboard. Mould. Board for Moulding. Strike. -Brick-mould.] - -The moulder who shapes the clay into bricks uses moulding sand,—a -peculiar sort of sand brought from the bed of the river, and spread out -in the sun, where it is turned over and over till it is quite dry. It -prevents the clay from shrinking, gives a harder surface to the bricks, -and prevents them from sticking to the mould, or to each other; it also -gives the London bricks their grey colour. The moulder stands at the -moulding stool, which has a rim at each end to keep the moulding sand -from falling off, and has a stockboard, which forms the bottom of the -brick-mould, and a page, or two iron rods nailed at each end to wooden -rails, used to slide the raw bricks from the moulder to the place from -which the “taking-off boy” takes them to place on the “hack barrow,” by -which they are carried away. The moulder is served with the lumps of -clay by the “clot moulder.” The “brick-mould” is a kind of box without -top or bottom, and the moulder dashes the tempered clay into the mould -with sufficient force to make the clay completely fill it; after which -the superfluous clay is removed from the surface of the mould with the -strike. The brick is then turned out on to a pallet or board, on which it -is wheeled by the boy to the “hack ground,” where the bricks are built up -to dry in low walls called “hacks.” The brick moulds are made of brass -or iron, and often of wood. Sometimes the bricks are dried on a floor -under a shed, but often in the open air, where they are covered with -straw, reed-flats, or canvas and tarpauline screens, to protect them from -wet, frost, or excessive heat. The bricks are afterwards burnt either in -“clamps” or in “kilns.” In clamp burning the bricks are built up close -together, and the bottom ones only are heated with burning breeze or -cinders, the heat spreading to those at the top. A kiln is a sort of -large chamber in which the bricks are loosely stacked with spaces between -them for the heat to pass through, and they are baked by fires placed -either in arched furnaces under the floors of the kiln, or in fire holes -made in the side walls. The kilns are built of various shapes, and one of -the principal arts in the trade of the Brickmaker is to construct them -that the heat may be properly distributed, and the bricks equally and -thoroughly baked. - -[Illustration: Shovel. Pick. Reed Flats.] - - - - -THE MASON. - -[Illustration: MASONS AT WORK.] - - -Having already given a description of the way in which bricks are made, -we come to the work of the Mason, whose duty it is to prepare the stone -work used in building and for other purposes. In the mason’s trade great -skill is required, as well as some hard manual labour, since he has to -cut the stones for arches, windows, columns, cornices, and porches, into -various shapes; and to fit the separate pieces with perfect accuracy, -that the Builder or the Architect may be able at once to set them in -their proper places. The business of the monumental mason, who erects -pedestals for statues, tombs, and ornamental structures in parks and -gardens, is generally distinct from that of the builder or architectural -mason, although many of the same tools are used in both trades. - -The stone used by the mason is of various kinds, and is brought from -different parts of the world; but our own country contains stone of -nearly every sort which can be well employed in ordinary building. -Granite comes principally from Scotland, though a smaller quantity is -brought from Ireland; red and white sandstone is plentiful in Yorkshire, -Lancashire, and Derbyshire, as well as in Scotland and Ireland; a sort of -slate stone is found in Wales; and the most common building stone, which -is called limestone, or free-stone, is brought from several counties in -England, where it is constantly worked. The stone is generally found -under the surface of the earth, and the places from which it is dug are -called quarries; the business of quarrying being to extract from the -ground, or from the sides of rocks, large masses of stone or marble. - -When these lie directly under the ground, the earth at the top is -removed, and the stone is afterwards separated into blocks and lifted -out by machinery; but it is sometimes necessary to mine for the stone -by making galleries underground, and leaving pillars to support the -earth above them. In large quarries, the earth at top is first removed, -and the first layer of stone, which is generally of a common sort, is -broken or blasted with gunpowder, and afterwards taken away. The lower -layers of stone are then divided by wedges driven into them, until they -split in the required direction; the blocks are afterwards made of a -regular square, by a tool called a _kevel_, pointed at one end and flat -at the other, and are then lifted by cranes on to low waggons, upon -which they are drawn away. It is the business of the mason to work these -stones, which are to be used in building, into their required shape; -but before the mason receives them the _stone cutter_ hews and cuts the -large blocks roughly into the form in which they are wanted; and when -the block is to form top of a doorway, part of a cornice, or any other -portion of a building where ornament is necessary, the _carver_ executes -these ornaments, and cuts the stone into a pattern of fruit, flowers, or -figures. - -[Illustration: Peck or Point. Stone Axe.] - -When the stone is valuable it is sent from the quarry to the mason’s -yard, or to the building where it is to be used in large blocks, and -there cut into slabs or thin pieces called “scantlings,” of the required -size, with a stone mason’s saw (_see large cut_). This saw differs from -those used in other trades because it has no teeth. It is a long thin -plate of steel slightly jagged on the bottom edge, and fixed in a frame; -and being drawn backwards and forwards in a horizontal position, cuts -the stone by its own weight. To make this the easier, a heap of sharp -sand is placed on a sloping board over the stone, and water trickling -upon it from a barrel washes it into the cut made by the saw. In large -establishments the sawing of the stone is often effected by steam -machinery. Some of the freestones are so soft as easily to be cut with a -toothed saw, worked backwards and forwards by two persons. The tools used -by the mason are the peck or point for chipping the surface of the stone, -the stone axe for breaking the irregular portions from the block, the -iron mallet and beetle, for breaking pieces from the edge of the slab or -driving in wedges. - -[Illustration: Wooden Beetle. Wedge. Iron Mallet.] - -[Illustration: Rubber. Mallet. Brush. Chisels.] - -The tools used for cutting stone are the mallet and chisels of various -sizes. The mason’s mallet differs from that used by other workmen, being -of a sort of half pear shape, and with a short handle only just long -enough to allow it to be firmly grasped in the hand. The rubber is used -for smoothing the surface of the stone, after it has been worked by the -tools; sand and water are placed on the stone, and the rubber is pushed -backwards and forwards for the purpose of grinding the face of the slab -to a smooth surface; another block of stone is sometimes applied to the -same purpose. In London the tools used to work the faces of the stone -are—the _point_, a very small chisel only about a quarter of an inch -broad at the cutting edge; the inch tool, which is a broader chisel; the -_booster_, broader still; and the _broad tool_, which is three inches and -a half wide: beside these, there are tools of the same kind for working -mouldings and carvings. - -[Illustration: Square. Bevel Square. Straight Edge. Trowel. Point.] - -Besides these cutting tools, the mason uses a _banker_ or bench, on which -he places his stone for convenience of working, and _straight edges, -squares, and bevels_, for marking the shapes into which the blocks are to -be cut, and seeing that his edges and surfaces are even by trying them as -the work proceeds. - -The bevel square is a square the _stock_, or lower part, of which is -moveable, so that it may be set to any angle or level as required. -Sometimes a pattern called a _templet_ is used for cutting a block to any -particular shape, and when the work is moulded, the templet is called a -_mould_. Moulds are commonly made of sheet zinc, carefully cut to the -profile of the mouldings with shears and files. - -It often happens that the mason has not only to prepare the stone, but -to set it in its place in the building, and this is properly part of -his work. He then uses the trowel, for applying the composition for -cementing the stones together; lines and pins to show whether his edges -are straight and square, the square and level for a similar purpose; and -various rules for adjusting the stone faces of upright walls. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE BRICKLAYER. - -[Illustration: THE BRICKLAYER.] - - -The Bricklayer has so much to do with the erection of buildings that -the Master Bricklayer is generally a Builder; that is, he understands -not only brickwork and the building of walls, but also the other trades -necessary for completing a house, and can superintend the Mason’s, -Carpenters’, and Plumbers’ work. - -Of course, the first consideration in building a house is the -preparation of the foundations, which are formed in various ways, -according to the nature of the soil on which they are laid; unless the -ground itself is firm enough to receive the walls, sometimes thick layers -of concrete (a sort of mortar) is used, sometimes layers of planking are -put down, or even cross beams of timber, and in some cases, where the -earth is very loose and damp, timber piles are driven into it on which -to lay the foundation. The foundation once laid, the vaults or cellars -are built either in the ordinary way, or in a series of arches of various -forms; then follow the abutments, the wing-walls, the main-walls, with -iron “Bressumers” for supporting those parts of the walls which are -above large openings like great doors or shop fronts. The partitions, or -interior walls, may be either solid brick or stone, or may be constructed -entirely of timber, or they may be frames of timber filled in with -masonry or brickwork. Then come the floors, the roofs and roof-coverings, -and finally the ceilings and the doors and windows. The materials used -in building are principally timber, stone, slate, bricks, tiles, mortar, -lime, cement, iron, glass, lead, zinc, colours and varnishes. Those with -which the working bricklayer has most to do are bricks, slates, tiles, -stonework, cement, and mortar, for these are principally used in making -walls and roofs, which is the greater part of his trade. The stone and -slate come from the quarries, and we have already seen how bricks are -made. Mortar is made in the following way. - -1st. The soft chalky stone known as limestone, is calcined or burnt, by -exposure to strong heat in a lime kiln; the heat drives off a gas which -is contained in it (called carbonic acid gas), and leaves it in a state -in which it is known as quick-lime. - -2d. The quick-lime is “slaked,” by pouring water upon it, when it swells -and becomes very hot, afterwards falling into a fine powder. - -3d. This powder is mixed into a rather stiff paste, more water is added, -and when a certain quantity of sand is added becomes _mortar_, and may be -used for cementing bricks together. - -Concrete is made by mixing gravel, sand, and ground unslaked lime -together with water; it is used for foundations, and filling in apertures -requiring strength and firmness. - -Iron is used by the builder in two different states, as cast iron and -wrought iron; the _girders_ for supporting roofs and walls are mostly -cast in moulds (_see Iron Founder_), though both these and other parts of -the ironwork used in building, are frequently of iron wrought by hand. - -Lead is used by the mason for securing and coating the iron clamps which -hold the blocks of stone together; it is also used in the plumbers’ work -of a house (_see Plumber_). - -Zinc is used in the manufacture of gutters, pipes, and portions of roofs. - -[Illustration: Trowel.] - -The excavator having dug out the space where the foundation of the house -is to be laid, the work of the bricklayer begins, and his tools are the -_trowel_, to take up and spread the mortar, and cut bricks by a sharp -blow to the requisite length; then there are the _brick axe_ or hammer, -for shaping the bricks to a level; the _tin saw_ for making an incision -on bricks to be cut with the axe; the rubbing stone on which to rub the -bricks smooth in the parts where they have been cut, and the _mortar rake -and shovel_, for mixing the mortar and cement. - -[Illustration: Mortar Rake. Crowbar. Shovel. Brick Hammer. Pickaxe.] - -The crowbar and pick-axe are the tools used for demolishing old brickwork -or clearing out rubbish; the sieve (_see large cut_) for sifting the lime -of which the mortar is made, and the rammer for hardening the ground to -render the foundation firm. The _raker_ is used for raking out the mortar -from the joints of old brickwork which requires re-pointing, or the -joints refilled with mortar. - -To “set out” the work, which means to measure the spaces, and to keep -the lines, curves, and angles, straight and true, the bricklayer uses -the _square_, the _level_, the _plumb-rule_; the square shows whether -the proper angle has been preserved; the plumb-rule is an upright rule, -with a string at one end, to which is attached a leaden ball. If the -work is straight on its perpendicular lines, and the plumb-rule be -applied to it, this leaden ball will hang exactly in the centre, and -swing through a hole in the rule, while, if the work be crooked, it will -swing to one side. The level is a rule on the same principle, but for -testing horizontal lines, such as a cornice on the top of a wall. The -good bricklayer will frequently test his work by these tools, and will -also use a line stretched to two pins, to guide him as he builds up his -courses of bricks. - -The bricks and mortar are supplied to him by a labourer, who carries -them in a _hod_. The labourer also makes the mortar, and builds up and -takes down the _scaffolding_ (_see large cut_). The scaffolding, or that -frame of poles and planks erected in front of the building as it is in -progress, is constructed of _standards_, _ledgers_, and _putlogs_. - -The standards are poles made of fir trees, from forty to fifty feet long, -and six or seven inches thick at the butt ends, which are firmly fixed in -the ground. When one pole is not long enough, two are lashed together, -the rope lashings being tightened by wedges driven in between the coils -in a peculiar way. The ledgers are horizontal poles placed parallel to -the walls and lashed to the standards; these support the putlogs, or -cross pieces, which are about six feet long, one end of them resting in -the wall, the other on the ledgers. On these putlogs are fastened the -scaffold boards, which are stout boards with pieces of iron hoop placed -round the ends, to keep them from splitting. - -[Illustration: Level. Cutting Chisel. Square. Line and Plumb. Hod.] - -A bricklayer and his labourer will lay about a thousand bricks, or two -cubic yards of brickwork, in a day. - -The tools used for _tiling_, or placing the tiles on a roof, are the -lathing hammer, the iron lathing staff to clinch the nails, the trowel, -which is longer and narrower than that used for brickwork, the _bosse_, -for holding mortar and tiles, with an iron hook to hang it to the laths -or to a ladder, and the _striker_ a piece of lath about ten inches long -for clearing off the superfluous mortar at the feet of the tiles. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE PLASTERER AND WHITEWASHER. - -[Illustration: WHITEWASHER AND PLASTERER.] - - -When the walls, or what is called the carcase of the house, have been -built, the roof made, the inner walls and partitions set up, and the -joists and woodwork of the floors laid down, the work of the Plasterer -begins. He covers the brickwork and bare timbers of walls, ceilings, and -partitions with plaster, to prepare them for painting or papering: he -also forms the cornices for ceilings, and the mouldings and decorations, -which are usually made in plaster or cement. - -The materials which the Plasterer uses for these purposes are:—1st. -_Coarse stuff_, or a paste made with lime, much in the same way as -common mortar, and afterwards mixed with hair, which is obtained from -the tanner’s yard, after it has been removed from the skins, which are -there made into leather. This hair is raked together, and mixed with the -mortar, with the _hair hook_, and a sort of three pronged rake called the -_drag_. - -[Illustration: Hair Hook. Fine Sieve.] - -2d. _Fine stuff_ is made from pure lime, slaked with a small quantity of -water, after which enough water is added to bring it to a state in which -it resembles cream; it is then left to settle, the superfluous water is -poured off, and the mixture is left in a tub, till still more of the -_water_ has evaporated, and it is thick enough to use. This stuff is -often used for ceilings, and then a small quantity of white hair is mixed -with it, to help to make it firmer and more binding. For these finer -kinds of plaster it is necessary to use the _fine sieve_, in order to -sift the lime and other ingredients, that only the portion which has been -reduced to powder may be retained. - -3d. _Stucco_, which is made by mixing fine stuff with cleaned-washed -sand. Stucco is used for house fronts, or other finishing work, which is -intended to be painted. - -4th. _Gauged stuff_ is used for forming cornices, which run round a -ceiling, and for mouldings; it is made by mixing fine stuff with plaster -of Paris, which is a fine white powder easily made into a paste, and -drying very quickly. - -These are only the ordinary materials used by the Plasterer for his work, -but there are a great number of cements, which are also applied in the -course of his trade; such as Roman and Portland cements, and mixtures -made and sold for special purposes of decoration, and the manufacture of -ornaments. - -These ornaments, such as centre pieces for ceilings, flowers drooping -from cornices, bosses or groups on walls, &c. are first modelled in clay, -and are afterwards cast in plaster of Paris, placed in moulds made of -wax or plaster. In this trade, as in that of the picture frame maker, -ornaments are frequently made of _papier maché_, or the pulp of paper -(literally _smashed paper_), which is a very light, hard, and durable -substance for the purpose. The moulds for cornices are made of sheet -copper, and are fixed in a wooden frame. - -[Illustration: Gauging Trowel. Hammer. Salve. Plasterer’s Hawk. Check -Line and Reel.] - -The various tools used by the Plasterer are shown in the engravings, -and the manner in which some of them are used may be seen by the large -cut at the commencement of this description of the Plasterer’s trade. -The peculiar _hammer_, with one edge like an axe, is used for breaking -down old plaster, and clearing away the mortar from walls and ceilings -previous to plastering them afresh; the _hawk_ is a flat board with a -handle in the centre, used for holding the plaster or cement, which is -being laid on with the trowel. The _gauging trowel_ is the long narrow -trowel, used for taking up the fine stuff for cornices and mouldings; -these trowels are of various lengths, from three to seven inches. The -_salve_ is a sort of small spade, on which the plasterer’s boy lifts the -mortar or cement, and places it on the _hawk_, which the workman holds in -his hand; as the _salve_ has a long handle, the plaster can be conveyed -to the hawk even when the man is at work on a ladder. The square is -similar to that used by the bricklayer, and shows that the corners of -the work are straight and even; the _compasses_ are used for measuring -distances; the _check line_ for marking out the spaces of the work to -be done, and the _joint rules_ for measuring the parts where different -portions of the work come together, either at the corners, or in making -the mouldings. The _set square_ is also used, for showing that the -surface or the line of the work is straight and even. - -[Illustration: Joint Rule. Joint Rule. Compasses. Set Square.] - -When the Plasterer has to cover a ceiling or a partition, he commences by -lathing. This is nailing laths over the whole space which is to receive -the plaster. Laths are long narrow strips of either oak or fir wood, of -various thicknesses; the thicker being used for ceilings, where they have -to bear a greater strain than in upright walls. - -The next operation is _pricking up_, or placing the first coat of _coarse -stuff_ upon the laths; this is called pricking up, because when the -plaster is laid, its whole surface is pricked and scratched with the end -of a lath, that it may be rough enough for the next coat. The laying -on of this second coat of plaster is called floating, and is performed -in the following way. The surface is surrounded with narrow strips of -plastering, called _screeds_, held fast by lines of nails, and these are -made perfectly level, by means of the plumb rule (_see Builder’s tools_), -and the use of the _hand float_. The spaces within these lines of plaster -work are then filled with coarse stuff, till the whole forms a flat -surface, which is made perfectly level, or “floated” with the _floating -rule_. Other screeds are then formed and filled up in the same way, until -the whole ceiling, or wall, forms one flat surface. The operations are -the same for ceilings and walls, except that the plumb rule is used for -adjusting the level of walls, and the _level_ for that of ceilings. - -[Illustration: Square. Modelling Tools. Brush. Floating Rule.] - -After the work has been brought to an even surface with the floating -rule, the Plasterer goes over it again with the _hand float_, using a -little soft stuff to make good any deficiencies. - -[Illustration: Hand Float.] - -When the floating is about half dry, the setting or finishing coat of -fine stuff is laid on, and is first wetted with a _brush_, and then -worked over with a smoothing tool until a fine surface is obtained. - -Stucco is laid on with the largest trowel, and worked over with the _hand -float_—being at the same time sprinkled with water—until it becomes hard -and solid; after which it is rubbed over with a dry brush. The water has -the effect of hardening the face of the stucco; which, after several -sprinklings and trowellings, becomes very hard, and as smooth as glass. - -[Illustration: Setting Trowels.] - -The commonest kind of Plasterer’s work is laying on one coat of stuff: -when this is done on brickwork it is called _rendering_, and when on -laths it is called _laying_. When there is a second coat it is called -_render set_, or _lath-lay and set_: and when it is three-coat work it is -called _render, float, and set_, or, _lath-lay, float, and set_; this is -done in ceilings and partitions with fine stuff mixed with hair; or, when -the walls are to be papered, with fine stuff and sand. - -_Rough stucco_ is used for finishing staircases and passages in imitation -of stone. It is mixed with a great deal of coarse sand, and is not -smoothed, the _hand float_ being covered with a piece of felt, so that -when it is applied to the stucco the grit of the sand sticks to it and is -drawn to the surface, giving the plaster the appearance of rough stone. - -_Rough casting_ is used for outside walls, and is done by throwing -a layer of gravel, mixed with lime and water, over the second coat -of plaster while it is quite wet. In some counties of England, and -especially near Nottingham, the plasterers use reeds instead of laths; -and even floors are often made by laying down a quantity of coarse stuff -upon a foundation of reeds. - -These floors are almost as hard as stone, and possess the good quality of -being almost always fireproof. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE CARPENTER. - -[Illustration: THE CARPENTER’S SHOP.] - - -An account of the tools and implements used for working in wood would -scarcely be complete without some remarks upon wood itself, and you can -have no better information on this subject than that which has been -written by a gentleman[1] who is thoroughly acquainted with the different -kinds of timber, and with all the materials used in building. - - [1] Mr. E. DOBSON, Assoc. Inst. C. E. - -If we examine a transverse section of the stem of a tree, we perceive -it to consist of three distinct parts; the _bark_, the _wood_, and the -_pith_. The wood appears disposed in rings round the pith, the outer -rings being softer, and containing more sap, than those immediately round -the pith, which form what is called the _heart-wood_. - -These rings are also traversed by rays extending from the centre of the -stem to the bark, called _medullary rays_. - -The whole structure of a tree consists of minute vessels and cells, the -former conveying the sap through the wood in its ascent, and through -the bark to the leaves in its descent; and the latter performing the -functions of secretion and nutrition during the life of the tree. The -solid parts of a tree consist almost entirely of the fibrous parts -composing the sides of the vessels and cells. - -By numerous experiments it has been ascertained that the sap begins to -ascend in the spring of the year, through the minute vessels in the wood, -and descends through the bark to the leaves, and, after passing through -them, is deposited in an altered state between the bark and the last -year’s wood, forming a new layer of bark and sap-wood, the old bark being -pushed forward. - -As the annual layers increase in number, the sap-wood ceases to perform -its original functions; the fluid parts are evaporated or absorbed by the -new wood, and, the sides of the vessels being pressed together by the -growth of the latter, the sap-wood becomes heart-wood or perfect wood, -and until this change takes place it is unfit for the purposes of the -builder. - -The vessels in each layer of wood are largest on the side nearest the -centre of the stem, and smallest at the outside. This arises from the -first being formed in the spring, when vegetation is most active. The -oblong cells which surround the vessels are filled with fluids in the -early growth; but, as the tree increases in size, these become evaporated -and absorbed; and the cells become partly filled with depositions of -woody matter and indurated secretions, depending on the nature of the -soil, and affecting the quality of the timber. Thus Honduras mahogany -is full of black specks, while the Spanish is full of minute white -particles, giving the wood the appearance of having been rubbed over with -chalk. - -The best time for felling trees is either in mid-winter, when the sap has -ceased to flow, or in midsummer, when the sap is temporarily expended in -the production of leaves. An excellent plan is, to bark the timber in the -spring and fell it in winter, by which means the sap-wood is dried up and -hardened; but as the bark of most trees is valueless, the oak tree (whose -bark is used in tanning) is almost the only one that will pay for being -thus treated. - -The seasoning of timber consists in the extraction or evaporation of the -fluid parts, which are liable to decomposition on the cessation of the -growth of the tree. This is usually effected by steeping the green timber -in water, to dilute and wash out the sap as much as possible, and then -drying it thoroughly by exposure to the air in an airy situation. The -time required to season timber thoroughly in this manner will of course -much depend on the sizes of the pieces to be seasoned; but for general -purposes of carpentry, two years is the least that can be allowed, and, -in seasoning timber for the use of the Joiner, a much longer time is -usually required. - -Properly seasoned timber, placed in a dry situation with a free -circulation of air round it, is very durable, and has been known to last -for several hundred years without apparent deterioration. This is not, -however, the case when exposed to moisture, which is always more or less -prejudicial to its durability. - -When timber is constantly under water, the action of the water dissolves -a portion of its substance, which is made apparent by its becoming -covered with a coat of slime. If it be exposed to alternations of dryness -and moisture, as in the case of piles in tidal waters, the dissolved -parts being continually removed by evaporation and the action of the -water, new surfaces are exposed, and the wood rapidly decays. - -Where timber is exposed to heat and moisture, the albumen or gelatinous -matter in the sap-wood speedily putrefies and decomposes, causing what -is called rot. The rot in timber is commonly divided into two kinds, -the _wet_ and the _dry_, but the chief difference between them is, that -where the timber is exposed to the air, the gaseous products are freely -evaporated; whilst, in a confined situation, they combine in a new -form, viz. the dry-rot fungus, which, deriving its nourishment from the -decaying timber, often grows to a length of many feet, spreading in every -direction, and insinuating its delicate fibres even through the joints of -brick walls. - -In addition to the sources of decay above mentioned, timber placed in -sea water is very liable to be completely destroyed by the perforations -of the worm, unless protected by copper sheathing, the expense of which -causes it to be seldom used for this purpose. - -In modern houses the labours of the Builder, the Mason, and the -Plasterer, would be of little use unless they were accompanied by that of -the Carpenter, since a very large proportion of every building consists -of the woodwork of which its interior structure is greatly composed. - -As it is one of the most useful, so the Carpenter’s may be considered -the most ancient of trades, for nearly all other handicrafts require the -preparation or manufacture of the materials, but the Carpenter originally -found his materials in the forest, and at once set to work to construct -various articles from the trunks and stems of the trees best suited -for the purpose. We can only imagine one trade older than that of the -Carpenter, and that is the Tool Maker, and as the earliest tools, or at -all events some portion of them, were probably made of hard wood, the -Tool Maker may in some sense be said to have been a Carpenter also. - -[Illustration: Axe. Adze.] - -[Illustration: Saw. Compasses. Plumb Rule. Hammer. Square. Mallet.] - -Strictly speaking, the business of the Carpenter is only with the larger -portions of buildings and the rough timber frameworks which support them, -and his principal tools are the _axe_ and the _adze_, for chopping and -roughly smoothing timbers; the _saw_, for sawing beams and planks; the -_chisel_, for making mortis holes for joining beams together, and for -cutting and paring wood; the _chalk line_, a line rubbed with chalk, and -used to make a straight line upon a board or beam, to mark the direction -in which it is to be sawn; the _plumb rule_, already described amongst -the Builder’s tools; the _level_; the _square_; the _compasses_; all of -which have been described in previous trades; the _hammer_; the _mallet_, -and various sorts of nails. The other tools represented in the engravings -belong more properly to the _Joiner_, but as the trades of the Carpenter -and the Joiner are almost always united, we will speak of all the tools -as belonging to one business. Carpenter’s work, then, consists of the -framing roofs, partitions, and floors, in making the various joints used -in beams, ties, rafters, and joists for supporting floors, and the proper -way of supporting buildings by posts and girders. The Carpenter requires -to be strong and active, that he may properly handle the heavy timbers -on which he has to work; he should have a knowledge of the science of -mechanics, that he may be able to provide for the strains and thrusts to -which the different parts of his work are exposed, and supply the proper -means of resisting them; and he should also be able to understand how -to make what are called “_working drawings_,” that he may “set out,” or -properly draw a plan of the work he has to do, from the designs of the -Architect. - -The Carpenter being concerned with the portions of a building which are -made of timber, you will be better able to understand his trade by a -short description of what these are; and we will then speak a little -of the _Joiner_, whose trade is generally confounded with that of the -Carpenter. - -First: Partitions, or inner divisions of a building, may be either of -brick, stone, or wood; and, in the latter case, they are generally -“framed,” or supported in a more solid framework, which should form a -portion of the main building, that is, of the outer wall; and should -be quite independent of the floors, which should not support, but be -supported by them. - -Second: Flooring is formed by joists or strong beams of timber reaching -from wall to wall, where they rest upon other beams, called wall plates, -which are built into the walls themselves. The floor boards are nailed -over the upper edges of the joists, and the lower edges receive the -laths and plaster, which form the ceilings of the rooms beneath. Large -buildings are sometimes fitted with double framed floors, with two sets -of joists, and building joists resting on girders; and in superior -houses, the _wall plates_ are often supported by “corbels,” or, portions -of the timber projecting from the inside of the wall, which prevents the -necessity of opening the wall to admit the ends of the joists. - -Third: Roofing consists of the roof covering, which is laid upon rafters -or slender beams, which are supported by stronger horizontal beams called -_purlins_; and these, again, rest on upright _trusses_, or strong frames -of timber, placed on the walls at regular distances from each other. -Upon the strength and firmness of these trusses, and the skill of the -carpenter’s work, depends the entire safety of the roof. - -Large roofs are supported by cross beams, called _collars_, or _tie -beams_; and they are further strengthened by an upright pillar in the -centre, called a _King post_, from which slanting beams, called “struts,” -support the rafters. - -We have now only spoken of common roofs, but there are many roofs of open -timber-work in churches and other public buildings, which are wonderful -specimens of the skill of the Carpenter and the Joiner. One of these, -perhaps the grandest as well as the most ancient, is that of Westminster -Hall; but there is one also in the Great Hall, at Hampton Court Palace; -and others may be seen in Churches and Halls in various parts of England. - -The Joiner, as his name implies, frames and joins together the wooden -finishings and decorations of buildings, such as floors, staircases, -skirtings, door and window frames, sashes, or, the sliding parts of -windows that contain the glass, shutters, doors, chimney-pieces, &c. This -work requires much greater nicety and finish than that of the Carpenter, -and is brought to a smooth surface with the plane wherever it is likely -to be seen, while the carpenter’s work is left rough as it comes from the -saw. - -The principal cutting tools used by the Joiner are, saws, planes, and -chisels. - -The _saws_ are of various sizes, and are called rippers, half rippers, -hand saws, and panel saws, according to their shape, and the number of -teeth to each inch. - -[Illustration: Chisel. Gouge. Screw Driver. Screw. Tenon Saw. Narrow Saw.] - -The _tenon saw_ is used for cutting tenons, or flat slices from the ends -of beams, that other beams cut in the same way may rest upon them and yet -leave a flat surface. The thick back of the tenon saw keeps the blade -from “buckling,” or twisting; as it would be very likely to do while -sawing in a horizontal direction. - -The _dove-tail saw_ is similar to the tenon saw, but smaller, and with -a brass back instead of an iron one. It is used for dove-tailing, or -cutting notches in a board or beam, into which projections in another -board or beam are fitted, in order that the two may be held together, as -we see the sides of a box are fitted to the back and front. Then there is -the _compass saw_, for circular work, and the _keyhole_, or _narrow saw_, -for cutting out holes. - -The planes are used for bringing the edges and sides of beams, boards, or -other wooden fitting, to a perfectly smooth surface: the first of these, -used upon the rough wood, is called the _jack plane_; another is called -the _trying_ or _trueing plane_; and a third, the _smoothing plane_. - -[Illustration: Trying Plane. Smoothing Plane. 2-foot Rule. Glue Pot.] - -The plane, as you will see, is a solid piece of hard smooth wood, with a -hole in the centre containing the cutting tool, or, as it is called, the -plane iron, which is firmly fixed with a wedge, so that its sharp cutting -edge only slightly projects at the bottom. - -The wood which is to be smoothed is fixed on the joiner’s bench by means -of a screwed board, called a shooting board, and, by means of the handle -at the top, the plane is made to slide swiftly along its surface, so that -the edge of the tool cuts off a thin shaving. - -There are various sorts of planes besides these, used for cutting various -parts of the work, but they are most of them of similar construction. - -Chisels are either for paring the wood, and are used with the hand; or -are intended to cut into the thickness of the wood, and are then struck -with a large wooden hammer, called the _mallet_. The _gouge_ is a curved -chisel, used for cutting mouldings or making round edges. - -[Illustration: Clout Nail. Cut Clasp Nail. Brad. Spike Nail. Bradawl. -Chisel. Gimlet.] - -The boring tools are the bradawl, the gimlet, and the stock and bit. - -The _bradawl_ is a small sharp wire fixed in a handle, and used for -making holes to receive large nails, which, if driven in at once by -the _hammer_, would split the wood. Nails are of various kinds, the -difference in which may be seen in the engraving. The best kinds of -nails are made from thin bar iron, pointed, cut off to the proper length, -and the head formed by stamping. - -The _gimlet_ is a hollow blade with a screw at the end, and fixed to a -cross handle. It is used for boring a larger and rougher hole than the -bradawl, for receiving _screws_, which are screwed into their place by -the _screw driver_, a sort of chisel, the edge or point of which enters -the notch in the head of the screw, so that the workman may turn it round. - -The _bit_ is a tool not unlike a large bradawl, which fits into a stock -or handle. The bits are of various sizes, and are used for boring large -holes. - -[Illustration: Centre Bit.] - -The _brace and bit_, or _centre bit_, is a tool with a centre and two -sharp points, one on each side; it is placed in a bow-shaped stock with a -round loose end. This loose end the workman holds firmly, while he places -the point of the tool against the wood required to be bored; he then -turns the bow briskly round, and the two points revolving rapidly, cut -out a circular piece. - -The _pincers_ are used for removing nails from wood, and it is easy to -see how they are applied. There are some other tools which belong to the -trade of the Joiner, but they are used less frequently, and a description -of them will be given when we have to say something of the trade of the -Cabinet Maker, whose work resembles the finer part of that which the -Joiner does at his own workshop. - -The bench (_see large cut_) is the great table of thick planks supported -on a timber frame, at which the Joiner works; it is furnished with a -“side-board” perforated with holes to receive a pin, against which one -end of the wood on which he is operating rests, the other being firmly -fixed in the bench screw. - -[Illustration: Pincers.] - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE HOUSE PAINTER AND GLAZIER. - -[Illustration: HOUSE-PAINTING AND GLAZING.] - - -Although we have spoken of the trade of the Plumber separately, and have -placed the Painter and Glazier together, it generally happens that the -three trades are carried on by the same persons, and you will often have -noticed “Plumber, Painter, and Glazier” over the fronts of shops, where -leaden pipes and taps, casements, and squares of coloured glass, and -specimens of “graining,” or imitations of various woods in painting, are -placed for show in the windows, to represent the different businesses -carried on. - -It is the duty of the House Painter to cover with his colours such -portions of the Joiner’s, Smith’s, or Plasterer’s work as require to be -protected from the action of the air, which would cause them to rust or -decay. He has also to choose the colours which will be best suited for -decorating walls and cornices, and generally to apply the proper shades -for all the ornaments of the house, and this part of the business, which -is called “decorative painting,” requires a great degree of skill and -taste in the workman, who may properly be called an artist. - -The materials used by the Painter are principally white lead, linseed -oil, spirits of turpentine, “dryers,” and putty. White lead, which forms -the basis of almost all the colours used in house painting, is prepared -by exposing strips of lead to the action of acid; but the Painter buys it -ready made, in the form of small cakes, or lumps. This white lead is used -in all the under coats of paint, and generally makes the body of most of -the colours which are afterwards applied. Unfortunately, while it is in -the half-fluid state, when it is used by Painters, it is very poisonous -and unwholesome, and many workmen suffer severely in their health from -its use; but it will be found that this is often caused by their own -carelessness in working, and by the want of personal cleanliness. The -Painter should not only thoroughly wash his hands before every meal, but -as soon as his work is done should entirely change his clothes, and wash -hands and face thoroughly, or even take a bath. Beside this, he should -wear, over his working clothes, a coarse linen frock or blouse, which -will protect him from the spots of paint, and may be frequently washed. - -Linseed oil and spirits of turpentine are used for mixing and thinning -the colours; linseed oil is obtained from the seeds of the flax plant, -which are heated, beaten, and pressed by machinery, until the greater -part of the oil is extracted; the seeds crushed into cakes are then used -as food for cattle. Nut oil, or the oil pressed from various kinds of -nuts, such as walnuts, hazel and beech nuts, is also frequently used for -mixing colours where they are likely to be exposed to the weather, but -linseed oil is cheaper and is most generally adapted to the purpose. - -Oil of turpentine, which the Painter calls “turps,” is the oil obtained -by distilling crude turpentine; and is used by the House Painter to make -his colours work more smoothly and freely in the brush, to cause them to -dry more quickly, and to take away that shiny unpleasant glare that would -otherwise be seen on the surface of paint mixed with linseed oil alone. - -It is necessary, too, to take some means to make the linseed oil dry more -rapidly than it would in its raw state; or the paint would remain moist -and greasy upon the walls for a very long time. For this purpose the -oil is boiled, and is then known as “boiled oil,” this is bought ready -prepared, the Painter having by him preparations of lead or vitriol, -called “dryers,” which he mixes with his colours, after they are made, in -order to increase the rapidity with which they set upon the places where -they are applied. - -The Painter has only a few tools, and these are very simple; they consist -principally of the grinding stone, or _slab_ and _muller_, for grinding -his colours; _earthen pots_ for holding the paints; _cans_ for oil and -turps; a few tin pots, or open cans and kettles, for colour to be applied -to outside places or walls where he has to work on ladders; a _palette -knife_, for spreading the white lead on the stone, or removing the paint -to the palette, for fine work, or to the paint pot; and _brushes_ of -different sizes. - -[Illustration: Slab and Muller. Paint Pot. Palette Knife. Oil Can. Paint -Pot. Paint Kettle.] - -The various colours, which are mostly made from earths and minerals, are -purchased by the Painter in powder or small dry lumps, and have to be -brought to a fine state, and made quite free from grit, before they can -be used. - -The slab, or grindstone, is generally of marble or porphyry, and must -have a perfectly smooth surface; and the muller is a large oval or -egg-shaped pebble, with one end broken off, and the surface made as -smooth as that of the slab. A small quantity of the colour which requires -grinding is placed on the stone, and moistened with a little oil; and -the muller is then worked over it, by a circular movement, until it is -gradually driven to the edge of the stone. The colour is then removed by -the spatula, or palette knife, and placed in the paint pot. - -[Illustration: Paint Brushes.] - -In this state, however, the colour is too thick to use, and of course -requires to be thinned by adding the oil until it is sufficiently fluid. - -In painting woodwork, the first business is called “knotting,” that -is, removing the turpentine from the knots, which would otherwise ooze -and spoil the paint. They are first covered with fresh slaked lime, -which dries up and burns out the turpentine; this is afterwards scraped -off, and the knots painted with a mixture of red and white lead mixed -with glue size, and afterwards with white lead and linseed oil. When -dry, they must be rubbed smooth with a piece of pumice stone. The next -operation is to put on the “priming,” which is the first coat of paint, -composed of red and white lead and linseed oil. The nail-holes, and other -imperfections, are then stopped up with putty (a mixture of linseed oil -and whiting, made into a paste), applied with the _stopping knife_; and -then the other coats of paint are laid on; three coats being generally -considered sufficient; and the last being of the required colour. - -[Illustration: Stopping Knife.] - -The brushes used by the Painter, are either round or flat, the latter -being used in varnishing or graining; they are made of hog’s bristles. -The smaller kinds of brushes are called _tools_ or _fitches_, and are -used for small surfaces, such as ornaments and mouldings round panels, -when the colour is generally taken from a _palette_—a round slab of wood, -with a hole through which the thumb of the left hand passes in order to -hold it. The brushes must never be allowed to get dry, but when not in -use must be kept in water: it is always best to keep a brush for each -colour. Another part of the Painter’s business which requires more skill, -is graining and marbling; or the imitation in colours of the marks and -grains of various kinds of wood, and the veins and spots in marbles. This -is of course a part of the trade which requires a knowledge of the thing -to be imitated, and great care and taste in doing it well. - -Graining is generally done with “distemper colour,” that is a kind of -paint in which whiting and size are used instead of white lead and oil, -for the basis of the colour; but the colours depend on the sort of grain -to be imitated, and they are applied in various ways and with different -sorts of brushes, some of the colour being occasionally removed with a -piece of wash leather, in order to give the appearance of the light marks -seen in the “heart” of the wood. The appearance of the “grain” of the -wood is effected by the _graining comb_, a comb with short thick straight -teeth, which is drawn along the paint in a wavy line. - -[Illustration: Graining Comb. Painter’s Brush.] - -Marbles are imitated in oil if it is outside work and exposed to the -weather, but for inside work distemper colour is frequently used. - -Occasionally walls are coloured in distemper, and it then frequently -happens that a pattern or some ornamental design is painted in the -centres of the panels, or round the mouldings. This is a part of the -Painter’s trade which requires much skill, and a knowledge of artistic -drawing and design. - -Varnishing is an operation requiring great care to perform it properly, -since it is necessary not only to choose the right kind of varnish, but -also to apply it to the surface of the paint with a light but firm hand. -Varnishes are made of gums or resins melted, spirits of wine, oil of -turpentine, or strong white drying oil. The hard varnishes dry rapidly, -and are made of the harder kinds of gums, such as copal, mastic, &c., and -the soft of Canada balsam, elemi, turpentine, &c. The most useful for the -House Painter are those of copal, linseed oil, and turpentine. - -The brushes used in varnishing are generally flat, so as to enable the -workman to lay an even surface on the work. Varnishes are usually kept -in wide-mouthed bottles; from which they are poured into little tin pans -with a false bottom above the real bottom, the space between the two -being filled with sand. The use of this is that when the pan is placed -over the fire, the sand becomes heated, and the varnish is kept a long -time from becoming chilled. - -[Illustration: THE GLAZIER.] - -[Illustration: Glazing Knife. Hacking Knife. Chisel Knife. Clicker’s -Knife.] - -The trade of the Glazier, though now very important, was unknown in -this country till the eleventh century, and even long afterwards the -use of glass for windows was extremely rare; pieces of horn, and oiled -paper, supplying its place in almost every building except palaces and -churches. As we have here to do with the Glazier, and not with the -manufacturer of glass, we need say little about the method of making the -materials used; so that it will suffice to know that the “crown glass,” -mostly sold for windows of houses, is composed principally of white sand, -pearlash, and saltpetre. This glass the Glazier purchases in sheets of a -circular form, each of which is called a _table_, since the mode in which -it is made renders such a shape necessary; and the first thing he has to -learn, is how to cut out square pieces of the proper size without wasting -much of the round edge. The glass when cut is fixed either into lead work -or sashes; the former of these is the oldest description of glazing; and -in the common kind the leaden frames are soldered together, so as to -form squares or diamonds; the sides of the grooves in which the glass -is placed being soft enough to bend back to receive the panes, and then -bend back again to hold them firmly. In wooden sashes, such as are now -commonly used, the space or frame for each pane of glass is “rebated,” -that is, it has outside a small groove all round to receive the pane, and -a ledge against which it rests. In this “rebate” each square of glass is -placed, and then firmly bedded and fastened smoothly with a rim of putty -filling up the groove. - -[Illustration: Rule. Square. 2-foot Rule. Tilter.] - -The Glazier uses a _hacking knife_ for cutting out old putty from broken -squares; and the _stopping knife_, or _glazing knife_, for laying and -smoothing the putty. - -For setting glass into lead work, the _setting knife_, or _chisel knife_, -and the broad-bladed knife is used. - -As much of the Glazier’s work is done outside the house, he is sometimes -compelled to use a board which is fastened with screws, and projects from -the window so that he may sit astride on the outside. No one should ever -attempt this where the sash can be easily taken out and the work done -inside. - -[Illustration: Diamond. Pincers.] - -The rest of the Glazier’s tools are a _square_, and a _straight edge -rule_ for cutting against, a _two-foot rule_, and compasses for -measuring; _pincers_ for breaking off the edges of glass that have been -partially cut through; and the _diamond_, which is used for cutting, and -is his principal tool. This is made of a small unpolished diamond fixed -in lead, and fastened to a handle of hard wood. - - - - -THE PLUMBER. - -[Illustration: Casting Lead.] - - -In trades connected with building, the work of the Plumber is of so much -importance that it must come next to that of the Bricklayer, and the -Carpenter. At one time the Plumber (who takes his name from the Latin -word for _lead_[2]) was principally employed in making leaden roofs of -churches or large public buildings and in forming casements for windows; -window frames being then made of strips of lead soldered or riveted -together and holding the little diamond-shaped panes of glass between -their edges. In those days all the water used in the house was carried -from the well or from the conduit in the main street, or was brought in -casks set upon wheels from the nearest running stream: while rain-water -for washing was collected in tubs or vats as it ran off the roofs. Not -much more than a century ago the poets wrote of the misery of the streets -of London on a wet night, when there were no waste pipes to carry off the -rain from the overcharged gutters on the tiles, and nobody could venture -out of doors without being half drowned by the sudden discharge of a -shower bath from some overhanging gable. Then, as there was no proper -system of pipes for carrying off the wet, there was very little drainage -except by means of open gutters, and the bye-ways, as well as some of the -principal thoroughfares and large houses, were extremely unhealthy. - - [2] Plumbum. - -We are not quite perfect even yet in these respects, and there are -still neighbourhoods in London where a few Plumbers might be able to -make vast improvements; but we are a great deal better off than our -great grandfathers were. The Plumbers do not make quite so many leaden -casements as they made in the olden time, but they are well employed in -constructing roofs; carrying water into houses by means of leaden pipes; -making cisterns to contain a good supply of it, and providing other -pipes and gutters for conveying all the dirty water and drainage into -the sewers that are under the roadway, where it runs quite away from the -streets, and (in London at least) goes into the sea from near the mouth -of the Thames at Erith. - -[Illustration: Ladle. Grate. Soldering Iron.] - -Now as the Plumber has to do a great deal of his work in roofs and other -places where he is liable to fall, he should be clear-headed, and able to -go up a ladder or look over a ledge at a height from the ground without -being afraid, and this is all the more necessary because he has to handle -tools, and sometimes to pour melted solder out of a hot _iron ladle_ -while he is at his work on these places. For the purpose of melting -the solder he has to carry his _fire grate and melting pot_ with him -to some place near where he is at work, since unless the solder can be -used rapidly it cools, and will not make a sound joint. The rest of the -Plumber’s tools are the _pouring stick_ for applying the melted solder -in the places where it is required, the _soldering iron_ which is made -red-hot, and passed over the soldered joints to smooth them and make them -all firm and sound; the _chisel_, _shave hooks_, _drawing knife_, and -_chipping knife_, for cutting the lead and scraping it on the surface, -or at the edges that are to be fastened together; the _hammers_ and -_mallets_ for beating the lead into shape and flattening the ridges, the -_bossing mallet_ and dresser for bringing the sheet of lead to a proper -shape, and forming it over the ridge of a roof, the _chased wedge_, the -screw-driver, the _dunring_ and the _turnpin_ for various uses in making -roofs, laying down leaden pipes and fixing taps, and the _sucker hook_ -used in repairing or fixing pumps when the part of the pump called the -sucker requires to be rectified. - -[Illustration: Pouring Stick. Chipping Knife. Dunring. Drawing Knife. -Chased Wedge. Shave Hook. Turnpin. Shave Hook.] - -There are other tools beside these, such as planes for making the surface -of the lead smooth and even, gouges and centre-bits for circular openings -in the lead to receive nails or clamps, measuring rules and compasses, -and pads of carpet or cloth to hold under a pipe when it is being -soldered, that the solder may be pressed round the joint before it cools, -and without its dropping on the ground. - -[Illustration: Mallet. Hammer.] - -Plumbers now buy their sheet lead as well as their leaden pipe at the -warehouses, but those in a large way of business formerly cast the lead -themselves. For this purpose they used a casting table, which is a great -wooden bench about six yards long and two yards wide, made of smooth -planks, and with a raised wooden frame round the edge. On this table the -Plumber spreads a layer of finely-sifted sand, which was made level by -a strike—a flat piece of wood with two handles—drawn from end to end of -the table; after this the surface was made still more smooth by a planer, -which was a flat plate of copper fastened to a handle. - -[Illustration: Sucker Hook. Screwdriver. Dresser. Bossing Mallet. Chisel.] - -A trough called the pan ran along the whole length of the table, and into -this the melted lead was poured from the melting pot. There were two ways -of making the sheet lead: one of them was to tilt the trough up, and -pour out the lead on to the table, two men immediately passing a wooden -strike over it so as to spread it evenly over the whole surface. In this -case the thickness of the sheet of lead depended on the distance between -the edge of the “strike” and the surface of the sand. Another way was -to have a narrow opening all along the bottom of the trough, the trough -itself moving from end to end of the table as the lead flowed out. When -this method was used the thickness of the sheet depended on the size of -the opening, and the rapidity with which the trough was moved along the -table. Neither of these methods are now used, the lead being rolled into -sheets by machinery. - -Water-pipes are made by lead being cast in moulds with a steel rod -passing through their middles, according to the size required. The lead -is poured into the space between the rod and the mould. After it is -cool the rod is drawn out by machinery, and the mould which is made in -halves is opened and the pipe taken out. The pipe is then much thicker -and shorter than is required for use, but it is afterwards drawn between -powerful iron rollers with grooves cut in their surfaces, an iron rod -being again placed inside it. As these grooves gradually decrease in -size, and the pipe is drawn through several, it is very considerably -lengthened, and at the same time diminished, in thickness, by the time -the operation is finished. Another method of making lead pipes is by the -use of the _forcing pump_, which pumps the melted metal out of the boiler -into a mould containing a “mandril,” or pipe of the required size. Pipes -made in this way do not require to be rolled. - -[Illustration: Forcing Pump.] - -The work which the Plumber is called upon to do on the roofs of houses -requires experience before it can be properly performed. The foundation -of the roof which is to be covered with lead is made either of boards or -plaster, so that the surface may be even, and if it be of boards they -must be thick and well seasoned to prevent their warping. The foundation -slopes a little in order to carry off the rain towards one end. When the -roof is so large that it needs two widths of lead, there are three ways -of joining the edges of the lead together: one is by fastening to the -roof long slips of wood (flat at bottom and round at top) at the places -where the lead will be joined. Over these strips the edge of the first -sheet of lead is folded and hammered down quite close, then the edge of -the second sheet is folded and hammered over that, so that water cannot -get between them. This is called “rolling.” - -Another method is to bring the two edges up just as though they were -to be sewn together, then to fold them tightly one over the other, and -hammer them down: this is called “overlapping,” but it is not so good as -rolling for keeping out the rain. - -The third way is to _solder_ the edges together: the solder, which is in -constant use by the Plumber, being a metal made by mixing lead and tin -together. These two metals when mixed adhere very strongly to the lead -that they are meant to join, and the surface to which they are applied -is made hot enough to unite with the solder by means of the soldering -iron, while very often a little resin, borax, or tallow is placed on the -surface of the lead to cause it to combine more rapidly with the molten -metal. - -Besides the fixing of roofs the Plumber makes leaden cisterns, fixes -rain-water gutters, and waste pipes, and arranges taps and drains; and -in some of these operations he will use zinc instead of lead. Not the -least important part of his business, however, is the construction and -arrangement of pumps, and for this purpose it is necessary that he -should study mechanics, and those branches of science which refer to the -properties of water, and to the laws which govern the air and other -fluids. He is always the best workman who goes to his business with a -knowledge of the natural laws and scientific facts connected with it, and -a very little study will save a world of blundering; during which the -ignorant man will remain a labourer, because it takes him half a lifetime -to learn his business. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE GASFITTER. - -[Illustration: GASFITTERS AT WORK.] - - -As there are now few large houses which are not lighted by gas, the -trade of the Gasfitter is one of considerable importance; and though the -materials used are generally bought ready made from the Brassfounders, -the glass-works, the Ironfounders, or the lead warehouse, considerable -skill is required, as well as some taste in properly adapting the -chandeliers and burners, and skilfully adjusting the tubes and pipes -so that they may easily be repaired, or any escape of gas quickly -detected. The various tools used by the Gasfitter are simple enough, but -careful practice is necessary for their proper use; and, as any flaw or -imperfection in the work may lead to very dangerous consequences, all the -operations should be thoroughly tested, and every joint and fitting in -the various parts made sound and strong. - -Before the gas is taken into a house, or as it is called in the trade -“laid on” in the house, it is of course necessary to obtain the -permission of the Company to whom the works where the gas is made belong, -and to agree to pay for the quantity that is burnt, which is charged by -the thousand cubic feet, and varies in price according to the cost of the -coal from which it is made, and the difficulty of conveying this coal to -the works. - -[Illustration: Spade. Crowbar. Rammer.] - -The first operation is to take up the roadway in front of the house, in -order to connect the pipe which is to convey the gas to the meter with -that which conducts it from the works to the different streets of the -neighbourhood. For this purpose the _spade_ and _crowbar_ are necessary, -while sometimes the pickaxe also has to be used; and the _rammer_ serves -to beat the earth down more closely after the pipe is laid. - -[Illustration: Brick Bit. Brick Auger.] - -The pipe which is joined to the larger pipe, or _main_, is generally of -iron, and is made with a screw and socket, that it may not be easily -displaced by the pressure of the roadway or footpath, and this, passing -into the basement of the house, supplies the gas to the _meter_. The -meter is a mechanical contrivance, which is so constructed that the -quantity of gas passing through it is registered by a plate something -like a clock face, with a hand to point to the figures which represent -the number of cubic feet consumed. There are different kinds of meters, -and the construction of them varies very considerably, but they all -answer this purpose: so that when the inspector visits the house once a -quarter he may directly see what quantity is to be charged for. The pipe -leading from the meter is fitted with a strong tap, by turning which, all -the gas may be shut off from the tubes that convey it to the different -burners in the house, and from this pipe the smaller pipes (made of a -sort of solder or of lead) are taken to the various rooms. In order to -carry the tubes through a wall, it is necessary to use the _brick bit_ -and the _brick auger_ for boring a hole to receive it, while to support -it against a wall or along the top of a ceiling the Gasfitter uses -_wall hooks_, the _hammer_ and the _tongs_ for holding and bending the -pipe to its proper direction. In kitchens and basement rooms the pipe is -generally carried from the meter up the wall and along the ceiling to the -place where the burner is to be fixed: but in upper rooms the pipe is -taken up the house wall, and carried under the flooring of the room above -to the centre of the middle joist, where a hole is bored quite through -the ceiling of the room below. For this purpose the _twisted auger_ is -generally used; and for the preliminary work of taking up the floor and -cutting a groove in the joist to receive the pipe, that it may not be -injured by the pressure of the boards above, the _saw_ and the _hammer_ -are required. - -[Illustration: Wall Hooks. Nuts. Grease Pot. Hammer.] - -[Illustration: Twisted Auger. Saw. Blowpipe. Tongs.] - -[Illustration: Waxed Rushes. Rasp.] - -Of course one length of pipe is not sufficient to go to any great -distance, and a joint has frequently to be made, the solder used for -this purpose being so easily melted and so readily combining with the -pipe itself, which is of almost the same material, that the flame from -prepared _tow_ blown to an intense heat by the _blow pipe_ is sufficient -for the purpose. The rasp is used for filing the surface at the ends of -the pipes where they are to be joined, and the _waxed rushes_ to try the -joints in order to see that there is no escape of gas through some small -hole. When the pipes are all laid and brought to their proper positions -the fittings are fixed. Those which descend from the centres of ceilings -are generally called chandeliers, and consist of a tube of metal fastened -to the gas pipe, the end of which coming through the ceiling is furnished -with an iron screw to fit the end of the tube. This tube is placed within -a larger tube, from the bottom of which a still smaller one passes within -the first. The gas therefore descends the tube from the ceiling, and -enters the smallest tube, which communicates with the _burners_ that -spring from the largest. The larger tube is intended to receive water, -in which the end of the first tube rests, so that the gas is prevented -from escaping, while by a nice adjustment of weights running over pulleys -attached to the larger, the burners can be raised or lowered, as one tube -slides within the other (_see large cut_). The _taps_ are placed at the -burners to turn on or turn off the gas as it is required, and in order -to fix and screw these, as well as to fasten joints in the fittings by -means of _screw nuts_, the _pliers_ and the _wrench_ are used. - -[Illustration: Wrench. Tow. Tap. Rimmer. Clamps. Pliers. Drill Stock.] - -The _clamps_ are a sort of vice with grooved holes, for holding the taps -and metal joints firmly while they are filed or otherwise prepared; the -_drill stock_ is used for boring small pipes in order to make a branch to -some other direction, and the _drill brace_ is intended for boring the -main pipes, under which the large hooks are placed while a stock and bit -attached to the upper screw makes the hole; the ordinary _braces_ are -fitted to a _ratchet_ or cog wheel at one end, and are also used for -making incisions by being worked backwards and forwards. - -[Illustration: Drill Brace. Braces. Stocks and Dies.] - -The several kinds of _burners_ are pierced or cut in such a way as to -make the flame from the gas of different shapes, such as _fish tail_, -_cock spur_, _star_, or _argand_, the names of which tell pretty well -in what shape they appear. Small rooms are sometimes fitted with -“telescopes” instead of chandeliers, the telescope being one tube sliding -within another, and the space carefully filled with a properly adjusted -cork or some other flexible and impervious substance. Bedrooms, and -apartments where light is required at the walls or chimney pieces, are -furnished with brackets, which either simply project from the wall, or -are made with an arm moving on a ball and socket joint. The manufacture -of the various portions of the apparatus used in gas fitting will be -mostly found described under the trade of the Brassfounder. - -[Illustration] - - - - -MANUFACTURE OF GAS. - -[Illustration: GASOMETERS.] - - -Very few of the readers of this book will remember the appearance -presented by London streets before the introduction of gas; when all -the thoroughfares were darker than even the commonest streets are now, -and the only light emanated either from the shop windows or from dim -oil lamps, which the rain or the wind would frequently put out, even -when they did not burn out of themselves for want of being trimmed and -replenished. A century ago these oil lamps were quite insufficient -to light even the main streets, and people who walked out at night -generally hired a “link boy” to light them as they went, with a great -flambeau of hemp and pitch, which smoked and smelt insufferably. The -nobility and gentlefolks who rode in carriages were also attended by -footmen with flambeaux of a better sort, and outside the doors of some -of the oldest houses in London there may still be seen the great iron -extinguishers attached to the railings, where the torch-bearers put out -their lights till it was time to escort their masters and mistresses -home. The poet Gay, who wrote the celebrated fables, describes the link -boys, and gives them rather a bad character for so often being connected -with the bands of thieves and footpads which infested London streets, and -robbed people with impunity in the dark. He says:— - - “Though thou art tempted by the link man’s call, - Yet trust him not along the lonely wall; - In the midway he’ll quench the flaming brand, - And share the booty with the pilfering band. - Still keep the public streets, where oily rays, - Shot from the crystal lamp, o’erspread thy ways.” - -Long before this, however, the inflammable nature of the vapour which -streamed from burning coal had been observed by scientific men, and it -was thought by many people that some method might be invented for making -this gas useful for the purpose of lighting streets or houses. It had -also been observed that the air suddenly escaping from the shafts of coal -mines was often highly inflammable, and some experiments were made in the -distillation of coal as early as 1726. In 1765 Lord Lonsdale proposed to -the magistrates of Whitehaven to convey the gas from the neighbouring -mines through pipes for lighting the town. - -A number of eminent men afterwards made experiments with gas, but no -decided practical result followed until a Mr. Murdock, of Cornwall, -began to manufacture gas for lighting his house and offices at Redruth. -In 1798 the same gentleman used gas for lighting the Soho Foundry, where -four years afterwards a public exhibition of the new invention was made -by means of an illumination to celebrate the proclamation of peace. - -In 1803 a gentleman named Winsor first publicly showed at the Lyceum -Theatre, in London, a system of illumination by gas, which was the -commencement of our present method of lighting our streets and houses; -and after great difficulties and various experiments, a company was -formed for the purpose of carrying out the undertaking of superseding the -old oil lamps and making use of the new invention. The premises of the -company and their factory were situated in Pall Mall, where the Carlton -Club now stands, and the lights first appeared from the corner of St. -James’s Street to the Haymarket, while several jets were placed in front -of Carlton House, the residence of the Prince Regent, afterwards George -the Fourth. - -By slow degrees, and by the assistance of Mr. Clegg, an eminent engineer, -the manufacture of gas improved, and in 1814, when the allied sovereigns -visited this country, and a general illumination was ordered, a -magnificent pagoda in St. James’s Park was erected for the exhibition of -the new light. The following year Guildhall was fitted with gas burners; -and, although it had been predicted that the new invention would _ruin -the navy_ by superseding the use of the oil brought by the whalers, and -though some people declared that it was only a scheme for blowing up -London, the success of these experiments led to its rapid adoption in -most of the large towns of Europe. - -It will now be necessary to say something of coal, of which more than -400,000 tons are used every year for the manufacture of gas in London -alone. - -The name coal was originally given to any substance used for fuel, and -the use of mineral coal, or, as it was formerly termed, _sea-coal_, from -the fact of its being brought by sea, has not prevailed for longer than -200 years. Coal is found in this country in extensive deposits called -coal-fields, the most important of which are:—1. Those of the great -northern district, including the coal-fields north of the river Trent. -2. Those of the central district, including the Leicester, Warwick, -Stafford, and Shropshire coal-fields. 3. Those of the western districts -in North Wales, South Wales, and Gloucester. The coal occurs in a -number of layers, or beds, termed _seams_, and these are separated from -each other by layers of slatey clay, called _shale_, and coarse, hard -sandstone, known as _grit_. - -The seams of coal are mostly comparatively thin, but varying from a few -inches to six or eight feet in thickness, and underneath the layers -is usually found a bed of mountain limestone extending beyond the -coal-field, and rising to the surface of the ground around it. - -The first process for finding coal is to bore with iron tools a -perpendicular hole in the ground; then if coal is discovered, a shaft, -or pit, from ten to fifteen feet in diameter, is sunk, and lined with -brick, cast iron, or wood, to prevent the admission of water and the -falling in of the sides. When the shaft reaches a seam of coal, passages -are made, twelve to fourteen feet wide, and varying in height with the -coal; from these proceed smaller ones, which are again crossed by large -ones, enormous blocks of coal being left to support the earth above. As -the mine becomes larger, a second shaft is sunk at some distance from -the first, in order that air may be supplied to the mine, and that the -gas that escapes from the coal may be carried away. A current of air is -caused by burning a large fire in one shaft, and the draught is directed -to the part of the mine where it is required, by doors, which close up -some of the passages and leave others open. - -There are several varieties of coal found in this country. The most -important are: the common, or bituminous coal, which soils the fingers on -handling; the cannel, or candle coal, which burns with a bright flame, -but does not soil; the anthracite, or culm coal, which burns without -flame, does not form cinder when half consumed, and is most useful for -furnaces, in consequence of its intense heat and the absence of smoke. -Although often classed amongst the minerals, coal is evidently of -vegetable origin; many sorts of it being distinctly fibrous, and showing -the grain of the wood from which it is composed. Upon examination with -the microscope, coal shows vegetable remains; and these are frequently -so perfect that they prove its formation from such plants as ferns and -fir-trees, of a kind somewhat different from those which now exist. - -The value of coal depends entirely upon its inflammable and combustible -properties. It is used as the source of artificial warmth in our -dwellings, and our manufactures are mainly dependent on it. Without coal -there would scarcely be any working in iron, copper, lead, or other -metals, as in populous countries the supply of wood is soon exhausted. -Our potteries and our glass works are also carried on by its use, and -the power of steam which moves all our great engines and machines is -dependent on coal for its existence. - -Great Britain produces more than one-half the coal that is consumed in -the world, and about 180,000 persons are employed in obtaining it in our -collieries. - -The first process in the manufacture of gas is to subject the coal to a -great heat, by which it is _carbonised_, or burnt until only the cinder, -or coke, remains after the gas has flown off. This is done by placing -the coal in retorts of fire-clay or iron, which are previously heated. -These retorts, which occupy a building called the _retort house_, having -been charged with coal, are perfectly closed, and the door _luted_, or -stopped, with a sort of cement, so that the gas can only escape up the -_ascension pipe_, the coke being left in the retort. - -[Illustration: Retort House.] - -The gas from the coal then passes through the ascension pipe by what is -called the _dip pipe_, into a main, a large horizontal tube extending -along the length of the furnaces. This main is about half filled with -water or tar, in which the ends of the dip pipes are immersed, so -that as the gas runs in, it ascends through the liquid into the space -above, but cannot flow back again into the dip pipes. In this way it -is all collected in the upper part of the main pipe, and is ready for -purification. - -Where double retorts are used, each end is worked with at least three -stokers, and an extra man for preparing the lids of the mouth-pieces. -Others are required for extinguishing the coke, wheeling the coal into -the retort house, clinkering furnaces, and attending to fires. Three -stokers, assisted by a man to extinguish the coke, will perform all the -work of taking off the lids, raking out the coke, extinguishing and -wheeling it away from a bench of seven retorts, in twelve or thirteen -minutes; they will then put the proper charge for each retort in the -_scoop_, deliver its contents, and be ready for charging another bench -in a further space of seven minutes, while a fourth workman will in the -meantime have put on the lids, so that the whole work of discharging and -charging the seven retorts will occupy barely twenty minutes. - -This extreme dexterity is of course only acquired by long practice, and -it must be admitted the labour is very severe; but this is moderated by -the time the men have for repose between the charges. The first process -in discharging or drawing is for one or two of the men to relieve the -screws of the mouth-pieces of the retorts about to be discharged, by -giving three or four rapid turns; another man instantly gives a knock to -each of the cross bars to disengage them from the ears of the lid, and -at the same time strikes the lid a blow with a piece of iron or hammer, -in order to break the luting, and a light is immediately applied to -prevent explosion, which would be likely to crack the retort if of clay. -For want of this precaution, many lamentable accidents have happened -through the gas exploding when combined with atmospheric air. The men -then lift off the cross bar and screw of each retort, placing them on the -ground, and then each seizes hold of a lid in both hands, lifting it by -the projecting ears, and placing it aside to cool, ready for luting for -another charge. - -[Illustration: Fender. Wheelbarrow. Bus.] - -Three of the stokers then take up their _iron rakes_, which are simply -rods of ¾-inch iron, about 12 feet long, having a handle at one end; the -other end being turned at right angles is flat, about 6 inches long, 2 -inches wide, and ½-inch thick. These are inserted in the retort, and the -red-hot coke drawn to the mouth, whence it drops into the coke vault, -where there is a man ready to extinguish by throwing water on it; or when -there is no vault the coke drops into _iron barrows_ placed ready to -receive it, and wheeled rapidly away when the charge is withdrawn. If the -coke were not immediately extinguished it would smoulder, and the surface -become covered with earthy ash, and detract from its appearance and value. - -[Illustration: Rake. Clinkering Spud. Scoop. Fire Shovel. Key. Auger.] - -Formerly, in charging retorts, the operation being comparatively very -protracted, there was a considerable loss of gas, in addition to the time -and extra fatigue to the men. In order to remedy these inconveniences, -a method has been contrived for depositing the whole charge in the -retort at once; for this purpose an _iron scoop_ is used, this being a -semi-cylinder of sheet iron, from 8 to 10 feet long and 10 or 12 inches -diameter, with a cross handle at the end to assist in lifting and turning -it round to empty the coals in the retort. - -[Illustration: Shovel. Clinking Bat.] - -The charge of coal is placed in the scoop while it rests on the ground, -having a bent rod underneath for the purpose of lifting it: one man takes -hold of the cross handle, and two others lift the other end by the bent -rod, and introduce it into the mouth of the retort. The scoop with its -contents is then pushed forward to the further end, turned completely -over, and immediately withdrawn, leaving the coal in the retort, which -is raked into a layer of uniform thickness, when the lid, previously -luted and ready, is placed in its position and screwed up as quickly as -possible. The operation of charging a retort with the scoop does not -occupy more than thirty or forty seconds, so that very little escape of -gas can take place. The _shovel_ is used for lifting the coal to the -scoop, the _clinking bat_ for breaking or removing the coke in the vault, -the spud for a similar purpose. - -The gas in the hydraulic main is of course very impure, having undergone -no alteration since it came from the coal in the retort. It contains -a quantity of tar and ammoniacal liquor in vapour, and these have -to be separated from it and this can be effected by what is called -condensation, the instrument used being known as a _condenser_. There -are two or three forms of condensers in use, but a common one, which is -represented in the engraving, is called the horizontal condenser, and -is a rectangular box or chest formed of cast iron plates, put together -with flanges, and perfectly tight joints. Its interior is provided with a -series of iron trays, containing each about two inches in depth of water, -and so arranged that the gas, entering at the bottom of the chest, passes -in succession over the surface of the water in each tray, and traversing -the whole length of trough ten or twelve times, passes off at the upper -side. In the mean time a continuous stream of water enters at the top, -and in its descent absorbs a portion of the ammonia, at the same time -cooling and condensing the vapours in combination with the gas. - -[Illustration: Condensers.] - -Horizontal condensers are sometimes composed of a series of pipes placed -in a horizontal position, and immersed in water. - -[Illustration: Wet Purifier.] - -The other form of condenser, which is very generally employed, consists -of a series of vertical pipes, connected in pairs by semicircular bends -at top, and attached to a cast-iron box or chest at bottom. This chest -has a series of divisions, the ends of which are sealed by liquid -placed therein, so that the gas in its passage has to pass through the -whole series of pipes. The pipes by their contact with the atmosphere -radiate the heat acquired from the gas in its passage, and it being in -consequence cooled, deposits the vapours as liquid in the form of tar, -and water saturated with ammonia, generally called ammoniacal liquor. -This condenser is sometimes used with an application of cold water on its -exterior, in order to increase the cooling effect. - -The other part of the purification is by a chemical process, in which a -solution of lime is used to remove other impurities in the gas. This is -called _wet lime purification_, or when the lime is only slackened (or -moistened) it is called _dry lime purification_, and the process takes -the sulphuretted hydrogen, the carbonic acid, and other matters from the -gas before it is stored for use. - -[Illustration: Dry Purifier.] - -The wet lime purifier consists of a cast-iron cylinder entirely closed -at top and bottom, except where the inlet and outlet pipes join it, and -where an opening is required for charging it with lime-water, which same -opening is also used for drawing off the charge. To the inside of the -cover of this outer cylinder is bolted an inlet cylinder usually made -of wrought-iron plate. This inlet cylinder is open at the lower part, -and reaches to within a foot from the bottom of the outer cylinder, but -has bolted to its lower flange a wide ring or dash plate of sheet iron, -the outer diameter being only 8 or 9 inches less than that of the outer -cylinder, so that a space of about 4 or 5 inches is left between the -outside of the ring and the interior of the large cylinder. - -The gas passes down through the inlet cylinder, and by its pressure -forces its way up through the fluid lime, the surface of which is 8 or 9 -inches above the dash plate. - -The wet lime purifiers are variously worked; when four are used, two -vessels are employed at one time, and when the lime in the first is -incapable of absorbing the impurity, that purifier is put out of action, -and the second and third are worked, and so on in succession. - -When quick lime is slackened, reduced to powder, and slightly moistened -with water, chemically this is called the hydrate of lime, and is often -employed to absorb the sulphuretted hydrogen and carbonic acid from the -gas. The process is termed dry lime purification. - -Dry lime purifiers are generally rectangular cast-iron vessels, varying -from 3 feet to 30 feet square, and from 3 feet to 4 feet 6 inches deep. -Sometimes in small works they are made circular; this, however, is not -very frequent, and is done for convenience or economy in construction. -Each purifier contains a series of perforated shelves, trays, or sieves, -supported by suitable bearers of wrought or cast iron, the ends of which -are attached to “snuggs” cast on the purifier. In large apparatus there -are also pillars placed at intermediate distances to carry the weight of -the sieves and purifying material. - -The upper part of the purifier is surrounded by a cistern or reservoir -of from 6 inches to 24 inches deep, and from 3 inches to 6 inches wide, -which is often cast with the purifier, and forms part of it, or at other -times is attached thereto by bolts and cement, and is for the purpose -of containing water to seal the cover. The cover of the purifier is of -boiler plate or cast iron, the latter being preferable on account of its -durability; but the increased weight is an impediment to its adoption. -The rim or border of the cover is rather deeper than the cistern into -which it is placed, and is effectually sealed by the water, so preventing -the gas escaping from that point. - -Often the purifier is divided into two compartments, so that the gas -ascends through a set of sieves on the one side, and descends through -another set on the other side, answering the purpose of two sets of -apparatus. In all establishments, however small they may be, two distinct -purifiers at least are necessary, to enable the impure lime to be removed -from the one whilst the gas is being purified by the other. - -The next subject for consideration is that of the _gasholders_, or -vessels in which the gas is stored ready for delivery into the mains, -which distribute it throughout the districts to be lighted. These -vessels were originally termed _gasometers_, which name is sometimes -even now applied to them; but as they have nothing whatever to do with -the measurement of gas, but are mere vessels of capacity or stores, the -simple name of gasholder is more expressive and appropriate. - -The gasholder is composed of two distinct parts, one of which contains -water, and is called the tank, the other is the vessel which contains -the gas, being really the gasholder. On the Continent the former is very -generally termed the “cistern,” and the latter the “bell.” - -The tank is a large cylindrical vessel, constructed usually, for the sake -of economy, of brickwork or masonry, but when the ground is marshy, or -when water exists abundantly a short distance below the surface of the -earth, which would prevent the construction in masonry at a moderate -price, these tanks are made in cast-iron, and, indeed, in small works, -are often of wrought iron. In the interior of the tank there are two -vertical pipes for the admission and egress of the gas, called the inlet -and outlet pipes; the former being in direct communication with the -manufacturing apparatus, the latter with the mains which convey the gas -to the town. These pipes rise a few inches above the level of the top -of the tank, so that the water cannot overflow into them. A series of -columns, generally of cast-iron, but sometimes of wood, or brick piers, -are placed at equal distances around the tank for the purpose of guiding -the holder. - -The holder is a cylindrical vessel closed at the top, which is termed the -roof, and open at the bottom, made of sheet iron, varying in thickness -according to the dimensions of the apparatus, the smaller sizes being -constructed of thin material in order to avoid an excess of pressure, -whilst those of very large dimensions are made of stout plates for the -purpose of obtaining sufficient pressure to expel the gas to the burners. -The holder is somewhat less in diameter, but of the same depth as the -tank in which it is placed, sometimes being partially suspended by chains -which pass over grooved pulleys and counter-balance weights, but more -frequently only guided by rollers attached around its lower and upper -edges, which work against suitable guides in the tank and on the columns -in such a manner as to permit the holder to ascend and descend in the -tank with the greatest freedom. - -The action of the gasholder is very simple. The tank being filled with -water, and the holder immersed therein ready for use, there is a space -between the surface of the water and the roof of the holder; the gas -enters by the inlet pipe into this space, and with the force it acquires -in being expelled from the coal, pressing on the surface of the water and -underneath the roof, and over the whole area of both, causes the holder -to rise. Thus, by its own force or pressure, the gas provides room for -itself, and in proportion to the quantity entering so does the holder -rise out of the water. For instance, a holder having 100 feet area, or -about 11 feet 4 inches diameter, in rising 10 feet will receive 1,000 -cubic feet of gas, and in descending, the same quantity would be expelled. - -Gasholders, though often suspended, are never entirely counter-balanced, -having always sufficient weight to give the necessary pressure for -forcing the gas through the mains and smaller pipes to the burners, all -through the neighbourhood which is supplied from it. The gasholder should -be so constructed that, when it is full or at its greatest height, its -lower edge will be so far under water as to prevent the gas from escaping. - -The water in the tank serves three purposes; it is the means of -resistance for the gas to lift the holder, it prevents the gas escaping -or mixing with the atmosphere; and it is the means of expelling or -forcing out the gas as the holder descends. - - - - -THE IRONFOUNDER. - -[Illustration: FOUNDRY.] - - -Having already described the various operations of the trades employed in -building and fitting a house, we will say something of the manufacture -of those cast iron columns, girders, gratings, balconies, pipes, gutters, -air traps, coal plates, stoves, and other articles which are so necessary -to the Builder before his work can be completed. All these, as well as a -great variety of other goods made in black or bronze iron, such as gates, -bridges, pieces of furniture (like umbrella stands), iron taps, and even -pots and frying pans, are made at the _Iron Foundry_. - -Iron is a metal of a bluish gray colour; but in its pure state it looks -almost white when polished, and has a brilliant lustre, while when it -is broken the broken portion looks dull and fibrous. It is the hardest -of all the malleable and ductile metals, and the most tenacious of all -metals, an iron wire of ⅟₃₆th of an inch in diameter bearing a weight of -60 pounds. - -In the pure state it requires the strongest heat of what is called a wind -furnace to melt it. - -Iron may be called the most precious of all metals; it is certainly the -most beneficial to man, and its uses are innumerable; indeed, there is -not a branch of human industry that could well afford to dispense with -its aid and services; nearly all the tools, implements, instruments, and -engines used by man are wholly or partly made of it, and we could better -afford to give up all the other metals than to part with this, which is -the most useful. - -Iron is used in two different states, as _cast iron_ and _wrought iron_, -the differences between them depending on the proportion of carbon -combined with the metal, cast iron containing the most and wrought iron -the least. - -For the production of wrought iron in the ordinary way, two distinct sets -of processes are required; first the extraction of the metal from the -“ore” that is brought up from the mine, which metal is cast iron; and -secondly the conversion of this cast iron into malleable or bar iron, by -remelting, _puddling_, and _forging_. Bar iron is turned into steel by -placing it in contact with charcoal in a peculiar kind of furnace. - -When the ore is taken from the mine it is first burnt or calcined, and -then removed to a blast furnace to be smelted. These blast furnaces are -generally built of brick, and look like small towers. The ore is mixed -with limestone, which causes it to melt more easily, and the fire is -lighted with pit coal or coke. The melted metal sinks to the bottom of -the furnace in consequence of its weight, while the limestone and dross -float on the top, and are allowed to run off when they cool into a mass -of what is called “slag.” - -The melted metal is run off from the bottom of the furnace, either into -moulds for some sort of castings, or into a large furrow made in a bed of -sand. This large furrow has several smaller furrows on each side of it, -and has received the name of the “sow;” the smaller furrows being called -“pigs;”—and the iron when it is formed in this shape to be afterwards -made malleable is called “pig iron.” - -The pig iron is taken to other and smaller furnaces called puddling -furnaces, the bottoms of which are lined with clay mixed with the -slag just mentioned, and forming a substance which the puddlers call -“bull-dog,” though it would be difficult to discover why it received that -name. - -About four hundred weight of the pigs is placed in the furnace, and as -it melts the puddler stands at the furnace mouth with a long _iron rod_ -bent at the end, and stirs it about, until it comes to resemble several -great balls of iron paste. These balls are removed, and fall into iron -trucks pushed along a small railway by boys, who wheel them at once to -the “shingling hammer,” an immensely powerful hammer worked by steam, and -this beats the iron into small square bars called “blooms.” - -The blooms are next carried to the rolling mill, which is a pair of great -rollers cut into grooves of various sizes, and between these grooves the -bars are squeezed, as the rollers turn round, until they become much -longer and narrower, when they are known as “forged bars.” - -Some of the rolling mills, however, are plain cylinders without grooves, -and when a slab of white-hot iron is placed between these it comes out -from the pressure in a great broad sheet of metal. - -These operations require great bodily strength as well as considerable -skill on the part of the workmen, who are obliged to seize the heated -metal with long tongs, and to catch it in the same way as it comes out -from the mill. - -[Illustration: Casting Ladle.] - -The iron which is intended for castings is melted in a “cupola furnace,” -so called on account of the dome-like shape in which it is built, which -has something to do with the more perfect heating of the metal. When the -iron is completely melted so that it will run freely, the lower portion -of the furnace is opened, and the white-hot stream is received in the -_casting ladle_, or, where it has to be carried for some distance, and -the casting is large, in great iron pails carried in a sort of frame by -two men. From the casting ladle it is at once poured into the _mould_. - -[Illustration: Mould. Small Casting Ladle.] - -The mould is a sort of iron box filled with a peculiar sort of sand, into -which a wooden pattern of the intended casting is pressed, and the sand -firmly rammed down and made solid. There are, in fact, two boxes of sand, -each of which is impressed with one half of the thickness of the required -casting, so that when they are brought together, and firmly fastened with -the pins, as shown in the picture, the patterns which have been taken -out have left a half of the impression in each box, each corresponding -exactly to the other. A hole in the box receives the melted metal, for -which a channel has been left in the sand, that it may freely run into -the hollows left by the pattern, and completely fill them; then, when -it has sufficiently cooled, the casting is removed, and when the rough -edges have been removed, and the irregularities trimmed off, it is ready -for use, and may be fitted to its other parts, which have perhaps been -separately cast, as in the case of garden seats, fenders, chandeliers, -umbrella stands, or ornamental girders and columns. - -[Illustration: Furnace Iron. Brush. Trowel. Bellows. Foot Rule. Level. -Shovel. Spatera. Hammer. Mould Weight. Rammer.] - -We have only described solid castings, but as ornamental iron work is -generally made hollow, this has to be cast in rather a different way, -though the only difference is that what are called “cores” are used. -These cores are in fact solid metal patterns made a little smaller than -the hollow left by the real pattern, and allowed to remain in the mould. -The melted iron then flows between the surface of the core and the -surface of the mould, and the casting is hollow, so that when the core is -removed the metal is only the thickness of the space left between the two -surfaces. You will see what is meant by placing a small teacup inside a -larger one, and then pouring water between them. - -The tools used by the Ironfounder are not very numerous: the casting -ladles and mould have already been mentioned; the uses of the _shovel_ -and the _mould weight_, the _rammer_, and the _furnace iron_ need no -description. - -The designers, and pattern makers, and the mould maker have the most -important duties, and the latter will have to use a small _trowel_ and -a _spatera_ for arranging his sand and loam, a _level_ that it may be -perfectly true, and a _brush_ and a _pair of bellows_ for removing any -particles of grit from the surface of the channels where the pattern has -been impressed. - -Almost all irons are improved by admixture with others, and, therefore, -when superior castings are required they should not be run direct from -the smelting furnace, but the metal should be remelted in a cupola -furnace, which gives the opportunity of suiting the quality of the iron -to its intended use. Thus, for delicate ornamental work, a soft and very -fluid iron will be required, whilst for girders and castings exposed to -cross strain the metal will require to be harder and more tenacious. For -bed-plates and castings which have merely to sustain a compressing force, -the chief point to be attended to is the hardness of the metal. - -Castings should be allowed to remain in the sand until cool, as the -quality of the metal is greatly injured by the rapid and irregular -cooling which takes place from exposure to air if removed from the -moulds in a red hot state, which is sometimes done in small foundries to -economise room. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE BLACKSMITH. - -[Illustration: FORGE.] - - -In the building and fitting of the house a large portion of the iron work -will have to be furnished by the Smith, and as we have already given some -description of iron founding, it will be necessary to say something about -the Blacksmith, or the worker in iron or black metal, whose business is -different from that of the whitesmith, which has to do more particularly -with white or yellow metal. - -The way in which malleable iron, that is, iron fit for the hammer, is -produced has been mentioned in connexion with the trade of the iron -founder, who in fact supplies the Blacksmith with the raw material. It -is not very easy to tell you much about the way in which the Blacksmith -makes the great variety of articles which his trade furnishes, for there -is no business the success of which depends more upon personal skill. As -the trade of the Smith, or at all events the worker in metal, is one of -the most ancient, and existed in times when there were few tools,—as, in -fact, it is the Smith who has to make tools,—so at the present day, he -has to depend chiefly on his own ability in the use of the hammer and a -few other simple instruments to fashion the articles that come out of his -workshop. - -It is he who supplies the various articles of wrought iron work used in -a building; as pileshoes, straps, screw bolts, dog-irons, chimney-bars, -gratings, and wrought-iron railings and balustrades for staircases. -Wrought iron was formerly much used for many purposes for which cast iron -is now generally employed; the improvements made in casting during the -present century having caused a great alteration in this respect. It is -not only for building purposes that the Blacksmith is employed, however, -since there is scarcely anything constructed of iron in which his aid -is not required, from important portions of machinery to the rough -horse-shoes which have to be finished and fitted by the farrier. In the -forge, where the great bellows suspended to the ceiling make the furnace -roar, and the sparks fly, the clinking of hammers is heard all day long. - -[Illustration: Hammer. Sledge Hammer. Set Hammers. Vice. Anvil. Tongs. -File.] - -The _anvil_, on which the iron is beaten into shape, the bench, fitted -with a _vice_ for holding such portions of the work as require the -_file_, the _tongs_, with which the red hot metal is held, the _sledge -hammer_, and the _set hammers_, are the principal tools. - -[Illustration: Callipers. Compasses. Heading Tools. Gauges. Square. -Bottom Tool.] - -The sledge hammer is used for beating the metal until it is tempered and -easily formed into shape, and it is in the tempering of the metal by -beating that the great skill of the Smith is often displayed. The set -hammers are used for setting out the work, and have heads of different -shapes, according to the form which the metal is required to assume. -The various _gauges_ are placed upon the anvil for the similar purpose -of shaping the work, and the _callipers_, _compasses_, and _square_, -measuring and adjusting it. The _heading tools_ consist of cutting, -punching, and stamping instruments, and are probably so called, because -they are furnished with heads to receive the blows of the heavy hammer, -by which they are forced into the hot metal on the anvil. - -[Illustration: Double Hooks. Punch. Slice. Fire Irons.] - -These heading tools are held, not by handles of their own, which would -break off with the concussion of the hammer, but by a sort of withe of -birch, or some other tree fastened loosely round them at their heads, -and bound by a ring to keep them from parting. The _punch_ is used in -making bolts or rivets, the _slice_ and _fire irons_ for arranging the -fuel in the furnace, and removing small articles after they are heated, -the _double hooks_ for removing or suspending bars, and for some other -purposes. - - - - -THE BRASSFOUNDER. - -[Illustration: Casting.] - - -Next to iron, perhaps brass is the metal chiefly employed in the -manufacture of articles of daily use, and the trade of the Brassfounder -is therefore of very great importance, especially in connexion with the -small metal fittings, such as catches, locks, bolts, hooks, screws, and -other objects used in completing and furnishing the house. - -Brass is not a pure metal, but is what is called an alloy, that is, a -mixture of various metals. It is composed of copper and zinc in such -proportions as may be necessary to obtain various degrees of hardness -and colour, according to the use for which the compound is to be -employed. The best proportions for common brass are about two parts of -copper to one part of zinc. Formerly brass was made by heating copper -with _calamine_ (which is the ore of zinc) and charcoal, but it is now -formed from melting the two metals together. It is then cast into plates, -which are either broken up for recasting into any required form, or -rolled into sheets. Common brass is very malleable, is more easily melted -than copper, and may be cast into any form. It will take a very high -polish, does not rust or tarnish by exposure to the air, and, although -it is durable in wear, is sufficiently soft to yield readily to the file -and other tools used by the workmen. These properties make it useful for -a great variety of purposes where steel or iron could not be so well -employed. - -[Illustration: Crucible. Magnet.] - -The smelting or mixing houses where the brass is made are fitted with air -furnaces, and in some of the best workshops the _crucibles_ or melting -pots are made of _plumbago_ or pure blacklead, which, although it is more -expensive, is much more durable than the Stourbridge clay, of which the -commoner crucibles are formed. - -A very fine quality of brass for best castings consists of three parts -of best selected copper, and two of spelter, with some best scrap -brass and a little tin; while a second quality is formed of two parts -of ordinary copper and one part of spelter, melted into ingots with a -proportion of scrap brass and brass filings. Before the latter are used -the iron filings are separated from them by a _magnet_, or by a series of -magnets fastened to a revolving chain frame. - -The sheet brass is procured from the mills where it is rolled, and the -brass wire is also supplied from the special manufactories where it is -drawn ready for use. - -[Illustration: Making Moulds.] - -The method of _making moulds_ for casting iron has already been -mentioned, and those employed by the Brassfounder are quite similar, the -tools used by the mould maker being the _trowel_, _mallet_, _rule_, and -_sand hook_, the _shovel_ for removing the sand, the _brush_ for sweeping -the surface, the _bellows_ for blowing off the dust, and the _compasses_ -for measuring accurately. - -[Illustration: Brush. Sand Hook. Compasses. Bellows. Shovel. Rule. -Trowel. Mallet.] - -The principal materials for making foundry moulds for brass castings are -fine sand and loam mixed in various proportions, according to the nature -of the work. New sand is used for fine castings, old sand for ordinary -work. The requisite external support is given by a couple of shallow -rectangular iron frames without tops or bottoms, called _flasks_ or -_casting boxes_. - -The two halves constituting a casting box carry ears corresponding -exactly with one another, one set pierced with holes, the other furnished -with points entering truly into these holes, and which may be made fast -in them by cross-pins or wedges. One of the flasks is laid face downward -on a board longer and wider than it, and is then rammed full of moulding -sand; the surface is struck off level with a straight metal bar or -scraper, a little loose sand is sprinkled upon it, and another board -of proper size placed over it and rubbed down close. The two boards -and the flask contained between them are turned over and the top board -is taken off; the clean surface of moist sand now exposed is dusted -over with perfectly dry fine parting sand, or very fine red brickdust. -The patterns or models are now properly arranged on the surface of the -same, the cylindrical or thick parts being partly sunk in the latter, -and care being also taken to leave sufficient space between the several -patterns to prevent one part breaking into the other, and also passages -or _ingates_, by which to pour in the metal and allow the air to escape. -The patterns are arranged on both sides a central passage or runner, -technically called a _ridge_, from which again small lateral passages -are made, leading into every section of the mould. The general surface -is then properly arranged with the aid of small _trowels_, and a little -fine parting sand or brickdust is shaken over it. When this has been -accomplished, the upper part of the flask is fitted to the lower by the -pins, and then also rammed full of mould sand. The fine dry parting sand -or brickdust serves to prevent the two halves from sticking together. A -board is now placed on the top of the upper half, and struck smartly in -different places with a mallet, after which the upper half and its board -are lifted up very gently and quite level, and then turned over, so that -the upper half rests inverted on its board. The models are next removed, -and channels scooped out from the cavities left by them to the hollows -or pouring holes (_ingates_) at the end of the flask. Solid _cores_ of -sand or metal are adjusted in the proper places when the article is -required to be cast hollow (brass cocks, for instance), and also iron -rails intended to have brass heads cast on them, or such other articles -of iron as are required to be solidly united with the brass. The faces of -both halves are now finally dusted with waste flour or meal dust; the two -halves are then replaced upon each other, and the box is fixed together -by screw clamps. The moulds for _fine castings_ (articles with ornamental -surfaces, as screens, sconces, bell-levers, &c.) are faced with various -fine substances, such as charcoal, loamstone, rottenstone, &c. that -they may retain a sharp impression; after which they are most carefully -dried. For ordinary work it is generally considered better that the sand -should retain a little moisture, though great care must be taken in this -respect, to guard against the danger of explosion. - -[Illustration: Braces. Set Moulds. Cores.] - -The _mould_ then is a square frame, mostly of iron, filled with peculiar -dark red sand, which is pressed into a firm mass, in which the patterns -of the casting are imbedded and their perfect shape impressed. The -casters work at a large _trough_ filled with the sand, and the workshop, -with its forge, has some resemblance to a bakehouse where black bread -is being kneaded into loaves. The first mould is made for what is called -the “odd side” of the pattern—that is to say (in solid castings), the -lower, or inferior side—and this serves as a sort of pattern to which -the moulder refers in fine castings. The pattern being lifted off or -out as soon as the sand-mould is sufficiently solid, the whole surface, -in which the chasing of the pattern is clearly defined, is dusted with -bean-floor or pounded “pot” first, and afterwards with loam, sand, -charcoal, or coal-dust. This has the effect of making a smooth surface, -and effectually filling the interstices in the sand, so as to prevent any -raggedness in the casting. Each mould, or rather the two sides of the -mould, are then placed near the surface and slightly baked, a channel -having been made in the edge of each for conducting the melted metal -to the pattern. The two sides are then placed together and held firmly -by their pins and sockets, and the mould is ready for the casting. The -“pots,” or crucibles of greyish clay, which turn red by the action of -the fire, are in the furnaces like so many tall flower-pots. The dirty -yellowish brass ingots, made on the premises at a large mixing furnace, -having been first placed across the tops of the pots, that they may -expand before being melted, are about twenty minutes afterwards reduced -to a molten mass, above which hovers a light sea-green flame mingled with -streaks of brilliant colour, like the water from a dyehouse; meanwhile -the moulds have been placed in a slanting position, with the opening in -the side upwards, against a bank of sand or brickwork, and everything is -prepared for pouring. A man, who should be strong in the wrist, stands -on the _furnace_, which has the openings at the top, like a French -cooking-stove, and taking off the brick covers from the square aperture, -whence rushes out a tongue of green flame, lifts out the _pot_ with a -pair of _tongs_, and after the dross is removed by the _skimmer_ or -_grunter_, hands it to the pourer, who fills each mould in succession. -The fumes which rise from the midst of the coloured fire are peculiar -and penetrating, and the zinc eliminated from the molten brass falls in -a metallic snowstorm, its flaky particles adhering to everything with -which they come in contact, while the resistance of the sand to the metal -causes a series of reports like muffled pistol-shots. - -[Illustration: Large Tongs. Small Tongs. Pot Holes. Skimmer. Grunter.] - -The brass cocks and plugs used in gas-fittings are all cast in one -central stem, like cherries on a stick, their hollow forms being secured -by means of _cores_ made of hardened sand placed in the shape impressed -in the mould. These are broken off the central stem with a pair of -_pincers_ immediately after casting. - -The ornamental “vases” and larger ornaments which form the body of -ordinary gas chandeliers and lamps are formed out of thin metal by a -process called “stamping out,” the plates of metal being placed on a -hollow die, upon which a heavy hammer, or rather weight, is brought -down, being released from a latch and worked by the foot. The depth of -the casting would make so heavy a blow necessary that there would be -danger of splitting the metal, an accident which is prevented by the -introduction of a leaden shape and a layer of clay, which is decreased -after each blow of the hammer until the proper depth is gradually secured -without injury. - -The process called “reversing” is an operation which secures a hollow -casting, the inner or hollow side being called the “reverse.” For this -purpose a mould is made from one in wax, and the impression in the mould -hardened, so that another model can be taken from it. This enables the -moulder to secure a core which fits the impression in the mould, as -one cup would stand inside another; and between the mould containing -the sunk pattern and that with the projecting core there are placed -strips of black clay, to secure sufficient thickness of metal, by not -allowing the hollow to be too accurately filled. The pattern when cast -is “laid out” on a hollow hemisphere of iron filled with pitch, and the -irregularities of the casting removed by hand tools, _files_, _rasps_, -and _knives_. In the case of figures, such as cupids, &c. forming -ornaments for candelabra, the various limbs have often to be modelled -in separate “cores,” which are afterwards baked hard, and put together -like a puzzle-map, imbedded in the sand of the mould previous to casting. -This requires great skill to effect successfully, and an experienced -“reverser” is a man of mark in the factory. - -[Illustration: Fork. Vent Wire. Sleeking Tool. Rasp. File. Vice. Pincers. -Hammer. Double-headed Knife. Saw. Drawing Knife. Knife.] - -The completed castings are now removed to the chasing-room, where we may -watch the gradual process of beautifying to which they are subjected, and -the sharpening of the ornamental details by means of _tool_ and _graver_, -in a similar way to the first rough “laying-out,” which removes the -irregularities of the pattern. The arms and branches which form a part of -the gas chandelier work, as well as many of the scroll-work ornaments, -are cast in halves, which are taken to the soldering-room, where a -workman, seated at a forge-like furnace, heats them in the burning -embers, and applies to the edges the solder, with which is mingled a -flux of borax and water to secure its melting. The heat is increased by -a blowpipe, which is in reality a double or jacketed tube, the inner -one supplying gas, and the outer being connected with a large pair of -bellows, and mixing atmospheric air with the lighted gas at the point of -combustion. - -The pickling room is a large shed-like place filled with tubs, troughs, -and earthen pans. Into one of these, containing diluted aqua-fortis, the -metal is plunged for the purpose of removing the scale produced on the -surface by the action of the fire; from this it is dipped in a stronger -solution, to undergo the process called “fizzing,” and its final baptism -in pure acid restores the beautiful primrose colour which properly -belongs to it. It is still dull, however, and goes to be “scratched,” an -operation effected by means of a revolving wire-brush, turned by a wheel -and treadle, and kept continually wet with water. - -The ornamental processes have next to be considered, and these are -many. Previous to burnishing, the work is dipped in argot or tartar -(the lees of wine-casks steeped in water), so that it may be subject to -a strong antioxyde. The burnishing itself produces those bright veins -and ornamental surfaces so often seen in brass work, and is effected by -fixing the work in a vice, and rubbing the parts of the pattern which are -to be brightened with a steel tool having a smooth bevel edge. After -being treated with ox-gall, bean flour, and acid, to remove any still -adhering grease, the work is dried, by being first dipped in hot water -and afterwards buried in a pan of warm sawdust. Then there is lacquering, -both black and white, a simple process enough, since the lacquer is laid -on with a brush, and the work dried on a warm plate. Much of the work of -the Brassfounder, as far as regards these latter operations, is of course -effected by machinery, but the casting itself is entirely completed by -the skill of the workmen. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE GILDER. - -[Illustration: A Gilder’s Workshop.] - - -When once the house is built and the work of bricklayer, carpenter, -plumber, painter, glazier, and mason is finished, it is necessary to set -about those decorations which accompany the furnishing; and one of the -first of the trades needed for this purpose is that of the Gilder, who -has to do not only with cornices, mouldings and other ornaments, but -also with the frames of pictures and looking-glasses that adorn the walls -and chimney-pieces. - -These frames, however, have first to be made by the joiner, and then -receive the work of the carver, or the ornament maker. The joiner does -little more than put the plain groundwork of the frame together; but the -duty of the carver is of a very artistic description; and to be a good -carver in wood requires an education and a taste very nearly equal to -that of the sculptor, with whom the artists in wood formerly held a high -rank. - -Most of the ornaments now used for frames, however, are less expensive -than those formerly produced by the carver who added a fresh value to -the painting or the looking-glass by exercising his skill upon the -costly settings in which they appeared. Composition ornaments are now -in general demand for all but the most expensive frames, and as this -composition—which is formed of glue, water, linseed oil, resin, and -whiting—is pressed into moulds when it is of about the consistence -of dough, it is evident that the mould maker has partially taken -the carver’s place. A new substance, however, has to a great extent -superseded the old composition, and this is _papier-mâché_, or the pulp -of paper (literally, mashed or beaten paper), which, from its lightness, -its greater strength and durability, and the thinness to which ornaments -made of it can be reduced, is preferable for all large decorations. - -Whatever may be the size or pattern of the frame, however, we will -suppose that the ornament maker received it from the joiner, who puts it -together after it has been covered with coatings of hot size and whiting; -the size being made from parchment cuttings or kid leather parings -boiled to a sort of jelly. The nail or screw holes are then filled up -with putty by the help of the putty knife, and the surface of the frame -smoothed with pieces of pumice stone. The ornament maker next fixes on -the decorations and hands it to the Gilder, whose first business is to -wash the ornaments carefully in order to remove any oil that may have -remained on their surface from the inside of the cast. - -[Illustration: Size. Whiting. Putty Knife. Badger Tool. Duster. Gold Leaf -Knife. Cushion. Tip.] - -The principal tools required by the Gilder are, first: the _cushion_, -which is a flat board covered with several layers of woollen or flannel -and afterwards with a piece of leather, which is stretched tightly over -it and nailed down to the edges, thus forming a firm but soft and -elastic bed. A rim of parchment carried round one end of the cushion -serves to hold the gold leaf. Second: a _gold leaf knife_—which is a -straight smooth-edged instrument, not very sharp, but carefully pointed -at the end. Third: the _tip_—a tool generally made of two pieces of -card or very thin board glued together and holding between them a row -of camel’s hairs. It is also necessary to have a _badger tool_ and a -_duster_; the first for removing the loose edges and flying scraps of -gold leaf, after the gilding is completed, and the latter for brushing -away dust from the frame. - -[Illustration: Miniature Burnisher. Burnisher. No. 1. Burnisher. No. 2. -Burnisher. No. 3. Chisel. Putter-down. Gold Leaf Box.] - -The _burnishers_ are pieces of smooth stone (flint or agate) set in -handles, and are used for rubbing some parts of the gold, when it is -set on the frame, until it attains a brilliant polish and smoothness of -surface: the bright gold portions of a frame being known as _burnish_, -and the dull parts or “dead gold” as _matt_. - -A _chisel_ and _knife_ are necessary for removing any inequalities or -overflowings of size from the edge of the frame; the _feather duster_ is -used to dust the new gilding before it is sent home; the _size pot_ is -the vessel in which the size is melted, and the _pan_ receives it before -it is laid on. The _putter-down_ is a large soft brush used for pressing -down the gold into the ornaments, and removing the ragged edges of the -gold-leaf from those parts of the frame where it is most difficult to -place it smoothly. - -[Illustration: Feather Duster. Size Pot. Pan. Gold Book.] - -The _gold box_ is of course a receptacle for the gold leaf, and as the -leaf is sent from the gold beaters in sheets placed between leaves of -paper sewn together like a volume, this is naturally called the _gold -book_. - -Having received his frame, then, the Gilder first gives it two or three -coatings of “thin white,” which is the name by which the size and whiting -is known in the trade. If any part of the frame is to be burnished, it -afterwards receives a coat or two of rather thicker size. - -When these are dry, strong warm size is laid on with a brush; this -is called _clear cole_, and produces a smooth glossy surface, which -prevents the _oil gold size_ from sinking through. Oil gold size is the -next coating given to the frame, and it is made of ochre and boiled -linseed oil, ground up together into a smooth creamy liquid, which is -thinned with more boiled linseed oil, and put on very carefully with -a soft brush. In a few hours, after the oil gold size is put on, it -is sufficiently dry to receive the gold leaf; the surface being then -slightly sticky, so that it will hold it firmly and without its own -surface being disturbed. - -[Illustration: Pipkin. Rule. Gold Size Pot.] - -The Gilder now commences the most important part of his work by taking -the cushion on his left hand, with his thumb through a loop which is -attached to the bottom of the leather; between the fingers of the same -hand he places the tools that he will have to use,—namely, the tip, the -gold knife, and the camel-hair pencil. He then takes a gold book and -carefully blows out a leaf at a time on to the cushion, until he has -eight or ten leaves all heaped together within the rim of parchment which -holds them from flying away. This is a very delicate operation, since if -he should blow too hard the leaves would be carried all over the room. -He next separates one of the leaves from the rest with his knife, and -without cutting or tearing it lays it down smoothly upon the front part -of the cushion, partly by a gentle use of the knife itself, and partly -by skilfully blowing upon it. Then taking the tip in his right-hand he -carefully presses it on the leaf, to which it adheres, and by this means -transfers it to that part of the frame where he is at work. Where the -ornaments are very deep, the same part is gilt three or four times over, -and the gold is sometimes pressed in with a wad of cotton. - -[Illustration: Skewing Brush. Small Pencil.] - -After the whole surface is carefully _skewed_, or gone over with the -brush which removes the ragged edges and still further presses the gold -into the ornaments, the frame is well dusted with another soft brush, and -then sized with clear size, after which the work is complete. - -Supposing however that any part of the frame is to be of burnished gilt, -the clear cole and the oil gold size must not be suffered to touch that -portion,—burnish gold size, a substance made of grease, clay, black lead, -red chalk, and bullock’s blood, is used instead of the oil gold size. -Several coats of this are laid on the part to be burnished, each being -allowed to dry, and perfectly smoothed, before the other is applied. The -surface is then washed with a sponge and clean water, another coating of -gold size is laid on, the gold leaf is applied, and the burnishing tools -used to impart the required lustre. - - - - -THE CABINET MAKER AND UPHOLSTERER. - -[Illustration: CABINET MAKER’S SHOP.] - - -The trades of the Carpenter and the Joiner having been considered, we may -now turn to that of the Cabinet Maker, who, though he makes the furniture -of the house, and seldom has anything to do with building or fitting the -house itself, uses many of the same tools as the joiner. - -[Illustration: Panel Plane. Veneer Plane. Smoothing Plane. Floats. Rebate -Plane. Hand Saw. Rebate Plane.] - -As the Cabinet Maker mostly works in more costly woods, and the -operations of his trade have to be performed with greater nicety, his -implements are generally of rather a better sort; while he has to fashion -the articles in which he deals in so many different shapes that some of -his tools, such as _planes_ and _gouges_, are constructed especially for -him, like the _panel plane_, used as its name implies in smoothing and -forming the edges of panels for wardrobes, chiffoniers, and other pieces -of furniture before they are placed in their frames, and the _veneer -plane_, intended for putting on _veneers_, or the thin slabs of costly -wood with which more common woods are frequently covered. The _smoothing -plane_ and the _rebate plane_, as well as the _hand saw_, the _tenon -saw_, the _gimlet_, and the _rule_ and _square_, have already been -mentioned in connexion with the joiner’s business. - -Then there are moulding planes, with their blades shaped hollow so that -they will cut a strip of wood into a rounded form, or shaped round so as -to cut a hollow groove. - -[Illustration: Square. Hand Saw. Gimlet. Rule.] - -Sometimes boards are joined at the edges by a process called match -boarding: a groove being made along the edge of one board while the edge -of another is cut with a tongue along the middle to fit accurately into -the groove. For this purpose a pair of match planes are used, one of -which makes the groove and the other the tongue exactly of the proper -size to fit perfectly. This kind of joint is used for common doors, which -it is not worth while to frame together in panels. The boards after being -_matched_ are nailed close together to strong cross-pieces. - -The operations of mortising and dovetailing have been described in the -description of joiner’s work. The various fittings and joints used -in making chairs, couches, tables, cabinets, side-boards, and other -furniture are adaptations of the same kind, or differ only according to -the shape and position of the various parts. In ornamental cabinet work -the separate parts, such as pillars, legs, arms, and other pieces, are -often supplied by the turner and the wood carver, who sometimes carry out -their designs under the direction of the Cabinet Maker. - -Mahogany and many other of the harder woods are difficult to work, as the -grain does not all run the same way, so that in planing them the wood is -likely to split or chip where it should be shaved off smoothly. To remedy -this inconvenience, the Cabinet Maker’s planes are furnished with double -irons, that is, an iron with a flat dull edge is screwed on to the face -of the cutting iron, so as to prevent the shavings chipping against the -grain. The more cross-grained the wood is the closer the workman brings -down the dull iron towards the edge of the sharp one, and his shavings -are consequently finer. - -The _veneering plane_ is about the same size as the _smoothing plane_, -but the iron instead of having a smooth edge is toothed like a fine saw, -so that, instead of taking off shavings, it makes scratches all along the -grain of the wood. This is applied to the veneer as well as to the wood -to which the veneer is to be glued, so that the glue may easily hold the -two rough surfaces together. - -[Illustration: Tool Chest.] - -Previous to the veneer being put on, the work is well warmed before a -fire, and the glue brush worked freely over both the veneer and wood -to which it is to be applied. When the veneer is put on, it is rubbed -backward and forward, at the same time being pressed down with the hands -until it sticks in the right place. There are often lumps here and there -where there is too much glue, and these are remedied by the _veneering -hammer_, the head of which is made of wood furnished with a strip of iron -plate. This strip is laid flat on the veneer, and the head of the hammer -pressed with the hand while it is worked about by the handle, pressing -out the glue as it moves towards the edge. When a piece of furniture is -too large to be covered with one veneer, these thin slabs of wood are -laid on in several pieces, the edges being first planed quite straight -and made to meet with the greatest accuracy. The whole surface is -afterwards worked with the toothing plane, and then scraped with a flat -square piece of steel, which takes off a wonderfully fine thin shaving -and leaves the surface perfectly smooth. It is afterwards finished with -sandpaper. It is then _French polished_ with a liquid composed mostly -of rectified spirits of wine, gum, shellac, gum seed lac, and Venice -turpentine, the furniture being previously well oiled that it may better -receive this sort of varnish. - -_Clamps_ are a sort of screw vice for holding the various parts of the -work. The _bow saw_ is a small fine blade of steel notched like a saw, -and fixed to a short handle, from which a wooden or metal bow extends -to the other end of the blade. The bow keeps the saw from buckling or -breaking, and the tool is used for small work, like the fretwork in front -of pianos, where a corner has to be turned and the piece sawn out. The -_screws_ seen in the larger picture hanging above the Cabinet Maker’s -bench are used for holding pieces together after being glued, or on other -occasions. - -[Illustration: Bow Saw. Clamps.] - -It is supposed that there are about 50,000 workers in wood in London, and -350,000 in all England. About 160,000 timber trees of average size are -required to make the furniture for the new houses built every year in -England and Wales. In cabinet making there are many departments, such as -the chair maker, the bedstead maker, the carver, the general manufacturer -of tables, drawers, side-boards, wardrobes, &c. and the fancy Cabinet -Maker, who uses costly woods and makes workboxes, desks, dressing-cases, -and similar articles. - -A good set of Cabinet Maker’s tools is worth from £30 to £40. - -The Upholsterer, whose trade is generally joined to that of the master -Cabinet Maker, does what is called the “soft work,” that is, he -undertakes the curtains, hangings, cushions, carpets, beds, and the -stuffing of the seats of chairs. For these operations he requires but few -tools. - -[Illustration: Upholsterer’s Shop.] - -[Illustration: Devil. Strainer. Web Strainer. Bench Screw. Square.] - -The _devil_ is the ugly and very absurd name given to a machine -consisting of a box, inside which a spiked wheel turns; the use of this -implement is to separate and tear to pieces such woven substances -as, when reduced to shreds, serve for the stuffing of furniture, as -also to soften and make finer hemp or tow for the same purpose, when -horsehair, which is the best and most expensive material, is not used. -Cocoa-nut fibre is now sometimes applied for this purpose; and in the -commonest furniture hay is frequently placed as a foundation, with a -small quantity of horsehair on the top. The _bench screw_ is a kind of -vice which will hold a very thick substance, like the seat of a chair -or sofa, without injuring the woodwork; the _web strainer_ is used for -stretching strong cross-pieces of webbing across the bottom of the seats -of chairs or couches, to make a firm foundation for the stuffing to rest -upon, and with the ordinary _strainer_ to bring the canvas cover that -confines the stuffing tightly and firmly to its place, an operation which -requires great care, especially when metal springs are placed beneath the -horsehair to make the seat more elastic. The Upholsterer’s _hammer_ is -of such a shape that it will drive a small nail deeply down in a space -when it is hidden by the damask or leather covering of the furniture. -The _punches_ are for a similar purpose; while the _needle_ and the -_regulator_ are used in stuffing the seats and properly adjusting the -hair or other material. - -[Illustration: Upholsterer’s Hammers. Punches. Float. Screwdriver. -Needle. Regulator. Bradawl.] - - - - -FLOOR-CLOTH MANUFACTURER. - -[Illustration: DRYING WAREHOUSE.] - - -The trade of manufacturing floor-cloth may be said to be connected with -the furnishing of the house, since this very useful covering for the -floors of halls and passages is now in almost universal use. Floor-cloth -is generally made in large factories built for the purpose, since -considerable space is required, not only for preparing, painting, and -putting the pattern upon the cloth, but also for drying it when it is -finished, the great lengths in which it is made rendering it necessary to -hang it from a great height, in order that it may dry without the paint -being damaged (_see drying warehouse_). The smell of the paint and other -substances also makes it desirable to have the factory well ventilated, -and situated at some distance from dwelling-houses. - -The cloth is made partly of hemp and partly of flax, the former being -the cheaper of the two, but the latter being fitted to retain the oil -and paint on the surface without allowing it so easily to sink or soak -through. In order to avoid the necessity for seams or joinings in the -cloth, looms are constructed expressly for weaving canvas of the greatest -width likely to be required. When the pieces of cloth are taken to the -floor-cloth factories, they are generally either 100 yards long and 6 -yards wide, 108 yards long and 7 yards wide, or 113 yards long and 8 -yards wide. The flax and hemp are spun and the canvas woven principally -in Scotland, in the town of Dundee. - -[Illustration: Shears. Cutting Knife.] - -The canvas is cut into pieces (_see cutting knife and shears_), varying -from 60 to 100 feet long, and each of these pieces is stretched over a -frame in a vertical position, most factories having a large number of -such frames, some often 100 feet long by 18 or 20 feet high, and others -of smaller dimensions. A wash of melted size is applied by means of a -brush to each surface; and while this is wet the surface is well rubbed -with a flat piece of pumice stone, by which the little irregularities of -the canvas are worn down, and a foundation is laid for the oil and colour -afterwards to be applied. - -The preparation of japanned cottons, which are used for table covers, or -what is known as “oil-cloth,” is very similar. - -The paint employed for floor-cloth consists of the same mineral colours -as that used in house painting, and is mixed with linseed oil in the same -way; but it is very much thicker and stiffer in consistence, and has -very little turpentine added to it. The canvas receives several coatings -on the back as well as on the front, and is well dried and smoothed at -intervals. - -[Illustration: Blocks. The finished Pattern. Pattern for Floor Cloth. -Back of Printing Block.] - -[Illustration: Preparing Japanned Cottons.] - -The pattern is placed on by means of wooden blocks, on the first of -which the rudiments, or ground work, of the design is cut, and on the -rest other portions of the pattern, so that, as they are covered with -paint and applied to the cloth by the workman, the pattern is gradually -printed, and appears in the different colours which are successively -applied to each block. - -[Illustration: Printing Floor Cloth.] - -The blocks are made of pear-tree wood on one side and of deal on the -other, the pear-tree wood being more easily engraved with the pattern. - -The blocks (which we will suppose to be four for one pattern—red, yellow, -blue, and green) being ready, and the prepared canvas spread out on a -flat table, the printing commences. - -The paint (say red) is applied with a brush to the surface of a pad or -cushion formed of flannel covered with floor cloth; the block held by -a handle at the back is placed face downwards on this cushion, and the -layer of paint thus obtained on the surface of the block is printed on -the canvas by pressing the block smartly down upon the surface of the -latter. A second impression is made in the same way, by the side of and -close to the first, until the whole surface of the canvas is printed over -with the pattern of this first block, which is generally about 15 inches -square. Then the second block is applied, and adds a little more to the -pattern in another colour; the third follows, adding still more; and then -the fourth, which completes the printing. - -[Illustration: Trowel. Claw. Scrubbing Brush. Palette Knife. Paint -Brushes. Roughing Comb. Hammer.] - -The _trowel_ and _palette knife_ spreading and mixing the paint, the -_roughing comb_ for patterns where the grain of wood is imitated, and the -pots, cans, and jars, for the colours, are the principal tools besides -those already described. - - - - -THE PAPER STAINER. - -[Illustration: PRINTING PRESS.] - - -The trade of the Paper Stainer has grown to be one of considerable -importance, and this is not to be wondered at when we consider how much -the art of paper staining has increased the means of decorating our -houses, by hanging the walls with elegant patterns printed in beautiful -colours, instead of leaving them of one dull uniform hue, or a bare -surface of wood and plaster. - -In old times the walls of rooms were either of panelled wood, sometimes -carved and polished, or were hung with tapestry made with the needle, or -with woven silk, cotton, or linen, but the former was extremely costly, -and the latter neither cleanly nor healthy. The trade of the Paper -Stainer has to a great extent superseded both, and the interior walls of -houses are now seldom formed entirely of wood, since they are intended to -be covered with various qualities of paper hangings. - -[Illustration: Front of Printing Block. Back of Wooden Block for -Printing.] - -The mode of printing or painting a pattern on large sheets of paper -has now been in use for nearly two hundred years, although, of course, -improved methods are at present employed. - -There are three modes of producing the pattern on paper hangings. 1st. -Wooden blocks are carved with the outlines of the figures only in relief; -with these the paper is printed, and the pattern is afterwards finished -by hand painting with a pencil. This mode is slow and too expensive for -ordinary use. 2dly. A sheet of leather, tin, or copper, is cut with holes -in the required pattern, and a brush dipped in colour is worked over the -sheet after it is laid upon the paper, so that the paint goes through the -holes, and leaves the pattern in colour. This is called stencilling, and -is only employed for very common hangings. The third process consists of -carving a wood block for each of the colours used in the pattern, and -printing the paper by almost exactly the same method as that employed for -printing floor-cloth, an operation which has already been described. - -[Illustration: Crutch. Ladle. Hand Brush. Spat. Paint Brushes.] - -The paper is printed in pieces twelve yards long. A piece is laid out -on a long bench and the ground colour applied, consisting of whiting -tinted with some sort of pigment and liquefied with melted size. This is -laid on with large brushes. When the paper is dry it is ready to receive -the print at the _printing press_, where the blocks are pressed upon it -by a sort of weighted arm which comes down from above the centre of the -bench. There must generally be as many blocks as there are colours in the -pattern. - -[Illustration: Colour Sieve. Paint Pot. Colour Drum. Size Can.] - -Some paper hangings have a glossy or satin ground. To produce this a -ground of satin white, properly tinted, is laid on; this ground is then -rubbed with powdered French chalk, and worked with a brush till a gloss -is produced. Sometimes these papers are passed between heated rollers -which have been engraved with a sort of pattern, and this produces a -pattern without any additional colour, like that of figured or watered -silk. - -Flock papers are those in which part of the pattern resembles cloth. To -produce this the pattern is printed, not in paint, but in size, and then -the paper being passed through the _flock drum_, the flock (which is -composed of fragments of woollen cloth) adheres to the pattern. - -[Illustration: Drum for laying on Flock.] - -Striped hangings are sometimes produced by the paper being quickly passed -on a roller beneath a trough, the colour in which flows through a number -of parallel slits in the bottom; and occasionally various coloured -stripes are obtained by dividing the trough into cells, with one cell -and one slit for each colour. Some papers, in order to bear washing or -cleaning, are printed with colours mixed with oil or varnish instead of -size. - -[Illustration: Paper Staining Machine.] - - - - -THE CALICO PRINTER. - -[Illustration: CYLINDER PRINTING MACHINE.] - - -The trade of the Calico Printer may be said to be one of the most -important in this country, since we export such immense quantities of -cotton prints to our various colonies, as well as to other countries in -the world, that this business forms a very considerable part of British -commerce. - -Calicoes, muslins, &c. intended for printing must first have the fibres -removed from their surface by the operation of the singeing machine; -which consists of a half-cylinder of iron or copper laid horizontally, -and kept at a bright heat by a range of gas-flames or a furnace; over -this half-cylinder the length of cloth is drawn with a steady motion till -the down or fibre is singed off. - -[Illustration: Bowking Kiers.] - -The next process is that of bleaching, because the whiter the cotton -cloth becomes, the more light it will reflect from the surface, and the -more brilliant the colour of the dyes will appear. - -The principal chemical substance used for bleaching cotton is chloride of -lime, which is known as bleaching powder; but there are several processes -employed in its application, as well as various methods which are -adopted by different manufacturers to increase its effects by mechanical -contrivances, the application of heat, or otherwise. - -[Illustration: Dash Wheel.] - -The first operation of bleaching, however, and that which immediately -follows singeing, is boiling the cloth in an alkaline bath consisting -of a solution of soda. For this purpose a _bowking apparatus_ is used. -This machine (_see cut_) is, in fact, a large cauldron, with a flat false -bottom to protect the cloth from being scorched by the fire beneath. -Through the centre of this false bottom a vertical pipe rises from near -the real bottom to a height above the top of the cauldron, and carries a -conical cap like an umbrella above its open end at top. When the liquid -in the cauldron begins to boil thoroughly the steam forces a constant -stream of liquid up the pipe, which stream is scattered by forcing -against the umbrella-shaped cap, and so falls with some force back on to -the cotton in the cauldron. When this process has continued long enough, -the liquor is allowed to cool, and the cotton is taken to be rinsed at -the _dash wheel_, where it is subjected to the free action of water, or -to a rinsing machine, so constructed that the web travels on rollers, and -is thoroughly washed during its course. - -[Illustration: Wringing Machine.] - -The simplest and earliest method of imprinting figures upon calico is -by means of a wooden block, upon the face of which the design is cut in -relief, as in an ordinary wood-cut. The block is of sycamore, holly, or -pear-tree wood, or more commonly of deal, faced with one of these woods. -The block varies in size from nine to twelve inches long, and from four -to seven inches broad, and it is furnished on the back with a strong -handle. When the design is complicated, and a very distinct impression is -required, the figure is sometimes formed by the insertion of narrow slips -of flattened copper wire, the space between being filled with felt. - -[Illustration: Face of Block for Calico Printing. Back of Calico Block.] - -The printing block, which is worked by hand, is charged with colour by -pressing it gently upon a piece of superfine woollen cloth called the -_sieve_, stretched tightly over a wooden drum, which floats in a tub full -of size or thick varnish to give it elasticity, so that every part of the -raised device may acquire a sufficient coating of colour. The sieve is -kept uniformly covered with the colouring matter by a boy or girl called -the tearer, who takes up with a brush a small quantity of the colour -contained in a small pot, and distributes it uniformly over the surface; -for if this were not done, the block would take up the colour unequally. - -The printing shop is a long well-lighted apartment, the air of which -is kept warm for the purpose of drying the cloth as it is printed; to -insure which it is passed over hanging rollers, so as to expose a large -surface to the air. The printing table, which is about six feet long, is -made of some well seasoned hard wood, such as mahogany, or of marble, or -flag-stone, the object being to present a perfectly flat hard surface. -This table is covered with a blanket, upon which the calico is extended, -and the block, being charged with colour, is applied to its surface, a -blow being given with a wooden mallet to transfer the impression fully -to the cloth. It is necessary, of course, to join the different parts -of the design with precision, and in doing so the printer is guided by -small pins at the corners of the block. Thus, by repeated applications of -the block to the woollen cloth and to the calico alternately, the whole -length of calico is printed. - -[Illustration: Drying Room.] - -By this method, a single block prints only one colour, so that, if -the design contain three or more colours, three or more blocks will be -required, all of equal size, the raised parts in each corresponding -with the depressed parts in all the others; in order, therefore, to -print a piece of cloth twenty-eight yards long, and thirty inches broad, -with three blocks, each measuring nine inches by five, no less than -672 applications of each, or 2,016 applications of the three blocks, -are necessary. Thus it will be seen that printing by hand is a tedious -operation, requiring more diligence than skill. - -[Illustration: Brush.] - -When the design, however, consists of straight parallel stripes of -different colours, they may be applied by one block at a single -impression. For this purpose the colours are contained in as many small -tin troughs as there are colours to be printed. These troughs are -arranged in a line, and a small portion of each colour is transferred -from them to the woollen cloth by a kind of wire-brush. The colour is -distributed evenly in stripes over the surface of the sieve by a wooden -roller covered with woollen cloth. For the rainbow style, as a peculiar -pattern is called, the colours are blended into one another at their -edges by a brush or rubber. - -An important improvement has been made in the construction of -hand-blocks, by the application of a stereotype plate as the printing -surface. A small mould is produced from a model of the pattern, and the -stereotype copies are then made by pouring mixed metal into it. A number -of the stereotype plates are then formed into a printing block, by being -arranged in a stout piece of wood. - -[Illustration: One of the Cylinders of the Machine, showing the way by -which it is coloured.] - -The greatest mechanical improvement in the art of calico printing was the -invention of the _cylinder_ or _roller_ printing at the end of the last -century. This style of printing has been generally adopted in Lancashire, -and is the cause of the success of the English over the continental -printers. One cylinder machine, attended by one man to regulate the -rollers, is capable of printing as many pieces as one hundred men and -one hundred girls could print with hand blocks in the same time. A mile -length of calico can be printed off with four different colours in a -single hour. - -This cylinder machine consists of a hollow cylinder or roller of copper, -about three feet long and three or four inches in diameter, the pattern -on which has been produced by the pressure of a mill, on which the design -has been originally stamped by the pressure of a hard steel roller which -has been engraved. - -The copper cylinders are mounted on a strong iron shaft with a toothed -wheel at its end, in order to put it in train with the rotatory printing -machine for one, two, or more colours. On a roller at the upper part of -this apparatus are wound the calico webs stitched together, the end of -which is brought between the engraved copper cylinder and a large centre -roller covered with blankets, against which it is made to bear with a -regular pressure. - -The engraved cylinder turns on the top of another cylinder covered with -woollen cloth, which revolves at the same time as the former, while its -under part dips in an oblong trough containing the dyeing matter, which -is of a pasty consistence. The engraved cylinder is in this way supplied -with plenty of printing colour, and is cleared from the superfluity by -the thin edge of a blade made of bronze, called the _doctor_, which is -applied to it as it turns, and gently scrapes the surface. After this -the cylinder acts upon the calico, which receives the impression of the -pattern in colour, and rolls onward at a great rate of speed. - -There are various kinds of colours or dye stuffs used in calico printing, -some of which impart fast colours by themselves, and others which require -the web to be first prepared in order that they may become fixed. - -In almost all the modes of calico printing the processes are very -numerous to ensure the beauty and permanence of the colours. In what -is called the _steam colour_ printing, the agency of steam is applied -to aid in fixing the colours to the cloth. The cloth is first steeped -in a mordant or fixing liquor, then printed by the cylinder in various -colours, called steam colours. It is then hung up to dry, and is -afterwards exposed to the action of steam by means of various apparatus, -which are adapted to the particular effect intended, to be produced in -fixing the dye. - -The designs for calico printing are very expensive, and such a constant -succession of new patterns are demanded, that some of the Lancashire -printers expend several thousands a year on designing and engraving alone. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE TINMAN. - -[Illustration: WORKSHOP.] - - -Tin is never found existing in an uncombined or native state. Tin ore -occurs most abundantly in Cornwall and Devon, the mines of these counties -having been celebrated for this metal from very ancient times. The -district in Cornwall where tin mines are most abundant is termed the -“Stannaries.” The Prince of Wales for the time being derives a large -income from the mines, and is termed Lord Warden of the Stannaries. The -word “Stannaries” is derived from the Latin _stannum_, tin. The amount -of tin ore annually obtained from the Cornwall and Devon mines amounts -to 11,000 tons, which, at the average value of £63 per ton, is worth -£693,000. This ore yields about 7,000 tons of the metal, having an -average value of £119 per ton. About four-fifths of all the tin raised in -the world is produced in these mines. The ore is a heavy, hard, brittle, -and usually dark brown mineral, which occurs chiefly in granular masses -of various sizes. These grains are obtained in mines, where they occur in -veins mixed with other minerals, and also from the beds of streams, where -they have been washed out of the soil by the action of running water. In -the former case they are termed tin stone; in the latter stream-tin. - -Tin is obtained from the ore by first breaking up the latter, whilst a -current of water flows over it and carries off the impurities, which are -lighter, and therefore more readily borne away than the heavier tin ore. -After being thus freed from the admixture of other minerals, the ore is -usually roasted or burned, to drive off any traces of sulphur it may -contain; it is afterwards heated to redness with blind coal or culm, and -a small portion of lime, when the melted metal separates from the dross, -and runs into cavities prepared for its reception. It is afterwards -refined by being remelted, and other impurities separated, which either -sink or float on the surface. The purest metal is yielded by the ore -called stream-tin, which is smelted with charcoal instead of coal. If -a block of tin thus obtained is heated slightly, and then allowed to -fall from a height, it separates into a number of prisms which adhere -together in pyramidal masses. In this state it is termed grain-tin. Tin -is a silvery-white metal possessed of a high degree of metallic lustre. -It is sufficiently soft to be cut with a knife, and may be readily bent, -when it gives out a peculiar crackling noise; if repeatedly bent and -straightened, it becomes hot from the friction of its particles with one -another, and ultimately breaks. It is inelastic and moderately ductile, -but very malleable, the thickness of tin-foil being about one thousandth -part of an inch. It has but little tenacity, a wire of one-tenth of an -inch in diameter not being able to support a heavier weight than 49 lbs. - -Tin is the most easily melted of all the common metals, and it -possesses the valuable property of not rusting when exposed at ordinary -temperatures to the conjoined action of air and water, or even to weak -vegetable acids. Tin, in a pure state, is seldom employed; but in -combination with other metals it is a substance of great value. Its most -important uses depend on its power of resisting the action of air and -moisture; it is therefore largely employed for protecting the surfaces of -copper and iron, that rust so readily. - -Tin plate, or more properly tinned plate, which is so largely employed in -the manufacture of saucepans, coffee-pots, tea-kettles, &c. by the tinman -is not, as its ordinary name seems to imply, made of tin, but is formed -of the best sheet iron, rolled out to the required thickness, and coated -on each side with a layer of tin. Copper vessels ought to be invariably -tinned inside, to prevent the rusting of the copper by the action of -acids. Tinfoil is largely employed for the purpose of preserving moist -articles from becoming dry, and is used instead of paper for enclosing -fancy soap, chocolate, and other substances of a similar nature. It is -also extensively used in the manufacture of looking-glasses, and is -sometimes placed behind paper-hangings to exclude the damp of the walls. -The most important alloys into the composition of which tin enters are -bronze, pewter, bell-metal, and solder. Tin dissolved in acids is largely -employed by dyers in fixing or rendering permanent various colours used -in dyeing. The preparation termed putty powder is a rust of tin, obtained -by exposing the melted metal to the air; it is employed in polishing -metals and other articles. - -[Illustration: Mallet. Soldering Iron. Hammer. Block Hammer.] - -The tinning of the inner surfaces of cooking utensils and other vessels -of capacity is effected by scouring the surface until it is perfectly -bright and clean; then heating the vessel, pouring in some melted tin -and rolling it about, and rubbing the tin all over the surface with a -piece of cloth or a handful of tow; powdered rosin is used to prevent -the formation of oxide. Bridle bits, stirrups, and many other small -articles, are tinned by immersing them in fluid tin. Tin-plate working, -or the forming sheets of tinned iron into a variety of useful vessels and -utensils, is carried on by means of bench and hand _shears_, _mallets_, -and _hammers_, _steel heads_ and _wooden blocks_, _soldering irons_ and -_swages_. In the formation of a vessel, the first operation is to cut the -plate to the proper size and form with shears, and, when the dimensions -of the article require it, to join them together, which is done either -by simply laying the edge of one plate over that of the other, and then -soldering them together, or by folding the edges together with laps and -then soldering them. Similar joints are required when gores or other -pieces are to be inserted, and also at the junction by which a cylinder -is closed in. The usual method of forming laps, bends, or folds, for this -or other purposes, is to lay the plate over the edge of the bench and to -bend it by repeated strokes with a hammer; but a machine is sometimes -used for this purpose. - -[Illustration: Straight Snips. Scotch Snips. Large Shears. Bent Snips.] - -After a tin vessel has been rounded upon a block or mandril by striking -it with a wooden mallet, and the seams finished, all its exterior edges -are strengthened by bending a thick iron wire into the proper form, -applying it to what would otherwise be the raw edges of the metal, and -dexterously folding them over it with a hammer. - -[Illustration: Two-handed Wrench. Soldering Pile. Pudding Stake. Punches. -Hatchet Stake. Tongs.] - -A superior kind of tin ware, commonly known as block tin ware, is -carefully finished by beating or planishing with a polished steel -hammer upon a _metal stake_. The process of swaging is resorted to as a -ready means of producing grooved or ridged borders, or other embossed -ornaments. This process consists in striking the metal between two steel -dies or swages, the faces of which bear the desired pattern, and are -made counterparts of each other. Many ornamental articles are produced -by embossing or stamping tin plate, in the same manner as other metallic -sheets, with a fly-press or other machinery. Cheap coffin-plates are -manufactured at Birmingham in this way; and these and similar articles -are sometimes lacquered, painted, or japanned. Tin forms the principal -ingredients in various kinds of pewter and other white-metal alloys, -which are manufactured into domestic utensils by casting, stamping, and -other processes. - -[Illustration: Chisels. Charcoal Stove. Polishing Anvil.] - -Britannia metal is a mixture of tin, antimony, copper, and brass, which -is melted, cast into slabs, and rolled into sheets. The principal use -of this metal is for candlesticks, teapots, coffee-biggins, and other -vessels for containing liquids. The feet of candlesticks, the bodies -of teapots, and other articles containing embossed work, are stamped -between dies; while articles of a more globular shape are stamped in two -or more pieces, and afterwards soldered together. The sheet metal has -a ductility which enables it to be bent into various curved forms by -pressure on a model or core: this process is called _spinning_. - -[Illustration: Funnel Stake. Punches. Horse. Punches. Bick Irons. Crease -Iron.] - -Many small vessels, spoons, and other articles, are cast in an alloy -somewhat harder than that which is rolled into sheets. Most of the tools -employed by the Tinman are the _irons_, _stakes_, and _bickers_, on which -the tin is hammered into proper shape, with _shears_ for cutting, the -_punches_ for piercing holes, and the _soldering iron_ and _charcoal -stove_ for making joints. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE FARRIER. - -[Illustration: FARRIER’S SHED.] - - -When we remember how usefully horses are employed for our advantage, how -generously and willingly they work, and how docile and obedient they -are when properly treated, we shall begin to see that the trade of the -Farrier is one which should be studied very carefully, and that nobody -should follow the business who has not become tolerably skilful. The -Farrier who shoes the horses, is very often consulted when those animals -are ill, so that he should have some knowledge of simple remedies in -cases when the veterinary surgeon lives at a distance, or is out of the -way. Especially the Farrier should thoroughly understand the construction -of the horse’s hoof, which, hard and simple as it may look, is very -delicate, and is composed of several important parts. - -One thing should never be forgotten in shoeing a horse,—first that, -although the hoof is a hard horny covering, it has an inside portion -which is very tender and liable to be hurt; and secondly, that the hoof -itself expands as the weight of the horse presses upon it. - -[Illustration: Anvil. Stool. Staple. Pointing Stake. Punch. Shoe.] - -[Illustration: Nippers. Drawing Knife. Rasp. Buffer.] - -The Farrier’s shed is fitted with a forge, or furnace where the iron is -heated, and in which the fire is blown to great heat by the huge bellows -fastened above it; it also contains an _anvil_, on which the _horseshoes_ -are made or shaped, a _stool_ on which the Farrier sometimes sits to -examine a horse’s hoof, and _staples_ and _rings_, to which the horses’ -heads are fastened by halters during the process of shoeing. When a horse -is taken to be shod, the Farrier should begin by taking off one of the -old shoes. He first raises the clenches with a tool called the _buffer_ -and if the shoe does not then come off easily, loosens some of the nails -with the _punch_, till it can be gently removed. When the shoe is off he -rasps the edge of the hoof all round, and with the _nippers_ or pincers -takes out any stubs that may be left in the hoof. He then pares the hard -portions of the foot, and this is an operation which requires great care -and skill as well as a good deal of practice in the use of the _drawing -knife_. The Farrier must always remember the state of the roads when he -is paring the horse’s feet, for if the roads are dry and stony he must -take off very little of the horn, or the foot will be bruised. - -[Illustration: Fulter. Damper. Slice. Pretchel. Swage. Tongs. Turning -Hammer.] - -The horseshoes are frequently purchased by the Farrier of the Blacksmith -who makes them, but some Farriers are also Smiths, and both make and fit -the horseshoes. In either case the Farrier keeps a stock of rough shoes -which he alters at the time that they are wanted, so that they may fit -the horse, and one of the first things to be done is to make the groove -all round the shoe, and drill the holes in it for the nails. This groove, -in which the heads of the nails sink, is called the “fuller,” and the -tool with which it is made is also called the “_fuller_,” or “_fulter_.” -Having cut off the ends or heels of the shoe, made the fuller, and -opened the nail holes, the Farrier next makes what is called the “clip,” -which means turning up the toe of the shoe, to prevent its being forced -back on the hoof. In these parts of his work he has probably used the -_chisel_, _turning hammer_, _swage_ and _pretchel_, while for the work -at the forge he has had to employ the _poker_, the _tongs_ for holding -the shoe on the _anvil_, the _slice_ for taking small things from the -fire, and the _damper_, which is a wisp of wet straw held by wooden tongs -for lessening the heat of the shoe during hammering. He next begins to -fit the shoe, the horse being tied up to the staple in the wall of the -shed. The fitting of the shoe is an operation requiring the greatest care -and attention, and the good Farrier will spare no pains to do his work -perfectly, as many a valuable horse has been ruined by an ill-fitting -shoe. When the shoe is fitted it is “filed up,” by which all roughness is -removed from the edges of the nail holes, and the sharp edges of the shoe -itself are taken off. - -[Illustration: Nail. Nail Bag. Shoeing Hammer.] - -The Farrier generally makes his own _nails_ since they are of a peculiar -shape, and the heads should completely fill the nail holes, that they -may not allow the shoe to shift on the horse’s hoof. They are made from -long rods of iron called nail rods, and when finished are spread about -the smithy to cool, because when they are allowed to cool gradually they -become harder, and less liable to break. - -If the nails are of a proper shape, the holes straight through the shoe, -and the shoe fits the foot, very little skill is required to nail it on, -and clench the ends of the nails to the hoof. Before the shoe is nailed -on, however, it is usual, when the horse has tender feet, to cover the -sole of the foot with leather, gutta-percha, or felt made waterproof, -“felt” being made of woollen cloth torn to shreds which are then pressed -together and formed into sheets. In any case the Farrier is expected to -“stop the foot,” that is, to fill the hollow and tender portion of the -foot within the shoe, with tow or oakum dipped in tar. - -[Illustration: Fleam. Stamp. Scissors. Ladle and Spatula. Brush. Poker. -Reaching Iron.] - -The shoe is now nailed on, and a good Farrier will often be able to -secure it with only five nails. - -The hind shoes are of course different in shape to those which are placed -on the fore feet, and it is generally necessary to use seven nails to fix -them on to the hoofs, since the hind foot expands less than the fore, and -there is more drag upon it when the horse is in motion, so that the shoe -is more easily shifted. - -The time at which a horse’s shoes want removing depends on several -causes. If a horse wear out his shoes in less than a month they had -better not be removed, but whether the shoes are worn or not the horse’s -hoofs should be looked to by the Farrier, every three or four weeks, as -the hoofs sometimes outgrow the shoes, and the shoes require refitting. - -From what has been said about the Farrier’s business it will be seen that -it is a most important one, but besides the knowledge and experience -required for the more mechanical part of his work, he should also know -something of the diseases and ailments of horses, and be able to apply -the proper remedies. - -It is true that this part of the business belongs properly to the -veterinary surgeon, but the Farrier should at all events understand what -is proper to be done in any ordinary disorder or in cases of emergency. -He will of course know how to use the _fleam_ when the animals require -bleeding, as they frequently do. This instrument is a sort of knife, -the sharp part of which is the small spade-shaped pieces at the ends of -the blades. The _ladle_ for melting the ingredients of ointment, for -sprains or swellings, and the _spatula_ for mixing it, or for spreading -and mixing the drugs for boluses or the large pills frequently given to -horses, are some of the instruments used in this part of the Farrier’s -business. - - - - -THE NEEDLE MAKER. - -[Illustration: GRINDING NEEDLE POINTS.] - - -There is perhaps no implement of greater importance than that smallest -of all tools, the needle, and in all civilized countries the number of -needles consumed is so great, and such an enormous supply is required for -the sewing of the clothes of mankind, that the manufacture is one of the -most remarkable in this country, whence by far the greater part of the -whole supply is derived. - -It will only be proper in this place for the author to acknowledge his -obligations to Mr. W. B. Tegetmeier, whose most useful little work on -“Common Objects” affords brief and reliable information on this as well -as on many other interesting subjects. - -The material from which needles are made is soft steel wire of the -requisite degree of fineness. This is obtained from the manufacturer in -large coils, each containing sufficient wire to form several thousand -needles. These coils are first cut up into pieces of the length required -to make two needles, usually about three inches, large _shears_ being -used, capable of cutting a coil of one hundred wires. - -[Illustration: Shears. Needles placed in iron rings. Soft Straight Liner. -Trowel for hardening.] - -Five or six thousands of these lengths are made into a bundle kept -together by a ring of steel at each end. They are then heated to redness -in a furnace, and afterwards laid upon a flat iron plate, and rubbed -backwards and forwards with a steel bar until each wire is perfectly -straight. - -The next stage is to grind a point at each end of the wire. This is done -by the aid of grindstones about eighteen inches in diameter and four -inches thick; they are made to revolve so rapidly that they are liable to -fly into pieces, and are therefore partially enclosed in iron plates to -avoid injury to the grinder, should such an accident occur. The grinder -takes from fifty to sixty wires between the thumb and forefinger of his -right hand; and as he presses them against the stone, he causes all the -wires to roll round, and thus each is ground to a point. So expert do the -grinders become by practice, that they point a handful of these wires, -usually about sixty, in half a minute, or about seven thousand in an -hour. During the grinding every wire gives out a stream of sparks, and -these together form a bright glare of light. - -[Illustration: Rubbing.] - -Pointing these wires is the most unhealthy part of the manufacture; the -fine dust is carried into the lungs of the workmen, and destroys them -in a few years, very few living beyond the age of forty. Wet grindstones -cannot be used, as the points of the needles would be rapidly rusted. - -[Illustration: Drill for making the Eyes. Smooth File for rubbing. -Hammer. Cullender. Packet of Needles. Flat File.] - -The wires thus pointed at each end are stamped by a heavy hammer, raised -by a lever moved by the workman’s foot. The under surface of this hammer -is so formed, that when it falls on the wire midway between the two -ends it stamps on one side the gutters, or grooves, in which the eye is -afterwards made; and the anvil on which the wire rests when the hammer -strikes it forms the two grooves on the opposite side. This stamping -also makes a slight depression or pit on each side at the spot intended -for the eye. The wires are then passed to a boy, who takes a number of -them in his left hand, whilst with his right he works a press, moving -two hard steel points or piercers. These come down upon the wire as it -is placed beneath them, and pierce the eyes for the two needles. Each -wire now resembles two rough unpolished needles united together by their -heads; and as it would require much trouble to divide them separately -into two needles, a number are threaded upon two very thin wires, and are -separated by filing and bending. - -[Illustration: Hand Press for piercing the Eyes. Stamping.] - -Any needles which may have been bent in the several processes are -straightened by rolling under a steel bar, and are hardened by heating -in a furnace, and suddenly cooled in cold water or oil. After hardening -they are tempered by being slightly heated, and if any are bent during -hardening, they are straightened by being hammered on anvils with small -hammers; finally, the whole are polished by laying twenty or thirty -thousand side by side upon a piece of thick canvas, smearing them with -oil and emery, rolling up the canvas, and rubbing them under a press for -several hours or even days. - -[Illustration: Soft Straightening. Needles placed ready to be filed. -Needles in different Stages of Manufacture.] - -Drilled-eyed needles undergo another operation—a fine _drill_ is made -to revolve rapidly in the eye of each, to take off the rough edge and -to prevent their cutting the thread when used; finally, the points are -finished on a revolving stone, and polished on a wheel covered with -leather, and enclosed in a paper for sale. - -Simple as the construction of a needle may appear, it has to pass through -the hands of 120 workmen, from the time it leaves the iron mine until the -manufacture is completed. - -The chief seat of the needle manufacture in this country is Redditch, -in Worcestershire, where upwards of seventy millions are made weekly. -English needles are far superior to those of foreign manufacture. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE CALENDERER AND HOTPRESSER. - -[Illustration: MILL.] - - -The business of the Calenderer and Hotpresser in so many respects -resembles part of that already described as preceding the printing of -calico, that only a brief notice of it will be necessary. The singeing -and bleaching of the cotton has been explained, and calendering is the -name generally applied in the manufacturing districts to the processes -of smoothing, dressing, and glazing cotton and linen goods; the object -being either to prepare them for the operations of the calico printer, -or to impart the last finish to the goods before they are folded and -packed for the market. The earlier calenders, or calendering machines, -closely resembled a common mangle in their action, but were very large -and heavy, and worked by a horse-wheel or other sufficient power, but the -process was greatly improved by the invention of a machine in which the -pressure is produced between rollers, instead of between rollers and flat -surfaces, and in which consequently the alternating movement is got rid -of, and also it is easier to give a uniform and equal pressure. - -[Illustration: Singeing Cotton Goods before Calendering. Iron Plate. -Roller. Windlass. Scissors. Tongs.] - -[Illustration: Embossed Roller for Machine Printing. Presses.] - -The rollers or cylinders were formerly made of wood; they are now -usually of paper or cast iron. The paper cylinders are formed by packing -a great number of circular pieces of stout pasteboard upon an iron -axis, and compressing them very tightly by means of iron bolts passed -through them, acting upon circular end-plates of cast iron. The surface -is brought to a perfectly even and polished state by turning in a -lathe. Iron rollers are made hollow and when necessary heated from the -inside. When a glazed or polished surface is required on the goods to -be calendered, mechanism is employed to cause two adjacent rollers to -revolve with different velocities, so as to produce a rubbing action. - -[Illustration: Printing Press. Chair with Rollers. Tin Block.] - -The _furnace_ for heating the _rollers_, the _chair with rollers_, the -_presses_ and _tin blocks_ for hotpressing, and the _windlass_ for -turning, are easily understood in relation to this trade. The _printing -press_ and _embossed cylinder_ have been mentioned in the trade of calico -printing. The _mill_, turned by a horse, is used where steam power is not -employed to put the machinery in motion. - -[Illustration: Furnace.] - - - - -THE CUTLER AND FILE-CUTTER. - -[Illustration: GRINDING.] - - -Amongst all the trades that occupy the attention of mankind, that of the -Cutler, which also includes the tool maker, is certainly one of the most -essential, since without tools no other manufactures could be carried on. -Cutting instruments of various kinds have been in use from the earliest -ages, if for no other purposes, for cutting food, slaughtering animals, -and making war upon each other. In ancient times, as well as amongst some -barbarous tribes at the present day, these implements were frequently -made of shells, edged flints, or hardened wood, fashioned into sharp -weapons; at a late period, cutting as well as warlike instruments were -formed of brass or bronze; but at the present time, in all civilized -nations they are formed exclusively of steel or iron. - -Steel is formed from the purest bar iron—that which comes from the -Swedish mines being preferred. This is buried in powdered charcoal and -heated to whiteness for several days, without exposure to the air; during -this time the metal becomes much harder, whiter in colour, crystalline in -texture, and blistered on the surface. The blistered steel so produced is -prepared for use, either by binding several bars together and hammering -them into one, or by melting them in earthenware pots, called crucibles, -and pouring the melted metal into moulds of the size required. In the -latter state it is called cast steel. - -Cutlery is generally understood to comprise all kinds of knives, razors, -lancets, and edge tools, including scythes, saws, scissors, shears, -spades, and many others; and the manufacture of forks, files, and some -other instruments not possessing cutting edges, is frequently included in -the business. It will be impossible to give a detailed description of how -all these are made, so only two or three must be selected. In a Cutler’s -factory knife blades are forged from steel bars in a number of small -rooms, each containing a fireplace or hearth, a trough to hold water, and -another trough for coke, which is specially prepared for this kind of -work; there are also an _anvil_, _hammers_, and some other tools. - -[Illustration: Cutler’s Hammers. Anvil.] - -Two persons are engaged in each room, one being called the maker or -forger, the other the striker. The forger buries the end of the steel -bar in the fire to the extent required; and to determine when it should -be removed requires some judgment, since if it be overheated or “burnt,” -it will be quite unfit for cutting purposes. On the other hand, it must -be sufficiently heated to acquire the proper degree of softness for the -operation of shaping the blade from it. When the end of the bar has been -properly heated it is brought to the anvil, where it is fashioned by the -striker into the required shape by means of a few blows of the hammer. -This roughly shaped blade is then cut off from the end of the bar, which -is again heated for forming the next shape, and so on to the end. - -The cutting part of the blade thus rudely formed is next welded to a -piece of iron, which forms the bolster, or _shoulder_, that is, the -part that rises round the handle of the knife. To make the shoulder of -the size and shape required, and to give it neatness and finish, it is -introduced into a _die_ by the side of the anvil, and a _swage_ (_see -Blacksmith_) placed upon it, to which a few smart blows in the proper -direction are given by the striker. - -[Illustration: Shoulder-iron.] - -The die and swage are called _prints_ by the workpeople. Besides the -bolster, the part which fastens into the handle, technically termed -the _tang_, is also shaped from the piece of iron welded on to the -cutting part of the blade. After the bolster and tang have been properly -finished, the blade is heated again, and then well hammered on the anvil. -This operation, which is termed _smithing_, requires particular care and -attention. It is intended to consolidate the steel, and to render it -brighter. The next process the blade has to undergo is that of _marking_. -This is done with a broad punch made of the very best and hardest steel, -and having the name and corporate or trade mark of the firm carved on -the bottom end or point. The blade is heated to a dull red (worm-red, -as it is termed by the workmen), and the mark cut in on one side of -the blade with the punch by a single blow of the hammer. Now comes the -most important process of all, viz. the hardening and tempering of the -blades. Upon the effectual performance of these operations depends the -practical value of the articles. The Sheffield workmen have justly and -deservedly acquired the very highest reputation for peculiar skill in -this most difficult department of the cutlery business. The hardening of -the blade is effected by heating it to bright redness, then plunging it -perpendicularly into cold water, which operation renders it extremely -hard, but at the same time very brittle, which is an inconvenience, -of course, requiring to be remedied. This is done by the process of -tempering. To this end, the hardened blades are first rubbed with finely -powdered sand, to remove scales, &c. from the surface; they are then -placed on an oblong tray made of steel, and on this exposed to the fire -until they acquire a bright blue tint. The workman judges of the proper -degree of tempering entirely by the colour, and the utmost attention is -bestowed upon this point to ensure the most perfect unanimity in this -respect. The hardened and tempered blades are then submitted to the -manager’s inspection, who applies various tests to them, and rejects any -that may turn out imperfect in any one point. - -The blades that have been examined and passed by the manager are next -taken to the grinding mill, or, as it is technically termed, the _wheel_. -Each separate shop in the building in which the grinders work is called -a _hull_. The grinding is done on stones of various qualities and sizes, -according to the kind of articles to be ground. The rough grit stones -come mostly from Wickersley, near Rotherham; the finer and smoother -grained stones, and the so-called _whitning_ stones, come mostly from the -more immediate neighbourhood of Sheffield. The blades of table-knives -are ground on wet stones, the grinding stone being suspended, for that -purpose, in an iron trough filled with water to a sufficient height -to make the surface of the fluid just touch the face of the stone. The -grinding stones, as well as the glazers and polishers, are turned by -machinery worked by steam power. A _flat stick_ is used by the grinder -to keep the blade pressed to the surface of the stone. The ground blades -are then glazed, which simply means that a higher degree of lustre and -smoothness is given them by grinding on a tool termed a _glazer_. This -consists of a wheel made of a number of pieces of wood, put together -in such a manner that the edge or face always presents the end way of -the wood, which is done to preserve the circular shape by preventing -contraction of the parts. The grinding face of the wheel is covered with -so-called emery cake, which consists of a composition of beeswax, tallow, -and emery. The glazing wheels have a diameter of four feet. The tang of -the blade is stuck into a temporary handle to facilitate the operation. - -[Illustration: Grindstones. Chisel. Buskin. Flat File or Rasp. Gauge.] - -The last process to which the blades of table-knives are subjected in the -grinding mill is that of polishing; this is done on circular pieces of -wood covered with buff leather, with a coat of finer emery (flour emery) -composition upon it, which are made to revolve with much less velocity -than the grinding stones and the glazers. The ground blades are again -taken to the manager, who applies several very severe tests to them, to -try their temper and edge. - -[Illustration: Shears. Flat Stick. Haft Moulds.] - -Knife-handles are made of horn, ivory, ebony, silver, German silver, -mother of pearl, &c. Two sorts of ivory are principally used, the -Egyptian and the African; the latter is the more beautiful and -transparent of the two, the Egyptian looking more like horn. The tusks -are sawn in appropriate lengths, which are then cut by a small circular -saw into handles of the required size. The handles are properly filed, -and occasionally also carved or fluted in different patterns. A variety -of files are used for these purposes, such as flat files, threading -files, hollow files, half round files, &c. The handle is then bored to -receive the tang. The bolster of the blade having been properly filed, -the tang is inserted into the bore, and fixed in by cement in the usual -way. It is afterwards farther secured by a German silver pin passing -through the handle and tang. - -The silver and German silver handles are stamped in dies. The mother of -pearl handles are carved or fluted in different patterns. - -[Illustration: Fire-irons. Crooked Tongs. Tongs. Dies.] - -The knives thus finished by the hafter are now taken once more to the -manager, to undergo a final examination preparatory to their removal to -the warehouse. - -The forging of razors is performed by a foreman and striker in the same -manner as in making the blades of table-knives. The bars or rods as they -come from the tilt and rolling mill are about half an inch broad, and -no thicker than is sufficient for the back of the razor. The anvil on -which the razor-blades are forged is rounded at the sides; by dexterously -working the blade on the rounded edge of the anvil, a concave surface is -given to the sides, and the edge part thus made thinner, which saves the -grinder a deal of labour. The blade having been cut off the bar, the tang -is formed by drawing out the steel. The blade is then properly hardened -and tempered. The last and most important process which the razor-blade -has to undergo is that of grinding. - -The difference in the prices of blades, make all of them of the same -material, is owing entirely to the circumstance that stones of much -smaller diameter are used for grinding the higher priced blades, and much -more time and labour are given to the operation than is the case with the -cheaper sorts. - -In making a fork, the end of a steel bar is first made red-hot; it is -hammered so as to give a rough approximation to the shape of the shank -or tang; it is again heated, and a blow from a die or stamp gives the -proper contour; the prongs are cut out by a powerful blow from a stamp of -peculiar form, and the fork is finally annealed, hardened, ground, and -polished. It is this process of fork grinding which has so often been -made a subject for comment; the fork is ground _dry_ upon a stone wheel, -and the particles of steel and grit are constantly entering the lungs of -the workmen, thereby ruining the health and shortening the duration of -life. - -Many contrivances have been devised for obviating this evil, but the -fork-grinders have not seconded these efforts so zealously as might have -been expected. - -In making pen and pocket-knives, a slender rod of steel is heated at the -end, hammered to the form of a blade, and carried through many subsequent -processes. But the putting together of these hinged knives requires more -time than the making of the blades, and affords a curious example of -minute detail. When the pieces of bone, ivory, pearl, tortoise-shell, -horn, or other substances, which are to form the outer surface of the -handle, are roughly cut to shape; when the blade has been forged and -ground, and when the steel for the spring is procured, the whole are -placed in the hand of a workman, who proceeds to build up a clasp-knife -from the little fragments placed at his disposal. So many are the details -to be attended to, that a common two-bladed knife has to pass through his -hands seventy or eighty times before it is finished. - -A file, as every one knows, is a steel instrument, having flat or curved -surfaces so notched or serrated as to produce a series of fine teeth or -cutting edges, which are employed for the abrasion of metal, ivory, wood, -&c. - -Steel for making files being required to be of unusual hardness, is more -highly converted than for other purposes, and is sometimes said to be -_double converted_. Small files are mostly made of cast steel. The very -large files called _smiths’ rubbers_ are generally forged immediately -from the converted bars. Smaller files are forged from bars which are -wrought to the required form and size by the action of tilt-hammers, -either from blistered bars or from ingots of cast steel. These bars are -cut into pieces suitable for making one file each, which are heated in -a forge-fire, and then wrought to the required shape on an anvil by two -men, one of whom superintends the work while the other acts as general -assistant. - -The next operation upon the blanks which are to be converted into files -is that of _softening_ or _lightening_, to render the steel capable of -being cut with the toothing instruments. This is effected by a gradual -heating and a gradual cooling. The surface is then rendered smooth, -either by filing or grinding. - -[Illustration: File Cutting. File Cutting.] - -The cutting of the teeth is usually performed by workmen sitting astride -upon a board or saddle-shaped seat in front of a bench, upon which is -fixed a kind of small anvil. Laying the blank file across the anvil, the -Cutler secures it from moving by a strap which passes over each end and -under his feet, like the stirrup of the shoemaker. He then takes in his -left hand a very carefully ground chisel made of the best steel, and in -his right a peculiarly shaped hammer. If the file be flat, or have one -or more flat surfaces, the operator places the steel chisel upon it at a -particular angle or inclination, and with one blow of the hammer cuts an -indentation or furrow completely across its face from side to side, and -then moves the chisel to the requisite positions for making similar and -parallel cuts. If it be a half round file, as a straight-edged chisel -is used, a number of small cuts are necessary to extend across the file -from edge to edge. So minute are these cuts in some kinds of files, that -in one specimen about ten inches long, flat on one side and round on the -other, there are more than 20,000 cuts, each made with a separate blow -from the hammer, and the cutting tool being shifted after each blow. The -range of manufactures afford few more striking examples of the peculiar -manual skill acquired by long practice. - -Several highly ingenious machines have been contrived for superseding -the tedious operation of file cutting by hand; but suited as the process -may appear to be for the use of machinery, it has been found to present -such great difficulties, that we believe no file-cutting engine has been -brought successfully or extensively into operation. One very serious -difficulty arises from the fact that, if one part of the file be either -a little softer than the adjacent parts, or a little narrower, so as to -present less resistance to the blow of the hammer, a machine would, owing -to the perfect uniformity of its stroke, make a deeper cut there than -elsewhere. - -After the files have been cut, the steel is brought to a state of great -hardness; this is effected in various ways, according to the purpose to -which the file is to be applied; they are generally coated with a sort of -temporary varnish, then heated in a stove, and then suddenly quenched. -After hardening, the files are scoured, washed, dried, and tested. - -It will be seen that the tools employed by the Cutler are few, and -consist mostly of the hammers, moulds, dies, anvils, grinding stones, and -others already mentioned. - -[Illustration] - - - - -COTTON MANUFACTURER. - -[Illustration: CARDING.] - - -The extremely valuable substance, called Cotton, which is now raised -in such abundance as to furnish the cheapest and most extensively-used -clothing, is produced in the seed vessels of the cotton plant, of which -there are many varieties; some are herbaceous annual plants, growing from -eighteen to twenty-four inches high; others, shrubs about the size of our -currant bushes, and of from two to ten years’ duration; whilst a third -kind attain the growth of small trees, with a height of from twelve to -twenty feet. - -The leaves of the cotton plant are of a bright dark green colour, deeply -divided into five lobes; the flowers are large and showy, of a bright -sulphur or lemon colour, and closely resemble in appearance and botanical -structure those of the single hollyhock; each flower is succeeded by -a triangular three-celled seed vessel, which attains the size of a -small walnut, and when ripe bursts open from the swelling of the cotton -contained in the three cells; the seeds, which are rather larger than -those of grapes, are inclosed in the cotton wool, which adheres very -firmly to them. One variety of cotton, cultivated in China, and some -parts of America, has a yellow tint; this tint it preserves when woven -into the fabric called “nankeen.” - -[Illustration: Cotton Plant. Bale of Cotton.] - -The cotton plant is largely cultivated in India, China, United States, -West Indies, on the shores of the Mediterranean, and, in short, in almost -all the warmer parts of the world; it flourishes readily in soils too -poor for the growth of grain, and other crops, and succeeds perfectly -well in dry seasons. - -The cotton, when perfectly ripe, is gathered by women and children, the -seeds and wool being picked out of the pod; it is dried in the sun, and -is then ready for the removal of the seeds. In India this operation is -performed by means of two parallel rollers, which are fixed in a frame at -a small distance apart, so that when they are turned round the cotton is -drawn through whilst the seeds, which from their size are unable to pass, -are torn off and separated. With this simple machine a man can separate -the seeds from about fifty pounds of cotton in a day. - -In America a still more rapid process is adopted: the cotton is placed -in a box, one side of which is formed of stout parallel wires, placed -about one-eighth of an inch apart; by the side of this box is a roller, -carrying a number of circular saws with curved teeth, which project -through the wires into the box. On the roller being made to revolve, the -teeth of the saws drag the cotton through the wires, the seeds remaining -behind; after being thus separated, the cotton is powerfully compressed -into bags, and is ready for transport to this and other manufacturing -countries. - -The cotton is seldom unpacked until it arrives at the mill, the purchases -being all managed by samples. When it is unpacked, the first thing to -be done is the sorting, and in this much care and skill are required; -for the different bags furnish different qualities of cotton, and it is -necessary to produce yarn of uniform quality at the cheapest rate. - -In order, therefore, to equalize the different qualities, the contents -of all the bags are mixed together in the following manner. A space -being cleared and marked out on the floor, the cotton contained in the -first bag is scattered over this space, so as exactly to cover it; the -contents of the second bag are in like manner spread over the first, and -the cotton in all the other bags is disposed in a similar manner; men and -boys tread down the heap, which is called a _bing_ or _bunker_, until at -length it rises up in shape and dimensions very much like a haystack. -Whenever a supply of cotton is taken from the bing it is torn down with -a rake from top to bottom, by which means it is evident the contents of -the different bags are collected together in a mass of uniform quality -and colour. In mixing different qualities of cotton it is usual to bring -together such only as have a similar length of staple. A portion of the -waste cotton of the mill is also mixed in the bing, for making the lower -qualities of yarn. For higher numbers, as well as for warps, a finer -quality of cotton must be selected; and thus it will be seen that the -formation of a bing is an important operation, the quality of the goods -produced depending upon it. - -In this state the cotton contains sand, dirt, and other impurities, and -the fibres are matted together by the pressure they were subjected to -in packing. To open the fibres and get rid of the sand, &c. the cotton -is put into a machine called a _willow_. This consists of a box or -case, containing a conical wooden beam, studded over with iron spikes; -this beam is made to turn round five or six hundred times a minute. -The cotton, as it is torn down from the bing, is put in at one end of -the machine, where it is caught by the spikes, tossed about with great -violence, and gradually driven forward to the other end. The sand and -other impurities fall out of the machine through an open grating at the -bottom; the dust and lighter matter pass off through a series of wire -openings, and the cleaned cotton is sent down a shoot into the room below. - -If the cotton is of fine quality it is beaten, or _batted_, with hazel -or holly twigs. For this purpose, it is spread on a frame, the upper -part of which is made of cords and is quite elastic. A woman, with a rod -about three or four feet long in each hand, beats the cotton with great -violence, and so entirely separates the fibre. Any loose impurities which -remain fall out between the cords; seeds and fragments of seed-pods, -which adhere to the cotton somewhat firmly, are picked out by hand. -By this method the cotton is thoroughly opened, and made quite clean, -without injuring the staple. - -[Illustration: Opening the Cotton.] - -The coarser qualities are passed at once from the willow to the -_scutching_ or _blowing machine_, which does the work of batting, only in -a more violent manner, and is therefore not adapted for fine qualities; -but in coarser spinning is in general use, to prepare the cotton for the -carding engine. - -The cotton, which is still in a confused and tangled state, has now to -be carded, upon the regularity and perfection of which process depends -much of the success of spinning, and also the durability and beauty of -the stuff to be woven. A cotton card is a sort of brush, containing wires -instead of bristles. The cards are made of bands or fillets of leather, -or are formed of alternate layers of cotton, linen, and india-rubber -pierced with numerous holes, in which are fixed bent pieces of iron wire, -called dents or teeth. - -The fibres of the cotton are not yet sufficiently level to be twisted -into yarn; and it often happens that the teeth of the card lay hold of -a fibre by the middle and thus double it together, in which state it is -unfit for spinning. - -The cardings are therefore doubled and drawn out by a machine called a -_drawing frame_, the principle of which depends upon different pairs -of rollers revolving with different degrees of rapidity. If, however, -the riband, as it leaves the carding-engine, were simply extended in -length by drawing it out, it would be liable to tear across, or to be of -a different thickness at different parts of its length. To prevent the -tearing and to equalize the thickness, a number of cardings are joined -together and drawn out to a length equal to the sum of the length of all -the separate cardings. - -The effect produced is the same as taking a piece of cotton wool between -the finger and thumb and drawing it out many times, laying the drawn -filaments over each other, before each drawing. If the cotton be then -examined it will be found that all the fibres are parallel and of equal -length. This effect is accomplished very perfectly in the drawing frame, -which consists of a number of rollers arranged in what are called -_heads_, each head consisting of three pairs of rollers, of which the -second pair moves with greater speed than the first, and the third moves -quicker than the second. - -[Illustration: Drawing. Thread Frame.] - -By the process of doubling and drawing, the cotton is formed into a -loose porous cord, the fibres of which are arranged side by side. This -cord is still too thick for yarn, but it cannot be reduced in size by -drawing merely, for if this were attempted it would break; a slight twist -is therefore given, which by condensing the fibres allows the drawing -to proceed. This is the commencement of the spinning process (which is, -in fact, little more than a combination of drawing and twisting) and is -called _roving_. - -[Illustration: Cotton Bobbins. Buffaloes with Bobbins. Roving.] - -The bobbin-and-fly frame is an exceedingly complicated machine, although -the objects to be accomplished by it are sufficiently simple; namely, to -give the roving a slight twist, and then to wind it on the bobbin. The -first is easily done by the revolutions of the spindle; the second is -more difficult. It is scarcely necessary to explain that the bobbins now -under notice differ in no way from the reels in common use, except in -being of very large size. The spindle which holds the bobbin is a round -steel rod, driven by a small cog-wheel, fastened on the lower part of -the spindle. The bobbin is slid upon the spindle, and the small bed or -platform on which it rests is made to revolve by another series of small -wheels. The spindle has two arms, called the _fly_ or _flyer_. This fly -is fixed on the top of the spindle in such a way that it can be taken off -in an instant, for the purpose of putting on or taking off the bobbin. -One arm of the fly is hollow, the other solid, and all this serves to -balance the machinery. One machine contains from thirty to a hundred and -twenty spindles, which, for economy of space, are placed in two rows, -each spindle in the back row standing opposite the space left between two -spindles of the front row. The action of the machine is this:—The sliver -having been drawn by the rollers, is twisted by the rapid revolutions -of the spindle into a soft cord or roving; this enters a hole in the top -of the spindle, and passes down the hollow arm of the fly; it is then -twisted round a steel finger, which winds it on the bobbin with a certain -pressure. - -[Illustration: Throstle. Flyer.] - -The _throstle machine_ is usually made double, a row of bobbins, -spindles, &c. occupying each side of the frame. The bobbins filled with -rovings from the bobbin-and-fly frame, are mounted at the upper part of -the frame in two ranges. The roving from each bobbin passes through three -pairs of drawing rollers, where it is stretched out to the requisite -fineness. On quitting the last pair of rollers, each thread is guided by -a little ring or a notch of smooth glass, let into the frame, towards the -spindles, which revolve with great rapidity, producing by the motion of -their flyers through the air a low musical hum, which is supposed to have -given the name of throstle to this machine. The roving, which may now be -called yarn, passing through an eyelet formed at the end of one of the -arms of the flyer, proceeds at once to other bobbins. - -The yarn is wound upon the bobbins by a curious contrivance. The bobbin -fits very loosely upon the spindle, and rests on its end upon a kind of -platform. The bobbin is not connected with the spindle, except by the -thread of yarn, which has to be wound; therefore, as soon as the flyer -is set spinning, the thread drags the bobbin after it, and makes it -follow the motion of the spindle and fly; but the weight of the bobbin, -and its friction on the platform, which is promoted by covering the end -with coarse cloth, causes it to hang back, and thus the double purpose is -served, of keeping the thread stretched and winding it on the bobbin much -more slowly than the flyer revolves. The yarn is equally distributed on -the bobbin by a slow up-and-down movement of the platform. - -[Illustration: Mule.] - -These effects are the same as were produced by the bobbin and fly-frame, -but in the throstle they are attained by simpler means. In the former -machine a distinct movement caused the bobbin to revolve quicker than the -spindle. In the throstle the bobbin is made to revolve by the pull of the -yarn, which is now sufficiently strong for the purpose; but the roving -in the bobbin-and-fly frame would not bear the strain. The throstle is -not often employed for very fine spinning, because fine yarn would not -bear the drag of the bobbin; but in mule-spinning the yarn is wound at -once upon the spindles without any strain. In the _mule_ the rolling -is first drawn by the usual system of rollers, and then stretched by a -moveable carriage. The effect of first drawing and then stretching is to -make the yarn finer and more uniform, as will be explained presently. -The spinning mule is the most interesting and impressive spectacle in a -large cotton mill—on account of its vast extent, the great quantity of -work performed by it, and the wonderful complication and ingenuity of its -parts. - -The spinning-mule consists of two principal portions: the first, which -is fixed, contains the bobbins of rovings and the drawing rollers; the -second is a sort of carriage, moving upon an iron railroad, and capable -of being drawn out to a distance of about five feet from the fixed frame. -This carriage carries the spindles, the number of which is half that -of the bobbins of rovings. Motion is given to the spindles by means of -vertical drums, round which are passed slender cords, communicating with -the spindles. There is one drum to every twenty-four spindles. - -The carriage being run up to the point from which it starts in spinning, -the spindles are near to the roller-beam; the rollers now begin to turn, -and to give out yarn, which is immediately twisted by the revolution of -the spindles; the carriage then moves away from the roller-beam, somewhat -quicker than the threads are delivered, so that they receive a certain -amount of stretching, which gives value to this machine. The beneficial -effect is produced in this way,—when the thread leaves the rollers, it -is thicker in some parts than in others, and those thicker parts not -being so much twisted as the thinner ones are softer, and yield to the -stretching power of the mule, so that the twist is equalised throughout, -and the yarn becomes more uniform. When the carriage has _completed_ a -_stretch_, or is drawn out from about fifty-four to sixty-four inches -from the roller-beam, the drawing rollers cease to give out yarn, but -the spindles continue to whirl until the threads are properly twisted. -In spinning the finer yarns, the carriage sometimes makes what is called -a _second stretch_, during which the spindles are made to revolve much -more rapidly than before. The drawing, stretching, and twisting, of a -length of thread being thus completed, the mule disengages itself from -the parts of the machinery by which it has hitherto been driven, and the -spinner then pushes the carriage with his knee back to the roller-beam, -turning at the same time with his right hand a fly wheel, which gives -motion to the spindles. At the same time a copping wire, as it is called, -is pressed upon the threads by the spinners’ left hand, and they are thus -made to traverse the whole length of the spindle, upon which they are -then wound or _built_ in a conical form, which is called a _cop_. These -cops are used for placing in the _shuttle_ in weaving, and form the weft -or short cross threads of the cloth. - -[Illustration: Machinery for moving Shuttle. Shuttle for Power Loom.] - -The yarn is now disposed of in various ways, according to the use for -which it is intended; but it is often found convenient to make it up into -hanks. When the yarn is completed it is usually sent to the doubling -and twisting mill, for the purpose of being converted into what is now -properly called thread. Although we are accustomed to apply the word -thread to a thin narrow line of any fibrous material, the manufacturer -limits the term to that compound cord produced by doubling or twisting -two or more single lines. The single line he calls yarn, two or more -single lines, laid parallel and twisted together, he calls thread; and -of this there are many varieties, such as _bobbin-net-lace_-thread, -stocking-thread, sewing-thread, &c. - -[Illustration: Gassing.] - -In fine spinning, the yarn, when doubled, is for some purposes _singed_ -or _gassed_, in order to get rid of the loose fibres, and to make it -more level and compact. The process of singeing yarn strikes a stranger -as being more remarkable than anything else in the mill. In a long room -in the upper part of the mill, or in a shed attached to it, are several -tables, lighted up with a large number of jets of flame, about twelve -inches apart, producing a singular but pleasing effect. Above each flame -is a little hood or chimney. On entering this room the smell of burnt -cotton is immediately perceived, and on approaching the table, one is -surprised to see a fine delicate thread crossing each flame in two or -three directions, and apparently at rest; but on following the course of -this thread, it is found to proceed from one bobbin, which is rapidly -spinning round, and to pass through the flame to another bobbin, which -is also in rapid motion. It is then seen that the thread is also moving -at a rapid rate, by which means alone does it escape being consumed. The -thread is led over pulleys, so as to pass two or three times through the -flame, which singes off the loose fibres, converting them into a reddish -powder or dust, which, if blown about and inhaled, would do great injury -to the lungs; this is why the gassing-room is in a remote or retired part -of the building, to prevent the air being disturbed by the bustle of the -heavier parts. - -[Illustration: Warping Machines.] - -When cotton is intended to be woven into a fabric, such as calico, &c. -the first operation consists in laying the requisite number of threads -together to form the width of the cloth; this is called _warping_. -Supposing there to be 1,000 threads in the width of a piece of cloth, -then the yarn, wound on the bobbins as it leaves the hands of the -spinner, must be so unwound and laid out as to form 1,000 lengths, -constituting, when laid parallel, the warp of the intended cloth. The -ancient method was to draw out the warp from the bobbins at full length -on an open field (and this is still practised in India and China), but -the _warping-frame_ is now employed, in which the threads are arranged, -by means of a frame turning on an upright centre. When the warp is -arranged round this machine, the warper takes it off and winds it on a -stick into a ball, preparatory to the process of beaming or winding it -on the beam of the loom. The threads in this latter process are wound -as evenly as possible on the beam; a separator, ravel, or comb being -used to lay them parallel, and to spread them out to about the intended -width of the cloth. Arrangements are then made for _drawing_ or attaching -the warp-threads individually to certain mechanism of the loom. In this -process all the threads are attached to stays fixed to two frames, called -_treadles_, in such a manner that all the alternate threads (1st, 3d, -5th,) can be drawn up or down by one heddle, and all the rest (2d, 4th, -6th, &c.) by the other. - -There are three movements attending every thread of weft which the weaver -throws across the warp. In the first place he presses down one of the -two _treadles_, by which one of the two heddles is depressed, thereby -forming a kind of opening called the _shed_. Into this shed, at the -second movement, he throws the shuttle, containing the weft-thread, with -sufficient force to drive it across the whole web. Then at the third -movement he grasps the _batten_, which is a kind of frame, carrying at -its lower edge a comb-like piece, having as many teeth as there are -threads in the warp, and with this he drives up the thread of weft close -to those previously thrown. One thread of weft is thus completed, and -the weaver proceeds to throw another in a similar way, but in a reverse -order, that is, by depressing the left treadle instead of the right, -and by throwing the shuttle from left to right, instead of from right -to left. In the commonest mode of weaving the shuttle is thrown by both -hands alternately; but, about a century ago, John Kay invented the -_fly-shuttle_, in which a string and handle are so placed that the weaver -can work the shuttle both ways with one hand. - -[Illustration: Weaving by hand.] - -In 1678 M. de Gennes invented a rude kind of weaving-machine, intended -to increase the power of the common loom; and other looms were invented, -which were to be worked by a winch, by water power, or by some -contrivance more expeditious than common hand-weaving; but a greater step -in advance was made by the invention of Dr. Cartwright’s _power-loom_ -in 1785. One cause which delayed the adoption of power-looms was the -necessity for stopping the machine frequently, in order to dress the warp -with paste or size as it unrolled from the beam, which operation required -a person to be employed for each loom, so that there was no saving of -expense. But the successive inventions of Radcliffe, Horrocks, Marsland, -Roberts, and others, have since brought the dressing-machine and the -power-loom to a high state of efficiency. - -[Illustration: Power Loom.] - -Taking a piece of calico as the representative of plain fabrics -generally, the mode of proceeding in power-loom factories may be shortly -sketched as follows. The warping-frame is so arranged as to be worked -by steam-power, and to bring the yarns into a parallel layer, which -is transferred to the dressing-machine. This latter is a large piece -of mechanism, in which the threads dip into paste on their way to the -warp-beam: undergoing a process of brushing after the dipping. After this -dressing the drawing and mounting for the loom are attended to. When the -warp is properly arranged in the loom, steam-power does all the rest; -it forms the shed or division of the warp into two parts, it throws the -shuttle, it drives up the weft with the batten, it unwinds the warp from -the warp-roller, and winds the woven material on the cloth-roller. - -[Illustration: Spinning by hand.] - - - - -THE TAILOR. - -[Illustration: WORKSHOP.] - - -It would perhaps be too much to say that the more civilized a nation -becomes, the greater is the attention bestowed upon dress; since it has -happened that in countries not very far removed from barbarism, vast -importance has been given to external display, and robes and trappings -have been used to cover the savagery which had only just learned to -delight in the pomp and magnificence of costly ornaments. It is certain, -however, that in all civilized nations dress is more than mere clothing, -and has a significance beyond the mere utility of protecting the body -from cold or heat, and adding to our physical comfort. It is an old -saying that some people may be clothed, but that they are never dressed; -and the meaning of this is, that dress is frequently an expression of -character, and will even make known the disposition of the wearer. In the -same way a change of _fashion_ is often an indication of an alteration in -the manners and way of living of a whole nation. - -It is the business of the Tailor, then, not only to make garments, but to -study the prevailing fashion, and, indeed, to advise what alterations or -slight differences in the cut and colour of clothes will be best suited -to different people, since on the way in which our clothes are made our -personal appearance will very greatly depend, and personal appearance is -of no little importance, since there are few people who are not strongly -influenced by it. - -The trade of the Tailor is one of which very little can be said in the -way of explanation, since it mainly consists in cutting out cloth to the -shapes necessary to be applied to each other in order to make the various -garments; and as this cannot be described without numerous _diagrams_, -and even with them could not easily be understood, we must be satisfied -to quote the instructions of a practical Tailor on the subject of -sewing.[3] - - [3] From the Industrial Library. - -And, first as to the different sorts of stitches, which are:—the -basting-stitch, the back and fore-stitch, the back-stitch, the -side-stitch, and the fore-stitch; also the back pricking-stitch, the -fore pricking-stitch, the serging-stitch, the cross-stitch, and the -button-hole-stitch; besides which there is a distinct kind of stitch -for hemming, filling, stotting, rantering, fine-drawing, prick-drawing, -over-casting, and also for making what are called covered buttons. - -The basting-stitch is a long and slight stitch, intended to be merely -temporary, or to fasten together some of the inner and concealed parts of -the garment. It is commonly used to keep the work in its proper position -while being sewed. - -[Illustration: Sleeve Board.] - -The back and fore-stitch is made, as the name implies, by the union of -back stitching and fore stitching; in this stitch the needle is first -put through the cloth, and turned up in as short a space as is possible, -so as to make a neat and strong stitch when completed; it is then put -through the cloth again in the same place as at first, and again turned -up, taking care that it passes through the cloth as nearly as possible -within the same space as before. This being done, the first back-stitch -is completed. The second stitch is made by passing the needle forward -upon the surface of the cloth, but without taking hold of it, over a -space equal to the length of the first stitch; the needle is again put -through the cloth, turned up, and brought back to the place where it was -last put through, so as to form another back-stitch; which is followed -by another putting of the needle forward, or, in plainer terms, another -fore-stitch, and so on in the same order, until the seam is finished. -This kind of stitch is used for sewing linings, pockets, flannel -garments, and other thin fabrics. There is no need to say much respecting -the back-stitch, as this may be understood from what is said above -respecting the first stitch in back and fore-stitching. This stitch is -used for seams where strength is required; it is also used for ornament -instead of the side-stitch, but in this case it must be very neatly and -regularly made. - -[Illustration: Goose. Flat Iron. French Chalk. Thimble. Measure Book. -Rule.] - -The side-stitch is used for the edges of garments, to keep them from -rolling over, or from being drawn out of shape. It is always intended -for ornament as well as use, and requires a very quick eye and a careful -hand to do it well. In this stitch the needle is put through the cloth -a little above or below the place from which it came out in the former -stitch, but it must be at a very little distance from this place, or -the sewing-silk will be visible on the surface of the cloth, which is a -great blemish, and yet it must be far enough away from where it came out -to prevent its breaking through, in which case the stitch is lost both -as to use and ornament. Care must also be taken that the stitches are at -regular distances from each other, and that the whole of them are placed -at the same distance from the edge of the cloth. In the fore-stitch, as -has been already hinted, the needle, when drawn out from the seam, is -always put forward, so that an equal quantity of thread, or a stitch of -the same length, is visible on each side of the cloth. - -Serge-stitching is done by passing the needle through the cloth from -the under to the upper piece, throwing the thread over the edges of the -cloth, so as to keep them closely together. It is also used to join -selvages together, as also to prevent taking up more space for seams than -can be spared, when the pieces are barely large enough for the required -purpose. It is not, however, much used by tailors, except when no great -degree of strength is required. - -The cross-stitch is formed by two parallel rows of stitches, so placed as -that the stitch in the upper row is opposite to the vacant space in the -lower one, the thread passing from one stitch to the other in diagonal -lines. It is used for keeping open the seams of such garments as require -washing, and also for securing the edges from ravelling out in such -fabrics as are too loosely made to allow of their edges being fastened -down by the filling-stitch. - -In the button-hole-stitch the needle is first put through the cloth from -the inner to the outer surface, and before it is drawn out the twist is -passed round the point of the needle, and kept in that position till the -needle be drawn out to the full length of the twist; this forms a kind of -loop, called by Tailors the “purl,” at the top or edge of the opening, -and when regularly made is both ornamental and useful. To increase the -strength of this stitch, and also to aid in making it true or exact, a -“bar” is formed on each side of the opening before the hole is begun to -be worked. This “bar,” as it is called, is made by passing the needle -from one end of the opening to the other (twice or three times), so that -there is a layer, if it may be so called, of twist stretching along -its whole length (and on each side) upon which the whole is worked, -the workman taking care to keep the “bar” as near to the edge of the -opening as possible, without allowing it to come over, in which case the -button-hole would be neither strong nor neat. - -[Illustration: Trousers Pattern Book.] - -The filling stitch is similar to that used in hemming; the chief -difference being in the direction given to the needle. In hemming, its -point is directed outwards, or _from_ the workman, but in filling it is -directed inwards, or towards him, and in each should be a little, but -only a little, slanted, in order to give the sewing a neat appearance. -This stitch is used for sewing on facings, and when made with neatness, -and without showing itself much on the outer side of the cloth, is -considered to be ornamental, as well as useful. - -[Illustration: Whisk. Measure. Hard Brush. Reel. Iron Holder.] - -Stotting (pronounced stoating) is the stitch used for joining pieces -of cloth so neatly that the join shall be but little visible, and yet -so strongly as to prevent the pieces from being easily parted. In this -kind of seam the pieces of cloth are not laid the one upon the other, -as in back-stitching, but are placed side by side, the edges being -carefully fitted, so as to prevent any irregularity or roughness in the -work. They are then sewn together by passing the needle half through the -thickness of the cloth. Care must be taken to keep the stitches as near -to each edge of the cloth as can be done without incurring the danger of -its breaking through. The needle is put in on the nearest edge of the -two, and must not be slanted in the direction given to it, but put as -straight forward as possible. The stitch should be drawn close enough -home to prevent the silk thread from showing itself on the right side of -the cloth, but yet not so close as to draw the edges into a ridge. If -the join be as neatly made as it may be, it will, when properly pressed, -be barely perceptible. This stitch is used for joining the pieces of -cloth of which facings, collar-linings, and other fillings-up of the -inner sides of garments, are made, and also in other cases to prevent the -taking up too much of the cloth by making a back-stitched seam. - -[Illustration: Shears. Coat Pattern Book. Wax. Goose Stand. Needle and -Thread.] - -Rantering, like stotting, is intended to conceal a join in the cloth. -Here, however, it is requisite to make a strong as well as a neat -joining; and therefore a seam is first sewn with a fore-stitch, and -then the rantering-stitch is worked upon or over this seam. It should -be worked with a very fine silk thread, or with twist that has had one -of the strands taken out. The needle should be both long and slender, -and must be passed forwards and backwards over the seam, so as to catch -hold of its two sides, and draw them closely together. But in doing this -care must be taken not to take a deep hold of the cloth: the nap or wool -is all that should be taken hold of, and this must be done with a light -hand, while the stitches must be placed close to each other, so that the -seam may be well covered with wool; when this is done, the seam has to -be “rubbed up,” that is to say, it must be held between the fore-finger -and thumb of each hand, these being placed upon the fore-stitching, and -its two edges brought as closely together as possible. The rantering must -then be slightly carded or scratched backwards and forwards with the -point of a needle, in order to bring the wool out again where it has been -drawn in with the stitch; the seam is then ready for pressing, and, if -this operation be properly performed, will be as much concealed as may -be necessary; while it will be much stronger than if it had been merely -back-stitched. - -In fine-drawing, the stitch is formed in the same manner as in rantering, -but there is a difference in the way of placing the pieces that are to -be joined, _i.e._ if they be separate pieces, for this stitch is mostly -used to close up places that have been accidentally cut, or torn; the -two edges of the place requiring to be fine-drawn are first trimmed by -cutting away the loose threads or ends of the cloth which may be upon -them; they are then placed and kept in as level or flat a position as -is possible, either with the fingers, or by fastening them to a piece -of stiff paper. The needle should be both very small and long, and the -thread used, whether it be of silk or twist, should be very slender. -Greater care is here necessary than in rantering, to avoid taking a deep -hold of the cloth; the needle should be passed forwards and backwards, -over the opening, and the thread should be drawn no closer or tighter -than is quite needful in order to hide it in the wool. The stitches must -be placed as near to each other as is possible, so as to prevent the -edges of the cloth from being visible between them; if it be needful -to make a strong as well as a neat joining, the fine-drawing should be -repeated on the under side of the cloth, but here it will not be needful -to put the stitches so close together. When the fine-drawing is done it -must be pressed, but with as light a hand and in as short a time as is -practicable, otherwise the sewing, however neatly done, will be visible, -and so far as it is so, the design of the fine-drawing stitch will not be -answered. - -The stitch called prick-drawing is now but seldom used, yet it may be -proper to notice it briefly. When this stitch is intended to be employed, -the edges of the cloth are first stotted together, after which the needle -is passed backwards and forwards in diagonal lines, under the stotting, -so as to make the join more strong and durable than it can be made by -merely stotting the pieces together. - -This stitch is used where the cloth is very thick, or hard and -unyielding, and, consequently, where the stotting-stitch would quickly -give way without this support. It is also better than a back-stitch seam -for cloths of this description, inasmuch as it can be made to lie more -flat, and thus to be more neat in its appearance, than a common seam. - -Overcasting is used merely to secure the edges of thin and loose fabrics -from “ravelling out.” In using it, the edges of the cloth, whether it be -woollen, linen, or cotton, are first trimmed clear of the loose threads; -the needle is then passed through the cloth in a forward direction, at -about the distance of one-eighth part of an inch from the edge of the -cloth, and when drawn out it is carried (from the left to the right, and -not, as in other stitches, from the right to the left) about a quarter of -an inch; it is then again put through, and on being drawn out it is made -to pass over the thread leading from the preceding stitch, so as to form -a kind of loop on the edge; which loop secures the edge from becoming too -much frayed, or ravelled. - -All the tools that the apprentice or even the journeyman requires may -be bought for a few shillings. A yard of linen for a _lap-cloth_; two -pairs of _scissors_, one pair moderately large, for common use, and the -other small, for button-holes; a _thimble_; a small piece of _bees-wax_; -and threepennyworth of _needles_, are all that he will have occasion to -buy so long as he is not a master, or a journeyman working at home, when -he must procure a _sleeve-board_ and an _iron_. The more expensive part -of even these few implements, viz. the scissors, will, with tolerable -care, last for a number of years with only the trifling expense of being -occasionally sharpened by the cutler. - -All the implements used by the Tailor are so well known as to need no -particular description; the _sleeve-board_ is used to place in the -sleeve of a coat while the seams are pressed with the heated _iron_ -or the _goose_. In the _measure book_ the dimensions are written when -measurement of a customer is made, and the _French chalk_ marks the -direction in which the cloth is cut to the pattern of the various shapes, -which are afterwards sewn together to make complete garments. - - - - -THE TANNER. - -[Illustration: THE PITS.] - - -Leather is a substance universally used amongst civilized and very -generally amongst barbarous nations; it is made from the skins of -animals, which are tanned, or prepared with some substance, having the -power of converting the perishable skin, that decays readily when wet or -moist, into a lasting and comparatively imperishable leather. - -The preparation of skins by tanning or other similar processes has -been practised from the earliest times; and although it has engaged -the attention of several scientific men, and has been the subject -of many curious experiments, it has received less alteration from -recent improvements in chemical science than many other manufacturing -processes. Several plans, which have been suggested with a view to -expediting the process, which on the old system is a very tedious one, -have been found to injure the quality of the leather, and have therefore -been wholly or partially abandoned; and others, which appear to be more -successful, are as yet adopted by a few manufacturers only. - -The larger and heavier skins operated upon by the Tanner, as those of -bulls, buffaloes, oxen, and cows, are technically distinguished as -_hides_, while the name _skins_ is applied to those of smaller animals, -as calves, sheep, and goats. The process necessary to convert hides into -the thick hard leather used for the soles of boots and shoes, and for -similar purposes will first be noticed. The hides are brought to the -Tanner either in a fresh state, when from animals recently slaughtered, -or, when imported from other countries, dried or salted, and sometimes -both, for the sake of preserving them from decomposition. In the former -case the horns are removed, and the hide is scraped to cleanse it from -any small portions of flesh or fatty matter that may adhere to the inner -skin; but in the latter it is necessary to soften the hides, and bring -them as nearly as possible to the fresh state, by steeping them in -water, and repeated rubbing or beating. After this the hair is removed, -sometimes by steeping the hides for several days in a solution of lime -and water, which has the effect of loosening the hair and epidermis, or -outer skin; and sometimes by suspending them in a close chamber called -a smoke-house, heated a little above the ordinary temperature of the -atmosphere by means of a smouldering fire, in which case the epidermis is -loosened by a very slight putrefaction. In either case, when the hair and -epidermis, or cuticle, are sufficiently loosened, they are removed by -scraping with a curved knife, the hide being laid upon a convex bench or -_beam_. - -[Illustration: Unhairing the Hides. Striking the Hides.] - -The hides are prepared for the actual tanning, or immersion in a solution -of bark, by steeping them for a few days in a pit containing a sour -solution of rye or barley flour, or in a very weak menstruum, consisting -of one part of sulphuric acid mixed with from five hundred to a thousand -parts of water. By this process, which is called “raising,” the pores of -the hides are distended and rendered more susceptible of the action of -the tan. - -Oak-bark is the substance most commonly used to supply the astringent -principle, and it is crushed or ground to powder in a _bark-mill_. In -the old method of tanning, which is not yet entirely abandoned, the hides -and powdered bark were laid in alternate layers in the _tan pit_, which -was then filled with water to the brim. After some months the pit was -emptied, and refilled with fresh bark and water; and this process was -repeated whenever the strength of the bark was exhausted. In this way, -the time required for impregnating the hides varied, according to their -thickness and other circumstances, from one to four years. The process -has been greatly expedited by the improvement, introduced in consequence -of the experiments of M. Seguin, a French chemist, of tanning with -concentrated solutions of bark, formed by passing water through a mass -of powdered bark, until, by successive filtrations, it is completely -deprived of its soluble tanning principle. - -[Illustration: Bark Box. Barrow.] - -The variations of practice among different Tanners extend to the -substance used as an astringent, as well as to the manner of applying -it. Ground oak-bark, which was formerly the only material in common use, -and is still the most general, produces good leather of a light fawn -colour. Valonia, of which considerable quantities are imported for the -use of Tanners, produces leather of great solidity and weight, the colour -of which is inclined to grey, and which is more impervious to water than -that made with oak-bark. Valonia consists of the acorns of the _Quercus -Ægilops_, and is brought from the Levant and the Morea. Catechu, or terra -japonica, the extract of the _Acacia Catechu_, produces leather of a dark -reddish fawn colour, which is light, spongy, and very pervious to water. - -[Illustration: Fleshing Knife, and Section. Shaving Knife, and Section. -Striking Pin, and Section. Unhairing Knife, and Section.] - -When the process is complete, the hides are hung up in a shed and allowed -to dry slowly; and while they are drying they are compressed by beating, -or rubbing, or by passing them between rollers, to give them firmness and -density. A yellow deposit is now found upon the surface of the leather, -to which the name of “bloom” or “pitching” is technically given. - -We have hitherto alluded chiefly to the preparation of the thick hides -used for sole leather, among which several varieties may be found, each -distinguished by a different technical name, by which its thickness, -quality, or mode of preparation is known; but the thinnest and weakest -hides, as well as the skins of calves and other animals, are also -prepared for use as upper leathers, in which case it is necessary to -reduce their thickness by _shaving_ or _paring_ them down upon the flesh -or inner side, before they are subjected to the action of the tanning -infusions. Such hides or skins also require, after leaving the hands of -the Tanner, to be rubbed, softened, and dressed by the currier, in order -to bring them to the necessary degree of flexibility and smoothness. -The currier also has recourse to shaving or paring with a peculiarly -formed _knife_, to bring the skin to the requisite tenuity; and it is his -office to blacken the surface, which, for common shoe leather, is done -on the flesh side, although for some purposes leather is blackened on -the outer or grain side. Horse-hides, which are comparatively weak and -thin, are sometimes dressed in the latter way, under the name of Cordovan -hides, from the circumstance of such leather having been formerly made -at Cordova, in Spain. Calf-skins supply the quality of leather most -generally preferred for the upper part of boots and shoes. - -Of the thin skins prepared for ornamental purposes, many are tanned with -a substance called _sumach_, prepared from a plant of the same name. The -tanning is performed by sewing up each skin into the form of a bag, with -the grain or hair side outwards, and nearly filling it with a strong -solution of _sumach_ in water. The bag is then fully distended by blowing -into it, and the aperture is tied up; after which it is thrown into a -large shallow vessel filled with hot water containing a little sumach. -The distended bags float in this vessel, and are occasionally moved -about with a wooden instrument until the solution which they contain -has thoroughly penetrated their substance. Owing to the thinness of the -skins and the heat to which they are exposed, this operation is performed -in a few hours. The process is expedited by taking the bags out of the -solution, and piling them upon a perforated bench or rack at the side of -the tub, so that their own weight may force the confined liquid through -the pores. - -[Illustration: Apron. Gloves. Whetter. Roller. Leoline.] - -When the tanning is completed, the bags are opened to remove the sediment -of the sumach; the skins are washed, rubbed on a board, and dried; after -which they are ready for dyeing and finishing with a ridged instrument, -which imparts to the surface that peculiar grain by which morocco leather -is distinguished. An inferior kind of leather, known as “imitation -morocco,” is prepared in a similar manner from sheepskins. - -[Illustration: Plungers. Tongs. Jet. Hook.] - -“Tawing” is the name applied to the process by which the skins of lambs -and kids are converted into soft leather by the action of alum. Of this -kind of leather gloves are usually made. - -The _jet_ and _plungers_ used for immersing the hides in the tan, the -_tongs_ and _hook_ for removing them, and the other implements, are -easily understood as applied to the various processes here mentioned. - -[Illustration] - - - - -THE SHOEMAKER. - -[Illustration: WORKSHOP.] - - -The trade of the Shoemaker naturally follows that of the tanner, since -leather is the material principally employed in making coverings for -the feet; the tough hides of animals being used for the same purpose in -countries where the art of tanning is either unknown or not practised. -Scarcely any handicraft employment engages the attention of so many -persons in this country as boot and shoe making. From the fashionable -bootmaker to the poor cobbler, who crouches in a stall under a house in -some narrow street, is a wide interval, and this interval is filled up by -numerous grades. At Northampton boots and shoes are made on a very large -scale for the London markets; they include chiefly the cheap varieties, -but at some of the recent exhibitions of manufactures the Northampton -bootmakers have exhibited specimens of workmanship which are considered -to be quite equal to those of London or Paris. At Edenbridge, in Kent, -and at other places, the strong coarse “hob-nailed” shoes are made, which -are so much worn by waggoners and others. - -The London makers import from Paris very large quantities of boot -fronts, which, when combined with other parts of English manufacture, -constitute many of the “French boots” which now glisten in the windows. -Notwithstanding the large number of persons employed in these avocations -in England, and the abundant supply of leather, there is still a -considerable import of boots and shoes from abroad, chiefly France. - -In the old statutes a Shoemaker is called a cordwainer, apparently -a corruption of the French _cordonnier_, which means a worker of -Cordova leather. The companies of Shoemakers in our ancient towns were -incorporated under this name; and where some of these companies now -exist, they are known by the same name. As a legal term, cordwainer is -still used. - -The trade, as now followed in London and other principal places, is -subdivided into about twenty branches. The following may be set down -as the chief: the shoeman, or maker of the sole part of the shoe; the -bootman, or maker of the sole part of the boot; and the boot closer, or -joiner together of the leg, vamp, &c. The labour of these is especially -directed to what is called the men’s line; whilst others make the ladies’ -shoes or boots. There are many women, too, who get a livelihood by -closing the shoe, while others again follow the various sorts of binding. - -The mechanical processes, after marking and cutting out the leather, -consist chiefly in various kinds of strong needlework, such as the -lasting or tacking of the upper leather to the in-sole, the sewing in of -the welt, the stitching to this welt of the out or top sole, the building -and sewing down of the heel, and the sewing or closing of boot legs. The -boot closer is the most skilful of the persons employed, and receives the -highest wages. - -The materials with which the Shoemaker works are generally called the -_grindery_,—they are so called at least through England and Scotland, -though in Dublin it is called _finding_. - -“The cause of this technicality,” says Mr. James Devlin, in his most -interesting description of the trade of the Shoemaker in the Industrial -Library, “is now, I believe, scarcely known to any one in the trade. -The relation to whom I was apprenticed, a man of a very active and -inquisitive turn of mind, told me its history, which it may be worth -while here to relate. - -“Formerly, before hemp, flax, wax, hairs, or any description of tools, -were sold, as now, in shops set apart to this particular business, the -shoemaker, not using the peculiar sort of stone rubber or the emery -composition which he now uses to sharpen his knives upon, was in the -habit occasionally of taking his knives to be ground (as the French -shoemaker does at the present day) to some of the common knife-grinders -of the neighbourhood. The knife-grinder having thus the Shoemaker for -a regular customer, began in time to add to his usual business that of -selling hemp, &c.; hence his little shop being termed the _grindery_, -every thing he sold became known under this name, and is still continued.” - -The tools of the Shoemaker are in their collective form denominated his -_kit_. Anciently, and in the old songs of the trade, they were called -“St. Hugh’s bones,” from a now almost forgotten, though somewhat pleasant -tradition. In Stow, and in Randle Holme’s “Academie of Armorie,” 1688, -we find this term; as, also, in the still older romance of “Crispin and -Crispianus;” and in two plays, “The Shoemaker is a Gentleman,” and the -“Shoemaker’s Holiday,” of the beginning of the seventeenth century. - -The kit of the Shoemaker is, however, no longer now, as formerly, made up -of “bones”—saint or infidel, human or brute,—but principally of good and -kindly steel; purchased ready-made at the _grinder’s_, or the grindery -establishments before spoken of, and kept afterwards (in this country, -at least, and in America) in repair and proper order by the ingenuity -and care of the workman himself; though in France, and generally on -the continent, much of this is done by another person, to whom such -occupation is the sole means of livelihood. - -Under the general term _kit_ is comprehended the _pincers_, _nippers_, -_hammer_, the various descriptions of _awls_, of _setting irons_, and -many other articles. - -It has often been a matter for great surprise that the Shoemaker should -sit in such a cramped and unhealthy position at his work, crouched over -his _clamps_ as he holds the leather in them between his knees while -engaged in sewing, or over the block, which he holds fast to his thigh -with the _stirrup_ that passes underneath his foot. - -[Illustration: Nippers. Awl. Stirrup. Lapstone. Hammer. Clamps.] - -Many inventions and improvements have been made for enabling the -Shoemaker to stand during a great part of his time, and some of these -seem well adapted to supersede the old position, but at present they have -been only partially adopted. - -The Shoemaker’s thread being tipped with bristles, no needle is required -for sewing; but the thread itself is passed through the hole made with -the _awl_. Quickly goes in the awl, and as quickly is out again, but not -before the hair from the fingers of the left hand has found the passage, -without being at all directed by the sight, but literally in the dark; -and hence the term _blind stabbing_, the right hand hair immediately -following in the opposite course, the closed thumb and fore-finger -of either hand nipping at the moment the hairs from these different -directions, and drawing the same as instantly out, at once completing the -stitch. - -A proficient closer, or closer’s boy—for here, in general, the boy is -even more expert than the man—will in the space of half an hour stab the -four side rows and the two back rows of the counter of a boot, each inch -of stitching taking about twenty stitches, and the entire work averaging -about fifteen inches, three hundred stitches being thus put in in thirty -minutes, or fifty every five minutes, each stitch requiring in itself -six distinct operations—the skill of sight or distance, the putting in -of the awl, and again its withdrawal, the putting in the left-hand hair, -and again of the right, and lastly, the careful though rapid drawing, or -rather twitching, out of the thread itself. - -The closer needs little kit: a slip of board to _fit_ or prepare the work -upon; a pair of _clamps_; a _block_; a _knife_; about three _awls_, two -differently-sized closing awls, and one stabbing awl; two _seam-sets_, -or it may be three—one for the stabbed sides; a _stirrup_; a case of -_needles_ (short blunts), and a _thimble_. - -[Illustration: Fore-part Iron. Seat Iron. Seat File. Gigger Iron. Jim -Crow. Breaker. Glazing Iron. Bevel Iron.] - -The lining in all shoes, at least, but those of the very strongest -kind, is entirely the work of the woman, being done with the needle, -and elegantly it often is done. After the lining, the _upper_ has to -be _set_; a matter soon effected; the flat-seam-set, or, if stabbed, -the stabbing-side-set, being heated at a candle (though this is not -necessary, and might from the danger of the practice be well dispensed -with) and a little dissolved gum being rubbed on the seam, the set is -immediately to be somewhat forcibly and briskly pressed along the line -of stitching, which thus takes an almost instant polish, and being also -hardened, the upper becomes ready for shop; that is, to be sent to the -_maker_, or shoeman, to finish by putting in the welt, soles, and other -parts of the shoe; the “stitching” being effected with a square awl. - -[Illustration: Knife. Last. Paste Horn.] - -The number of tools used by the Boot and Shoemaker who combines all the -branches of the trade is very great, although few of them are remarkably -expensive, except some of the patent metal or hardwood _lasts_, on which -the shoes or boots are placed. The _lapstone_ on which the leather is -hammered after being damped; and the various kinds of _irons_ used for -rubbing, paring, or shaping the soles and other parts of the shoe, are -the principal implements, beside the _awls_, _knives_, _hammers_, and -_rasp_. - -The _glazing iron_ is used for burnishing the heel of the boot or shoe; -the _paste horn_ for containing the paste used in the inside lining of -the shoe or boot; the _irons_ for setting up the leather beside the -stitching, and the _Jim-crow_, which is a small toothed wheel running in -a handle for the same purpose. The _long stick_ is used for “sleeking,” -or smoothing and softening the upper part of the boot or shoe, after it -has been made and placed on the block, in order to take out any wrinkles -that may remain. - -[Illustration: Long Stick. Rasp.] - -It would be impossible to give any clear description of all the -operations of the trade of the Shoemaker in the space devoted here to -this particular business, and even were it attempted, no very clear -idea could be conveyed of the various portions of his work; since, like -the tailor, he has first to cut out the leather to the proper shape for -making the various parts, which have afterwards to be put together. -Indeed, beyond mentioning the uses of the various tools, most of which -are simple enough, little can be said to explain the operation of the -Shoemaker that would not require actual inspection of the different -processes; although many of them may be understood by looking at a shoe, -after having observed the accompanying pictures and having read what has -been said about the tools employed. - - - - -THE SADDLER AND HARNESS MAKER. - -[Illustration: WORKSHOP.] - - -The manufacture of saddles and harness for horses is one requiring very -considerable skill and no little patience, since on the ability of the -Saddler depends not only the health and comfort of the horse, but the -safety of the rider. The beauty and finish of the harness and its -appurtenances are so essential to the proper appearance presented by the -whole equipage, that a very great deal of attention is now given even to -the smallest details, such as buckles, mounts and ornamental sewing on -straps and traces. - -[Illustration: Spokeshave. Cutting Gauge. Dead Punch. Compasses. Mallet. -Hand Iron.] - -The operations in the trade of the Saddler are so similar to those of the -shoemaker, as far as the stitching and cutting of leather are concerned, -that they require very little description. The most difficult part of -his business is the skilful making of saddles. To fit the pigskin over -the iron shape, and skilfully to arrange the padding, is often a very -troublesome task, where a horse requires some peculiarity of make before -he can be well fitted; and to ensure a perfect smoothness and finish -a skilful use of the _hand iron_ and the _spokeshave_ is necessary. -Similar care has to be taken in forming the collars to which the harness -is attached; and indeed no part of the Saddler’s work can be carelessly -performed without serious risk either to the horse or its owner. - -[Illustration: Needle and Thread. Clamps. Lead Piece. Hand Knife. Punch. -Round Knife. Pricking Iron. Hand Knife. Hammer.] - -As a great part of the Saddlers’ work consists of sewing, he uses the -_clamps_ to hold the leather between his knees, in the same way as they -are used by the shoemaker; but although he employs the _sewing awl_ for -drilling holes, or, at all events, the _pricking iron_, the sewing is -done with _needles_ and strongly waxed _thread_. The various kinds of -_knives_ are used for cutting and paring the leather; the _cutting gauge_ -and _compasses_ for regulating the cutting, the _hammer_ for driving -the small nails used in the work, and the _mallet_ for striking the -_pricking iron_ or _punches_. The _punch_ is used for making the holes -in the straps to receive the tongue of the buckle, and is therefore a -hollow tube with a sharp cutting edge, so that it will cut out a little -round piece of the leather. The _dead punch_ is made solid, and is not -intended for cutting. The leather, when it has to be cut with the punch, -is placed on the _lead piece_, a small square block of lead, which being -soft allows a slight yielding of the leather, and at the same time does -not blunt the edge of the punch when it has passed through the hole. - -[Illustration: Edging Iron. Seat Awl. Packing Awl. Sewing Awl. Double -Crease. Single Crease. Nail Claw.] - -The _seat awl_ and _packing awl_ are used in the padding and making of -saddles and collars; the _nail claw_ for removing nails by which the -leather has been fastened down. - -The various kinds of _creases_ are for the purpose of making channels in -the leather along the edges which have to be sewn, so that the stitches -are sunk below the surface, and the thread will not so easily wear out. -The _edging iron_ is for a similar purpose. In common saddlery some of -the comparatively unimportant straps, or the smaller gear, are not sewn -at the edges, and indeed do not require it, although a great deal of the -Saddler’s sewing is for ornamental purposes. In order to make the whole -look uniform, however, these straps are not left plain, but are creased -at the edges, and the channels thus made are marked with the _pricking -iron_, to give them the appearance of having been stitched. The Saddler -is better off than the shoemaker, inasmuch as he generally sits to work -at a bench, and need not occupy such a constrained and unhealthy position. - -Some account has already been given of the preparation of leather, but it -will be desirable here to mention other sorts, some of which particularly -belong to the business of harness making. - -[Illustration: Screw Crease. Varnish Pot. Sponge.] - -Sheep-skins, when simply tanned, are employed for inferior bookbinding, -for leathering bellows, and for various other purposes for which a cheap -leather is required. All the _whit-leather_, as it is termed, which is -used for whip-lashes, bags, aprons, &c. is of sheep-skin; as are also the -cheaper kinds of _wash-leather_, of which gloves, under-waistcoats, and -other articles of dress, are made. Mock, or imitation morocco, and most -of the other coloured and dyed leathers used for women’s and children’s -shoes, carriage-linings, and the covering of stools, chairs, sofas, -writing-tables, &c. are also made of sheep-skin. - -Lamb-skins are mostly dressed white or coloured for gloves; and those of -goats and kids supply the best qualities of light leather, the former -being the material of the best morocco, while kid leather affords the -finest material for gloves and ladies’ shoes. Leather from goat-skins, -ornamented and sometimes gilt, was formerly used as a hanging or covering -for walls. - -[Illustration: Harness.] - -Deer and antelope skins, dressed in oil, are used chiefly for riding -breeches. Horse-hides, which, considering their size, are thin, are -tanned and curried, and are used by the Harness Maker, especially for -collars, and occasionally, when pared thin, for the upper leathers of -ladies’ walking shoes. Dog-skins are thick and rough, and make excellent -leather. Seal-skins produce a leather similar but inferior to that -supplied by dog-skins; and hog-skins afford a thin but dense leather, -which is used mostly for covering the seats of saddles. - -Currying is the general name given to the various operations of -dressing leather after the tanning is completed, by which the requisite -smoothness, lustre, colour, and suppleness, are imparted. The processes -of the Currier are various. The first is styled “dipping” the leather. -It consists in moistening with water, and beating upon a trellis-work of -wooden spars with a _mallet_ or _mace_. After this beating, by which the -stiffness of the hide or skin is destroyed, it is laid over an inclined -board, and scraped and cleaned, and, wherever it is too thick, pared -or shaved down on the flesh side by the careful application of various -two-handled knives, and then thrown again into water, and well scoured -by rubbing the grain or hair side with pumice-stone, or with a piece of -slatey grit, by which means the _bloom_, a whitish matter which is found -upon the surface in tanning, is removed. - -[Illustration: Rule. Pincers. File. Pliers.] - -The leather is then rubbed with the _pommel_, a rectangular piece of -hard wood, about twelve inches long by five broad, grooved on the under -surface, and fastened to the hand. The Currier uses several of these -instruments, with grooves of various degrees of fineness, and also, for -some purposes, pommels of cork, which are not grooved at all. The object -of this rubbing is to give grain and pliancy to the leather. The leather -is then scraped with tools applied nearly perpendicular to its surface, -and worked forcibly with both hands, to reduce such parts as may yet be -left too thick, to a uniform substance. After this it is dressed with -the _round knife_, a singular instrument which pares off the coarser -fleshy parts of the skin. In addition to these operations, the Currier -uses occasionally polishers of smooth wood or glass, for rubbing the -surface of the leather; and when the leather is intended for the use of -the shoemaker, he applies to it some kind of greasy composition called -_dubbing_ or _stuffing_. - -Leather is occasionally dressed “black on the grain,” or having the grain -side instead of the flesh coloured. The currying operations in such a -case are similar to those above described, but the finishing processes -are rather different. The leather is rubbed with a grit-stone, to remove -any wrinkles and smooth down the coarse grain. The grain is finally -raised by repeatedly rubbing over the surface, in different directions, -with the pommel or graining board. - -Japanned leather of various kinds is used in coach making, harness -making, and for various other purposes. Patent leather is covered with -a coat of elastic japan, which gives a surface like polished glass, -impermeable to water; and hides prepared in a more perfectly elastic mode -of japanning, which will permit folding without cracking the surface, are -called enamelled leather. Such leather has the japan annealed, something -in the same mode as glass; the hides are laid between blankets, and -subjected to the heat of an oven at a peculiar temperature during several -hours. - - - - -THE HATTER. - -[Illustration: CUTTING MACHINE.] - - -The trade of the Hatter is confined to a few countries of Europe; but, -as the fashion of hats is at present mostly restricted, both here and in -most parts of the Continent, to those black stiff cylindrical coverings -of silk which custom has ordained we shall wear, greatly to our own -discomfort, and at a great expense, the business is of considerable -importance, and the making of hats has grown into a large branch of -industry. Before the introduction of that kind of silk which bears a -long pile, like velvet, and is known as _plush_, beaver was the material -principally used for hat making; but beaver hats are much more expensive, -though they are now seldom made of the skin or fur of the beaver, which -has grown remarkably scarce, in consequence of the land which the animals -formerly occupied having become inhabited. - -[Illustration: Cutting out. Bowing.] - -Beaver hats of the finest quality are made with lamb’s wool and the fur -of English rabbits. To form the body of the hat, the wool and rabbit’s -fur are separately _bowed_ by bringing a set of strings attached to a bow -in contact with a heap of the material, and then striking the strings, so -as to cause violent vibrations, and thus separate the filaments. The two -substances are next bowed together until they are intimately mixed; after -which the mass is spread evenly, covered with an oil-cloth, and pressed -to the state of an imperfectly tangled felt. The next process is to cover -the felt with a triangular piece of damp brown paper, and then to fold it -in a damp cloth, and work it well with the hand, pressing and bending, -rolling and unrolling it, until the interlacing or felting is much more -perfect, and the mass is compact. The felt thus prepared is next taken to -the wide brim of a boiler charged with hot water and beer grounds, and a -small quantity of sulphuric acid; it is well rubbed and rolled until it -no longer contracts. The felt is next stiffened with shellac, a solution -of which is applied by means of a brush to both sides of the felt; after -which it is heated in a stove, and by this means the whole substance -becomes duly impregnated with the resin; this renders the hat nearly -waterproof. - -[Illustration: Bow for Beaver.] - -To form the nap of a hat, one half or three-fourths of an ounce -of beaver, and some other less costly fur, are bowed together and -imperfectly felted in the manner already described, and shaped the same -as the body to which it is to be applied; that body is then softened by -immersing it in the boiler, when the nap is applied and worked as in -felting, until the required union is effected between the two bodies. - -The felt thus covered is brought to the proper shape by working it on a -wooden block, and is then dyed black. The hat is softened by steam, the -crown is strengthened by placing in it a disc of scaleboard, and linen is -pasted over this. - -The nap is raised and a uniform direction given to its fibres by means of -warm irons and hair brushes. The last processes are lining and binding, -when the hat is ready to be worn. In the low-priced hats of the present -day, commoner wool and fur, and smaller quantities of each, are used. - -[Illustration: Lathe. Finishing.] - -Silk hats consist of a cover or exterior part made of silk plush, which -is laid upon a foundation of chip, stiffened linen, or some other light -material, previously blocked into shape. The so-called velvet and satin -hats deserve those titles only so far as the plush resemble those -materials. The plush is mostly woven in the north of England. Paris hats -are for the most part made in England, the silk plush being imported from -France. - -[Illustration: Rounding Card, No. 1. Rounding Card, No. 2. Finishing -Iron. Brow-piece. Blistering Iron. Card. Polishing Block. Multer. Brush.] - -The various tools employed are mostly used for shaping the different -parts of the hat. The _cutting machine_, for dividing and preparing the -felt and other materials; the _block_, on which the body of the hat is -formed previous to its being placed in the _lathe_, where it is made -perfectly round; the _brow-piece_, for shaping the hat where it fits -the head; the _card_, a sort of wire brush for scratching up or carding -the fibre of the silk or beaver after the hat is made; the _rounding -cards_, for pressing and completing the hat near the brim; the _curler_, -for turning up and shaping the brim; the _multer_, _finishing iron_, and -_blistering iron_, are used for shaping and smoothing; the _polishing -block_ holds the hat while it receives the final process of brushing and -smoothing with a pad of velvet called the _veleure_. - -[Illustration: Curler. Block. Veleure.] - - - - -THE MILLER. - -[Illustration: WATER-MILL.] - - -There is scarcely a boy to be found who, when he has been into the -country and seen the wheel of the old water mill going round, or the fans -of the windmill slowly revolving in the air, has not thought that it -would be pleasant to follow the business of a Miller. - -Millers are proverbially jolly fellows, and their houses and the mills -themselves are generally very picturesque, and stand in pleasant country -places; then, again, what wonderful fat perch and chub and pike can be -caught in the weir or the mill stream, and what a quiet sleepy occupation -it must be to lie on the grass or in some great room in the mill, -watching the fans, or listening to the summer breeze wafting through the -sails! - -If anybody should think, however, that the Miller’s life is a lazy one -he had better alter his opinion; for, unless he wishes to starve amidst -plenty, the Miller must be up betimes, and, besides working himself, -keeping a good look-out amongst his men, lest both he and his customers -should suffer by their negligence. - -The mortar would seem to be the earliest machine used for the purpose -of bruising or reducing grain to a powder, or into a state fit for the -making of bread. By means of the handle the pestle would with tolerable -facility be driven round the mortar, and the grain reduced to a powder, -as is done with certain drugs by the pestle of the apothecary of the -present day. - -In process of time, shafts were added to these machines; and in the -opinion of Beckmann, the oldest cattle mills resembled those described in -Sonnerat’s Voyage to the East Indies, in which the pestle of a mortar, -fastened to a stake driven into the earth, is affixed to a shaft, to -which two oxen are yoked. These oxen are driven by a man, while another -is employed in dropping the grain into the mortar and placing it under -the pestle. - -We have good reason for knowing that the Romans, for a long time, used no -other instrument than the pestle and mortar. - -Pounding continued in use among the Romans so late as after the era of -Vespasian. This fact clearly proves that the Romans were many ages behind -the Eastern world in the arts of civilization, for grinding of corn into -flour was practised, we know, in the times of the patriarchs, and was -probably the invention of the antediluvian world. - -The subject-Britons universally adopted the Roman name, but applied it, -as we their successors apply it at present, only to the Roman mill; -still distinguishing their own original mill as we distinguish it, by -its own original denomination of a quern. A Roman or water mill was -probably erected at every stationary town in the kingdom, and it is quite -certain that one was erected at Mancunium (Manchester), serving equally -the purposes of the town and the uses of the garrison. One alone would -be sufficient, as the use of hand-mills was at that time very common -in both, many such having been found about the site of the station -particularly, and the use of them generally having being retained among -us very nearly to the present period. Such mills it would be particularly -necessary to have in the station, that the garrison might be prudently -provided against a siege. - -The ancient Asiatic hand-mill consists of two flat round stones, about -twenty inches or two feet in diameter, kept rolling one on the other by -means of a stick, which does the office of a handle. The corn falls down -on the undermost stone, through a hole in the middle of the uppermost, -which by its circular motion spreads it on the undermost, where it is -bruised and reduced to flour; this flour, working out at the rim of the -millstones, lights on a board set on purpose to receive it. The bread -made of it is said to be better tasted than that made by either wind or -water mills: these hand-mills cost only a few shillings of English money. - -This description of mill is frequently alluded to in the Scriptures, -and it was the practice for the women to grind corn every morning by -means of hand-mills; and in the East, or at least in many parts of it, it -continues to be the practice to this day. - -Water wheels, as far as the figure and construction are concerned, may be -reduced to three kinds, and they are usually known by the names—overshot -wheel, balance wheel, breast wheel, and undershot wheel. - -[Illustration: Mill.] - -In an overshot wheel, the water is conducted over the top of the wheel, -and acts first by its momentum or mere movement, or motion, and then by -its weight—the weight being its principal power in impelling the wheel -round, the mere movement or motion of the water producing in this case -little effect. The water is received into buckets placed all around the -circle of the wheel. It first strikes the wheel at the top, and filling -the first bucket, by its momentum or moving power, and more particularly -by its weight, it sets the wheel in motion, and consequently makes that -side heavier; and as fresh buckets rise to receive the water, while those -below have emptied themselves, a constant tendency to motion is created, -and rotation is produced. - -In a balance wheel, the water strikes the wheel not at the top, but -always more or less above its centre, or axle. This wheel differs in no -respect from the overshot wheel in its construction. It is employed where -there is not a sufficient fall for an overshot wheel, which requires less -water in consequence of its commanding a much greater leverage. - -In an undershot wheel the water acts only by its momentum, or moving -power. The circumference of the wheel, instead of being supplied with -buckets, as in the overshot, and breast or balance wheels, is furnished -with floats, or float boards, as they are called, and, being exposed -to the action of a running stream, generally, if not always, increased -in rapidity by making an artificial fall, is thus driven round, and -in flour-mills its force is communicated by cog-wheels to the stones -employed in reducing corn to meal. - -In a breast wheel, the water has no previous fall, and therefore does -not strike the floats at the bottom of the wheels, as in the undershot -wheel, with an increased velocity. The breast wheel is therefore fixed -in what is called a race, formed of stone or brick work, agreeing with -the curvature of the wheel, and being thus let on from its own level, -acts both by its weight and momentum, or movement. This wheel is unlike -the undershot wheel, being close boarded round its circumference, like -an overshot or balance wheel, the undershot wheel being always open; -in short, it is a sort of bucket wheel; the buckets, however, being -constructed differently from those of the overshot and balance wheels. - -A tide-mill, as the name imports, is worked by the ebbing and flowing of -the tide. Of these mills there are various kinds; first, those in which -the water wheel turns one way when the tide is rising, and the other when -it is falling; secondly, those in which the wheel turns the same way -whether it is rising or falling; thirdly, those in which the wheel itself -rises or falls as the tide flows or ebbs; and fourthly, those in which -the axle of the water wheel is so fixed, that it shall neither rise nor -fall; the rotary motion being still given to the wheel, whether it be -partially or wholly immersed in the water. - -All the machines for grinding corn and seeds are mills, whatever may be -their particular application. One very common form is that of an iron -machine, supported on four legs, having a winch handle on one side, a fly -wheel on another, a hopper at the top, and a crushing apparatus in the -centre. The grain or seed is put into the hopper, the winch handle is -turned, the grain becomes crushed to powder, and falls out at the bottom -of the apparatus. Sometimes the mill is made chiefly of wood, but with -iron wheel and crushing apparatus. One kind of wheat mill, in addition -to the usual mill apparatus, has a chest which acts as a flour-dressing -machine. Some mills are adapted for crushing beans rather than seeds. - -The crushing apparatus in mills is of two kinds, either one stone working -round in contact with another, or two metallic surfaces, between which -the substance is forced, but between which it cannot pass except in a -fine state. - -The _millstones_ employed in grinding corn require to be made of a -peculiar kind of stone. The greater proportion of our millstones are -procured from a particular spot in Western Germany. At about ten miles -from Coblentz is a small town called Andernach, the chief trade of which -is in millstones, procured from the neighbouring quarries of Nieder -Mendig. There are several quarries, averaging about fifty feet in depth, -each quarry shaped like an inverted cone, down the sides of which the -quarrymen descend by a spiral path. The quarrymen have to cut away -through a superincumbent layer of soft porous stone, till they come to -a layer of hard, blackish, heavy stone, regularly porous, and yielding -sparks when struck with iron. This is the millstone, and requires good -and well-prepared tools to work it; it is supposed to be a compact -lava from some extinct volcano; and as there are fissures or gaps at -intervals, these facilitate the separation of the stone into blocks -suitable for millstones. All round the bottom of the conical cavities, -the stone has been excavated in galleries or horizontal passages. The -stones are brought to shape by means of hammers and chisels. A deep -socket is cut through the middle of such stones as are intended for -runners, or upper stones. The furrows on the surfaces of the stones are -produced by means of a double-edged hammer, about 14 lbs. weight. - -Windmills are of two kinds; in one the wind is made to act upon vanes -or sails, generally four, which are disposed so as to revolve by that -action in a plane which is nearly vertical; and in the other, the axis -of revolution being precisely vertical, any point on the surface of a -vane revolves in a horizontal plane. The former is called a _vertical_ -windmill, and the latter a _horizontal_ windmill. - -The building for a vertical windmill is generally a wall of timber or -brickwork, in the form of a frustrum of a cone, and terminated above by a -wooden dome, which is capable of revolving horizontally upon it. A ring -of wood, forming the lower part of the dome, rests upon a ring of the -same material at the top of the wall, and the surfaces in contact being -made very smooth, the dome may easily be turned round upon the wall; -and is prevented from sliding off by a rim which projects from it, and -descends over the interior circumference of the lower ring. The dome in -turning carries with it the windsails and their axle; and thus the wind -sails may be adjusted to agree with the direction of the wind, or the -plane in which the radii of the sails turn may be made perpendicular to -that direction. The revolution is sometimes accomplished by the force of -a man applied to a winch near the ground, but in general the wind itself -is made to turn the dome or the mill by means of a set of small vanes, -which are situated at the extremity of a long horizontal arm projecting -from the dome, in a plane passing through the vertical shaft of the mill, -and on the side opposite to the great sails. - -A horizontal windmill is a great cylindrical frame of timber, which is -made to revolve about an upright centre, and its convex surface is formed -of boards attached in vertical positions to the upper and lower parts -of the frame. The whole is enclosed in a fixed cylinder having the same -upright centre as the other; this consists of a _revolving screen_ or a -number of boards, which are so disposed that in whatever direction the -wind may blow, it may enter between them on one side only of a vertical -plane, passing through the axis, and thus give motion to the interior -cylinder. The effective power of the vertical windmill is, however, so -much greater than that of the horizontal windmill, that the latter is now -seldom constructed. - -[Illustration: Dressing Machine or Bolter. Jack.] - -The _dressing machine_ consists of a hollow cylinder, or frame, covered -with wire cloth of different degrees of fineness, the finest being at the -elevated, or upper end of the cylinder, which is inclined in the same way -as the bolting mill. Within the cylinder, which may be made of pieces -of wood rendered circular, and, like the ribs of an animal, placed at -certain distances from each other, a reel is placed with its axle in the -centre of the cylinder, which is fixed, or stationary. To the rails of -this reel are attached hair brushes, which, when made to revolve, or turn -round, brush against the interior cloth wire surface of the cylinder. -The machine is provided with a shoe or jigger, very similar to that of -the millstones, to cause a regular supply of flour or meal in the same -state in which it came from the millstones through a spout from the floor -above, to which it is elevated by the sack tackle, or elevator, after -being ground. The meal by this means being gradually let, or fed into -the cylinder, is, by the motion of the brushes of the reel, sifted or -rubbed through the cloth wire with which the cylinder is covered. The -finest of the flour will go through the upper end, where the finest wire -cloth is placed; the next finest through the next division of the wire -cloth, which is coarser, the middlings through the following division, -the pollard, or sharps, through the last, and the bran, not being able -to get through the wire cloth at all, on account of its coarseness, is -thrown out at the end of the cylinder. The cylinder is enclosed in a -large and close box, to prevent the waste of flour by its going off in -dust. This box is divided into several compartments, or partitions, by -means of moveable boards. Some millers have more partitions than others, -and indeed they all vary the number to suit the nature or sort of flour -which they are manufacturing. In a dressing machine of three divisions, -the flour deposited in the first is called household, or seconds, that in -the second middlings, and in the third pollard, which is not flour, but a -fine description of bran. - -[Illustration: Revolving Screen. Jacob’s Ladder.] - -When wheat arrives at a mill to be ground the sacks are received in the -lower part of the mill, and hoisted by means of the sack tackle to the -upper storeys, generally the uppermost. The mode of this operation is -as follows, and it is performed with little bodily labour. The rope or -chain of the sack tackle is firmly fastened round the mouth of the sack -by the man below, who by means of a rope attached to a lever throws the -tackle into gear. The sack then immediately ascends, without any further -aid from the man, through the different trap doors, till it has arrived -at the place of its destination. There another man is ready to receive -it, who, as soon as he has landed it by pulling it on one side, throws -the tackle out of gear, and returns the rope or chain to the man below. -The wheat is then shot into a garner or bin, and thus the same process -goes on till the whole load or cargo is safely deposited in the bin or -garner. The wheat remains there till it is wanted to be ground, when, by -means of a spout, it is conveyed to the hoppers below, and from thence -runs in between the stones. In its progress to the stones, it may, or -may not, be subjected to a cleansing process. The wheat being reduced -to a flour, escapes through an aperture of the floor into a spout, by -which it is conveyed to the trough. It is then either put into sacks, -and drawn up again into one of the higher storeys, and deposited in bins -over the dressing machines, or this is effected by a machine called -an _elevator_, which performs the operation without the assistance of -manual labour. In this bin the flour should be left till, at any rate, -it is perfectly cold, but is will be all the better if it remain for -three or four weeks, provided it be occasionally turned. From this bin -it is passed, by means of a spout, to the hopper of the bolting mill or -dressing machine, by which it is separated from the bran or pollard, and -is then fit for use. - -[Illustration: Smutter. Scoop. Claw.] - -The _screening machine_ consists of a roller-shaped sieve, so divided, -that the corn which is placed at one end passes over a large surface of -wire as the sieve revolves, and this operation removes from it external -impurities, such as sand and dirt. When it arrives at the end of the -screw the wheat falls into a hopper, by which it is conveyed by spouts -into small hoppers, placed over one side of each pair of millstones. From -these hoppers there are spouts placed in nearly a horizontal line, which -spouts conduct the corn from the hoppers to the eye of the millstone. -They are attached to the hopper, so as to admit of a horizontal motion, -which is effected by a projecting part of the axle or spindle of the -stone, called a _damsel_. It is shaped like a cross, so that, by the -revolution of the millstone, it keeps tapping the end of the spout, and -gives a rapid vibratory motion to it, which causes a regular supply of -corn to enter the eye of the stone; by the action of the stones the corn -is reduced to flour, which passes, by means of spouts, into the troughs -on the ground floor. - -[Illustration: Scales and Weights. Troughs.] - -The _troughs_ in which the flour is kept; the _scoop_ and _scales_ for -weighing small quantities; the _claw_ for moving and the _steelyard_ for -weighing sacks, are the other principal objects seen in a mill. _Jacob’s -ladder_ is the name given to a revolving band fitted with a number of -leathern cups. These revolve with the band through the flour and serve to -carry it up a shaft from one floor to another. - -[Illustration: Steelyard.] - - - - -THE BAKER. - -[Illustration: BAKING OVEN AND KNEADING TROUGH.] - - -Of all the trades that are carried on in large towns there is none more -important than that of the Baker. In some parts of the country, where -people make their own bread at home, or at all events have all the -materials for making it, and know how to mix the different ingredients, -it is of less consequence; but only imagine what would be our dismay -in London, if we got up some morning and heard that all the bakers had -agreed not to send in the rolls for breakfast, and that we must be -satisfied to live upon puddings and vegetables until they set to work -again to make bread. - -And yet, in the early part of their history, several nations of which -we read at school had no knowledge of the trade of a Baker. Until they -discovered the art of making proper bread, and somebody showed them the -use of an oven, the Romans made their meal into a sort of porridge, or -knew no better than to mix it into flat cakes, which they cooked on hot -stones or in the wood ashes of their fires. The Anglo-Saxons were a -little better off, for they mixed leaven with their dough, to make the -cakes lighter and better; but you will remember—by the story of King -Alfred, who when he was in disguise and going to watch the Danish camp, -was left in the neatherd’s hut to watch the cooking of the cakes—that -they were baked in the embers of burnt wood upon the hearth. - -In many parts of Europe they still use a sort of cake-bread or rolls -instead of loaves; and in some parts of northern Germany and Russia the -bread of the peasants is nearly black, and is so coarse and sour that few -English people could eat it, especially as it is kept till it grows quite -hard, and sometimes has to be cut with a saw. - -The Eastern nations understood the use of ovens, however, and the Jews -especially were very good Bakers, as were probably the Egyptians, for we -read of Pharaoh’s Baker, whose dream Joseph interpreted. The trade of -baking was held in very high esteem amongst the nations of antiquity, and -included not only the making of bread, but of those cakes and sweetmeats -of which all Oriental people, and some European people too, are so -fond. By reading the history of the Jews and the Egyptians we learn that -fermented or leavened bread was in common use amongst them, at a very -early period of their history, so that the pulse-eating people, or the -people of Europe who could only eat grain made into porridge, or simply -cooked, were for a long time behind the Orientals in this respect. It -was not till 600 years after the establishment of the Roman state that -a public bakery was opened in Rome itself, and before this time, which -was about 167 years before the birth of Christ, all the baking and bread -making was done, amongst the rest of the family cooking, in the kitchens -of private houses. - -When the public bakeries were established, however, those who followed -the trade were held in great respect, and a code of laws was made to -regulate the manner in which their business should be conducted. The -same importance was given to the trade in England, when Bakers first set -up business in the large towns, and people began to buy their loaves -instead of making them at home. The early statutes and laws place Bakers -above mere handicraftsmen, and ranked them with gentlemen, and very -severe punishments were inflicted on fraudulent Bakers, who neglected -to mark their loaves so that “wheaten” bread might be distinguished -from “household;” the same laws condemned that Baker to the pillory who -gave short weight, even by so much as the fraction of an ounce, and the -bakehouses were placed under the control of the magistrates. - -There are many people who think that some such stringent laws might be -usefully employed now, and there can be no doubt that the Baker has too -many opportunities of adulterating his bread, or sending short weight: -the first seriously injuring the health, and the second the pockets, -of his customers. One of the worst features of the Baker’s trade in our -time, however, is the dirty condition of the bakehouses and places where -bread is made, the filthy habits which such places give rise to, and the -very long hours during which journeymen Bakers are at work. All these -matters have lately been made the subject of inquiry, and it may be hoped -that they will be greatly improved. - -[Illustration: Egg Whisk. Flour Basket and Scoop. Egg Brush.] - -[Illustration: Sieve. Brush. Rasp. Cleaning Net. Paste Cutter. Biscuit -Marker. Knife. Iron Peel. Wooden Peel.] - -The tools that are used in most bakeries are, beside the _oven_, where -the bread is baked, and the _kneading trough_, in which the dough is -mixed: a _seasoning tub_ for mixing other ingredients to be mingled with -the dough, a _wire sieve_ for sifting the flour, and a _seasoning sieve_ -made of tin pierced with small holes; a _flour basket_ lined with tin, -and a _flour scoop_, a _pail_, a _bowl_, a _salt-bin_, which should be -near the oven, a _yeast tub_, a _dough knife_, _scales_ and _weights_ -for weighing the dough before it is moulded into a loaf, a _scraper_ for -removing the dough from the trough and the board where the loaves are -shaped, wooden and iron _peels_, a sort of shovels with long handles, -for placing the bread in the oven or removing loaves, dishes and cakes, -after they are baked, a _rasp_, like a coarse broad file with a bent -handle, for rasping off any portion of burnt crust; a _dusting brush_ for -sweeping away refuse of flour or dust from the boards where the loaves -are made or placed after baking, an _egg whisk_ for beating eggs used in -pastry, and an _egg brush_ for putting a glazing of egg on the outside of -buns or cakes, differently shaped _tins_ or _moulds_ for rolls or other -articles of fancy bakery, coarse squares of _baize_ or _flannel_ for -covering the dough or the newly-made bread, and a _scuttle_, _swabber_, -or _cleaning net_, made of a quantity of rough netting fastened on the -end of a pole, and which, after being wetted, is used for the final -removal of all dirt from the oven just before “setting the batch,” or -placing the loaves for baking. Beside these there are in most bakehouses -_set ups_, or oblong pieces of beech wood, to be placed in the oven for -the purpose of keeping the loaves in their places. - -[Illustration: Tin for French Rolls. Tin for Sponge Cakes.] - -[Illustration: Scales and Weights.] - -It would be impossible to give instructions here how to make the various -sorts of bread, but the ordinary kind sold by London Bakers is made much -in the following way:— - -Suppose that the Baker desires to make up a sack of flour; he empties it -into the kneading trough, and then proceeds to sift it, in order to make -it lie more lightly and to break up any lumps. - -He then takes from eight to ten pounds of potatoes and boils them, -without removing the skins, afterwards mashing them in the seasoning tub, -with about half the quantity of flour, and adding a couple of pails of -water. To this mixture he pours about two quarts of yeast, made from the -liquor of boiled hops, malt, and patent yeast already made and sold for -the purpose. This is the leaven, which makes the difference between bread -and meal-cake, or the English loaf and the Australian “damper,” which -is made only of flour and water, and baked at a bush fire; the yeast or -leaven is, in fact, meal in its early state of decomposition. - -This mixture then is left in the seasoning tub, covered with a sack for -several hours, and allowed to ferment. Then the Baker separates about -a quarter of the flour in the trough by means of a board, and piles it -up at one end apart from the larger quantity, and it is upon this that -he pours the contents of the seasoning tub, taking care that it passes -through a sieve placed on a couple of sticks across the trough. - -This portion upon which the liquor has been poured is called the -_sponge_, and he proceeds to “set it” by thoroughly mixing, and finally -giving it a dust of flour at the top, after which it is kept for five or -six hours, or until it has twice “risen,” or puffed out by means of the -fermenting liquor within it. - -Just as it has risen a second time, and air bubbles are breaking through -it to the surface, about three more pailfuls of water are poured upon -it, and in this water about three pounds of salt have been dissolved; -this is well mixed with the sponge, and then, the board being removed, -the sponge and the rest of the flour is worked into one mass. It is this -kneading and breaking up the sponge which is the hard labour of the -Baker, and that it is hard labour may be known from the fact that he -works nearly naked, and that, as he lifts and pummels the tenacious mass, -he heaves great sighs and groans like those with which paviors ram down -the stones in the roads. In many of the best bakehouses now a machine is -used, which supersedes this manual labour; the mass of dough being placed -in a cylinder, within which an axle fitted with bent blades, or arms of -iron, revolves, passing through and through the dough as it moves from -end to end. - -By another system (that of Dr. Dauglish) the use of yeast is dispensed -with, and the bread, made by machinery, is leavened by carbonic acid -gas, which is forced into the cylinder after the atmospheric air is -pumped out, and so goes through the dough and produces the results of -fermentation. - -The dough having been thoroughly mixed in the trough, is left for an hour -or two to “prove,” and then, after being sprinkled with flour to prevent -its sticking, is thrown out upon a board, or the lid of the next trough, -and cut into pieces which are weighed, and afterwards moulded into -loaves. The moulding is only learnt by practice. The piece of dough is -cut in half and shaped according to the kind of loaf required, one piece -forming the top of the loaf, being laid in a hollow of that which is to -be the bottom, and the joint made by a skilful turn of the knuckles. -The loaves are placed in the oven by means of the peel, and are packed -at the back and sides as closely as possible, the cottage bread only -being separate, that it may be crusted all round. The batch takes about -two hours to bake. Biscuits are now mostly made by machinery, which in -large establishments turns them out ready for the oven; but when they are -wholly or partially made by hand, the dough is prepared and afterwards -moulded into shapes, and each shape pricked with the _docker_, before -being placed in the oven. - -[Illustration: Cornfield.] - - - - -THE SUGAR REFINER. - -[Illustration: BOILING HOUSE.] - - -Although sugar was known from very early times, it was used only in -medicine, and was supposed to be a sort of honey found upon canes in -India and Arabia. It is frequently mentioned by the very early writers. -The culture of the canes seems to have been confined to the islands -of the Indian Archipelago, and the kingdoms of Bengal, Siam, &c. The -traffic in sugar was so lucrative that the Indians concealed the mode -of preparing it, stating to the merchants of Ormus, who imported it -with gums and spices, that it was extracted from a reed, whereupon many -unsuccessful attempts were made to find it in the reed-like plants of -Arabia. In 1250 the great discoverer, Marco Polo, visited the country of -the sugar cane, and the merchants afterwards sent to the place of its -growth, instead of buying it at Ormus. For a long period the use of sugar -in England was confined to medicines, or to preparing choice dishes at -feasts; and this continued till 1580, when it was brought from Brazil to -Portugal, and thence to our country. - -Cultivators distinguish three great varieties of canes—the Creole, the -Batavian, and the Otaheite. The Creole cane is indigenous to India, and -was transplanted thence to Sicily, the Canary Isles, the Antilles, South -America, and to the West Indies. It has dark green leaves, and a thin -but very knotty stem. The Batavian or striped cane, which has a dense -foliage, and is covered with purpled stripes, is a native of Java, where -it is chiefly cultivated for the manufacture of rum; it is also met -with in some parts of the New World and the West Indies. The Otaheite -variety grows most luxuriantly, is the most juicy, and yields the largest -product. It is cultivated chiefly in the West Indies and South America; -it ripens in ten months, and is hardier than the other varieties. - -The sugar cane, being originally a bog-plant requires a moist, nutritive -soil, and a hot tropical or sub-tropical climate. It is propagated by -slips or pieces of the stem, with buds on them, and about two feet long. -It arrives at maturity in twelve or sixteen months, according to the -temperature; the leaves fall off towards the following season, and the -stem acquires a straw-yellow colour. The cane is cut by some planters -before the flowering season, but it is more usual to cut it some weeks -after. The plantations are so arranged that the various divisions of -the fields may ripen in succession. The land should be supplied with -manure rich in nitrogen, but not containing much saline matter. After the -harvest the roots strike again, and produce a fresh crop of canes; but in -about six years they require to be removed. - -The time for cutting the canes varies with the soil and season, and the -different varieties of cane. In a state of maturity the canes are from -six feet to fifteen feet in length, and from one and a half inch to -two inches in diameter. The usual signs of maturity are a dry, smooth, -brittle skin, a heavy cane, a grey pith, and sweet and glutinous juice. -Canes should be cut in dry weather, or the juice will be found diluted -with an excess of water. When cut they are tied up in bundles, and -conveyed to the crushing mill, particular attention being paid that -the supply should not exceed the demand, otherwise the cut canes would -ferment and spoil. - -The sugar cane grows from pieces or slips of itself, containing germs, -and these develop rootlets at the joints, which draw sustenance to -the young shoot as it increases. In the course of time the buds in -the radicle, or root-joints of the first cane, throw out roots, and -form a radicle for a second stem; and in this way, under favourable -circumstances, several canes are produced from the parent stock for -a period of about six years, and sometimes for several more. They, -however, diminish every year in length of joint and circumference, and -are inferior in appearance to the original plant; but they yield richer -juice, and produce finer sugar. - -[Illustration: Filtering Bag.] - -The sugar exists in the cells of the cane in a state of solution, and -is extracted therefrom by pressure. With this, as with other branches -of industry, science has of late years stepped in, and has greatly -facilitated the process of extraction and manufacture. It may be as well -to give here a summary of the processes employed in the preparation of -raw sugar: The canes are passed through the mill, and the juice thus -extracted from them runs from the mill into a tank, whence it is pumped -to cisterns for supplying the _clarifiers_, heated by steam, where it -is purified. From thence it is run into _bag filters_, by which the -mechanical impurities are removed. It is then run into _charcoal filters_ -to remove the colouring matter of the juice. The filtered juice is then -run off into tanks and is drawn thence by vacuum into the _vacuum pan_, -where it is granulated, and from whence it is finally discharged for -packing. When the steam clarifiers are not employed the cane juice is run -into a series of pans or _teaches_ over open fires. This apparatus is -also known as a “battery,” and forms another method of purification. - -[Illustration: Stirring Rod. Ladle. Scraper. Crowbar Wrench.] - -The original crushing apparatus of India was a kind of squeezing mortar, -made out of the hollow trunk of a tamarind tree, and worked by a yoke of -oxen, the pestle or stamper being a strong beam eighteen feet long, and -rounded at the bottom so as to squeeze or crush the canes in the mortar. -Mills similar to those used for crushing oil seeds were used—as were also -several other forms of apparatus—before rollers were introduced. Stone -and iron rollers were first used, with the axes in a vertical position, -but the horizontal was soon found to be the more convenient and -economical. The importance of a systematic mechanical arrangement appears -to have awakened attention during the reign of Charles the Second, for -in 1663, Lord Willoughby and Lawrence Hyde (second son of Edward, Earl -of Clarendon, High Chancellor of England) associated themselves with -one David de Marcato, an inventor, and obtained a patent for twenty-one -years for making and framing sugar mills. In 1691, John Tizack patented -an engine for milling sugar canes, &c.; but in this, as in the previous -case, it is not specified how the mill should be made. Later on in 1721, -William Harding, a smith, of London, who had been many years in Jamaica, -and was skilled in the manufacture of sugar mills, having observed their -imperfections, how that they were chiefly made with large wooden cogs -cased with iron, endeavoured while abroad to improve their construction, -but failed for want of competent workmen. On his return to London he -made models of sugar mills which were approved by the Royal Society. -These mills were fitted with cast iron rollers and cog wheel gearing, -and were worked by water power; from description they appear to be the -type of mills of the present day. Some forty-five years later, Yonge and -Barclay, ironfounders, of Allhallowslane, City, applied friction wheels -to sugar mills. In 1773, John Fleming, a mill carpenter, proposed an -arrangement of windmill sails which turned a vertical timber shaft shod -with iron, and which gave motion to two hard wooden rollers, between -which the cane was guided and squeezed. In 1807, H. C. Newman, of St. -Christopher, West Indies, designed a mill to be worked by horse power. He -used cog and crown wheels to give motion to three upright rollers, and -the arrangement was considered one which greatly augmented the power -and execution of this class of machinery. In 1821, John Collinge, of -Lambeth, improved cast iron sugar mills by casting the rollers on wrought -iron shafts, instead of keying them on, as previously done. In 1840, -James Robinson patented improvements in sugar mills, which consisted in -using four rollers, one large one and three smaller ones beneath, placed -horizontally, and gearing by cogs into each other. Up to that time three -rollers only appear to have been used. He also proposed to use six -rollers, which are fed from an endless band passing over the rollers. He -cast the rollers and shafts in one piece, cored out to admit steam to -facilitate the extraction of the juice from the cane during crushing. -He also proposed to tin the interior of vacuum pans, &c. Various other -arrangements have been patented, but it is unnecessary here to enumerate, -much less to describe, them. The foregoing examples give an idea of the -progress of the subject during nearly two hundred years. The last ten -years have seen rapid strides made in improving the make of mills, and -the general arrangement of sugar works. - -[Illustration: Sparla. Trowel. Chisel. Hammer. Loosening Stove. Crowbar -Hammer. Scoop for filling Moulds.] - -Cane juice, as expressed by the mill, is an opaque, slightly viscid -fluid, of a dull grey, olive, or olive green colour, and of a sweet balmy -taste. The juice is so exceedingly fermentable that, in the climate of -the West Indies, it would often run into the acetous fermentation in -twenty minutes after leaving the mill, if the process of clarifying were -not immediately commenced. - -The processes followed in the West Indies for separating the sugar -from the juice are as follows: The juice is conducted by channels from -the mill to large flat-bottomed _clarifiers_, which contain from three -hundred to a thousand gallons each. When the clarifier is filled with -juice, a little slaked lime is added to it; and when the liquor in -the clarifier becomes hot by a fire underneath, the solid portions of -the cane juice coagulate, and are thrown up in the form of scum. The -clarified juice, which is bright, clear, and of a yellow wine colour, is -transferred to the largest of a series of evaporating coppers or pans, -three or more in number, in which it is reduced in bulk by boiling; it -is transferred from one pan to another, and heated until the sugar is -brought to the state of a soft mass of crystals imbedded in molasses—a -thick, viscid, and uncrystallizable fluid. The soft concrete sugar is -removed from the coolers into a range of casks, in which the molasses -gradually drains from the crystalline portion, percolating through spongy -plantain stalks placed in a hole at the bottom of each cask, which act -as so many drains to convey the liquid to a large cistern beneath. With -sugar of average quality, three or four weeks is sufficient for this -purpose. The liquid portion constitutes molasses, which is employed to -make rum. The crystallized portion is packed in hogsheads for shipment as -raw, brown, or muscovado sugar; and in this state it is commonly exported -from our West Indian colonies. - -[Illustration: Besom. Lump Mould. Loaf Mould.] - -The refining of sugar is mainly a bleaching process, conducted on a large -scale in England. There are two varieties produced by this bleaching, -viz. clayed and loaf sugar. For clayed sugar, the sugar is removed from -the coolers into conical earthen moulds called formes, each of which has -a small hole at the apex. These holes being stopped up, the forms are -placed apex downwards in other earthen vessels. The syrup, after being -stirred round, is left for from fifteen to twenty hours to crystallize. -The plugs are then withdrawn, to let out the uncrystallized syrup; and -the base of the crystallized loaf being removed, the forme is filled up -with pulverized white sugar. - -This is well pressed down, and then a quantity of clay mixed with water -is placed upon the sugar, the formes being put into fresh empty pots. - -The moisture from the clay, filtering through the sugar, carries with -it a portion of the colouring matter, which is more soluble than the -crystals themselves. By a repetition of this process, the sugar attains -nearly a white colour, and is then dried and crushed for sale. - -But loaf sugar is the kind most usually produced by the refining -processes. The brown sugar is dissolved with hot water, and then filtered -through canvas bags, from which it exudes as a clear, transparent, though -reddish syrup. The removal of this red tinge is effected by filtering the -syrup through a mass of powdered charcoal, and we have then a perfectly -transparent colourless liquid. - -In the evaporation or concentration of the clarified syrup, which forms -the next part of the refining process, the boiling is effected (under the -admirable system introduced by Mr. Howard) in a vacuum, at a temperature -of about 140° Fahrenheit. The sugar pan is a large copper vessel, with -arrangements for extracting the air, admitting the syrup, admitting -steam pipes, and draining off the sugar when concentrated. In using the -pan a quantity of syrup is admitted, and an air pump is set to work to -extract all the air from the pan, in order that the contents may boil -at a low temperature. The evaporation proceeds, and when completed the -evaporated syrup flows out of the pan through a pipe into an open vessel -beneath, called the _granulating vessel_, around which steam circulates, -and within which the syrup is brought to a partially crystallized state. -From the granulators the syrup or sugar is transferred into moulds of a -conical form, which were formerly made of coarse pottery, but are now -usually of iron. In these moulds the sugar whitens and crystallizes, the -remaining uncrystallized syrup flowing out at an opening at the bottom -of the moulds. This syrup is reboiled with raw sugar, so as to yield an -inferior quality of sugar; and, when all the crystallizable matter has -been extracted from it, the remainder is sold as treacle. The loaves of -sugar, after a few finishing processes, are ready for sale. - - - - -THE DYER AND SCOURER. - -[Illustration: DYERS AT WORK.] - - -The trade of the Dyer may be placed amongst the most ancient of the arts, -and the tools that are used in it are so few that they need scarcely any -description, since almost all the apparatus required are the various -coppers, vats, and other vessels used for boiling the fabrics to be dyed, -and immersing them completely in the liquors which have been prepared -from the dye stuffs, the proper use of which is the principal secret -in the business. With regard to the scouring or cleaning of fabrics, -whether made into garments or not, the operation consists in applying -detergents, or substances like soap and turpentine, for removing grease -and dirt, or other liquids which have a detergent property but will not -injure the colours; the use of these, with a _sponge_ and a _hard brush_, -is nearly all that is required; the garment sent to be cleaned being -stretched on a _frame_ and dried, either in the dyer’s _drying room_, -or in some open situation, where they are least likely to be soiled or -spotted. - -[Illustration: Drying Room. Sponge. Hard Brush.] - -The art of dyeing was practised to a very great extent by the ancient -Egyptians, Phœnicians, Greeks, and Romans; and the island of Tyre was, -in very early times, celebrated for a purple dye which was, perhaps from -its costliness, used for colouring the robes of kings and emperors, from -which practice purple became the imperial colour. - -[Illustration: Garment Frame.] - -The art of modern dyeing very greatly consists in the proper use of what -are called mordants, that is, substances which, although they do not -of themselves produce colour, so act upon the dyes as to cause them to -give an intenser hue to the fabric, and also serve to make the colour -permanent. The modern dyers have obtained several dye drugs unknown to -the ancients, such as cochineal, quercitron, Brazil and logwood, arnotts, -and indigo, which was only known to the Romans as a paint; but the vast -superiority of our dyes must be principally ascribed to the employment of -alum and solution of tin mixed with other substances as mordants, which -give depth, durability, and lustre to the colours. Another improvement in -dyeing is the application of metallic compounds, such as Prussian blue, -chrome yellow, and manganese brown, to textile or woven fabrics. - -Our readers will see from what has been said of mordants how what are -called fast colours are obtained, fast colours meaning colours which -will not be affected even by the liquor of the dye bath. Another very -necessary subject of information in relation to dyeing is the fact that -different substances, such as silk and wool, will not be equally affected -by the dye in which they are placed, since the particles contained in the -composition of these substances have different degrees of what is called -affinity, that is, they combine in a greater or less degree with the -component matter of the dye stuff. - -[Illustration: Vats and Copper Pan. Wringing Machine.] - -We have already said something of the preparation of cotton. The -operations to which silk and wool are subjected before being dyed are -intended to separate superfluous substances from the animal fibre, and -to make that fibre more easily unite with the colouring particles. - -Silk is scoured by means of being boiled in water and soap, whereby -the animal varnish is removed from the surface; if intended to be very -white, it is bleached by humid sulphurous acid. Wool is first washed in -running water to separate its coarse impurities, and is then freed from -the greasy animal matter secreted from the skin of the sheep by means of -ammoniacal liquor, soap and water, or a solution of soda. It is finally -bleached by the fumes of burning sulphur, or by aqueous sulphuric acid. - -[Illustration: Dipping Copper, Winch, Punching, &c.] - -What are called tinctorial colours, as distinguished from mordants, are -either simple or compound. The simple are black, brown or dun, blue, -yellow, and red; the compounds are grey, purple, green, orange, and -others. - -Gall nuts, pyrolignite of iron, logwood, copperas, and verdigris, are the -chief materials for producing black. Walnuts, sumach, madder, cochineal, -cudbear, acetate of iron, catechu, Brazil wood, arnotts, are all employed -in producing brown. Indigo, Prussian blue, and woad for blue. Fustic, -Persian berries, quercitron, turmeric, and weld for yellow. Cudbear, -Brazil wood, cochineal, kermes, lac, logwood, madder, safflower, for red; -and various compounds for purple, green, orange, &c. - -[Illustration: Carboy for Spirits. Syphon. Puncheon. Pole for Stirring.] - -The dye materials imported from foreign countries are principally -cochineal, fustic, gum arabic, gum senegal, gum animi, gum copal, gum -tragacanth, indigo, lac dye, shellac, logwood, madder, smalts, valonia, -yellow berries, and zaffre. The tools shown in the engravings explain -themselves, and, as has been already said, principally consist of the -various coppers and vats, the _syphons_ or tubes by which liquor will -flow from one vessel to another, and the _puncheons_, for stirring and -thoroughly immersing the articles in the dye stuff. - -[Illustration: Rail. Thermometer and Measure. Measure.] - - - - -THE COPPERSMITH. - -[Illustration: WORKSHOP.] - - -The very great variety of purposes for which the metal called copper is -used, renders it one of the most valuable productions of this country, -and several very important manufactures would be incomplete without -it, since it is the principal material of which many large vessels are -formed, and is also largely employed as an alloy for other metals. -Although the metal is sometimes found in a pure or native state, its most -abundant ore is that known as copper pyrites, of which there are many -kinds. The most common yellow copper ore is a very abundant mineral, -found in large quantities in Cornwall, Devon, and the Isle of Anglesea, -and is a compound of about equal parts of copper, iron, and sulphur. The -mines of Devon and Cornwall yield more than three-fourths of the copper -obtained in England, or about 190,000 tons of ore in a year, the value of -which is above a million sterling. The amount of copper annually obtained -in the United Kingdom is about 15,000 tons, worth more than a million and -a half of money. About the same quantity is imported into this country -from Chili and Cuba, and a very valuable copper ore is also found at the -Burra Burra mines in Australia. - -The copper ores of Cornwall and other parts of the country are generally -shipped to Swansea, where coal is abundant, in order to be separated from -the metal. For this purpose the ore is heated to redness, or roasted in -an open furnace, in order to burn away the sulphur, and the fumes given -out by this process are most pernicious. The ore is afterwards melted -several times to separate the other impurities, which, when fused, float -like scum on the surface of the liquid metal, and are then easily removed. - -Copper has a peculiar reddish colour, and will bear a brilliant polish; -its smell and taste are both disagreeable. It is one of the most -malleable of metals, and can be so readily worked by the hammer that it -is beaten out into thin leaves, which, under the name of “Dutch metal,” -are employed in ornamenting toys, &c. in imitation of gilding. - -It is also so ductile that it can be drawn out into finer wires than any -ordinary metal, except gold, silver, and iron, and its tenacity is so -great that a wire one-tenth of an inch in diameter will bear a weight -of 175 lbs. This wire is very flexible, and not very elastic, but when -rolled into sheets copper is one of the most elastic, and when struck -one of the most vibratory and loud sounding metals. - -If taken into the animal system all preparations of copper are violent -poisons; and, as this metal is directly acted upon by vinegar and other -acids, it should not be employed for making vessels used in cooking or -preparing food. - -The easy malleability of copper allows it to be rolled into thin sheets, -which can easily be hammered into any form that may be desired, and it is -this operation which belongs to the trade of the Coppersmith. - -Sheet copper is employed in covering the bottoms of ships, to protect -them from the attacks of marine animals; it is also used for coins, which -are punched out of the sheet of metal and stamped with dies, and for -plates on which pictures are engraved; the metal being soft enough to -yield to the tool of the engraver, but yet sufficiently hard to resist -the pressure necessary to print the picture. - -As an ingredient in alloys copper is most valuable, especially in bell -metal, which is composed of three parts of copper and one part of tin; -in bronze, which is nine-tenths copper and one-tenth tin; and in German -silver, argentine, nickel silver, and other alloys used for making forks, -spoons, dishes, &c. which are composed of copper, zinc, and nickel. These -are very beautiful alloys, closely resembling silver; but the copper they -contain is liable to be partially dissolved by any long exposure to the -action of acids. - -Copper is used in small quantities as an alloy for gold and silver both -in coinage and in plate, to give the requisite degree of hardness. Gold -used for coins, or what is called standard gold, is formed of eleven -parts of pure gold and one part of copper. Being a better conductor -of electricity than any other metal, it is largely employed in the -formation of telegraphic wires; and, as it is not hard enough to strike -fire with flint or grit, it is used in gunpowder mills and magazines -instead of iron. - -The processes of casting and rolling copper into sheets are so much like -those already described in the manufacture of iron that they need not be -repeated, but the trade of the Coppersmith is distinct from those of the -workers in other metals, though they mostly consist in forming the sheet -copper into various shapes and utensils by means of _hammers_, of which -the _smoothing hammer_, the _set hammer_, and the _riveting hammer_, -explain their own uses by their names. - -[Illustration: Copper Bit. Oval Wedge. Riveting Hammer. Smoothing Hammer. -Cob Hammer. Set Hammer.] - -In manufacturing the large vessels with circular bottoms which are so -frequently made of copper, the metal is first cast in a shape resembling -a round spectacle glass, that is to say, a flat cake, thick in the middle -and gradually diminishing in thickness towards the edge. It is then -subjected to the powerful blows of a tilt hammer, the beating being -principally confined to the centre. The effect of this is not only to -reduce the thickness of the copper, but to cause the disc to turn up at -the edges and assume the form of a hollow dish. - -[Illustration: Punches. Hand Vice. Cutting Punch. Spanner. Anvil. Shears -for Sheet Copper. Hand Shears.] - -Another operation of the Coppersmith is called _planishing_, or hammering -the metal until it becomes more dense, firm, and tough; any one who -looks at the surface of a large copper vessel will see the marks of the -hammer by which it has been planished. - -It is by the combined operation of casting, rolling, hammering, and -planishing, as well as by the processes of fastening, either with -_rivets_ or with _solder_, that nearly all copper articles are made. - -[Illustration: Plumber’s Iron. Iron Horse. Pouncing Block and Hammer.] - -Of the tools used by the Coppersmith, beside those already mentioned, -the principal are _punches_ for cutting or piercing holes, _shears_ for -cutting the sheets of metal, the _spanner_ for turning heads of screws or -nuts, the _anvil_, the _blocks_ and _horses_ for receiving the work in -such a position as to operate on any part where the hammer or the punch -is required, and the _iron_ for soldering. There are five different modes -of forming copper piping out of sheet metal; in the first the edges of -the sheet, which is curved round a mandril, are made to meet without -overlapping, and are joined with hard solder; in the second they overlap -and are united by soft solder; in the third they overlap and are secured -by rivets; in the fourth the edges are folded one over the other, and are -made close and firm by hammering; and in the fifth both edges of the pipe -are turned back and covered with a strip of sheet metal, the two edges of -which are turned in and hammered down. - -[Illustration: Wood Horse.] - - - - -THE GUN MANUFACTURER. - -[Illustration: THE PROOF HOUSE.] - - -By guns, only muskets, rifles, and fowling-pieces are here meant, since -the manufacture of cannons, to which the term guns is now commonly -applied, is an entirely different business to that of making what are -called “small arms;” the latter including, in fact, swords, pistols, -bayonets, muskets, rifles, and some other implements of war. There are -so many varieties of fire arms, and they are sold at prices varying -so greatly, that it would be almost impossible to give any detailed -description of each kind of piece. The finely-finished rifle or sporting -gun, fitted with the last improvements, breech-loading or otherwise, and -finished with marvellous perfection and accuracy, is worth four times as -many pounds as the common muskets, made for exportation to Africa for -the use of the natives, are worth shillings. We may, therefore, describe -some of the ordinary processes of the gunmaker’s trade, and the various -improvements will then be better understood when the reader has an -opportunity of seeing finished guns, in which such improvements may be -pointed out to him. - -The barrels of guns are either plain or twisted; twisted barrels are made -of long and very narrow strips of iron, one of which, being moderately -heated to increase pliancy, is wrapped spirally round a cylindrical -mandril in such a way as to form a tube, which may be slipped off the -mandril at pleasure. As the rods are not usually made of sufficient -length for one to form a barrel, several are usually joined end to end, -those which form the breech being thicker than those at the muzzle end. -By heating and hammering these pieces are welded into a continuous and -very strong and tough tube. - -Partially worn iron, called “scrap iron,” is best for these purposes. -The twisted barrels which are known as “wire twist” are formed of narrow -rods of iron and steel forged together, and then rolled out to the proper -thinness. - -Damascus barrels are composed of similar metal, but the rods are twisted -on their own centres until the fibres which they contain have from twelve -to fourteen turns in an inch by which the rods are doubled in thickness -and proportionately reduced in length. Two such rods are welded together -side by side, their respective twists being reversed. There are many -modes of making twisted barrels, but these are the most common. - -After being welded, the barrels are carefully examined, and, if needful, -straightened by a few blows of the hammer. They are then bored in a -machine with an angular plug of tempered steel, which is caused to -revolve rapidly within the barrel, while a stream of water is directed -upon the outside to check the heat caused by the tremendous friction. -The outside is brought to a smooth surface either by grinding on a large -grindstone, or turning in a lathe. The breech end of the barrel is bored -with a screw-thread, to receive the breech plug, which closes it at that -end. - -[Illustration: Mandril, with Damascus Barrel in progress. Tool for boring -Barrel. Testing Barrel.] - -The barrels are then proved by being fired at the _proof-house_, a -large building where they are loaded with a charge five times as great -as they will have to bear when in use. A great number of barrels are -fired at once by laying them upon a strong framework of wood with their -touch-holes downwards, and connected with a train of gunpowder which -is ignited outside the building. A heap of sand is piled inside the -building, opposite the muzzles of the barrels to receive the bullets. -Those which bear this test without injury are marked as perfect. - -Guns used in field sports are often made with two barrels fixed side by -side upon one stock. The barrels are made separately, and each with one -flat side, that they may lie close together. They are secured together by -ribs running between them from end to end. - -The wooden stock upon which the barrel is fixed is generally made of -walnut-tree wood. It is first shaped, and afterwards shod with brass or -steel; the trigger guard and other fittings are let into the wood, and -every part is furnished with the proper screws and fastenings. - -With regard to the manufacture of rifles and other small arms in general, -the author of the present work some time ago wrote a description of a -visit to the factory at Birmingham known as the Toledo Works, and it may -be useful to give an extract from that account of what he saw there. - -The steel from which the swords are made is supplied in long pieces -somewhat tapering at the ends, and having a square portion in the -middle, which, being cut through, leaves material for two blades, the -bisection of the square leaving a shoulder at one end to receive the -iron “tang” by which the blade is afterwards fixed into the handle. The -manufacture of these blades is almost entirely effected by the forgers, -who hammer them into the required shape upon the anvil, a mould running -down the centre of which secures the hollow which in swords extends for -about two-thirds of the length from hilt to point. In a little street -of smithies the musical clink is being sounded by a score of stalwart -arms, either forging the rough steel into form, or hammering the formed -blade into perfect shape and symmetry, an operation which requires it to -be kept at a certain heat, lest the embryo blade should be injured in -the process. Once perfected as to proportion, the hardening commences, -and the blade is thrust backwards and forwards into the furnace until -it has acquired a proper and uniform heat, at which point it is removed -and instantly plunged into cold water. This process, which has obviously -suggested the Turkish bath, renders it hard indeed, but at the same -time so extremely brittle that we whisperingly suggest the propriety -of contracting to supply our enemies with weapons, and neglecting to -carry them beyond that particular stage of preparation, when they may -be snapped with the fingers. Carefully supported, however, the blade is -again subjected to the fiery ordeal until it attains a slaty blue colour, -and a beautiful and elastic temper, which has been partially secured by -the previous hammering. By the process of forging it has become about -six inches longer than the pristine steel shape, and by the tempering it -has attained a springy strength which enables it to be bent in a curve -sufficient to bring the hand five inches nearer to the point than when -the blade is straight. - -Many of the best bayonets are forged in the same way as the sword-blades, -and, as in almost every manufacturing process, human intelligence has -an unmistakable advantage over mere mechanical force, these possess -some superior qualities. The greater number of bayonets, however, -are made from a square bar of drawn steel, five inches and a half -long by nine-sixteenths square. This bar is passed between a series -of about sixteen pairs of rollers, which are worked by steam power, -and so grooved as gradually to mould the blade to the required shape. -Sixteen times the short steel bar undergoes the merciless pressure of a -progressively-increased power, until its length is increased from five -and a half to twenty-six inches, when some portion is cut off from the -point to leave it the regulation length. - -The matchets, which are made from bevel-edged steel, passed twice through -the rollers, are cut into the requisite shape by means of powerful shears. - -[Illustration: Steam Hammer.] - -These operations are conducted in a large shed, where the rollers stand -like awful combinations of infernal machines and patent mangles; where -a boding and vengeful tilt-hammer, worked by steam, is tended by a man, -who sits like a calm fate beside its crushing bulk, and supplies it with -fresh victims; where the awful boom seems to shatter the very atmosphere, -and deafness reigns triumphant. In obedience to a signal, however, the -monster is suddenly stopped, and we are enabled to hear that the great -two-pot furnace on our left is used for making the steel from those long -laths of bevel-edged iron stacked against the wall; that the furnace is -constructed with wide flues on each side and under the bottom, while -the fire-grate occupies the centre between the two pots; that the pots -themselves are some four feet deep, and two feet and a half wide, are -airtight, contain layers of charcoal and iron covered with loam sand, -will remain seven days and nights in the furnace, until their contents -are white hot, and that at the end of that time the iron will have been -converted into steel of a slaty-blue colour. The inexorable hammer -resuming its work at this point, we follow the bayonet to its completion, -and once more visit the forges, to witness the “shutting on” or welding -the blade to a piece of iron, which ultimately forms the socket by which -the bayonet itself is fixed on to the barrel of the rifle or musket. - -There is yet another operation before the blades are taken to the -finishing shop, one of the most important, too, since it is no other than -grinding, a process which secures an exact and uniform thickness and -increases their elasticity. - -We are standing at the open end of a long, vast, and gloomy shed-like -building, supported by iron pillars. On each side through the entire -length a series of enormous grindstones spin round amidst sand and water, -and the mud from both. Seated astride the bodies of wooden horses, whose -heads seem to have been transformed into these wheels, the grinders -seize upon the blades, and each fearless rider rising in his stirrups, -or, what looks much the same, standing tiptoe till he no longer touches -his saddle, throws himself forward, and presses the sword, matchet, or -bayonet on the wheel, at the same time guiding it deftly with its left -hand, till its whole surface has been smoothly ground. - -Along the whole line of whirling stones fly the lurid red sparks, and the -grinders, with squared elbows, seem to curb the struggling and impetuous -wheels. - -After polishing, which is completed by wooden wheels bearing a coating -of leather covered with emery, the swords and matchets go to receive -handles, and the bayonets locking rings. The handles of swords are made -of walnut-wood covered with the skin of the dogfish, while the hilt and -guard are formed from a plain flat sheet of steel, in shape not unlike -one side of a pair of bellows. - -The solid socket of the bayonet is hammered into form, and afterwards -stamped into shape with the rim complete, from which process it is -conveyed to a shop where it is drilled by steam power. It then only -remains to secure a smooth surface, by means of a revolving barrel, -containing an instrument with a number of flanged blades, against which -the socket of the bayonet is pressed. It is not a little remarkable to -see the solid steel pared and shaved like wax, and no less wonderful to -notice the simple machinery by which it is accomplished. The locking -rings are stamped out by a lever and die, pierced by a punch, and -afterwards “bored,” “faced,” and their shapes secured by a triple -circular saw, worked by a lathe. - -[Illustration: Mandril, with Common Musket Barrel in progress. Welding by -Hand. Forging Hammer.] - -The most important manufacture in the Toledo Works, however, is assuredly -rifles, and, with the intention of following it through its principal -processes, we return to the vicinity of the still inveterate hammer, -where we are shown a rudimentary barrel in the shape of a slab of best -wrought iron, twelve inches long, and weighing nine pounds and a quarter. -This uninviting slab is heated in a furnace, and roughly bent into the -tubular shape by means of our enemy the tilt-hammer, after which it is -once more placed in a furnace of an enormously high temperature, with a -small trap-opening. When sufficiently heated, the short rudimentary tube -is taken out on a long round iron rod, fitted with a hand-guard, and -looking like a huge burlesque rapier. This rod approximates to the size -of the intended bore of the barrel, and is inserted, with the rough tube -upon it, between two steam rollers, each of which is furnished with a -series of corresponding grooves or cuts. The barrel, which is taken up -at one end by a rod, is placed between the first pair of grooves, and, -as the rollers revolve, is drawn out at the other side, a long, hollow, -welded tube. This much more graceful and better formed tube is then -consigned to another rod of smaller diameter, and to a corresponding pair -of grooves; until, after the eighth repetition of the same process, the -barrel has attained its proper dimensions. The next operation, which is -called “lumping,” consists of welding a piece of wrought iron on to the -breech end of the barrel, for the purpose of forming the percussion-lump, -and is succeeded by “rough-boring.” This is accomplished by a long, -sharp-ended bit, which, being placed in the end of the barrel, revolves -at the rate of, perhaps, a thousand turns a minute by means of a pulley -and fly-wheel, while the barrel is pushed on by a lever, and kept cool by -means of water thrown upon its surface. - -The “setting” of the barrel is next effected by means of hammer and -anvil, the setting meaning simply rectifying any bend which it may have -received during the previous operation. We are not a little interested in -the setting, since the first intimation of it on entering the shop is the -sudden discovery of a number of workmen gazing resolutely at an opposite -window, through what look like attenuated telescopes. They are engaged, -however, in one of the processes which require the greatest experience, -as each of them is expected to detect the most trifling bias in the -barrel. The “spilling-up,” or cutting the inside of the barrel to the -proper bore, is similar to the rough-boring, except that only one edge -of the bit is allowed to operate, the others being sheathed by a half -cylinder of wood, called a _spill_; this ensures a smooth surface, and -prepares for the “fine-boring,” which is six times repeated, the final -surface being insured by keeping one edge of the bit perfectly smooth, -by which means the particles of steel drop in a fine and almost soft -powder. - -The outside of the barrel is next turned in a long lathe, which not only -reduces the roughness, but, by a beautiful arrangement of cutting tools, -gives it the required substance or “pattern,” for a light or heavy rifle. - -The grinding of the barrels is effected by means of stones, larger -than those used for the sword blades, but in a similar manner, and is -preliminary to “filing,” which carries the barrel to the shop, where it -is prepared for the lock. - -[Illustration: Grinding Gun Barrels.] - -These preparations consist of “chambering,” or making the chamber -which holds the pin; “breeching,” or cutting the worm intended for the -breech-pin, that helps to hold the barrel to the stock by means of a -breech-nail; cutting out the little slice into which the “sight” is to -be dovetailed; machining the lump; filing the tail-pin, and making the -square lump the proper shape for receiving the lock and stock. - -We are not a little surprised to learn that every part of the lock is -finished by hand, the cock being cut with a die worked by a heavy weight, -and the smaller pieces being wrought with forge, hammer, and file. - -[Illustration: Section of Breech. Section of Lock, &c. Bullet Mould. -Nipple Key.] - -The great art in lock-making is to obtain a perfect spring, and those -properly tempered are so elastic that, although when fitted in the lock, -the two sides are so close as almost to touch, they will, when released, -spread to two inches below the edge of the lock-plate. The lock and -barrel are now ready for the stock, which awaits them in another shop, -where it has been sawn out of walnut wood, and finished by carpenters’ -tools. The barrel let into its groove, and the lock properly in its -place, the stock is more perfectly shaped and rounded before “screwing -together,” or the addition of the different parts of the “furniture,” -heel-plate, trigger-plate and guard, trigger, nose-cap, rod, and bayonet. - -We are now told that the rifle is “finished,” by which, understanding -_completion_, we are not quite prepared to learn that it is to be taken -to pieces. - -We suddenly remember, however, that it is not yet a rifle at all, -inasmuch as it has not been rifled. Everything is made perfect before -this delicate operation is attempted, in order that no injury may be -sustained by the barrel when the complete rifle is again put together. -The process of rifling is similar to that of boring, except that a spiral -cutter is substituted for the bit. Previous to the reunion of the barrel, -the whole work is polished, and the stock stained and finished ready for -completion. - -[Illustration: “Finishing.”] - -The pistol barrels undergo the same processes as that of the rifle, -except that, after being drilled, they are planed, by machines which -carry them along a sort of bed under tools that cut them perfectly -smooth, and accurately shape the octagonal barrels. These chisels move -by means of screws over the entire surface as it is drawn backwards and -forwards on the slide. - -The revolver chambers are drilled out of solid iron, by a drilling -machine or lathe, with a centrebit and an eccentric motion, which causes -each barrel of the chamber-nest to become the centre in succession; -while, by means of a slide, the motion can be made to suit either a large -or small chamber. The recesses communicating with the lock and trigger -are cut by reversing the chamber in the eccentric “chuck,” and using a -different cutting-tool, while another alteration effects the drilling of -the nipple holes. - - -THE END - -R. CLAY, SON, AND TAYLOR, PRINTERS, BREAD STREET - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOY'S BOOK OF TRADES AND -THE TOOLS USED IN THEM *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. 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