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diff --git a/old/69830-0.txt b/old/69830-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 4205403..0000000 --- a/old/69830-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,10947 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of My Experiments with Volcanoes, by -Thomas A. Jaggar - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: My Experiments with Volcanoes - -Author: Thomas A. Jaggar - -Release Date: January 18, 2023 [eBook #69830] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Tim Lindell, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was - produced from images made available by the HathiTrust - Digital Library.) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MY EXPERIMENTS WITH -VOLCANOES *** - - - - - - _My Experiments With_ - - Volcanoes - -[Illustration: THOMAS A. JAGGAR - -_January 24, 1871--January 17, 1953_] - - - - - _My Experiments With_ - - Volcanoes - - THOMAS A. JAGGAR - - - “_Through faith we understand - That the worlds were formed - By the word of God, - So that things which are seen - Were not made of things which do appear._” - - - MCMLVI - HAWAIIAN VOLCANO RESEARCH ASSOCIATION - HONOLULU - - - - - Copyright, 1956, by the - Hawaiian Volcano Research Association - - - PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY - THE COMMERCIAL PRINTING DIVISION OF THE - ADVERTISER PUBLISHING CO., LTD., HONOLULU - - - - - _Thomas Augustus Jaggar, Jr._ - - _January 24, 1871_ - - _January 17, 1953_ - - -_It is the wish of the members of the Hawaiian Volcano Research -Association to share with others the experiences they have enjoyed in -their association with a truly great man._ - -_On October 5, 1911, through the efforts of Thomas Augustus Jaggar, -Jr., the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association was organized to assist -in the support of the newly created Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -at Kilauea, Hawaii. Accepting Dr. Jaggar’s sincere belief that a -systematic and continuous study of volcanoes would result in the -protection of life and property, the motto the Hawaiian Volcano -Research Association adopted was “Ne plus haustae aut obrutae -urbes.”_ - -_Dr. Jaggar arrived in Hawaii to take up his work at the Observatory -on January 17, 1912--exactly forty-one years before the day of his -death on January 17, 1953._ - -_Dr. Jaggar spent the last years of his life writing the history -of his sixty years of intensive, rugged, and hazardous scientific -achievements. During many of these years, and up to the completion -of his life’s history, it has been well stated that one of his most -valuable co-workers was his wife, Isabel, who shared with him the -disappointments, the joys of discovery, and much of the physical work. -It is the privilege of the officers, directors and members of the -Hawaiian Volcano Research Association to present in book form this -story of Dr. Jaggar’s life._ - - - - - CONTENTS - - - CHAPTER PAGE - - I. YOUNG SCIENTIST 3 - - II. IMITATING RIPPLEMARKS 32 - - III. EXPEDITION DECADE 55 - - IV. LIVING WITH VOLCANOES 85 - - V. EXPANSION DECADE 114 - - VI. PROPHECY AND HOPE 151 - - VII. ENVOI 177 - - - - - ILLUSTRATIONS - - - FACING PAGE - - Thomas A. Jaggar _Frontis_ - - 1. Experimental Geology Laboratory, Harvard - University, 1900 40 - - 2. Fountain at edge of lava lake, May 17, 1917 41 - - 3. Explosion cloud rising from Halemaumau, May 13, 1924 56 - - 4. Crag in lava lake, January 23, 1918 57 - - 5. Scientists of Technical Expedition to Aleutians, 1907 72 - - 6. Captain George Seeley of the _Lydia_, 1907 73 - - 7. Volcano House from Observatory, 1913 88 - - 8. Island in Halemaumau lava lake, 1911 88 - - 9. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 1912 89 - - 10. Jaggar in seismograph vault beneath Observatory, 1916 89 - - 11. Lava lake, showing bench, March 30, 1917 92 - - 12. Halemaumau, showing lava lake and crags, - December 8, 1916 92 - - 13. Jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake, 1917 93 - - 14. River of Alika flow, Mauna Loa, October 6, 1917 100 - - 15. Lava streaming into a sinkhole in Halemaumau lava - lake, July 7, 1917 100 - - 16. Sakurajima Volcano, Japan, 1914 101 - - 17. Fountain in lava lake, March 19, 1921 101 - - 18. Isabel and Tom Jaggar in woods on Kilauea Volcano, - 1923 120 - - 19. Lava lake, fountains, and crags, March 20, 1921 121 - - 20. Footprints in ash west of Mauna Iki 121 - - 21. The _Honukai_ on Alaska beach, 1928 136 - - 22. The _Ohiki_, first amphibian truck, 1928 136 - - 23. Lava flow entering village of Hoopuloa, 1926 137 - - 24. Lava flow of 1926 Mauna Loa eruption approaching - Hoopuloa 137 - - 25. Jaggar in office of Observatory in “Tin House,” 1937 152 - - 26. Bomb bursting on lava flow, December 27, 1935 153 - - 27. Fountain in Halemaumau lava lake, May 23, 1917 168 - - 28. Rare dome fountain, Kilauea Crater, March 20, 1921 169 - - 29. Lava stream near rim of Halemaumau, February 9, 1921 169 - - - CHARTS - - Fluctuations of Halemaumau 113 - - Diagram of hypothetical globe section 179 - - - - - PREFACE - - -This, my latest book, is another experiment. After sixty years of -volcanoes I have learned reversal of preconceived notions. Gradually I -have learned a totally different approach. - -Shaler of Harvard was my inspirer, worker in the wonders of swamp and -ice and sea beaches. He set me to work and turned me loose; among books -and storm waves and men; especially among men, young men, ever reaping -something new. When I chose volcanoes for my field Shaler said, “You -have certainly selected the hardest.” It was a missionary field, for in -it people were being killed. But the products of internal earth fluids, -lava sea bottom, and vast Canadian ancient meltings, seemed to promise -real natural history. Volcanoes squirt up the very ancient stuff of the -solar system. Therein, I knew, must be something for future discovery. -The investigation of it was a clear field, if action was the goal. - -My field education in geology was by Hague, the friend of Archibald -Geikie. By Emmons, skilled in ore deposits, and like Hague, trained by -Clarence King. By Bailey Willis, son of a poet, a superlative draftsman -and field man, and a brilliant experimenter. I went into the American -West with these men. - -But this story of a volcano experimenter’s life would have reached -nowhere without Frank Alvord Perret, whom I first met on the slope -of Vesuvius in 1906. I knew at once that he was the world’s greatest -volcanologist. His skill was taking pictures. Mine was making -experiments. We agreed that these two skills in action would accomplish -what theories never could approach. - -Perret was an inventor. He was an artist. He was a poet. He was a lover -of little children, and a worshiper of the music of the stars. Always -in delicate health, he circled the world. I was with him on Sakurajima, -on Kilauea, and on Montserrat. We did not agree. He had a vast love of -the romantic and bizarre. I was always a sceptic. But I thank Heaven -that his posthumous and nobly illustrated book reached magnificent -publication. His other books set a standard for all time for what the -field science of volcanoes shall be. - -Perret and his camera were my models. He gave me all of his pictures -to use as I chose, and he and Tempest Anderson taught me volcano -photography. The latter, a Yorkshireman, was a British geographer and -we met on many volcanoes. - -The purpose of this book is to tell what one man saw. I was actuated -by the will to learn. I wanted to copy ripplemarks on the bottom of -the sea, to understand what force pushed up Harney Peak as coarse -granite in the Black Hills, and to imitate Yellowstone geysers spouting -rhythmically. I wanted to know how cracks made the Cascade Mountains -pile up in a line. - -Finally, I studied the San Francisco earthquake rift, sliding open -parallel to the shore for hundreds of miles. How thick was the crust -of the globe? Then I was called to Hawaii, islands on a ridge 1,700 -miles long with volcanoes at one end, coral atolls at the other. And I -started a volcano experiment station at a very lucky time. Volcanoes -proved surprisingly amenable to experiment. - -Forty years of this lead far away from Lyell’s geology--the geology -of uniform processes past and present--and from brachiopods and -trilobites. It lead to the ancestor of volcanoes. It lead to ancestral -gas. It lead back 10 billion years. A lava splash might be a live -souvenir of that age. More than anything else, this belief pointed our -instruments down, to the inside of the globe. - -Six decades of a man’s life. Decades of geology, exploration, -foundation, outspreading, prediction, and fruition. The fact of -fruition makes the telling worth while. Geological education was -unbelief. Fruition was belief, verified by growth of unified science. -Culmination was not geology but science. Uniformity, evolution, and -symmetry are in nature. Value and number are human. I have been called -geologist and seismologist, volcanologist and geophysicist. I am none -of these. I am interested in the evolution of what Hoyle calls “This -quite incredible universe.” I am just as interested in Bergson’s -“Creative evolution” as in Hoyle and Lyttleton’s “New cosmology.” -And more interested in life than in either. The elements of fruition -are a thick earth crust, a comparable pattern for earth and moon, -and a mechanism for earth core. This is the story of sixty years of -volcaneering. - - - - - _My Experiments With_ - - Volcanoes - - - - - CHAPTER I - - Young Scientist - - “_The gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the - onyx stone._” - - -It was the training of my youth under a father who loved God’s -out-of-doors that led me to Audubon’s birds; to tramping miles over -carries in Maine, Labrador, and Nova Scotia; and to fishing with -another eight year old, named Willie Grant. - -When I was fourteen my father the Reverend Thomas Augustus Jaggar, took -our family to Europe, where botany and bird life were as much a part -of my education as geography, French, and Italian. And it was during -our visit in Italy that I made my first trip up Vesuvius. All of these -early interests convinced me that I wanted to be a naturalist. - -It was Nathaniel Shaler at Harvard who told me to go and study the -beaches at Lynn and Nahant. So I walked and photographed, and measured -ripplemarks. I found a headland and a longshore accumulation with -scallops dwindling regularly along the high-tide level. I found swash -marks a foot across forming as the tide went out. On the dunes were -other sand waves beautifully regular. - -Try it. Lie on your stomach and watch them. They are at right angles to -the wind. Smooth them out and see what the wind does. It piles little -flocculent heaps of course grains, each with an eddy downwind. The fine -stuff migrates up the slopes forward with the wind, backward on the -leeward side. The powder streams meet and lengthen the hills right and -left. - -I watched the swash marks. The swash of the surf full of sand rushed up -the beach, cleared suddenly, and retreated, leaving a ridge along the -beach. This elevation became the tide limit, and a new series started -lower down. The swashes couldn’t climb over the ridge because the tide -was going out. And so for hours ridge after ridge was built. - -I watched high-tide scallops, six feet apart, forming heaps at the -top of the beach. The swash waves ran into the bays between the heaps -during the flood hours, making a rush up and a suck down. The rush up -was muddy, the suck down was clear. Pebbles and sand were building up -on the sides of the small promontories. Each heap was horseshoe-shaped, -with the toe seaward. Forty or fifty crescents got smaller and more -sandy toward the middle of the beach. Here was rhythmic force making -repetition. The ripples and swash marks were repeated seaward. Clearly -the headland of rock was making pebbles and sand, sending pulsations -along the beach, instead of across it. - -The ripplemarks were packed sand of the low-tide flat, formed totally -under water parallel to the waves. The back-and-forth motion of waves -made a pattern of sweep and eddy on the bottom. Were beaches, then, -things of habit like birds? Here were four kinds of sand waves, all -on one beach, all of them complicated by wind and water and tide; big -and little; shapely and regular. The beach was alive. It was building -from the end, it was rippling under wave action. It fed the wind as -it dried, and the wind made an exquisite dune pattern of the grains. -Perhaps beaches might be natural history, just as much as the birds -that inspired my interest in nature when I was eight years old. - -The mystery of the beaches drove me to a new discovery; to the -university library, where I found French and English references to -ripplemarks. I found experiments, soundings, fossil sandstone ripples. -I learned that such great authors as the botanist De Candolle and Sir -George Darwin had interested themselves profoundly in what happened to -the sand grains. From the library I went to mud puddles in a tank and -to experimentation. Thus I found my way from beach to books and from -books to the making of baby beaches. - -Later, at Harvard, zoology and botany were all cells and embryos -and the microscope. The habits of animals scarcely entered into our -studies. The natural history of Audubon and my boyhood had vanished. -The new words were phylogeny and cytology, development of the -individual, and cell development. - -So in mineralogy the microscope and the tiny crystal governed; the -molecules of the crystal, and the chemical atoms of the molecule. -Science was headed toward the infinitely little, though later, by -way of the spectroscope, it was to leap to the infinitely big of the -heavens. I never learned to think the universe finite. - -Professor Shaler wrote in 1893, “In the next century there will be a -state of science in which the unknown will be conceived as peopled with -powers whose existence is justly and necessarily inferred from the -knowledge which has been obtained from their manifestations. In other -words, it seems to me that the naturalist is most likely to approach -the position of the philosophical theologian by paths which at first -seemed to lie far apart from his domain.” Just this has happened in the -world of galaxies and electrons, producing Einstein and Planck, Jeans -and Eddington, Hubble and Hoyle. And I suspect that sea bottoms and -volcanoes are “peopled with powers” yet to be inferred. - -Through Josiah Cooke and his wonders of projection apparatus; through -Cook’s nephew Oliver Huntington and his mineral crystals; through John -Eliot Wolff, whose assistant in optical microscopy I became; through -Robert Jackson with his museum collection technique and the hexagon -plates on fossil sea urchins; through all these I was introduced to the -laboratory collections and instruments. I found a fascinating world. - -The theater, too, furthered my education. Like many Harvard students, -I “suped” for several great actors and actresses, among them Julia -Marlowe and Sarah Bernhardt. And in one play I even had a speaking -part: “My lord, Posthumus is without.” I also practiced legerdemain -as amateur assistant to Kellar and Hermann, who called me out of the -audience and pulled rabbits out of my coat and eggs out of my mouth. -Thus I learned of the psychology of audiences, how to experiment in -public, and how easily deluded is the average mind. Just so nature -may delude, if the scientist doesn’t keep his wits about him. But -I also learned the value of vivid demonstration before students. A -great exponent of this method of teaching is Professor Hubert Alyea of -Princeton. His chemical experimentation is marvellous. His chemistry -textbook is modern physical chemistry at its best. He demonstrates that -the art of the magician has come down to the twentieth century and that -even mathematical science may pass over to the layman. I suspect that -geophysics does not need to be buried under differential equations as -it is today. Certainly experimental volcanology made exciting at the -lecture table could work wonders in getting the globe explored. - -At Harvard we were taught that geology was a detective history. -Vaguely, the same fossils were the same age. Vaguely, man had come from -a fish which climbed up on the land. It was much later that radio -activity of rocks was accepted as setting ages in millions of years. -King and Kelvin taught us that the age of the earth was 24 million -years and the sun was dying. A half century later, 2,000 million years -was the figure and the sun was heating up. Now cosmogonists talk easily -of 10,000 million years as an item in star history. I have learned that -one can have any theory he chooses, and that some new discovery will -probably reverse it. A discovery is the uncovering of an appealing, -bright idea. - -The idea of geology as history based on Darwin’s evolution never took -root in my consciousness. Geology to me is the science of the globe. -Science studies how things work, how things change, how they accomplish -what they do, how they grow, and how they compare. It does not study -the “why,” or the necessity for an origin of anything. Originating is -eternally in progress. Astronomy today is giving up origins. History -based on a few relics seems futile. Relics, or specimens, must be -compared with action. - -Guessing that we must have come from a fish, with no evolution sequence -in successive strata and no mammals whatever in very ancient strata -and no preservation of soft creatures possible, seems a contradiction -of Darwin’s own testimony. He insisted on “the imperfection of the -geological record.” But he had no conception that the Cambrian was -500 million years B.C., nor that the fiery Keewatin of Lake Superior -was 1,800 million years B.C. Darwin knew that the bivalve brachiopod -_Lingula_, now alive in quiet seas, is exactly the same today as -it was then. - -_Lingula_ is found fossilized in the intermediate geologic -eras. We have no proof that intelligent beings in ships from unknown -lands did not dredge him up in Cambrian time. Five hundred million -years is so absurdly long that there may have been at least twenty -different flowerings of intelligence on the earth, having no relation -to us. Continents are places of catastrophe. Sea bottoms are places -of constancy. Man lives on continents, and his fossilized bones are -short-lived. - -If each Adam preceded a new humankind of 100,000 years, the time since -the Cambrian allows for 5,000 deluges, or eruptive conflagrations. -Each one would exterminate that particular Adam’s descendants. If -glacial periods are deluges, we know their scratched boulders back to -400 million years before _Lingula_. These older ice sheets were -in Canada. But we know fiery floods of lava 1,300 million years before -_Lingula_, on the north shore of Lake Superior. - -We have not one particle of evidence that before the race was killed -off primordial volcanologists, who were very queer looking chaps, might -have studied those eruptions with expensive instruments. Certainly they -had a lot of copper at their disposal. Perhaps the great lakes were a -continental sea, and some ancestor of _Lingula_ was scooped up for -food by those doomed beings. - -But geology at Harvard was not all history. When R. A. Daly and I -were graduate students, we worked on Ascutney Mountain, studying -ancient fire-made granites. The hills were lumps of the ancient -pastes crystallized. The crystals were feldspars, mica, quartz, and -iron oxides. Oldest prisms were lime phosphate, the mineral apatite -containing imprisoned brown glass. How did the several kinds of red -hot paste invade the altered sedimentary slates? Was brown glass the -ancestor? Lava is brown glass. Some of the phosphate crystals contain -gas bubbles and liquids. Daly, who published the work, found that -ancient lava pushed up while deep in the claystones, and shattered a -hole by heat and cracking. The pieces sank and the paste or gas foam -was injected in successive lumps. Each new lump had more silica. - -Apparently the fragments melted--some of the old sediments of Lower -Silurian age were silica--and the invading magma was contaminated with -more and more molten sand. So basalt turned into granite. Thus Ascutney -Mountain in Vermont became a classic place for hot fluids squirting up -and recrystallizing the under rock of New England. It made eventually, -by erosion, the Connecticut River landscape. - -Daly became a specialist on granites, I became a specialist on lavas. -We became professors at Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of -Technology. - -Something new came into world geology when Wheeler, Hayden, King, -Powell, Gilbert, and Dutton surveyed the Utah block fault mountains and -the Rockies. They revealed the globe with a crust of gigantic cracked -deep prisms, and an eroding surface. Davis of Harvard, the physical -geographer, was at his zenith, and from Powell’s and Gilbert’s example -came his classified river valleys. He devised systems of splendid -topographic maps and models, and demonstrations of glacier steam beds -and deltas. He made surface wear and dumping debris a living thing, and -the land forms a record of it. - -Thus I was overjoyed when, in 1893, I received the summons to go with -Arnold Hague to the land of geysers, colorful canyon, old volcanoes, -and the source rivers of the Mississippi. My job was to take pictures -with a huge camera, but I posed as microscope man, too. I climbed the -highest peaks of the Absaroka Range, and I traveled with Hague and a -mule packtrain back and forth across the range, collecting specimens. -Hague had been with Clarence King during the 40th Parallel Survey for -the Union Pacific railroads. - -Hague’s field method was to climb a peak, study the view, and ponder -the visible strata, dikes, valleys, escarpments, and pinnacles for -miles around, thus formulating each problem. Then we moved camp to a -new place to solve the problem. - -We sought the ancient craters. The volcanic tuffs and agglomerates -covered thousands of square miles, dating from 30 million years ago -and continuing outpourings until 2 million years ago, and there were -lava flows, ropy or bouldery. Here were petrified trees; there could -be found fossil leaves. The tree species told the formation ages of -Tertiary time. Many peaks appeared but no volcano cones. The craters -had been over what now were eroded dikes, or fissure fillings of lava, -which stood out in crisscrossing walls. Where they clustered, ores -were found: the Sunlight, Crandall Creek, and Stinking Water mining -claims. These were the roots of lost volcanoes, lost by decay, tumble, -rainfall, glaciers, and rivers. Underneath the mountainous lavas, -appeared white marine limestone cliffs, and still lower appeared -ancient granite gneiss. - -The geology of ancient seabeds, fossils, eruptions, and glaciers was -painted on a whole panorama of mountains and river basins. From a -mountain top silently gazing through field glasses--which he was always -losing and recovering--Hague would look around for hours. “That ledge -is the Madison limestone, those are the Red Beds, those pink, rounded -hills are Archean granites.” - -After a day of packtrain travel I was free to fish or hunt. It was a -privilege to hunt with Anderson, the old negro cook, whose gray beard -and bushy white wool belied his keen eyes. He had been a slave, later -a soldier in General Custer’s Big Horn expedition, and a pioneer and -hunter. His father had been massacred by Indians, and Anderson swore he -would kill any Indian on sight. - -One of our hunting trips near Crandall Creek was especially memorable. -“Mr. Jaggar, I smell sheep up on that shelf!”, said Anderson. And he -climbed up a pine tree growing at the bottom against the limestone -cliff. He laid his Winchester rifle on top of the steep slide rock -slope at the foot of the tree, muzzle upward, butt end downhill. “You -mind my gun, I’ll climb out on a limb against the cliff and get on -the shelf, and yo’ all hand the gun up to me.” He reached the shelf, -made of Cambrian limestone of trilobite fame, and sitting over on it -immediately knocked down slabs of rock. They fell on the gun which -started to slide down the slope. I grabbed for the muzzle pointed -toward my throat, the stock wiggling right and left. The gun went -off and I felt a nick in my ankle. Anderson had left a cartridge in -the barrel with the hammer resting on it, but my nick was made by a -pebble ploughed up by the bullet. So the trilobites took a shot at me. -“Well, this is natural history,” I murmured. Old Anderson was less -philosophical. He cussed me for letting the rifle kick itself far down -among the trees. - -Elk, grouse, blacktail deer, antelope, rattlesnakes, prairie dogs, -skunks, badgers, owls, whistling martens, wild sheep, and the grizzlies -we never saw alive were all part of the great West. So were the bucking -cayuses and kicking mules with which we lived, numerous ranchers, -prospectors, soldiers, sportsmen, and guides. Once we were joined by a -sheriff looking for an escaped desperado from Red Lodge Prison. - -Just before I left the Yellowstone, I visited the hot springs and -geysers. With more than 4,000 vents, the geyser basins are steaming -areas in the forest. At Mammoth, the carbonate terraces show exquisite -ripples and sculptured cups in steps. One hotter group of waters, -through the igneous lavas and granites, becomes full of silica and -deposits sinter. The other, through limestones, deposits travertine. -The alkaline siliceous waters deposit such strong silica edifices -as to hold the explosive steam boilers of the geysers. Both silica -and lime deposits are led to gorgeous sculpturing and to brilliant -colors at their borders caused by the blue-green algae, which live at -temperatures up to 150° Fahrenheit. - -The boiling waters have been superheated volcanically since Tertiary -volcano times, when first dark magnesian, and afterwards siliceous, -lavas were ejected. Here is the same order Daly and I found in Vermont; -the dark rocks first, rifting through slate, the granites last, with -quartz cutting the dark rocks. The cavities among the Yellowstone -geysers show quartz. - -The surprise to me was that the geyser basins were eternally breaking -down, cracking, dissolving, making new geysers in the forest. Instead -of being chiefly deposition, the hot spring action is chiefly erosion. -It is a vast cycle of hot magma gases and rainwaters from Tertiary -times to now; from 20 million years ago to now. A long time. - -Remember that the last retreat of the glacier-period ice was only -20,000 years ago. That ice found the geyser basins in full swing. A -thousand times farther back were the Yellowstone volcanoes in full -activity, and they kept going while the continent lifted and pushed -the Gulf of Mexico from the Great Plains to where it is now. And yet -that 20 million years was only a twenty-fifth of the time back to the -trilobites, and a Yellowstone seabottom bed of that age is under all -the lavas. Our schoolbook history is pretty small. - -In all directions the ground of Norris Geyser Basin is cracking and -changing. The geysers are utterly unreliable, here today and mere hot -springs or empty cracks tomorrow. Old Faithful intervals range from -thirty-eight to eighty-one minutes, quite irregular. The New Crater -was a squirting, scalding jet which killed the trees and vegetation -all about. Its seemingly regular, twenty-five foot jets shot up at -forty-five degrees inclination about every three minutes. Later, in -1922, I was to find this geyser totally different. Careful studies -have shown that water of this elevation boils at 199° Fahrenheit; one -geyser gave off 253° Fahrenheit, or fifty-four degrees of superheat, -seventy-two feet down its shaft. This is the only place of superheated -waters known on earth. The roaring steam of the Black Growler has -eighty-one degrees of superheat. The quantity of carbon, sulfur, and -chlorine in the waters is so excessive, though it is very small in the -rock, that a source of heat from volcanic gas is certain. - -The net result is thousands of boiling springs of rainwater, soaking a -sponge of rhyolite rock over hundreds of square miles, erupting over a -remnant volcanic furnace beneath, and eroding and dissolving out basins -at the headwaters of the Mississippi. - -Here is an object lesson in volcanic erosion. Here is a perpetual -eruption of volcanic gases which has dwindled after millions of years -of melting siliceous and carbonaceous rocks. It recrystallizes them -as andesites, rhyolites, and obsidians, and mixes deep steam with -rainwater to do the work of erosion and water solution and of deposits, -over a vent at the heart of the Rocky Mountains. As usual, this vent -has cluttered itself from age to age with the melt of the deep earth -crust, namely basalt, which Yellowstone’s lavas show repeatedly from -bottom to top of its accumulations. And as usual, the vents themselves -are hard to recognize, buried as they are under heapings. - -In 1897 I returned to the Yellowstone, where I visited Death Gulch, -a dismal solfataric gully with a trickle of cold, acid water near -Cache Creek. Accompanied by Dr. F. P. King, I climbed up this gorge, -where there was a bad smell and burning oppression of the lungs from -hydrogen sulfide. It was a V-shaped trench 50 feet deep in volcanic -puddingstones, whitened with alum and epsom salts. Bubbles rose through -the water in many places. - -The remains of eight big bears were found in the gorge, clustered in -one place. The latest victim was a young grizzly with a clot of blood -staining his nostrils from his last hemorrhage. Poison gas had killed -him. Earlier visitors had found squirrels, hares, and butterflies and -other insects killed by gas. Probably both sulfuretted hydrogen and -carbonic acid gas do murder in still weather. However, we had the wind -blowing up the gulch. We lit matches in hollows and carbon dioxide did -not extinguish them. The same thing had happened when Mr. Weed in 1888 -tested for carbon dioxide at Death Gulch. - -Now, knowing the case of Mr. Clive, the Englishman, and his guide, -Wylie, who were overwhelmed by hydrogen sulfide while photographing -Boiling Lake on December 10, 1901, it looks to me as though the -rotten-egg smell may play a large part in the killings at Death -Gulch, as well as in some poison tragedies of Java. Boiling Lake is -at the south end of Dominica Island north of Martinique. There are -four solfataras and the scalding lake, the latter near the interior -village of Laudat, at the head of a volcanic valley, and four miles -on horseback from Roseau, a shore town southwest. When Mr. Clive, -Wylie, and Matson--another native guide--looked down at the hot pool, -Matson noticed it boiling without vapor, and called attention to the -danger. However, they went on to the lake. Matson later reported, “I -inhaled something offensive and felt as if I was dying. I ran, and lost -consciousness. I came to in a ravine and found Wylie lying where I had -left him.” Clive, refusing to leave Wylie, sent Matson for help, but -when rescue parties arrived, both men were dead. - -At Boiling Lake there was no eruption, no vapor, only the very bad -smell. All the symptoms indicated a sudden change in the pool from -steam to excessive hydrogen sulfide. And five months later, at Pelée -across the channel from Dominica, excessive hydrogen sulfide set off -the great explosions. - -In view of these phenomena it seems likely that Death Gulch in the -Yellowstone also kills with sulfur gas, the odor of which is so strong -there. Day and Allen associate hydrogen sulfide with the limited -Yellowstone sulfate areas, of small water discharged, and such is -Death Gulch. One part hydrogen sulfide in 200 parts of air is fatal to -mammals, and it may come up in gushes. Carbonic acid asphyxiates, but -it is not a poison and when it is free is so heavy as to mix with air -very little. Death Gulch is not a place of lime deposition like Mammoth -Hot Springs, where carbonated water decomposes underlying limestone. - -Europe was to be the next step in my education. As assistant in -petrography and graduate student at Harvard, I was encouraged by -Wolff to plan for Heidelberg. There I was to find H. Rosenbusch, who -had put system into the infinite series of minerals in rocks. But my -journey to Heidelberg began with a geography congress in London and -a geology congress in Zurich. These meetings were with such bigwigs -as Lord Curzon, Henry M. Stanley, and famous arctic explorers, and I -was surprised to find that all these VIP’s looked like ordinary men. -Unfortunately for me, this realization came a little late. - -Looking for a luncheon beer garden in Zurich, I picked up a small -side-whiskered Englishman, and suggested we join a group of foreign -geologists in a buffet. “Oh no,” he replied, “no beer. I only want a -cup of tea and a biscuit.” So I left him and crudely and youthfully -joined the younger men in the beer parlor for sauerkraut and wienies -and Munich beer. Later at the opening meeting, the Geological Congress -was addressed in French by the famous Sir Archibald Geikie, Director -General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, and the -author of “The textbook of geology,” the greatest of geology manuals. -He was my pickup, whom I had deserted at lunch time. I had lost the -opportunity of a lifetime, for a tête-a-tête with the world’s most -famous geologist. - -Before going to Munich, Harry Gummeré of Haverford and I trekked -through Denmark in a third class carriage amid peasants smoking -fearful-smelling tobacco in long china-bowl pipes. Then we crossed to -Christiansand in Norway. We traversed the fjords north to Trondhjem -by rowboat, in “stoolcars” with little girl drivers. Then we traveled -on foot, and everywhere in rain. Waterfalls were so numerous we never -wanted to hear of another one. We climbed up to Stalheim from Bergen, -saw the Jordalsknut, a magnificent half dome in a vast granite canyon -like Yosemite. We rowed around the Kaiser’s yacht in the Nordfjord, -and tried to pick him out on deck. We got soaked with days of rain in -a backcountry village, and went to the inn, got into bed, and sent our -clothing to dry in the kitchen. - -The local Norwegian bank looked at our Brown Brothers letter of credit -and said, “Nothing doing,” which inspired us to compose a poem: - - We’re so happy we don’t know what to do. - We haven’t any clothes to wear, - We’re wet all through and through. - We haven’t any money and we ought to feel quite blue - But we don’t, we feel so happy, we don’t know what to do. - -Fortunately, the innkeeper was amused by our poem and sympathetic -toward our plight. He took our IOU’s and told us we could have all the -money we wanted and to send it back when we reached Trondhjem. - -From Trondhjem we crossed Scandinavia by rail to Stockholm, like Venice -a city of canals. Delightful maiden ladies kept the breakfast place -and served us with many queer breads, goats’-milk cheese, and sublime -cleanliness. The canal boat took us across Sweden to Göteborg. It was -a little steamer, from the porthole of which we saw a cow comfortably -grazing a few feet away. And we saw and were impressed by the superb -landscaping of lawns, by tree horticulture, and by lock masonry. In -both Norway and Sweden the people talked English, the national costumes -were delightful, the girls were pretty, and everybody was clean and -democratic. - -The winter semester of 1894–1895 was spent in Munich, where Groth’s -mineral and crystal collections were the main attraction, and where I -heard the lectures of Sir Doktor Privy-Councillor Knight Karl A. von -Zittel, author of six huge volumes on fossil shells, fossil horses, -fossil dragons, and fossil trees, and a history of geology. We once saw -him rigged out in gold braid and an admiral’s fore-and-aft cocked hat -for some imperial function. - -He was a forceful lecturer. The assistant arranged diagrams on the -rack, the students gathered, and then his majesty entered. Everyone -rose and Zittel held forth with a rattan pointer: “Es gibt, meine -Herren, ein ganze anzahl von ausgezeichnete beobachten über” and so -forth. Then he whacked the drawings, and made graceful allusion to -American investigators as he explained a giant stegosaurus. - -In the “Heidelberger Geologischer Panoptikum,” as an attic room on the -Neckar was called, I afterwards posted a ditty based on “Ole Uncle Ned”: - - There was an Orthopod - Stegosaurus Marshii - Laid him down on his Jurassic bed. - He had a row of shovels down the middle of his back - But he didn’t have a very big head. - - _Chorus_: - - Hammer, hammer, hammer on the stone - Chisel, chisel, chisel on the bone - There’s no more rest for poor old Steg - For Zittel couldn’t leave him alone. - -Heidelberg days were memorable for the lectures of Rosenbusch, -Goldschmidt, and Osann; for laboratory system; and for long collection -trips. With specimen bag and hammer, we went to Saxony, Bohemia and -the Vosges Mountains, the Black Forest, and the Oberwald. I had a -large, pointed hammer named Umslopagaas, after Rider Haggard’s hero who -wielded such a weapon. When Palache and Brock and I were in a quarry -and an unwieldy boulder had to be broken, the yell arose, “Umslopagaas -come quick!” The collection of rock specimens at “classical” -localities, meant the textbook rocks of Rosenbusch, or of Zirkel of -Leipzig. Every student dreamed of having a private collection. - -After the Ascutney experience, I was impressed by Schneeberg granite -in Saxony. At the border of the granite are slates, baked in zones -back from the granite edge: hard horn rock, spotted rock, mica rock, -then claystone. The colored geological map of Saxony was superb. This -includes the mining district of the birthplace of geology in Europe, -where in Freiberg, A. G. Werner had founded an arbitrary science in -the eighteenth century, imagining granites to be crystallized from a -world-wide ocean. - -In one place I found a hand specimen with tiny granite tongues which -had split their way, as liquid as alcohol, between the blackened folia -of slate. The granite itself was all crystals, but here was proof of -a fluid when the granite penetrated. What was it, how hot was it, a -gas, a foam, a paste, or a liquid? The time this occurred was millions -of years before Kaiser Wilhelm. I had found something similar in -the Yellowstone, the little dikes of sylvan intrusives in Absaroka -Mountains. The smallest tongues showed the most perfect granite in the -microscope, of Tertiary intrusive stocks. It was as though in these -siliceous invasions of basaltic agglomerate, nature made its best -experimental granitization on a very small scale. - -We soaked up the surprises of European scholarship. We pored over books -in the bookshops, loaded ourselves with microscopes, goniometers, and -four-volume textbooks. We found all the science of Europe in attractive -unbound form and had it bound in half morocco. Mineral dealers were -everywhere, offering beautifully labeled specimens. All things in -Europe seemed inexpensive. - -Rosenbusch, who had big brown eyes and a gray beard, came to look over -my work on feldspar, in his laboratory. When I asked enthusiastically -what make and model of German microscope I ought to buy, he turned me -around and looked deep into my eyes: “Herr Jaggar,” he said, “Es is -nicht das Mikroskop, es ist der Mensch.” - -Another time he produced a dense black rock and said to Matteucci of -Vesuvius, to Palache, and to me, “You are geologists. What for a rock -is that?” We, of course, got it wrong, thinking it must be a lava. It -turned out to be a black limestone, easily identified, had we scratched -it instead of putting our lenses on it. He chuckled at the gullibility -of geologists. - -Osann gave a course on petrographic chemistry which met at 7 -A.M.! We usually got there, but once or twice the teacher -himself was late. We would gather around Osann, who was fat and genial, -and say “Herr Professor, how about some sausages and beer and a little -breakfast?” He always replied “Why not? There is plenty of time,” and -we sought the nearest cafe. - -Some professors got up at two o’clock in the morning and wrote, taking -advantage of the quiet hours. Rosenbusch had a high desk and wrote -standing up. Their objectives were to produce enormous tomes listing -all crystals and all rocks and all publications, in all languages. This -is German science. Its password is “thoroughness.” - -The net effect of German scholarship on me was a feeling of irksomeness -and resentment, but what I learned of thoroughness and of mechanisms -I value extremely. I honor the memory of those teachers, and I -honor their pupils, who by specialism have penetrated deeper and -deeper into the smaller and smaller things of matter. The ultimate -is the background material between the galaxies of the universe and -the unknown background particles of life. But for me, the middle -field--the development of mountains, rivers and sea bottoms, continents -and volcanoes, earthquakes and depressions of land, the sky, clouds, -and waters--all the outside world, needed experimental engineers. -Intermediate bigger things like the crust of the earth and moon, within -the time that is measured in human years, seemed to be neglected by -science, and yet to be accessible to the giant power of engineering. - -Rosenbusch set me at one feldspar specimen for an entire summer. I -wanted things moving, changing, and evolving. I wanted a narrative of -that tabular feldspar crystallizing, or better, a dish wherein to watch -it crystallize. To me it seemed that Faraday or Pasteur would have -described the quality of a moving feldspar medium in pressure, heat, -gas, liquid, or changing particles. The qualitative investigator would -have a furnace and make many trials and produce synthetic feldspar, and -he would write a narrative approximating what the under earth must do. -He would make melt or froth conditions successful in imitating such -rocks as basalt or granite, using hot gases. - -The problem of basalt and granite began to be recognized in the -eighteenth century. Werner guessed, and taught his pupils, that -these rocks were sea bottom deposits. A few determined Europeans -in the nineteenth century--Fouqué and Michel-Lévy, Doelter, and -Morozewicz--melted mineral mixtures and made igneous rocks by cooling -them. The motive was approximation; the result was good and useful. -No one reached melting by hot gases and absorption of hot gases. No -one made granite. Volcanic rocks were imitated approximately as to -crystals, but not as to gases. And the whole of volcanism was later -proved to be gases, as is the whole of physics and astronomy and -biology. Man is largely a puff of hydrogen. - -These visions were what I brought back from Europe, along with much -pondering of such experimenters as Daubrée, Lacroix, Stanislas -Meunier, Reyer, and my teacher Goldschmidt, all brilliant imitators -of the earth. Goldschmidt gave a course in blowpipe analysis which -was completely original. His methods went far beyond those of his -predecessors. - -Meanwhile, W. M. Davis had written me to come home to Harvard and give -the course in field geological surveying. This was in 1895–1896. - -My teaching was devised to cut up the map of Boston. I pasted the -pieces in notebooks and sent out students in pairs, equipped with -map books. They were to keep pencils sharp, use a uniform system, and -hammer off specimens from ledges. They were to examine the rock under -a magnifying glass, then name it; but I cautioned them, “If you don’t -know the rock, call it ‘FRDK, funny rock don’t know.’” Students marked -the page opposite each map with symbols for the rocks on that map. Then -they came together in seminar, and we made a colored map of the geology -of Boston. Laurence La Forge, now professor at Tufts College, was my -student and later my assistant. He published the results of our work -many years after the study was made. - -When teaching was extended into experimental geology and geology of -the United States, laboratories were set up in the basement of Agassiz -Museum and I was given carte blanche to furnish them. I equipped them -with a water tank, a gas furnace for melting and recrystallizing -minerals, pressure machines, an air compressor, and motors. Students -were assigned experiments with wax, plaster, cement, sands, coal dust, -and marble dust. They imitated strata, rivers, deltas, intrusions, and -mountain folds, and familiarized themselves with the way solids break. - -Each man took a special arbeit for his final thesis, and worked by -himself with clock or metronome, thermometer or pressure gauge, -spring balance or centimeter scale, and he reviewed the experiments -of the past. Prominent among my students were Ralph Stone, afterwards -state geologist for Pennsylvania; Vernon Marsters of Indiana; Julius -Eggleston of Riverside, California; and Ernest Howe of Yale. - -In the course on United States geology were such students as Amadeus -Grabau who became leading paleontologist of China; Stefansson the -arctic explorer; Ellsworth Huntington, afterwards the distinguished -Yale author and geographer; and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. With so -many Roosevelts at Harvard, I quite forgot my famous student until -his first visit to Hawaii, in 1934. Mr. Roosevelt had remembered his -geology professor, though, and an aide phoned the Volcano headquarters -to request that I be at Hilo when the President’s ship arrived. - -The United States geology course was the product of my two seasons in -the Yellowstone and my interest in the great Hayden, King, and Powell -surveys. The youthful geologists needed to know the continent and its -details. - -The big Washington monographs and folios have made a gallery of -underground pictures of one of the greatest continents, and these are -supplemented by the work of the Canadian geologists. America shows -Appalachian folds and thrusts, fault blocks of the Utah plateaus, and -eruptives of the Rockies. It contains the amazing metamorphism of very -recently upheaved sea beds along the Pacific shore. It records the -remnant sea bottoms and dust-storm deposits of the vast plains, bearing -beside the obvious buffalo skulls, the old bones of whales, reptiles, -and rhinos. - -Superposed on all this is so-called physiography, the science of -falling materials and water, the rotting of the lands, and the -accumulation of debris. A net of rivers over ground and under ground is -what stands out, and the living river pattern has changed incessantly -through the ages. But through and over it is a moving process of the -ages, kinetic, alive with glaciers, hot springs, underground heat or -surface cold, soaking rains and rushing storms, earthquake and uplift, -fault motions and sinkings. Everything is in motion to one who senses -slow motion, occasionally breaking down resistance and charging ahead. -And geology is a sense of slow motion and its jumps for 5 million -years, with this human year, here and now, of great importance. -Geology, like humanity, is not just history. - -Under all are gas and heat; Saratoga Springs, Yellowstone, the Comstock -Lode, and Mount Shasta. The series gets hotter from New York to -California. And out at sea the refuse of the continent is dumping all -day long. And science is anxiously waiting to learn how hot sea bottom -is. - -In addition to laboratory work, I wanted to conduct cross-country hikes -for such subjects as botany, geology, and zoology in the forests and -swamps and hills of Massachusetts. And it was in connection with these -plans that I learned a lesson in simplicity. I went to President Eliot, -remembering the high sounding “Pierian Sodality” name for the college -orchestra, to get a classical calendar name for my cross-country -tramps. He said, “What, in brief, is your idea?” I replied, “In -ordinary language they will be natural history walks.” He took a pen -and said, “Why not this for a name?” On the paper was written “Natural -History Walks.” - -An important part of our curriculum was the Tuesday evening geological -conference, during which any graduate worker could give a paper. To -these conferences came, at different times, Brooks, Spurr, Schrader, -Goodrich, Mendenhall, P. S. Smith, Mansfield, Matthes, Lane, Crosby, -Barton, Douglas Johnson, Daly, and all the Harvard staff. The men -got confidence in public speaking and exhibiting, and the professors -commented in kindly fashion. Topics ranged from summer work in the far -west and current studies in meteorology under Ward to petrographic or -experimental work with projection apparatus under Wolff and me. Jackson -and Hyatt brought in fossils, and the Geological Survey was always in -evidence as a goal for young men, or a subject for review. Shaler’s -comments were accompanied by a string of good stories. The conferences -taught students how to teach by making them speak in public. It was one -of Shaler’s most productive inventions, and has been copied far and -wide. - -Walcott in the Survey looked to Harvard to produce field mappers of -rocks. Graduate students had the choice between process and history, -geography linked to school teaching, microscopical petrography and -crystallography linked to the minerals and rock collections, or -evolution linked to museums and fossils. Beecher of Yale had found -hairs on the legs of fossil trilobites. Someone else had found fossil -bacteria. A group of petrographers got together and founded an -artificial classification of fire-made rocks based on chemistry--no -use at all to the field man with a rock specimen. Agassiz had built a -magnificent museum. The research motive was based on collections; the -public exhibit motive was based on evolution and big, rare things. -The publication motive imitated Europe; “be as technical as possible, -detest reporters and newspapers, and never be popular.” - -In 1897 Harvard University gave me a Ph.D. degree, after a double -thesis and an oral examination. I passed the examination very -awkwardly, as my capacity for remembering text book information is nil. -My theses were (1) on an invention, a mineral hardness instrument; and -(2) on the included fragments found in Boston dikes. - -The microsclerometer, as the instrument was called (that is, a -microscope scratcher), was designed to diamond drill a mineral to a -fixed depth. The hardness was measured by the time consumed, on the -theory that the energy required for the standard hole varied with the -time, and the time with the hardness. The number of rotations with a -constant speed motor is a measure of the time. - -The paper was published in America and Germany, and elaborately -reviewed by a microscopical society in England. The instrument was -borrowed by H. C. Boynton, a graduate student in metallurgy, and he -got good results on the microscopic crystals that constitute steel. -The inventing and constructing with the aid of Sven Nelson, a Swedish -mechanician of ability, were to me an education in themselves. For one -thing, I learned how enthusiastically science feeds on ultra-little -things. - -My petrography of included quartz fragments in basalt dikes was partly -published, but made no hit at all. It was outdoor work, it concerned -the granite problem, it revealed the “fluid” of granite minerals as -“waters or vapors” having no effect on augite, the green fusible -mineral of basalt. But the same fluid was revealed as corroding quartz -inclusions, harder and supposedly more infusible. - -If temperature had anything to do with it, the granite fluid could melt -holes in quartz inclusions, but the mantle of augite dark crystals -which the basalt had plastered on the outside of the quartz fragments -remained unmelted. This was my first adventure with the ancient problem -of fusion, or melting. I became convinced that granite fluids, like -the makers of gold quartz veins, are low temperature vapors or gasses. -This agrees with what is now well known, that silica has a low melting -point. But melting and temperature are not the whole story. - -To me, the spreading of one’s fame by scientific papers was -commercialization. “You must make your name known” and “what have -you published?” rang through the scientific halls of learning. No -suggestion of art, literature, drama, beauty, or philosophy ever came -to me from my scientific colleagues. Some literary friends, like -William Garrott Brown and my classmate William Vaughn Moody, thought -readability important. Brown warned me against the dullness of small -papers in scientific writing. Agassiz warned me against exactly the -opposite, namely, against popularizing or being interesting. This -antithesis between science journals and art probably never comes -into the field of vision of many young scientific writers. They see -only “Write for your scientific peers and for no one else, that is -your world.” All my life I have been plagued by “be as technical as -possible” versus “tell the public what it all means.” - -I suspect that our system is producing diagrams and statistics in -geology (and perhaps in science generally) and no longer produces works -of art. I know few geologists who are fine draftsmen. They accept -photography instead. I know none who is a literary stylist. They write -for ultra conciseness and tabulations. The nineteenth century taught -classical English and drawing. - -Geology is a science of the dreamland of the earth’s interior and -of millennia of the ages and of the overwhelming expanse of rich, -productive, unknown ores under ocean bottoms. It is a field for men of -letters, and for new Magellans, Humboldts, and Darwins bursting with -imagination and the will to explore. - -This seeming digression is really germane to the purport of this book. -It is one man’s review of a half century of evolving discovery. Also -a half century of evolving error and departure from the ways of the -leaders. The leaders, from William Smith’s thoroughness with strata -in England, to Clarence King’s summary of a thousand miles across the -Cordillera, explored upward and outward. It persuaded governments. -Persuasion before the court of public opinion no longer uses and -employs explorer men of letters. The United Nations is not employing -Clarence Kings on the world geology of the remaining three quarters of -the earth. - -The confusion, the secrecy, and the loss of art are occasioned by -vulgarization. In 1875 real men of distinction explored the earth. -Now that is left to incorporated establishments, teaching trusts, and -calculating machines. Clarence King was a linguist and was the son of a -trader in China. His Yale training under Dana and Brush gave him real -culture. His founding of the United States Geological Survey was the -evolution of a genius who disliked politics and whose friends rejoiced -with him in great prose, good pictures, and fine sculpture. Then he was -wrecked by a false ambition and the decadence of the very thing which -made him great, the simplicity of high thinking, noble writing, and -cultivated friends. Lacking today are cultivated boys with an ambition -to explore the globe, both under the sea and in the wilderness. - -Geology in 1897 was a jigsaw puzzle, with a choice between the museum -and the field, between the easy thing of collections, fine microscopes, -and the scientific societies, and the hard thing of exploring the -globe. Collections and instruments were an overpowering attraction, -particularly when photography and experiment were involved. But -roughing it in the wilderness has made some of the finest characters I -ever knew. - -Geological surveys of the west continued to occupy me during the -summers. I worked in the Black Hills of South Dakota under Samuel -Franklin Emmons, and my associates included John Mason Boutwell, John -Duer Irving, Philip Sidney Smith, Bailey Willis, and N. H. Darton. -Boutwell was to become a copper geologist and copper magnate in the -mines of Utah; Irving, Professor of Economic Geology at Lehigh and -Yale; and Smith, head of the Alaskan branch of the U. S. Geological -Survey. - -Being with Emmons, Willis, and Darton in the Black Hills field was to -learn variously how geologists work in the field and how their minds -work. Emmons was of the Boston Brahmins, a Harvard man, mining geology -his specialty, with the Clarence King tradition of the Great West, the -40th Parallel Survey. - -Bailey Willis as Chief Geologist spent a week with us in camp, and I -saw his genius for drawing in line, and he explained the four-step -pacing method. Willis mapped distances by pacing across mountains, -counting in his head, while talking at the same time. He compiled in -color a geologic map of the United States. His marvellous experiments -on mountain folding, his explorations in all the continents and his -poetic faith in hydrogen and crystallization as internal forces made -his name immortal. - -N. H. Darton mapped the Great Plains; and his genius was for hard work, -long field hours, color photography at its very beginning, and an -extraordinary eye for detail in the field. - -Darton showed me how to find the Chadron Formation on the divides, -white clays easily overlooked. Darton’s many years, traversing the -entire West, and publishing superb monographs of artesian waters and -of immense fossil sea bottoms, summarizing the geology of whole states -from Texas to Canada, ranks him among the great geologists. I learned -from him detail of infinite discovery possible in every rock ledge. He -found tiny fossil shells everyone else had missed. Powell and King had -painted impressionistic geology. Darton followed and painted thousands -of miniatures, but also combined these into large books. - -Charles Doolittle Walcott was Director of the U. S. Geological Survey -at that time, and no greater geologist ever lived. His Cambrian -fossils, those of the first great fossil-making “Mediterranean Sea” of -North America, lay buried in the United States from shore to shore. -Unswervingly he followed every inland sea of 531 million years ago and -thereafter, through advances three times across the continent. Lands -were of moderate relief and climates were mild. Marine animals and -sea weeds, large and small, were abundant for 80 million years. And -remember that a million years is a thousand times the interval since -William the Conqueror. - -The continent Walcott mapped of that ancient time was the North -America of today, with sags that let in shallow sea strips and -pools where the Cambrian shales and limestones now lie. He wrote a -description of that vast history, and all his later summers were spent -in the Canadian Rockies, where fossil-bearing strata make the most -startling mountain peaks on earth. - -My Black Hills surveys of 1898 and 1899 were near Deadwood and -Spearfish and Mato Tepee, the Devil’s Tower National Monument. In -those badlands with weird desert gorges, appear the bones of ancient -rhinoceroses and many grotesque animals, huge and tiny, of 40 to 60 -million years ago. We found little bones in white earth on the divides -still preserved against erosion. - -Our big job was to map the laccoliths near Deadwood. A laccolith, or -rock cistern, is a lava body which in very ancient times squirted into -the cracks of the strata. The lava had penetrated between the strata of -the northern cover of the Black Hills, swelled to lenses between the -strata; and, particularly, it selected and penetrated the soft shale -beds which grow thicker and more numerous upward among the formations. -Thus after erosion of the present landscape, both large and small lava -lenses were revealed as resistant hills, the largest toward the bottom -of the pile of strata and the smallest and steepest toward the top in -thick, black ancient mud deposits. - -Mostly, the laccoliths were injections of volcanic fluid up a crack, -which met a hard bed and bent to squeeze the paste or lava into a soft -layer. The result was an underground lava flow which ruptured the beds. -Apparently the first rush brought up fragments of the rocks below. This -fragmentary stuff of mud and gravel was overridden by the lava, until -the latter penetrated horizontally a mile or two between strata, arched -the layers above, and solidified at the Devil’s Tower with vertical -columns like the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland. - -This group of subterranean volcanic eruptions between strata probably -came under sea bottom at the same time that the Yellowstone upland -began its open-air outpourings farther west. But in the Black Hills -there is no sign the laccolith lavas ever broke up to the top country. - -The Black Hills, like the Rocky Mountains, were a long time rising in -waves of action, whereas the lava intrusion was a relatively short -episode of one of the latest of these spasms. However, that episode -entails a long story of numerous injections. It takes us down into -crust and along through the millennia. - -Always think in millions of years. It is wise also to think in millions -of miles and to remember that the sun and the Milky Way are parts of -the same system as the earth. And remember that a ledge or a boulder -doesn’t worry about living 20 million or 100 million years. A skull -is a boulder. That old brontotherium rhinoceros with a forked horn, -standing eight feet high and fifteen feet long, lived in the upper -Oligocene, when clay and volcanic ash were being deposited in the Bad -Lands of South Dakota. Probably vast flood plains of rivers were his -habitat, swamp reeds and leaves were his food, and floods washed his -bones and buried his skull where we find them today. The country of -open glades was probably like the safari land of central Africa. - -Brontotherium’s skull in Chicago Natural History Museum dates from -about 30 million years ago. The bones are scattered, and few complete -skeletons have been found. Man’s ancestor may have started 10 million -years ago, but the nearest approach to an ape who lived in the trees of -old Bronto’s forests was an opossum. Furthermore, nothing like flint -tools have been found in the rhino strata. The apes started in Europe -and Asia in the next geologic period, and some fossilized monkeys have -been found in South America. But men and monkeys are too soft. They -don’t make good fossils. - -The bones we found were of turtles, in clays upheaved on the top of the -Black Hills uplift. These clays were afterwards eroded into the present -valleys, and probably were contemporaneous with the riverbed silts, -where the rhinoceros skulls were found. So our turtles and rhinos were -no doubt neighbors in 29,998,000 B.C. - -Our sojourn in the Black Hills was not without adventure. One evening -when Boutwell and I were riding home to Deadwood, I dismounted and -jumped into the shrubs of a gully to knock a rock specimen off a ledge. -From beneath my feet came a buz-z-z like a swarm of bees. I had jumped -right on a rattlesnake and could feel his coils against my ankle, and -no leggings that day. Boutwell called out, “Oh let me see him! I’ve -never seen a rattlesnake.” I made a suitable reply and, somehow, leapt -clear before the snake had a chance to strike. - -Another adventure concerned my gold watch, a gift from my dad on my -twenty-first birthday. I lost it from a chain which broke against -the saddle pommel at some dismounting point. I advertised for it by -placards at railway stations and, amazingly, it was returned. A -Salvation Army man found the watch, badly trampled by my horse, at a -back country place, brought it to me in Deadwood, and received the -reward. I took it to the maker in Waltham, where it was restored; and I -am wearing it fifty-four years later, converted from a hunting case to -a stemwinder. - -John Irving of Yale, whose father had been a mining geologist in the -Great Lakes district, was one of the most lovable companions I ever -camped and tramped with. We were together in the Black Hills, where -we hired a wagon outfit to cross the Hills to the Devil’s Tower. The -personnel was a masterpiece of improvisation. The cook was a fat boy -who told marvellous tales of adventures. Among other things, he had -been a human ostrich in the circus, and he assured us that chewing up -glass and swallowing it did no harm if you knew how. So elaborate was -his cooking that again and again we ran out of grub. Furthermore, meals -were generally late, but we knew better than to hurry the supper and -his finishing touches. When finally a meal was ready, he advanced to -our tent, bowed, and called out, “Gentlemen, you will now proceed to -sagastuate.” - -Johnston the teamster was an ambitious South Dakota high school -graduate and farm boy who wanted to learn all he could from geological -surveyors. A few years ago, in the nineteen forties, I received a -letter from him in southwest Africa saying that he had been successful -in placer mining for gold and diamonds and that he was writing a book -about it. - -Arizona was my fourth field of fire-made irruptions; after New England, -the Black Hills, and the Yellowstone (old, middle-aged, and young). To -the Bradshaw Mountains between Prescott and Phoenix and lying south -of the Grand Canyon, I was sent with Palache to make the Bradshaw -Mountains folio. - -At Prescott we had the rare privilege of talks with Clarence King. An -aged bachelor dying of tuberculosis, he was living in a cottage with -an old negro servant. King was a fascinating talker and writer. He had -been the first director of the Geological Survey and was the author -of “Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada.” His great summary volume -of the 40th Parallel, the survey along the Union Pacific, is one of -the classics in literature and in geology. His model, unhappily for -him, was Alexander Agassiz, who made a great fortune out of Calumet -and Hecla copper. When King went into mining to make a fortune he -contracted tuberculosis. He died soon after we saw him. - -The problem of what makes granite was never better illustrated than -in the Bradshaws. One formation, in upright bands for miles across -country, showed dark schist, diorite, granite, diabase, granite, light -schist, quartzite, granite, gabbro, and schist again, like a succession -of dikes, slabs, and veins side by side. A mountain spur, like a -bookshelf with colored books on edge, is called Crooks Complex, and was -named after Crooks Canyon. The trend was with the pinched strata but -the stuff was mostly igneous. - -It was as though a mechanism of melting-up was mixed with intrusion -of fluid, but what fluid? A glass? or a gas? There was no smearing, -but clean-cut dikes and schist slabs on edge. In the big granite hills -there were contact breakups with fragments of schist imprisoned in -granite, but not smeared or streaked. The impression was of millions -of years and thousands of episodes, all dike-making and guided by the -upright lamination or vertical structure of the ancient altered tightly -folded clay and sand strata, squeezed together by horizontal pressure. - -Since learning of the million-year periods taught by radioactivity, and -of the many million years within a single era of geology, I have begun -to wonder whether these very old formations may represent hundreds of -millennia, with granitization happening over and over again, in each -geological revolution of upheaval and mountain building above. - -Granitization, then, is a process of heat pressure, gases, melting, -and crystal making, of which the ancient words magma or emulsion or -paste give no conception. And volcanism, up through the deep crust, is -the mystery devil. May it not be nucleonics and melting of deep crust, -rather than chemistry? And is not the mystery devil always hydrogen gas? - -At the beginning of the twentieth century I visited two places which -are close together and related to the Bradshaw Mountains. One was -Searchlight in the southern tip of Nevada, the other was the Grand -Canyon of the Colorado River. - -I shall never forget my arrival in Searchlight. A strike of miners was -going on, and Stanford geology students had been sent in as strike -breakers. Big Bill, the sheriff, brought the boys across the desert -from the railway. His buckboard was in front and the Stanforders -followed in a wagon. The strikers lined the road out from Searchlight, -intent on loosing the horses. But when they saw Bill’s star and his -notched six-shooter, they dropped their hands to their sides and stood -like a row of tin soldiers, while Big Bill led the way through at a -gallop, cursing them roundly. - -When I got off the train at Ivanpah, a small place with only a few -houses, I spoke to a young station agent where the ancient Wells Fargo -sign hung. He told me that the Quartette Mine team would meet me soon, -and shortly a cloud of dust on the desert proclaimed the vehicle which -came dashing up, a phaeton rig with two big horses. The five men inside -were armed, with rifles and pump shotguns protruding. One man pulled -out a heavy leathern pouch, and another stood over it with his rifle. -“Come on, Jack, lets go over to Wolf Saloon.” “No,” said Jack, “not -till I get my receipt.” The mild station man yanked out a receipt -book, filled the blank acknowledging $20,000 in bullion from the mine, -threw the pouch into an open safe, and Jack with his receipt departed, -leaving the gold brick to the mystic protection of that sign, “Wells -Fargo and Co.” Two ablebodied bandits could easily have held up the -whole rail terminus. - -When I started for the mine, accompanied by detectives and guards, we -all carried pistols in holsters strapped under our arms. En route, we -spent Christmas amid the smell of sagebrush and the glorious sunset -lights of a purple desert. Once more I murmured, “So this is natural -history.” - -I was employed to examine the Quartette Gold Mine, and the geologic -mystery of the origin of a million dollars in dirt between a level -200 feet down and another at a depth of 500 feet. The million dollars -was along a crushed, slipped, so-called vein, where a fault followed -the upright bedding of just such gneisses, granite dikes, and schists -as had made Crooks Complex in the Bradshaws. Where gold was richest, -minerals were richest--beautiful orange-colored wulfenite, green -chrysocolla, blue azurite, onyx, quartz, and calcite. Everywhere were -quantities of gouge, or crushed clays, from grinding walls. Native gold -particles were distributed through all this. - -The schists were filled with lava fissure fillings, and the mine -was where this pattern of bands was interrupted by a very ancient -greenstone or basalt body. Hot fluids of the volcanic period, deep -underground, had accompanied fault slipping or fracture where the ore -was, the vertical fault parallel to the upright layers and across the -greenstone contact. - -Ore and gold particles were directly related to fracture, to the fault -slipping on an upright crack of one mountain block against another, -to the hot vapors depositing the mineral collection, and to renewed -crushing and sliding on the mountain blocks. This was during or -following some part of the volcanic period when all the cracks were -injected with andesite lavas, or what the miners call porphyry. The -origin of the minerals was in lead and copper sulfides which lie deeper -down. - -A hundred miles to the northeast is the Grand Canyon, and all around -are granite mountains, just as in Arizona. These Searchlight schists -are the same Algonkian ancient strata, recrystallized and granitized, -that make the inner gorge of the canyon, and are traversed up cracks -by volcano-making lavas, such as dot the north bank of the canyon -with crater cones. Above in the canyon are the horizontal strata from -Cambrian up to the Coal Measures and beyond. The vast maze of castles -and turrets is a net of branch valleys of the Colorado, trenching -through these old seabed deposits. - -Including Searchlight ore, the whole history going backward is top -country desert, deep trench, strata piled in rivers and sea bottoms for -500 million years, and lastly faulting and cracking that squirted steam -and made gold minerals over and over again during the last 100 million -years. There were at least a dozen revolutions that lifted and lowered -mountain ranges and continents for 2,000 million years, and the remains -of iron-eating bacteria and of seaweeds and other living things that -go back for 1,500 million years. Through it all are granite injections -as a process, as a mystery, going over the whole range of years in -different ages, and meaning what? - -One of the puzzles of Grand Canyon, Bradshaw Mountains, and -Searchlight--if not also of New England, the Black Hills, and the -Yellowstone--is faulting. A fault is what a geologist means by a crack -down deep where the country rock has dropped down on one side so as to -make a discordance across country. Earthquake faults make a visible -bank or step or sidewise slip, changing the surface after an earthquake. - -The northwestern states are partly mapped as fault block mountains. The -island of Hawaii has a series of fault step blocks southeast, slipping -toward the ocean. The steep east face of the Sierra Nevada is a fault -fracture. - -Professor Shaler once stopped me on the street and said of my field -work, “Jaggar, you don’t teach faulting enough.” Faults were shown -along straight lines on the color maps of formation in the old Boston -books, and were located by guesswork if glacier deposits covered up -the ledges. It seemed to me that faults ought to be proved or else -omitted from the maps. Probably I too was wrong, for faults or cracks -completely concealed by soil and strata are tremendous unknown lines on -the globe. - -The Searchlight ore body is certainly a fault fracture, and so are -those of Tonopah and hundreds of mines. It was digging that proved it. -The cracking and slipping and steaming and mud-making on the fissure -are what brought up the minerals. - -A question arises as to how much the Grand Canyon itself and its -tributaries are guided by fault fractures under valleys. My impression -was in 1901, and it still is, that “Jaggar ought to teach faulting” -more than he then did. - -The primitive ocean blocks of earth crust sank, while continents -remained high, leaving the earth crust a mosaic of blocks large and -small, high and low. Between the blocks spout the volcanoes. I have -never agreed with C. E. Dutton that volcanic heat energy could come -from shallow pockets under those fault blocks. Even he acknowledged the -weakness of the argument. If the earth crust broke up and the blocks -variously sank in the core matter, leaving continents as a complex -of high blocks, then the blocks are deep and are still moving. The -movements are in years, year-thousands and year-millions. Volcanism up -the cracks releases core energy. So does much of fault movement, namely -earthquakes. And these facts geologists do not appreciate. - -So we get faulted river courses and fault cracks up which came fluids -that transformed sediments of rivers, lakes, deserts, and seas into -granite, felsite, and greenstone. These are the ancient names. There -are hundreds of other, geology names. But geology produced no Faraday. - -I disliked geology in 1902. And I disliked mining because of its -secrecy and its devotion to profits. Geology failed to tell businessmen -the mystery of granite, of felsite, and of greenstone. Astronomers told -the same men of mysteries, and they were fascinated. Physiology led -them to cells, plants, animals, and chemicals in the blood, solving -mystery after mystery. Men, money, inventions, engineers, buildings, -and staffs grew by leaps and bounds in those sciences. The best geology -could do was guesswork--a mastodon, a big reptile skeleton, a guesswork -color map--while seventy percent of the earth was seabottom rock, -unmapped, and twenty percent more consisted of fractures covered with -soil. - -Seeing the Carnegie and Rockefeller laboratories and observatories, I -grieved for field geology. The public did not even know that granite, -the mystery, is the commonest rock and that quartz, the gold maker, is -the commonest mineral. Nor did they know that both are almost absent -from the whole Pacific. Nor that geology is almost ignorant of their -origin and injection, if it is injection. Here was the globe, the -end product of astronomy, the most fascinating research in the whole -range of science. The source of all raw materials of commerce, yet its -fire-made rocks and its seabottom rocks remained a mystery. - -Before leaving the Grand Canyon, let me record my impressions of the -erosion. It is a gorge a mile deep usually described as “cut” by the -Colorado River. As I shall show in discussion of experiments with the -Grand Canyon model, it is possible, in stratified layers yielding grit -to flowing rainwater, to cut a deep canyon by surface runoff. It is -possible for underground water and tributaries from side rainfalls -to increase the volume of such a stream greatly in a hundred miles. -But Dutton’s showing of upheaved and downdropped big blocks of broken -mountains, and such obvious breaks as the Tonto and Bright Angel faults -shown to tourists as traced out by Bright Angel Canyon, prove that the -earth crust is broken. And Searchlight showed a fault to be a water -supply. - -The enormous canyon appeared to me to be a million-year break system -of earth-crust rotting. The water is a giant modern grinding mill of -rainfall, underground accumulation, and transport. But with five great -erosion surfaces shown in the discordances, from 2,000 million years -ago to the present day; and with upheaval of the high plateaus in block -faults, and bent strata age after age; and farther north with recent -volcanoes that spouted up the cracks, it seems more vivid to think -the valleys at least partly water-filled cracks and chasms. Volcanoes -cannot be shallow. The canyons and the great bend are different from -the Green River source, because of upward push in waves. The up-push -of the Uinta Mountains is well known to have been slow. It kept pace -with the ruptures followed by the river. Going back to Daubrée, rivers -follow cracks much more than do the textbooks. - -In 1899 two things happened which affected the rest of my life. First, -Director Walcott asked me to furnish estimates for a Hawaii geologic -survey, a request which eventually led me to Hawaii. Second, the -Yakutat Bay earthquake snapped on an astonished world, though most of -the world didn’t know it. - -The Yakutat Bay earthquakes in Alaska, in September 1899, were -accompanied by the pushing up of the bedrock shoreline by forty-seven -feet. Lowered beneath the sea were whole forests, on glacial deposits -pulled down by submarine landslips. It was an uninhabited region at -the foot of Mount St. Elias, along a fjord penetrating far into the -mountains. It came in line with the Aleutian trench, under the Pacific, -4,000 fathoms deep. The earthquakes lasted two weeks. - -This colossal movement of blocks of the earth’s crust hundreds of miles -across gave one the impression that we knew little of what was going -on. Remembering that seventy-two percent of the earth’s surface is -covered by oceans and that less than ten percent is really inhabited, I -awoke to how much there was to learn. If whole forests and their roots -could float away into the Pacific currents, with all their plants and -animals and seeds and bacteria, what might not have occurred in past -ages, when such jostling of crust blocks was common. - -But before I was to experiment with live volcanoes came a decade of -laboratory experiment. - - - - - CHAPTER II - - Imitating Ripplemarks - - “_The Constitution is an experiment, - as all life is an experiment._” - - -At the end of the century my experiments with the sclerometer, and with -the class in experimental geology, steered me for years into laboratory -experiment. Europe was headed toward geophysics and geochemistry, -meaning chiefly mathematical and statistical analysis. My vision was -nonmathematical, though I used pressures, temperatures, clocks, and -yardsticks to measure erosion, sediment, warping of strata, and melting. - -This took me away from petrography, for the polarizing microscope was -dealing with infinite series of minerals and molecules. I could see -nothing but infinite penetration into the smaller and smaller. Clarence -King and Frank Perret had been on the way to infinite journeying -outward to the bigger and bigger. - -The guiding formula was “erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and -eruption.” Measure these on the globe, imitate them with mud pies -in the laboratory. Compare the global examples with the mud pies. -Try to get the mud pies to illuminate the gigantic stream systems, -flood plains, sea bottoms, folded mountains, intrusions, and lavas -of the earth. Then try to measure in the field those processes with -observatories. So, to me, came the transition from collections to -experiments. - -The machinery of nature, whether with sand heaps or sand grains or -coral pebbles, is the same. It is impelled by currents flowing over -loose materials which make eddies in the lee of lumps. The eddies -are either billows or cyclones. At the middle they are billows; at -the ends they are cyclones. The billow eddies obstruct the heaping. -The cyclone eddies lengthen the heaps right and left of the current -direction. George Darwin studied the eddies by means of a drop of thick -ink in a glass tank on top of a ripple ridgelet. The ink migrated to -form underwater billows and cyclones, or vortexes. He used a dropper -to place the ink globule, and then watched the vortexes form as he -oscillated the tank. - -Low parts travel fastest, namely the points. High parts build on the -upstream side, and travel slowest, and the stuff tumbles over the crest -line and is corniced by the eddy. Snow does it, pebbles under sea do -it, and marine life adapts itself to it, wherever the food supply is -best. - -In the study of ripplemarks, Harry Gummeré, a graduate in astronomy, -was my collaborator. Ripplemarks are made by back-and-forth eddies on -the bottom, while big waves oscillate the water. We moved the bottom -instead of making waves in the water. A glass plate sprinkled with sand -under water in a tank was oscillated back and forth horizontally. It -was clamped under a carriage which oscillated on wire tracks stretched -across the tank. A string pulled the carriage against an elastic on -the other side. A wooden wheel and crank, set upright edgeways, had -holes and pegs to pull on the string, and the crank turns were timed -with a metronome. The holes in the flat wheel were a centimeter apart, -so that a revolution of the wheel pulled the string for every two -centimeters of travel of the carriage. Thus the sand-covered plate was -jerked back and forth under water two centimeters, four centimeters, -six centimeters, and so forth; once a second, or two seconds, or three -seconds, and so forth, by beats of the metronome. - -The result was beautiful ripplemarks on a glass which could be lifted -out of the water, dried, and placed over blueprint paper to preserve -the record. The sizes of ridge to ridge ripples were from a fraction of -an inch to two or more inches. The little ones diminished to zero when -the jerking was small, the big ones washed out when the jerking was too -big. - -The blueprints showed that both length and speed of strokes (amplitude -and acceleration of motion) made the ripples increase in size, and -somewhere between the largest and smallest sand ripples was the optimum -perfection of ripple form. The blueprints look like mackerel skies. -And mackerel-sky clouds are billows of condensation between an upper -cold stream of air and a lower moist one. In between are the same -back-and-forth billows of vortex as in our sand. - -At a geological conference at Harvard I showed blueprints made directly -from glass plates covered with artificial ripplemarks. At the same time -I exhibited rock slabs of fossil ripplemarks and photographs of others -shaped like horseshoes. These were variants of the rippledrift process -seen on sandy beds of running streams. I also showed photographs of -swash marks running along the upper steep slopes of beaches. And of the -wind-formed rippledrift of dry sand dunes. From the deserts of Peru -come photographs of _medaños_, or crescent dunes, hills of sand -tapering to curved points at both ends. The points are downwind, the -high horseshoe toe of the hill is upwind, and like a coral atoll the -edifice is current-formed. - -Ripplemarks can form in hundreds of fathoms of ocean water if the storm -waves on the surface of the sea are big enough. A particle of water on -the crest of a wave is lifted up and down in a long vertical ellipse. -A particle deep down under the wave is lifted fore and aft in a long -horizontal ellipse. Under a three-hundred-foot length of wave in the -English Channel in deep water the bottom particles of water are shoving -sand back and forth, and making packed ripplemarks. - -A big sand grain becomes a lump for small sand grains to bump against. -They make a heap which piles up and lengthens out. The heaps merge and -we get a tightly packed and ridged sandy bottom. Each ridge has an eddy -first on one side, then on the other, as the water particles reverse in -direction. Oscillation builds first flocculence, then alignment, then -even spacing. The opposite sides of a ridge have equal slopes. - -Rippledrift is made by a current in one direction. It is usually not so -regular or in such straight ridges as ripplemarks. If a stream of water -is jetted over sand round and round in a ringshaped tank, ridges will -migrate along the bottom, but they are smeary. The regular ripples in -dry sand on dunes have flatter slopes upwind, steep scarps downwind. -They are regular, probably because wind blowing is intermittent and -back currents occur. So they become more like ripplemarks. - -On the bottoms of water streams, the horseshoe rippledrift requires -a nice adjustment of lumps and side points migrating downstream. All -rippling requires a sand of mixed sizes of grains. If they were all -alike they would not ripple, for the larger grains have to obstruct the -smaller ones in order to produce the ripple pattern. Rippledrifting -as a whole is a building mechanism. Mixed with wave currents which -move beaches along, including beach pebbles, it can be compounded -into building oceanic islands. The crescent dunes of the desert are -dependent on the prevailing winds being loaded with a sand supply at a -windward erosion source. - -Oceanic currents depend on the winds, like the trades in the tropics, -and an obstructing bank or shoal adds surf action to the streaming. If -corallines and _Tridacna_ clams and crabs add organic cements, a -horseshoe hill is built on the sea bottom. Big eddies will do the same -kind of work as little eddies. This phenomenon extends all the way -from the galaxies of stars with their beautiful spirals, to the spiral -eddies in molten lava rushing down a pit crater, or to the streaming of -protoplasm in a plant. - -De Candolle, the great botanist, studied rippledrift in order to try to -solve the most abstruse problem in all biology, the unsolved mystery of -cell division. At some critical point a budding cell decides to form -a partition and divide in two. Why or how? De Candolle thought that -the protoplasm granules circulating around the cell walls might start -regular lumps on those walls, and so build rippledrifts and make eddies. - -Thus a current and an eddy and mathematics might start many of the -doubles, triples, hexagons, and stars of the world of shells and living -tissues. And the cells could pile up in symmetry in the submicroscopic -world. - -The erosion of the earth’s surface reveals symmetries. River maps look -like trees with branches and with rivulets as twigs. Other symmetry is -in the horizontal plane of the ocean, where headland furnishes pebbles -and the sand sweeps into pure curves of beach and bar and cusp. So a -delta builds into a lake of leaf shape and annual layers are added as -the flood seasons come. - -Some of the fingerlike drainage of erosion cuts into plowed lands -during a rainy spell. This suggests what might be done with a spray, a -mud bank, and a tank, to see how the finger valleys form. This erosion -of the runoff of water was imitated in the Harvard laboratory. - -A beautiful river pattern on a slope, like the trickle of raindrops on -a windshield, was made by tipping up a rectangular glass plate covered -with very liquid clay. A portion clung to the glass, and exquisite -fernlike streams formed on the upper half of the plate, with a bank of -distributaries of V-shape on the lower slope. - -This glass plate was used for a surface of stamp mill slimes, of -thicker beds, and was eroded with an atomizer and water by means of a -barbershop air compressor. The slimes are very fine pounded sands with -angular fragments. To get a stream pattern, this is necessary, so as -to have fine grit to cut down the rivulets between the coarse grit -remnants. This resembles the requirements for ripples. - -The spray was kept going for hours. Meanwhile the river pattern at the -steep sides of the sloping plate ate into the bank of sediment, robbing -the streams of the main slope, because the side streams were oblique -cascades. They dug deep, took off the water, and left the main slope -streams without their headwater drainage. The pattern of the main slope -became the headwater branches of the side streams, the streams which in -plan drained over the edge of the uplifted plate right and left. This -was somewhat like stream robbery. - -For example, the Lewis River at the south end of Yellowstone Park -once drained Yellowstone Lake, including the Lamar River, which is -now the headwaters of Yellowstone River. The Yellowstone plateau -formerly drained south into the Snake River and the Pacific Ocean. -The Yellowstone River headwaters suddenly tapped the system, thanks -to geyser erosion and acid corrosion, and the Yellowstone Canyon cut -down rapidly, reversing to the north the outlet of Yellowstone Lake. -Thereafter the lake flowed into the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. -At some critical time about the glacial period the continental divide -made a leap of thirty miles from the present head of the Canyon to the -neighborhood of Lewis Lake, or from one end of Yellowstone Lake to the -other. This is stream robbery. - -Spray and runoff and rainfall and wash did not alone cut down the -Yellowstone Canyon. The essentials were the rotting of rock and the -pull of gravitation on the fragments. The Yellowstone rotted away on -the north side, but it was hard granite and mountain-built quartzites -on the south, toward the Tetons. Hot spring rotting, geyser erosion, -acid waters, and sulfur decomposed the north country. The underground -water head followed the easiest channels, and the canyon was the -result. The canyon line encircles Mount Washburn, the old volcano, and -conceivably is over an old crack concentric to the dome. - -Water is a transporter, and cracking opens ways to the rotting agents. -Only in rivulets and floods does water actually corrade, or grind, the -bottoms of streams. In our spray and fern patterns there is analogy to -rainfall springs on flat strata, but nine-tenths of the elements of -erosion are left out: jointing, weathering, ice, faulting, gravitation, -rotting down, quaking, solution, sliding, and last, spring water. - -Erosion by sliding continues by wind action in desert mountains, and -on volcanic cones under bombardment, and by rocks snapping under chill -and sunshine on the moon. Creep of loose stuff is the greatest eroder -on earth. Rainfall cloudbursts certainly help, especially where soil is -not held together by a mat of roots. - -The process of erosion is supposedly slow, as all geological processes -are slow, if we neglect the possibility of such submarine landslips -or supramarine upheavals as occurred at Yakutat in 1899. But even -New England has floods, hurricanes, landslides, forest fires, and -cloudbursts which are exclamation points on an otherwise sleepy -history. And in the past it has had ice sheets, and subsidences beneath -the sea. - -In other words, the making of valleys and stream patterns for the -map is accented occasionally, and the occasions may come in climatal -waves unknown to us. The stream patterns in the Bad Lands, Tennessee, -Pennsylvania, the Grand Canyon, and New England make very different -maps. The rotting of the rock, limestone caverns, rainfall, faults, and -sloping underground strata bearing spring water all influence these -maps. What is erosion and what index is written on the land to say the -Grand Canyon and tributaries are being carved downward faster than the -Mystic River in Boston? - -Ralph Stone tackled the Mystic River, and marked ledges and set stakes -opposite the flood plain meanders. The idea was that ledges split by -winter freezes, and that the meanders of a stream build on one side -and cut on the other. Maps were made repeatedly, and the ledge cracks -were measured in millimeters. Some movement was found, but a college -year was not enough time. If we could combine as a motion picture, -photographs from the air taken once a year for many years, doubtless -the film would show that the stream meander pattern is migrating toward -the sea like a wiggling snake. - -Stone next made a model three inches thick in a tank of water, by -sedimenting sixty-one very thin layers of marble dust, coal dust, -clay, red lead, and sand. He tipped it up as an island and sprayed it -in periods which lasted one to ninety-two hours, up to a total of 719 -hours. A forking stream and its delta were formed in the lagoon of -the tank. The stream cut a canyon with waterfalls, treelike branches, -esplanades, and a flood plain. There were three principal hard white -multiple strata layers in the model, separated by sand. The white -layers made waterfalls and were eaten back to form the canyons. - -When the cross section of the delta was sliced with a knife, it showed -three white layers foreset at thirty degrees under the tank pool -and separated by more sandy strata. The bottommost of these was the -sediment of the top thick marble dust layer of the model as first -eroded by the spray, and the top frontal layer of the leaf-shaped delta -was the product of the erosion of the canyon bottom on the lowest of -the white layers. This must happen in nature where one formation in -reverse order is derived by river erosion undermining a stratified -older pile of sediments. - -We called this the Grand Canyon model, and it showed many features -similar to those of South Dakota Bad Lands and the Colorado River -drainage. It was strictly rainfall erosion and stratification soakage -and seepage. The model surface sloped ten degrees, the high divide -at the top had a backslope of forty-five degrees, and everything was -sprayed for two months with special hose nozzles, making during part of -each day a mistlike rainfall. - -The steep backslope did not trench itself at all despite its steepness. -This slope, on the contrary, absorbed moisture and carried the rainfall -underground down the dip of the strata to add spring water to the main -streams. The backslope was a “steep escarpment,” supposed in physical -geography to migrate by trenching backward, but the rills never gained -volume enough to cut into it. All the water volume acquired its grit -for cutting from the large surfaces, which were gradually tilted in the -direction of the rivers. - -When the complete series of experiments on erosion and sediment -was published, it showed that the treelike branching of rivers is -dependent on underground water surfaces; that meanders on a flood plain -are partly a bubbling-up process of flood-plain soakage; that when -side tributaries form by undermining, the upstream branches cut off -underground water from the downstream branches; and that when a country -is tilted in one direction, there is a tendency to parallel streams, -separated by intervals controlled by underground water areas reached by -the undermining tracery of headwater springs. - -This arborescence in a spray model is a regular and delicate -adjustment, where a bunch of tributaries is not mere catchment of -rainfall, but is the product of sheet flood in belts of underground -water related to the tilt of the country. Arborescence of river -drainage on a surface of flat strata, like the coastal plain of the -southeastern United States, is a rhythmical pattern of exquisite -design capable of reproduction and study in the laboratory. It is a -mathematical forking and headward development dependent on volume -of water, undermining impermeable strata along permeable ones. And -after the “tree” map is formed, the bulb of branches and twigs and -underground leaves of spring water holds all the downslope country in -its “shadow,” so that no new rivers can form there. This is what makes -our great maps of river systems. It is not haphazard. It is a vast -ocean of underground water, with mountains of water and valleys of -water. - -A great lake marks an underground soakage water level. A riverbed marks -an underground seepage topography. The sea of water inside a continent -is just as much a map of hills and dales of water as the land is a -map of the hills and valleys of geography. The water is dynamic, it -is flowing. The land surface is dynamic and rain fed; it is creeping -soils. Together, groundwater and rivers are melting down the landscape -as a living thing. Man dams the water and uses the power of the erosion -melting down the land. - -When we went to Haystack Basin north of the Yellowstone Park, we found -that all of the mountains surrounding it were audibly crumbling. -Ultimately, the continent is all one thing: a falling body of rotten -rock, ice, water, sand, boulders, and soils, self carved into valleys -and mountains, always tumbling. And down below are the fault blocks, -prisms of earth shell over the white hot core. And that also is -eternally in motion, irrupting, earthquaking, lifting, falling, -scraping, heating, cooling in waves through the ages. Man is very tiny, -but if he listens he can hear the earth’s heartbeats. - -At hot springs the water mantle meets the hot earth shell. So the -geyser basins of Yellowstone, California, New Zealand, and Iceland are -a hot part of the great erosion system of groundwater. This brings us -to the next group of experiments, the making of artificial geysers. - -Geysers as eroders show that the under earth is hot and is invaded by -rainwater. In exceptional volcanic places the water is boiling hot. The -Firehole River of the Yellowstone is carving down basins of solution -faster than the regular geysers are building up siliceous sinter. Here -is boiling-spring erosion by solution. It may be called the extreme -thermal aspect of ordinary spring-water erosion. How does spring water -erode? By bubbling up under the beds of rivers. The bubbling out of -springs starts rivers, and flood rainfall starts soil gullies; land -sculpture is the result. - -We introduce geyser experiments here because boiling springs make drama -out of ordinary springs, just as active volcanoes make drama out of -buried volcanoes. Ordinary springs and buried lavas intruding invisibly -are much more important and extensive than geysers and volcanoes. Most -people never think of a spring as one of millions bubbling up the beds -of brooks and rivers and sea bottoms. - -Most people never think of volcanoes erupting--properly speaking, -irrupting or inrupting--under Kansas or Brazil. Nobody denies those -places are hot underground, but it all seems remote. Yet every spring -is thermal if there is heat escaping through the rocks around it. - -Geyser basins lower the country around them and leave hills in relief. -The proportions of basins and hills depend upon the runoff of rotting -and dissolving rock. The shape of a hill standing high, what Davis -called a monadnock in New England, depends on its whole history, not -on its hardness. Ascutney Mountain stands high as a lump because -surrounding slates have rotted down. Mount Monadnock may stand high -because the springs under the river pattern of cracks neglected it in -the rotting and crunching of a continent. - -Dynamic weight eternally falling makes low places. Hardness against -weathering makes a mountain high only as a relic or residual. It is -a node in the gigantic process of gravitation rotting and the spring -squirting of groundwater. The water heats, rises, dissolves, siphons, -springs up, and transports dirt. Underneath is a definitely heated -earth crust. - -Accordance of summit levels of mountains and hills as one looks across -country does not have to represent an upraised plane surface. There -is more undermining where the spring squirting is most voluminous. -When spring squirting is equal, the opposed slopes of a valley adjust -themselves. The tree line, the snow line, the rain line, and the wind -line are definite levels of erosion. Under it all the rotting rock is -falling toward the earth’s center, slowly, creakingly. The everlasting -hills are not everlasting, they are everfalling; rocks, boulders, -slopes, waters, gravels, sands, and muds. And adjustment to the -atmosphere and groundwater surface is irresistible. - - [Illustration: _1. Experimental Geology Laboratory, Harvard - University, 1900_] - - [Illustration: _2. Fountain at edge of lava lake, May 17, - 1917_] - -The notion of erosion pulling down hills to a flat plane near sea level -is fascinating to geometry-minded people, but not to the mechanically -minded. A flat plane near sea level in the Mississippi delta is -where the river has swung right and left against valley walls, over -its own flood plain. A flat plain, secured by ice sheets or planed off -by encroaching wave action as land sinks is mechanically probable. In -these circumstances we look for river or ice or wave-beach deposits. -But an “almost plane” occasioned by the multiple action called erosion -down to base level is to me the delightful dream of map students. If -a landscape has been planed off, a machine router or planer did it. -The great rivers of China have had a long time to bang back and forth -against their confining boxes of rock and on top of their own mud. - -To return to geyser-spring experiments, I built a simple quart flask -surmounted by a four-foot glass tube. At the top the tube rose through -a cork in the bottom of a two-foot pan. In the side of the cork of the -flask was a second tube with a hose leading up to a reservoir bottle of -water. The reservoir bottle could be raised or lowered. If the water in -it was level with the pan, there was hydrostatic equilibrium: the pan -a pool, the bottle a source, the flask and tube full. When we applied -heat to the bottom of the flask, the water boiled, the pan overflowed, -and some cold water from the bottle chilled the flask. The pan had -become a boiling spring. - -Next we lowered the reservoir bottle. The reduced head of water -permitted no overflow at the pan, and steam bubbles accumulated in the -four-foot upright tube. The boiling point was controlled by four feet -of water pressure. If the bubble lift reduced this to three feet, there -was a lower boiling point, the pressure was reduced by overflow above, -and the whole flaskful boiled. The geyser tube became a regular geyser -at intervals of a minute and a half, with eruptions enduring twenty -seconds. - -This was a miniature of Old Faithful in the Yellowstone. Old Faithful -is bigger, its intervals average sixty-five minutes, and they range -from thirty-one to eighty-one minutes. It jets up 150 feet for a period -of four minutes. It throws out 3,000 barrels of water at each eruption. -Our little machine threw up about a pint to a height of four feet. - -We hear much about soaping geysers as an artificial stimulus. The -apparatus in our laboratory showed the effect of soap right away. When -some soap was put in the pan, the intervals of a minute and a half -shortened to one minute. Soapsuds accumulated in the tube and depressed -the water to the neck of the flask. The multiple bubbles, film against -film, made the water system viscous. The myriads of tiny steam bubbles -formed so fast that they shortened the lifting time for the column. -If the height of the reservoir bottle was so adjusted that the geyser -didn’t quite know whether it was a geyser or a boiling spring, the soap -made the decision, and the thing went off with a bang. - -This simple group of experiments makes springs very real. The -Yellowstone explosive springs differ from other springs in having -superheated steam from live lavas to heat them. The rock is cracked and -the water is doing a job of solution and deposition. It deposits stout -tough silica around some openings and builds them up against the head -of groundwater, and they become geysers. It deposits lime dissolved off -underlying limestone at Mammoth, and this makes sculptured terraces -but not explosive springs because the temperatures are not so hot. In -both lime and silica regions, blue-green algae, which love hot water, -decoratively sculpture the pools. - -Like a magician I exhibited the artificial geysers before New York -and Boston science academies, and gave the summaries of the results -of our geyser experiments, as follows: (1) Boiling springs are like -other springs, controlled by the head or pressure of underground water -in the hills. (2) Upstreaming of heated water and building up of -silica (convection is the scientific jargon) may push the vent of a -boiling spring even higher than its source (reversed head). (3) In this -delicate condition, even rainfall or sinter building up or outburst -at a lower level or clogging of a pipe may change spring to geyser or -geyser to spring. There are many more boiling springs than there are -geysers, and many more hot springs than there are boiling springs, and -the word cold means nothing at all. There may be boiling springs under -New York City if you go deep enough. That is why the riot of geyser -apparatus is worth thinking about. (4) Irregular geysers overflow -continually, regular geysers discharge their waters only during -eruptions. Both are methods of feeding rivers, just like any other -springs. But there is a lot of volcanic heat underground. - -This brings up the question of how much a volcanic eruption is like -a geyser. Geologists apply a glib word, phreatic, to Japan’s Bandai -Volcano, which blew steam and rocks out of the side of a mountain and -dammed a river. Hawaiian volcanoes squirt liquid basalt up a crack -with flames and red fume and sulfur gas, and almost no steam at all. -The answer seems to be that the Palisades of the Hudson may once have -been Hawaiian lava eruptions and, further, that lava is still erupting -there if you go down deep enough. New York doesn’t know about it, but -it sensed it in 1886, when it felt the Charleston earthquake. - -All that Catskill water supply of the great city is in cracks above the -level of the deep lava, and extends out under Long Island Sound. If the -Hudson fault fissure wiggled a little more than usual, and if the deep -lava lowered and pulled down some of the Atlantic water, an eruption -like Bandai is not impossible in the Watchung Ridge of New Jersey. -This is not likely; but the globe has been through revolutions and -cataclysms, and the Watchung explosions might start a new geyser basin. -Something like that happened in northwest Wyoming in the Pliocene -age, during 11 million years, next preceding the ice ages that began -2 million years ago. And the Yellowstone was the result. We shall see -more volcano geysers. - -Next, the making of deltas became a hobby in our laboratory, in -connection with the old leaf deltas scattered on the New England -landscape, partly covered with trees within the grounds of the country -villas about Boston. - -Delta deposits extend upstream, within the mould of the cavern within -ice of the glacial period. Thus the map shows a snake-like ridge of -gravel, ending in a maple-leaf flat, with lobate frontal slopes. These -slopes were much steeper where the dump of the stream on the delta fell -over the beach line at the lagoon or lake level in which the delta was -built. This was like the delta shown in Stone’s erosion model. - -Stone prospected the idea of torrential deltas in a tank, while E. W. -Dorsey and I started a tank imitation of the glacial sand delta. In the -glacier, the ice tunnel had been supplied with water by melting through -the ice crevasses, just like tunnels seen in Switzerland, floored with -sand ground up by the ice. There was thus a torrent pouring along -inside an arched tunnel, the mouth of which emerged on a delta in a -pool, with water surface either at the tunnel level or above it against -the rounded front of the ice mass. - -In imitation of a rounded bank of ice with a pool of water in front -and with a subglacial meandering cave fed with sands and a torrent, -an apparatus was built and supplied by a hose. A sheet of lead was -bent in the form of the glacier surface, with an arched opening, and -set in our tank. This fitted over a tunnel of sheet iron, soldered -so as to meander in plan, and fitted at its upper end with pipe and -hose connection. A sheet-iron funnel rose from the upper end of this -artificial cavern, wherewith to supply different colored sands to the -model subglacial river, represented by the hose jet and iron tunnel. -The iron tunnel ended flush with the leaden arch. - -The object of the experiments was, first, to set the leaden glacier -in a pool of water in the laboratory tank. Next, to jet water through -the tunnel, supply sediment in successive colors through the funnel, -and let that accumulate on the bottom of the tunnel and in a delta -in front of the artificial leaden glacier. The deltas and their -sliced cross sections in different experiments represented the noted -difference of kinds of sand supply or difference in water level of the -pool. In one case the water level was below the ceiling of the tunnel -where it emerged from the arch entrance. In another, it was above the -cavern mouth, so that water of the cavern stream, debouching from the -submerged cavern mouth in the lagoon, spurted up with its mud and made -a half crater against the glacier front. - -These experiments illuminate the gravel-quarry sections of -Massachusetts. In those cuts in eskers (serpent ridges) and sand plains -(glacial delta fans) were seen topset beds, or flood wash, or foreset -beds at forty-five degrees which are the sublagoon frontal wash, and -occasionally backset beds where cavern wash gushed upward. - -So our cross sections, cut with a knife in the delta, and the winding -cake extending upstream in the cavern showed topset, foreset, and -backset strata after draining the tank and lifting out the apparatus. -From the embryo delta the flood-plain beds overlap the earlier frontal, -or foreset, beds. The frontal beds are always under the lagoon. The -flood-plain beds (topset) were made by a meandering river course under -the air. Always this plain is built at beach level as a wash fan shaped -like a leaf, with the cavern stream bottom as the stem of the leaf. - -New England has been covered with mountainous ice, miles high. -Subglacial streams and subglacial clear ice caverns are abundantly -found at the lower ends of all glaciers in the world. They merely -represent the melting snow and ice in pulses of sunshine, snow at the -source, ice in the course, crevasses and gravitation making water seep -through. This water shapes a channel for itself and erodes a sewer -system of scouring along the bottom of the subglacial valley. This -grinds and melts the bottom ice into arched caverns; and the sediment -builds up on the stream bottoms, eventually carving the roofs of the -caverns into high arches or arcades. The subglacial caverns are self -constructed drainage pipes. - -The glacial stream is really a river flood cutting its valley. The ice -river grinds and scrapes, and the water under the ice pipes and drains -the melting. The ice carries chisels of broken rock. The enormous -weight, in gliding plane layers of ice, flows in accordance with the -crystal laws of snowflakes and ice crystals. The moraines, or debris -fields, at the sides and on top and underneath the eroding ice jumble -yield mud and sand and boulders. The torrent underneath removes the -rubbish. - -The delta in front follows laws of sedimentation. If there is no lake -in front, the delta is a flat wash fan, or valley flood plain. All -these things become clear to the student who makes a baby glacier out -of tinware, sand, a tank, a hose, and a faucet. - -I have spoken of cataclysms, or what early geologists called -catastrophe, happening occasionally in the world of erosion and -subterranean geysers. Such were the Yakutat crash and the Bandaisan -explosion. But each glacier-period field, like an ice mountain over -Europe and America, constituted a cataclysm lasting 500,000 years, -and this happened four times even in the centuries of early man. The -Mediterranean and the Great Lakes are offspring of such cataclysms. -But Lyell carried the doctrine of uniformity to extremes; he thought -that what man sees is what always happens. I do not believe Lyell ever -realized that earth or sun might conceivably explode in a month of our -time. Again, this is not likely. - -The opposite of uniformitarianism is occasional catastrophic trigger. -The process of erosion pulls the trigger for sudden deformation. Slow -deformation pulls a trigger for eruption. Eruption triggers internal -intrusions. The Frank Landslip; the Charleston, San Francisco, and -Napier earthquakes; the Pelée eruption; and the Yakutat upheaval all -created terrific surprises for geologists. - -The gigantic intrusions through millions of years from the core of the -earth, made of white hot star matter, percolating to surface volcano -belts up 1,800 miles of permanent, primitive cracks, are mostly -balanced by the crustal weight. This is the adjusting globe. But the -intrusive mechanism, under tides in the rock and in the oceans, always -in motion, pulls the trigger for the big geologic revolutions. - -The very deep broken earth blocks shift, volcanism between them heats -the surface, floods the surface with gas foam, and lifts areas of -surface by heat swellings; and on the surface, what was a glacial -period gives place to a volcanic period. The last of these was the -Miocene Tertiary, with large-scale volcanic eruptions all over the -world. - -Comparing Boston with the Black Hills showed underground eruptions in -the latter, for which a warping uplift pulled the trigger. These were -the rock cisterns or lenses of porphyry injected among the strata. The -time of this was Miocene or Eocene Tertiary, probably later than most -of the volcanoes of the Yellowstone, farther west. - -Boston, on the other hand, was making black basaltic dikes, probably -identical with the volcanoes of the Berkshire Hills and New Haven, of -the age of the big reptiles, 150 million years before the Black Hills -injections. The trigger which pulled off the Boston eruptions was the -Appalachian warping. That which fired off the Black Hills was the -Laramie revolution that pushed up the Rocky Mountains. - -The injection of lava lenses in the Black Hills was a form of -deformation of strata which we experimented with in the laboratory. The -layers of sandstone, limestone, and old ocean muds covering over the -arch of these hills were injected by dikes or fissure fillings from -below. How would injections behave? - -With Ernest Howe as my associate, I arranged a square tank for -sedimenting sand, plaster powder, coal dust, or marble dust in layers -under water. Under it was an iron cylinder in which wax could be -melted. A screw piston pushed the molten wax up to inclined or upright -slots in the middle of the tank box. The water was drained off, and -the hot wax was injected up into the strata. The tank sides were taken -down, and hardened lenses of wax were sliced vertically with a hot -knife to show what had happened to the strata by the process of wax -intrusion. - -In some of the experiments 300 pounds of shot were piled over a cloth -layer on top of the strata to imitate the weight of natural sediments. -This was before injection of the hot wax, and the result was a neat -dome of deformed layers at the surface, a domical hill over a lens of -wax inside. This hill was eroded with a spray of water to show what -kind of radial valleys would form. Such radial streams were found in -South Dakota, with infacing escarpments, around some of the dome hills -made by laccoliths. - -From the beginning it appeared that a lens of injection would form, -that the strata would arch over a dome of wax. The arched strata -stretched on the crest and the breaks gaped upward, while the side -bends cracked gaping downward. It was there that the wax could break -its way upward and make a volcano. Some nice little experimental -volcanoes of wax-built cones and craters formed on top of the model. - -As with all folded strata arched downward under weight, the cracks -on the bend of a downward arch, or syncline, admit lava from below, -whereas the cracks on the upward arch, or anticline, are held tight, -closed by the weight of strata above. Thus an intrusive dome will not -erupt through its crest, but through its sides. - -The results of all these tests showed that rigid beds carried the -arching force and that soft beds were most invaded and pushed aside by -the wax. The steepness of curvature of arch varied with the load. An -inclined pipe formed an irregular lens thickest away from the incline. -In a hard bed ruptured on a downbend, concentric fractures around a -dome let the lava up to higher strata. - -On the crest of a hard bed the fractures are like the spokes of a -wheel, but they do not make dikes; they yawn open upward. Liquid wax -tended to spread as a thin sheet in soft layers of strata, stiffer wax -tended to arch up in a steeper dome. Rapid injection made a higher and -smaller dome than slow injection. - -Compared with the arching up the whole long mountain oval of the entire -Black Hills dome, with granite on the crest, this intrusion of wax -only imitates the small domes of lava intrusion or injection, where -the injection carries the energy or stress. Indeed, in nature, even -the lava lenses are influenced by the buckling that is going on in the -strata under stresses of crust warping. For the warping crust of the -earth is always pulling the trigger and straining the strata. The lava -rising from below seeks out the weak places and assists the buckling, -as well as following the most incoherent mud or shale beds. - -When it comes to the big oval of the whole Black Hills uplift--swollen -up like the Rocky Mountains during millions of years and within which -the lava injections were only an item--we are dealing with a push from -below or an expansion that swelled up the pre-Cambrian ancient rocks as -well as the later granites. Such swellings were doubtless made again -and again in Massachusetts. There, also, we find lavas and granites and -Red Beds and glacial boulders, older than the Appalachian Mountains, -as well as younger. The younger Triassic lavas are definitely erupted -between fault blocks. - -All that our experiments showed was what melted stuff will do in -strata under weight, when the force of melted stuff overcomes that -pressure to find a place for itself, although the weight may be more -or less lifted by big arching that is taking place on a big scale. The -arching is bigger than the hydraulic or gas pressure squirting. - -There is another possibility besides buckling. This is faulting, or -movement of deep crust blocks the boundaries of which do not appear. -The deep crust is a movable mosaic above the core, and this movement -renews itself, now here, now there. Dutton shows that we may think of -the Rocky Mountains this way all the way out to the Pacific coast. We -may have the core fluids sucking down the blocks, the volcanic fluids -pushing up the local strata. And the volcanic fluids in cracks are the -degenerate gassy top remnants of the core fluids which man has never -seen and which are 1,800 miles down. - -The boundaries of the crust blocks do not appear because the whole -first shell of the globe is buried under lavas and intrusions and -crystals and mud, meaning by mud, countless dumpings of lakes and -rivers and seas through 3,000 million years. Such is the kind of -thinking started by making wax injections. - -It will be seen from the experiments that whether we are imitating -underground heat with a Bunsen burner to start a geyser, or overground -cold with delta apparatus to simulate a glacier, we are dealing with -erosion of the earth’s surface. Erosion started with the first attack -on lava by the atmosphere or by sea water. Never was the pristine -lava anything like the magma inside the globe; it snapped and chilled -and oxidized. Whether we call it basalt or obsidian, it degenerated. -Moreover, it degenerated in the outer crust when it loosed its gases, -heated itself and the rock wall, found groundwater and free air, and -started oxidation new to it. Thermal action is just as much concerned -with erosion as is rainfall or snow. Therefore, whether injecting -wax and swelling strata or imitating geysers and ripplemarks, we -were experimenting with volcanoes, for the crust of the earth is -fundamentally volcanic. For the purposes of this book these facts -demand reiteration. - -In what are called geosynclines, or earth sags, the great beds of -strata are accumulated. They are the dirt washed from highlands into -midland seas. They are strata of sandstone, mudstone, or limestone; -thin films in comparison with the fire-made earth crust. It was -the wrinkling of basin fills by expansion or end push that built -Himalaya and Appalachia. The mountains are etched out of foldings and -overthrusts and faults by rotting and water transport. Pressing the -strata endways to wrinkle them is called mountain building, much better -named strata wrinkling. The thickest of them reached twelve miles -vertically, but what is that to the earth’s crust of 1,800 miles? The -crust lifts and lowers fault blocks. The little strata basins expand -with heat on their bottoms and get pulled and pushed by underground -lava intrusions. Also they get squeezed by global contraction between -crust blocks, and shoved up and down by the agelong wobbles. The -biggest wobble was the downdrop of the great oceans over fault blocks -when the crust first cracked and settled over the core. Those oceans -have shifted and adjusted in waves of global action ever since. The -crust has kept the earth a sphere while lavas erupted and weighted down -the blocks. This block wobble extends into the innermost continents. -Eruptions up the cracks migrated from the continental seas to the -shores of the present oceans. They changed composition as they did so, -because they changed from under-air eruptions to under-sea eruptions, -fifteen pounds pressure to 600 atmospheres pressure. From erosion -eruptions with enormous heat, to deep sea eruptions with enormous -chilling and pressure. And the latter are the volcanoes of the present -day, mostly concealed except for the islands and sea borders. - -Meantime, the crust blocks continue to wobble up and down, and quakes -continue to creak under the rock tides of sun and moon pulls. The -creaks and wobbles are our big earthquakes, tidal waves, and eruptions. -Such big accumulations of eruptions as the Cordillera or the Hawaiian -Ridge is a terrific weight in a few million years. Both heaps have been -at it since Miocene time, or for about 18 million years, banging down -through the crust blocks on top of the core. Whether such balancing -of heavy weights on top of the crust blocks is due to change of lava -weights or sediment basins, six to twelve miles of rock vertically, the -down squeeze and underflow is called by the Greek word isostasy. It -means standing level and is a poor word because the earth’s crust never -stands still. The blocks are eternally adjusting and creaking over a -fluid core, the globe is whirling, the sun and moon are pulling, the -volcanoes are erupting, and the solar system is shooting through space. -Terra firma is never static. And our little atmospheric lives on top of -it never stand still. We are hot, and we ourselves do a great deal of -eroding. - -This oration is introduction to the next series of Harvard experiments, -which dealt with squeezing and wrinkling strata in imitation of the -folds and faults of the Appalachian Mountains. Bailey Willis, at the -Geological Survey, made a press of wax models of strata. A heavy oak -piston was advanced by a screw crank. The models were waxes mixed with -plaster for hard strata and waxes mixed with Venice turpentine for soft -strata. They were cast to imitate actual successions of hard, thick -limestones; less hard sandstones; soft mudstones; or slates. The piston -advanced at a measured rate against one end of the model, the other -end being a fixed box, the strata lying horizontally. The elongate -Appalachian basin had a continent (the piston) to the east; a wide flat -fill of limestones or sea bottom to the west (the box); and the deepest -trough of pebbles, sands, and muds on the east, toward the rivers of -the eroding continent of that ancient time. The heavy limestone tapered -from the west into these thinner beds and made a stiff rib in their -midst. The final result of their wrinkling was linear folds with axes -north and south parallel to the trough, and close set at the east. -The folds overturned toward the west, the overturns developing into -overthrust fractures westward when the beds ruptured. Also, the folds -became bigger, flatter, and wider apart westward under the deeper sea, -the famous one being the Cincinnati arch. - -The evidence in the middle eastern states is that the trough bottom -sank as the heavy shore sediments were dumped by rivers into the sea. -The west-central states received a wide flat of limestone. Uplift of -the continent shallowed the ocean and pushed it, narrower, over to the -great plains. So there were left a deep trough of weak beds, a massive -limestone, and an overlap of continental wash across the uplifted later -continent of the present time. The problems to be studied in Willis’ -models were how folding would affect such a pile, what transmitted the -wrinkling force, what started a single fold, and how soft and hard -strata behaved under horizontal pressure. - -He found that hard, thick layers of limestone transmitted the push -farthest. That soft beds piled up on each other near the piston. That -these beds showed beautiful overthrust faults inclined away from the -piston. And that the start of individual folds was favored by very -small initial bends in a transmitting layer. These downbends away from -the continent would be made as the trough bottom sank through the ages. -The nature of this sinking in upright slices of the bottom rock is -probably downfaulting. Each vertical slice would make a step-bend as it -sank. - -The bottom of Willis’ box did not admit of down motion by underflow, -nor did the piston pressure create an opposed horizontal force that -might have come from the ocean area. In restraining up motion over the -folds that formed, Willis piled bags of shot on top of the model to -represent downweighting. The folding in the Appalachians was down at -the bottom of the heap where things were hot and compressed, and heat -could extend individual strata. - -In our pressure chest we extended the Willis conception. We made two -pistons at opposite ends of an oaken box, with thick plate glass -panes at one side, so as to watch the folding. The two pistons would -distribute the end pressure better and admit the possibility that all -the pressure did not come from the continent. The bottom under the -model was an inner box that could move down, hung on heavy spring -balances. These could be screwed up to a pressure upward to compensate -the load of shot. Thus the first fold could arch downward as well as -upward. This imitated a possible lowered trough bottom. The piston rate -of advance was controlled by metronome, one man at each screw. - -For examples, models E, F, and G had four white and four black layers, -all alike in substance, at fast, medium, and slow rates. The quickest -was shortened one inch in five minutes. The slowest was one inch in -an hour and three-quarters. The quick-squeeze model flexed smoothly, -all folds seemed to flow, and the model held together compactly. The -slow-squeeze model shortened the same amount, cracked in many places, -was brittle, and did not hold together compactly. This appeared to -prove that slow motion will fracture where quicker motion will hold -strata intact, under otherwise identical conditions of substance, of -folding and shortening, and of vertical confinement. - -We verified Willis’ conclusions that stiff and thick beds transmit the -pressure farthest and that overthrust tends to form in soft beds, which -thicken near a piston. In one model we got overthrusts in opposite -directions on opposite sides of the model along a single-fold axis, -with a twist in between. While an experiment was in progress, the chest -creaked occasionally, the equivalent of an earthquake. One model was -cast to represent overlap of strata near shore, like a coastal plain. -When squeezed, it made a group of overthrusts away from the piston -acting as shore rock. - -In burial of strata there is a possibility whereby they wrinkle, -and wrinkle most in one direction, which piston pressure does not -imitate. That is the heating by burial and expansion or lengthening -of controlling layers. In a long basin like the Appalachians, the -wrinkling under expansion across the greatest length is easiest, -because the axis of stiffness is parallel to the long trough. -Transitions off the coastal line from one sediment to the next--sand -to mud, mud to lime--will be weaknesses to start bends when expansion -pressure takes place under burial along the layers separately heated. -These bends develop into wrinkles and the wrinkles, into propagated -folds, with the axis parallel to the initial change of weaknesses. -Expansion lengthwise on folds, once begun, may make long flat arches -pitching in one direction. This heating by burial distributes the -folding better and farther than pushing abutments, and makes initial -bends. All bottom strata heat and expand in all directions. The -direction of easiest yielding to a folding impulse is across the weak -transition belts. After that the motion is taken up by linear folds and -fractures in one direction. - -The models, after continuous or intermittent squeezing, were removed -from the chest and sliced with a hot wire for sectioning and -photographing. In one, brittle, broken series of folds in a hard layer, -the model was taken apart on that layer and the surface photographed. -The crest of the folds showed jointing or regular cracks. One set -paralleled the fold axes as would be expected; the other set crossed -the slopes diagonally and in curves. These last indicated the strains -of a twisting nature on a single layer between a downfold and an upfold. - -What makes the end thrust, or piston push, in nature? According to the -old idea, it was contraction of the inner earth by loss of heat. Willis -wrote that the basin sank, isostasy or deep flow was at right angles to -the length of the basin, and general contraction took effect by reason -of the deep flow. The deep flow was toward the lighter continent, from -which the sands were originally lost. - -The recent notion that radioactivity heat is in the outer shell denies -contraction of the inner earth. Furthermore, I do not believe in a -shallow underlayer of lava fifty or less miles down and capable of -flowing horizontally under shifting weight. I do believe in a deep -underlayer of fluid 1,800 miles down, under a block-faulted crust. -This fluid core adjusted itself to the ocean-bottom blocks originally, -making the upright slices moving-down controllers of the Appalachian -basin. There is no proof that sediment weight did it. It is more likely -that igneous, or fire-made, lava, as the thick outer armor plate of -the globe erupted in acts of intrusion, lubricated the vertical slices. -Intrusions are under every sedimentary mountain range on earth. It is -more likely that an agelong up of ridge fault blocks and a down of the -basin fault blocks decided where the central continental basin should -be, all of it well within the permanent side ridges of North America. -For this was a continental mediterranean sea, and the warping of its -highland of Philadelphia and its basin of Cincinnati was a mere episode -in the 2,000 million year history of Atlantic and Pacific borders of -the continent. The sinking of the intracontinental sea, relative to -the staying up of the highlands, was a wave in the history of globe -and core. Erosion and deposition were results, not causes. They were -results of the volcanic history of the ever moving active mosaic of the -globe. The permanent North America remained high, relative to Atlantic -and Pacific deeps. - -The folding of the sediments merges into intrusions of magma in the -southern Appalachians. Here arose the granite problem on a tremendous -scale, which is repeated in our Ascutney Mountain in Vermont. What -it was doing under the bottom of those vast fields of limestone from -Ohio to Illinois we have no idea. No more do we know what is doing -under the vast fields of lime and red ooze at the present bottoms of -the deep oceans. But we do know that fire-made rock squirts up under -all sea-laid sediments which anyone has ever studied on islands or -continents. This fire-made rock, solidified, has thickness and a -bottom. We do not know its thickness nor its bottom. We do know that -under it are big cracks 2,000 miles long rupturing it into volcano -systems. The conclusion is that the globe is mantled by a layer of -igneous matter which has spouted up cracks since more than 3,000 -million years ago. How did this matter migrate by new intrusions, -to pull, push, heat, and wrinkle through 500 million years the dirt -accumulated in shallow Appalachian trenches from Alabama to Indiana? We -do not know. - -The last of the Harvard experiments that I took part in concerned -melting up powders of basaltic minerals and rocks, letting them cool -down gradually, and then sectioning them for the polarizing microscope -to see how they resembled lavas. V. F. Marsters of the University of -Indiana helped me. Based on the European work of Doelter, Fouqué, -Michel-Lévy, and others, we used a French furnace with gas flame -blast and small crucibles of diatomaceous earth mixed with clay. The -specimen powders of crushed natural basalts, or mixtures of pyroxene, -feldspar and olivine, were kept glowing for forty to 150 hours, and -cooled either rapidly or slowly. The belief in those days was that slow -cooling was the main control of coarse crystallization. Quick or slow -cooling certainly does produce these effects in lava flows. - -From quick cooling, we generally got radial bunches of crystals or -spherulites, in a glassy groundmass. From slow cooling, we got diabase -structure or coarser crystallization, with some openwork hollow -crystals. And there were little grains of magnetite and spinel. Much -time was wasted on furnace safety and methods, and on fire-punctured -crucibles of platinum, carbon, and graphite. - -Nothing had been learned in 1900 about stirring, nor about gas as an -ingredient in basalt. It was not until years later, at the Hawaiian -Volcano Observatory, that Emerson proved that aa lava was made by -stirring a crucible. Aa is crystalline. Emerson got glassy lava by -quiet melting. No one has yet subjected lava to hydrogen blasts like -those of a Bessemer furnace, nor to other gases. There is a big field -here for imitating Mauna Loa and Etna fountains, and for critical -petrography of artificial basalts. Modern work has been concerned with -physical chemistry of limited mineral systems. So far as I know, no one -has mathematically synthesized natural rocks as an object in natural -history since the work of Carl Barus for the U. S. Geological Survey in -the nineties. - - - - - CHAPTER III - - Expedition Decade - - “_The voice of thy thunder - was in the whirlwind._” - - -Whereas small scale experiments in the laboratory helped me to think -about the details of nature’s experiments, there remained the need to -measure nature itself. The deep lavas of South Dakota, squeezing among -shale beds, posed many questions. What penetrating of strata goes on -under Vesuvius? Does lava inrush tilt or lift the ground? Does this -measure up to eruptions in or from craters? Cannot experiments with -craters themselves be made by dwelling there? Certainly the progress of -lavas can be measured as they flow forth. - -The decade following my mud-pie experiments saw me assistant -professor at Harvard and head professor of the geological department -at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. These appointments were -under Presidents Eliot, Pritchett, and Maclaurin. From 1901 to 1910 I -continued to serve the Geological Survey, writing up back reports. Then -nature took a hand. Along came earthquakes and eruptions in Guatemala, -a terrific disaster in the West Indies, expeditions to the Caribbees, -Italy, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, Hawaii, and Central America, -another in north Japan, and disastrous earthquakes at San Francisco, -Valparaiso, Messina, and Costa Rica. The destruction of St. Pierre in -Martinique set the stage for field work on volcanoes and earthquakes, -work which I was to continue for a half century. - -When the evening papers of May 8, 1902, announced the sudden -annihilation of 26,000 people that morning at 8 o’clock at St. Pierre, -Martinique, I went immediately to President Eliot. Knowing that I had -been urging field study of volcanoes, he agreed that I ought to go -to St. Pierre and wired Secretary of the Navy, William H. Moody, to -arrange for transportation. Immediate financial support came to me -from Alexander Agassiz, the National Geographic Society, and numerous -friends; and my Harvard colleagues agreed to give my lectures. - -I reported to the training ship _Dixie_ in Brooklyn, where I found -Captain Robert Berry, a stalwart Virginian, in command of a cadet -crew. On board were I. C. Russell of Michigan, author of “Volcanoes -of North America”; E. O. Hovey of the American Museum; Curtis, the -maker of topographic models; R. T. Hill of the Geological Survey, and -expert on Caribbean lands; and numerous other scientists, and newspaper -correspondents. - -The voyage to the West Indies was unique. On the navy cruiser were -stores of food, tents, clothing, and medical supplies for the refugees -and an oddly assorted passenger list; all assembled because of warfare -against mankind by two utterly unknown volcanoes, Soufrière on the -British island of St. Vincent, and Pelée at the north end of the French -colony of Martinique. Geologists gave lectures to the crew on deck; and -in turn, we learned about naval discipline and efficiency. - -When we arrived at Fort de France, thirteen days after the terrific -disaster, we were transported at once to St. Pierre on the naval tug -_Potomac_. We landed and walked through the ruined sugar city, the -streets puddled with molasses and rum. Thousands of dead were buried -underfoot amid the rubble, for the day before our visit, there had -been a second blast from Pelée, the 4,000 foot volcano smoking four -miles away. This had thrown down what roofs remained after the first -explosion. - -We arrived opposite St. Pierre May 21, 1902, and saw a smoking, dusty -line of ruins along the shore. Before we landed we were warned that if -the tug’s whistle should blow we were to make for the boats. The dusty -hill lay on our left like a gray snow landscape, not at all like a -cone. The crater was a gorge in an ordinary mountain under clouds. - -We wandered through the dreary ruin and found masonry completely -destroyed and no visible large volcanic fragments. The streets were -full of rubble, and everything was coated with green-gray powder. Roofs -were gone, an occasional timber was burning, and bodies were still -numerous in the shells of houses. We saw a baby in an iron cradle, a -man face down in a tank, and a big man on his back in a deep baker’s -oven. His flesh was shriveled and drawn away from his joints by heat. -Elsewhere eight or ten bodies were crowded at the foot of a cliff. - - [Illustration: _3. Explosion cloud rising from Halemaumau - during explosive eruption, May 13, 1924_] - - [Illustration: _4. Crag in lava lake, January 23, 1918_] - -The end of the town toward the volcano, all backed by cliffs, was -deeply buried under gravel, but the southern end had a covering of only -a foot or two of sand. The second explosion was greater than the first -one, demolishing third storeys and the second belfry of the cathedral. -The beautiful bells “whose soft liquid notes used to ring across the -bay with touching cadence at the Angelus hour” lay tumbled in rubbish, -splinters, and steaming vapors; their ancient embossed inscriptions -half buried in dust. - -The bodies were mostly shriveled to a crisp from the second eruption, -for earlier the bodies had not been much altered. The odor was a -haunting one that returned in dreams--of foundry, steam, sulfur -matches, and burnt stuff, and every now and then a whiff of roast, -decayed flesh that was horrible. It was impossible to realize that this -Pompeii had been a thriving French town two weeks before. Not a roof -was left, and scarcely a timber; steam came through little holes in the -wet brown sand, and a sickening whiff showed whence it came. - -It was hard to distinguish where streets had been. Everything was -buried under fallen walls of cobblestone and pink plaster and tiles, -including 20,000 bodies. A New England town would have blown away as -white ashes before the giant blowpipe acting on the flame of burning -rum. - -I looked toward the gray old volcano, with shrouded summit. The -landscape was dusty, like old statuary. Mountain slope and cliff were -denuded of trees. An overturned factory boiler had holes punctured by -flying stones. A circular marble fountain basin was chipped away on the -volcano side by bombardment. Old cannon used as mooring posts at the -quay had been uprooted violently. The green landscape ended abruptly at -the city along a sharp line, with coconut palms half green, half brown. -There was no motion except steam jets on Pelée’s slopes. - -Suddenly I wondered what those steam vents were doing. At first there -had been one or two along the sea front; but now there were eight, ten, -twenty, spurting high and scattered all over the volcano. A physician, -Dr. Church, was standing near me, and we agreed that we disliked the -outlook. Now there were forty jets, like so many ghostly locomotives -run out from the Pelée roundhouse. Meanwhile, white-coated officers and -scientists were scattered about in groups under the cliffs, some out of -sight of Mount Pelée. - -We looked toward the USS _Potomac_; she had seen the steam, and -her own white steam presaged quick, repeated toots of her fog horn. -Pellmell the passengers came tumbling to the landing. The sailors -had no sooner started the boats than two more white-coated figures -appeared, and we had to put back for them. The mountain looked as -though it were rifting in a hundred places preparatory to an outburst, -and there were many stories of new craters forming. What we saw was -actually the product of a smart rain shower, falling on red hot dry -gravel; but we were to learn later about rain rill explosion. Wherever -a stream rill runs down to such contact, a jet of steam forms at once. - -The main water gorge of the Pelée crater was blown clear of clouds as -we steamed past, and we saw a cup under the summit amphitheater where a -lake had been, with a pile of scaly looking hot boulders in its midst -steaming violently. This crater extended into a deep gulch to the -ocean, whence had come a disastrous mud flood on May 5 which buried a -sugar mill. This had happened three days before the destruction of St. -Pierre. Water preceded steam. The cracks under the gulch undoubtedly -dipped away from the city, and from an unknown chasm athwart the gulch -line ejected water and superheated steam toward the city, like a jet -from a hose. This happened on May 8. The ejected material had been in -dry steam, and red hot, accounting for early reports of lava at night. - -I saw molten rock five weeks after the _Potomac_ trip, when the -crater cone was above the rim of the gorge, apparently large fragments -of brown angular material resting on finer gravel. Cauliflower clouds -of reddish dust spurted up the bed of the gulch below every half hour, -and migrated down the gulch. This was followed by a low growl, perhaps -from avalanches. The basin widened during the month, and the dome -gained in height and breadth. A bright incandescent crack at night -was seen to cross the heap obliquely. A sudden increase of glow was -followed by a rumbling, as though the dome were heaving. Breadcrust -bombs of andesite, cracked on their surface in deep gashes, and picked -up on the mountain at both Pelée and Soufrière were pieces of the -internal lava. - -A chance clearing of the whole dome came two months after the -obliteration of St. Pierre. This we photographed, when brown dust -was rising, and steam jets appeared southeast on the dome and in the -gulch. On top was an extraordinary spine, shaped like a shark fin, with -steep escarpment to the east, curved and smooth and scraped to the -west, pushed up and out of a central rupture of the dome. It was like -paste from a tube, a hard central pencil of lava that had been shoved -up by the expansive force within. Jagged surfaces of breaking showed -on the vertical east cliff and long, smooth, arched striations of -scrape appeared on the rounded west profile of the protuberance. Other -hornlike projections showed on the dome. The summit spine was 200 feet -above the surface of the heap. - -On July 6, 1902, came the first report of the famous Pelée spine. -It crumbled in August, and a year later a new spine, facing in the -opposite direction, reached a height of 1,000 feet. It was a central -tongue of the semisolid lava of the dome, sufficiently plastic to be -urged out by forces within. Otherwise the dome was a nearly solid -extrusion covered with fallen bombs. This was the magma, or lava, of -the Pelée-Soufrière eruptions. Dike ribs extended radially from the -spine athwart the dome. I published an erroneous explanation that the -dome of boulders consisted of old fragments melted by a superblast and -was not true lava. I was so far right, however, as to anticipate the -gas-heat theory and melting of all volcanism. - -The direct crisis of these Carib islands in 1902 was introduced by -Soufrière Volcano on St. Vincent, 100 miles south of Martinique, at 1 -p.m. on May 7, nineteen hours before the St. Pierre disaster. Soufrière -exploded, as the common saying is, through a crater lake pit southwest -of its 4,000-foot summit, the crater edge being 3,500 feet high. It -is notable how many volcanoes are 4,000 feet high, and how many have -crater pits, not at the top, but along a rift below the peak. Just this -was the case of Pelée, just this characterizes the calderas of Kilauea -and Mauna Loa. A dozen other volcanoes could be named where the vents -are through the flank of the heap. - -Hovey, Curtis, and I were taken by the _Dixie_ to St. Vincent, -where the hospitable English colonists provided us with houses at the -base of Soufrière, and with servants and horses; and the Government -supply steamer took us around the island. We made the ascent of -Soufrière to the edge of the great crater and looked down at boiling -waters far below, green and muddy, and sending up a column of steam on -one wall. - -We three Americans guided by T. M. MacDonald, a Scottish planter, made -the first ascent after the fearful eruptions of May 7 and 18. Leaving -our quarters at Chateau Belair, we climbed on foot from the southwest -base, with six stalwart negroes carrying instruments, water, and food. -In the ruins of Wallibu sugar mill we encountered a wild-eyed East -Indian coolie and his helpers looting sugar. - -The Wallibu River received the brunt of the heavy, dry, red hot, -gravel of the eruptions, drifted like snow and crusted with wet mud. -Water supplied by the river broke its way into the eighty feet of -incandescent fill of the valley. Instantly a steam explosion was hurled -up in white volutes, and the river dammed its own channel with the -stone shower from upblasts. This forced its own waters into fresh hot -cinder and so maintained explosive action. One such exploding river -sent up a column three quarters of a mile high, indescribably majestic, -causing the natives to report new craters. A shower of mud and sand -fell on our party. - -The old road crossing Soufrière mountain was destroyed, the river -flats were deeply trenched, and difficult ridges and hollows were -encountered at every step. The gulches were deepened into gorges, the -slopes above furrowed with a feathery rill drainage pattern. Each spur -between gulches was like a very steep roof, with a smooth pathway -uphill along the watershed. This made progress easier. Big tree stumps -of _Ficus_ jutted ragged through the hardened mud, the branches -charred and sharpened by sand blast. - -A whirl of volcanic sand made an unpleasant stinging shower of dust, -and sulfuretted hydrogen smelled of rotten eggs. But near the summit -the air was fresh and the sunshine bright. A rain would have made -the mud slippery and perilous, for the gulch slopes were practically -cliffs. Finally we did come to mud clots, resembling a cattle wallow, -knee deep and sticky. Large blocks of rock two feet across lay on the -surface, flung-out pieces of the old crater walls; and there were some -bombs of new lava. - -After three hours we assembled at the rim of the old crater, which -before the outbreak had been full of a high crater lake. Suddenly we -came to an immense chasm almost circular, then the profile of a black -precipice falling away 2,000 feet; and up its face we saw a silent -steam column purling away in billows. The bottom was a green pool of -boiling water, muddied by springs from the wall; and a hundred tails of -white steam joined the column on the wall. - -The inner walls showed horizontal bands of old lava, and intrusions -both in lens shape and as dikes. There were red brown puddingstones -made up of fragments. A funnel-shaped intrusion looked like the diagram -cross section of a volcano, making a perfect T of gray lava, like a -mushroom. A large fissure, filling west, rose from bottom to top. A -northern rocky horseshoe rim, or somma, at the top made the peak of St. -Vincent. The crater lip was a mile wide and the interior a half mile -deep; and the green puddle at the bottom was 1,200 feet across. The -base of the wall column sputtered fiercely and sent up spurts of black -mud and rock fragments. The lake level was 1,100 feet above the ocean, -800 feet lower than before the eruption; and the pool was shallow, with -mud flats and islets. We operated cameras, compass, and sketch books; -paced off a base line; and noted that the northwest corner of the -crater had been blown away to leave a big notch. - -When we returned to Chateau Belair, the negro peasant women brought out -their children to gaze at us, the godlike men who had dared the crater. -Mr. MacDonald had to steer us through the crowd, and we felt like the -twelve apostles after a miracle. - -The Soufrière eruption during the first week of May was more voluminous -and violent than that of Pelée, for Pelée was concentrated on one -target. Soufrière wrought havoc east and west, whereas Pelée was in -a sector southwest of the mountain. They were equally devastating, -however, and both made downblasts of superheated steam and gravels. -Scalding dust killed people, but so did water waves, conflagration, -steam, stones, drowning, and burial. - -Soufrière’s dust fall was reported all the way to Trinidad and -Barbados; and from ships east and southeast, directly against the -trade winds, from 100 to 900 miles away. The dust column penetrated -the antitrades of the upper atmosphere. Sounds were loud 150 miles -away, but not heard close to the mountains. In the red hot gravel were -innumerable landslides, river waters rushed into the gravel and made -false eruptions, and shore cliffs collapsed. - -No lava, except as fragments, appeared in St. Vincent, whereas it rose -as a crateral heap in Pelée. Floods of rivers radial to the volcanoes -appeared both before and after the first eruptions, and scientists -erroneously attributed them to cloudburst rains. Later, exact -descriptions by natives showed that the sources were hot waters gushing -out in places where there was no rain. - -A succession of eruptions at increasing intervals from May to December -actuated both volcanoes. In succeeding years, explosions dwindled; but -over Pelée’s crater rose a mighty dome and spine of stiff quartz-basalt -lava, like ointment from a tube. - -There was, on Pelée, a splitting of the bottom of the long crater -gulch. Cauliflower steam volutes charged with dust gushed up the -cracks, hard-edged in profile down near the shore, soft and diffuse -near the crater. Scalding waters in the gulch bottom carried mud. The -mountain was cracking open along radial gulches, and squirting up steam -and geysers, but this all concealed itself with sediment. Nobody ever -saw the cracks open. The migrating steam clouds charged with gravel -were called glow clouds and were believed to “flow” as gas fluids from -the crater. - -An elucidation of all this mystery came many years later, after a -thorough study of all reports. The glow clouds, which were at first -confused with the gigantic blasts that had destroyed the city, were -gradually explained. It became apparent that radial cracks are ancient -characters of lava domes, and that lava domes lie under heaps of -agglomerate. Pelée and Soufrière are heaps of agglomerate. Kilauea and -Mauna Loa are lava domes. Vesuvius is an intermediate type of volcano. - -I remained in the field from May to July, returned to Mount Pelée, -cruised through the northern Caribbee Islands, and went to the bottom -of the deep crater of Mount Misery, on St. Kitts. My guides on St. -Kitts were two colored men, Johnny Eddy and Samuel Jim. In the crater -we found steam and sulfur and a rotten-egg smell, on the bank of a -cold crater lake. We descended by seemingly vertical cliffs covered -with roots. This was a typical fumarole, or solfatara, one of the -unsatisfactory characteristics of craters. We collected specimens and -took snapshots, wondered how often such places change suddenly, and -knew hydrogen sulfide gas only by the smell. It all jibed with what I -was later to discover in Hawaii; that the only way to know a crater is -to live with it, and that gases can melt lava. - -As I look back on the Martinique expedition, I know what a crucial -point in my life it was and that it was the human contacts, not field -adventures, which inspired me. Gradually I realized that the killing -of thousands of persons by subterranean machinery totally unknown to -geologists and then unexplainable was worthy of a life work. - -The story of Rita Stokes made a tremendous impression on me. In -Barbados hospital I talked with this young white girl and her colored -nurse, Clara King, who had been passengers on the SS _Roraima_ -which was at St. Pierre when the city was destroyed. When I saw them -they were swathed in bandages. Clara’s burns were severe on knee, arm, -and hand. Rita’s were on her head, hands, and arms, and one seriously -disfigured ear. Both were somewhat injured for life. Mrs. Stokes, a -boy, and a baby girl in the cabin with them had been killed. All saw -the adjacent mountain sending up puffs, as the ship lay at anchor -off the St. Pierre waterfront on the morning of May 8, but they were -reassured by the ship’s officers. - -Suddenly the steward rushed by shouting, “Close the cabin door, the -volcano is coming!” Mrs. Stokes slammed the door just before a terrific -explosion came which nearly burst the ear drums. The vessel was lifted -high and sank down, and all were thrown off their feet by the shock, -and huddled crouching in one corner of the little cabin. Scalding moist -ashes poured in through a broken skylight in inky darkness. Next came -suffocation, relieved by the door bursting open and air rushing in. - -When a little daylight came back, Mrs. Stokes and the little boy were -plastered black with hot mud, the baby girl was dying, and the nurse -and Rita were in great agony. A heap of scorching mud had collected on -one corner of the floor, and as the young girl put her hand down to -raise herself, her arm plunged to the elbow in scalding sand. They were -all taken out to the deck where mother, boy, and baby died. The ship -was on fire, and the nearby city was a mass of roaring flames. More -ashes fell and scalded the victims. Curiously, third degree burns were -left on flesh, through underclothing not burned at all. - -Clara said that the mountain appeared gray with smoke rolling west, -that the weather was very calm, and that the dust smelled like -gunpowder. She saw no flames during the blast and did not know what set -fire to the steamer. The fires probably came from the city. Ashes came -in sputtering splashes like “moist marl.” No rocks fell and the grit -in cabin and on burns was wet sand. Before the blast there had been -falling dust but, according to Clara, no difficulty in breathing. The -sun was brownish red. - -The bow of the ship was pointed seaward, and the vessel heeled over -left, then right. The stern, toward the conflagration, caught fire -first, the bow later. There was no rumbling, only shock and rattling -thunder all at once, no noise before or after. The only people Clara -King saw toward the shore were some men on a raft. - -I wrote President Eliot and the American Relief Committee about the -case of Rita Stokes, half American and the only white woman saved in -St. Pierre. And I rejoiced to learn from her guardian and uncle, J. E. -Croney of Barbados, that she was provided for. The sum of $450 was sent -to the committee, and $6,000 in trust was set aside for her. She was -never separated from her devoted nurse, Clara King. - -Apart from the experiences of the wounded, I found much to contemplate -in the findings of numerous geologists; in the accounts of doctors, -sailors, naval officers, resident government men, the local newspapers, -and photographers; in the specimens we collected; and in the work of -great newspaper and magazine correspondents. - -The facts and photographs we collected were baffling. They did not -correspond with the text books. Two volcanoes a hundred miles apart -suddenly spouted death downward. Obviously they were connected along -the island chain, with ocean to the east and ocean to the west. -Telegraph cables were broken. Why? That which lay under the ocean was -totally unknown, both events and topography. The biggest part of these -volcanoes was submarine. - -Earthquakes at Pelée were relatively small but often continuous. Tidal -waves were local and accompanied by downblasts of steam. The downblasts -were at first supposed to be due to fallen avalanches from the -upblasts. Then it appeared they were really sloping jets from concealed -holes or cracks in the gulches, with inclined orifices amid the blocks -of a cracked-up mountain. For at Pelée the blast that destroyed St. -Pierre shot from the crater gulch in cascades of water and steam, while -observers on high ground saw the horizon, or clear sky, over the crater. - -The speed of the blast was six miles in two minutes, or 180 miles per -hour. This was different from the glow clouds in the later months, -migrating slowly along cracks in the gulch bottom. - -Man’s perception of speed relative to himself has nothing to do with -actual speeds. It may be argued that a miniature volcano erupts faster -than a big volcanic system, but not if the whole terrestrial plexus of -systems is taken into account. An eruption of Mauna Loa is a very slow -affair, in comparison with the 10,000 underground squirtings of lava in -cracks totally unperceived, except as tremors on seismograph. - -Pelée’s eruption was like turning on a hose. A structural valve or -orifice, suddenly opened by underground heaving of the mountain block -and letting out steam and mud, appears to be the only reasonable -explanation of what happened. And the only agents possible were glowing -stiff lava heating boiling water underground. Both of these were later -identified. - -Grove Karl Gilbert of the U.S. Geological Survey, who had criticized -favorably my manuscript on the Black Hills intrusive lavas, wrote me -not to drop the enigma of Mount Pelée, because he found the published -reports unsatisfying. In 1949, forty-seven years after the disaster, I -published “Steam blast eruptions,” dealing with Pelée. In the interim I -studied many volcanoes. - -Alexander Agassiz, who had been urging me to do a memoir on volcanoes, -financed a trip to Vesuvius when it exploded and poured out lava in -1906. Ottajano northeast of Vesuvius was demolished by jets of gravel -and stones; and Boscotrecase at the south was invaded by black streams -of heavy, sprouting, bouldery slag. Here was a change of habit, -from heaping up lavas for thirty-four years, to collapse, internal -avalanching, and pure steam explosion accompanied by remnants of -stirred lava flow. - -Why thirty-four years? A third of a century? Three times the sunspot -interval? The previous steamblast explosion of Vesuvius before 1906 had -been in 1872. In the case of Mount Pelée and Soufrière the intervals -since past explosions had been fifty-one years and ninety years. But -it should be pointed out that the Carib volcanoes had two years of -terrifying rumblings, odors, and quakes just before 1902. Groundwater -exists in large volume under all three volcanoes. Soufrière, Pelée and -Vesuvius all began the steamblasts with collapsing craters, that is, -with internal lava going down into the bowels of the earth. The lava -usually showed in Vesuvius, whereas at Pelée and Soufrière it merely -made fumaroles, or gas vents. Man, a mere microbe, could make nothing -of hot sulfurous cracks. - -On April 25 the electric train slowly pushed us up as far as the -observatory station, beyond which all was destroyed. Outside Naples -the fields were covered with two inches of gray-green dust, and pines -and palms were loaded with a two or three foot drift of sand. Near -the observatory a heavy six-inch mantle of sand and dust buried the -lava fields. The Vesuvian cone was covered with straight sand slides, -whitish gray, which occasionally slipped downward. The landscape was -shrouded in drifts of white ashes revealing obscurely the slaggy -contortions of lava beneath. Pure white steam boiled up from the cavity -in the peak, surrounded by an older rain cloud, like a hat on the -volcano’s crown. - -My companions--Dr. Tempest Anderson and Messrs. Yeld and Brigg--were -all from Yorkshire. We started the ascent of the twenty-nine degree -slope in a strong west wind. The steam settled down on the summit, than -alternated with clear spells. We followed the west profile of the cone -straight up, noting how the funicular rails were twisted by landslides. -Everything was covered with pebbles, sand, and dust, with here and -there large fragments up to five feet across. We found solid footing on -the radial elevations of either scoured old lava or packed fragments. -The gullies were filled with deep sand. - -The rim we could see ahead was the edge of the crater itself. The -abruptness of the fall off, when we finally came to it, was startling -in the extreme. The wind was pelting our necks with stinging sand -grains which, incidentally, were ruinous to my new Kodak. Only -occasionally did sunshine sift through the mixture of sand, steam, -and cloud. We could make out an inward slope of thirty-five degrees, -terminated 100 feet below by a jutting, fuming precipice. The circular -curvature of the crater was embayed. The only noise was the howling -wind. We could not see the opposite side of the collapsed cauldron a -half mile across. The summit was 4,000 feet above sea level by aneroid -measure, 350 feet lower than before the eruption. There was a great -notch northeast toward Ottajano where thousands of tons of gravel were -hurled clear over the top of Monte Somma, the encircling old ridge. The -east-west diameter was left much greater than that of the north-south. -The radial ridges and gullies were like a corrugated roof, and sand -made a flattened angle of scree at the base of the scoured cone. The -corrugations were not rain erosion, but were made by backfallen debris -sliding. I got some photographs and Mr. Perret gave me others. - -The big thing was the line of mountain blocks of earth crust. In Italy -it is made up of Ischia, Pozzuoli, Vesuvius, Lipari, and Etna, whereas -the Carribbee line is made up of Mount Misery, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, -Dominica, Martinique, and St. Vincent. Such a line of broken earth -blocks is a volcanic system. Hundreds of miles long, it is never -quiet. A single place seems quiet because superficially we are totally -unconscious of the other places. A microbe on the scalp knows nothing -of the skin of the toes. Men are mere microbes on the skin of shore, -sea, and island. And they are remote from any consciousness of sea -bottom. - -Vast distances and long intervals are writing records, but man does not -measure them. He measures civilization, wars, and dynasties, not the -adventures of the ground he dwells upon. Ground he considers static. -Actually it is intensely dynamic. Occasionally it explodes and man -is destroyed. Earth history and volcanic systems make wars look very -small. - -The tremendous accumulations of broken rocks over lava beds on the cone -of Vesuvius, and on all the Caribbee Islands, recall the breccias, or -volcanic conglomerates, of the Yellowstone and of the High Plateaus -of Utah. Floods of basalt alternate with vast falls or outwashes of -volcanic gravel. Avalanches, landslides, torrents, floods--call them -what you will--cover immense areas of the Cordillera. Vesuvius and -Pelée pile up cones, but the Caribbees and Italy are also heaped with -agglomerates. Erosion destroys cones, but erosion makes agglomerations -or valley fills of rocks and mud. This is the history of every volcanic -system on the globe. Stübel discovered smooth basalt domes like Mauna -Loa under every volcanic system. - -In 1904 Vesuvius had vented a lava flow which stopped in September, and -its cone was sharp, with only a little crater and inner conelet on top. -In 1905 lava had flowed from a northwest split. On April 4, 1906, a -splendid black cauliflower cloud arose. The northwest flow stopped and -a southern radial rift made lava mouths progress 500, 1,800, and 2,400 -feet below the top, more than halfway down the mountain. From the lower -mouth came glassy pahoehoe, or smooth destructive streams intensely -incandescent and liquid, quickly cooling to aa, or sprouting rough -fudge, black crusts, and clinker. The molten porridge flowed as a snaky -avalanche into the masonry village of Boscotrecase. - -On April 7, at the crater, a column of boulder-laden steam shot up four -miles, snapping with lightning. New lava mouths sent forking snakes -crushing and swallowing parts of the village. A graveyard was neatly -filled within its masonry wall, showing that internally the rocky -torrent was a liquid. - -Meantime trajectories like those of a hose sent falls of gravel for -miles, to Ottajano on the opposite side of the mountain. These also -came from the central crater. On the west flank, at the observatory, -the house was rocking, and heavy stones forced its occupants to -retreat. Matteucci and his staff went halfway down the cone, to return -next day. Explosions dwindled during the next fortnight, though one day -an adverse wind from the crater carried carbon dioxide and hydrogen -sulfide almost asphyxiating some persons. Thereafter cauliflower clouds -of white steam arose and the noise of big avalanches was heard. - -The clinker field that invaded Boscatrecase was 16 feet thick, and -houses were cut in two by a slaggy torrent. In Ottajano, on the -opposite side of the mountain, flat tile roofs collapsed, buried under -three feet of heavy gravel, some of it the size of an apple. Nearer the -crater, boulders five feet in diameter were thrown a mile. The volcano -was probably blocked inside by welling lava on the Boscotrecase side, -which caused it to vomit steam and earthy avalanche material obliquely -outward on the opposite, Ottajano, side. - -The Italians have a word, _sprofondimento_, which means to make -profound by insucking, that expresses what happened. This plexus of -uprush of slag and inrush of avalanche, against a water-steam geyser, -both happening at once, was very different from the quiet outpouring of -lava during the preceding years. It definitely meant rupture of earth -blocks, deep escape of that lava probably at the underocean part of -the radial cracks, and deep entrance of spring water into incandescent -vacated chambers. It meant a rupture crisis, collapsing the peak, and -a new geyser quite unrecognized. The eruption ended when the slag -pressure was relieved, the mountain blocks had settled, and the frozen -slag had shut off groundwater. The remaining lava entered into decades -of deep accumulation and gas bubbling, the solfataric phase. That which -ended the thirty-year upbuilding was probably downward pressure due to -weight of surface heaping of the cone. Cracking released water inward. - -The next thirty-eight years were to culminate in a similar crisis -for Vesuvius which lasted ten days, and again its peak collapsed. -This was in March 1944, when our American troops entered Naples. It -is interesting that these culminations have been from a third to a -half century apart, but the meaning of intervals can only be really -understood when volcanoes like Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius are -grouped together. The same thing is true of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, -and of Pelée and St. Vincent. Ponte reports the eruptions of Etna as -ten years apart, similar to the sunspot interval; and Perret notes a -ten-year interval for the smaller eruptions of Vesuvius. We measured an -eleven-year interval for Hawaii, with culminations close to the minimum -of sunspots. A culmination is when lava goes down and keeps quiet, or -when sunspot numbers go down and remain few. No one knows why, or of -any connecting cause. - -Three eleven-year culminations make a third of a century, when at -Kilauea and Vesuvius, something bigger happens. Sunspots have numbered -a suspiciously similar curve at corresponding dates. - -Photographs of Vesuvius taken just before the 1944 collapse showed -the 1906 crater hole completely filled and overflowing. There was an -inner flat floor, a conelet standing in the middle. The 1944 eruption -collapsed the conelet, split the big outer cone, and sent flows to -destroy San Sebastiano and several villages. The torrents of ash -killed people and the electric station of the funicular railroad was -destroyed, as usual. The mountain split in several directions. - -Just as in 1906, the stages of the 1944 outbreak were lava flows, -mixed lava gushing intensely liquid, crateral caving in, tremendous -gas emission, black ash changing to vapor and white ash as the -emission increased, and ultimately white steam. The black ash was the -contemporaneous lava with dark augite; the snowlike white ash was -ground up old lavas, containing the white crystals, leucite. - -The liquid phase took an unusual fountain form, resembling that of -Mauna Loa in Hawaii, and nine spells of bright incandescent explosive -fountaining occurred. The collapse began on March 13; the fountaining -occurred during March 20 to 22, with jets of bright liquid lava and -flames, 1,000 to 3,000 feet high; and the crater became a lava lake. -The flames were occasioned by hydrogen within the lava itself, and -perhaps some carbon gases. This liquid fountaining phase was the -culmination of explosions, making pumice, with water vapor the gaseous -product. Ash fell four feet deep three miles away, and some fell on the -Adriatic coast. Both white steam clouds and black ash clouds arose with -the fountains, white and black side by side. - -The net effect was to leave a bowl 1,500 feet in diameter and 800 feet -deep, floored with avalanche gravel. This reconstructed the funnel -of 1906, and as in 1906, the height of the rim was 4,100 feet after -eruption. In other words, the thirty-eight years had filled the vast -crater, only to have 1944 engulf and eject the contents, and strew them -down the slopes, adding an immense weight to the outer shell of the -cone. - -A hundred million cubic yards of lava was poured out, and 50 million -cubic yards of ash now lie on the volcano. Three times as much was -carried far away, and the volume of gases was ten times as great. -The rock fragments, probably 200 times as great, were engulfed by -avalanches. - -The big achievement of an eruption is to wedge open a mountain, let -the internal lava effervesce and go down, admit ground water, and make -spectacular fireworks of burning gas and meltings. Release of pressure -by splitting open the crust permits a great show of fiery foaming, -but no geologist sees the profound accomplishment of lava sinking -and flowing away by underground channels. It may flow out along the -Mediterranean Sea bottom. At Vesuvius, it may slip through deep cracks -in the direction of Sicily. - -Certainly a periodic adjustment of the big system -(Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna) has taken place deep down in the earth, and -the thirty-eight years of accumulation mean a stress by weighting down. -The pressure of 100 million tons of stored lava inside a weak cone -mountain and ready to effervesce with heat and give up its hydrogen is -what science too often forgets. - -The continental crack system between crust blocks and full of rain -water is waiting to assist the crisis, while the blocks are poised -over uprising gases of the ages. The gases of the ages, reaching to -the core of the globe, are eternally melting the walls with white-hot -core matter, walls of siliceous rock blocks 1,800 miles deep. In this -system, Vesuvius is a tiny pimple. Incidentally, the 1944 earthquakes -were recorded in largest number during the period when the liquid -pumice fountains were in action in the nine different spells between -March 20 and March 23. This means that the maxima of engulfing -crater, seething slag, outrushing gas, crunching mountain weight, and -avalanching inner walls were all happening together. The clogging of -vents forced the ground water steam into pulsations. This could not -last; the mountain blocks settled and resumed pressure, deep lava -drained off, heat dwindled, and gas was relieved. The bigger volcanic -system asserted its downward weight of the adjusted globe. - -By making much of pulsations and thirty-three year intervals, we are -dreaming of an ideal volcano such as might be constructed as was our -geyser apparatus. But there is no question of the reality of tides -in rock, as well as in ocean; of day and night; cold and sunshine; -year and century. Continent and ocean are positive, globe and solar -system are positive. The ideal volcano is part of a tidal system and -is limited in size. Therefore science has a right to inquire how it -happens that through centuries most volcanoes stay 4,000 feet high. It -has a right to look for averages and periodicities, just as a doctor -looks for respiration, temperature, and heartbeats. - -Like men, volcanoes are not all alike, but both men and volcanoes are -orderly organisms. The object of volcanology is to find order and -relate the small orderliness to the big regularity of globe and solar -tides. - -My 1906 visit at the end of the Vesuvian eruption crystallized my -lifework idea, begun at Pelée; but my accomplishment was dwarfed to -triviality by that of Perret, whom I first met while he was assisting -the Italian volcano observatory. He was a photographer and observer -of rare merit. He had been living in Naples and photographing all the -Italian volcanoes, and he had worked out a solar control diagram for -predicting volcano tides. Italy had made a volcanologist out of a -physicist-engineer. Discovery of Perret meant to me much more than any -phenomenon of geology. - -Frank Alvord Perret was an electrical engineer from Brooklyn, and a -genius with an ordinary Kodak. He took at Vesuvius, by sheer daring, -the most remarkable photographs ever made of an active volcano. His -knowledge of astronomy, meteorology, and physics made him see in a -volcano something to study close at hand, as Benjamin Franklin studied -a thunderstorm. He developed and printed his photographs himself, -and colored his lantern slides. He helped Matteucci, the observatory -director on Vesuvius, and was decorated as Chevalier by the King of -Italy. He tramped close to lava vents and explosion clouds, and took -hundreds of pictures. - -Perret and I had exactly the same conception of a volcano. We thought -of it as a living organism to record, just as rainfall is recorded -by the weather man. For our recording, we had to invent volcano -instruments. Though the camera was Perret’s supreme instrument, he had -been an electrical inventor all his life. Businessmen in Springfield, -Massachusetts, financed his work in Italy; and I went to Springfield to -lecture and encourage their research association, the predecessor of -our Hawaiian association. - -Perret photographed Etna, Stromboli, Teneriffe, Sakurajima, Kilauea, -the Carib cones and other volcanoes, and performed heroic work at the -Messina earthquake of 1908. When, in 1929, Pelée entered into another -of its periods of exploding and heaving it was studied critically by -Perret who had established a museum and observatory at Martinique. He -finally settled down at his museum in St. Pierre, and was of great -service at the Montserrat earthquake crisis of 1933 and thereafter. He -was not physically strong and the volcanic dust gave him pneumonia, but -several times he recovered from attacks. He died in New York, having -been forced north by the second World War. - -I also met the Yorkshire oculist, geologist, and photographer, Dr. -Tempest Anderson, on Vesuvius in 1906. This was another happy meeting. -He too was a skilled volcano photographer, and had taken pictures -in New Zealand and Iceland with his privately built cameras, using -methods of extreme originality. He afterwards made for me a camera -with small glass plates, dark chamber, arm sleeves, no plate-holder, -alpenstock tripod, bottle strip-testing developer, self-drying metal -case, and great perfection of rigidity and focus. We were to meet again -and again in different parts of the world. He became one of the British -experts sent to Soufrière by the Royal Society. He died of typhoid on a -volcano voyage to the Philippines. - -Shortly after my Vesuvius expedition I moved from Harvard to become -head of geology at Massachusetts Tech. My teaching overlapped that of -Professors W. Niles and W. O. Crosby at Tech and Wellesley, while for -a time I continued my Harvard work. It was at this time that I began -to think of possible ways of financing an expedition to the Aleutian -Islands and their forty active volcanoes. The year 1906–1907 was a -time of financial boom, so I went to Calumet and Hecla, the great -copper company of which Agassiz was president. To my astonishment they -subscribed $1,000 to start the Technology Expedition. State Street and -Wall Street raised this to $13,000 in ten days, and I learned much -about the availability of money during a boom of the stock market. -President Pritchett of Harvard approved the expedition, and I organized -it for a sailing schooner from Seattle, with nine in the crew and seven -scientists. - - [Illustration: _5. Scientists of Technical Expedition to - Aleutians, 1907; left to right: Jaggar, Gummere, Vandyke, Eakle, - Sweeney, and Myers_] - - [Illustration: _6. Captain George Seeley of the _Lydia_, - Technical Expedition to Aleutians, 1907_] - -We set sail in the spring of 1907 and spent four months in that ocean -of gales, fogs, rain, and cold between Dutch Harbor and Atka--the -eastern half of the Aleutians. One man, Colby, was a bear hunter who -explored the Alaskan Peninsula and reported on coal and gold. The -scientists were two geologists, two mining students, a physician who -was also botanist and entomologist, and an astronomer. They were Eakle, -Myers, Sweeny, Vandyke, and Gummeré. The sailing master and mate were -uncle and nephew, both Nova Scotians named Seeley. The following poem -by the master tells the story better than I could. - - AN ALASKAN IDYLL - - An Eastern College of renown - Had purchased in Seattle town - The schooner Lydia of ill fame - And Seeley was the Captain’s name. - The Scientist they numbered seven - Their subjects ranged from H----l to Heaven - One on volcano’s one on stars - Botany, bugs, short cuts to Mars. - - Like knights of old were they prepared to shoot - The mighty whale, ferocious malamoot. - Good fellows all. I hope they’ll lenient be - To him who writes this verse upon the sea - - Prof. Jaggar, man of earthquake lore. - To climb mountain peaks and them explore - By delving mid their bowels, Pray dont scoff. - Could tell you how it was, the cussed thing went off - At other times on many a foreign shore - Had studied deep in seismologic lore - By looking down their throats and note the smell. - Could tell exactly just how far we were from H----l. - - Prof. Gummere of the Drexel Institute - On mighty Mount Makushin burnt his boot - The crater sure was hot but when we did inquire - Found it was done while drying them to near the fire - Angles and dips of the magnetic kind - Dry bulbs and wet were ever on his mind - Strong in debate on theories scientific - Passed many a weary hour on the Pacific - - Dr. Vandyke the foothills oft would skirt - Oe’r turning stones and delving in the dirt - Beetles and bugs, all things that fly and crawl - Were his delight, and well he knew them all - If one were ill, or hovering near the Brink - He’d bring you back with ointment made of Zinc - Fauna and Flora that is bugs and flowers - Were his delight. On them he’d talk for hours - Of stature slight by nature energetic - The way he’d chase those bugs was quite pathetic - - Colby and Cody hunters of renown. - Whose specialty was bears, white, black, or brown - The Aleutian Is’ds yield but fox and rat - But little did these Nimrods care for that - Blood was their hobby they but lived for gore - And Colby’s stomach ever called for more. - They left us early much to our dismay - To hunt the grizzly down in Bristol Bay. - With grape nuts, flour, bacon in galore - They chase the caribou, what could they ask for more - - Next is little Dr. Eakle with the twinkle in his eye - Who could cook a flapjack, pound up rocks. - Or climb the mountains high - I’ll bet when he gets home again on California’s shore - He will never travel the Bering Sea in a Sch’r any more - He left us at Dutch Harbor and took another way - To Berkeley’s Alma Mater on San Francisco’s Bay. - - Messrs. Sweeney next and Myers, young men of good repute - The latter on his bugle would oft delight to toot - At any hour at any time either by night or day - Reveille, Mess call, any old thing - He’d lug her out and play. - He left with Eakle much to our regret - And in my dreams I hear reveille yet. - - Now I’ve roasted and I’ve toasted these fellows good and true - Just incline your ear and listen - While I whisper unto you - With a better lot of shipmates have I never yet set sail - Mid the light Pacific breezes or the wild Aleutian gale - I’ll remember each and all of them - And I hope they’ll think of me - And the trip they made in the Lydia bold. - To the darned old Bering Sea. - - _George Seeley - Sailing Master of the Technology - Expedition 1907_ - - [Uncorrected from the original manuscript] - -We collected specimens and made notes on geology, magnetism, -topography, weather, photography, ethnology, plants, insects, birds, -ores, shipping, volcanoes and navigation--materials for years of -laboratory study. The journal of the expedition, thirty-seven pages -long with photographs, was published by the _Technology Review_. - -Like every such volcano expedition, we were hampered by the -necessity of using a sailing vessel, by bad weather, by rain which -interfered with photography, by long spells on the open sea in fog, -and by inaccessible craters amid the ice of mountain tops. From the -administrative viewpoint, two things stood out: the need for an -amphibian boat, independent of harbors, and the need for a land station -more or less permanent, wherefrom an amphibian boat could operate to -reach and land on determinate beaches. A permanent station could work -on specimens in bad weather. These discoveries determined the policy -that was to eventuate in the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, to the -building of amphibian boats, and to five other Aleutian journeys by -1932. - -I might describe sliding down the slippery grass of Unalaska, on the -steep slopes peculiar to the Aleutians; exploring ice craters on top -of Makushin in Unalaska; or getting storm bound for five days trying -to reach Atka’s Korovinski Volcano on foot. But these tales have been -published elsewhere. - -The most exciting of the Aleutian volcanoes is Bogoslof, a peak -submerged north of Umnak, with its crater, a line of erupting crags, -just at sea level. We had good luck with weather and landed on Bogoslof -in the forenoon of August 7, 1907. Hundreds of sea lions, bellowing -close to the dories, would pop up and stare at us and then plunge -frantically beneath the waves. On the beach we found one bull asleep, -but he awoke and awkwardly floundered to the sea. The islet was then -four peaks with sand flats between, the central one a steaming mass of -lava protuberances shaped like potatoes. Next to it was a half cone -broken in two, with a horned spine like a shark fin; Pelée all over -again. It was also similar to New Zealand’s White Island. At the two -ends of the island were older, peaked lava rocks. The active heap was -450 feet high with bright yellow coatings, and a ring pool of hot salt -water around it, yellow with iron-stained mud. The rocky cliffs were -covered with thousands of murres, their chicks, and eggs; and the birds -darkened the sky in flight. The stench from offal and rotten eggs was -intense. - -The sea was full of fish, the beaches were full of sea lions, the hot -lava and air were full of birds. Thus life and deadly volcanism lived -together. The active rock was refractory basalt, semisolid, crusting -and breaking into blocks as it rose from a submerged crater. - -On September 1 after we left, the crater exploded, throwing sand and -dust a distance of 100 miles to the east. The middle heap was engulfed, -leaving only a lagoon; and the remaining peaks were shrouded in a heavy -mantle of debris. Such a history of building and bursting and spreading -out as a shoal has gone on for more than 111 years. Bogoslof is the -peak of a submarine Pelée, several thousand feet above sea bottom. It -is always active, the index volcano of the Aleutians. - -It was about this time that the need for observatories began to be -recognized. Something new and of grave menace had come into geology, -terrible steam blasts capable of shooting out horizontally and -explosively. And even as I write in 1952 these have been taking human -lives at Mount Lamington in Papua and Mount Hibokhibok on Camiguin -Island of the Philippines. - -At Vesuvius, under Palmieri, an observatory had been established -about 1859. The director was interested in meteorology as affected by -Vesuvius, and annual reports were published irregularly. Successive -directors became interested in making instruments for volcano science -and Mercalli, the director in 1907, published a book in Italian on the -active volcanoes of the world. When I went to Mount Pelée I was mindful -of the venture at Vesuvius; and Professor Lacroix of Paris established -artillery officers near St. Pierre ruins after the disaster, to watch -and report as a volcano observatory. They furnished details and -photographs of the many eruptions and the growth of the lava dome and -spine. Doctors Hovey, Flett, Anderson, Lacroix, and Heilprin returned -to Mount Pelée and added much to the observational and photographic -record, and Dr. Stübel published a special book inspired by critical -study of the Caribbees, in comparison with Andean volcanoes. - -Hovey and I put through a resolution in 1907 at the meeting of the -Geological Society of America, “strongly recommending the establishment -of volcano and earthquake observatories.” Perret and I were both -inventors of instruments, both experimenters, and both convinced that -the expedition method alone would never solve the volcano problem. The -brothers Friedlaender of Zurich were establishing a “Zeitschrift für -Vulkanologie,” in Naples, and a laboratory with German, Swiss, and -Italian assistants. The Carnegie Institution established in Washington -a geophysical laboratory devoted to high temperature physical -chemistry. We others were influenced by field ambition, and since 1899 -I had fought for a Hawaii geological survey, for I was convinced that -Kilauea Volcano there must have an American volcano observatory. - -My experiments on erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption -convinced me that a field experimental science was bound to grow up in -each of those parts of dynamical geology. All of these needed field -observatories to determine index of erosion, index of sedimentation, -index of ground movement and earthquake, index of volcanism; these -indices to be quantitative just as the thermometer and barometer and -wind gauge made climatology a quantitative science of the air. I found -almost nothing being accomplished in these new field sciences. No one -dreamt of attacking the Mississippi as a field of pure science of -erosionology, compared to the Amazon. It was felt that these things -could be left to commerce and the engineers. - -By index of eruption I mean the geographical peculiarity of Vesuvius, -for example, as an eruption center. Perret tried to reduce this to -diagram form. I published, in Washington, a plea for geophysical -observatories. - -An earthquake in 1908, predicted and photographed by Perret, had killed -125,000 people in Italy at Messina, near Mount Etna. Hence I felt more -strongly than ever that something must be done. So it was that in 1909, -at my own expense, I made a journey to Hawaii and Japan with my family. -Everything within me converged on making a life work of the results of -my Pacific journey. - -In Honolulu I was invited to show my colored lantern slides of the -Mount Pelée disaster and to describe Massachusetts Tech’s plan for a -seismograph station on Blue Hill near Boston. When the Honorable L. A. -Thurston of the _Pacific Commercial Advertiser_ interviewed me -after the lecture, and asked whether Kilauea Volcano on the island of -Hawaii would not be better than Blue Hill, I replied that it certainly -would have many more earthquakes and, in addition, would offer volcano -lavas to observe in action. Thurston asked, “Is it then a question -of money?” I replied that it was, largely, but that it also entailed -persuading Tech authorities that I was right. - -After visiting Kilauea, where I stayed at the Volcano House and saw -Halemaumau lava pit in action, I went on to Japan. There I visited the -seismograph stations of Professor Omori and traveled to active Tarumai -Volcano in Hokkaido. Tarumai, which was undergoing an interesting -eruption at that time, is a 4,000 foot cone in pine forests on the -north island of Japan. (Notice the usual 4,000 feet.) It had broken -out explosively, sent up a great spiral of cauliflower clouds of steam -and ash thousands of feet, and followed this by piling up a lava dome -in its summit crater, the dome lifting the crater floor and protruding -above the top of the mountain. - -This was an extrusion of andesite, more refractory and giving hotter -steam than Kilauea vents, as measured with an electric thermometer. We -got 450° Centigrade with Bristol thermocouple in sulfur-covered cracks -hissing on the actual face of the lava dome. Kilauea had given 300° -Centigrade in the famous “postal card crack” where visitors browned -their cards. - -The stiff rising lava dome of Tarumai was a duplicate of the lavas of -Bogoslof and Pelée, but Bogoslof was a crater at sea level, and Pelée’s -big dome and spine above the mountain top developed in the second year -of eruptions. I found further inspiration in a visit to Asama volcano -in central Japan. Here, just as at Tarumai, the hard lava lay in a -rigid swirl, hissing and steaming at the bottom of the summit crater -after the crater had announced eruption by “cauliflower” uprushes. - -It was evident that hard lava push-ups from the bottom of craters were -characteristic of the Pacific and Carib shores, in contrast to Hawaiian -and Italian flow-downs. The pressure upward breaks a mountain, the slag -and boiling groundwater inside churns up avalanche gravel and dust, -columns of dust-laden steam rush out, the break-up lets up lava, and -according to its frothing gas and heat and the air temperature, it is -capable physically of either foaming out liquid through radial cracks -or pushing up semisolid and piling as an aa heap. - -The net effect is flat lava shields for Hawaii, with flows into and -under the ocean, and shapely high cones for the Andes and Japan, with -Italy somewhere in between. The difference in the lavas is a matter of -internal meltability, due to chemistry and gases. - -In the first decade of the twentieth century this was new to me as -a geologist, for the books did not explain internal gas in lava. -Geography understood nothing of the relation of a volcano to lines -of cracking earth crust and depth of crust, and gigantic explosions -dominated history as exceptions. Refractory slags were then believed -to be stiff by reason of chemical fusibility, and gas in solution in -a melt is not understood even today. The Japan journey explained the -textbook contrast between oceanic Hawaii and continental Ecuador, both -volcanic, and the further contrast with Yellowstone agglomerates, and -intrusions of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Clearly Hawaii must be -studied, and experimental geology extended to the globe as a laboratory. - -On my return to Honolulu, Professor Ralph Hosmer, forester, met me and -reported that Honolulu money was available, if Massachusetts Tech would -send me to Hawaii to found a volcano experiment station. Then and there -the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association formed by business leaders -in Honolulu became a reality, to crystallize later into an educational -corporation. - -In 1910, while I was still a professor at Massachusetts Tech, the -United Fruit Company invited me to go in one of their ships to study -the earthquake destruction of Cartago, Costa Rica. I saw an opportunity -to study seismology in the field, as I had studied volcanology in -Martinique. The United Fruit Company owned the railroad and much of -the national debt of Costa Rica. F. R. Hart, treasurer of M. I. T. -and director of the fruit company told me to make my own plans and -the company would pay all expenses. Knowing that engineering is of -first importance in earthquake disaster, I invited Professor Charles -Spofford, head of our Civil Engineering Department, to go with me, and -he promptly accepted. - -Our journey was from New Orleans, in one of the splendid snow-white -steamers of the fruit company. This ship, going by Belize in British -Honduras, took us to Limon on the Caribbean side of Costa Rica, a place -of banana plantations and Jamaica-negro labor. From Limon we took a -mountain-climbing, narrow-gauge railroad, to the high and healthful -capital, San Jose. We passed the ruins of the city of Cartago, with -its earthquake tumbled churches and wrecked lower buildings, all -covered with heavy roofs of red tiles. Don Anastasio Alfaro, government -scientist, showed us seismographs and maps, and we called on President -Jimenez, who owned a dairy farm on the high slopes of Irazu Volcano -directly above Cartago. I arranged with the President to have the -government make an official inquiry all over the Republic, suggesting a -study of ten grades of earthquake damage, adapted to Central American -habits. These grades, from mere alarm up to wrecked churches, were to -apply to what had happened in each place. According to the answers, we -would make for each place a numerical value of intensity and plot these -on the map. - -We visited the wreckage of Cartago, where the quake had come like the -crack of a whip on May 4, 1910, just at the supper hour. An American -railway conductor and his family were seated at table and with the -first jarrings, they all pitched forward under the dining room table. -When the low adobe house fell on top of them, the table saved their -lives. A pathetic object was the hollow square of the Carnegie Palace, -designed by a Costa Rican architect to promote Central American -peace. It was improperly braced, and everything came down, including -the ornate stone wall around the grounds; and a cracked gate post -held a melancholy buzzard in the hideous ruin. This and several of -the big churches, cracked and disrupted, gave Spofford food for his -architectural notes. - -The President’s farm on Irazu was a lovely place of green glades, fat -cattle, and attractive Spanish dairymaids, at an altitude of more than -9,000 feet. The crater of Irazu at 10,300 feet was a tumbled depression -on the top of the mountain with a steaming solfatara on one side, and a -lot of circular holes inside, within a rim more or less circular. - -Poas crater was very different, with a crater lake of boiling water -surrounded by bright-colored horizontal layers of ash. We found buried -bombs from a recent eruption which had punctured the soil with holes -one or two feet across. There was wild adventure for me in being given -a horse at 4 A.M., equipped with a rotten saddle, which slipped when -I mounted him. The horse resented me in the early morning darkness, -having just left his grain, and immediately bucked off both me and the -saddle. More adventure followed. On the ride up the mountain and in the -midst of the forest we encountered a jaguar trap which had recently -caught two big cats. It was a pen, roofed with logs baited with a -fowl, and disguised with brush; a shutter fell and closed the opening -when the bait was touched. On the way down we had a terrific tropical -thunder storm, with sheets of cold rain, and I got chilled to the bone -and was sick with dysentery for two or three days. - -There are a dozen volcanoes like these two on the backbone of the Costa -Rica rocky mountains. They trend in a ragged line from the Panama -boundary on the southeast, to Nicaragua on the northwest. All have -records of explosive activity, but lava flows are rare. Beginning at -Nicaragua the line of the Cordillera, capped with volcanoes, continues -through Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala; and some of the lower ones -have lava flows. Cosequina is famous among them; and conspicuous as a -frequently active volcano is Santa Ana in Salvador, one peak of which -is Izalco, the index volcano of Central America, erupting frequently. -Other index volcanoes are Kilauea for Hawaii, Stromboli for Italy, and -Bogoslof for the Aleutians. The next line of volcanoes, also trending -northwest, extends from Guatemala into southern Mexico. The Costa Rica -line overlaps the northeast side of the Nicaragua-Salvador line, and -this in turn overlaps the Guatemala line, and so on. The chains of -volcanoes are over an echelon of cracks, surmounted by heaped-up lava -peaks on the continental divide. - -From the point of view of experimenting with volcanoes, the exploration -of the Cartago earthquake and Poas and Irazu craters and a study of -their relations typified the unsatisfactory combination of upheaved -mountains of strata and of volcanic eruptions and underground friction. -This extends all the way along the Cordillera from Patagonia to Alaska. -I say unsatisfactory because from the science standpoint, the action -of eruption or earthquake is far scattered in time and place, and only -local observatory geophysics and traveling scientists will do the work. -Cartago is directly at the foot of Irazu Volcano, but the volcano did -not erupt simultaneously with the earthquake. In the same way Messina -is at the foot of Etna, and Tokyo is at the foot of Fujiyama; and the -great earthquakes do not accord with eruptions. Sakurajima in 1914 was -an exception, it had a quake after outbreak. - -The direct outcome of my study, on the map of Costa Rica, of lines -of equal earthquake effects, showed the maximum of the 1910 quake on -the continental backbone, and the lines were crowded together along -the western mountains. However, they spread out wider and wider along -the Caribbean coastal plain, which is an elevated sea bottom on the -northeast side of the country. In other words the terrific jolt was -a deep slipping or scraping under the volcano line, and the elastic -waves of like strong effects were close together in the mountains -on the Pacific side, opposed by hard rock. On the other hand these -waves, much feebler, widened out their lines in going through flat, -soft strata on the Caribbean side. The answer seems to be that along -the jagged rupture which underlies the volcanoes there is continuous -upward pressure of lava, which occasionally is accelerated into a big -bump or slip, now here, now there, as the whole great mountain range -volcanically heaves through the ages. - -Our next journey was from Barrios across to Guatemala City, where we -had distant views of such volcanoes as the pure cone of Agua and the -sharp peak of Santa Maria, which in October of 1902 had blown out its -flank and left a vast hole. The Guatemalan plateau of rich soil and -abundant market products rises gradually from the wet banana lands on -the Caribbean side to a height of 4,870 feet at Guatemala City. This -is on the line of volcano cracks. Then the land plunges abruptly in a -precipitous down-faulted slope, to a low flat shelf along the Pacific -Ocean. This shelf is covered with the merging of many deltas formed -by the streams and torrents which drain the well-watered plateau. -Along this line at the top of the precipice is the chain of volcanoes, -with rich coffee lands at their feet on the upper slopes. Coffee -plantations were destroyed by steam, mud flood, and ash blasts in 1902, -and similar destruction was destined to begin again in 1923. - -A large model of Central America has been built in a park in the -open air in Guatemala City, showing magnificently the upland plateau -and its mountains, the flat slope to the east, and the long straight -steep plunge to the Pacific coastal shelf. This is one of the best -illustrations of the block faulting of a continent, lifted like a huge -flat slab along a crack, and tilted away from the Pacific. The Pacific -block dropped down. - -The same structure is true, on a larger scale, of the line of the -Andes, lifted as a volcano-covered slab, down-faulted along the Chilean -coastal plain. The upland slopes away to the basin of the Amazon. In -these studies we are experimenting with volcanoes on the scale of -geography, but the principles involved apply to Mexico and to the -Cascade Range in Oregon. They probably apply also to the Aleutian, the -Kamchatkan, and the western Pacific arcs, considered as upheaved and -eroded ridges. They are arcs because they are ancient calderas. - -We traveled by steamer along the Pacific coast to Panama, where the -canal was being finished. We were impressed by General Goethals and -his associate engineers, and with the marvellous organization of big -engineering as the United States could administer it. Yellow fever had -been conquered, ships constantly brought dairy products from New York -to canal employees, houses were screened and unglazed, and the jungle -was cut back to limits of safety from the mosquitoes. We found lively -young American college graduates, both men and women, playing tennis in -the deep tropics, where earlier hundreds had died of fever. We arrived -just at the time when sides of the Culebra Cut were continuously -sliding inward like a glacier, to close up the ditch. The ground under -a village at the top of the bank was cracking in long crevasses, and -habitations had to be abandoned. The only answer was to dig away the -hill with hundreds of dump cars, until the slope was flat enough to -stop sliding. - -An amusing episode occurred at the Pacific end of the canal, where -giant monitors, or hose nozzles, were being used to cut away the banks. -Engineer Williamson had conceived the idea of mounting these monitors -on concrete barges made on the spot. He covered the frames with steel -mesh, and sprayed concrete against the mesh until a water-tight hull -was produced. Fellow engineers jeered at Williamson and said that a -boat made of rock would surely sink. Someone asked Williamson, when his -first barge bore up the heavy monitors and was successful, what he was -going to name it. He painted the name in large letters on the barge -“Ivory Soap, it floats.” - -We met in Costa Rica and Panama Arthur Herschel, city engineer of -Kingston, Jamaica, who was responsible for the reconstruction of that -city after the terrific earthquake of 1907. Herschel invited Spofford -and me to stay with him on our way home, stopping off when we passed -Jamaica. We did so, were delightfully entertained, and learned about -engineering and rehabilitation after the most intense earthquake of all -history. - -The momentary intensity of the quake had been utterly without warning, -as though two mountains had collided, and the masonry of the business -section of Kingston crumbled almost instantaneously. A British major -was walking along the main thoroughfare, carrying a heavy walking -stick, when at the other end of the street, he noticed a commotion and -thought it was a negro riot. The disturbance came toward him with a -roar, and he saw clouds of dust rise from the street like a tornado and -approach him. He felt the ground jolting, raised his stick, and decided -to stand and fight it. The buildings right and left simply exploded, -and he was fending off bricks and stones and timbers. His feet were -half buried in rubble, and he sat down on a steel girder which had -lunged out into the street behind him. The dust was suffocating, the -noise was a traveling roar which went past him and on down the street -behind him. He called to a black man to dig out his feet, but the man -rushed by with staring, crazy eyes. He heard screams and saw women -running. It was some time before Red Cross stations were established -and the army men rescued him. - -The lesson taught by this earthquake, more intense than the one at -Cartago, was that the wooden bungalows of the hilly suburbs on rocky -ground stood the disaster better than even reinforced concrete in the -congested waterfront district. The better built government buildings -were preserved in part. - -The Jamaica law of 1907 had established definite boundaries for wooden -construction, limited to the suburbs, and made new and wider streets in -the business district. It had also established rigorous fire insurance -laws, and a city building code requiring specified construction for -all masonry. The result was a marked ring of parkway separating the -commercial center from the dwellings in the suburbs. The trouble with -such legislation, the effect of which I saw in Kingston twenty-six -years later, is that earthquakes are hopelessly discontinuous. With -no more big earthquakes as testers, such laws become dead letter, a -new generation remembers nothing, and an irresponsible and ignorant -native population poses new problems of poverty and vice. Earthquake -construction reform becomes an impractical dream. This is part of the -unsatisfactory quality of earthquake science, where assistance to -humanity is concerned. - -So ends my expedition decade, 1901 to 1910, after a succession of -studies in the field, which may be called Operation Pelée-Soufrière, -Operation Vesuvius, Operation Aleutians, Operation Kilauea-Tarumai, -and finally Operation Cartago. I did not think of these at the time -as the strategic work of warring with a task force in geographical -volcanology; but now as I look back on it, I can see in each expedition -the organization of an institution and men, and progress of volcanic -geology. - -The Martinique event was destined, through many explorers, to reform -geophysics. Vesuvius introduced me to the importance of superb -photography as represented by Perret and Anderson. The Aleutian Islands -introduced the question of nautical exploration and the importance of -a field base laboratory for work in a land of adverse weather. The -Japan-Hawaii expedition showed me the national seismometric work of Dr. -Omori in the field, and laid the foundation for the Hawaiian Volcano -Observatory. Finally, the Costa Rica expedition introduced me to the -complexity of seismological field work in a land of volcanoes, with the -problems of engineering ably investigated, and afterwards published by -Spofford. This decade thus logically leads into a totally different -one, field experiment in geography and founding a volcano observatory -in and on the most active volcano in the world, with a permanent -dwelling on a crater. - - - - - CHAPTER IV - - Living with Volcanoes - - “_He took his journey into a far country._” - - -The next decade began true experiments with volcanoes, when two -organizations some 5,000 miles apart combined their resources. The -Whitney Foundation created at Massachusetts Institute of Technology an -endowment of $25,000 for geophysical work on earthquakes and volcanoes, -expressing a preference for work in Hawaii; and a group of businessmen -in Honolulu, the Volcano Research Association, offered to pay my salary -for five years. - -When President Maclaurin and a group of professors at M. I. T. gave me -a dinner at the University Club in Boston to celebrate my departure for -Honolulu, the dinner table conversation turned to the terrors of the -deep sea, the dangers of volcanoes, the awfulness of leprosy in Hawaii, -and the heroism of giving up a secure teaching job in Boston. I replied -that their pessimism reminded me of the last words of Daniel Webster, -as quoted by a New England farmer, who said “Dan’l opened his eyes, -took one look at the glass of whiskey on the table at his bedside, -another at the pretty nurse, and said ‘I ain’t dead yet.’” - -I had organized the funds available so that a pair of Bosch-Omori -seismographs were shipped from Strassburg, and other seismographs -were ordered from Omori’s instrument maker in Tokyo. I collected -experimental instruments such as high temperature thermometers and -chronographs, of the type used in experimental physiology. Vaguely, -I was going to take the blood pressure and pulse of the globe. Also -I obtained a full set of weather bureau instruments for temperature, -rainfall, barometric pressure, and humidity, together with the electric -pyrometers, range finders, and photographic apparatus used in my -previous expeditions. And I had some small Japanese transits, as well -as plane tables and alidades for topographic experiments. - -I was unable to go to Hawaii until 1912, so I was delighted when -Perret consented to go to Kilauea Volcano in company with E. S. -Shepherd, gas chemist of the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory of -Washington, in the summer of 1911. Dr. A. L. Day, director of the -Carnegie laboratory, kindly supplied at our expense two Leeds and -Northrop resistance pyrometers and the accompanying Wheatstone bridge, -as well as thermocouples loaned from his equipment. Perret and Shepherd -went to Kilauea Volcano House; and Perret built a hut at the edge of -Halemaumau pit, where an inner lava lake was bubbling and maintaining -an island some 200 feet below the rim. Kilauea is the big cauldron, -Halemaumau is the firepit in its floor. “Kilauea” activity generally -means Halemaumau. They have separate cliff margins. - -L. A. Thurston, leading journalist and publicist of Hawaii and keen -promoter of a proposed Hawaii National Park, did everything possible to -help the scientists. Perret wrote weekly reports on the condition of -Halemaumau lava, and sent in photographs to Mr. Thurston’s newspaper, -the _Pacific Commercial Advertiser_. Living and camping at the -fire pit, Perret inaugurated something new for Hawaii, and set a -standard for the Volcano Observatory. These continuous reports had been -my dream for such volcanoes as Vesuvius, where publication had usually -been in delayed annuals and gave no current news of what the volcano -was doing. Furthermore, the Vesuvius observatory was at the foot of the -peak. - -I had ordered from the Lidgerwood Company an equipment of cables, -including some containing electric wires. These were to span the 1,500 -feet and to lower a thermometer into the pit of Halemaumau. Assisted by -Alex Lancaster, the active little half-breed guide from Virginia, and -by numerous laborers from the plantations, whose managers, spurred on -by Thurston, took a great interest in the project, Perret and Shepherd -erected two high A-frames on opposite sides of the fire pit and built -a trolley on the cable stretched between them. Perret kept constant -angular measurement of the changing height of the liquid lava, as the -glowing slaggy pool rose and fell overflowing its banks. At one side -of a triangular island was a point of ebullition called “Old Faithful” -where gas bubbles burst in a fiery dome, irregularly, but approximately -once a minute. The objective was to find the temperature of the liquid -lava in the vicinity of the bubbling. This was achieved by actually -dipping the electric pyrometers into the molten slag, then observing -the precise temperature at the recording box, which was in the hands -of Dr. Shepherd, who remained on the pit rim at the upper end of the -connecting wires. - -Finally the day came, after numerous rehearsals, when the long steel -tube, or terminal, on the end of the movable cable could be moved out -by the trolley to a middle point over the pit, where it would make -contact with bubbling liquid lava when lowered. This was an extremely -ticklish procedure, for the lava was a heavy mat of self-crusting -liquid rock with the crust forming hard slabs; few places kept up an -appearance of bubbling porridge. No one had ever made contact before -with the liquid of a fountain like “Old Faithful.” It was fortunate -that the apparatus, which was expensive, consisting of platinum wires -imbedded in silica glass, was made in duplicate so that we had two of -everything. The splashing liquid of “Old Faithful” looked as harmless -as a kettle of boiling soup, but Perret and Shepherd were in for a -surprise. When Shepherd lowered the terminal directly into the liquid, -“Old Faithful” exploded, for the molten slag proved to be a suction -whirlpool which threw tentacles of lava over the steel pipe. The -apparatus went down to destruction “like a bass under a log,” and the -cable was bitten off like a piece of line. The entire terminal vanished -into the vortex, leaving only a corroded wire. - -To shorten a long story, the second terminal was lowered into a -seemingly safer liquid place. A wave of the melt slapped and strained -the pipe, and though it was recovered, no electric resistance reading -was obtained at any time with the box at the rim of the pit. Close to -$1,000 in equipment was lost. The resistance pyrometer is a sensitive -tool in the laboratory, for giving precise degrees of temperature in -the region of 1200° Centigrade, supposedly the melting point of basalt. -But it was unsuited for the rugged bubbling of basalt slag, where -flaming gases and chilling air play more important parts than mere -melting. - -Fortunately Shepherd and Perret were not at the end of their resources. -There still remained the thermocouple, a simpler pair of wires of -platinum and iridium encased in a steel tube. The connectors from these -go to a simple galvanometer in the hands of the operator. The trolley -could still be used, and the thermocouple pipe had no glass inside it -to be shattered. A temperature of 1000° Centigrade was recorded in a -bubbling area, and this was considered good enough for an approximation. - -Another experiment was to lower an iron bucket into the liquid, and -pull it up full and dripping with black lava glass. This was sent off -to Washington for analysis. Afterwards the lava lake went down, no more -experiments that year were possible, and Perret began the plotting of a -curve of high and low in the rise and fall at the bottom of the pit. - -It may seem extravagant to waste valuable apparatus on such seemingly -small results; but as a matter of fact, the Shepherd-Perret journal -of the summer of 1911 was epoch-making in the history of volcanology -and in the work of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. It proved that -skilled observers could dwell inside an active crater and there apply -their skills in photography, chemistry, note-taking, and continuous -publication. The substance of active lava lakes was proved to have -viscosities and solidifications quite different from those implied -by gases, and it was shown that different types of thermometers -gave negative or positive results useful for the future. Above all, -the notes on volcano chemistry by Shepherd and Perret demonstrated -that engineering apparatus could be applied to the hottest and most -continuously active pit in the world. Their success was at the -relatively small expense of a journey and a few machines. Brun of -Geneva had set an example of similar work, but Perret’s curve of rise -and fall added a more detailed record of the Kilauea pit from day to -day than had ever been made before. - -An observatory is a place of observation and measurement, whether the -things observed are glaciers, rivers, stars, the weather, or volcanoes. -The motive of observation in modern science is either the quality of -what happens or the quantity expressed in lengths and degrees and rates -of speed. Remembering the precedent of Vesuvius, I was confronted -in Hawaii with the necessity of determining how a volcano should be -observed, the need to measure changes in a single volcano, and the need -for permanent records of what those changes are. We chose measuring -instruments, photographic equipment, and thermometers, and I invented a -note-taking system which was compiled into a single record book, from -field notes taken uniformly by many different assistants. - - [Illustration: _7. Volcano House from Observatory, 1913_] - - [Illustration: _8. Island in Halemaumau lava lake, 1911. Photo - by Perret_] - - [Illustration: _9. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 1912_] - - [Illustration: _10. Jaggar in seismograph vault beneath Volcano - Observatory, 1916_] - -The textbook needs for volcanology are records of the shape, height, -number, distribution, temperature, and differences among volcanoes. How -gaseous is lava? how radioactive is it? how often does it erupt? and -how dangerous is it for human beings? With reference to the source, -crack or crater, we need knowledge of how the earth crust is ruptured, -how deep are the fractures, and how much accompanied by earthquake -is the wedging upward of lava in those cracks. - -My first job on arriving in Hawaii was to make contact with Mr. -Thurston and his associates. The next was to get a good map made of -Kilauea Volcano as a basis for measurement of changes in the fire pit. -Governor Walter F. Frear came to my rescue and immediately sent Colonel -Claude Birdseye and Captain Albert Burkland to make a topographic map -of the proposed Hawaii National Park. These engineers brought into the -field the topographic camp of the U.S. Geological Survey, and they were -extremely sympathetic with my project, furnishing me with surveying -monuments, and sketching out methods wherewith to make an accurate base -line for measurement of changes inside the pit. - -A laboratory on the northeast edge of Kilauea Crater was quickly -provided through the energy of the brilliant Demosthenes Lycurgus, -hospitable Greek manager of the Volcano House, the hotel where I -stayed. All the merchants of Hilo, thirty miles away, contributed funds -and in a few weeks carpenters were at work, on land belonging to the -Bishop Estate and sublet by the Volcano House. Furniture was paid for -by the Whitney Fund. - -A cellar for seismographs was blasted by Territorial prisoners in -the hot rock under the laboratory, at the actual northeast edge -of the greater crater of Kilauea. The lava pit Halemaumau, always -smoking, was in full view two miles away. The cellar lined with -concrete, which shut off the steam cracks, became a warm, dry place -for instruments at a constant temperature of about 80° Fahrenheit. -Concrete tables on the floor of the cellar held the pair of east-west -and north-south horizontal pendulums, recording with delicate pens -on smoked paper, stretched over a chronograph drum. These paper -records, removed every day and fixed with shellac varnish, became the -seismograms of the permanent files. Long belts of wavy lines on each -paper exhibited seconds, minutes, and hours; and when a sharp zigzag -in one of the lines occurred, it was evidence of either a local or a -distant earthquake. H. O. Wood, who had been my assistant in field -geology at Harvard and had had experience with Omori seismographs -at the University of California, was summoned to the Observatory as -seismologist. - -Thus in the first six months of 1912 I became a resident of a volcano -in Hawaii and had an adequate laboratory of eight rooms, and suitable -porches, a darkroom for photography, and the beginnings of seismograph -records in the basement. Horses and saddles were purchased, the -necessary outer houses were built, and Alec Lancaster was employed as -janitor and field man. Francis Dodge, athletic young Honoluluan and son -of a government surveyor, was appointed topographic assistant. He was a -hardy cowboy, with some experience as rodman for the Geological Survey. - -From the moment of my arrival I adopted uniform pocket scratch pads -with detachable sheets for the use of all employees, insisting that -anyone who went to the lava pit should write notes, inscribe the -date and hour, tell what he saw, and hand the notes to me. Even Alec -Lancaster, whose father was a Cherokee Indian carpenter and whose -mother was a mulatto, took notes and learned about the points of the -compass and the names of the coves and blowholes of the lava lake in -the bottom of the pit. Some of Alec’s notes were very amusing, as when -he wrote, “9:30 A.M. April 3, Old Faithful is on her job right -sturdy.” However, he quickly learned the correct technical expressions -for surface streaming of the lava, brightness of the fountains at -night, numbers of the bubble fountains, and places of smoke on the -bottom of the pit. At all times Alec was a useful camp man, a good -cook, and a fearless climber of cliffs. When it came to making and -using rope ladders with hickory rungs for descent down a 200-foot cliff -to the edge of the lava, Alec was the first to volunteer. He drove -spikes into cracks in the rock and tested out the ladders, surrounded -by smoke. This was done in June and December of 1912, when the gas -chemists of the Carnegie Institution were conducted to the bottom to -collect gases, by pumps and vacuum tubes, from flaming spatter cones. - -I hope this introduction gives some idea of what the first year of -the Observatory accomplished. Meanwhile problems of policy and of the -publishing of results crowded upon me thick and fast. The notes of all -employees had to be compiled; critical scientific visitors had to be -convinced of the usefulness of the new effort; the Massachusetts Tech -and Honolulu sponsors had to be given suitable reports; a permanent -record book, reproducing surveys, notes, and photographs, had to be -devised; and I had to make occasional journeys to California, Boston, -and Washington for contact with the Government, with scientific -societies, and with scientific magazines. - -It was necessary to keep track of improvements in photographic plates, -for the fire pit with its dark red heat and dark red rocks was a -difficult subject for photography. Fortunately, the panchromatic plate -had recently been invented by Dr. C. E. K. Mees, and was a godsend for -experiments in recording liquid lava splashing at night. Dr. Mees, -chief of research at Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, has since -been a visitor and good friend of the Observatory. Both surveying and -photographing were difficult during 1912 because the inner pit sent up -a dense column of fume which diminished only at those times when the -liquid lava became hotter and developed fountaining. There was such -smokeless development with hundreds of roaring fountains of liquid lava -in January and July. The intervening period showed a great deal of -smoke, and in August there was a dense column of silently rising gray -fume the full width of the pit, so that nothing of the bottom could be -seen. - -To determine the height of the bottom lava it was necessary to work -from a fixed station with a transit, using a flashlight at night, and -waiting for a view of a glowing spot or fountain. This involved reading -vertical and horizontal angles, dependent on difficult determination -from two stations, of the distance to the glow spot measured. Often -in daytime one had to wait hours in order to get a view of the bottom -through the fumes, from stations at the ends of a base line on the edge -of the pit. At no time later, fortunately, were the fume conditions -so bad as during 1912. A procedure was adopted of making a daily -photograph of the smoke of the distant pit from the window of the -observatory, and this proved of value when the inner lava lakes and -crags rose to view in 1917. - -Like Perret, I made reports to the newspapers in Honolulu; and -gradually these reports took the form of a monthly bulletin, edited -in Honolulu by Dr. Howard Ballou, who was the secretary of the -Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. This association had occasional -Directors’ meetings, which I attended and before which I made reports -and gave lectures. The report of the complete work done during -the first few months of the year 1912 was published in Boston by -Massachusetts Tech. - -The earlier history of Hawaiian volcanoes had been recorded in -excellent books by such travelers as the Misses Gordon-Cumming and -Isabella Bird, William Lowthian Green, and Drs. C. H. Hitchcock and -W. T. Brigham, and Professor James D. Dana of Yale. Dana had been -furnished with data from 1840 to 1890 by a Hilo missionary, Titus Coan. -When I arrived in Hawaii, two books on Kilauea’s activity in 1909 had -just been published, and a big monograph by Brun of Geneva who had -determined that Kilauea lava was free from water vapor and was the -hottest lava in the world. - -Furthermore, R. A. Daly of Harvard had published his “Nature of -volcanic action” on the basis of his summer at Kilauea in 1909. There -was strong controversy against Brun on the water question, but the -experts, including Day and Shepherd, came to the conclusion that -lava eruption of the Kilauea type was actuated by such flaming gases -as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and sulfur; that these gases were in -solution in some elemental form deep down in the earth; and that the -chemistry of their emission heated the lava on its way up. The lava -lakes were hotter at the top than at the bottom. We shall see that all -lava partly solidifies at its own bottom and stays liquid above. - -The items of activity at Kilauea Volcano during the decade from 1911 to -1920 were marked fluctuation up and down in 1912–1913, with a notable -low level in 1913, culminating in a strong earthquake in October. In -1914 the liquid lava came back into the bottom of Halemaumau pit, and -in December Mauna Loa erupted in a fountain at its summit crater. The -lava lakes of Kilauea grew bigger in 1915, and a triangular island -appeared, lifting itself up from a shallow flat and even rotating or -hinging horizontally. Its uplift was as a peaked escarpment of lava -layers tilted in one direction, something very like Perret’s island of -1911. - -An affinity between Kilauea and Mauna Loa was obvious. In 1916 Mauna -Loa completed its summit gushing by splitting open the mountain’s -southwest rift and making a lava flow into ranch and forest lands of -South Kona. But just as Mauna Loa activity ended, the entire Halemaumau -bottom thirty miles away lowered dramatically during one day, leaving a -deep seething puddle of melt, surrounded by roaring red hot avalanches. -The coincidence, along with appropriate earthquakes, was unmistakable. - -Immediately after the lowering, the liquid lava of Halemaumau welled up -border wall cracks and cascaded through the talus to form an oval pool -in the bottom funnel of broken rock. The lava column rose 600 feet in -the next six months and a lobate lake developed, its coves separated -by sectors of overflow lava which lifted slowly into crags in the -center. In 1917 the lakes and crags inside Halemaumau were less than -100 feet down, the lake shores became accessible for experiments with -iron pipes, and the crags came into view from the Observatory, fully -justifying the daily photograph for comparing changes of the distant -pit. - - [Illustration: _11. Lava lake, showing bench, March 30, - 1917_] - - [Illustration: _12. Halemaumau, showing lava lake and crags, - December 8, 1916_] - - [Illustration: _13. Jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake, - 1917. Cylinder on end of pipe holds Seger cones for measuring - lava temperature_] - -By 1918 and 1919 the pit was full and overflowing the Kilauea floor. -During the whole of 1919 Halemaumau, as a pit, was obliterated by its -dome of fill. In autumn the south flank of Mauna Loa broke out again, -into a flood of lava that reached the sea in South Kona. Remembering -1916, we predicted that, even though Halemaumau was full to the brim, -the sinking away of Mauna Loa lava would pull down Kilauea lava -suddenly, like a siphon. Exactly this happened on November 28, 1919. -During the night the crags, the clover-leaf lake, and the bulging -dome of the lava fill above Halemaumau’s edge went down as a cylinder -to a depth of 400 feet in two or three hours leaving incandescent -avalanching walls, a gratifying confirmation of theory. - -As in 1916, the Halemaumau lava immediately returned to the bottom of -the pit, and lifted itself thirty feet a day for three weeks, so that -in December it was a violently boiling ringshaped puddle, surrounding -a horseshoe of crags with a quiet inner lagoon and resembling a coral -atoll. The Kilauea floor, which is dome-shaped outside of Halemaumau, -split open radially to the south, made floods of lava into the Kilauea -Crater wall valley, and even escaped out into the Kau Desert. This was -extended into a mountain crack, making flank lava flows of Kilauea -Mountain, nine miles away to the southwest, something which had not -happened since 1823 and 1868. Concentric craters like Kilauea caldera -and Halemaumau pit are thus ring-in-ring, or cup-in-cup, structures -by means of slag heapings over a deep fracture in the rock crust, the -circularity determined by occasional central sinking. - -This circularity has sometimes reached perfection. In 1894 and 1909 -the liquid pool inside Halemaumau, by steady welling up about a -central hole, became perfectly circular within a circumferential -rampart of overflow. This is a rare condition dependent on steadiness -of upwelling, temperature, and viscosity. It is important because it -shows how the perfect circles, and rampart cauldrons, were made on the -moon, where there are also angular calderas of subsidence like Kilauea -Crater. Evidently gas heating and liquidity changed on the moon, just -as it has done in Hawaii. The sources there are over cracks, as in -Hawaii. The analogies are so complete in these and many other ways that -I completely disbelieve in meteor impact for the moon craters. The moon -awaits a complete comparison with active terrestrial basaltic lavas, -by a modern volcanologist. - -This is only a thumbnail sketch of the astonishing luck which met the -photographers and note takers of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -in its first decade. There were similar decades in the nineteenth -century, and there were similar jagged crags rising as islands and -shorelines around clover-leaf lakes in 1879 and at other times. There -were undoubtedly earlier similar sympathetic movements whereby Kilauea -had lowered following the end of Mauna Loa outbreaks. But none of this -had ever before been measured from day to day. Our staff from 1912 -on occupied the trig stations, every day or night when the weather -permitted, in order to measure within one foot the level of the live -lava up or down. The lava was like the mercury in a barometer and -needed incessant watching. This was done with a telescope, by people -who dwelt on the edge of the vertical pipe. After 1913 the measurements -clearly showed that sinkings were just as important as risings. They -proved that the solid overflow matter and slide-rock slopes around the -edges of lava lakes and coves measurably were a paste. This containing -bank rose and fell at a different rate from that of the gassy liquid -which streamed and fountained inside. The compiled results showed that -the source of the liquid streaming was always at the west side of the -pit bottom and that the streaming was toward fountaining grottos at -the east. The liquid might at any time overflow its banks or sink down -leaving inner cliffs, by failure of full supply up the west wall crack. - -All of this may sound highly technical; but notes, photographs, -seismograms, records of weather, and unceasing press releases and -reports to the sponsors, while difficult for literary description, -created a new technique. Science, when one is devising a new approach, -consists of observation first, of experiment second, and of explanation -or theory third. Something of that order has to be followed in the -record of a scientist’s life. - -The surprising sympathetic lowering of Kilauea following the end of -Mauna Loa eruptions was only one of numerous surprises during the first -decade of the Observatory. For instance, the temperatures of hot cracks -were repeatedly and systematically measured, and nothing sympathetic -with lava motion was found. The same may be said about the weather. -At the beginning it was supposed that rainfall, air temperature, -barometric pressure, and possibly fluctuation of the trade wind, would -affect the volcano. However, the only quickly evident effect was the -visible vaporing of many cracks on the Kilauea floor which dried up and -diminished when the sunshine appeared, becoming dense and increasing -in cold or wet weather. This obviously meant that the moisture content -of the vaporing cracks, some steam, but mostly moist hot air came from -shallow rain water a short distance underground. - -An effect that was more volcanic, but similar in principle, was the -visible vapor inside of Halemaumau, close to the lava lakes, which -always increased when the lava lowered and let the groundwater seep -inward. These visible vapors dwindled when the hot slag bubbled and -rose, and acquired a brighter glow. No steam vapor rose from the -glowing lakes. There was drying up of groundwater by increased volcanic -heat, just as the cracks of the bigger crater had their moisture dried -by the action of sunshine. - -I shall have more to say on the subject of the seasons, the calendar -effects on the plat of rising and falling lava, and especially the -solar equinoxes and solstices. There appeared the hint of a daily -tide-like rise and fall of the lava in the pit. - -Finally, there arose the question of counting earthquakes, measuring -their spacing in time and place, and seeing which belonged to Mauna Loa -and which to Kilauea fault rifts. We had to plot earthquake frequency -and size in relation to lowering lava, to day and night or to the -seasons. The study of rhythmic swelling and creaking inside the great -pasty mountains became an exciting quest. It gave promise of cycles -from the hours of the day to the decades of the century. - -We also discovered, by measuring vertical angles, that the inner floors -rose and fell differently from the liquid lakes, hence the floors -could be called the bench magma, as distinct from the liquid magma. -This led to a bold experiment in 1917 when the liquid lava lakes -became accessible, after a casual visitor, Mr. Walter Spalding of -Honolulu, discovered an easy path down to the overflow floors at the -edge of the north lake. Here the streaming slag rushed toward a glowing -grotto, built up by spatter of a border fountain into a huge half-dome -containing a glowing cavern hung with stalactites on the shore of the -lake. The platform outside of the grotto was overflowed, and built up -as the liquid lake rose, the platforms of overflow sloping away to -the wall valley under the pit cliff. Thus the lake was at the top of -an inner dome a thousand feet across, just as Halemaumau pit rim was -at the top of an inner dome of Kilauea floor three miles across. The -outer edge of Kilauea Crater is a big oval at the top of the outward -sloping greater dome of Kilauea Mountain forty or fifty miles across. - -When a little conelet formed on the northern or western floor platform -inside Halemaumau, its slope around a splashing and fountaining crack -would make a fourth innermost dome a few feet across in the series -of progressively smaller cone-in-cone structures from the outer rim -of the big mountain inward to the Halemaumau centers of eruption. We -saw such a conelet cave in just where I had stood and tested a flame -the day before. Quietly the cone collapsed into a fountaining well of -boiling lava beneath. The ring-in-ring conception must be held in mind -with regard to any volcano, for one thing which we discovered is that -cones are not only built up and collapsed but they are also swollen -up by internal percolation of cracks and expansion of the hot stuff. -This tumefying, or swelling, is concerned with the experiment now to be -described. - -Even after Perret described his “floating island” of 1911 and I saw the -triangular islands appearing like shoals in a mud flat and gradually -rising into crags in 1916 and 1917, I remained incredulous of the -possibility of a basaltic island floating. When solid lava cracked -off in pieces from inner cliffs around the lava lakes, the fragments -immediately sank. Furthermore, when solid crusts formed on top of the -foaming and streaming slag, the shells, when they got thick enough, -cracked up, tilted up, and slid down and foundered in the melt beneath. -It was obvious that lava rock is heavier than lava foam. Hence as an -island is a rock, it would not float. This raised several questions. -Where was the bottom of the lava lake on which it rested? Did the lava -lake have a bottom, and if so how far down was the bottom when the same -lake rose 600 feet in Halemaumau pit between June and December of 1916? -In other words, was the lake 600 feet deep in December? - -What would be the answer at any time if a stiff iron pipe were thrust -down vertically into the liquid lake as a sounding rod? No one had ever -raised the question. Cross-section drawings had always depicted the -liquid as extending downward indefinitely within a vertical tube. When -the lake became accessible in 1917, it seemed to me that a long steel -pipe might be shoved over the border rampart, end on, and allowed to -bend and sink, or to strike bottom. If the pipe could be recovered by -dragging it back, fusible samples of known melting point might show the -temperature of the depths. - -For the experiment, 200 feet of one-inch iron pipe, which was screwed -together in a single long piece, was laid across the north floor of -Halemaumau. Ten assistants were distributed along the pipe twenty feet -apart, and I stood on the rampart with Alec at the edge of the central -portion of the lava lake. This was a high bank ten feet or more above -the streaming liquid lava. The men were instructed to lift the entire -long tube and walk forward with it, so that it would plunge into the -liquid lengthwise, arching down toward the center of the lake as it -came past me. Alec helped guide the pipe over the bank, and the men -came forward with it at a steady walk. The end of the pipe, covered -with a screw cap, was plunged into the liquid lava, traveling toward -the bottom at a good speed. The strong current toward the left dragged -it somewhat, but not enough to prevent its sinking. After two and -a half 20-foot joints of the pipe had plunged into the liquid at a -slope of about fifty degrees, I could feel the pipe encountering the -increasing resistance of a pasty bottom. Continued forward progress of -the pipe caused it to stop and arch up, while the surface lava streamed -past it, and its lower end was definitely stuck in the bottom substance -of the lake. - -I then gave the signal to the carriers to try to walk back to the -place where they had started, with a view to pulling the pipe up and -recovering the terminal length. The pipe trailed upward out of the lava -lake like a red hot rope, then stuck and refused to come out. It came -close against the bank where it was frozen solid in the stiff blankets -of pahoehoe crust, which gripped it like hot iron. - -The terminal length had been equipped internally with a spiral of -spring steel, containing Seger cones which are used in the porcelain -industry and which bear numbers indicating they melt at graded -temperatures. This first thermometer by meltability was never -recovered. The free lengths of pipe had to be unscrewed close to the -bank, and four twenty-foot lengths were lost. In later tests we learned -to keep the pipe oscillating back and forth so it would not freeze. - -The epoch-making significance of this experiment was not understood -until later. Calculation of the angle of slope of the pipe, where it -went down into the liquid and hit on the bottom, showed that vertically -the liquid was about fifty feet deep. With the aid of soldiers from the -Kilauea Military Camp, this experiment was repeated several times; and -each time the lake was found to be the same depth. - -This conclusion was later verified by sudden subsidences of the liquid -lava until the cliffs bordering the liquid were fifty feet high. The -eastern grottos turned into cascades, with the liquid pouring down -a well. The liquid lake had become a river pouring over a ledge of -its own bottom, across from the western source wells to the eastern -sinkholes. These latter were fountaining grottos when the lakes were -full, but they exhibited internal rectangular upright sinkholes -when the lake level was down. This was verified repeatedly, and the -phenomena of source wells at the west and cascading sinkholes at the -east were confirmed and photographed. It thus became evident that the -lava lakes were nothing more than convectional lava flows over pasty -solidified substance of their own bottom sediment. Convection means -rising foam, loss of gas, and sinking gas-free heavier liquid. - -In other words, the bench magma capped with overflows on the marginal -platforms was a paste, cooled from the top and bottom and sides -and making the saucer of streaming liquid. It was this paste which -constituted the swelling heart of the bench magma. The fountaining of -gas bubbles escaping from solution robbed the lava of heat and caused -it partially to solidify, always at a depth of about fifty feet. Thus -there were necessarily three substances: The deep lava fizzing with -self-heating gases (later proved to be inflammable hydrogen, carbon -monoxide, sulfur, and inert nitrogen and argon), the streaming foam -into which the deep lava expanded, and the semi-solidified refuse of -the foam created at the bottoms and banks of the liquid lava when it -cooled from bright yellow heat (about 1150° Centigrade) to a dark-red -heat (about 900° Centigrade). - -The streaming across the bottom from west to east meant that during six -months of rising lava, some 600 feet in the last half of 1916, the lava -column was a cylinder of semicooled lava, maintained by upward pressure -of the deep lava bubbling up in the western crack between the cylinder -and Halemaumau wall. Meanwhile, at all times, the lakes were nothing -more than streams of foam fifty feet deep and skinned over on top, -congealing on their bottoms and shores and cascading down sinkholes in -the eastern wall cracks of the cylinder. A convectional circulation -was what maintained the rising, foaming, heating, and cooling and the -changes in density of the liquid as it lost its gas. Thus the entire -fountaining phenomenon of the lava lakes was due to the self-heating -of what is known as exothermic reaction of gas escaping from solution -in molten basalt. Much of this is actually the burning of hydrogen in -air, creating a convectional circulation wherever the deep lava can -find an outlet. - -Ordinarily these outlets are along cracks or rifts in the slope of the -mountain, where they are seen to break out in gassy fountains 500 feet -high, and often to flow along the crack to a cavity where they cascade -downward when less foamy and heavier. A lava flow is always solving a -problem of foaming and liquefying, just as does champagne or beer. - -There still remains the unsolved problems of how much of the deep -lava is gas and whether it is mere pressure which holds the gases in -solution, as in soda water. The alternative is for the deeper magma -to be entirely gas, oozing up cracks in the globe, and reacting with -oxygen from the air and solid rock, percolating from the core of the -earth upward, and melting its walls. - -In a sense, the entire decade to 1920 was an experiment. The results -of that decade showed that the mountain swells and shrinks in tides -with the passages of the sun and moon, but that Kilauea Mountain and -Mauna Loa Mountain are all parts of what might be called Hawaii Island -Mountain. The island of Hawaii is above an old ocean bottom 18,000 -feet deep and is only the end of a ridge 1,700 miles long, which even -at its lowest end, Midway and Ocean Islands, is still 12,000 feet high -above the smooth mud-over-rock ball of the Pacific Ocean bottom. All -the evidence shows the ridge to be a pile of lava flows over a crack, -with a veneer of coral. If, then, the relatively small Kilauea dome -is swelling and shrinking in sympathy with the sun, the long Hawaiian -ridge is doing the same thing to a much greater degree. - -Michelson has shown that the solid rock of the globe rises and falls -in a tide about one foot every half day. As I have said, our daily -measurements in 1912 showed that the lava in Halemaumau had a daily -tide and that the larger movements reached maxima in June and December -and minima in the intervening months, which proved it must be a solar -effect. This was very exciting information and suggested a long train -of experiments, which were to be successful in the next decade, based -on the idea that the whole mountain swells as shown by leveling. This -extends out to a radius of twenty miles from Kilauea Crater, and -probably extends all the way to the seashore. - -The actual measurement of a lava tide in Halemaumau was done during -July and August 1919. R. H. Finch had just come from Washington to be -my assistant. Oliver Emerson of Honolulu was another assistant, and two -Harvard youths, Sumner Roberts and Charles Thorndike, who had been on -war missions in submarine chasers, sent word through their parents that -they were anxious to do something dangerous around an active volcano. I -jumped at the chance to employ them to help me measure the lava tide. - -The north lake in Halemaumau was quite accessible, and we organized -night and day shifts for surveying measurements from a canvas shelter -on the actual bench lava near the lake. For twenty-minute periods, each -observer critically measured a number of monuments on the bench magma -and glowing places of the lake edge. Then a new measurement was started -by leveling the transit. This sequence was kept up night and day for a -lunar month, namely twenty-eight days. One of the monuments was a fixed -Halemaumau benchmark, equipped at night with a lantern and used as a -datum for the fluctuating lake points. - -A second tent back from the Halemaumau rim was a camping base. Ford -cars were kept running from the Volcano House for the changing of crew, -Mrs. Jaggar looked out for the food, and I directed repeated surveys of -the position of monuments and of the observation shelter. - -Meantime the lava steadily rose during July, and at one time split -open the Kilauea floor making an outflow back of the shelter. The -vertical angles kept track of the movements of both the liquid and the -semisolid lava. The instrument was planted on the lava column itself. -On one occasion, Mrs. Jaggar’s glove fell into a floor crack inside the -shelter and burst into flame. - -In all, there were more than 20,000 observations recorded. These were -plotted on coordinate paper, and results were reduced to a smooth -curve by overlapping averages. The actual curve of measurements was -subjected to harmonic analysis at Yale University by Professor E. W. -Brown, mathematician and specialist on motion of the moon and on lunar -tides. The results showed a definite daily tide in both liquid lava -and semisolid lava; of a few inches for the lunar tide, and of larger -amounts for the solar effect. The curve plotted reached its greatest -perfection of daily up-and-down waves during July at periods when the -lava was steady. This became interrupted and ragged when accidents of -drainage out on Kilauea floor pulled the liquid lava down. - - [Illustration: _14. River of Alika flow, Mauna Loa, October 6, - 1917_] - - [Illustration: _15. Lava streaming into a sinkhole in - Halemaumau lava lake, July 7, 1917_] - - [Illustration: _16. Sakurajima Volcano, Japan, 1914_] - - [Illustration: _17. Fountain in lava lake, March 19, 1921_] - -H. O. Wood, seismologist at the Volcano Observatory, was skilled in -compiling the volcano’s historical heights and depths of the nineteenth -century and in plotting our curve of surveys of the liquid lava. He -published a commentary on such plots for 1912–1913 in relation to -solar curves of solstice and equinox, and to the oscillations of the -global axis. He demonstrated a definite correlation between seasonal -fluctuation of sun and moon and the seasonal rise and fall of the lava, -presenting an extensive analysis of the rock tide in the globe and its -application to Hawaiian volcanoes for a century. Perret had made a -similar analysis for earthquakes and volcanoes in Italy. - -These curves applied to the seasons, if compared with our lava tide -applied to the hours of the day, left me with the conviction that the -cyclical variations are a fact. They show correspondence between the -swelling and shrinking of the globe and the movements of lava, when -those movements are free and subject to surveying measurements. For few -volcanoes are surveys possible, and our measurements were the first in -the world of any continuity. - -Earthquakes, too, were studied. Dr. Arnold Romberg of the University -of Texas--who has become a distinguished inventor in the world of -seismology, magnetism, gravity, and oil prospecting--was Professor -of Physics at the University of Hawaii about 1918 and for several -summers came to the Hawaiian Observatory to assist me in experimental -seismology. - -From 1917 to 1920 I took the records of earthquakes and other seismic -movements, as recorded by our Omori instruments, and Romberg remodelled -these instruments. With his knowledge of the fundamental mathematics -of pendulums, for at Harvard he had experimented with sensitive -galvanometers, his facility for making instruments out of nothing but -wire, solder, and old clockworks was wonderful and inspiring. - -I spent many months measuring our smoked-paper seismograms of 1913 -through 1918, with the assistance of Mrs. Jaggar, to whom I dictated. I -measured types of local earthquakes, of volcanic tremors (some of which -definitely accompany lava fountaining), and tilting of the ground, -publishing the results in 1920. Tilt upswelling is shown in amount and -direction by gradual change of the writing seismograph pens, and this -is correlated with the recorded rise and fall of the lava. - -In the course of three years, with Romberg’s valuable advice, we -changed the seismographs to record with little mirrors supported on -silken fibers and with beams of light projected on photographic paper. -And Romberg invented an ingenious improvement with a vane and a bath of -oil, whereby a tilt-free seismograph for earthquakes only would keep -the spacing of its lines uniform. Ground tilt crowds the lines. - -We also experimented with a heavy cylinder which hung as a normal -pendulum and which was capable of swinging in any direction, so that -it threw a beam of light vertically upward to a chronograph covered -with bromide paper. The chronograph was capable of being revolved and -stopped, until the mocroseisms and microtremors reached their maximum -of amplitude, for any given period of recording. - -The permanent waviness of ground motion, the tremors with periods of -about two-tenths of a second, and the microseisms with periods of -about five seconds showed their maxima of back-and-forth movement -when the chronograph was revolved to a position where the pendulum -swung northeast-southwest. This northeast-southwest tendency was found -to be a characteristic of the seismograph cellar for many seismic -measurements, including local earthquakes. - -This was the direction at right angles to the edge of the cliff -on which the Observatory stood. We concluded that this motion was -characteristic of the upright flat slabs, with cracks behind them, -which constitute the face of the crater cliff, and decided that any -motion communicated to these slabs would tend to be a swaying toward -the crater, rather than in the direction of stiffness parallel to the -crater’s edge. Omori has found a similar permanent tendency for Tokyo -city, where the directions are northwest and southeast for maximum -amplitude. This means that any spot on earth oscillates easiest in one -direction. - -These first ten years of the Observatory answered many questions and -pointed the way for future experiment and study. It now appears that -liquid lava is a gas froth, that Kilauea and Mauna Loa are all one -system, that hydrogen is the most elemental gas in eruption, that a -gas-free paste is the residue of flowing foam both in pits and lava -flows, that earthquakes and vibrations are a function of this paste -wedging up cracks and sinking back underground, and that the rise and -fall is in tides and cycles, short and long. These things are not -guesses, but measurements. - -The earthquake problem at volcanoes is misunderstood in geology. The -superstition that volcanic quakes are small is wrong. “Volcanic” in -volcanology is not limited to volcanoes. Los Angeles, Charleston, -Lisbon, and the deep ocean bottom are all volcanic, are all tremulous; -and all have “lava” underneath. Kilauea and Midway Island are one, Rome -and Etna are one, Iceland and St. Helena are one, Redlands and Mount -Rainier are one, and the paste is underneath. These facts concern the -globe, not a little bundle of wrinkles like the Alps. - -We do not know what an earthquake is or what lava is. However, “lava” -falling suddenly and rising slowly with big and few earthquakes -accompanying fall, and little and many earthquakes appearing with -rise, are facts observed at Kilauea. At Tokyo in 1923 the greatest -quake in history centered at lowered lava and lowered sea-bottom next -to Oshima Volcano island. The Messina quake in 1908 made a hissing -noise, and nearby Etna lava was low. There are long cracks in the earth -shell somewhere deep down, and we know little about them except that -volcanoes and faults are in lines. So long as the three-quarters of -the globe under oceans are unexplored by man, with no rock specimens -or even decent maps, and so long as there are no instruments planted -on sea bottoms, we cannot use the term volcanic intelligently. Most -volcanoes of the earth are undiscovered. Kilauea measurements whet -the appetite for a new scientific frontier, the prospecting for ores, -volcanoes, and mountains under the sea. The absence of core drilling -and rock sampling over three-quarters of the earth is a disgrace to the -oil-drilling and quarrying sciences of mankind. - -The founding decade of the Hawaiian Observatory produced two effective -expeditions, one to Japan and one to New Zealand. - -The Research Association voted to send me to Kagoshima in Kyushu, the -south island of Japan, where the volcano Sakurajima made earthquakes, -explosions, and lava flows in January of 1914. About the same time -Perret was sent to Sakurajima by Friedlaender of Naples, so we met in -Japan. - -Sakurajima, or Cherry Island, is a 4,000-foot cone in Kagoshima Sound, -a deep inlet at the southernmost end of Kyushu. The volcano threatened -22,000 persons in villages on Sakurajima Island itself, and 70,000 -in Kagoshima. It is a land of orange groves, fisherfolk, Satsuma -porcelain, and maritime commerce, situated at the north end of the -Okinawa-Ryukyu islands, a volcano chain extending north to Nagasaki. - -Authorities in Kagoshima knew all about Pelée; and the army, navy, -and governor wasted no time. Professor Omori, who had a seismograph -at the weather station of Kagoshima, went at once to the volcano, and -profiting from the lesson of Pelée, guided the lives of 90,000 persons. - -The Sakurajima eruption began on a Saturday and Sunday with hundreds -of earthquakes locally identified as coming from the volcano. Public -and private vessels were called into service to move all the people of -the island over to Kagoshima and beyond. With a general of the army in -command, this was accomplished in two days. On Monday at ten o’clock -the great, picturesque peak, quite like Pelée or Vesuvius, suddenly -ejected vertically and quietly, from a crack in its flank, a column of -“smoke” 30,000 feet high. This was answered by another, similar column -on the opposite side of the mountain; and the two columns joined above -into a colossal arch of cauliflower clouds consisting of sand, dust, -and boulders. The crack in the mountain which gave vent to all this -opened with slight rumble and behaved like two radial ruptures meeting -toward the peak, extending southwest and southeast. The sector of the -mountain between them appeared to have been lifted like a piece of pie -shoved up in the center. But the summit craters played no appreciable -part in the eruption, unless it was a gush of steam on Sunday evening. -The line of craterlets along the cracks and only half way up the -mountain quickly developed lava flows, and these poured down, the one -toward Kagoshima Strait, the other toward the narrow Osumi Strait, -which separated the volcano from the wilder eastern mainland. This -strait was filled up with heavy block lava, or aa, converting the -island into a peninsula. A similar aa lava flow, fifty feet high in -front, swept down to the beach on the Kagoshima side, with boulders as -big as a house tumbling over its andesite front. - -Tidal waves made by these two lava flows entering the sea were small -but perceptible. The principal effect was thousands of white steam jets -where the red hot blocks entered the ocean. Culmination of glowing heat -came the second night, Tuesday. The flows continued for months, but the -maximum of seismic effect had happened at six o’clock in the evening of -the first day, Monday. - -This was a really big earthquake damaging masonry and causing landslips -from the cliff next to Kagoshima city and killing a number of people. -The flux of refugees from the volcano villages on Monday was a -dramatic event. When the lava outbreak occurred in the forenoon, -the schools sent the children home. On their way, the children gazed -entranced toward the terrific arch of cloud over the mountain, vomiting -trajectories of stones. Shops closed, and the city was quiet while -everybody sized up the crisis. As a schoolboy in English class wrote, -“Monster rocks went horizontally from the down to the up, with smokes -on their behind.” - -After the evening earthquake, however, when many buildings had shaken -down, all except public officials were ordered to leave for the back -country. Young men’s clubs organized to receive the refugees along -the roads which led into the interior of Satsuma province, while -temples and schoolhouses were impressed into service to house them. -The migration of more than 50,000 people with packs on their backs and -with handcarts bearing household goods, demonstrated how easily the -Japanese people took to a nomad existence. This hegira came to an end -on Wednesday, when Dr. Omori arrived from Tokyo, sized up the seismic -record and the fiery crisis of Tuesday night, and took the grave -responsibility of announcing that the population of Kagoshima might -safely return. This was done, he was right, and no further damage beset -the city. - -Through all of this eruption, so different from Pelée in administrative -control, no one was killed by the volcano, though one or two old people -died of shock. One old lady who refused to leave her home on the island -survived. Village roofs were bent down, crushed, and half buried under -a heavy snowfall of ash, and it was notable that flat-roofed cottages -were crushed, whereas those with steeper roofs were less damaged. -Orange orchards were hopelessly destroyed. - -At the west shore of Sakurajima in a place called Hakamagoshi, a fiery -blast rushed down to the sea from the rift. Trees were stripped of -limbs and bark, saplings were bent away from the volcano, and wood -fiber on stumps was shredded by flying rocks. This blast was very short -lived and never reached across to the city. It bore the marks of being -similar to the downblasts of Mount Pelée. The lava flows kept on for a -year and built new shore islands. - -I had the remarkable experience of being rowed in a skiff over the -submerged tongue of an eastern flow, trailing a thermometer in the -increasingly boiling water. When the steaming water about us reached -scalding temperature, we had the unpleasant thought that if we should -capsize we would be cooked. We found boiled horses and cattle along the -beaches, and thousands of dead fish. A climb near the eastern flank -vent showed a portion of the moving lava flow pouring down the slope -into a glowing cavern under a shell of its own bouldery texture. - -The thousands of dollars of relief which came to Japan from America and -elsewhere were handled with scrupulous honesty, and the inhabitants of -the island were rehabilitated on Tanegashima, another island of the -Ryukyu Archipelago. - -Scientific investigations showed by leveling that the mountain had -been lifted a few feet by the internal penetration of the lava, and -reexamination of the benchmarks along roads extending out radially -indicated that the north end of the bay bottom and shore had definitely -sunk, as though underground lava had been withdrawn from that region, -to push up, swell, and overflow the mountain. This effect of subsidence -outside was traced and shown to gradually lessen for a hundred miles -from the place of greatest sinking. Investigation carried out by the -geologist colleagues of Omori culminated in a monumental publication -which demonstrates the solidarity of the Japanese methods of science. -And both Omori and Professor Koto published books on Sakurajima in -English, with maps, photographs, curves, and seismograms. - -Omori, in 1910, had anticipated movement of the earth about a volcanic -center as swelling up one place and sinking down in another while -eruption was going on. At that time, he described Usu Volcano at -the opposite end of Japan, where leveling instruments showed graded -changes in height made by the Usu eruption. A remarkable physiographic -character of Usu Mountain, and of the adjacent basin of Lake Toya, -is that basin and dome appear complementary, just as Kagoshima Bay -was compensated by Sakurajima. This same pairing of lake with volcano -has been noted in other parts of Japan, as though tumefaction by -lava penetration and lava eruption had robbed the underpinning of an -adjacent piece of ground, which lowered and became a lake by filling up -with groundwater. - -From Sakurajima I went to Bandaisan, or Kobandai, a famous volcano in -central Japan northwest of Tokyo and on the shore of a beautiful lake. -It looks like an ordinary rocky peak, but its fame was made by a steam -explosion from its flank which blew out the side of the mountain and -left avast sulfurous quarry with numerous solfataras and hot springs. -Bandai was known by geologists to be one of a chain of volcanoes, but -prior to 1885 its activity was in question. One morning the sky was -darkened by the overwhelming explosion, and vast volumes of rock from -the outbreak poured down as a landslide and completely dammed a river -system. It left extraordinary little heaps in the new dammed up lake. -These appeared to be individual blocks of rock against which heaps of -debris were piled so as to leave pyramidal humps scattered over the -surface of the impounded water near the volcano. An excellent report in -English on this eruption was published at the time, and the eruption -became the type of what geologists call a phreatic explosion, meaning -pure steam. There was doubt as to whether any fragments of new lava -were thrown up. - -I took with me to Bandaisan a photographer-guide. We camped in a -mountain inn with thatched roof, visited a hot spring resort, and hiked -to the crater where we measured temperatures and took photographs. It -was a vast flat-floored shelf, dug out of the side of the mountain, -with steam jets and puddles of boiling water at the back. Looking out -at the new water-filled valley with its many islands at the base of -the slope below the crater, we could see shoreline levels higher than -the present beach, where the damming had produced the highest stand of -the water. The eruption and landslide overwhelmed villages and killed -many people, though it lasted only a few days. It was on the side -of the mountain remote from the older lake. In clambering over the -broken debris, which looked more like glacial deposits than volcanic -agglomerate, I picked up some pieces of vesicular basalt that were -definitely lava. Wada, a Japanese geologist, had found the same thing, -and we both concluded that these were an internal live basalt blown to -fragments in the Bandaisan eruption, but that most of the material was -from the shattered old mountain. - -My interpretation of Bandaisan is that it is an old volcano in the -line of Asama and other volcanoes of central Japan, and that the line -is a deep crack always full of lava in the depths, which is selective -of outlet, depending upon what part of the crack opens as the path of -least resistance. Eruption may be occasioned by lava wedging upward at -one volcano, or by lava sinking downward at another volcano, according -to the way the medial rift of continental Honshu is warped and stressed -by the earthquake forces. One part of a volcano chain is always -sinking, with lava withdrawn. Another part is always swelling up, with -lava penetrating the cracks under active crater pits, like that of -Asama. - -Asama is the Vesuvius of central Japan near the village of Karuizawa, -famous as the resort of American missionaries. Bandaisan is one of a -line of volcanic peaks north of Asama, all of which have hot springs -and solfataras. The explosion of Bandaisan, where the big natural lake -represents the groundwater level of abundant rainfall, occurred when -the underground lava column suddenly sank rapidly by the gaping open -of the deep rift. The water poured into red hot cavities, while the -lava was rising and erupting by frothing up in the depths of one of -the other volcanoes. The results of Bandai’s explosion were first, -earthquake collapse, which was assisted by vast outjets of boiling -steam from groundwater, and then the blowing out of the mountainside. - -Of special interest is the spacing, twenty to forty miles, between -volcanoes along such a system as Asama-Bandai. The underlying cracks -must be in echelon arrangement, and the spacing is a function of the -thickness of the upper earth crust and its capacity through the ages of -producing spaced-out widenings or bends in the crack, above whatever -shell confines the lava. The same spacing of the new and old volcanoes -is true in the Caribbees and in the Costa Rica-Mexico line. There -an old peak might make a Bandaisan by unforeseen breakage and steam -development. - -This applies also to the Ryukyu-Sakurajima line. I visited Kaimon at -the extreme south end of Kyushu, a steep dome blocked on top by a -lava plug. South of here to Suwanose Island, an active volcano, the -spacing of islands is similar to the northward spacing of Sakurajima, -Kirishima, and Asosan, following the same law of selected vents -and offset cracks. Kirishima thirty miles north of Sakurajima is a -treacherous and dangerous volcano that made a bad explosion just prior -to the Sakurajima eruption. I saw on the rim of its summit cavity a -breadcrust bomb, a triangular block of rock eight feet long, with its -surface beautifully tessellated with gaping cracks. This breadcrust -fracture indicates that the fragment of glowing andesite was thrown -up while pasty, then congealed on its surface to smooth glass and -continued to swell evenly with internal gas, so as to rupture the -glassy surface as expanding dough. - -At Aso Volcano farther north I entered a natural gateway into a -cauldron nine miles across, surrounded by a wall, and with a hilly -country inside, from which a river escaped through the gateway. The -summit peak in this landscape proved to contain an active pit on top. -The pit was steaming and the source of the steam was boiling puddles -of mud at the bottom. This was the “Halemaumau” of Asosan, which has -had a record of many eruptions near the city of Kumamoto. The chain -of Kyushu volcanoes ends, after the usual spacing, with a volcano at -Nagasaki. - -From Shimonoseki Strait, going northeastward, new belts of volcanic -fissures have built the mountains of central Japan, cut across -northwest of Tokyo by what Naumann called the fossa magna or big -trench. This is famous in the history of Japanese geology, for which -this German geologist laid the foundations. The fossa magna extends -northwest and southeast, through Fujiyama and Oshima Volcanoes to the -Ogasawara Islands and the Bonin Islands, scene of volcanoes making and -disappearing, from craters under the ocean. - -Omori had discovered historical similarities between the eruptions of -this chain and those of the Ryukyu chain. This is significant, because -as we go from the small spacing of the individual volcanoes, we come to -some deeper and larger fracturing of the whole crust of the earth that -determines a spacing of hundreds of miles between such larger arcs of -rupture as those of Kyushu and the Bonin Islands. As all are volcanic -and have been so since the birth of the globe, it is unthinkable to me -that they are anything but deep fractures which go down to the earth’s -core. The surface geology of marine strata is a mere veneer compared -with the deep and ancient igneous rocks. - -I went to New Zealand in 1920, taking with me in manuscript form -the Hawaiian Observatory results of the past decade. Notable among -geologists there was Dr. Allan Thomson, director of the Dominion Museum -in Wellington. Dr. Thomson and his distinguished father, the Honorable -William Thomson, guided Mrs. Jaggar and me all the way from Auckland to -Dunedin. It was my task to give lectures on volcano research, to show -lantern slides of Mount Pelée and Kilauea, to tell about seismographs -and cycles, and to urge upon New Zealand science the importance -of establishing a volcano observatory system in the Taupo Belt of -volcanoes. - -Here, in 1886, had occurred the terrific eruption of Tarawera. Here -are spaced out volcanoes extending north into the islands of Tonga. -Here, possibly, along the Cook Channel between the North and the South -Islands, is a transition from volcanoes to earthquakes, and quite -possibly another fossa magna worthy of comparison with Japan. Off to -the east lies the profound linear Tonga Deep, compensating the New -Zealand volcanic uplift. This is analogous to the Tuscarora Deep east -of Japan. - -We were fortunate to procure accommodations in Rotorua, the boiling -geyser district, at the time of the visit of the Prince of Wales, later -King Edward VIII, and to see the hakas, or dances, of an encampment of -5,000 Maoris, gathered to honor British royalty. - -I was interested in the relics of liquid basalt collected on the lip -of the great rift through Tarawera Mountain. The rupture extends the -length of Rotomahana Lake, which sank away as a groundwater phenomenon -in 1886. This, like Bandaisan, was one of the great steamblast -eruptions of history. It was right on the line of volcano spacing -extending from White Island in the Bay of Plenty, to Ngauruhoe and -Ruapehu Volcanoes, beyond Lake Taupo at the south. Here was a land -of echelons of deep cracks, building up along scores of miles from -submarine eruptions such as Falcon Island in the Tonga group. Farther -south is the dangerous looking White Island close to the New Zealand -shoreline, resembling Bogoslof, and so on to the lava volcanoes at the -south. Big earthquakes have been characteristic, along with uplift, of -both shorelines of Cook Strait. - -This kind of gradation is certainly like the transitions from -submarine eruption to continental uplift, crowned with volcanoes, so -characteristic of Japan, the Aleutians, California, and Italy. It is -impossible to think of it, when we consider water depths of 4,000 -fathoms, and a step upward to such altitudes as the New Zealand alps, -all linear for a distance of several hundred miles, except in terms of -the faulted deep earth crust. And seismologists tell us that that crust -is 1,800 miles deep. - -The associations made on this trip were destined to have far-reaching -effect in meetings with New Zealand scientists at later dates. I -met Professor Bartrum of Auckland; the officials of the New Zealand -Geological Survey; Dr. Ernest Marsden, distinguished physicist who -had worked with Rutherford in England; and Dr. C. A. Cotton, physical -geographer and author. Cotton showed us the elevated shorelines -of Wellington associated with the big earthquakes of 1851. Other -personages were Professor Speight, geologist of Christchurch College, -and in Dunedin, Professor R. L. Jack, physicist of Otago University -and our host. Dr. C. E. Adams, government astronomer of Wellington, -we were to meet again on Tin Can Island in 1930, during the United -States Eclipse Expedition. Dr. J. MacMillan-Brown, chancellor of -the University of New Zealand, and his daughter entertained us in -Christchurch; and he later visited us several times in Hawaii in the -course of his extensive travels. - -I was glad to stimulate volcanology in New Zealand and pleased when -there eventually appeared the splendid work of Dr. L. I. Grange, on -the “Rotorua District,” with a project for geophysical surveys made -imperative by the Napier earthquake disaster. - -Before this chapter is closed, some personalities of the first decade -of the Observatory should be mentioned. Foremost was L. A. Thurston, -founder of the Volcano Research Association and its president for many -years. It was his interest and enthusiasm coupled with that of the -other members of the Association that made the Observatory possible. -Prominent among those members was L. W. de Vis-Norton, for many years -secretary of the Association and a devoted apostle of volcanology. - -Mrs. Isabel Jaggar, from 1917, was my helper not only as wife and -amanuensis, but as general assistant at the Observatory. She could -operate instruments, take notes at the pit, keep the record books, and -act as buffer against an overinquisitive public. - -There was Demosthenes Lycurgus, genial Greek host of the Volcano House, -who did all in his power to help us, by grants of lands, raising money, -and personally promoting science with all the vigor of his wonderful -personality. He went home to Greece to be married, and alas, died -during his honeymoon. Later came my good friend George Lycurgus, who -still operates the Volcano House. - -Colleagues of the founding decade included H. O. Wood, who came from -Berkeley in 1912, acted as seismologist and geological assistant, and -established a seismological bulletin. He left to enter the army in -1917. In years to come Wood established in Pasadena under the Carnegie -Institution one of the great seismographic laboratories of the world, -and his name became coupled with a California Institute of Technology -physicist to name the Wood-Anderson seismograph. Later came R. H. Finch -who had worked with Dr. Humphreys of the Weather Bureau in Washington -and had been a flight meteorologist in Ireland during the first World -War. He was assigned by Marvin to me as assistant in 1919, when the -Congress took over our work for the U.S. Weather Bureau. - -Finally, I should like to name the numerous workers of the U.S. -Geological Survey in topography and geology, notably Birdseye, -Burkland, Stearns, Wilson, Clark, Meinzer, and Macdonald. These men -brought to reality my Geological Survey estimate of 1899, when I -recommended to Walcott a survey of the Hawaiian Islands. - -The Hawaii geologic survey included investigations of water, highways, -and minerals, and was to map lavas, volcanic processes, and island -growth. The annual cost of the work had been estimated at $22,000, -including $6,300 for salaries in geology and $10,000 for the total -cost of topography study, or $90,000 for five years. The project was -begun in 1909 in cooperation with the Territory of Hawaii. In 1951 the -mapping was completed and the cost had been many times the original -estimate. - -Among visitors who contributed to the Observatory work were Sidney -Powers, a voluntary observer who had been one of my students in Boston. -He explored and published on many volcanoes around the world and -followed me in Sakurajima and the Aleutian Islands. He later became an -outstanding petroleum geologist of the Amerada Company in Tulsa. Arthur -Hannon, an architect from Cleveland, acted as a volunteer mapper, and -for months aided with sketches of the changes in Halemaumau. William -Twigg-Smith, an artist from New Zealand, joined us in the lava-sounding -experiment and made numerous sketches and paintings. He later became -the illustrator and photographer for the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ -Association. Dr. A. L. Day of the Geophysical Laboratory visited us -repeatedly, in association with gas chemist E. S. Shepherd. He wrote -important monographs, along with E. H. Allen the chemist for the -Carnegie Institution, on the Yellowstone and Lassen National Parks, and -on Geyserville. Allen came to the Observatory for critical analysis of -the steam of Sulphur Bank. - -Among other visitors were geologists, geodesists, and biologists of the -Pacific Science Congress, held in the spring of 1920. These included -H. E. Gregory, Griffith Taylor, Frederick Wood-Jones, William Bowie, -T. W. Vaughan, E. O. Hovey, E. C. Andrews, F. Omori, H. S. Washington, -and Dr. Chilton of Christchurch, who had been one of our inspirers in -the New Zealand trip. This Honolulu world congress assigned one meeting -to Kilauea Volcano, which enabled me to summarize results before a -cosmopolitan group of scientists. - -The Washington executives who at this time promoted the Observatory -were Secretary of Agriculture David F. Houston, Director George Otis -Smith of Geological Survey, Chief Charles Marvin of the Weather Bureau, -and Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian. Later came W. C. -Mendenhall, firm friend of the Observatory, and Director of the Survey. - -It was my good fortune that between 1914 and 1919 Mauna Loa and -Kilauea were building up lava toward a fiery crisis, and that the -sugar business of Hawaii boomed at the same time. When the 1920 -science congress convened there was much fresh lava to be seen, and -our Research Association was so prosperous that M. I. T. in Boston -kept up its financial interest. The _American Journal of Science_ -under Edward Dana of Yale published our results. This was fitting, as -Dana’s father, J. D. Dana, had published much about Hawaiian volcanoes. -Consequently the end of the foundation decade made easier the financing -of the next five years. Just at this time the Geological Survey spurted -ahead, the National Park was opened, the Army built a recreation camp -and a trail up Mauna Loa, the Inter-island Steamship Company took over -the Volcano House, and a Promotion Committee was bringing many tourists. - - [Illustration: _Fluctuations of Halemaumau lava from 1790 to - 1952, the verticals indicating maximum lowering preceding repose - periods; minor fluctuations not shown._] - - - - - CHAPTER V - - Expansion Decade - - “_There shall be famines and earthquakes - in divers places._” - - -The decade from 1921 through 1930 was a period of tremendous events and -of experimentation at Kilauea and Mauna Loa. It was also an expansion -decade for the Observatory, and for me. Additional funds made possible -new buildings and equipment on Hawaii; observatory activity was -established at Lassen Volcano in California; and expeditionary work -included a study of the 1923 Tokyo earthquakes, explorations on Alaska -volcanoes in 1927, and a visit to Niuafoou in Tonga, part of the great -New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain. - -Increased government aid was largely due to the help of the Honorable -Louis C. Cramton of Michigan, Republican floor leader of Congress, who -took great interest in extending activities within national parks. -After we moved from Weather Bureau control to Geological Survey in -1924, Cramton visited our Observatory, concluded that it was an orphan -child of the government, and asked me what I wanted. I told him that -I needed men and machines, and I suggested expanding our studies to -California and the Aleutians. - -Meantime, the Research Association was persuaded that we needed a -fire-resistant iron building to house library accumulation, record -books, and photographic negatives, as well as seismograms and lava -specimens. These were precious relics of the very active overflows -and experiments of the 1912–1921 period. With the advice of Walter F. -Dillingham and Engineer John Mason Young of the University of Hawaii, I -built a sheet-iron house with concrete floor and wire-glass skylights, -and installed steel furniture. This became an invaluable office, -drafting room, and workroom, as well as a place for files. - -The Volcano Research Association, in cooperation with Hawaii National -Park, built a trail side museum and lecture hall atop the high western -bluff of Kilauea Crater. Later, when the drive was extended completely -around the greater crater, the museum was on the road to Halemaumau. -This museum had a plate glass front, concrete floor, skylight -illumination, and an esplanade looking down on the caldera and across -the vast panorama of Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, and the Kau Desert. The -building protected the lookout platform from the trade winds. - -We housed in the museum a gleaming, nickel-plated seismograph from -Japan, suitable photographs, and the best of our specimens for visitors -to see. This combined with the magnificent views to instruct the public -in volcanology as nothing else could have done. At the same time, I -equipped machine shops and added a first class mechanic to the staff. - -It was during this decade and after my New Zealand trip that such -persons as Omori and Nakamura, in Japan, and geologists in Seattle, -Berkeley, and Pasadena began to take an interest in the volcano problem -as dominant in the study of earthquakes. - -There were conflicting theories about the earth crust. Earlier, in -Hawaii, Wood was a disciple of the tectonic or contracting theories of -the earth, whereas I increasingly believed volcanism to be profound, -crustal, oceanic, and ancient. It is more fundamental than the strata -and mountain folds of continents. - -This conflict extended to the water question in volcanology. I was -inclined to believe the waters of eruption to be oxidized hydrogen, -whereas such physical chemists as Day, Shepherd, and Allen believed -water vapor, like carbon dioxide, to be fundamental in magma. - -The whole question of the origin of oxygen--the most abundant element -of the rocks, air, and water--is a matter of startling doubt in -geology. Where oxides are known to exist in lava, flames of oxidation -make the gaseous fires; and underground water full of oxygen plays a -part in steamblast eruption. All the waters of glaciers and oceans are -oxides, and prove that the volcanic oxidation of hydrogen was the most -primitive of the volcanic processes. Dr. E. H. Allen found water vapor -dominant in the Sulphur Bank gas at Kilauea, whereas Day and Shepherd, -who opposed Brun, thought water dominant in the gases of live lava. -Its great preponderance in geological theory for such eruptions as -Vesuvius led Allen to review theories and publish a long paper designed -to refute my notion that oxidizing hydrogen is the primary volcanic -ingredient. - -As to earthquakes and so-called tectonic faults, the whole of geology -has its thinking so warped by continents, the dwelling place of -mankind, and so diverted from the great linear trenches and the ridges -of the ocean crowned with volcanoes parallel to the deeps, that I -became incredulous, along with Willis and Oldham, about the textbook -cause of earthquakes. - -The fascination offered by fossils, by ages of shellfish and reptiles, -and by mountains of folded strata like the Alps and the Himalaya makes -the votaries of evolutionary science neglect the mud-covered rocks and -oceanic mountain ranges of almost three-quarters of the surface of the -globe. This seventy-two percent they have never seen, nor collected -hard rock specimens from, nor even mapped topographically. They are not -acquainted with it by exploration, and their theories about it are a -blank, except that gravity pendulums indicate it to be basalt. - -The so-called geosyncline, or continental basin of sediments, filled -with shells and strata as is the Mediterranean, is at the heart of -all the theories of continents and mountains; and geology expressly -excludes the geosyncline and its strata from the probabilities of deep -ocean valleys. The most interesting subjects of continental geology -are simply banished from conjecture. Interest in deep-ocean geology is -lacking because science has made no field effort to bore or blast into -it, and so extend engineering science to the deep ocean bottoms. - -Earthquakes made a theme wherein I instinctively distrusted the word -“tectonic.” For generations the geological mind thought the earth -losing heat, contracting internally, and wrinkling a crust in bumps, -with vast overthrusts of broken strata, thus folding the Appalachians -and the Andes. All sorts of accommodations to a thin crust thirty miles -deep were invented; by Dana and Geikie, by Suess and Wiechert, and -finally by one who should have been the foremost block faulting expert, -Dutton. Hawaii convinced him that volcanoes are only skin deep and that -the thin crust is so sensitive that a shift of the weight of river -muds and sands is enough to push down the great valley of California, -while an underflow pushes up the Sierra Nevada. This is the doctrine -of “isostasy.” It agrees with the Stübel idea of shallow remnant -reservoirs for the lava of volcanoes. - -Isostasy was devised by Dutton and pounced upon by the mathematicians, -until they had gravity proving the whole world thin-crusted over an -understratum of plastic lava. The seismologists on continents agreed, -finding a density change, but with no evidence of fluidity. The world -became, mathematically and petrologically, a sphere built of layers -all the way down to the heavy fluid hot core, which was conveniently -imagined to consist of iron and nickel, because some bolides of the -solar system made of those metals occasionally fall on the earth. - -All my experience of volcanoes and of deep oceans militated against a -thin crust, a shallow underlayer of basalt to feed volcanoes, and a -nickel iron core. The core is heavy, and sixty-two elements are heavier -than iron. All reason seemed against the notion that the vast volcanic -sea bottoms are a thin crust wrinkling under contraction. Reason found -every evidence on both earth and moon for a thick peridotite or olivine -crust, broken into ancient blocks, bounded by long lines of fracture, -the blocks variously settling and scraping against each other from -time immemorial, actuated by volcanic forces from the core. The whole -of volcanology points toward sinking and down-faulted ocean basins, -alongside the remnant upstanding continents which are the minor feature -of the primitive earth surface. Water condensed and filled hollows. -The processes of the core that made all this were volcanism--mother of -air, ocean, seabottom, land, and life. The crust was thick enough to -make cracks 2,000 miles long on a globe 8,000 miles in diameter. If -there was a balancing of weights as in “isostasy,” it was between high -silica in continental lava and low silica basalt that spread under the -oceans. This is not static, but is a continuing process of a kinetic, -or changing, earth. - -This excursion into theory is intentional, so that in the middle -of this book the geologically trained reader will understand that -experience of volcanoes in Hawaii, the Caribbean, New Zealand, Alaska, -Italy, and Japan had made me a rebel against conventional geology. The -reason is that the great submerged mountain range of the long Hawaiian -Archipelago is different from the mountain ranges of Europe and Asia -and must be accounted for in global history. How would the three -decades 1921 to 1950 confirm expectation that the deep ocean bottom is -the most important and volcanic thing in geology, just as it is the -biggest thing? - -Routine observation and photography at Halemaumau pit reached a climax -of recording brilliant fiery events in March 1921, and it changed -to the recording of explosive steam in May 1924. The first of these -fireworks, after lava flows from a rift in the Kau Desert, draining the -pit and fluctuating with the ups and downs of the pit lava, occurred in -1919–1920. This was a return to Halemaumau of effervescence in frothy -volumes, so that the pit was overflowing on five sides. On March 20, -1921, occurred the most intense display of brilliancy, culminating the -gradual rising of the lava column to outflow following 1918. - -Then came, in the later months of 1921, a sinking away and recovery of -the lava. In 1922 came a sinking again, with the lava breaking out in -the Chain of Craters of the eastern rift, as though it had been blocked -by freezing in the southwest rift and was forced over to split open the -old cracks of the mountain to the east. This was confirmed in 1923 by -another outbreak in the forest adjacent to the sixth crater, Makaopuhi, -which with Napau pit beyond, had been the scene of the 1922 outflows. - -This action was all extended in April 1924 to the shoreline end of -the eastern rift, thirty miles away from Halemaumau, when the Kapoho -country cracked open with many earthquakes, and a block of the mountain -settled beneath sea level. Coconut palms at the beach were left in a -lagoon of sea water eight feet deep. Seventy-five earthquakes in a -day frightened away Filipino plantation laborers; railway and roads -were ruptured, with new cliffs forming nine feet high; and all of this -followed a monumental sinking of Halemaumau bottom, from a vast sea of -lava to a tumble of debris in two months. - -It was evident that between 1920 and 1924 the fracture of the long -curved rift athwart Kilauea cauldron from the Kau Desert to the east -point of the island was draining the lava out under the ocean to the -east. Forty miles from the shore, the submarine slope is covered by -18,000 feet of water. - -What is the result? The whole of Kilauea Mountain is charged with -groundwater, which trickles warm through the beach at Pohoiki and -partly warms ponds near Kapoho. Obviously this groundwater of the -southeastern lobe of the island mountain surrounds the shaft of -Halemaumau at some undefined depth, and the rising and falling glassy -lava in the shaft ordinarily glazes itself with a water-tight skin, and -may be thought of as a crusted tube. About this tube the groundwater -shows only as the lazy steam of the little vents of the pit margins. -On May 10, 1924, came the collapse of the Halemaumau pit walls, -introducing an explosive steam eruption such as had not been seen by -five generations of Hawaiians. - -The adventures of this period were glorious ones for the scientists. -First should be mentioned the amazing subsidence which occurred -suddenly at 2 A.M. November 28, 1919, just as Mrs. Jaggar -looked across Kilauea Crater at the outline of crags and lava lakes -making a glowing dome where Halemaumau pit should have been. We felt -a lot of little earthquakes and saw the dome of lava heapings, with -glowing lakes on top, sink slowly and majestically and leave the old -familiar glowing pit. For almost the whole of 1919 this had been a -dome, with overflows, now here, now there. At ten o’clock only the -evening before, old Alec had conducted tourists to the top of the dome, -where they looked down at the clover-leaf lakes. If it had started to -go down while they were there--and any of us might have been there--it -is awesome to think of the inevitable fiery engulfment. - -After watching the sinking, which was followed by puffs of dust and -smoke and some avalanche noise, we took a car to the pit at once. And -when we got there in the early morning hours we found the pit enlarged -to 2,000 feet across, with the pattern of the lava lakes still apparent -at the bottom, indicating that the entire cylinder had lowered as a -unit to a depth of about 700 feet. Red hot avalanches were tumbling -inward with a roar, from the veneer of lava plastered on the wall. -By the forenoon of that day the liquid lava started to pour up and -inward as a ring of bubbling fountains all around the edges. What this -ring represented was the wall crack between the subsided cylinder -of semisolid lava, now pushing upward, and the funnel of rock wall -outside. This V-shaped filling grew wider as the uprising progressed, -and so the ring lake became wider, while the top of the harder column -became a ring of crags and the space inside became a quiet lava puddle -supplied by inflow from the ring lake. The whole column of ring crags -with the lagoon inside and the brilliantly fountaining lake outside -rose with unheard of rapidity during the next three weeks. - -In mid-December, I took Mrs. Jaggar and a woman friend down to inspect -this amazing corolla, or lily, of hard crags which had blossomed up in -less than a month, so that the outer ring of boiling fluid was less -than a hundred feet below us. We stood at the rift in the Kilauea floor -which heads toward the southwest cliff, and suddenly we felt slight -earthquakes and saw the face of that cliff crumbling in a visible -tumble of rocks. The mountain was quietly breaking open athwart the -Kilauea caldera floor, and while we watched we saw forty or fifty low -lava fountains in a straight line burst up along a floor crack between -us and the cliff. - -Remember that this crack traversed the downslope between Halemaumau -edge and Kilauea wall. Looking back at the ring lake, we saw it -beginning to lower and leave a shoreline of black plastering spatter. -When we looked into the rift crack at our feet, only one or two feet -gaping open, the liquid lava showed about twenty feet down. We were -standing on the side of the crack away from the motor car terminus, and -floods of lava on the Kilauea floor were spreading right and left from -the straight line of vents between us and Kilauea wall. We had to get -away from there pronto, as no one could tell what ground might erupt -between us and our car. - -I carefully instructed our friend to be deliberate and step across the -fissure; but the girl felt sure that crossing a red hot crack called -for a leap. She stepped on a loose slab at the edge of the narrow chasm -and slipped into the crack, where she was wedged until we pulled her -out. We then stepped across the fissure, for the live lava was far -below, and made our way back to the car without further trouble. - -The lake lowered only apportionately to the slowing black outflow on -the south floor, which was short-lived. This was the beginning of a -splitting open of the main Kilauea Mountain flank southwest and outside -the crater which continued for months. - -Another adventure, and an important one, happened with the outflooding -of lava in the Kau Desert, where terrace upon terrace of pahoehoe lava -was building up. This finally became a hill over the rift, two miles -long and 200 feet high, which we called Mauna Iki, or little Mauna Loa. -The exploration, day after day, of the extending quiet lava outwelling -along this rift made it necessary to find new trails from the Pahala -roadway and across the desert to the lengthening hillock. - -Following the new Mauna Iki trail, Mr. Finch noticed that the ancient -ash beds, two or three feet thick, had surfaces as hard as Portland -cement. And on one of these he, like Robinson Crusoe, found the print -of a naked foot, made when the old ash was a mud. On the trail across -these old surfaces many more hardened, ancient footprints were found, -of men, women, children, and pigs headed both up and down the mountain. - - [Illustration: _18. Isabel and Tom Jaggar in woods on Kilauea - Volcano on their return from viewing 1923 eruption in Napau - Crater_] - - [Illustration: _19. Lava lake, fountains, and crags, March 20, - 1921_] - - [Illustration: _20. Footprints in ash west of Mauna Iki, said - to have been made by Keoua’s army during Halemaumau eruption of - 1790_] - -These prints recalled the story of Keoua’s army when there was a big -explosive eruption of Halemaumau in 1790 and the mud rains of the -period were from ash which had been baked by the volcanic fires. If -roasted and moistened, the chemical composition of powdered basalt -is that of weak cement, and these surfaces were in hollows which had -resisted erosion wash for 130 years. Part of the slopes closer to -Halemaumau had been eroded bare, but they also showed footprints. -Later the trail was followed up the mountain close to Kilauea Crater -and down toward Pahala, and the ash of 1790 was found to be made up of -pisolites, or fossil raindrops, in many places. Evidently the eruption -had been accompanied by torrential thunder storms, and the natives had -walked through the deposits of mud, which had in a century been dried -by the sun into a resistant surface. These fossil footprints were to -become one of the attractions of a tourist trail in the National Park. - -One night in 1922, after some earthquakes of the evening, we were -awakened by friends who told us that a glow like a forest fire could -be seen from the high cliffs of Kilauea in the easterly direction of -Makaopuhi. This big crater had a platform at one end and a pit at the -other. We aroused Mr. Finch, then traveled by car as far as we could go -on the truck trail, got lost, and with flashlights made our way on foot -toward the glow and fume in a rugged wilderness, over cracked ground -and old aa lava and obstructing vegetation. We were chilled by a cold -drizzle and not at all sure where we would emerge. - -Fortunately, the country is sufficiently open so that we could see the -“pillar of fire by night.” It turned out that the new fire was in the -deep end of Makaopuhi itself. From the western edge of Makaopuhi pit -we looked down on ten or fifteen ribbons of lava, made by a line of -spouting fountains at the top of the talus heap, and pouring from the -top of the big slide-rock slope. We spent the night on the edge in much -discomfort, and watched the puddle of accumulation in the bottom of the -funnel and the glowing streaks which fed it. It was evident that the -eastern rift of Kilauea Mountain had opened, and the lava outflow was -found to extend to Napau Crater, a shallow saucer pit farther east. -At the same time the lava in Halemaumau went down, enlarging the pit, -and cauliflower dust clouds arose from much internal avalanching. This -anticipated and resembled the avalanche steam blasts of 1924. - -The adventures of the 1924 explosive eruption were too numerous and -complicated to elaborate here. However, it was a tremendous event in -the history of Hawaii and was totally unforeseeable on the basis of -earlier experience. Mrs. Jaggar and I were in New York writing magazine -articles and I was giving lectures, when word came from Finch and the -newspapers that Halemaumau was caving in and throwing up rocks. We -traveled with all haste to Honolulu, where the Navy agreed to send me -by plane to Hilo, though they refused to take Mrs. Jaggar. - -The Admiral’s car took us to Pearl Harbor, where a seaplane was ready -and Mr. Thurston was waiting to see me off, accompanied by a motion -picture cameraman. Then pilot Chourré took me into the sky over Diamond -Head on my first flight. A companion plane was piloted by Lieutenant -Sinton, who had radio communication with Pearl Harbor. Crossing high -above the Molokai Channel, I looked down at the beautiful pattern -of trade-wind formed whitecaps, and was surprised after a half hour -to observe that the wave crests were farther apart. I was even more -surprised to see Sinton’s plane far above us. The mechanic in the -forward cockpit had been putting up his fingers repeatedly during our -flight, to indicate, I later learned, how many cylinders were missing -in the Liberty engine supported above us. Our plane was getting closer -and closer to the waves and flying fish raced beside us. Finally we -felt the bump of wave after wave on the bottoms of the pontoons, and -the pilot brought the seaplane to a squelching stop, close to the surf -of the Molokai reef. - -We found ourselves in fifteen feet of water, the coral reef visible -below. I was deputed to throw out an anchor and make the line fast to -a cleat, while pilot and mechanic climbed up to the engine, which had -been losing compression and could not keep up the requisite speed. -Lieutenant Sinton’s pilot plane came down and circled above us until he -saw we were safe, then went on to Maui. Meanwhile, I watched the water -with great interest, for sharks. When our boys got the engine going -with a roar, I pulled up the anchor and we took off against wind and -wave, with the pontoons going bang, bang, bang, against the tops of the -waves. But finally we were airborne and out above the blue water. - -Then the engine gave out again and we came down. This time the men -rigged a sea anchor made of buckets with a line attached to the bow, -to hold the ship’s nose up to the wind, and battened the hatches with -canvas covers. We clambered up on top of the upper wing to wait for -rescue. The wind was blowing a gale, the whitecaps hissed by us, and we -lay on our bellies. The aviators told me that this was the first forced -landing they had had. The word landing seemed to me inapplicable. - -We drifted for five hours, moving slowly down the wind, before a white -motor boat appeared, coming from Molokai. At the same time smoke showed -from two rescue vessels in the Pearl Harbor and Maui directions -respectively. Sinton, who had radioed for help, flew back and circled -above us, reminding me of the goonies soaring over a wounded bird on a -fish line which I had seen in Alaskan waters. The Molokai boat reached -us first, picked up our sea anchor and towed us into Kaunakakai. We -pitched so and took such a pounding from the gigantic trade-wind waves -that it didn’t seem possible that the mahogany hull and the two lateral -pontoons could hold together. However, we made the harbor and tied up -to the buoy. - -I hoped and prayed that the commercial packet, the _Mauna Kea_, -might take me to Hilo. But no, the navy tug _Navaho_ came from -Lahaina, and Captain Green put up his megaphone and announced that the -Admiral’s instructions were that he was to take Dr. Jaggar to Hawaii. -My heart sank because I knew what a seaway would be running against -that little tub. The second rescue ship proved to be the _Pelican_ -equipped with a crane to swing the plane on board and take it back to -Pearl Harbor. - -On board the _Navaho_ I was assigned a canvas camp cot in the -lower, circular wheelhouse at the bow; and all night long waves broke -over the bow and a foot of water sloshed back and forth under my cot. -The pitching was so heavy and our speed so reduced that it took us all -night to get across the Hawaii Channel, and we didn’t make Hilo until 2 -P.M. the second day. After that wet and seasick night, I found -wry humor in our reception at Hilo Wharf, where we were met by Frank -Cody with his motion picture camera and a bunch of hula girls and leis. -Instead of five hours, the journey took thirty and quite failed to make -me air-minded. Furthermore, I arrived at Kilauea Volcano in time for -only the final stages of the explosive eruption. - -Finch had organized volunteers, including Oliver Emerson as -photographer, and even our collie dog, Teddy, who could hear and feel -an explosion coming before we had any other warning. All observers -wrote notes and fondled the seismographs during the three weeks of -steam blast and cavings in of the pit, which had enlarged itself by -collapse 700 feet outward radially in all directions. When I got there -it was 3,500 by 3,000 feet in diameters and 1,300 feet deep, the bottom -a funnel of converging taluses, made of avalanches from the pit walls. -The taluses were wet and steaming vigorously in vertical lines, and -at night showed red hot avalanches from the north and west walls, -where two intrusive bodies of hard rock were red hot inside. The talus -below stayed hot, and slides occurred for only a few seconds. The -incandescent matter was not flowing in any sense, but was, rather, the -peeling of a rocky boss of reddish color at the west and a canoe-shaped -ledge at the north about 600 feet below the rim. - -This showed the cross section of old screes, revealed above it, and -horizontal basalt flows overlapping above that. It was a beautiful -section of an ancient pit, of the same quality as Halemaumau itself, -and the incandescent canoe sill at the bottom appeared to be an -intrusion of fine-grained gabbro, which had pushed its way in under an -older talus funnel, similar to the present talus cup of Halemaumau, the -bottom of which was 700 feet lower. - -On the opposite wall of the pit the Kau Desert rift was displayed as -a vertical cavern or arcade, merging into a group of dikes higher -up and tapering to zero thinness at the top. These same dikes, less -conspicuous, cut the canoe sill on the northeast wall, to indicate -that the ring of the pit was fractured vertically from below. This -fracture is the main deep rift of the mountain which crosses under -Kilauea, bending in the direction of Kilauea Iki, and this it was which -had opened as a curved chasm to let the lava down. Lava had gone down -in a succession of flank outflows, with intervening rises, from the -Kau Desert in 1920 to the final drainage under the sea at the east. -This drainage had let in the groundwater, made a steam boiler, and so -caused the explosive eruption and engulfment of Halemaumau walls as the -mountain yawned open. - -A. L. Day made one of his return excursions to Kilauea at this time -and thus saw the extraordinary phenomenon of the hard basaltic -intrusive bodies half way down the walls, caving to a red hot talus. -The explosions, which started with two-hour intervals, gradually -decreased, coming at four hours and eight hours; and on May 18 came the -culminating cauliflower clouds with torrents downward of broken rock, -some of it showing low red heat. At all times the motive power was -steam jets 10 to 15 thousand feet high, which plastered the pahoehoe of -the pit edge with broken wall rock fragments of every size. - -There was no sign of pasty lava or glassy bombs in the ejecta, and -the red incandescence seen at night in some of the explosions was the -avalanche material of the western boss and the canoe sill. - -It took the pit less than two months, to mid-July, to recover its -liquid lava, which poured through the talus and made aa puddles, -to form a new pattern of cone source and short-lived flows. Then -everything came to rest, and lava activity was not resumed there until -the summer of 1927. However, in 1926 Mauna Loa went into action on its -southwestern rift, and sent an aa flow into the sea at South Kona, -destroying the village of Hoopuloa. - -Here was history in the island lava column of majestic decline and -recovery from 1914 onward. Outflow in Mauna Loa crater at 13,000 feet -in 1914 extended to outflow from the southwest rift in 1916 and 1919 at -8,000 feet. Next, in 1920, came outflow in the Kau Desert from Kilauea, -at 3,000 feet. There were alternating spurts upward within Halemaumau -pit, acting as a crater similar to Mauna Loa’s at the lower Kilauea -level of 3,700 feet. - -Then this whole progress downward moved over to the Chain of Craters at -2,500 feet, and finally to the ruptured earthquake rift of Kapoho on -the east point of Hawaii and at beach level. Some miles farther east, -on the same rift beneath the sea, the gigantic submarine mountain of -Hawaii drained the last lava from Halemaumau pit and let in groundwater -which caused steam explosions. - -July 1924 saw the deep lava recovering in the crack and sealing off the -water, so as to bubble up in the bottom debris of Halemaumau and push -its way upward into the crevices of the island. It reached the top of -Mauna Loa in 1926 and reactuated outflow at the center of the island. -This migration of vents from top to bottom and back again took twelve -years of fracturing, and it relieved from lava this big piece of the -Hawaiian ridge. In reaching the groundwater and steamblast phase, it -accomplished something which had not happened since 1790, making a -supercycle of 134 years. - -The decade after explosion at Halemaumau was marked by small lava -gushes in the bottom of the pit, bringing the depth from 1,300 feet in -1924 to 750 feet in 1934. The layers were something less than 100 feet -each, and they were fed by pahoehoe conelets at the slide-rock margin. -As usual, the lava was gushing up the western wall crack along the -margin of the bottom magma cylinder. There was no trace of recurrence -of steam blasts. - -Despite the excitement of actual events, experimentation continued; and -I continued working on inventions for the experiments. Two approaches -to our problems concerned seismic recorders which could be put in the -hands of amateurs, and range finders for improving pit surveys. I had -been convinced for many years that the three-component seismograph was -too elaborate to be operated by volunteer school teachers or telephone -operators who have other things to do. Such a seismograph records with -photographic paper the north-south, east-west, and up-down motion of -the ground, on a chronograph which keeps accurate time and registers a -wavy line every second, so that the recording paper has to be changed -and developed every day. Moreover, these instruments are for measuring -distance to earthquake origins by physics of wave motion, and they have -become hopelessly mathematical. Such mathematics makes for assumptions -of uniformity about a rock crust which is not uniform. Qualitative -science wants to know what happens at a specific rock location and -wants the motion recorded by the simplest possible mechanical device. -It also wants a value in number at each location, for size and -direction of the first motion. This is for an earthquake, identified -as one incident, over such an island as Hawaii, where the rock units -are many and different. This is especially true of long periods of time -when there may be no earthquakes to record. - -I devised a simple shock recorder, consisting of a horizontal boom of -very light wood attached to a hinged weight which swung like a door, -so that the boom scratched a line on a circular card which was rotated -and moved along by a common alarm clock. The result was a spiral mark -on the card, such that an earthquake interposed would write a zigzag -opposite a place on the clock face appropriate to the time of day. All -that was necessary was to remove and date the card, wind the clock once -a day, and measure the zigzag. - -Mr. Ingalls of _Scientific American_ read an article by me in -which I described my shock recorder and thought it would lead amateur -machinists to devise their own machines and to record the vibrations -about them. Numerous amateurs did send in designs for instruments, and -Ingalls believed that the seismograph hobby would become as popular as -the amateur astronomical telescope hobby. But it failed because the -amateurs were waiting for earthquakes, which didn’t happen. They were -not content with vibrations from trucks, railroad trains, waterfalls, -surf on rocks, artillery practice, or wind storms. - -My improved shock recorder gained some use later in New Zealand -and Montserrat, after big earthquakes in those places stirred the -authorities to build simple instruments. However, popular seismoscope -simply doesn’t exist. - -The range finder I had been working on since my teaching days in -Massachusetts Tech, where I had made an optical device with a traveling -index mirror which moved along an upright scale of centimeters, and -a sextant telescope. The idea was a transit, with self-contained base -line close to the operator. My theory was that in such measurements of -distance as we had to use--to about a thousand feet or less, to the -lava fountains in the bottom of Halemaumau pit--we might read off the -vertical distance from a single station, when all other stations were -enclosed in smoke. - -In the Aleutian Islands and elsewhere I experimented with a Zeiss -stereoscopic rangefinder designed for artillery ranges, but it was -not accurate enough for short distances. Everything in my instrument -depended on moving a telescope parallel to itself with superlative -precision, on a scale within the instrument. I finally hit upon using -a track of taut piano wire, probably the straightest line in all -mechanics. - -If one first looked at an object twenty miles away (infinite distance), -the telescope could be moved along right and left and the image would -remain immovable on a vertical hair. If it were now focussed on an -object 1,000 feet away, the displacement of the telescope on the -centimeter scale would measure the distance with a high degree of -accuracy. This was the stadia principle inverted to contain the rod at -the observing position. - -I also made several graphic devices for surveying Halemaumau daily from -the rim benchmarks. However, when lava overtopped the rim and destroyed -the datum posts, mapping became difficult. - -Drilling temperature wells into the floor and rim of Kilauea Crater -was a project I had anticipated when Mr. John Brooks Henderson of -Washington came to Hawaii and offered to help finance it. We had taken -the temperature of hot cracks in many places, and found them to range -from 320° Centigrade at the Postal Card Crack close to Halemaumau, down -to 96° Centigrade at Sulphur Bank, and then on to lower temperatures at -many cracks which yielded visible vapor in damp weather but no vapor at -all in sunshine. A spectacle for tourists was a crack on the Sulphur -Bank flat, where a cigar to windward or the exhaust gas of a car would -nucleate the invisible vapor and cause a big puff of white “steam” to -show. This phenomenon, which depends on smoke particles condensing -invisible water vapor, is well known at Solfatara near Naples. - -The experimental approach to finding out what the temperature of the -ground really is, is to drill a hole and keep the temperature measured -repeatedly with a thermometer, and to find out the thermal gradient -change vertically if possible. This means to measure how much the -temperature changes with depth. The whole problem concerns how much -unusual heat energy is released at a place like Kilauea Crater. - -With the aid of Hobart, a drilling engineer, I started at Sulphur Bank -with a churn drill. We quickly discovered that we were going through -intensely hard basalt, containing metallic sulfide which appeared to -be pyrite but turned out to be marcasite. After drilling for several -years--with four holes at Sulphur Bank, one sixty-foot hole under -the observatory shop, and about twenty-five holes in the eastern -part of the Kilauea floor over a surveyed map pattern--we changed to -a rotary core drill using steel shot, and then changed again to a -percussion drill actuated by compressed air, for shallow holes to show -cross-country temperatures. Unfortunately core drilling requires large -quantities of water, which we did not have, for the Hawaii National -Park depends upon rainwater collected from roofs in redwood tanks. -Without water cooling, rotary bits heat and expand in hot rock, stick, -and are often lost. - -Two seventy-foot holes, one at Sulphur Bank and the other in the middle -of Kilauea floor, showed no definite thermal gradient; and in general -it turned out that drill holes were dependent on steam in the cracks -for their temperatures. - -Heat was brought up by vapor, and in a number of ten-foot holes -scattered over the Kilauea floor, the hottest were at the edge of the -floor. The Postal Card Crack, near the edge of Halemaumau and 600 -feet above red hot intrusives, was exceptionally hot, and it is not -at all clear how the water made contact with the hot intrusive rock -underneath. This place completely caved in and was lost forever within -the enlarged pit of 1924. Sulphur Bank itself is at the edge of an old -Kilauea floor on a shelf at a high level. The extra heat at floor edges -means a wall crack between the crater fill and the confining funnel, so -that hot gas comes up from intrusive lava somewhere deep down toward -the center. - -Thus when a mercurial thermometer was lowered, ten-foot holes would -show a hot place half way down and cold rock at the bottom. Some holes -had no heat at all, which meant that an inclined steam crack was cut -across by the hole or that no steam crack was present. The heat supply -was dependent upon vapor channels from heated rainwater, but we were -never able, owing to lack of funds, to drill a hole deep enough to find -the water supply which made the steam. It is a remarkable fact that the -casings on three wells at Sulphur Bank emit continuously a column of -steam exactly at the theoretical boiling point for this altitude, as -though the groundwater were boiling only a short distance below. Dr. -Allen by his analyses proved that Sulphur Bank vapor was ninety-nine -percent steam and that the remainder contained fractions of a percent -of sulfur and carbon dioxide, but this sulfur was enough in the course -of months to coat the interior of our casings with yellow crystals over -black iron sulfide. It coated the Sulphur Bank with yellow crystals of -sulfur and soaked the rock below to generate brassy iron sulfide. - -The result of these experiments was to exhibit the complexity of any -solfatara in its relation to underground lava, and to the soakage -of a volcanic country by rainfall. This is especially important for -Martinique and Montserrat. - -Another experiment was conducted by Emerson, who was equipped by the -Observatory with chemical apparatus to make qualitative analyses of -numerous Kilauea products, and he also did critical photographic -work, including some photography in the infra-red. In one valuable -experiment, he melted Kilauea lava in a refractory crucible at a -temperature of about 1200° Centigrade until it was as fluid as honey. -Allowed to chill and harden naturally, it was shiny glass like pahoehoe -lava. If stirred with an iron rod, it made sprouted black needles, -crystallized all through, like aa lava. Thus he proved that stirring -made Hawaiian lava crystallize and sprout like fudge, or like the -solidification of such metals as silver and bismuth. Sudden outbreak -and stirring anywhere will convert pahoehoe to aa; but never does aa -become converted physically to pahoehoe, unless flame melts it. The -standing pinnacles in the midst of an aa flow, which breaks up into -boulders, give evidence of the stirring process. - -When Emerson’s discovery is applied to basaltic lava flows, it appears -that the glassy lava of a source, when stirred by gas fountaining or -by flowing, will change from its glassy condition to a sprouting and -crystallizing condition. All flows are glassy pahoehoe pumice fountains -at source vents, and a quarter of a mile away they become aa. Later the -source pahoehoe preserves itself within a glassy skin and pours forward -under glassy shells and frontal toes. - -R. M. Wilson’s work supplied proof of a swelling mountain. Wilson -was one of the three leading members of the topographic party of the -Geological Survey. The other two were C. Birdseye and A. Burkland. -Wilson, whom I had known as a student in M. I. T., was a product of -Spofford’s Civil Engineering department and was to become the chief -computer of the Survey in Washington. As levelman in Birdseye’s -organization, he became topographic engineer of the Observatory, and -produced by precise leveling and triangulation the brilliant experiment -which showed [the swelling and shrinking of the mountain during fifteen -years. - -By close cooperation with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey we -placed a tide gauge at Hilo, both for a sea level base and to record -tidal waves. Wilson also, in 1921, ran a level line from Hilo to the -Volcano House benchmark, where the Geological Survey had run levels -in 1911. The county roadway was marked with bronze plates inscribed -with leveling heights, and Wilson’s results showed the edge of Kilauea -Crater to be three feet higher in 1921 than it had been in 1911. - -Wilson’s determination of heights above sea level certified that the -whole mountain swelled up during the ten years prior to 1921. About -1918, lava and seismographs had proved rising overflow at the center, -while the edge of Kilauea Crater was being tilted away from the -center. This went on during the massive rising of the interior lava -of Halemaumau into a dome where the pit had been, and it proved that -Kilauea Mountain was being injected along cracks, not only under the -pit, but along the rifts, as indicated by outflow on the southwest and -east in the years 1920 and 1924. - -But this was not all of Wilson’s work. He revisited all surveying -stations after the big collapse of Halemaumau that accompanied the -explosive eruption of May 1924, and found that the Volcano House -benchmark lowered a little more than three feet during May 1924 and -that places close to Halemaumau dropped nearly fifteen feet. This -lowering of the mountain was graduated outward twenty miles from the -center at trig stations, or concrete posts, in the Kau Desert and at -stations along the road to Hilo. These stations changed altitude to -show that the big mountain tumefied or swelled up to that distance of -twenty miles during the big intrusion of cracks at the overflowing -time, as though the mountain dome were a tumor forty miles in diameter -with Halemaumau at the center. Of course there is no certainty that -the shore line in Puna, or even the Hilo tide gauge itself, did not go -down with the slumping of the mountain, for the thing called sea level -is nothing but an average of tide gauge readings at a fixed wharf. -Remember that the east point of Hawaii sank eight feet on the Kilauea -rift during the April crisis. - -Wilson also surveyed by horizontal triangulation in 1921, determining -that stations around Halemaumau had moved inward toward the center, -by a specified number of feet, different at each station, and that -other stations outside of Kilauea Crater had changed position -horizontally on the map, as though the mountain were shrinking. This -entire series of measurements of change between 1911 and 1926 jibed -with the seismograph’s measurements of the tilting of the ground. -The seismograph picked out 1918, when Halemaumau overflowed, as the -swelling year. In 1924 the tilt reversed itself, turning inward toward -Halemaumau, and became tremendous when the pit collapsed and exploded. - -It is impossible to accent sufficiently the importance of the discovery -of a measured swelling and slumping of a volcano throughout a lava -crisis occupying fifteen years. It was so tremendous that critical -engineers in Washington refused to believe Wilson’s results. However, -his findings were verified by the contemporaneous lava measurement -results, earthquake enumerations, and tilt meter results. These showed -that earthquake frequency increased when Kilauea slumped and that a -lava mountain had swelled until it was three feet higher at the summit -in ten years and had contracted by a larger amount during the years of -an explosive eruption period immediately thereafter. This all agrees -with the excellent results in Omori’s volcanic and seismic events, -obtained by Japanese army and navy engineers at several volcanoes and -earthquakes. It also agrees with the positive facts of Vesuvius and the -Canary Islands, starting with the controversy about “elevation craters” -started by Leopold von Buch in the first half of the nineteenth century -and carried forward by Mercalli on Vesuvius in 1894 when a lava hill -was seen to swell up. There, too, others would not believe. The -opposition always insisted that a volcano was built by heaped material, -that it could not possibly swell. - -Wilson’s results are far-reaching, for the whole of geology depends -on uplift of continents and downsinking of sedimentary basins. Most -geologists account for these things by the theory of weighting and -underflow at a thin crust (isostasy), refusing to grant that volcanic -heat and tumefaction yield intrusive power everywhere through cracks in -the deeper crust. - -I wish that I could describe adequately the high adventure of this -fruitful time. We built a vehicle from a model T Ford with a Ruckstell -axle, stripped of mudguards and equipped with balloon tires doubled at -the rear, so as to travel and carry loads over the smooth pahoehoe -of the Kilauea floor. We found that a powerful light rig of this -type, with excessively low gear, could climb up on lava lobes one to -two feet high. But this called for experienced driving and special -methods. Sending a man on foot ahead to pick a way and to drag a -crowbar which scratched a track, we could drive anywhere on the lava. -And we used this rig to haul drums of water and drill apparatus. I once -drove artillery officers out over the rough floor of the crater, and -afterwards saw similar cars used by the army in the first World War as -cross-country transportation for the doctors and wounded in No Man’s -Land. - -Before a roadway encircled Kilauea Crater, Mr. Finch and I, carrying -two-inch planks for bridging cracks, made the complete circuit of the -crater by way of the rifted Kau Desert in our special vehicle, which -has now been succeeded by the jeep, the most universal vehicle of World -War II. Volcanology prospected the field of war in more ways than one, -so I named my popular book “Volcanoes declare war.” - -Inventions led to expeditions both in Hawaii and in distant lands -during the decade of the twenties, some by invitation, some to offer -assistance at disasters, and some for the natural extension of my own -work. On September 1, 1923, came the big earthquake at Tokyo. With -Mrs. Jaggar, I was permitted to land in Japan and make a study of the -effects of the disaster. The destruction of Tokyo and Yokohama was a -final, sad tragedy for Omori, who for years had worked to protect the -Emperor and Japan by studying earthquake forecasts for Tokyo and by -conducting research in earthquake-proof engineering. It was a cruel -commentary that the disaster came while he was attending a science -congress in Australia, particularly as the great destruction of life -was occasioned by fire and typhoon winds. But Omori’s organization -handled the seismic event admirably. Omori returned at once, but almost -immediately died. - -We steamed into Yokohama harbor, were welcomed by Captain Gatesford -Lincoln U. S. N. and his destroyer flotilla. We went on board his -flagship, and were sent in his launch to the broken jetties of -Yokohama, where we found no custom house or police. We walked up to the -camp of United States marines, amid the wreckage of the United States -Consulate, where the Consul had been killed. - -Yokohama, which I had known well in 1909 and 1914, was a tumble of -ruins; and the long Bund with its splendid waterfront structures, -including the Grand Hotel, was a heap of rubble. My classmate -Purington, a mining geologist who had been staying at the Grand with -his family escaped with one child and went back to rescue his wife. A -second shock brought down more masonry and crushed him. - -We were given a tent and allowed to mess with the marines, and next -day we crowded into a train for Tokyo. It was packed to the doors and -had people seated on the roof. We were warned by Americans to dress -as roughly as possible, as the populace was on edge, and foreigners -must not appear to be tourists. By great good luck we got into the -Imperial Hotel which had withstood the shake and fire, though it was -considerably damaged. - -We visited the Honjo district of the river bottom, where the damage -was at maximum, and we saw the remains of a pile of corpses, clothes, -and household goods in one small yard where 30,000 people had been -incinerated. Fire had closed in from all sides, and the shrieking -mob of men, women, and children piled up on top of each other, amid -handcarts and clothing bundles--kindling which added fuel to the horror. - -The mayor of Tokyo sent us in a small steamer to the island of Oshima, -on which is the volcano Mihara, close to the earthquake center. We -climbed up and looked down into a glowing pit which was making no lava -outflow at the time, though Mihara is famous for basalt flows. - -Water soundings showed 900 feet of subsidence in Sagami Bay opposite -Oshima, and there were changed depths elsewhere, some of them -shallowing by underwater land slips. We went to the Boshu Peninsula -east of Tokyo, where the beach had been rising for many years, and -where the earthquake rising left wharves high and dry. The principal -effect of the earthquake, occurring at noon just when all charcoal -braziers were lighted for luncheon in the flimsy Japanese houses of -wood and paper, was to set fires in an area of hundreds of square miles -and a score of towns. Water reservoirs were destroyed, there was no -adequate fire department to care for a conflagration, and a high wind -was blowing in the bright sunshine. A characteristic of Japanese cities -was the absence of open parkways for refugees, hence the crushing, -burning, drowning, suffocation, and annihilation of hundreds of -thousands of people and the destruction of factories, railroad trains, -water supplies, power plants, and every essential utility in a great -metropolitan area with a population of many millions. The horizontal -movement of the ground in the shock was about eight inches, and -aftershocks kept on for many months. - -We explored Yokohama, clambering up to the Bluff where everything was -wrecked and where land slips had tumbled down the precipice. We visited -what remained of a beautiful English type villa with a slate roof, -which had been occupied by two missionary ladies and their numerous -parrots. These people were encamped, along with their parrots, in a -shack built by their yardman, for the residence had tumbled down like a -house of cards. One woman had been imprisoned between her bed and the -wall, and was quite uninjured when the gardener dug her out through -cracks of the roof. - -Scientifically, what happened to the ground in this earthquake was -not explained by any single fault. Whatever happened to the bottom -of Sagami Bay was not communicated across the beach to the coast as -any great rift. Small faults were identified in a number of places, -the shoreline in one place lifted a few feet and lowered in another; -but no such movement as the big subsidence of the bottom of the bay -crossed the contact of sea and land. It appeared as though the margin -of the bay itself outlined an area of sudden slumping, somehow related -to Mihara Volcano on Oshima; but the shoreline of that island was not -seriously affected. The great mountains of the foothills of Fujiyama, -and the Hakone district, were shaken to a hash of broken railway -tunnels and land slips, but the topography was not altered. - -A resurvey of trig stations west of Tokyo revealed movements that -indicated the country had been spirally twisted. However, it has always -seemed a mystery to me that all the motion on land was so small, when -change on the bottom of the bay was so great. - -There was a local tidal wave at the bay shore of Kamakura, but no great -tidal wave from the deep ocean came to Tokyo. Some volcanic effort of -deep lava had wedged open and jolted the sea bottom, but how it acted -is entirely obscure. It was quite different from the San Francisco -quake, with its side slip of twenty-one feet and a crack 400 miles long. - -When we returned to Japan in 1926 with the Pacific Science Congress, -the restoration of Tokyo was practically complete and a magnificent -greater city had been built with wide and large parkways. The -government was lavish in its entertainment of the scientists attending -the congress. Dr. Lacroix and I were sent to Osaka to lecture, and to -show lantern slides of Mount Pelée; and expeditions all over Japan were -arranged for the visitors. I had an opportunity to see for the first -time the large basaltic lava fields of the lake district at the base -of Fujiyama, and I was astonished at the similarity of the basaltic -pahoehoe to our Hawaiian outflows and the freshness of the lavas and -the lava caverns. I had never thought of Fujiyama as a “lava flow” -volcano. - -My next expedition was in the autumn of 1924, when I was invited by -H. E. Gregory, Director of Bishop Museum, to go on an expedition -on the USS _Whippoorwill_, Commander Samuel King, to Howland -and Baker Islands. Others on the expedition were C. Montague Cooke -(malacologist), George Munro (ornithologist), Erling Christophersen -(botanist), Ted Dranga (marine shell collector), George Collins (Museum -Trustee), and Bruce Cartwright (naturalist). These men were invited to -make up one of several Bishop Museum parties which were sent out to -south sea islands for collection and report. - -As geologist, my job was to carry a portable seismograph and record -earthquakes or microseisms and to take photographs. We had made up -at the Observatory a one-component horizontal pendulum, in which -the chronograph drum used smoked paper. In camp I lowered the box -containing the seismograph into a hole in the sand under my cot, with a -view to finding out what tremors occurred on these flat coral islands. -However, no movements were detected during the period of our stay, -within the sensitivity limit of the small seismograph. - -Howland and Baker are coral islets, not atolls, close to the equator, -with no lagoons and with deep water all around them. Howland later -became famous in the tragedy of Amelia Earhart, for whom the Coast -Guard prepared an airfield on the island. These islands had been guano -diggings for parties from Honolulu fifty years earlier, and we found -old cisterns and tracks. The islands were inhabited by thousands of -goonies (gannets), man-of-war birds, and terns. In some places they -covered the ground with their nests, eggs, and young, rising noisily -in terrifying swarms as we walked among them. The land was perfectly -flat brown guano and red weeds, with beaches of coral boulders and -_Tridacna_, or giant clams, the highest bit ridges on the windward -side. The easterly trade winds blew a powerful gale most of the time, -and our ship had to land us on the leeward beaches, where we made our -camp in a line of tents. The staff was divided into pairs for each -tent, and Filipino mess boys did the cooking. - -Landing was arduous, for there was heavy surf, even on the leeward -side, and it was necessary to have a man swim in with a line in his -teeth. The swimmer, Ted Dranga, made the line fast between a buoy and -the shore, then built a signal fire while the ship stood off. Men and -baggage were loaded into a skiff and hauled ashore by the sailor in the -bow, who pulled, hand over hand, on the rope from the buoy, when the -waves were favorable. The ship had to drift away each night and come -back, as there was no anchorage. A few stunted kou trees still survived -from guano-digging days, and numerous grasses and fleshy-leaved salt -weeds grew. The beaches were covered with rats, hermit crabs, and some -white ghost crabs. The ghost crabs were seen at night flittering down -into the water when a flashlight was turned on the waves. - -The hermit crabs, with borrowed shells, came clanking over the canvas -floor under our cots at night; and as one walked along the beach with a -flashlight, Polynesian rats pattered away in all directions. They had -been brought by the guano schooners and doubtless lived on shellfish, -birds, eggs, and fledglings. - -The principal products of this expedition were notes, pictures, maps, -and collections. - -Within the next few years we were to combine expeditions with -experimentation in the organization of new observatories in California -and Alaska. - -California volcanoes as a field of observatory study were an obvious -choice when Judge Cramton proposed enlargement of the volcano -enterprise. He succeeded in getting me a Section of Volcanology in the -Geological Survey, and I sent R. H. Finch to Lassen Volcanic National -Park, where he made his headquarters at Mineral. Lassen had made -steamblast explosions in 1912 through 1914 which had rushed down into -the forest with such horizontal destruction as occurred at Mount Pelée. -It was not realized that this blast was terrible, for it was in the -backwoods on top of the Sierra Nevada and little known. The national -park there was created later. It is an area with a recent (1871?) -cinder cone and rocky lava flow, boiling lakes and mud pots, numerous -solfataras and hot springs, and a lava cavern much like those on Hawaii. - - [Illustration: _21. The_ Honukai _on Alaska beach, 1928. - Jaggar on the right_] - - [Illustration: _22. The_ Ohiki, _first amphibian truck, - with passengers Isabel Jaggar, Tahara, L. A. Thurston, Jaggar, - and Ted Dranga, 1928_] - - [Illustration: _23. Lava flow entering village of Hoopuloa, - 1926_] - - [Illustration: _24. Lava flow of 1926 Mauna Loa eruption - approaching Hoopuloa Village, which was destroyed. Photo section - U.S. Army Air Force_] - -Lassen Peak is the southernmost volcano on the line where the -Cascade Range merges with the Sierra Nevada. The line of volcanoes -extends beyond Mount Baker into Canada. North of Lassen is the Glass -Mountain region where there are obsidian lava flows. Like Mount -Shasta, Lassen is a volcano of very few recent eruptions, but there -were at least two outbreaks in the nineteenth century. These two -volcanoes resemble Pelée and Soufrière. Their linear quality implies -a long ragged rift in the earth’s crust, and south of Lassen there -is suggested an offset rift at Mount St. Helena, near the famous -superheated steam of Geyserville. This is near the northern end of the -great San Andreas rift, which extends many hundreds of miles southeast -of San Francisco. The rift shifted in a north-south direction during -the earthquake of 1906, and is one of the many evidences that the -north-south faults of California are all a part of the faulting up, -over lava, of the Cordillera, relative to downsunken Pacific Ocean -slabs. - -I put Finch in charge of Aleutian Islands seismographs, as well as -the one he was to establish at Mineral. With Wilson as seismologist -and instrument designer in Hawaii, we started constructing horizontal -pendulums, like those used in Hawaii, making the weights out of -large iron pipes, to be filled with sand at the place of operation. -These were two-component seismographs, recording on a single -chronograph drum. We sent one to the Coast Survey station at Sitka -and built two more for Kodiak and Unalaska. Finch built and set up -his own seismograph at Mineral. He started systematic surveys of the -temperatures of hot springs and steam jets in different parts of -Lassen Park and kept close contact with the Geological Department of -the University of California at Berkeley. Lassen was the subject of -geological surveys by Anderson and Finch, and later the park area was -studied by Howel Williams. - -I went to Washington to see government authorities, particularly -Professor Charles F. Marvin, Chief of the Weather Bureau, and Dr. G. -O. Smith, Director of the Geological Survey. I can never express my -indebtedness to Marvin, a good designer who built an inverted pendulum -seismograph in Washington. Finch had worked with Marvin when he was -weather observer in airplanes based on Ireland during the first World -War. Hence methods of government contact and reports, in the early days -of our Observatory, were kindly guided by Marvin. The Weather Bureau -was a place of self-recording instruments, something new for geology, -and much needed for volcano observation. For weather is a matter of -present changes, whereas geology had long been a matter of ancient -specimens. - -Director Smith was instrumental in calling a meeting in Washington, -of scientists of all bureaus interested in the Aleutian Islands. I -was selected to lead the symposium, which included representatives -of climatology, biology and fisheries, geology and geochemistry, -oceanography and geodesy, hydrographic charting, gravity, and -magnetism. There proved to be great interest in the Alaskan Peninsula -and the islands, and the Survey published a special bulletin on the -symposium. - -W. C. Mendenhall, who had written a monograph on the volcano of Mount -Wrangell in the great bend of the continent around the Gulf of Alaska, -became director of the Geological Survey and one of my best friends. - -In 1927 I was ready with cross-country cars and a seismograph to -explore once more the volcanoes of Alaska. Organizing an expensive -expedition which called for a special ship was obviously out, but -in the years after the Technology Expedition of 1907 I had learned -many economies which I wanted to try out. Also I had two experimental -and mechanical tests to make. The first was to set up in Alaska -a seismograph, the second was to test Alaskan beaches with a -cross-country car, with a view to building an amphibian boat. I had -read in several languages on the subject of motor vehicles with boat -bodies, and my 1907 experience of finding no anchorage on Umnak Island -had convinced me of the need for a vessel on wheels which could climb -up an Alaskan beach and be converted into a camp. So I started from -Seattle with a low gear Ford runabout. I unloaded it first in Kodiak -village, where there were only one or two cars, and made tests of -driving it along beaches. - -At Kodiak the Agricultural Experiment Station allowed me to set up the -seismograph in a vacant basement, and I arranged with a local housewife -to operate the instrument. Aided by a sheet of instructions, she made -tests, changed the smoked papers, varnished them, mailing them to -Hawaii, and kept notes on earthquakes which were felt. - -The roadster and I then traveled by the local mailboat steamer -_Starr_, Captain Johanssen, and sailed along the south shore of -the Alaskan Peninsula to King Cove, visiting Bradford on the way. -Disembarking at King Cove, I made runs on the beach with the car. With -the aid of the cannery mechanic, I tried attaching winch spools to -drive wheels, in order to haul the car up to grassy land behind the -beach. No car had ever landed at the cannery, there were no roads, -and the problem of getting from the wharf to the tundra, and from -the tundra to the beach and back again, posed practical mechanical -problems, the solution of which was to be useful later. We ran along -the beach as far as a rocky headland, until we needed an amphibian boat -in which to round the point and rejoin the stony beach at some place -beyond. How that boat body should be constructed was planned from this -experience. - -The superintendent, the physician, and the boatbuilders of the large -King Cove cannery planned an exploration for me, with John Gardner as -boatman and Peter Yatchmeneff as his mate. These two were on their way -to hunt bears for an eastern museum and were going to Pavlof Volcano, -the Vesuvius of the Alaskan Peninsula. I transferred my baggage to -their motor sloop, the _Plug Ugly_, and we headed for Pavlof Bay. - -At Volcano Bay we landed for a bear hunt, which was very exciting for -me. When we found bear tracks in an amphitheater under big mountains, -we climbed toward the divide at the head; but we could find no pass -over it. From the high ground we looked across the river at clumps of -alders. John borrowed my field glass, handed it back, and pointed out -a black spot far away under the bushes. “I just saw it move,” he said, -“that spot is a big brown bear where he has been holed up.” - -I remained watching while John and Pete, with their 25-caliber Savage -carbines, crept across the valley bottom, keeping down the wind from -the bear in the shelter of bushes. I saw that they were getting very -close to the game, lost sight of them for a few minutes, then heard two -sharp cracks and saw the bear in violent motion, thrashing around and -tearing up the ground, then quickly subsiding. I made my way across the -valley and found they had neatly shot a year old Alaskan brown bear. -The rest of the day was given to skinning it, and we sank the skull, -tied to a fish line from the sloop, to the bottom of the bay where -marine organisms would eat away remaining flesh and leave the bone -clean. - -Next we sailed up to the head of Pavlof Bay and camped at a barabara, -or sod hut, preparatory to a trek to a small volcano that lies near a -shallow lake on the north side of the magnificent pair of snowy volcano -cones known as Pavlof and Pavlof Sister. We were early in the season -and could see a glacier extending down from Pavlof Crater, which is a -cup containing a conelet at the side of the summit. The crater is like -a collar, the conelet like the knot of a necktie, while the glacier -is the ribbon of the necktie, itself, extending down to a jumble of -snowy hills with rocky moraines at the edge of the lake. We made camp -and ran into some adverse weather, and also into a party of mainland -sportsmen. We gave up further hunting and returned to King Cove, for -John had his bear and that was enough. The curved beauty of the Pavlof -cones, with a sweep of lava flows to the west of them, heavily mantled -with snow, was exquisite and a knowledge of the cones was useful when -plans were made for a later expedition. - -Mrs. Jaggar, after a trip by way of the Yukon into the interior of -Alaska waited for me at Kodiak while I took Captain Johanssen’s SS -_Starr_ to Unalaska where I saw my friends of the Coast Guard and -received an invitation to go later on the _Unalga_ to Attu. I -stayed on the _Starr_ to Bristol Bay on the Bering Sea side, in -order to see the Alaskan Peninsula from the north. - -A rewarding view showed me the almost inaccessible Aghileen Pinnacles, -a marvelous mountain west of Pavlof, consisting of dozens of upright -spires, all covered with ice, and looking like a cluster of cathedrals -in a snow storm. At the head of Bristol Bay I saw one of the government -Indian schools, met some of the teachers, and met trappers who came -on board with interesting collections of fox furs. They told me about -Naknek Lake, which gives access to Katmai from that side by dog sled in -winter. The necessary husky dogs were tied out in the fields around a -mission station. - -A rumpus on deck between a storekeeper of the district and the United -States Marshall arose over a feud between two villages which were -quarreling about the placing of a United States post office. There was -no shooting, though it looked bad for a few minutes, and I realized the -far north was a replica of the far west. - -On my return to Unalaska, Coast Guard officers and I were invited to -a dinner on board the German cruiser and training ship _Emden_. -I had nothing to wear but a hunting coat, whereas the others were in -dress uniforms, but the Germans didn’t mind. I greatly enjoyed the -_Emden’s_ officers, whom I heard from later, including Captain -Foerster, an acquaintance of my son in Seattle. - -On board the _Unalga_ I was given the Captain’s cabin, for he was -absent on sick leave. Executive Officer Perkins, who acted as skipper, -preferred to live in his own quarters. Another guest on the trip to -Attu was Jack McCord, whose interests were sheep herding and whaling, -two industries which were making experimental progress in the islands. -We saw a sheep ranch in the western part of Unalaska Island and learned -that a recent landing on Bogoslof had found the conditions much like -those I had seen in 1907 when I noted the smoking cone, the millions of -murres, the three islands, the connecting beaches, the warm lagoon, and -the dozens of sea lions. - -At Nikolski on the west end of Umnak Island, a flat land where -sedimentary rocks appeared, we had to mine and blow up a schooner -recently sunk in the harbor. Going westward, we passed cones in groups -or on individual islands, and we met the usual fogs and gales. The -officers were interested in Adak Harbor, but our plan to enter it was -defeated by storms. - -We anchored off Chugul, where two Aleutian men and a boy had been -marooned for months by the non-return of the wrecked schooner. A trader -had leased the island and left them to collect blue foxes for him. When -their supplies gave out, they lived on fish, vegetation, eggs, and sea -birds. They had matches left but no ammunition, so they had loaded -cartridges by assembling match ends. However, they were sheltered in a -sod hut at one side of the grassy volcano, and were living proof that -an Aleut cannot starve. They were fat and healthy and had a good load -of furs. When we transported them to the village on Attu, the first -thing one of these men did was to marry an Attu girl, with the aid of -the local priest. - -Chugul was the last of the shapely volcanic cones. Attu geology was -different, with old metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and ancient -lavas, but without any sign of fresh volcanoes. It is a mountainous -island with deep fjords, and we crossed a divide in order to look down -on Sarana Bay, made famous by World War II. McCord and I walked out on -the peninsula west of the village of Chernofski, and saw snowy ranges -beyond the next bay to the west. The Aleutian uplands are covered -with luxurious grasses, many flowers, and much mossy swamp; and there -are signs of terracing in places, as though made by old elevated -beaches. The country is too wet and stormy to be attractive for raising -livestock. However, when we landed on Amchitka Island on the south side -of the chain, we found it drier with fine grassy uplands. We found also -the usual shore cliffs and foxes. - -We returned to Unalaska, where I was attracted by the empty hotel -building and wharves at Dutch Harbor, deserted by the Alaska Commercial -Company after the booming maritime trade of the Cape Nome gold days. I -talked to Company officers about using the buildings as a scientific -station. An old powder house would be suitable for a seismograph -cellar; the wireless station was nearby; and there was water, lumber, -and housing for every possible purpose. It was ideal for an Aleutian -geophysical station, if financing and collaboration could be had. -Later, in Seattle, I addressed the Chamber of Commerce and published in -our Bulletin a proposal for an Aleutian Geographical Observatory, but -nothing came of it at that time. The Aleutian Islands became a center -for landing craft, airfields, and defense forces during World War II, -and eventually our men Howard Powers and Austin Jones were employed -there. - -In 1928, Gilbert Grosvenor of the National Geographic Society, in -cooperation with the Geological Survey, equipped me with an expedition -to map, photograph, and survey 2,500 square miles in the vicinity -of Pavlof Volcano. Again I had John Gardner and Pete as camp men. -McKinley, our topographer, brought pack animals and Alex Bradford -transported us to our base camp in Canoe Bay. I slept during summer -in the _Honukai_, a twin-screw steel amphibian boat, which was -manufactured in Chicago, after a preliminary vessel made of wood -and impelled by paddle wheels had been constructed at our Hawaiian -Observatory shop and tried out over a 400-mile course along the shores -of Hawaii. - -The trial of the preliminary vessel, which we called _Ohiki_, -Hawaiian for ghost crab, took place during the spring of 1928. The -entire staff of our Observatory were engaged in it, with Mrs. Jaggar -as stewardess, as usual. Mr. Thurston went along as a passenger and -publicity man on the trip up the west coast of Hawaii, where I tested -out Kona beaches and checked on the craft’s seaworthiness. - -We had misadventure at the start, in that the driving wheels tended to -dig in on soft beaches; and we found it necessary to build washboards -to raise the gunwhale amidships to avoid shipping water in choppy seas. -In the cross country trek from Kilauea, using the boat as a truck, Mr. -Thurston was overwhelmed with admiration for the twenty-one foot work -skiff, thundering down the steep hills of Kona on wheels, controlled by -the low gears of a Ford. Its boat body excited all the roadside kids to -wild antics of delight. My excellent truck builder, Boyrie, used the -same Ford which had run along the beaches in Alaska, reconstructing it -in the observatory machine shop. - -Wilson’s photograph of the _Ohiki_, with Mr. Thurston on board, -became the frontispiece of a top secret publication on amphibians of -World War II’s joint army staffs in London. The amphibian war of the -Pacific Ocean and Normandy was to develop dozens of different designs -of landing craft, but war use was unforeseen by me at the time of our -experiments. - -With a crew of four we cruised from Kailua to Kawaihae along the west -coast of Hawaii, landing on beaches and lava flows, and camping at -Makalawena, Kiholo, and Puako. We encountered real grief at Kawaihae -against the front of a soft submerged bank in shallow water, where the -front wheels made too much resistance and the rear wheels dug into a -mud bottom. We needed front wheel pull, but we finally got the craft up -the beach by power hauling with gypsy and cable and a tree. More grief -developed on our way up to Waimea when we fractured wooden rear axle -attachments. We went gratefully into the Parker Ranch shop for some -days, until we were able to return to Hilo and the volcano, completing -the circuit of the island. - -The National Geographic vessel was built by George Powell who -advertised a Ford “mobileboat,” designed for the use of fishermen to -enter midcontinent lakes. He had started on a larger model, which -Grosvenor accepted for the National Geographic Expedition. Powell and -I tried it out on Bellingham roads and lakes and on beaches of Puget -Sound. We provided everything extra, for Alaska had no roadside filling -stations. A wheeled vehicle on the peninsula was unheard of. We had -elongate steel mats to give traction across the upper sands of a beach, -and this plus bow winch, levers, and manpower enabled us to abandon -beaches and enter the tundra. Our planning paid off, for in the 400 -miles along the coast of Alaska from Shumagin Islands to King Cove, -over water, beaches, and tundra, we did not even have to pump up the -tires. The _Honukai’s_ numerous excessively low gears even enabled -us to drive to the snowline and bring out the heavy fur and bones of a -bear that I had shot on a snowy volcano, Mount Dana. - -The expedition was very productive. McKinley made an excellent -topographic map; we corrected errors in old maps; we obtained many -photographs through Richard Stewart, who carried still, color, and -movie cameras; and we obtained minerals, fossils, geologic notes, and -many plants which I collected. McKinley used a panorama camera for his -topographic work and his wide photographs were invaluable as a record -of the country. - -Meanwhile, I kept in tough with the seismograph station at Kodiak. The -steamers of the Pacific Commercial Company, which owned several of the -canneries and had headquarters in Bellingham, transported us from -Puget Sound to King Cove, and the many tugs for the canneries’ salmon -traps enabled me to make local explorations along the southern coast. -At one trap the fishermen had a tame baby seal, who would eat nothing -but little trout caught for him from the brook. He lived in a box, -and went off to sea by himself at night; but he always came home next -morning. - -In 1929 Finch sent Austin Jones, a seismologist, to construct and -establish a hut at the Dutch Harbor radio station for a second Alaskan -seismograph, of the Hawaiian type designed by R. M. Wilson. Jones -taught the wife of a radio operator to manipulate the station and -transmit the seismograms. The women in charge of the two stations at -Kodiak and Dutch Harbor kept their work up for several years, and kept -in constant correspondence with me. Though in the winter time they had -to dig the stations out of snowdrifts, and to cope with all kinds of -damage from rain and storm, they courageously and faithfully visited -the instruments. It is a hellish country for weather. - -Although both stations were within fifty miles of active volcanoes, -earthquakes were not numerous, and the story was very different from -that told by our records made at the edge of Kilauea caldera, only two -miles from an active lava center. Thus we have demonstrated that the -only way to study an active volcano is to live close to the crater -itself, even if a shelter has to be built underground. - -In concluding this story of our Alaskan expeditions of the twenties, in -contrast to my windjamming experience of 1907, I must underscore the -importance of water transportation and credit those who have provided -it. In fact, all transportation was by water until aircraft became -supplemental. I feel that the U.S. Coast Guard, which takes care of the -Pribilof Island seals, is the supreme achievement of our government in -policing these stormy waters. Their 60-foot motor cruiser, equipped -with sails has come to be standard for such government bureaus as -the Biological Survey and has replaced the earlier, 80-foot sealing -schooner among the traders. - -The canneries maintain big boatbuilding yards and operate large and -powerful tugs for visiting the salmon traps. The traps are heavy -weirs made of northwest pine logs, which are battered to pieces by -the winter storms and must be rebuilt with pile drivers every spring. -Thus a by product of cannery activities, and a godsend for trappers, -fishermen, Aleuts, and campers is the pine lumber distributed all along -the beaches from the annual wreckage of salmon traps. It is the only -firewood and construction material of the country to be found anywhere -west of Kodiak, for the land has no forests. - -Our contribution to the boating problem was the exhibition of what an -amphibian landing truck will do on Alaskan beaches and its usefulness -along those beaches where a boat may be in difficulties from stormy -weather. - -I returned to my Hawaii headquarters in the fall of 1928. The year 1929 -was marked by an earthquake crisis which began in mid-September with an -unusual number of shocks in the vicinity of Hualalai Volcano, a place -hitherto notably free from earthquakes. This was of interest because -events on Mauna Loa had shown higher and higher lava sources and quake -centers for the south rift. The 1926 outflow had begun by splitting -northward across the summit crater, and there making a considerable -flow eastward toward Wood Valley while Wingate and his topographic -party were in camp close to the summit. Therefore, when the 1929 quakes -began near Puuwaawaa, it looked as though Mauna Loa eruptions might -begin again at the northwest. - -A very strong quake of September 25 was felt all over the island, and -in our seismograph cellar was a peculiar swaying movement that set -all the instruments jiggling, dismantled recording pens, and produced -a queer feeling that the building was floating like a boat in a -whirlpool. Immediately came word that North Kona had suffered heavily, -particularly at Puuwaawaa Ranch near the cone of that name, where the -1859 Mauna Loa flow had swept past. - -I motored at once with Mrs. Jaggar to Puuwaawaa, where we were -hospitably entertained by the family of Mrs. Robert Hind. The damage -all about was fantastic, with houses pulled apart, stone walls flung -down in a seaward direction, redwood water tanks wrecked, and shops -on the lower side of the highway moved toward the sea leaving a chasm -between them and the road. Resting in our bedroom, we could hear the -window frames ticking like clocks for long periods of time, then coming -to a sudden wrench which felt as though a lifting wave had passed -through the mountain under us. - -I returned to the Observatory to get a shock recorder for use at the -ranch porch to count these strong motion shocks. Meanwhile residents in -Kona jotted down times of the shocks, which were coming by hundreds. On -October 5 at about 6 P.M., as I was returning through North -Kona in my car, I noticed a little unexplained excitement among people -by the roadside. I stopped at the residence of Frank Greenwell, whose -wife was a faithful counter of quakes, to find Mrs. Greenwell and her -daughter on the veranda in tears. They had just been through fearful -earthquakes, which in a moving car I had not felt. Flower vases were -overturned, furniture was disarranged, dishes were flung off the dining -room table, and kitchen utensils and milk were in a jumble. It was hard -to believe that anything so terrific could have happened without my -feeling it. - -I found even more dire catastrophe at Puuwaawaa. The stone chimney was -overturned, breakage of china and of glass in the preserve closet in -the basement was severe, a stone bench was flung down and broken on -the lawn, and one side of the cellar was caved in. We took to living -in automobiles, for there had been land slips on the mountain. This -earthquake had been worse than that of September 25. Even hillside -cottages were split apart. - -I set up the shock recorder, which registered about 3,000 earthquakes -during the next three months, until mid-December. The intensity and -frequency of these quakes declined, as is usual with aftershocks of -a big earthquake, recalling 1868 and the south end of the island. At -that time both Mauna Loa and Kilauea had had rift outflows, and as the -seismographic center of the new earthquakes was close to the 1800 and -1859 flows from Hualalai and Mauna Loa, everybody expected a lava flow; -but none came. Armine von Tempski who was a visitor during this period -was inspired to write “Lava.” She added a Hualalai lava flow using -material that I gave her to describe it. Her description is magnificent -although she, herself, had never seen a lava flow. - -The October 5 shock was bad on the west flank of Mauna Kea, where -water tanks were overturned and the high wireless station was damaged, -and at Kamuela, where plumbing pipes were fractured. Parker Ranch was -damaged, and the constant racking along the entire length of the Kona -settlements caused land slips and broken masonry in many places, always -damaging north-south stone fences more than those at right angles to -the seashore. - -This three months of northwest earthquakes, a condition unknown since -1801, the year when Hualalai lava flowed into the sea, indicated that -lava was coming north of Mauna Loa. This had not happened since 1899, -for the flows on the southwest rift, always beginning near the summit -crater, had been during 1903, 1907, 1914, 1916, 1919, and 1926. - -Belief was that the southwestern rift of the mountain was filling -progressively higher with solidified redhot cement, not brittle enough -to fracture open easily, whereas the northern rifts--such as the -sources of 1859, 1881, and 1899--were now hard and brittle and ready -for fracture. The fracturing took the form of northwest cracking and -this was lava wedging, confirmed by the summit and northern outflows -which were to come in 1933 and 1935. - -July of 1929 produced a new influx of lava into Halemaumau, nineteen -degrees north of the equator. And a curiously simultaneous event -occurred on nearly the same date 2,000 miles away at Tin Can Island -(Niuafoou) in Tonga where the influx broke into basaltic eruption -fifteen degrees south of the equator. Apparently a stress lagging -behind the solstice time had acted on the equatorial protuberance to -release the wedging open of lava fractures on both sides of the equator. - -I was pleased when the U.S. Naval Observatory invited me to go to -Niuafoou in 1930 as the geologist on an expedition going to study -the total eclipse of the sun. The expedition, under Captain C. H. -C. Keppler, used the Naval Station at Samoa as a base. Mrs. Jaggar -accompanied me as far as Pago Pago and made trips to Western Samoa, -Fiji, and the Tonga Islands. With other wives of expedition members, -she was allowed to make a short visit to Tin Can Island at the time of -the eclipse in October. Spending some time in Samoa, she listened to -the Congressional hearings under Senator Hiram Bingham, which were to -investigate civil versus naval government. We were delighted to find -our old friend Captain Lincoln, of Tokyo earthquake relief, in command -of the Navy at Samoa, and I also renewed acquaintance with the pilot of -my companion plane in the Molokai forced landing of 1924, Lieutenant -Bill Sinton, and his family, whom we were to meet again in Honolulu. -Prominent on Captain Keppler’s staff was Lieutenant-Commander Kellers, -physician and naturalist, whose enterprise on the Niuafoou expedition, -like mine, dealt with sciences other than astronomy. - -From the sea, Niuafoou looks like a hat in shape. It is about five -miles in diameter with eleven villages, mostly along the eastern -shores, and at that time had a population of about a thousand people. -In the center is a circular lake, bordered by cliffs, and much like -Crater Lake in Oregon. Standing about seventy feet above sea level -and 250 feet deep, it has slightly brackish water. The naval camp was -established at Angaha on the north side of the island, and here a new -village housed the refugees from Futu to the northwest, destroyed in -1929 by an aa lava flow. This flow came from erupting cracks trending -north and south, along the west side of the ring ridge around the -crater lake. These lava flows had been liquid pahoehoe at the source; -had poured into the sea in many places; and had made striking tree -molds around coconut palms, which were left as stone trees when the -wood burned and the liquid lava lowered. The western source crack -extends to the south end of the island and has accounted for most of -the earlier eruptions known to history. Futu had been the only western -settlement left. - -Angaha came nearest to being a harbor, but was really on an open -roadstead, with a rocky boat landing and copra chute below the village -which stood on a cliff above. - -Copra, the only commercial product, is bought and warehoused by two -Australian firms. The two grown sons of the manager of one assisted -me in tramping and photographing all over the island. The landing -at Angaha brought about the name Tin Can Island, for the visiting -steamers stopped a mile off shore and incoming mail, soldered into -large biscuit tins by the steamship engineer, was lowered into the -sea, tied together. The tins were towed in by the village policeman. -Outgoing mail was carried out in paper packages tied on top of sticks -and held aloft by hardy swimmers with hau wood poles, which they held -under their arms as floats. A short time after our trip a shark got a -swimmer, and canoes were adopted. - -Thanks to the infrequent visits of vessels, the natives were unspoiled, -splendid specimens of the Polynesian race. The laws of Tonga required -every youth to cultivate an area of coconut trees and vegetables, and -the island was traversed by lovely trails. The houses and churches were -exquisite arched structures with thatched roofs, the beams tied with -coconut-fiber cords. There were native ministers, and the choirs were -superb. Services often started at 4 A.M. - -My jobs were to take photographs with three cameras and make a -geological map. Northeast of the crater lake is a cluster of sand -hills, relics of an unusual explosive eruption in 1878, another -Hawaiian eruption date. This eruption was confined to one side of -the crater and came up the wall crack, between the encircling cliff -and the top of the lava plug under the lake. Its description is very -reminiscent of the Kilauea steamblasts of 1924. - -We found a remarkable inhabitant of the sand in the malau bird, a small -partridge with big feet, with which it dug a deep hole in the sand for -its large egg which was then covered up. The sun’s heat did the rest, -with the warm sand acting as incubator. The young bird scratched its -way to freedom and flight without aid from its mother. Another item of -Dr. Kellers’ natural history was the flying fox, a giant bat with a -high singing note and odoriferous rookeries in the tops of trees. It -had a heavy flight like an eagle’s. A third item was the tiny black -crab, the size of a ten-cent piece, which lived in the midst of limey -flats at one side of the lake, where there were crusts that suggested -calcareous algae. The little black crabs, which lived by thousands in -the midst of the crust, resembled compact spiders. - -An artificial feature of great convenience was a trail following the -top of the ring ridge, all around the crater. The Quensell boys had -a rowboat on the lake, and Dr. Kellers and I were guided by them to -all parts of the island, making the acquaintance of the people in the -villages along the eastern trade-wind shore. Just as in Hawaii, the -trade wind is a controlling feature; and the surf erodes cliffs on -the east, whereas beaches are more common along the lava flows of the -western strand line. These are sheltered from wind but are remote from -habitations. The entire island is made of lava and ash deposits, and is -evidently the top of a volcano cone extending far below sea level. The -lava activity, as shown by the arrangement of the old and new source -cracks, depends on concentric cracking around the caldera, which makes -concentric rifts, rather than the long radial ones found in Hawaii. The -crack along the west side--which had vented the succession of flows -from south to north, ending with the Futu flow of 1929--indicated that -the next flow might threaten Angaha. This is just what happened during -the next decade, forcing the island population to be evacuated. - -My geology photographs and pictures of people, ships, and dwellings -were developed in a darkroom tent, which I set up in a copra shed, so -as to keep the development of negatives abreast of the exposures. Copra -bugs crawling over me in the dark and getting into developer added -excitement, and the eternal smell of copra began to tinge my dreams. - -The routine of our work was broken by two good fights, a fist fight -between a Filipino steward and a sailor, and a knock-down and drag-out -between two native women of Angaha. The real fun was the row between -the two women. A younger woman who was a loose, shrill character, -disliked by the villagers and the sailors, attempted to attack an -older woman who was a big husky dame. There was screaming and hair -pulling and fisticuffs, while the Navy men stood around and cheered -them on. The younger woman made most of the noise, while the older -woman laughed and ripped off the other’s clothes. Finally the young -woman, in tears and with clothing in tatters, retreated and disappeared. - -But to get back to the eclipse, telescope lenses were mounted on high -scaffolds, the ladies arrived in October, and the total eclipse of the -sun happened and was photographed at the time anticipated. - -When the time came for us to return to Samoa, some of us were fortunate -enough to get a place on the Flood Brothers’ copra ship _Carisso_, -out of San Francisco. Along with the family of a Navy officer, we went -ashore at Niuatoputapu (Keppel Island) after climbing down a rope -ladder to a bobbing whale boat. We found beautiful mats, which are the -wealth of the people throughout Tonga. The village men and women who -had mats to sell were not so much interested in coins or trinkets and -merchandise as they were in the clothing we wore. I literally divested -myself of a shirt and a suit for a beautiful fringed mat ornamented -with clusters of shells, made to be given to Queen Charlotte on her -next visit. We were fortunate in reaching Samoa in good weather, but -a big storm after we got there wrought havoc with the _Tanager_ -carrying astronomical photo plates and bundles of Polynesian mats which -were much damaged by sea water. - - - - - CHAPTER VI - - Prophecy and Hope - - “_For we know in part, and we prophesy in part._” - - -The fifth decade of my sixty years of geology, 1931 through 1940, was -a time of culmination at Kilauea; the ending of an eleven-year cycle -on Mauna Loa; and the introduction, in 1940, of a new Mauna Loa cycle. -This new cycle resembled strikingly the one which followed 1843 because -of the similarity of places--notably the north side of Mauna Loa toward -Humuula, followed by the northeast side toward Hilo--and the intervals -of eruption. Kilauea behaved differently in the nineteenth century, -because in 1840 it rent open the east flank to make a flood of lava -into the ocean, though afterwards it restored its lava to Halemaumau. - -In 1934, on the other hand, Halemaumau went to sleep, after adding one -more extra thick filling in the bottom of Halemaumau pit in September, -when it gushed up behind wall slabs 300 feet high, cascading down the -talus in twenty-five ribbons of lava. This proved that effervescence in -a small crack can rise far above the level of the lava lake in the pit. -It made a marvelous display in early morning darkness, and the new lava -lake rose rapidly within the flatly funneling talus. This lay at thirty -degrees, so that the outward spread enlarged the lake and reached -beyond the foot of the talus. - -The slide-rock slope that was conspicuous had been fed by avalanches, -and it rested against the half-circle of wall slab, behind which had -risen the cascades. This source migrated around the slab to the north -and developed the biggest fountaining jets there. By the outward and -upward spread of the new lake these jets became lake fountains, while -the cascading ribbons at the slope stopped. The lake rose and crusted -over. The northern fountains became a small oval pond and center of -accumulation and upward doming, while pahoehoe lava radiated down a -slope to the edges of the floor heap, south and east. Surveys at this -time placed the northern lava pond definitely at the top of an inner -heap. The fountains in the pond changed to conelets with their own -craterlets. These, after a month, developed gas explosions, flinging up -lava shreds to 800 feet and sometimes higher than the edge of the pit. - -This started a slumping of the exploding cones. The explosions were -a symptom of increasing viscosity of lava under the bottom heap, and -the viscosity was revealed in stiff lava welling up around the edges -of the floor. This filled up the wall valley, and so compensated the -slump that the bottom became level. Then the activity ceased. It all -demonstrated how an inner dome in Halemaumau could become filled with -an intrusive lens, which by welling out around the edges, could restore -the dome to horizontality. It was like the “laccoliths” of the Black -Hills. After the 1934 eruption, Kilauea simply went out of business for -eighteen years. Halemaumau lava returned in 1952. - -Mauna Loa activity was renewed meanwhile, with summit crater inflows in -1933 and with intense seismic activity under the northeast rift. Depths -of seismic centers were at first seventeen miles down, and thereafter -five miles down, as reported by seismologist Hugh Waesche. He worked -with the formulae of distance, direction, and depth established -by Austin Jones, using preliminary tremor, comparative excursions -of lines, and a model of the island. These had become precise by -mathematical triangulation of the island of Hawaii, with seismograph -records from Kilauea, Hilo, and Kona stations. The distance from each -station was interpreted from the duration of the preliminary tremor; -and the meeting point of the several distances within the island model -located the seismic focus inside Mauna Loa Mountain where the lava was -splitting it open. The epicenter, or point over the focus, when the -lava in Mauna Loa’s summit crater was stiffening, lay on the northeast -rift in 1933. Therefore the eruption was expected at an old cone, -whence had come the first outbreak of 1843. This came to pass in 1935. - -E. G. Wingate, who had become superintendent of Hawaii National Park, -agreed with my dictum, made on the basis of seismograms and history, -that the next outflow would come at the north within two years and -would endanger Hilo. This I discussed at a public meeting of the Hilo -Chamber of Commerce in January 1934, and the report was published under -the title “The coming lava flow.” The prediction was fulfilled in -December 1935, when the flow came as it had in 1843. The eruption broke -out on top and traveled down to Humuula, the saddle between Mauna -Loa and Mauna Kea, then pooled in the saddle and turned toward Hilo. - - [Illustration: _25. Jaggar in office of Observatory in “Tin - House,” 1937_] - - [Illustration: _26. Bomb bursting on lava flow, December 27, - 1935. Photo by Eleventh Photo Section, A.C., Wheeler Field, - T.H._] - -The 1843 flow had reached the saddle and turned toward Kona, and the -solid remnant of that lava bank deflected the 1935 puddle to the east. -It was traveling toward Hilo at the rate of a mile a day. This was -the signal to try stopping it by bombing from airplanes, a procedure -which had been proposed from experience with flows in tunnels of their -own crust, where a person on the Kilauea floor could look through a -caved-in hole in the roof and see the glowing river inside. Thurston -and I had discussed blasting such a roof to cool off the lava and pile -it up, thus forcing it to a new outlet and stopping the frontal flow. -It was Guido Giacometti of Olaa who suggested bombing rather than -dynamiting. I called on the Army Air Force, and a conference was held -in Hilo. With Colonel Delos C. Emmons, Wing Commander, I flew over -the source tunnel. This was at 9,000 feet on the north side of Mauna -Loa, where a gleaming silvery ribbon of pahoehoe emerged from a hole -in the north slope. This was a crusted lava river, and the fliers were -instructed to smash it with 600-pound demolition bombs of TNT. - -The forenoon of December 27 was fixed for the bombing; and by -invitation of Herbert Shipman, Mrs. Jaggar and I went to Puu Oo Ranch -on Mauna Kea to watch what happened. The day was clear, and I saw one -explosion send up a column of incandescent liquid lava hundreds of feet -high, looking like a geyser of blood. In the foreground was the front -of the flow, which we watched as it moved toward Hilo. At the same -time we were receiving reports from cowboys on its rapidly diminishing -speed. For about a week the liquid lava remaining in the tunnels kept -spilling forward, and then it stopped. The front was in the headwaters -of the Wailuku River, Hilo’s water supply. - -We afterwards visited the bomb craters in the source region, to find -that there had been numerous hits on the lava tunnel and that the -cooling off had solidified the source lava back into the mountain -rift. The remainder of the eruption expended itself with internal -fountaining in the summit wells at the top end of the flank rift. From -the coincidence of the times of bombing and the slowing down of frontal -flow, there appeared no question that the smashing of the source tunnel -was effective and had saved Hilo. We had not anticipated that active -fountaining would be forced back to the summit well from the 9,000-foot -craterlet, but summit smoke continuing for two months verified that -this had happened. This showed the physical chemistry of bubbling slag -to be in delicate adjustment and a lava eruption once started to be -more sensitive to shock than anyone had dreamed. This conclusion was -reconfirmed by the bombing of the 1942 flow. - -During this period, changes in Observatory personnel led to new -researches. Wingate, who succeeded Wilson as engineer, set up -triangulation monuments in Puna to test further motion on the Kapoho -rift of 1924. He also devised and set up three tilt instruments in -three cellars which were blasted out of the lava around Halemaumau -pit. Howard Powers came from Harvard as petrologist and collected and -mapped many rock specimens in Kona, on Hualalai, and in Olaa. He also -made curves of the tilt records for the first twenty years of the -Observatory. Hugh Waesche was transferred from the Park Service to the -position of geologist at the Observatory. A skilled radio amateur, he -took over seismological work. In 1938 he dealt with an important group -of earthquakes along the Chain of Craters east of Kilauea. These were -accompanied by faulting, which made cracks, chasms, and humps in the -road, and some new hot places. This indicated a reaction underground, -back toward Halemaumau from the submarine outflow of April 1924. - -Finch from his headquarters at Lassen reported regularly in the -_Volcano Letter_, on hot spring temperatures and earthquakes. -He conducted two expeditions to Alaska, inspecting the seismographs -and making volcano explorations and maps on Akutan Island. Another -expedition was to Shishaldin Volcano, at the west end of the big -Aleutian island of Unimak during one of its eruptive spells. - -Throughout this time and earlier H. T. Stearns represented the -Geological Survey and the Territory of Hawaii in publications on -geology and water supply on all the islands. The island of Hawaii was -made the subject of a splendid geological map in color by Stearns and -Gordon Macdonald, petrographer, with a book on the geological history -of Hawaii, profusely illustrated with photographs and diagrams. Their -book is practically a modern textbook on the geology of active lava -volcanoes. - -Richmond Hodges, sent by the Geological Survey from Washington, was -trained in the technique of government filing and relieved me of work -with correspondence and routine. He also took over the editing of the -_Volcano Letter_ and assisted Mr. Wilson with the writing of -articles when I was away in Alaska. My secretaries after Hodges were -Ruth Baker and Sutejiro Sato, and Miss Baker’s work extended into the -1940’s. - -Tilt studies made at the three cellars around the rim of Halemaumau -did not produce the anticipated results, but they answered our -questions. The three cellars were placed at 120 degrees to each other, -with reference to a meridian crossing the pit, one at the north, one -east-southeast and one west-southwest. - -It was thought, when these tiltoscopes were set up, that the Kilauea -floor would swell or shrink as an inner dome, with the pit at its -center. But nothing of the kind was revealed. The tilting was found to -be more or less at right angles to the long western wall of Kilauea -Crater, itself an extension from the southwestern rift of Kilauea -Mountain. The rift extends under Halemaumau pit, as was proved in -1920, when the Kau Desert outflows from the rift cracks kept pace -with the lowering of Halemaumau lava. This means that the ring of -Halemaumau’s rock wall is in two pieces, divided by the rift dikes -trending northeast-southwest, and that the tilting over upward pressure -from below is not radial but is northwest and southeast. Wilson’s -leveling results that showed the whole mountain swelling up were based -on isolated benchmarks relative to sea level, and this swelling was -probably unsymmetrical, just as the southwest rift and the eastern rift -of the Chain of Craters make a bend in plan and are unsymmetrical. The -mountain is not a uniform elliptical dome. - -I have said that the decade of the 1930’s was a time of culmination -for Kilauea. It was also a period of financial depression and stress -for all of us. The Volcano House burned down, the new hotel was placed -on the Observatory site, and the Observatory administration barely -survived. The Hawaiian Volcano Research Association did much to keep -the Observatory alive, but one year we all went on half pay. By dint -of this half-pay episode and because everybody insisted that volcano -records must not be permitted to lapse, the Secretary of the Interior -transferred the Observatory in 1935 to the better financed National -Park Service. - -With Wingate as superintendent of Hawaii National Park, we were assured -of loyal support and were able to combine scientific aims with National -Park activities. Thus, the Volcano Observatory regained its status. -We were also assisted by the publication of the economic success of -the Mauna Loa bombing, in face of the threat to Hilo which involved -some 51 million dollars of buildings and harbor. This threat Wingate -and I studied carefully in the light of history, and we succeeded in -getting $10,000 from Congress for an investigation by U.S. Engineers -of the possibility of a construction to protect Hilo from a disastrous -lava flow. Colonel Bermel appointed civil engineer Belcher to Hilo, -and Belcher worked for a year in 1938 on my design of a lava diversion -channel and earthworks, to extend for seven miles from the Wailuku -River gorge above Hilo to the airport. - -This was to take care of another such lava flow as that of 1881 by -deflecting it with the natural valleys southward from the congested -district. A critical design was made of the channel, the height of the -obstruction, and the openings needed for waterways and public roads. -The plan was not to block the passage of lava, but merely to deflect it -by means of an artificial barrier to channel it downhill. This would -send it along the natural grades, diagonally forcing a lava stream away -from the business district, the harbor, the factories, and the airport. - -The design was approved by a reviewing board in Washington as effective -for the purpose intended. However, with this project went a redesign -of Hilo breakwater and a plan for dredging the harbor which took into -consideration the possibility of a severe tidal wave. Unfortunately the -appropriation estimate was considered too large and was turned down in -Washington. When the great tidal wave came in 1946 it proved that such -an extended breakwater attached to the northern shore of Hilo harbor -would have lessened the terrible destruction and loss of life. - -A diversion in the lives of Mrs. Jaggar and myself was an invitation in -1936 from the Royal Society of London, to go to Montserrat in the West -Indies where for three years they had been having bad earthquakes. Sir -Gerald Lenox-Conyngham, whom we had met at the Japan congress, wrote -me asking for my help because Montserrat’s dormant hot volcano was -making excessive hydrogen sulfide gas at its two solfataras. The smell -sickened and alarmed the inhabitants of the port of Plymouth, and the -gas was blackening the paint of white steamships. The earthquakes had -come in spasms culminating in big damage to masonry from 1934 onward. -Perret had flown over from Martinique and tried to help by applying -sound theories to prediction of seasonal tidal controls of the volcano, -but he was scoffed at as a voodoo soothsayer by a British Navy captain. -The scientific commission appointed was Dr. C. F. Powell of Bristol, -now Nobel Prize physicist, and Dr. A. G. MacGregor of the Geological -Survey, besides Dr. Lenox-Conyngham, formerly Director of the Geodetic -Survey of India. Dr. Powell used adaptations of my shock recorder, both -horizontal and vertical, built by the Kew Observatory. Designs had been -obtained from instruments I sent to Dr. Marsden in New Zealand, after -the Napier earthquake. - -When I received the invitation to go to Montserrat, I packed up such -instruments as I could find, and telephoned Mrs. Jaggar in Honolulu -to be ready to go with me to Los Angeles the following Saturday. She -was always ready to act as secretary on a new adventure, and with much -bustle and scramble we packed her things. Later I joined her at the -steamer, a Danish freighter which was to take us through the Canal to -the Caribbean. Boarding as we did on such short notice, we were given -a steward’s room in the bowels of the ship; but we had the run of the -first cabin. It was a delightful trip through Panama and Jamaica, both -of which I was happy to see again, twenty-six years after my 1910 -experience with the canal engineers. Great changes had been wrought, -and it was a thrill to see the ship pulled through step-up after -step-up of canal locks, by the “iron mules” of that marvelous machinery. - -We left the delightful freighter people at Charlotte Amalie in the -Virgin Islands where we stayed at Blue Beard’s Castle. After a wait of -some days, we got a small Dutch island freighter to go to Montserrat. -We stopped at St. Martin, an astonishing place, French at one end -and Dutch at the other, with practically no custom house to mark the -boundary, though the wines and the language changed in the middle of -the island. - -Saba is a startling extinct volcano rising as a steep rocky cone -directly from the water, with no harbor but a stop opposite a gully -that leads up to the crater. After landing in small boats, we climbed -up the gulch to the settlement, a picturesque place, with masonry -houses and many flowers, where the government is Dutch but all talk -English, and its history goes back to the buccaneers. The village is on -a flat in the lowest part of a cup crater, the top of our climb, but -the name of the settlement is The Bottoms. - -Our little ship joined the main line of the leeward volcanoes at -St. Kitts, where we made connections for Antigua and Montserrat. -In Montserrat we stayed with Miss Gillie at the Rainbow House and -joined the Englishman Powell and the Scot MacGregor. I met Perret at -Antigua, and we compared notes on the similarity of the earthquakes -and the rotten-egg smell (sulfuretted hydrogen) at Montserrat to the -eruptions of Pelée in Martinique, where these phenomena were followed -by explosions and lava. The Montserrat authorities justly feared what -was coming. - -Perret had for two years kept track of events at Montserrat in relation -to equinox and solstice. He had built a hut there at the dangerous -solfatara near town, had made an instrument shelter with a thermograph, -and on a pedestal close to a nearby residence had set up an ingenious -earthquake accumulator, which had recorded at the end of twenty-four -hours the total expenditure of seismic energy in each direction. As -there were hundreds of strong shocks, the instruments recorded total -seismic energy per day and its dominant direction. - -I found that Powell had set up my shock recorders among volunteers on -the island, and a seismograph at the agricultural station. A new form -of the Jaggar shock recorder had the weight attached to horizontal flat -springs so as to oscillate up and down. I was especially pleased with -the earthquake records kept by a Mr. English living in the countryside. -Assisted by his wife, he had carefully listed the times and intensities -of hundreds of shocks, with notes on important events. - -Much help was furnished by the Agricultural Experiment Station, which -provided an assistant to take us to many geologic places and to the -second solfatara, consisting of hot springs and sulfur in a southern -valley of the volcano. The volcano of Montserrat is at the south end of -the island, while the northern part consists of older hills. The summit -crater is a remote and inaccessible forested area among peaks. The -volcano is much like Pelée in size and appearance. - -We were allowed to take a steamer to St. Vincent and Barbados, stopping -at Dominica. There the Governor kindly entertained us for a few hours, -sending the government launch and driving us up the valley on a fête -day when the negro women were all in picturesque costume. We saw -his summer place with lovely gardens. We had tea with his wife, and -I discussed with him the earthquake problem. On the drive we saw a -remarkable cliff of hexagonal columns, some of them curved like a fan, -representing the old lavas of Dominica. - -The administrative problems of the British islands involved not only -hurricanes and earthquakes, but tactful handling of the dominant negro, -Carib Indian, and mulatto population, which is very ticklish, for there -have been riots and labor troubles. I was astonished in several of -the islands to learn that distinguished Englishmen in government and -planter classes were partly colored. In the society club of Montserrat -we met a leading lawyer who was coal black, and we saw London-educated -negroes dancing with English girls. We found the same customs in St. -Vincent, and to a much lesser extent, in Barbados. - -In St. Vincent Mr. Abbot, MacDonald’s secretary, took us to see my -old friend T. M. MacDonald the planter, at Chateau Belair on the west -side of Soufrière, where Hovey, Curtis, and I had climbed in 1902. We -traveled up the west coast by automobile, and saw one of the primitive -sugar mills, where the juice is boiled down to a syrup to be shipped -to lumber mills in Canada. Nothing could be in greater contrast to -the modern sugar factories in Hawaii, and the negro labor gives the -industry an entirely different aspect. To get to Chateau Belair we had -to motor up a canyon far into the interior, around hairpin turns over -vertical cliffs and along a narrow ridge, and then return to shore -on the other side of the valley. We rode along the beach under the -volcano, and saw the rehabilitated Richmond plantation, with the west -flank of Soufrière Volcano under heavy clouds. Owing to torrents of -rain, we had to make part of the return to Kingstown in a rowboat. - -Later we drove over an excellent road up the east shore to Georgetown, -and beyond that on the foot of the volcano slope, where a group of -plantations had been purchased after the eruption of 1902 by Mr. -Barnard, who with his charming wife, entertained us. Hundreds of acres -of coconut trees, arrowroot, and sugar cane had replaced the utter -devastation of 1902. Barnard showed us a modern still for making rum -from sugar cane, and I was astonished to see that the product is just -as clear as alcohol, the rum color being artificial. We rode horseback -most of the way to the crater of Soufrière, over a trail through -forests and across streams, very different from hiking in horrible -desolation and fog up bare ridges covered with volcanic bombs, such as -Hovey and Curtis and I had encountered on this same slope at the time -of the eruptions. - -The trail still followed knife-edge divides with perilous slopes on -both sides of the path, but now concealed with mountain growth. We rode -nearly to the edge of the crater, now a very different picture, with -a large lake only a few hundred feet below, as it had been before the -eruption of 1902. Two sturdy native women coming from Chateau Belair -appeared with baskets of fruit on their heads, tramping a 3,000 foot -height to deliver their goods to Georgetown on the east side of the -island. This is an old story for these straight-backed natives, and -these treks across mountains were equally characteristic of the creoles -in Martinique and the northern islands. These people would spend the -night near their market on the opposite side of the islands. - -In Kingstown we were shown the elaborate process by which arrowroot is -made into edible starch, the powdery product being critically graded by -delicate shades of color. This corm, which makes inconspicuous fields -of low growing pointed _Canna_ leaves and small white flowers, is -quite different from the cassava, or manioc, which I had known on my -first visits to the West Indies. Arrowroot has been developed by the -agricultural experiment stations of the British, who for many years -searched for a new commercial product. The St. Vincent arrowroot is -now a major industry which has spread to the other islands and is -cultivated by small planters. - -In the volcano islands I interviewed government people to call -attention to the crisis in Montserrat, using it as an illustration -of the need at the numerous vents for the development of observatory -methods, particularly in geology, chemistry, oceanography, and -seismology, including measurements of ground surface movements and -tilt. I had recommended this for Martinique and St. Vincent in 1902; -and Perret, with some support by the French government, had gone to -live in St. Pierre and make a museum, stimulated by the Pelée outbreak -of 1929. So far as geophysics is concerned, the governments of St. -Vincent and Jamaica have gone to sleep since the volcano disaster of -1902 and the earthquake building reforms of 1907. It is discouraging -to a scientist to know that the science of economic geophysics and -geography in such a magnificent field as the West Indian volcanoes has -to be awakened by such disasters as were now occurring in Montserrat, -with no forecasting at all. The whole Montserrat episode was like our -unforeseen Hualalai earthquakes of 1929, and in both places my shock -recorder was called in to help. - -We went on to Barbados, a flat non-seismic land, where in 1902 I had -interviewed the _Roraima_ victims. We returned by way of St. -Lucia, where we drove to the solfatara, which as usual is in a valley -with sulfur and hot springs, near sea level, and not in a crater. - -We returned to Montserrat, where the earthquakes and bad gases -had died down after 1936. The investigations of the Commission -(Lenox-Conyngham made his visit after I left), came to publication in -Powell and MacGregor’s reports on the seismic analysis and the geology. -I sent in a report with photographs and charts on the whole chain of -volcanoes, in relation to the Montserrat crisis, by comparison with -other volcanoes. Lenox-Conyngham wrote an article for _Nature_. -MacGregor later published a critical analysis of modern data on the -probabilities of eruption in all of the West Indian volcanoes. Perret -published a large monograph on Montserrat, illustrated with his -beautiful photographs. - -We passed Martinique by sea, and I saw the huge pile of lava the 1929 -eruption had added, to make an entirely new summit to Mount Pelée. -Vegetation and habitation had reappeared at St. Pierre, but the -mountain was bare. - -We returned to Hawaii by way of Bermuda, Boston, and Washington, where -the temperature was hotter than we had felt in the tropics. Reviewing -the journey, I was encouraged to perceive that geology had changed a -great deal since the struggle that Hovey and I, after our experience at -Mount Pelée, had had to make geological societies realize that changes -in the field must be constantly measured. The real obstacles to getting -field measurements permanently manned as pure science are lack of money -and the fashions of education. Perret and I have been two isolated -enthusiasts crying in the wilderness. - -Any young scientist with photographic skill who will give his life -to living with and reporting upon a single volcano group can make a -great contribution to science. He must have suitable financial backers -and a publication agency and instruments not dependent upon frequent -eruptions. What volcano science needs most is permanent dwellers, using -all the resources of sensitive geophysics and chemistry and dwelling -close to craters or solfataras. Such lands as the Taupo District of -New Zealand are ideal, but not when observed at a distance. Wairaki is -now under investigation for commercial power. Hilo is being critically -examined for a lava diversion scheme. But these projects are not what -I mean, and are not pure science. The personal devotion of a lifetime, -as in the cases of Pasteur or Schweitzer, is what produces the emergent -evolution of true science. - -I have called this chapter Prophecy and Hope because of six fruitful -prognostications and hope for the future of volcanology. Of the -prognostications, one was the threat to Hilo which came true in 1934. -Two, the forecast to the effect that bombing would stop a lava flow -came true. Three, the belief that a volcano observatory would be -productive of instruments came true. Four, the prediction of danger -to Hilo produced definite defensive plans by U.S. Engineers. Five, -predictions of time and place of Mauna Loa outbreaks, seismically and -historically proved practical. Six, the prediction of Kilauea sinking -lava, based on sinking at Mauna Loa, had repeatedly been fulfilled. - -When my government service as Volcanologist ended in 1940 and R. H. -Finch had been appointed my successor, substantial recognition of -the Observatory had come from Washington, New Zealand, and Great -Britain. Great help had come from Presidents Arthur L. Dean and -David L. Crawford of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu, and new -assistance came from President Gregg M. Sinclair. This was to lead to -my employment by the University as Research Associate in 1940. Thus -I was to continue, during the next decade, the publishing of Volcano -Observatory results. - -Over and over again Hawaiian volcanology demonstrated the need of -advertisement, occasionally reaching such men as Everett Morss, M.I.T. -trustee in Boston; Lorin Thurston, business leader in Honolulu; -Henderson, Washington financier, for our borings; and Cramton, leader -of Congress. The Volcano Research Association in Honolulu is a devoted -group of businessmen keeping up a small fund of $6,000 per annum, -trivial compared to the big laboratories of commerce and astronomy. A -pure science of volcanology, with world-wide laboratories is now needed -to catch the eye and ear of imaginative men of business. Friedlaender -in Naples, Perret on Mount Pelée, and Omori in Tokyo almost created -enough imaginative stimulus to real exploration of volcanoes and of the -inner earth. They were battered down by natural catastrophe and by wars. - -The 1940’s were enriched by three good friends Vern Hinkley, Stanley -Porteus, and Frank Rieber; respectively journalist, psychologist, and -physicist-inventor. They all took a keen interest in my writing and -mechanical inventions, and Hinkley assisted in the Observatory work -during the explosive eruption and wrote “that was the top experience of -my newspaper career.” - -Hinkley, who had edited the _Hilo Tribune Herald_, became managing -editor of the _Honolulu Star-Bulletin_ and published a series -of my radio addresses on Kilauea. He also sent his photographer to -photograph our laboratories, thereby keeping the public informed about -volcano study. And he worked up a history of my navy monographs and -hardness testing instruments. He was a lovable fellow whose publicity -instinct was a great asset to volcano science. He did not think of a -volcano as something sensational, but remained moderate about it and -informed his public accurately. Through him, the Volcano Observatory -reports came to be accepted as desirable routine, and he was elected -a director of the Volcano Research Association. His many friends were -desolated by his early and sudden death. - -Porteus is an Australian man of science who conducted expeditions -among the Australian blacks and the primitive Africans of Kalihari and -specialized in the mental outlook of primitive peoples. He devised a -famous maze for intelligence tests. He has published numerous books -about Hawaii and several novels, including “Restless voyage,” the life -of Archibald Campbell, who lived with Kamehameha the great and survived -amputation of both legs. - -With Guido Giacometti, who suggested airplane bombing of the volcano -lava flows, Porteus and I foregathered at the crater frequently to -discuss the constitution of earth interior. Porteus differed with -my belief on the evolution of mind as a mutation of evolution. Like -Hinkley he became a member of the Board of Directors of our Research -Association. He is a judge of the juvenile court, skilled in curing -delinquency. Porteus is a world thinker, who agrees with me in thinking -of altruism as a form of energy. Porteus invented the title of this -present book. - -Rieber started from the University of California where he became -interested in making an echo from underground strata to locate oil. He -moved to Los Angeles, where his father was a professor of classical -languages and a college dean. Frank invented a complex recording -seismograph carried on a motor truck, wherewith he set off explosive -bombs and registered echo earthquakes from every important underground -layer. These layers identified oil-bearing strata, so that the marks -on a revolving drum practically mapped a section underground for -a guide to oil drilling. He moved to New York and established war -inventions, among them phonograph disks for repeating whole conferences -of many talkers. He founded Geovision Ltd., a company which greatly -abbreviated the scanning of echoes for subterranean mapping. Then he -died suddenly, like Hinkley, in the full flower of a brilliant mind. -Rieber and I corresponded for years on invention gadgets, comparing -notes by letters, and meeting all too rarely. To me he was one of -our most productive physicists, always inspiring. He was convinced -that discovery of petroleum will endlessly increase and will become -automatic. He and I looked downward into the shell of the globe. - -This decade I devoted primarily to writing and publication, some of -the writing voluminous and still unpublished. In 1941 I moved into an -office in Hawaii Hall of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu. My paper -work consisted primarily in completing, revising, and illustrating a -memoir on “Origin and development of craters,” in cooperation with the -Geological Society of America. The censor chosen by the Society was Dr. -Howel Williams of the University of California, who cordially endorsed -the book. - -The Society subscribed $350 from its Penrose Fund to assist with -drafting and clerical work on the substantial results of our -observations of Hawaiian craters in the twentieth century. The -groundwork had long been laid, for beginning under Alexander Agassiz at -the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge and during my visit to -Vesuvius in 1906, I planned a book on volcanology. Later, in 1910 after -careful study of the work of Dana, Hitchcock, and Brigham on Hawaiian -volcanoes, I started analysis of Kilauea Volcano in the nineteenth -century. Thus this one large volume with photogravures, maps, and -diagrams covers the history of observations and conclusions from -Hawaiian Volcano Observatory work for thirty years. - -My thesis is that there must be some order in time and space for what -is obviously 1,700 miles of submarine volcanic upbuilding in the -Hawaiian chain. Active volcanoes are hot and erupting in Hawaii; sunken -ones are covered with coral at Midway Island; and intermediate ones, -half coral and half lava, are in the middle of the chain. Disregarding -the ocean water, all of these are gigantic mountains below sea level. -On the island of Hawaii I found symmetry, which I called “The cross of -Hawaii” in an address to the Honolulu Chamber of Commerce in 1912. I -noted that Mauna Kea forms the top of a cross on the map; the upright -extends along the southwest rift of Mauna Loa, and two symmetrical -curved arms extend to Hualalai summit and Kilauea summit. The lava -flows from Mauna Loa north and south arrange themselves symmetrically -about this design, with every evidence that Mauna Loa dome was piled -up in a spoon underlaid by Hualalai, Mauna Kea, and Kilauea. It is -obvious on the map that Mauna Loa upbuilding was obstructed by grandpa -Mauna Kea and that it has been forced off to the southwest by the two -daughters, to build the elongate point of the island. Kilauea is old on -the Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line; and Hualalai is old on a right angle -line at Kea. - -From my training in physiography under W. M. Davis of Harvard, I was -convinced when I first saw Hawaii and studied the books about it that -downward faulting toward the sea bottom, of sliding island blocks, is -conspicuous. It shows in the V-shaped fracture of Haleakala Crater, -a broken sector, and in the straight fracture of the north half of -Molokai volcano, leaving the mighty cliffs there. It shows in the -eastern half of Kohala volcano leaving the fault facets and hanging -valleys of Waimanu, and in the Mohokea embayment of the southeast -end of Mauna Loa. The embayment shows evidence of the breakdown of -an ancient crater as described by Hitchcock. Moreover, Kilauea, Wood -Valley, Mohokea, and Waiohinu amphitheater are four old calderas of -faulting in a line. This seemed to me confirmed by the down-faulted -steps of the southeast side of Kilauea Mountain, and the observed -down-breaking there of the shoreline during earthquakes. This, in 1868, -drowned coconut trees below the sea and caused big earthquakes on a -submerged fault in 1868 and 1952. - -Such action was further confirmed by our experience of a down-faulted -block during earthquakes at Kapoho in April 1924, before Halemaumau -exploded, confirming the view that the active volcanoes break downward -in slices along shorelines, even when they swell upward around craters. -Harold Stearns always combatted the idea of faulting and made Mohokea, -Haleakala, and Waipio erosion forms; but this I cannot accept. - -The logic to the effect that in the long and large the old volcanoes -from Hawaii to Midway have been on slices of the earth’s crust faulted -downward below sea level through the ages seems incontrovertible. The -fault planes are diagonals across the main volcanic rift trend and make -the channels between the islands at an angle in plan to the trend of -the island chain. These channels are very deep. All of this philosophy -developed in my mind before I came to Hawaii. - -Also I thought that the origin of life might have been from volcanic -gas, owing to the prominence of carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen, -sulfur, and nitrogen, all ingredients of both protein and volcanoes. -I put this up to R. T. Jackson, who taught me phylogeny when I was -studying fossils and he was studying genetics. Knowing the sulfurous -quality of an egg yolk, I asked him if it wasn’t possible that as -evolution goes back behind the embryo, we should find volcanic traces -chemically. Phylogeny means that the history of the embryo reenacts the -history of the race, and I merely extended this back to the inorganic. -I was laughed at for carrying biological origin back to gases of -volcanoes; but Shepherd and I collected gases from flaming Kilauea -lava, and found the five elemental constituents: carbon, oxygen, -nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulfur. These also make up the aminoacids -of protein, so my philosophy of origin still seemed to me to be -reasonable. Volcanoes erupted through the ocean, and life came out of -the unexplored deeps of the sea. - -Thus in 1910 I began a book on craters which came to fruition in a -Memoir of the Geological Society. This was not published until 1947, -but I was working on it, drawing the diagrams, dictating the typescript -to Sato, and selecting for illustration the best of our photographs -during the thirties. - -One of the diagrams shows eleven-year cycles, beginning with 1790 -and ending with 1935. I adopted this after finding in Hitchcock a -tabulation for Halemaumau, indicating big lowerings of lava in 1790, -1823, 1855, and 1891, to which we added 1924 from our own experience. -These were approximately thirty-three years apart, as I found when I -plotted the data on a curve of Hitchcock’s table. Taking other major -sinkings as punctuation points--such as the outflows and collapse -of Halemaumau in 1832, 1840, 1868, and 1931--there developed a -correspondence in the subsidence times treated as repose periods, with -the years having the least numbers of sunspots at average intervals of -11.1 years. The intervening times of maxima of sunspots all occurred in -the intermediate times of rising lava. - -The curve as a whole from 1823 to 1924 shows a notable crest from -1855 to 1890, and a crest of the greatest volume of Mauna Loa gushing -occurred between 1855 and 1877. Stearns and Macdonald object to this -diagram as not showing all the little intermediate events, but what I -have taken are the actual peaks and depressions above sea level and -those which correspond to the sunspot interval of 11.1 years. This is -an average even for sunspots, which had long intervals at the beginning -of the nineteenth century, a time when no reports were made for Kilauea. - -I have guessed a drop of Kilauea lava as dating from about A. D. 1800, -corresponding to the notable expulsion of Mauna Loa lava through -Hualalai, and an imaginary unreported lowering eleven years thereafter, -as it is improbable the island was wholly dead in the first twenty -years of the century. The explosive eruptions of 1790 certainly -produced a big collapse at Kilauea. - -My faith in this diagram is based on the fact that our own eruption -sinkings at eleven year intervals (1902, 1913, 1924, and 1935) agree -so well with an eleven-year theory that we are justified in looking -backward for eleven year averages. Perret has found intervals of about -a decade for Vesuvius. All my experience of Hawaiian lava leads to the -belief, shown by our lava tides and several short-term diagrams, that -rhythmic periods of a volcanic system are related to gravitational -control of the sun and moon. There are rhythmic controls of the globe -by the gravitational control of the sun and moon. There are rhythmic -controls of the globe by the sun, and rhythmic controls of very deep -volcanic cracks by the globe, and rhythmic controls of individual -groups of volcanoes by the long volcanic chains over cracks. Our -experimental data are limited by the little groups of volcanoes, and so -the big rhythmic movements seem inaccessible to science, mostly because -we have no record of relationships of single volcanoes 500 miles apart -in such a place as Alaska. - -We raise no question about night and day or about the oceanic tides or -about the moon’s phases. We know there is a rock tide in the earth, -that there is a hot earth core of about 2200° Centigrade which appears -to seismology to be a very massive liquid 1,800 miles down. Gravitation -is the controlling force of the solar system, the galaxy and the -universe, and it works by rhythms, from the orbits of the planets in -years, to the outermost spiral nebulae in millions of centuries. We -are ourselves controlled by it in locomotion and in the circulation of -the blood. Therefore to think of volcanoes as anything but periodic -and gravitational in their relation to the globe would, to me, make -the science of volcanoes entirely uninteresting. All science lives on -rhythmic action. - -A second manuscript entitled “Steamblast eruptions,” was based on -Mount Pelée in Martinique and a comparison with the 1924 steamblast of -Kilauea. This last had conclusively shown outflow under the sea, and -inflow of groundwater, to change lava surging to blasts from a steam -boiler. A paper published in 1940 was a study of the gas collections -from flaming basalt on Kilauea and Mauna Loa, made by E. S. Shepherd -and me. In this I plotted curves of relative excellence of collection -in relation to the amount of the volcanic gases, in contrast to the -non-volcanic aqueous and oceanic gases. These latter, notably water -vapor, decreased in proportion to the manipulative excellence of the -handling of vacuum tubes; and the volcanic gases increased, notably -hydrogen and the carbon gases. This convinced me that the deep gas of -volcanoes is hydrogen, associated with carbon dioxide and nitrogen. - -In this decade, too, war brought new demands on my time and experience -and had its effect on the Kilauea Observatory. Major James Snedeker of -the Marine Corps, legal officer for the Commanding General in Honolulu, -having heard of our experience with motorcar amphibians, told me that -the Pacific Ocean war would depend on amphibian landing craft. And a -letter from Admiral Bloch urged me to send to the Navy details of our -experience with amphibians. As this involved geology of beaches around -the Pacific Ocean, I set to work on twelve monographs for the Navy -dealing with the mechanism of amphibians and the problems they posed on -beaches in Hawaii, Puget Sound, and Alaska. Other subjects about which -I supplied information were the inflammability of Japanese buildings -in the Tokyo earthquake, the handling of earthquake and volcano -catastrophes and our material from journals on many places of volcanic -danger in the Pacific. - -Then W. H. Hammond, physicist in charge of a testing laboratory at -Pearl Harbor, suggested that I revive my 1897–1908 testing of steel for -abrasion hardness, later continued by Boynton, for his laboratory of -the Navy. Thus I started hardness testing at the University and carried -it on for ten years. I used diamond and other abrasives in instruments -to show directly on a dial the rate of wear of metals or minerals under -standardized conditions, with a constant and reproducible motor tool. -Abrasion hardness turned out to be as tricky a problem as my range -finders and shock recorders. This activity brought together in the -University laboratory and in the laboratory at Hawaii National Park -many records, manuscripts, and specimens. Ruth Baker, who succeeded -Sato as secretary, did valiant work sorting out materials from many -expeditions which had been dumped in disorder because of war and fire -at the Kilauea Observatory. Though the Park had built a new house for -naturalists, and for the seismographs, shops, and records, it was -taken over by the Commanding General on Hawaii, imposing considerable -hardship on Finch and his assistants. One assistant was Burton -Loucks, instrument maker, who married Miss Baker. Another, Austin -Jones the seismologist, was transferred to care for seismographs -set up to measure faulting and tilt around Boulder Dam. Dr. Howard -Powers, after work for the Geological Survey and the Territory on the -island of Maui, joined Jones eventually to enter into a new section -of volcanology, established in Denver under the Geological Survey, -especially to assist the Army and Navy studies of Aleutian volcanic -eruptions, wherefrom harbors and airfields were sometimes endangered. - - [Illustration: _27. Fountain in Halemaumau lava lake, May 23, - 1917_] - - [Illustration: _28. Rare dome fountain during eruption of - Kilauea Crater, March 20, 1921_] - - [Illustration: _29. Lava stream issuing from a spatter cone - near rim of Halemaumau, February 9, 1921_] - -Three events of volcanic and seismic importance to Hawaii during the -1940’s were the eruptions of Mauna Loa in 1940 and 1942 and the 1946 -tidal wave caused by a submarine earthquake south of Unalaska. The -wave engulfed the wharves and shorefronts of Hilo and eastern Maui and -caused considerable damage elsewhere. - -We were familiar with the recording by our seismographs of earthquake -centers under the sea of Alaska and Japan, and with the interval of -hours that followed before dangerous water waves reached Hawaiian -shores. We had also had a bad tidal wave in Kona, originating off -Japan; and two or three such waves which damaged Kahului and Hilo had -originated in big submarine earthquakes off the Alaskan Peninsula. The -Japanese fishermen, from our published warnings, always took their -sampans to deep water, and the Navy had instructed me to let them know -right away if the seismographs recorded a distant earthquake capable of -making a tidal wave. - -I earlier had had one unhappy experience with warning the Navy, when -we registered a seismogram of a big earthquake in Alaska, which if -submarine, would send us a tidal wave. I notified Pearl Harbor of the -probable time of arrival of the wave, should the quake be submarine. It -happened a big Army and Navy dinner party at Waikiki was set for just -that time, but orders went out calling officers back to their posts and -the party was disrupted. No tidal wave came, as the earthquake proved -to be on the mainland of Alaska. The newspapers unmercifully jeered at -me, but the Commanding Admiral told me not to change my policy. - -The 1946 wave was very large and the water rose in pulsations until it -swept away the railroad bridge and washed out the whole waterfront of -Hilo. The earthquake seismogram came at 2 A.M. when no one -was watching, and the water wave at 8 A.M. came just when the -Observatory workers went on duty. When the flood of ocean destroyed the -Hilo breakwater and leaped over it to damage the principal wharves, -many people were drowned. Considerable damage was done on Oahu and -Maui. The disaster came when Dr. F. P. Shepard, oceanographer of La -Jolla, was occupying a summer cottage on the north shore of Oahu; and -he was delighted to experience a big tidal wave. Collaborating with -geologists in Hawaii, Shepard compiled a most thorough report on height -of waves in all bays of the Territory. Seismographs and tide gauges got -to work all around the Pacific Ocean, the place on the sea bottom which -had jolted was exactly located, and the Coast Survey and Navy started -far-reaching precautions for predicting against future combinations of -earthquake and water. This included seismographs that ring alarm bells -at night. The object of science is always prediction and assisting -humanity; and the need is always for more men. - -Another significant event of 1947 was the visit of Hans Pettersson of -the Oceanographic Institute of Sweden who was conducting an expedition -which followed the path of the _Challenger_. The object of the -project was to study the oceanography of the sea bottom around the -equator. Thus Pettersson was enthusiastic about my paper in _Natural -History_ and its emphasis on studying sea bottoms. With him was -inventor Kullenberg who had made a device for boring into the mud of -the sea bottom and taking longer cores than had been dug previously. -His apparatus consisted of a core barrel, tripped with valves close -to the sea bottom under a heavy weight, which would allow it to sink -sixty feet in suitable bottom ooze while the core rose inside the pipe -without being compressed. - -Pettersson had a skilled staff consisting of biologist, physicist, -chemist, and geologist; and they had laboratories on board the -_Albatross_ for study of the collected bottom materials. They -also took echo data of explosions near sea bottom, giving depths of -soft materials over hard rock. This place of transition was found to -be shallower under the Pacific Ocean than under the Atlantic. They -discovered hard lava flows in many places between Tahiti and Hawaii -and under the Indian Ocean, indicating extensive submarine volcanic -eruption. An attempt was made to measure the temperature of a core, -and this suggested that the bottom of the boring was warmer than the -top, meaning a thermal gradient of sea bottom. A core of volcanic -agglomerate was obtained in the deep trench opposite the East Indies. - -It was during this period that President Gregg Sinclair of the -University of Hawaii urged a plan for geophysics of the Pacific, and -Professor R. W. Hiatt of that institution succeeded in advancing -interest in organic oceanography. I wrote an appeal, based on such work -as that of Pettersson, Perret, and others urging the Regents of the -University to plan a large geophysical institute in Hawaii, to make a -science of the rock bottom of the Pacific Ocean. - -Thousands of soundings made in the Gulf of Alaska and in the central -Pacific had shown seamounts, or guyots, shaped like high volcanoes on -the sea floor, some of them with flat tops, but having characteristics -of ancient isolated volcanoes. New soundings revealed mountain -ranges on the sea floor, probably volcanic, one of them right across -the middle of the Hawaiian chain. No one had yet discovered fiery -eruption in deep water, but oceanographers were beginning to use -boring machines, cameras, electric lights, and devices for determining -radioactivity of the muds. As sea bottom occupies three-quarters of the -globe, it is inconceivable, when compared with the continents, that -it has no hot solfataras, hot springs, and hot volcanoes. In fact, -we know some of the latter in shallow water. It is only a question -of scientific organization to locate the sources of Pettersson’s -submarine lava flows. President Sinclair took to the chiefs of the -Rockefeller and Carnegie Foundations a proposal for a five million -dollar Geophysical Institute at the University of Hawaii, to utilize -the advantages of its central Pacific position. - -As for my own experiments, my Department of Volcanology at the -University was moved into a concrete basement room a thousand square -feet in area in the Home Economics building, and the expense was shared -with the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. Here I had office and -shop and collections of the Research Association, and the assistance -of a secretary and a junior researcher who is an instrument maker. -Thus were assembled in a fire resistant location my petrographic and -mineral collections from Europe, the Caribbean, Central America, and -the Pacific lands, together with manuscripts from my days of Harvard -and Massachusetts Tech to the middle of the century and classified -accumulations of my Navy monographs, lantern slides, negatives, -photographs, maps, drawings, correspondence, and instruments, including -material obtained by the Research Association for experiments still -continuing on the hardness of minerals. - -One objective of this hardness measurement was an instrument for -machine shops which would give in half a minute the length of a -standard scratch made by a standard dental disk of silicon carbide. -I called this the “Jaggar Scratch Tester” and Mr. Paul Rushforth, a -Honolulu optician, made improved models of the instrument. When a -book was published on the experiments with some three hundred woods, -minerals, metals, and plastics, Dr. Grodzinski of the commercial -diamond establishments in London became interested and reproduced -the paper in a review dealing with industrial diamonds, which have -become of great importance in the world of grinding machinery. This -made a new contact with England, similar to that made by Boynton with -my microsclerometer in 1908, when he applied it to the microscopic -constituents of steel under the British Iron and Steel Institute. I -sent a copy of my new report to the Pearl Harbor industrial laboratory, -along with one of the instruments. Endorsers of this report were Mr. W. -H. Hammond and Dr. Earl Ingerson, director of the mineral laboratories -of the U.S. Geological Survey. - -A result of the experiments on hardness is the knowledge that the -important quality is softness, or abradability, and speed of removal -of material in any uniform mechanical cutting process. It was formerly -thought that the big intervals in values were between the hard -substances. It turns out that the biggest gaps in value are in soft -substances like coals and clays and plasters. Hardness is purely a -negative quality of resistance, and measurements are of yielding, not -of resisting. - -Other experiments on which I worked dealt with location of the Zenith -in the sky for quick determination of latitude and longitude from stars -and telescopic studies of the moon, an old hobby of my master, Shaler. -I have long been convinced that Kilauea lava resembles moon lava in -the craters it builds, and my special interest is that Mauna Loa and -Kilauea build structures of basalt, small and large, which are earth -experiments imitating the moon on a smaller scale. The astronomers -say their field is the stars, the geologists must explain the moon. -As a matter of fact, one geologist has made a start. My classmate -J. E. Spurr, who after retirement to Florida from work as U.S. -Geological Survey geologist among the faults and lavas of the far West, -published books on the comparison of the moon with geology. In view -of increasing attempts to explain moon craters by impact (Baldwin), I -feel that experienced volcanologists should also take a hand in moon -science. Larger arcs of circles on the globe, the Aleutian Islands for -instance, resemble moon features and are deeply volcanic. Furthermore, -magnificent detailed photographs of the moon from modern telescopes -are available to volcanology. - -I spent my summers at Hawaii National Park, becoming consulting -geophysicist. Dr. Chester K. Wentworth of the Board of Water Supply -became geologist. The laboratories were extended to a seismograph -station seven miles up the northeast flank of Mauna Loa, but operation -of the original cellar adjacent to the Volcano House was continued. -A basement under the Natural History building of the Park held -seismographs, Finch’s office and library, and Loucks’ shop. - -In 1948 Observatory work was returned to the administration of the -Geological Survey, and a volcanologic branch in Denver took over Dr. -Powers to make airplane studies of the Aleutian Islands. This was under -Mr. Walter Frederick Hunt, in charge of geology, U.S. Geological Survey. - -When Hawaii National Park was reorganized, Frank Oberhansley, -superintendent, the Natural History building was adopted as Park -Headquarters, and the Uwekahuna buildings, with their magnificent -view in all directions, were reconstructed as the Hawaiian Volcano -Observatory. A new seismograph cellar was dug, away from disturbances -of Uwekahuna cliff, and modern instruments were installed. Mr. John -Forbes became assistant machinist; and on Mr. Finch’s retirement in -1951, Dr. Gordon Macdonald became volcanologist in charge. C. K. -Wentworth moved from Honolulu to the National Park region and took -charge of magnetic measurement, which had been established at numerous -stations by physicists of the Geological Survey. During past decades -physicists and chemists had visited the Observatory, among them -Dr. Stanley Ballard, who equipped the laboratories with a Gaertner -spectrograph; Dr. Harvey White of Berkeley, who found no radioactivity -in Hawaiian lavas; and Dr. J. J. Naughton, who found a critical isotope -of carbon in the emanations of Sulphur Bank. Modern chemistry was -beginning to be applied to volcanology in the field, and this was what -Hovey, Perret, and I hoped for fifty years ago. So much for dry facts -of organization. - -In 1949 the summit crater of Mauna Loa erupted, with fracture and -outflow of its south end toward Kona. This was followed in 1950 by -lengthy rupture of the southwest rift with the most voluminous and -rapid outflows of history, three of them going into the ocean and -wreaking destruction in South Kona. - -The sequence of these outflows was from high sources first, with others -opening farther south, and the most conspicuous flows following the -steep Kona slope into the ocean, beginning at Hookena. Macdonald and -National Park naturalists photographed and recorded everything. The old -Hookena post office on the upper road at the home of the veteran Mr. -Lincoln was carried away, and this occasioned much drama, for the old -man didn’t wish to leave his home. The next house destroyed, an old -landmark, was the Magoon Ranch. The third was the attractive and modern -Ohia Lodge, a resort built of native logs in the wilderness. - -A separate large flow forked away from the rift, to the eastern side -of the mountain, reaching the lowest landward elevation in the forest -of Kahuku, and short flows spilled over the southwest rift on the east -side. - -Several persons approached the flows in South Kona from the ocean. -The early photographs of the first flows, where the hard sprouts and -boulders of stiff aa partially cooled entered the ocean, showed big -columns of vapor from contact with sea water. Not so with the third -flow farthest south, explored from a canoe by Jack Matsumoto and a -companion, equipped with motion picture cameras. The pictures were good -color photographs, and the torrent of lava flowed down a steep bank -of its own substance, hemmed in by hardened ridges at the sides, the -stream intensely liquid and flowing directly into the ocean. - -The result was most remarkable. The yellow liquid lava went into the -salt water without making any column of steam at all; the sea bottom -simply received it with its rush downward, the water boiling superhot, -and the lava taking the water vapor into itself. The phenomenon was not -due to the rising of dry steam, for there was no condensation cloud -above. Scientists explained it by assuming a shell of lava making a -tunnel under the ocean, with the crust ending just at sea level. - -Such a submarine arch was definitely not present, for the waves surged -back and forth and, Matsumoto states, there was no sign of a submerged -reef. The motion picture bears this out. What was probably going on -is what happens to slag in a patented process of the steel mills, -where the glow liquid is flowed over a perforated surface emitting -hundreds of water jets, and the melt at 1300° Centigrade absorbs the -water without making visible steam. The slag turns into a myriad of -microscopic glassy spheres, becoming a kind of pumice. A peculiarity -of this substance is that if it is cooled at 700° Centigrade it will -pass a critical point and give up the absorbed water with explosive -effects. It seems likely that Matsumoto’s golden torrent sweeping -into the ocean was so excessively hot that it took up the water and -continued to flow down the sea bottom as a water-charged product. The -snapping and crackling effects, and the submarine earthquakes, making -localized tidal waves such as those noted in 1919 when such a torrent -entered the sea, may be due to the explosive cooling when the slag -gives up its water. - -The use of color motion pictures is one of the many improvements -owed to modern science, and the mapping of lava flows by airplane -photography. This gave Macdonald a new weapon for surveying the volume -accumulation at the time of the 1950 outflows, for from air photographs -he got exact outlines of the flows. These, checked against calculated -thicknesses, gave him volumes which could be compared with volumes of -older flows proportionate to areas. These calculations showed that -nothing since 1868 has yielded such large volumes of lava, per days of -outflow. - -Mrs. Jaggar and I were returning to Hawaii from a trip to Nova Scotia, -and the Matson steamer _Lurline_ took us to the Kona coast toward -the end of the 1950 eruption, for inspection of the glowing flows late -at night. They looked like hot coals extending far up the mountainside -under the clouds, with occasional bright flares where trees burst into -flame. Visible motion there was none, as we were too late for the -rapid flowing and too far away to see detailed motion. This eruption -resembled the voluminous flow of Mauna Loa in 1868, from a low vent -at the south end of the mountain, and lasted only a short time after -preliminary summit outbursts. The similarity was a big earthquake -series, and this was to happen again in Kona in 1951. The cataclysmal -opening of the southwest rift in the nineteenth century eruption -followed a quarter century of northern outflows, those from 1843 to -1859. Next came those from 1929 to 1952 in the twentieth century. The -1929 earthquakes subterraneously began the northern series. - -The same argument applies to the twenty-six years of summit and -southern outflows, from 1903 to 1929, which followed a quarter century -of alternations north and south. None of this takes account of all the -summit crater outbreaks, the hinge line between the jostlings of the -north and south rift sectors. Roughly the whole argument centers about -a supposed rocking of the Mauna Loa mountain sectors, northward and -southward from the crater. The two rifts become stiff and seal up for -twenty-five years, and then break open for a new period of looseness. -The summit well is somehow full always. - -A remarkable event, namely repose of Kilauea for eighteen years -after 1934, may be another reaction. The previous excitement was -the buildup, collapse, and recovery of the mountain for the quarter -century preceding 1934, with its culmination the steam blast in 1924 of -underground water, the dormancy of Kilauea beginning ten years later. -Kilauea in 1790 had a bigger explosive eruption, and was in repose for -eighteen years beginning ten years thereafter, namely in 1800. Thus -it seems likely that Kilauea executes quarter centuries of crisis in -its own right. These times are not exact, but are approximations of -scientific search for order in a big machine, the Hawaiian volcanic -system, where rhythmic pulsations exist wherever gravity operates. A -third of a century may prove more exact than the estimate of a quarter -century. - -The end of this 1940 decade completes a half century of my experience -of volcanoes and earthquakes, dwelling with a single crater, and -learning that volcanoes and earthquakes are tied together. They appear -tied to deep ruptures 2,000 miles long, in the thick shell of the earth -over a white hot liquid core. - -I have recently started an experiment with a thick globe of cement, -made with a shell, proportional in thickness to the earth’s crust, -which is 1,800 miles deep, as all seismologists agree. Striking this -shell with a sledge hammer, I find it breaks in straight lines at -right angles to each other. Theory is bound to be influenced by the -observational answers derived from watching lava emerging from the -mountain rifts, at the end of the long straight belt of rifts of the -whole Hawaiian chain. - -I continually review my own geological muddles, the controversies over -steam, flames, volcano swelling, explosion craters, layers in the -crust, weighting and underflowing, continental uplift, the globe’s -armor plate, contraction wrinkling of basins of sediment, submarine -volcanoes, linear chains of volcanoes, siliceous shell, blocks lifted -or sunk, planets solar or from the sun’s binary twin, original heat or -radioactive heat, thick crust or thin shell, lava reservoirs or lava -core, pregeology ancestors of volcanoes, and craters on the moon. The -only way to calculate from observations on Hawaiian volcanoes is to -copy the mathematicians; namely, to guess at the answers. - - - - - CHAPTER VII - - Envoi - - “_Tho’ world on world in myriad myriads roll round us - Each with different powers and other forms of life than ours._” - - -I have spent sixty years in qualitative experiments in geology. I began -with old volcanoes and geysers in the Yellowstone and the far west, -and ended with experiments on the active Hawaiian volcano, Kilauea. -Based on these experiments, I have written books about evolution of -craters, and about distinct peculiarities of explosive eruptions from -underground water. - -The accusation that I am not orthodox in professional geology is false. -Professional geology is largely continental because its field work has -been on continents. My work has been oceanic; my field, seventy percent -of the earth’s surface, extending over a thick crust down to the earth -core. The earth core is fluid and massive and hot, as all geology -agrees. Isostasy, which postulates a thin flexible shell, is violated -by the ocean deeps and the volcanic ridges. Volcanic rift echelons like -the Cordillera and the Hawaiian ridge are too long to be generated as -the fracture of a crust fifty miles deep. The circularity and graduated -size in linear stretches of the Pacific arcs are functions of a -fractured thick-shell sphere. Similar gradation of arcs is on the lunar -surface. Arguments, based on the knowledge of meteors, for an iron core -and for large lunar craters are without analogy. Substratum theories, -from Stübel to Daly, do not agree with oceanic volcanism. Gravitational -crust balance applies better to a primitive thick fault block crust -than to a thin shell. Earth lavas, as natural experimental models, -imitate lunar features on small and large scales. Both make consistent -history for two similar globes. Volcanology has to stand as global and -ancient, and any geologist may accept the reasonings here enumerated -without being unorthodox. - -The unquestioned certainties of modern seismology, the transmission of -elastic waves through the globe to sensitive recording pendulums, -are that the crust is 1,800 miles thick, that the core is a heavy ball -of white hot fluid, and that its temperature at crustal contact has -been estimated by Verhoogen at 2200° Centigrade. The deep crust is less -dense than the core, and is commonly conceded to be basic heavy rock -not unlike stony meteorites. The outside shell under oceans, and over -three-quarters of the earth, is covered by basaltic lava, and wherever -igneous rock has been formed by volcanic action, intrusive or extrusive -black basic lava recurs as dikes and outflows. - - [Illustration: - - ARMOR PLATE AT OCEANS - ARMOR PLATE AT CONTINENTS - EXTERIOR OF FUNDAMENTAL GLOBE TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT - TENDS - CORE LIMIT TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS - VOLC. OCEAN CHAINS OF OCEAN VOLCANOES - VOLC. CONT. CHAINS OF CONTINENTAL BORDER VOLCANOES - - ON THE PAGE OPPOSITE _is a diagram of a hypothetical - globe section near the equator, showing oceans and continents - in true surface ratio; fault block segments of rigid crust - isostatically supported on a liquid core; sixteen volcanic - partitions, oceanic and continental; and Stübel’s “armorplate” - from pristine volcanic eruption. Possibly the profile is - tetrahedral. My argument for this globe section is based on the - following_: - - A globe of core, siliceous shell, and armorplate was formed by - primitive volcanic eruptions. - - The shell resulted from external aggregation of solids and gases - and internal segregation about a molten core. - - The fault blocks came from shrinkage of the shell over a liquid - core, adjusted by luni-solar gravitation and rotation through - the pre-geologic ages. - - The continental and oceanic boundaries of the fault blocks were - determined by elevated and sunken blocks with core volcanism of - escaping gas melting walls and laying down an exterior siliceous - armorplate on the earliest solidified globe. This in continents - is the seismologists’ lighter exterior layer underlaid by denser - rock at the armorplate bottom. - - Continental volcanism (VOLC.-CONT.) became differentiated from - oceanic volcanism, by light atmospheric pressure over the raised - blocks and much greater water pressure over three-quarters of - the earth, the sunken blocks. - - The subdivision is represented in the diagrammatic section on - the globe by three-quarters of the section being ocean, namely - twelve-sixteenths. - - The section shows twelve-sixteenths as sunken blocks, - four-sixteenths as raised blocks. The four sixteenths by the - tetrahedral hypothesis of Lowthian Green and Michel-Lévy make - the four continental protuberances. - - Twelve-sixteenths of the surface is broken by fundamental rifts - of irregular shapes, some of them north-south, controlled by - centrifugal stresses and corresponding to the north-south deeps - and heaps and known rifts. These have persisted since the first - volcanism of primitive time. - - Circum-continental volcanism is represented on the diagram by - VOLC.-CONT., oceanic volcanism is represented by VOLC.-OCEAN. - Both are shown as interblock rifts, adjusted through the - ages (exaggerated on the drawing) and always tensional over - expansional core pressure, with exothermal heating agencies. - - The sixteen fundamental block boundaries correspond - approximately to sixteen fundamental volcanic fault blocks known - vaguely on the globe. Something similar is known on the moon. - The rifts are the boundaries of sixteen blocks, some polyhedral, - some elongate. Some are oceanic like New Zealand-Tonga, some - are ancient and continental like Arabia. The imperfectly - mapped ocean deeps are boundary lines. The rifts of Africa and - Chile-Patagonia are boundary lines. The great arcs of Himalaya, - Java-Sumatra, and Aleutian ridges are boundary lines of circular - blocks. Possibly they were circular calderas of engulfment on - the primitive spheroid. The edge of Mare Imbrium on the moon - shows fault rifts. The straight alignment of lunar calderas - hints at moon rifts under an unmapped mosaic. The blocks of the - theory of continental drift, are guesses at a mosaic of crust - blocks. But the possibility drift theory omitted is that the - blocks are deep. Except for the Lowthian Green, Wegener, Holmes, - and Daly speculations, based on thin crust blocks of continents, - no mapping of the shell mosaic exists. It is not feasible until - we map the detail of ocean bottoms. Primitive blocks require - acceptance of a thick crust and justify new speculation. The - cracks between blocks are the volcanic partitions of the earth, - which I call ignisepts. - - There are many points for speculation, some of them subject - to mathematical inquiry. Does surface water penetrate the - partitions? Is it high pressure and saline under oceans? How - do deep earthquakes stem from friction 300 miles down under - the Cordillera and the west Pacific? Do earth and moon spheres - as rounded tetrahedra crack similarly? Because of rotation - are north-south cracks dominant? Are the core fluids changing - volcanism through the ages?] - -The twenty-eight percent of earth surface which lies above the sea in -continents is made up of siliceous sediments of shallow water basins, -with quartz as the dominant mineral, their strata wrinkled, and eroded -into mountain ranges. Desert and lake or river bottoms make up most of -the remainder. This material, when ancient, was changed by heat and -infiltration into what are called gneisses, schists, and granites; and -the process of granitization is among the metamorphic processes. It -is a process of deep burial, heat, gases, and water which has always -been a puzzle, and may affect ancient volcanic lavas wherever they -have covered the land. It is a process of solution of silica, and its -deposition is by steam and other vapors. - -In the same way volcanic action by the outpouring of lava through -cracks is a process of solution of the deeper crust of the earth by hot -gases, largely burning hydrogen. Lavas emerging from Etna or Mauna Loa -are melted earth crust, dissolved and brought up by this same hydrogen -and by other gases from the walls of profound cracks leading down to -the earth core. Volcanism and metamorphism are thus the same process, -namely the action of gases up cracks through deep earth crust. But -metamorphism acts on continental sediments, whereas modern volcano -eruption acts through sea bottom and sea shore faulting, very ancient -features of the earth and distinct from continents. In Hawaii no -metamorphic rock fragments have been found. - -Such primitive oceanic fault fissures extend under continents remnant -from the time of evolution of continents. They bring up the metamorphic -hot gases, which in siliceous sediments, make granites and gneisses and -schists with the aid of groundwater. Geology has no knowledge whatever -of whether this metamorphic process affects the hard rock under the -oceanic muds, because geology has never collected a piece of that rock. -Geology however knows inclusions and explosive fragments from oceanic -volcanoes, and it does not find there granite and gneiss and schist. -However, generalization does not apply to continental volcanoes like -those of Italy and Africa. - -The beginning of fossils on continents is commonly considered to have -been 500 million years ago, and this may be extended another 1,500 -million years for the most ancient identifiable continental rocks, -and an estimated total thickness of 120,000 feet to the bottom of the -most ancient sediments on earth. We know nothing of thickness of most -ancient volcanic deposits under the oceanic mud. - -This brings us to the great German explorer Stübel, who mapped -volcanoes of the Andes, founded a museum of his work in Leipzig, and -published monographs on the Andes. He wrote a final book, including -material on Mount Pelée, on the “genetic differences of volcanic -mountains.” But such modern continentalists as Daly and Bucher in -America have disregarded Stübel. Daly is the authority on a shallow -earth shell and substratum of basalt, and Bucher of Columbia University -is a specialist on continental sediments and granitization. - -The point is that Stübel made a profound generalization which nobody -has proved wrong. The earth is at least 3,000 million years old, and -when oceanic fault blocks sank and received condensing atmospheric -water and continental fault blocks remained high and became eroded, -there was already a thick shell of volcanic lavas. For volcanism -was the most ancient process on the earth’s surface. It had always -brought gases up cracks from the core, making atmosphere, water, and -extrusions. Stübel, called the extrusive shell on the outside of the -primitive crust the globe’s armorplate. The primal gas escape, whatever -the ancestral turbulence inside, had to come up cracks and make -volcanic deposits. It is commonly presumed that the very thick inside -crust formed rapidly by cooling and solidifying from outside the core -inward, and from inside the atmosphere outward. The latter surface -was eventually under water cooling over most of the earth and under -air cooling over the small continental area, a marked difference of -temperature and pressure for the two areas. - -Seismometry teaches that most of the crust is of fairly uniform -density. Therefore, presumably, a thick crust was arrived at early. -There was obviously a time of conflict between the weighting of the -crust by its heavier accumulations next to the core, by its lighter -accumulations exteriorly under water and air, and finally by its -external armor plate of unknown comparative weight, made of volcanic -lava. For all we know, this might have been volcanic pumice. Rapidity -of crust thickening is speculative. - -Right here there is an element of mystery in speculation as to which -has to accommodate comparison with the moon, the merging of atmospheric -condensation with volcanism, and the merging of suboceanic condensation -of lava with pristine eruption. This is too hard a nut to crack, in -our current ignorance of rock under sea bottom muds. But Stübel’s -insistence on a coating of lava armor plate over both continents and -sea bottoms as the earlier volcanism, and an external veneer on the -earth, is unavoidable. If it were all basalt like the present oceanic -volcanoes, we should find basalt in continents underneath the granites. -We do not do so. If it were all light weight granitizing by segregation -of silica, we should find commonly granite and obsidian fragments -within oceanic lavas. We do not do so. We have to conclude then that -our sections, topographic and geologic, do not go deep enough. And -as for the ocean bottoms, we have no sections at all. But Stübel was -right. An unknown volcanic eruption period had to precede geologic -volcanoes. - -The question of ancient greenstones in Africa, Scandinavia, and Canada -is much discussed, for there were old volcanic lavas in many places; -mixed with gneisses, schists, and granites. They were not a deep -layer, but presumed to be ancient remnants of interspersed lavas among -sediments. They are one more evidence that volcanic eruption goes -back to the time of the most ancient rocks on continents and that its -lavas were affected by metamorphism. But no continuous deep stratum of -greenstones is known. At depths of fifty miles, under continents only, -is the Mohorovicic change to denser rock. This is an echo surface in -earthquake waves, but it is absent over the whole Pacific. It may be -the top of the armor plate. - -Justice Holmes wrote that the Constitution of the United States -was an experiment. That all law of the nation works salvation by -prophecy based on experiment. The experiments were extended to the -Bill of Rights and all the amendments to the Constitution. I feel -that geology--in view of its extreme ignorance of submarine rocks, -ores, metals, oils, spring waters, temperatures, magnetism, gravity, -and gases for most of the earth--needs a bill of rights and numerous -amendments to its constitution. Its salvation by prophecy needs to -be based on experiments with instruments, drill rigs, and anchored -laboratories in this vast area. These experiments, superficially, -have been conducted by oceanographic sampling of bottom materials, by -gravity pendulums operated in submarines, by cameras on sea bottoms, -and collections of bottom waters, by tests of radioactivity of -bottom materials, by echo sounding to determine thickness of muds, -by volcanology on oceanic islands, by topographic surveying of the -bottom, and by all the excellent work of the oceanographic and geologic -stations and their seismographs, with some studies of marine chemistry, -physics, and biology. The conclusions in this book amount to only one -small prophecy based on experiments with volcanoes. But the rock under -deep ocean mud is still uncollected. - -My volcano experiments are not influenced by any consensus of text -books. I was educated on textbook opinions and found geologic science -deficient in experimental measurement of the field progress of -erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption. I expended most of -my teaching in a plea for field observatories of time measurement of -these four processes. The plea has done some good, and in this century -we have seen grow up the International Geophysical Union. Experiment -stations have multiplied, to make geophysics and geochemistry pure -quantitative sciences. But they are generally commercial and have not -extended to deep boring under oceans. - -While working from volcano observatories for the extension of geology -in Alaska, Japan, Hawaii, Tonga, the Caribbean and Italy, and on the -mainland of California, Central America, and New Zealand, I have found -myself on the outskirts of vast oceans, engaged in a science almost as -unsatisfactory as the textbook science of historical and continental -geology. It is always a compromise, for we are up against a crying need -for maps of the bedrock under the muds of the vast oceans. Volcanism -cries out for a knowledge of the globe, and it is helped by such work -as that of Gutenberg and Richter. These men compiled critical maps of -earthquakes, measured by elastic theory the world over. Their work -necessarily made many contacts with volcanoes. The same may be said -of the geophysical summaries of gravity, magnetism, climatology, -hydrology, and oceanography. But all our sciences stop at the immense -sea bottoms, and need salvation through experiment. - -Science is not doing all it can. Finances and engineering are competent -to contact sea bottom directly with expensive machines not yet invented -and to create oceanic rock science. Offshore boring for oil is not -enough. Pure science needs an example by financiers like Carnegie and -Rockefeller who are not seeking profit. Engineering advice positively -can reach under the few hundred feet of mud, find the rock, and bore -into it in 2,000 fathoms. The first man who does it will open a -new frontier. All honor to Shepard, Ewing, Piggot, Pettersson, and -Kullenberg, men who have barely broken ground in this science. The -whole of volcanology depends on collecting the crustal rock under the -mud. - -Hoyle’s book “The Nature of the Universe” takes us one step farther. -It shows that all science is essentially cosmology, and science deals -with the origin and progress of all nature. I would go farther than the -universe. I would include the science of life and of our brains. We -need an imaginative picture starting with the outer universe. We end on -the earth with volcanoes and the birth of life. - -Hoyle and Lyttleton of Cambridge have presented a condensation of -current astrophysics, which includes earth, moon, and planets; sun -and stars; origin and future of stars; and origin of solar systems. A -most gratifying conclusion is that the background material of space -creates hydrogen. This is proved by precise mathematical equations. -This accounts for the expanding universe under the pressure of such -creation. The outermost nebulae continually pass beyond the speed of -light. The galaxies move out into infinite space endlessly. They are -renovated endlessly by gravitation from hydrogen eternally created. - -The sun, by knowledge built up from the days of Jeans and Eddington, -contains more than ninety percent of hydrogen, and the small remainder -is helium, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and iron. It maintains its surface -temperature by nuclear reactions from within outward, at a rate -suitable to make helium out of hydrogen, so as to compensate for the -energy which the sun radiates. - -This dominance of hydrogen inside the solar star makes it impossible -that the earth should be solar. Rather, it was a product of a companion -star, a supernova which exploded and, with excessive heat, created -elements atomically. The sun was a binary pair of stars, and the -companion occupied the place of the four greater planets. The remnant -body, after explosion, moved away. - -A gaseous ring formed around the sun condensing from many molecules -to rotating superplanets. These broke up many hundred million years -ago into Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Small blobs escaped to -become the inner planets including the earth. The earth captured small -solids and acquired the moon as a satellite. It got radioactive matter -exteriorly, plus nitrogen, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide. - -There is a hundred times more hydrogen per unit of mass in the sun than -in the planets. Its supply will last for 50,000 million years. The -solar system is tunneling through variable interstellar gas. It picks -up more or less material, and so changes climates occasionally. This -makes such episodes as the ice ages on earth. Lyttleton estimates that -the dust clouds encountered form bundles of particles captured by the -sun to make comets. - -The mathematics of the interior of the sun, applied by Bethe to the use -of carbon and nitrogen as catalysts and changing hydrogen to helium, is -a model of experimentation. It should be imitated to explain Hawaiian -basalt. The core of the earth produces gas reactions up cracks. The -gases act on deep crust. The surface product is olivine basalt. -What are the reactions between gas and crust to make Mauna Loa foam -fountains? This problem has not been tackled. Geologists have clung to -a theory of shallow reservoirs. - -The astronomers of Cambridge, successors of the American experimenter -George Ellery Hale and of Eddington and Jeans, are not the final word -in cosmology. There will be a final word. The picture created from -background material to gas, from gas to galaxies, and from galaxies to -solar systems ends for us in our planet with a white hot liquid core. -Nuclear reactions created this from the superheat of an exploding -supernova. Our erupting volcanoes are the end product. We can sit -beside erupting lava fountains and watch hydrogen flames, the same gas -that was made of the background material in the universe. - -All this is outcome of gravitation. It extends from the first eddies of -hydrogen in outer space to the final rotation of the earth. The final -hydrogen, with carbon, made life on the earth. The five elements of -volcanic gas are identical with the five elements of organic chemistry. -Dr. Hoyle mistakenly concludes that we have no clue to our own fate. -But he points out that the universe is continuous creation. Our picture -is one instant of time in an everlasting now. Mind is an everlasting -unit beyond which we cannot go. - -It is illogical to pay any attention to existence after death unless -we pay equal attention to existence before birth. All is continuous -creation. The making of hydrogen is just as true within the creation -of life as within the universe. Life is under gravitation. Gravitation -controls the instantaneous moving picture, even the emergence of life -from volcanic gases under enormous water pressure at sea bottom. It -is just as much subject to experiment as the outer boundary of the -universe. - -Life is an end product; and it thinks, worships, and experiments. -Treating life and volcanoes as end products of Hoyle’s universe makes -science fundamentally cosmology. - -One final comment, after looking at sea bottom eruptions through all -the ages. Continental life came out of the sea, and original life comes -continually from the earth core. This gives new dignity to the future -search for global action on the sea bottom. - -The “emergent evolution” of Lloyd Morgan makes much of mutation as -accounting for progress from unconscious life to consciousness, -consciousness to memory, memory to reasoning, and reasoning to -spirituality. Each one of these is a new mutation, in the same sense as -a new fruit by Burbank. The first unconscious life may be considered -a mutation from the inorganic of the globe. The totally unknown -pressure-temperature conditions of volcanic eruption through the -cracking earth of ocean bottom, and the ground waters under the ocean, -lend a final dignity to exploration of that frontier. - -Hoyle writes that the ultimate goal of the New Cosmology is continuous -creation in outer space. The ultimate goal of the New Volcanology is -continuous creation in oceanic depths. - - - - - INDEX - - - A - - =aa=, 54, 67, 78, 104, 121, 124, 125, 129, 148, 174 - - Abbot, 159 - - Absaroka Range, 8 - - Adak Harbor, 141 - - Adams, C. E., 110 - - Africa, 181, 182 - - Agassiz, Alexander, 20, 25, 55, 65, 72, 164 - - Agassiz Museum, 17, 19 - - Aghileen Pinnacles, 140 - - Agricultural Experiment Station, Kodiak, 138 - - Agua cone, 81 - - Akutan Island, 154 - - Alaska, 30–31, 55, 72–75, 81, 82, 84, 110, 114, 117, 127, 137–145, - 154, 169, 172, 173, 183 - - -- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138 - - Alaska Commercial Company, 141 - - Albatross (ship), 170 - - Aleutian arc, 82 - - Aleutian eruptions, 169 - - Aleutian Geographical Observatory, 142 - - Aleutian Islands, 55, 75, 84, 110, 114, 127, 137–145, 154, 172, 173 - - -- expeditions to, 55, 72–75, 84, 138 - - Aleutian trench, 31 - - Alfaro, Anastasio, 79 - - Algonkian, 28 - - Allen, E. H., 12, 112, 115, 129 - - Alps, the, 103, 116 - - Alyea, Hubert, 5 - - Amazon River, 82 - - Amchitka Island, 141 - - Amerada Company, 112 - - American Journal of Science, 113 - - American Museum, 56 - - American Relief Committee, 63 - - amphibian vehicles, 74, 138, 142–143, 168 - - Anderson, C. A., 137 - - Anderson, J., 111 - - Anderson, Tempest, xii, 65, 71, 76, 84 - - Anderson, the cook, 8 - - Andes, the, 78, 82, 116, 181 - - Andrews, E. C., 112 - - Angaha, 147–149 - - Antigua, 157 - - Appalachian basin, 50, 52 - - Appalachian Mountains, 18, 46–49, 51–52, 116 - - Archean granites, 8 - - Arizona, 25–28 - - arrowroot, 160 - - Asama Volcano, 78, 107–108 - - Asama-Bandai system, 108 - - Ascutney Mountain, 7, 40, 53 - - Asia, mountain ranges of, 117 - - Aso Volcano, 108 - - astronomy, 6, 30, 147–150, 172–173, 184–185 - - Atka, 72, 75 - - Atlantic Ocean, 53, 170 - - -- deeps of, 53 - - Attu, 140–141 - - Auckland, 109–110 - - Audubon, J. J., 3, 4 - - Australia, 132, 163 - - -- science congress in, 132 - - - B - - Bad Lands of South Dakota, 23, 24, 37–38 - - Baker, Ruth, 155, 168, 169 - - Baker Island, 135–136 - - Baldwin, R. G., 172 - - Ballard, Stanley S., 173 - - Ballou, Howard M., 91 - - Bandai Volcano, 42–43, 45, 106–108, 110 - - Barbados, 61–62, 158, 160 - - Barnard, Mr. and Mrs., 159 - - Barrios, 81 - - Barton, G., 18 - - Bartrum, J. A., 110 - - Barus, Carl, 54 - - bat, giant, 149 - - Bay of Plenty, 110 - - bear hunts, 72, 139–140, 143 - - Beecher, C., 19 - - Belcher, ...., 156 - - Belize, 79 - - Bellingham, Wash., 143–144 - - Bergen, 12 - - Bergson, H., xii - - Bering Sea, 74, 140 - - Berkshire Hills, 46 - - Bermel, Colonel, 156 - - Bermuda, 161 - - Bernhardt, Sarah, 5 - - Berry, Robert, 56 - - Bethe, H. A., 185 - - Big Horn expedition, 8 - - Bingham, Hiram, 147 - - Bird, Isabella, 91 - - birds, 135, 141, 148–149 - - -- gannets, 135 - - -- goonies, 135 - - -- malau, 148–149 - - -- man-of-war, 135 - - -- murres, 141 - - -- terns, 135 - - Birdseye, Claude H., 89, 111, 129–130 - - Bishop Estate, 89 - - Bishop Museum, 135 - - Black Forest, 14 - - Black Growler, 10 - - Black Hills, xii, 21, 22, 23–25, 28, 46–47, 78 - - -- surveys of (1898, 1899), 23–25 - - Bloch, C. C., 168 - - Blue Beard’s Castle, 157 - - Blue Hill, Mass., 77 - - Bluff, the, 134 - - Bogoslof, 74, 75, 78, 110, 140–141 - - -- eruption of 1907, 75, 141 - - Bohemia, 14 - - Boiling Lake, 11 - - boiling lake, 80 - - boiling springs, 40, 42 - - bombing of Mauna Loa, 153–154, 161 - - Bonin Islands, 109 - - Boscotrecase, 65–68 - - Boshu Peninsula, 133 - - Boston, 16–17, 19, 37, 43, 56, 77, 85, 91, 161 - - -- mapping of, 16–17 - - Bottoms, the, 157 - - Boulder Dam, 169 - - Boutwell, John Mason, 21–22, 24 - - Bowie, William, 112 - - Boynton, H. C., 19, 168, 172 - - Boyrie, W., 142 - - Bradford, Alex, 138, 142 - - Bradshaw Mountains, 25–28 - - Brazil, 40 - - Brigg, J. J., 65 - - Brigham, W. T., 91, 164 - - Bright Angel fault, 30 - - Bristol Bay, 140 - - Brock, R. W., 14 - - Brontotherium, 24 - - Brooklyn, 56 - - Brooks, Alfred, 18 - - Brown, E. W., 100 - - Brown, William Garrott, 20 - - Brun, Albert, 88, 92 - - Brush, G. J., 21 - - Bucher, W., 181 - - Bund, Yokohama, 132 - - Burkland, Albert, 89, 111, 129 - - - C - - Cache Creek, 11 - - California, 39, 89, 103, 110, 111–113, 114–116, 136–137, 154 - - -- University of, 89, 137 - - -- volcanoes, 136 - - California Institute of Technology, 111 - - Calumet and Hecla, copper company, 72 - - Camiquin Island, 76 - - Cambrian, 6, 9, 22, 23, 28 - - -- fossils, 22 - - -- shales and limestones, 23 - - Cambridge, Mass., 164 - - Campbell, Archibald, 163 - - Canada, 6, 136, 182 - - Canadian Rockies, 23 - - Canary Islands, 131 - - Canna (arrowroot), 160 - - Canoe Bay, 142 - - Cape Nome, 141 - - Carib cones, 71 - - Caribbean Sea, 79, 117, 157, 183 - - -- expeditions to, 55 - - -- islands of, 55–65, 67, 76, 108 - - Carribee line, 66 - - Carisso (ship), 150 - - Carnegie, Andrew, 184 - - Carnegie Institution, 78, 86, 90, 111, 112 - - -- Geophysical Laboratory of, 76, 86, 111 - - Carnegie Palace, Costa Rica, 79 - - Cartago earthquake of 1910, 78–84 - - Cartago expedition, 84 - - Cartwright, Bruce, 135 - - Cascade Mountains, xii, 82, 136 - - catastrophes, 55–84, 103–106, 132–134, 156 - - Catskills, 43 - - Central America, 55, 78–84 - - -- expedition to, 55 - - Chadron Formation, 22 - - Chain of Craters, 118, 125, 154–155 - - Challenger (ship), 170 - - Charleston, 43, 45, 103 - - -- earthquake, 43, 45 - - Charlotte Amalie, 157 - - Chateau Belair, W. I., 59, 61, 159 - - Chernofski village, 141 - - Cherry Island, 103 - - Chicago, 72 - - Chicago Natural History Museum, 24 - - Chilean coastal plain, 82 - - Chilton, C., 112 - - China, rivers of, 41 - - Chourré, ...., 122 - - Christchurch College, 110 - - Christiansand, Norway, 12 - - Christophersen, Erling, 135 - - Chugul, 141 - - Church, Dr., 57 - - Cincinnati, 53 - - Cincinnati arch, 50 - - clams, 135 - - Clark, W. O., 111 - - Clive, ...., 11 - - Coal Measures, 28 - - Coan, Titus, 91 - - Coast Survey, 137, 170 - - -- station at Sitka, 137 - - Cody, Frank, 73, 123 - - Colby, F. T., 72–73 - - Collins, George, 135 - - Colorado, 28, 169, 173 - - Colorado River, 26, 38 - - Comstock Lode, 18 - - Congresses, 12, 112, 132, 134 - - -- Australia Science, 132 - - -- Hawaii, 112 - - -- Japan, 134 - - -- London Geography, 12 - - -- Pacific Science, 112, 134 - - -- Zurich Geological, 12 - - Connecticut River, 7 - - Constitution, U. S., 182 - - continental divide, 36 - - continental mediterranean sea, 22, 53 - - continental volcanoes, 181 - - Cook Channel, 109 - - Cook Strait, 110 - - Cooke, C. Montague, 135 - - Cooke, Joshiah, 5 - - copra, 148–149 - - coral islets, 135 - - Cordillera, 21, 49, 67, 78–84, 137, 177 - - Cosequina, 80 - - cosmology, 185–186 - - Costa Rica, 55, 79, 80, 108 - - -- earthquake, 55 - - -- rocky mountains of, 55 - - Costa Rica-Mexico line, 108 - - Cotton, C. A., 110 - - crabs, 149 - - Cramton, Louis C., 114, 136, 162 - - Crandall Creek mining claim, 8 - - crater lake, 80 - - Crawford, David L., 162 - - Croney, J. E., 63 - - Crooks Canyon, 26 - - Crooks Complex, 26–27 - - Crosby, W. O., 18, 72 - - cross-country cars, 131–132, 138 - - Crusoe, Robinson, 120 - - Culebra Cut, 82 - - Curtis, G. C., 56, 59, 159 - - Curzon, G. N., 12 - - Custer, G. A., 8 - - - D - - Daly, R. A., 7, 9, 18, 92, 177–181 - - Dana, Edward, 113 - - Dana, James D., 21, 91, 113, 116, 164 - - Darton, N. H., 21, 22 - - Darwin, C. R., 6 - - Darwin, George, 4, 32 - - Daubrée, A., 16, 30 - - Davis, W. M., 7, 16, 40, 165 - - Day, A. L., 12, 86, 92, 112, 115, 124 - - De Candolle, C., 4, 35 - - de Vis-Norton, L. W., 111 - - Deadwood, 23–25 - - Dean, Arthur L., 162 - - Death Gulch, 11–12 - - deformation, 32, 76 - - deltas, leaf, 43 - - Denmark, 12 - - Denver, 169, 173 - - Devil’s Tower, 23, 25 - - Diamond Head, 122 - - Dillingham, Walter F., 114 - - disasters, 55–84, 103–106, 111, 132–134, 156 - - Dixie (ship), 56–59 - - Dodge, Francis, 90 - - Doelter, C., 16, 53 - - Dominica, 11, 66, 158 - - Dominion Museum, 109 - - Dorsey, E. W., 43 - - Dranga, Ted, 135–136 - - Drexel Institute, 73 - - Dunedin, 109–110 - - Dutch Harbor, 72, 74, 141, 144 - - Dutton, C. E., 7, 29–30, 48, 116 - - - E - - Eakle, A. S., 72–74 - - Earhart, Amelia, 125 - - earth core, 185 - - earth crust theory, 115–117 - - earthquake centers, 169 - - earthquake frequency, 131 - - earthquakes, 30–31, 45, 55–84, 92, 103–106, 111, 114, 132–134, 137, - 145–147, 154–165, 168–169 - - -- Cartago, 80 - - -- Charleston, 43, 45 - - -- Costa Rica, 55 - - -- Hawaii, 145–147 - - -- Kapoho, 154, 165 - - -- Kingston, 83–84 - - -- Messina, 55, 71 - - -- Montserrat, 156–161 - - -- Napier, 45, 111 - - -- Sakurajima, 103–106 - - -- San Francisco, xii, 45, 55, 134, 137 - - -- Tokyo, 103, 114, 132–134, 168 - - -- Valparaiso, 55 - - -- Yakutat Bay, 30–31, 37, 45 - - East Indies, 170 - - Eastman Kodak Company, 91 - - eclipse of sun, 147–150 - - Ecuador, 78 - - Eddington, A. A., 5, 184–185 - - Eddy, Johnny, 62 - - Eggleston, Julius W., 17 - - Einstein, Albert, 5 - - “elevation craters”, 131 - - Eliot, C. W., 18, 55, 63 - - Emden (ship), 140 - - Emerson, Oliver, 54, 100, 123, 129 - - Emmons, Delos C., 153 - - Emmons, Samuel Franklin, xi, 21, 22 - - English, T. S., 158 - - English Channel, 34 - - English strata, 21 - - Eocene Tertiary, 46 - - erosion, 10, 30, 32, 38, 43, 48, 76 - - -- model, 43 - - eruption cycles, 166–167 - - eruption index, 77 - - eruptions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 169, 173–176 - - -- Alaska, 75, 141, 169 - - -- Halemaumau, 120–124, 130–131 - - -- Irazu, 79–80 - - -- Mauna Loa, 125, 173–176 - - -- Lassen, 136 - - -- Pelée, 45, 56–65, 71 - - -- Tarumai, 77–78 - - -- Vesuvius, 65–72 - - Europe, mountain ranges of, 117 - - Europe, study in, 12–16 - - evolution, 6, 116, 186 - - -- theory of, 6 - - Ewing, M., 184 - - expeditions, 55–84, 103–111, 114, 132–150, 154–161 - - -- Alaska, 55, 72–75, 84, 114, 138, 143, 154 - - -- Cartago, 84 - - -- Howland and Baker, 135–136 - - -- Japan, 55, 77–78, 84, 104–109, 114, 132–134 - - -- Kilauea-Tarumai, 84 - - -- Martinique, 55–65, 156–161 - - -- Montserrat, 161 - - -- New Zealand, 103, 109–111 - - -- Niuafoou, 114, 147–150 - - -- Pelée-Soufrière, 55–65, 84, 156–161 - - -- Tokyo, 114 - - -- Vesuvius, 55, 65–72, 84 - - experiments, 4–5, 17, 32–54, 76, 78, 85–113, 125–132, 138, 142–143, - 154–156, 168, 171–173, 176–177, 182–186 - - -- field, 76, 85–113 - - -- laboratory, 4–5, 32–54, 168, 171–172 - - - F - - Falcon Island, 110 - - Faraday, M., 16, 29 - - faulting, 28–29 - - Ficus, 60 - - field experiments, 76, 85–113 - - field work, 7–12, 21–31, 55–84, 138, 142–143, 177 - - Fiji, 147 - - Finch, R. H., 99, 120–121, 132, 136–137, 144, 154, 162, 168, 173 - - Firehole River, 39 - - Flett, J. S., 76 - - “floating islands”, 92, 96 - - flying fox, 149 - - Foerster, Captain, 140 - - folding, model of, 50–52 - - foot prints in lava, 120 - - Forbes, John, 173 - - Fort de France, 56 - - Fortieth Parallel Survey, 8, 22, 25 - - fossa magna, 109 - - fossils, 181 - - Fouqué, F., 16, 53 - - Frank Landslip, the, 45 - - Franklin, Benjamin, 71 - - Frear, Walter F., 89 - - Freiberg, 14 - - Friedlaender, I., 76, 103, 162 - - Fujiyama, 81, 109, 134–135 - - fumaroles, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160 - - Futu, 147, 149 - - - G - - gannets, 135 - - Gardner, John, 139–142 - - gas-heat theory, 59 - - Geikie, Archibald, xi, 12, 116 - - Geodetic Survey of India, 157 - - Geological Congress, Zurich, 12 - - Geological Society of America, 76, 164, 166 - - Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, 12 - - Geological Survey, U. S., 17–22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90, 111–114, - 129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173 - - Geophysical Laboratory, Wash. D. C., 112 - - Georgetown, W. I., 159–160 - - Geovision Ltd., 163 - - Germany, 12–16 - - geyser basins, 10 - - geysers, 9, 39–40, 42, 48 - - -- as eroders, 39–40 - - geyser-spring experiments, 41 - - Geyserville, 112, 137 - - Giacometti, Guido, 153, 163 - - giant bat, 149 - - Giant’s Causeway, 23 - - Gilbert, Grove Karl, 7, 64 - - Gillie, Miss, ...., 157 - - glacial periods, 6, 10, 45 - - glaciers, 44, 48 - - Glass Mountain, 136 - - Goethals, General, 82 - - Goldschmidt, Victor M., 14, 16 - - Goodrich, ...., 18 - - goonies, 135 - - Gordon-Cumming, C., 91 - - Göteborg, 13 - - Grabau, Amadeus, 17 - - Grand Canyon, 24, 26, 28–30, 37 - - -- model of, 30, 38 - - Grand Hotel, Japan, 132–133 - - Grange, L. I., 111 - - granitization, 181 - - Grant, Willie, 3 - - gravitation, 185–186 - - Great Britain, 12, 162 - - -- Geological Survey of, 12 - - Great Lakes, 25, 45 - - Great Plains, 10, 22 - - Green, W. L., 91 - - Green River, 30 - - greenstones, 182 - - Greenwell, Mr. and Mrs. Frank, 146 - - Gregory, H. E., 112, 135 - - Grodzinski, P., 172 - - Grosvenor, Gilbert, 142–143 - - Groth, P. G., 13 - - Guadeloupe, 66 - - guano diggings, 135–136 - - Guatemala, 55, 80–82 - - Gulf of Alaska, 138, 171 - - Gulf of Mexico, 10, 36 - - Gummeré, Harry, 12, 33, 72–73 - - Gutenberg, B., 183 - - - H - - Hague, Arnold, xi, 8 - - Hakamagoshi, 105 - - Hakone, 134 - - Hale, George Ellery, 185 - - Haleakala, 164, 165 - - Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line, 165 - - Halemaumau, 77, 86, 89, 92–93, 95, 112, 115, 117–119, 120–124, 127, - 128, 131, 147, 151–155, 166 - - -- eruption, 117–124, 130–131 - - Hammond, W. H., 168, 172 - - Hannon, Arthur, 112 - - hardness tests, 168, 171–172 - - Harney Peak, xii - - Hart, F. R., 79 - - Harvard, xi, 3–7, 16–19, 32–56, 72, 89, 92, 101 - - -- laboratory experiments, 32–54 - - -- study at, 3, 32–54 - - -- teaching at, 55–56, 72 - - Hawaii, island of, v, 28, 77, 78, 112, 142, 143, 154, 164, 165 - - Hawaii Channel, 123 - - Hawaii earthquake crisis (1929), 145–147 - - Hawaii Geological Survey, 30, 111–112 - - Hawaii National Park, 86, 89, 113–114, 128, 152, 155, 168, 173 - - Hawaii tidal wave (1946), 156 - - Hawaii, University of, 101 - - Hawaiian Is., 55, 69, 77–78, 112, 117, 164, 171, 177, 183 - - -- journey to, 55 - - Hawaiian Ridge, 49 - - Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, 112 - - Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, v, 54, 75, 78, 84–103, 111–112, - 114–130, 135, 137, 142, 151–156, 162–164, 168, 173 - - Hawaiian Volcano Research Association, v, 71, 78, 91, 103, 111, - 113–114, 155, 171 - - Hawaiian volcanoes, 42, 85–113, 145–147, 151–176 - - Hayden, F. V., 7, 17 - - Haystack Basin, 39 - - Heidelberg, 12 - - Heilprin, A., 76 - - Henderson, John Brooks, 127, 162 - - Hermann, A., 5 - - Herschel, Arthur, 83 - - Hiatt, R. W., 171 - - High Plateaus of Utah, 67 - - Hill, R. T., 56 - - Hilo, 130, 143, 151–153, 155, 161, 162, 169 - - -- merchants of, 89 - - Hilo Tribune Herald, 162–163 - - Hilo Wharf, 123 - - Himalayas, 48, 116 - - Hind, Mrs. Robert, 145 - - Hinkley, Vern, 162 - - Hitchcock, C. H., 91, 164–166 - - Hobart, A. H., 128 - - Hodges, Richmond, 154 - - Hokkaido, 77 - - Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, 182 - - Honduras, 80 - - Honjo district, 133 - - Honolulu, 77, 78, 85, 91 - - Honolulu Star-Bulletin, 162 - - Honshu, 107 - - Honukai, the, 142–143 - - Hookena, 174 - - Hoopuloa village, 125 - - Hosmer, Ralph, 78 - - hot springs, 9, 39, 42, 137 - - Houston, David F., 112 - - Hovey, E. O., 56, 59, 76, 112, 159, 173 - - Howe, Ernest, 17 - - Howland Island, 135–136 - - Hoyle, Fred, xii, 5, 184, 186 - - Hualalai Volcano, 145, 146, 154, 164–165, 167 - - Hubble, E. P., 5 - - Hudson River, 42, 43 - - Humuula, 151, 153 - - Hunt, Walter Frederick, 173 - - Huntington, Ellsworth, 17 - - Huntington, Oliver, 5 - - Hyatt, A., 19 - - - I - - ice ages, 43, 185 - - Iceland, 39, 103 - - Imperial Hotel, Japan, 133 - - Indian Ocean, 170 - - index of eruption, 77 - - index volcanoes, 75, 79, 80 - - industrial diamonds, 172 - - Ingalls, Albert, 126 - - Ingerson, Earl, 172 - - injections, lava, 46–48 - - International Geophysical Union, 183 - - intrusions, 53 - - inventions, 19–20, 125–132, 157–158, 160, 162, 172 - - Irazu Volcano, 79 - - Ireland, 12, 23 - - -- Geological Survey of, 12 - - Irving, John Duer, 21, 25 - - Ischia, 66 - - isostasy, 116–117, 131, 177 - - Italy, 55, 65–72, 78, 103, 110, 117, 127, 181, 183 - - Ivanpah, 27 - - Izalco Volcano, 80 - - - J - - Jack, R. L., 110 - - Jackson, R. T., 5, 19, 165 - - Jaggar, Isabel, v, 100, 101, 109, 111, 118, 119, 121, 122, 140, - 142, 145, 147, 153, 156, 157, 175 - - Jaggar, Rev. Thomas Augustus, 3 - - Jaggar inventions, 19–20, 158, 160, 172 - - Jamaica, 83–84, 157, 160 - - Japan, 42, 45, 55, 65–68, 77–78, 81, 84, 102, 103–106, 109, 110, - 117, 132–134, 169, 183 - - Japanese earthquakes, 103–106, 114, 132–134, 168 - - Japanese engineers, 131 - - Java, 11 - - Jeans, J. H., 5, 184–185 - - jeep, forerunner of, 131–132, 138 - - Jim, Samuel, 62 - - Jimenez, President of Costa Rica, 79–80 - - Johanssen, Captain, 138, 140 - - Johnson, Douglas, 18 - - Johnston, F., 25 - - Jones, Austin E., 142, 144, 152, 169 - - Jordalsknut, the, 12 - - Jupiter, 184 - - - K - - Kagoshima, 103–106 - - Kahuku, 174 - - Kahului, 169 - - Kailua, Hawaii, 143 - - Kaimon, 108 - - Kaiser Wilhelm, 13–14 - - Kamakura, 134 - - Kamchatka arc, 82 - - Kamuela, 146 - - Kansas, 40 - - Kapoho, 118, 125, 154, 164 - - -- earthquake (1924), 154, 165 - - Karuizawa, 107–108 - - Katmai, 140 - - Kau Desert, 93, 115, 117, 120, 124, 125, 130, 132, 155 - - Kaunakakai, 123 - - Kawaihae, 143 - - Keewatin, 6 - - Kellar, H., 5 - - Kellers, H., 147, 149 - - Kelvin, W. T., 6 - - Keoua’s army, 120 - - Keppel Island, 150 - - Keppler, C. H. J., 147 - - Kew Observatory, 157 - - Kiholo, 143 - - Kilauea, v, xi, 59, 62, 68, 71, 76, 77, 86–103, 111–115, 117–125, - 127–128, 130–132, 142–147, 151–155, 162, 164, 165, 167, 172, - 176, 177 - - Kilauea Iki, 124 - - Kilauea Military Camp, 97, 113 - - Kilauea Mountain, 99, 118, 121 - - King, Clara, 62–64 - - King, Clarence, xi, 6, 7, 8, 17, 21, 22, 25, 32 - - King, F. P., 11 - - King, Samuel W., 135 - - King Cove, 138, 139, 140, 144 - - Kingston, Jamaica, 83–84, 159, 160 - - Kirishima, 108 - - Kobandai, 106–108 - - Kodiak, 137, 138, 140, 143, 144 - - Kohala, 165 - - Kona, 92, 93, 125, 142, 145–146, 152–154, 169, 173–174 - - -- North, 145 - - -- South, 92, 93, 125, 173 - - Korovinski Volcano, 75 - - Koto, B., 106 - - kou trees, 136 - - Kullenberg, B., 170, 184 - - Kumamoto, 109 - - Kyushu, 103, 108, 109 - - - L - - laboratories, 17, 32–54, 76, 78 - - -- Carnegie Institution geophysical, 76, 86, 111 - - -- Harvard, 32–54 - - -- Hawaii Volcano Observatory, 78 - - -- Naples, 76 - - -- Rockefeller, 29 - - Labrador, 3 - - Lacroix, Alfred, 16, 76, 134 - - La Forge, Laurence, 17 - - Lahaina, 123 - - Lake Superior, 6 - - Lake Taupo, 110 - - Lake Toya, 106 - - Lamar River, 36 - - Lancaster, Alex, 86, 90, 97, 118 - - Lane A., 18 - - Laramie, 46 - - Lassen National Park, 112, 114, 136–137, 154 - - -- survey of, 137 - - Lassen Peak, 136 - - lava injection model, 46–48 - - lava tides, 166–167 - - lava, analyses of, 129 - - lava, constituents of, 166 - - lava, moon, 172 - - Laudat, 11 - - Lehigh, 22 - - Leipzig, 181 - - Lenox-Conyingham, Gerald, 156, 157 - - Lewis Lake, 36 - - Lewis River, 36 - - Limon, 79 - - Lincoln, Gatesford, 132, 147 - - Lincoln, Joseph, 174 - - Lingula, 6, 7 - - Lipari, 66 - - Lisbon, 103 - - London, 12 - - Long Island Sound, 43 - - Los Angeles, 103 - - Loucks, Burton, 168, 173 - - Lower Silurian, 7 - - Lurline (ship), 175 - - Lycurgus, Demosthenes, 89, 111 - - Lycurgus, George, 111 - - Lydia (ship), 72, 74 - - Lyell, Charles, xii, 45 - - Lynn, 3 - - Lyttleton, ...., xii, 184, 185 - - - M - - Maclaurin, R., 55, 85 - - Macdonald, Gordon A., 111, 154, 166, 173–175 - - MacDonald, T. M., 59, 61, 159 - - MacGregor, A. G., 157, 161 - - MacMillan-Brown, J., 110 - - Madison limestone, 8 - - Maine, 3 - - Makalawena, 143 - - Makaopuhi, 118, 121 - - Makushin, 75 - - malau bird, 148–149 - - Mammoth Hot Springs, 9, 12, 42 - - man-of-war bird, 135 - - Mansfield, G. R., 18 - - Maoris, 110 - - Marlowe, Julia, 5 - - Marsden, Ernest, 110 - - Marsters, V. F., 17, 53 - - Martinique, 11, 55–66, 71, 76, 84, 129, 134, 156, 158, 160, 161, - 167 - - -- expedition to, 55–65, 156–161 - - -- museum and observatory, 71 - - Marvin, Charles F., 111, 112, 137 - - Massachusetts, 18, 44, 71 - - Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 7, 55–56, 72, 77–79, 85, 90, - 91, 113, 129 - - -- teaching at, 55–56, 72, 78 - - Mato Tepee, 23 - - Matson, a guide, 11 - - Matsumoto, Jack, 174–175 - - Matteucci, R. V., 15, 67, 71 - - Matthes, Francois, 18 - - Maui, 122–123, 169, 170 - - Mauna Kea (ship), 123 - - Mauna Kea, 115, 146, 153, 164–165 - - Mauna Loa, 59, 62, 64, 67–69, 92–95, 99, 102, 112–115, 125, - 145–146, 151–154, 162, 164–166, 169–170, 172, 173–176, 180, 185 - - -- bombing of, 153–154, 161 - - -- eruption of, 124, 173–176 - - Mauna Loa Mountain, 99 - - McCord, Jack, 140, 141 - - McKinley, C. P., 143 - - measurements, 129–131 - - medaños, 34 - - Mediterranean Sea, 45, 70, 116 - - “Mediterranean Sea” of North America, 22, 53 - - Mees, C. E. K., 91 - - Meinzer, O., 111 - - Mendenhall, W. C., 18, 112, 138 - - Mercalli, G., 76, 131 - - Messina, 55, 71, 77, 81, 103 - - -- earthquake of, 1908, 55, 71 - - metamorphism, 180 - - Meunier, Stanilas, 16 - - Mexico, 80, 82, 108 - - Michel-Lévy, A., 16, 53 - - Michelson, A. A., 99 - - microsclerometer, 19–20, 172 - - Midway Island, 99, 103, 164, 165 - - Mihara Volcano, 133–134 - - Mineral, Calif., 136, 137 - - Miocene, 46, 49 - - Mississippi delta, 41 - - Mississippi River, 8, 10, 36 - - models, 30, 38, 41–42, 43, 46–48, 50–52 - - -- erosion, 43 - - -- folding, 50–52 - - -- Grand Canyon, 30, 38 - - -- lava injection, 46–48 - - -- Old Faithful, 41–42 - - Mohokea, 165 - - Molokai, 122–123 - - Molokai Channel, 122 - - Molokai volcano, 165 - - Monte Somma, 66 - - Montserrat, xii, 66, 71, 126, 129, 156–161 - - -- earthquake (1933), 71 - - Moody, William H., 55–57 - - Moody, William Vaughn, 20 - - moon, 182 - - moon craters, 93–94, 172, 176 - - moon lava, 172 - - Morgan, Lloyd, 186 - - Morozewicz, J., 16 - - Morss, Everett, 162 - - motorcar amphibians, 168 - - Mount Baker, 136 - - Mount Dana, 143 - - Mount Etna, 66, 68, 71, 77, 81, 103, 180 - - Mount Hibokhibok, 76 - - Mount Lamington, 76 - - Mount Makushin, 73 - - Mount Misery, 62, 66 - - Mount Monadnock, 40 - - Mount Pelée, 56–65, 76, 134, 158, 161, 167 - - Mount St. Elias, 31 - - Mount St. Helena, 137 - - Mount Shasta, 18, 137 - - Mount Washburn, 36 - - Mount Wrangell, 138 - - Munro, George, 135 - - murres, 141 - - museum, Kilauea Crater, 114–115 - - Museum of Comparative Zoology, 164 - - mutation, 186 - - Myers, D. B., 72, 74 - - Mystic River, 37 - - - N - - Nagasaki, 103, 109 - - Nahant, 3 - - Nakamura, D., 115 - - Naknek Lake, 140 - - Napau Crater, 118, 121 - - Napier earthquake, 45, 111 - - Naples, 65, 71, 76 - - National Geographic Society, 55–56, 142, 143 - - -- expedition (Alaska), 143 - - Natural History magazine, 170 - - Nature magazine, 161 - - Naughton, J. J., 173 - - Naumann, E., 109 - - Navaho (ship), 123 - - Neckar, the, 14 - - Nelson, Sven, 20 - - Neptune, 184 - - Nevada, 26–30 - - New Crater, 10 - - New England, 7, 28, 37, 40, 43, 44, 46 - - New Haven, 46 - - New Jersey, 43 - - New Orleans, 79 - - New York, 42, 43, 56, 72, 121 - - -- New York City, 42, 72 - - -- Wall Street, 72 - - New Zealand, 39, 75, 103, 109–111, 114, 117, 126, 161, 162, 183 - - -- expedition to, 103, 109–111 - - --Geological Survey, 110 - - New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain, 114 - - New Zealand, University of, 110 - - Ngauruhoe Volcano, 110 - - Nicaragua, 80 - - Nicaragua-Salvador line, 80 - - Nikolski, 141 - - Niles, W., 72 - - Niuafoou, 110, 147–150 - - Niuatoputapu, 150 - - No Man’s Land, 132 - - Nobel Prize, 157 - - Norris Geyser Basin, 10 - - North Island, N. Z., 109 - - North Kona, 145 - - Norway, 12, 13 - - Nova Scotia, 3, 175 - - - O - - Oahu, 170 - - Oberhansley, F. R., 173 - - Oberwald, the, 14 - - Observatories, 76, 86, 114–130, 135–137, 142, 144, 155, 162, 163, - 168, 173 - - -- Alaska, 136, 137, 142, 144 - - -- California, 136, 137 - - -- Hawaii, 76, 114–130, 135, 137, 142, 155, 162, 168, 173 - - -- Kew, 157 - - -- Vesuvius, 76, 86 - - Ocean Island, 99 - - oceanic volcanoes, 182 - - Oceanographic Institute of Sweden, 170 - - oceanographic sampling, 183 - - Ogasawara Islands, 109 - - Ohia Lodge, Hawaii, 174 - - Ohiki, the, 142–143 - - Okinawa, 103 - - Olaa, 154 - - Old Faithful, 10 - - -- model of, 41–42 - - “Old Faithful,” Hawaii, 86–87, 90 - - Oldham, R. D., 116 - - Oligocene, 24 - - Omori, F., 77, 84, 102, 104–106, 109, 112, 115, 131, 132, 162 - - Oregon, 82 - - Osaka, 134 - - Osann, A., 14, 15 - - Oshima, 103, 109, 133, 134 - - Osumi Strait, 104 - - Otago University, 110 - - Ottajano, 65, 66, 68 - - - P - - Pacific Commercial Advertiser, 77, 86 - - Pacific Commercial Company, 143 - - Pacific journey, 77–78 - - Pacific Ocean, 36, 53, 82, 170, 171 - - -- arc, 82 - - --deeps of, 53 - - Pacific oceanography, 170–171 - - Pacific Science Congresses, 112, 134 - - Pago Pago, 147 - - pahoehoe, 67, 97, 120, 124, 125, 129, 135, 148, 151, 153 - - Palache, C., 14, 15 - - Palisades, Hudson River, 42 - - Palmieri, P., 76 - - Panama, 80, 82, 83, 157 - - Panama Canal, 82, 157 - - Papua, 76 - - Parker Ranch, Hawaii, 143, 146 - - Pasadena, 111 - - Pasteur, Louis, 16, 161 - - Patagonia, 81 - - Pavlof, 139, 142–143 - - Pearl Harbor, 122, 123, 168, 169, 172 - - Pelée, 11, 45, 56–65, 67, 68, 78, 103, 104 - - -- eruption, 45, 56–65, 71 - - Pelican (ship), 123 - - Pennsylvania, 37, 53 - - Perkins, Commander, ...., 140 - - Perret, Frank Alvord, xi, 32, 68, 71, 84, 86–89, 92, 96, 101, 103, - 156, 157, 160, 162, 167, 171, 173 - - Peru, 34 - - Pettersson, Hans, 170, 171, 184 - - Philadelphia, 53 - - Philippine Islands, 72, 76 - - Phoenix, Arizona, 25 - - Piggot, C. S., 184 - - Planck, M., 5 - - Pliocene, 43 - - Plug Ugly (ship), 139 - - Plymouth, W. I., 156 - - Poas Crater, 80 - - Pohoiki, 118 - - Polynesian rats, 136 - - Ponte, S. C., 68 - - Porteus, Stanley, 162 - - Postal Card Crack, 77, 127, 128 - - Potomac (ship), 56–58 - - Powell, C. F., 156, 157, 161 - - Powell, George, 143 - - Powell, J. W., 7, 17, 22 - - Powers, Howard, 142, 154, 169, 173 - - Powers, Sidney, 112 - - Pozzuoli, 66 - - pre-Cambrian, 47 - - Prescott, Arizona, 25 - - Pribilof Island, 144 - - Prince of Wales, 110 - - Princeton University, 5 - - Pritchett, H. S., 55, 72 - - Puako, 143 - - Puget Sound, 143, 144 - - Puna, 130, 154 - - Purington, C., 133 - - Puu Oo Ranch, 153 - - Puuwaawaa, 145, 146 - - - Q - - quakeproof engineering, 132 - - Quartette Gold Mine, 27 - - Queen Charlotte, 150 - - Quensell boys, 149 - - - R - - range finders, 125–127 - - rats, Polynesian, 136 - - Red Beds, 8, 47 - - Redlands, 103 - - Reyer, H., 16 - - rhythmic periods, 166–167 - - Richmond plantation, W. I., 159 - - Richter, C. F., 183 - - Rieber, Frank, 162–164 - - ripplemarks, 3–4, 32–54 - - Roberts, Sumner, 100 - - Rockefeller, John D., 184 - - Rockefeller laboratory and observatory, 29 - - Rocky Mountains, 7, 10, 18, 23, 46, 47, 48 - - Romberg, Arnold, 101–102 - - Rome, 103 - - Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, 17 - - Roraima (ship), 62, 160 - - Roseau, 11 - - Rosenbusch, H., 12–16 - - Rotorua, 109, 111 - - Royal Society of London, 72, 156 - - Ruapehu Volcano, 110 - - Rushforth, Paul, 171–172 - - Russell, I. C., 56 - - Rutherford, E., 110 - - Ryukyu Archipelago, 103, 106, 109 - - Ryukyu-Sakurajima line, 108 - - - S - - Saba, 157 - - Sagami Bay, 133–134 - - St. Helena, 103 - - St. Kitts, 62, 157 - - St. Lucia, 160 - - St. Martin, 157 - - St. Pierre, 55–65, 71, 160, 161 - - St. Vincent, 56–66, 68, 158–160 - - Sakurajima, xi, 71, 81, 103–106 - - -- earthquake (1914), 103–106 - - Salvador, 80 - - Samoa, 147, 150 - - San Andreas rift, 137 - - San Francisco earthquake (1906), xii, 45, 55, 134, 137 - - San Jose, Costa Rica, 79 - - San Sebastiano, destruction of, 69 - - Santa Ana, 80 - - Santa Maria peak, 81 - - Sarana Bay, 141 - - Saratoga Springs, 18 - - Sato, Sutejiro, 155, 166, 168 - - Saturn, 184 - - Saxony, 14 - - Scandinavia, 12–13, 182 - - Schneeberg granite, 14 - - Schrader, F., 18 - - Schweitzer, A., 161 - - Scientific American, 126 - - scratch tester, 172 - - sea level, 130 - - sea lions, 141 - - seals, 144 - - Searchlight, Nevada, 26–30 - - Seattle, 72, 138, 142 - - Secretary of the Interior, 155 - - Section of Volcanology created, 136 - - sedimentation, 32, 38, 76, 181 - - Seeley, George, 72, 74 - - seismic recorders, 125–126, 143, 144 - - Shaler, Nathaniel S., xi, 3, 5, 19, 28, 172 - - Shepard, F. P., 170 - - Shepherd, E. S., 86–89, 92, 112, 115, 166, 167, 184 - - Shimonoseki Strait, 109 - - Shipman, Herbert, 153 - - Shishaldin Volcano, 154 - - shock recorder, 126, 158, 160 - - Shumagin Islands, 143 - - Sierra Nevada, 28, 116, 136 - - Sinclair, Gregg M., 162, 170, 171 - - Sinton, Bill, 122, 147 - - Smith, George Otis, 112, 137 - - Smith Philip Sidney, 18, 21, 22 - - Smith, William, 21 - - Smithsonian Institution, 112 - - Snake River, 36 - - Snedeker, James, 168 - - Solfatara, Italy, 127 - - solfataras, 11–12, 62, 65, 68, 80, 108, 129, 156, 158, 160 - - Soufrière, 56–55, 72, 159 - - South Dakota, 21–25, 28, 37, 38, 46, 47, 55, 78 - - South Island, N. Z., 109 - - South Kona, 92, 93, 125, 173 - - Spalding, Walter, 95 - - Spearfish, Arizona, 23 - - Speight, R., 110 - - Spofford, Charles, 79, 84, 129 - - Springfield, Mass., 71 - - Spurr, J. E., 18, 172 - - Stalheim, 12 - - Stanford students, 26 - - Stanley, Henry M., 12 - - Starr (ship), 138, 140 - - State Street, 72 - - Stearns, Harold T., 111, 154, 165, 166 - - Stewart, Richard, 143 - - Stinking Water mine, 8 - - Stockholm, 13 - - Stokes, Mrs., 63 - - Stokes, Rita, 62–64 - - Stone, Ralph, 17, 37, 43 - - Stromboli, 68, 71 - - Stübel, A., 67, 76, 177, 181, 182 - - Suess, E., 116 - - sugar mills, 159 - - Sulphur Bank, 112, 115, 127–129, 173 - - Sunlight mine, 8 - - sunspots, 65, 68, 166 - - -- intervals of, 68 - - surveys, 7–12, 23–25, 30, 76, 137, 138, 142–143 - - -- Alaskan, 142–143 - - -- Black Hills, 23–25 - - -- Fortieth Parallel, 25 - - -- Hawaii Geological, 30, 76 - - -- Lassen National Park, 137 - - -- New Zealand Geological, 110 - - -- Yellowstone, 7–12 - - Suwanose Island, 108 - - Sweden, 13, 170 - - Sweeney, H. P., 72, 74 - - swelling and slumping, 131 - - swelling mountain, 129–131 - - Switzerland, 43 - - - T - - Tanager (ship), 150 - - Tanegashima, 106 - - Tarawera, 109 - - Tarawera Mountain, 110 - - Tarumai Volcano, 77–78 - - Taupo Belt, 109 - - Taupo District, 161 - - Taylor, Griffith, 112 - - teaching, 55–56, 72, 78 - - -- at Harvard, 55–56, 72 - - -- at Massachusetts Tech, 55–56, 72, 78 - - Technology Expedition, 72, 138 - - Technology Review, 74 - - Teddy, the dog, 123 - - temperature wells, 127–129 - - Teneriffe, 71 - - Tennessee, 37 - - terns, 135 - - Tertiary, 8–10, 15 - - Tetons, 36 - - theater, the, 5 - - Thomson, Allan, 109 - - Thomson, William, 109 - - Thorndike, Charles, 100 - - Thurston, Lorrin A., 77, 86, 89, 111, 122, 142, 153, 162 - - tidal system (volcanic), 70 - - tidal waves, 134, 156, 169–170 - - -- Hawaii (1946), 156, 169, 170 - - -- Japan (Tokyo), 134 - - tide gauge readings, 130 - - Tin Can Island, 110, 147–150 - - Tokyo, 81, 102, 103, 106, 109, 114, 132–134, 168 - - -- earthquakes, 103, 114, 132–134, 168 - - Tonga, 109, 110, 114, 181, 147–150 - - Tonga Deep, 109 - - Tonopah, 29 - - Tonto fault, 30 - - Triassic lavas, 47 - - Tridacna, 35, 135 - - Trinidad, 61 - - Trondhjem, 12, 13 - - Tufts College, 17 - - Tuscarora Deep, 109 - - Twigg-Smith, William, 112 - - - U - - Unita Mountains, 30 - - Umnak Island, 75, 138, 141 - - Unalga (ship), 140 - - Unalaska, 75, 137, 140, 141 - - Unimak, 154 - - Union Pacific, 25 - - United Fruit Company, 79 - - U. S. Army, 113, 169 - - U. S. Army Air Force, 153 - - U. S. Army Engineers, 82, 156 - - U. S. Biological Survey, 144 - - U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, 130 - - U. S. Coast Guard, 135, 140, 144 - - U. S. Congress, 156, 162 - - U. S. Consulate (Japan), 132 - - U. S. Eclipse Expedition, 110, 147–150 - - U. S. Geological Survey, 17–18, 19, 21, 22, 50, 54–56, 64, 89–90, - 111–114, 129–131, 136–138, 142, 154, 157, 169, 172–173 - - U. S. Marines, 132, 133, 168 - - U. S. Navy, 55–57, 122–123, 131, 132, 147, 168, 170 - - U. S. Naval Observatory, 110, 147–150 - - U. S. Weather Bureau, 111–114, 137 - - University Club, Boston, 85 - - University of California, Berkeley, 89, 137, 163 - - University of Hawaii, 101, 162, 164, 168, 170, 171 - - University of New Zealand, 110 - - Uranus, 184 - - Usu Volcano, 106 - - Utah, 18, 22, 67 - - Uwekahuna, 173 - - - V - - Valparaiso earthquake, 55 - - Vandyke, E. C., 72, 73 - - Vaughan, T. W., 112 - - Verhoogen, J., 180 - - Vermont, 7, 9, 53 - - Vesuvius, xi, 55, 65–72, 76, 88, 104, 115, 131, 167 - - -- eruptions, 65–72 - - -- expedition to, 65–72, 84 - - -- observatory, 76 - - Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna system, 70 - - Virgin Islands, 157 - - volcanic explosions, 32, 45, 55–84, 120–125, 130–131, 173–176 - - Volcano Bay, 139–140 - - Volcano House, 77, 86, 111, 113, 155, 173 - - Volcano Letter, 154 - - volcano models, 45–47 - - Volcano Research Association, 85, 162, 163 - - volcanology predictions, 161–162 - - von Buch, Leopold, 131 - - von Tempski, Armine, 146 - - von Zittel, Karl A., 13 - - Vosges Mountains, 14 - - - W - - Wada, T., 107 - - Waesche, Hugh, 152, 154 - - Wailuku River, 153, 156 - - Waimanu, Hawaii, 165 - - Waimea, Hawaii, 143 - - Waiohinu, 165 - - Waipio, 165 - - Wairaki, 161 - - Walcott, Charles D., 19, 22, 30, 111, 112 - - Wall Street, 72 - - Wallibu River, 60 - - Ward, R., 19 - - Washington, D. C., 76, 86, 111, 137, 161, 162 - - -- Geophysical Laboratory, 76 - - Washington, H. S., 112 - - Watchung Ridge, 43 - - water theory, 115–117, 167 - - Weed, W. H., 11 - - Wellesley, 72 - - Wellington, N. Z., 109, 110 - - Wells Fargo and Co., 27 - - Wentworth, Chester K., 173 - - Werner, A. G., 16 - - West Indies, 11, 56–66, 78, 83–84, 156–161 - - -- disaster in, 55–65 - - -- volcanoes of, 156–161 - - Western Samoa, 147 - - Wheeler, G. M., 7 - - Whippoorwill (ship), 135–136 - - White, Harvey, 173 - - White Island, 75, 110 - - Whitney Foundation, 85, 89 - - Wiechert, E., 116 - - Williams, Howel, 137, 164 - - Williamson, H., 82–83 - - Willis, Bailey, xi, 21, 22, 50–51, 116 - - Wilson, R. M., 111, 129, 130, 137, 144, 154 - - Wingate, E. G., 145, 152, 155–156 - - Wolff, John Eliot, 5, 19 - - Wood, H. O., 89, 100, 111, 115 - - Wood-Anderson seismograph, 111 - - Wood-Jones, Frederick, 112 - - Wood Valley, 145, 165 - - World War I, 132 - - World War II, 141, 142, 168 - - Wylie, ...., 11 - - Wyoming, 43 - - - Y - - Yakutat earthquake (1899), 30–31, 37, 45 - - Yale University, 17, 19, 22, 91, 100 - - Yatchmenoff, Peter, 139–140 - - Yeld, G., 65 - - yellow fever, 82 - - Yellowstone Lake, 36 - - Yellowstone National Park, xii, 7–12, 18, 23, 28, 36, 39, 42, 67, - 78, 112, 117 - - Yellowstone River, 36 - - Yokohama, 132–134 - - Young, John Mason, 114 - - Yukon, 140 - - - Z - - Zeitschrift für Vulkanologie, 76 - - Zirkel, Ferdinand, 14 - - Zurich, 12 - - -Transcriber’s Notes: - -1. Obvious printers’, punctuation and spelling errors have been -corrected silently. - -2. Hyphenation has been rationalised. 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Jaggar</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: My Experiments with Volcanoes</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Thomas A. Jaggar</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 18, 2023 [eBook #69830]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Tim Lindell, Karin Spence and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This book was produced from images made available by the HathiTrust Digital Library.)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MY EXPERIMENTS WITH VOLCANOES ***</div> - - -<p id="half-title" class="p6"><i>My Experiments With</i><br /> - -<span class="xxl">Volcanoes</span></p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_frontispiece" style="max-width: 463px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_frontispiece.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm smcap">Thomas A. Jaggar</p> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>January 24, 1871—January 17, 1953</i></p> - </div> - - -<h1><span class="xl"><i>My Experiments With</i></span><br /> - -<span class="xxl">Volcanoes</span></h1> - -<p class="center p2">THOMAS A. JAGGAR</p> - - <div class="poetry-container p4"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="ileft">“<i>Through faith we understand</i></div> - <div><i>That the worlds were formed</i></div> - <div><i>By the word of God,</i></div> - <div><i>So that things which are seen</i></div> - <div><i>Were not made of things which do appear.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - - -<p class="center p6 sm">MCMLVI<br /> -HAWAIIAN VOLCANO RESEARCH ASSOCIATION<br /> -HONOLULU</p> - - -<p class="center p2 sm">Copyright, 1956, by the<br /> -Hawaiian Volcano Research Association</p> - - -<p class="center p6 xs">PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA BY<br /> -THE COMMERCIAL PRINTING DIVISION OF THE<br /> -ADVERTISER PUBLISHING CO., LTD., HONOLULU</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_v">[v]</span></p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p class="center xl"><i>Thomas Augustus Jaggar, Jr.</i></p> -</div> - -<p class="center lg"><i>January 24, 1871</i></p> - -<p class="center lg"><i>January 17, 1953</i></p> - - -<p><i>It is the wish of the members of the Hawaiian Volcano Research -Association to share with others the experiences they have enjoyed in -their association with a truly great man.</i></p> - -<p><i>On October 5, 1911, through the efforts of Thomas Augustus Jaggar, -Jr., the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association was organized to assist -in the support of the newly created Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -at Kilauea, Hawaii. Accepting Dr. Jaggar’s sincere belief that a -systematic and continuous study of volcanoes would result in the -protection of life and property, the motto the Hawaiian Volcano -Research Association adopted was “Ne plus haustae aut obrutae -urbes.”</i></p> - -<p><i>Dr. Jaggar arrived in Hawaii to take up his work at the Observatory -on January 17, 1912—exactly forty-one years before the day of his -death on January 17, 1953.</i></p> - -<p><i>Dr. Jaggar spent the last years of his life writing the history -of his sixty years of intensive, rugged, and hazardous scientific -achievements. During many of these years, and up to the completion -of his life’s history, it has been well stated that one of his most -valuable co-workers was his wife, Isabel, who shared with him the -disappointments, the joys of discovery, and much of the physical work. -It is the privilege of the officers, directors and members of the -Hawaiian Volcano Research Association to present in book form this -story of Dr. Jaggar’s life.</i></p> - - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>CONTENTS</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="pictures" class="smaller"> - <tr> - <th class="chap">CHAPTER</th> - <th></th> - <th class="pag">PAGE</th> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">I.</td> - <td class="cht1">Young Scientist</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_3">3</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">II.</td> - <td class="cht1">Imitating Ripplemarks</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">III.</td> - <td class="cht1">Expedition Decade</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_55">55</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">IV.</td> - <td class="cht1">Living with Volcanoes</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_85">85</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">V.</td> - <td class="cht1">Expansion Decade</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">VI.</td> - <td class="cht1">Prophecy and Hope</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_151">151</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">VII.</td> - <td class="cht1">Envoi</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<div class="chapter"> -<h2>ILLUSTRATIONS</h2> -</div> - -<table summary="pictures" class="smaller"> - <tr> - <th></th> - <th></th> - <th class="pag">FACING PAGE</th> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn"></td> - <td class="cht">Thomas A. Jaggar</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_frontispiece"><i>Frontis</i></a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">1.</td> - <td class="cht">Experimental Geology Laboratory, Harvard University, 1900</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_040fp">40</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">2.</td> - <td class="cht">Fountain at edge of lava lake, May 17, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_041fp">41</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">3.</td> - <td class="cht">Explosion cloud rising from Halemaumau, May 13, 1924</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_056fp">56</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">4.</td> - <td class="cht">Crag in lava lake, January 23, 1918</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_057fp">57</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">5.</td> - <td class="cht">Scientists of Technical Expedition to Aleutians, 1907</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_072fp">72</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">6.</td> - <td class="cht">Captain George Seeley of the <i>Lydia</i>, 1907</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_073fp">73</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">7.</td> - <td class="cht">Volcano House from Observatory, 1913</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_088afp">88</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">8.</td> - <td class="cht">Island in Halemaumau lava lake, 1911</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_088bfp">88</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">9.</td> - <td class="cht">Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 1912</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_089afp">89</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">10.</td> - <td class="cht">Jaggar in seismograph vault beneath Observatory, 1916</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_089bfp">89</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">11.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava lake, showing bench, March 30, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_092afp">92</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">12.</td> - <td class="cht">Halemaumau, showing lava lake and crags, December 8, 1916</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_092bfp">92</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">13.</td> - <td class="cht">Jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_093fp">93</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">14.</td> - <td class="cht">River of Alika flow, Mauna Loa, October 6, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_100afp">100</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">15.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava streaming into a sinkhole in Halemaumau lava lake, July 7, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_100bfp">100</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">16.</td> - <td class="cht">Sakurajima Volcano, Japan, 1914</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_101afp">101</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">17.</td> - <td class="cht">Fountain in lava lake, March 19, 1921</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_101bfp">101</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">18.</td> - <td class="cht">Isabel and Tom Jaggar in woods on Kilauea Volcano, 1923</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_120fp">120</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">19.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava lake, fountains, and crags, March 20, 1921</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_121afp">121</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">20.</td> - <td class="cht">Footprints in ash west of Mauna Iki</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_121bfp">121</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">21.</td> - <td class="cht">The <i>Honukai</i> on Alaska beach, 1928</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_136afp">136</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">22.</td> - <td class="cht">The <i>Ohiki</i>, first amphibian truck, 1928</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_136bfp">136</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">23.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava flow entering village of Hoopuloa, 1926</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_137afp">137</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">24.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava flow of 1926 Mauna Loa eruption approaching Hoopuloa</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_137bfp">137</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">25.</td> - <td class="cht">Jaggar in office of Observatory in “Tin House,” 1937</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_152fp">152</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">26.</td> - <td class="cht">Bomb bursting on lava flow, December 27, 1935</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_153fp">153</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">27.</td> - <td class="cht">Fountain in Halemaumau lava lake, May 23, 1917</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_168fp">168</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">28.</td> - <td class="cht">Rare dome fountain, Kilauea Crater, March 20, 1921</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_169afp">169</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="chn">29.</td> - <td class="cht">Lava stream near rim of Halemaumau, February 9, 1921</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_169bfp">169</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="header" colspan="3">CHARTS</td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="cht" colspan="2">Fluctuations of Halemaumau</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_113">113</a></td> - </tr> - - <tr> - <td class="cht" colspan="2">Diagram of hypothetical globe section</td> - <td class="pag"><a href="#i_179">179</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xi">[xi]</span></p> -<h2>PREFACE</h2> -</div> - - -<p>This, my latest book, is another experiment. After sixty years of -volcanoes I have learned reversal of preconceived notions. Gradually I -have learned a totally different approach.</p> - -<p>Shaler of Harvard was my inspirer, worker in the wonders of swamp and -ice and sea beaches. He set me to work and turned me loose; among books -and storm waves and men; especially among men, young men, ever reaping -something new. When I chose volcanoes for my field Shaler said, “You -have certainly selected the hardest.” It was a missionary field, for in -it people were being killed. But the products of internal earth fluids, -lava sea bottom, and vast Canadian ancient meltings, seemed to promise -real natural history. Volcanoes squirt up the very ancient stuff of the -solar system. Therein, I knew, must be something for future discovery. -The investigation of it was a clear field, if action was the goal.</p> - -<p>My field education in geology was by Hague, the friend of Archibald -Geikie. By Emmons, skilled in ore deposits, and like Hague, trained by -Clarence King. By Bailey Willis, son of a poet, a superlative draftsman -and field man, and a brilliant experimenter. I went into the American -West with these men.</p> - -<p>But this story of a volcano experimenter’s life would have reached -nowhere without Frank Alvord Perret, whom I first met on the slope -of Vesuvius in 1906. I knew at once that he was the world’s greatest -volcanologist. His skill was taking pictures. Mine was making -experiments. We agreed that these two skills in action would accomplish -what theories never could approach.</p> - -<p>Perret was an inventor. He was an artist. He was a poet. He was a lover -of little children, and a worshiper of the music of the stars. Always -in delicate health, he circled the world. I was with him on Sakurajima, -on Kilauea, and on Montserrat. We did not agree. He had a vast love of -the romantic and bizarre. I was always a sceptic. But I thank Heaven -that his posthumous and nobly illustrated book reached magnificent -publication. His other books set a standard for all time for what the -field science of volcanoes shall be.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_xii">[xii]</span></p> - -<p>Perret and his camera were my models. He gave me all of his pictures -to use as I chose, and he and Tempest Anderson taught me volcano -photography. The latter, a Yorkshireman, was a British geographer and -we met on many volcanoes.</p> - -<p>The purpose of this book is to tell what one man saw. I was actuated -by the will to learn. I wanted to copy ripplemarks on the bottom of -the sea, to understand what force pushed up Harney Peak as coarse -granite in the Black Hills, and to imitate Yellowstone geysers spouting -rhythmically. I wanted to know how cracks made the Cascade Mountains -pile up in a line.</p> - -<p>Finally, I studied the San Francisco earthquake rift, sliding open -parallel to the shore for hundreds of miles. How thick was the crust -of the globe? Then I was called to Hawaii, islands on a ridge 1,700 -miles long with volcanoes at one end, coral atolls at the other. And I -started a volcano experiment station at a very lucky time. Volcanoes -proved surprisingly amenable to experiment.</p> - -<p>Forty years of this lead far away from Lyell’s geology—the geology -of uniform processes past and present—and from brachiopods and -trilobites. It lead to the ancestor of volcanoes. It lead to ancestral -gas. It lead back 10 billion years. A lava splash might be a live -souvenir of that age. More than anything else, this belief pointed our -instruments down, to the inside of the globe.</p> - -<p>Six decades of a man’s life. Decades of geology, exploration, -foundation, outspreading, prediction, and fruition. The fact of -fruition makes the telling worth while. Geological education was -unbelief. Fruition was belief, verified by growth of unified science. -Culmination was not geology but science. Uniformity, evolution, and -symmetry are in nature. Value and number are human. I have been called -geologist and seismologist, volcanologist and geophysicist. I am none -of these. I am interested in the evolution of what Hoyle calls “This -quite incredible universe.” I am just as interested in Bergson’s -“Creative evolution” as in Hoyle and Lyttleton’s “New cosmology.” -And more interested in life than in either. The elements of fruition -are a thick earth crust, a comparable pattern for earth and moon, -and a mechanism for earth core. This is the story of sixty years of -volcaneering.</p> - -<hr class="chap" /> - -<p class="center lg p4"><i>My Experiments With</i></p> - -<p class="center xl">Volcanoes</p> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_3">[3]</span></p> - -<h2 class="p4"><span class="smcap">Chapter I</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Young Scientist</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center">“<i>The gold of that land is good: there is bdellium and the onyx -stone.</i>”</p> - - -<p>It was the training of my youth under a father who loved God’s -out-of-doors that led me to Audubon’s birds; to tramping miles over -carries in Maine, Labrador, and Nova Scotia; and to fishing with -another eight year old, named Willie Grant.</p> - -<p>When I was fourteen my father the Reverend Thomas Augustus Jaggar, took -our family to Europe, where botany and bird life were as much a part -of my education as geography, French, and Italian. And it was during -our visit in Italy that I made my first trip up Vesuvius. All of these -early interests convinced me that I wanted to be a naturalist.</p> - -<p>It was Nathaniel Shaler at Harvard who told me to go and study the -beaches at Lynn and Nahant. So I walked and photographed, and measured -ripplemarks. I found a headland and a longshore accumulation with -scallops dwindling regularly along the high-tide level. I found swash -marks a foot across forming as the tide went out. On the dunes were -other sand waves beautifully regular.</p> - -<p>Try it. Lie on your stomach and watch them. They are at right angles to -the wind. Smooth them out and see what the wind does. It piles little -flocculent heaps of course grains, each with an eddy downwind. The fine -stuff migrates up the slopes forward with the wind, backward on the -leeward side. The powder streams meet and lengthen the hills right and -left.</p> - -<p>I watched the swash marks. The swash of the surf full of sand rushed up -the beach, cleared suddenly, and retreated, leaving a ridge along the -beach. This elevation became the tide limit, and a new series started -lower down. The swashes couldn’t climb over the ridge because the tide -was going out. And so for hours ridge after ridge was built.</p> - -<p>I watched high-tide scallops, six feet apart, forming heaps at the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_4">[4]</span> -top of the beach. The swash waves ran into the bays between the heaps -during the flood hours, making a rush up and a suck down. The rush up -was muddy, the suck down was clear. Pebbles and sand were building up -on the sides of the small promontories. Each heap was horseshoe-shaped, -with the toe seaward. Forty or fifty crescents got smaller and more -sandy toward the middle of the beach. Here was rhythmic force making -repetition. The ripples and swash marks were repeated seaward. Clearly -the headland of rock was making pebbles and sand, sending pulsations -along the beach, instead of across it.</p> - -<p>The ripplemarks were packed sand of the low-tide flat, formed totally -under water parallel to the waves. The back-and-forth motion of waves -made a pattern of sweep and eddy on the bottom. Were beaches, then, -things of habit like birds? Here were four kinds of sand waves, all -on one beach, all of them complicated by wind and water and tide; big -and little; shapely and regular. The beach was alive. It was building -from the end, it was rippling under wave action. It fed the wind as -it dried, and the wind made an exquisite dune pattern of the grains. -Perhaps beaches might be natural history, just as much as the birds -that inspired my interest in nature when I was eight years old.</p> - -<p>The mystery of the beaches drove me to a new discovery; to the -university library, where I found French and English references to -ripplemarks. I found experiments, soundings, fossil sandstone ripples. -I learned that such great authors as the botanist De Candolle and Sir -George Darwin had interested themselves profoundly in what happened to -the sand grains. From the library I went to mud puddles in a tank and -to experimentation. Thus I found my way from beach to books and from -books to the making of baby beaches.</p> - -<p>Later, at Harvard, zoology and botany were all cells and embryos -and the microscope. The habits of animals scarcely entered into our -studies. The natural history of Audubon and my boyhood had vanished. -The new words were phylogeny and cytology, development of the -individual, and cell development.</p> - -<p>So in mineralogy the microscope and the tiny crystal governed; the -molecules of the crystal, and the chemical atoms of the molecule. -Science was headed toward the infinitely little, though later, by -way of the spectroscope, it was to leap to the infinitely big of the -heavens. I never learned to think the universe finite.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_5">[5]</span></p> - -<p>Professor Shaler wrote in 1893, “In the next century there will be a -state of science in which the unknown will be conceived as peopled with -powers whose existence is justly and necessarily inferred from the -knowledge which has been obtained from their manifestations. In other -words, it seems to me that the naturalist is most likely to approach -the position of the philosophical theologian by paths which at first -seemed to lie far apart from his domain.” Just this has happened in the -world of galaxies and electrons, producing Einstein and Planck, Jeans -and Eddington, Hubble and Hoyle. And I suspect that sea bottoms and -volcanoes are “peopled with powers” yet to be inferred.</p> - -<p>Through Josiah Cooke and his wonders of projection apparatus; through -Cook’s nephew Oliver Huntington and his mineral crystals; through John -Eliot Wolff, whose assistant in optical microscopy I became; through -Robert Jackson with his museum collection technique and the hexagon -plates on fossil sea urchins; through all these I was introduced to the -laboratory collections and instruments. I found a fascinating world.</p> - -<p>The theater, too, furthered my education. Like many Harvard students, -I “suped” for several great actors and actresses, among them Julia -Marlowe and Sarah Bernhardt. And in one play I even had a speaking -part: “My lord, Posthumus is without.” I also practiced legerdemain -as amateur assistant to Kellar and Hermann, who called me out of the -audience and pulled rabbits out of my coat and eggs out of my mouth. -Thus I learned of the psychology of audiences, how to experiment in -public, and how easily deluded is the average mind. Just so nature -may delude, if the scientist doesn’t keep his wits about him. But -I also learned the value of vivid demonstration before students. A -great exponent of this method of teaching is Professor Hubert Alyea of -Princeton. His chemical experimentation is marvellous. His chemistry -textbook is modern physical chemistry at its best. He demonstrates that -the art of the magician has come down to the twentieth century and that -even mathematical science may pass over to the layman. I suspect that -geophysics does not need to be buried under differential equations as -it is today. Certainly experimental volcanology made exciting at the -lecture table could work wonders in getting the globe explored.</p> - -<p>At Harvard we were taught that geology was a detective history. -Vaguely, the same fossils were the same age. Vaguely, man had come from -a fish which climbed up on the land. It was much later<span class="pagenum" id="Page_6">[6]</span> that radio -activity of rocks was accepted as setting ages in millions of years. -King and Kelvin taught us that the age of the earth was 24 million -years and the sun was dying. A half century later, 2,000 million years -was the figure and the sun was heating up. Now cosmogonists talk easily -of 10,000 million years as an item in star history. I have learned that -one can have any theory he chooses, and that some new discovery will -probably reverse it. A discovery is the uncovering of an appealing, -bright idea.</p> - -<p>The idea of geology as history based on Darwin’s evolution never took -root in my consciousness. Geology to me is the science of the globe. -Science studies how things work, how things change, how they accomplish -what they do, how they grow, and how they compare. It does not study -the “why,” or the necessity for an origin of anything. Originating is -eternally in progress. Astronomy today is giving up origins. History -based on a few relics seems futile. Relics, or specimens, must be -compared with action.</p> - -<p>Guessing that we must have come from a fish, with no evolution sequence -in successive strata and no mammals whatever in very ancient strata -and no preservation of soft creatures possible, seems a contradiction -of Darwin’s own testimony. He insisted on “the imperfection of the -geological record.” But he had no conception that the Cambrian was -500 million years B.C., nor that the fiery Keewatin of Lake Superior -was 1,800 million years B.C. Darwin knew that the bivalve brachiopod -<i>Lingula</i>, now alive in quiet seas, is exactly the same today as -it was then.</p> - -<p><i>Lingula</i> is found fossilized in the intermediate geologic -eras. We have no proof that intelligent beings in ships from unknown -lands did not dredge him up in Cambrian time. Five hundred million -years is so absurdly long that there may have been at least twenty -different flowerings of intelligence on the earth, having no relation -to us. Continents are places of catastrophe. Sea bottoms are places -of constancy. Man lives on continents, and his fossilized bones are -short-lived.</p> - -<p>If each Adam preceded a new humankind of 100,000 years, the time since -the Cambrian allows for 5,000 deluges, or eruptive conflagrations. -Each one would exterminate that particular Adam’s descendants. If -glacial periods are deluges, we know their scratched boulders back to -400 million years before <i>Lingula</i>. These older ice sheets were -in Canada. But we know fiery floods of lava 1,300 million years before -<i>Lingula</i>, on the north shore of Lake Superior.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_7">[7]</span></p> - -<p>We have not one particle of evidence that before the race was killed -off primordial volcanologists, who were very queer looking chaps, might -have studied those eruptions with expensive instruments. Certainly they -had a lot of copper at their disposal. Perhaps the great lakes were a -continental sea, and some ancestor of <i>Lingula</i> was scooped up for -food by those doomed beings.</p> - -<p>But geology at Harvard was not all history. When R. A. Daly and I -were graduate students, we worked on Ascutney Mountain, studying -ancient fire-made granites. The hills were lumps of the ancient -pastes crystallized. The crystals were feldspars, mica, quartz, and -iron oxides. Oldest prisms were lime phosphate, the mineral apatite -containing imprisoned brown glass. How did the several kinds of red -hot paste invade the altered sedimentary slates? Was brown glass the -ancestor? Lava is brown glass. Some of the phosphate crystals contain -gas bubbles and liquids. Daly, who published the work, found that -ancient lava pushed up while deep in the claystones, and shattered a -hole by heat and cracking. The pieces sank and the paste or gas foam -was injected in successive lumps. Each new lump had more silica.</p> - -<p>Apparently the fragments melted—some of the old sediments of Lower -Silurian age were silica—and the invading magma was contaminated with -more and more molten sand. So basalt turned into granite. Thus Ascutney -Mountain in Vermont became a classic place for hot fluids squirting up -and recrystallizing the under rock of New England. It made eventually, -by erosion, the Connecticut River landscape.</p> - -<p>Daly became a specialist on granites, I became a specialist on lavas. -We became professors at Harvard and Massachusetts Institute of -Technology.</p> - -<p>Something new came into world geology when Wheeler, Hayden, King, -Powell, Gilbert, and Dutton surveyed the Utah block fault mountains and -the Rockies. They revealed the globe with a crust of gigantic cracked -deep prisms, and an eroding surface. Davis of Harvard, the physical -geographer, was at his zenith, and from Powell’s and Gilbert’s example -came his classified river valleys. He devised systems of splendid -topographic maps and models, and demonstrations of glacier steam beds -and deltas. He made surface wear and dumping debris a living thing, and -the land forms a record of it.</p> - -<p>Thus I was overjoyed when, in 1893, I received the summons to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_8">[8]</span> go with -Arnold Hague to the land of geysers, colorful canyon, old volcanoes, -and the source rivers of the Mississippi. My job was to take pictures -with a huge camera, but I posed as microscope man, too. I climbed the -highest peaks of the Absaroka Range, and I traveled with Hague and a -mule packtrain back and forth across the range, collecting specimens. -Hague had been with Clarence King during the 40th Parallel Survey for -the Union Pacific railroads.</p> - -<p>Hague’s field method was to climb a peak, study the view, and ponder -the visible strata, dikes, valleys, escarpments, and pinnacles for -miles around, thus formulating each problem. Then we moved camp to a -new place to solve the problem.</p> - -<p>We sought the ancient craters. The volcanic tuffs and agglomerates -covered thousands of square miles, dating from 30 million years ago -and continuing outpourings until 2 million years ago, and there were -lava flows, ropy or bouldery. Here were petrified trees; there could -be found fossil leaves. The tree species told the formation ages of -Tertiary time. Many peaks appeared but no volcano cones. The craters -had been over what now were eroded dikes, or fissure fillings of lava, -which stood out in crisscrossing walls. Where they clustered, ores -were found: the Sunlight, Crandall Creek, and Stinking Water mining -claims. These were the roots of lost volcanoes, lost by decay, tumble, -rainfall, glaciers, and rivers. Underneath the mountainous lavas, -appeared white marine limestone cliffs, and still lower appeared -ancient granite gneiss.</p> - -<p>The geology of ancient seabeds, fossils, eruptions, and glaciers was -painted on a whole panorama of mountains and river basins. From a -mountain top silently gazing through field glasses—which he was always -losing and recovering—Hague would look around for hours. “That ledge -is the Madison limestone, those are the Red Beds, those pink, rounded -hills are Archean granites.”</p> - -<p>After a day of packtrain travel I was free to fish or hunt. It was a -privilege to hunt with Anderson, the old negro cook, whose gray beard -and bushy white wool belied his keen eyes. He had been a slave, later -a soldier in General Custer’s Big Horn expedition, and a pioneer and -hunter. His father had been massacred by Indians, and Anderson swore he -would kill any Indian on sight.</p> - -<p>One of our hunting trips near Crandall Creek was especially memorable. -“Mr. Jaggar, I smell sheep up on that shelf!”, said Anderson. And he -climbed up a pine tree growing at the bottom against the limestone -cliff. He laid his Winchester rifle on top of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_9">[9]</span> steep slide rock -slope at the foot of the tree, muzzle upward, butt end downhill. “You -mind my gun, I’ll climb out on a limb against the cliff and get on -the shelf, and yo’ all hand the gun up to me.” He reached the shelf, -made of Cambrian limestone of trilobite fame, and sitting over on it -immediately knocked down slabs of rock. They fell on the gun which -started to slide down the slope. I grabbed for the muzzle pointed -toward my throat, the stock wiggling right and left. The gun went -off and I felt a nick in my ankle. Anderson had left a cartridge in -the barrel with the hammer resting on it, but my nick was made by a -pebble ploughed up by the bullet. So the trilobites took a shot at me. -“Well, this is natural history,” I murmured. Old Anderson was less -philosophical. He cussed me for letting the rifle kick itself far down -among the trees.</p> - -<p>Elk, grouse, blacktail deer, antelope, rattlesnakes, prairie dogs, -skunks, badgers, owls, whistling martens, wild sheep, and the grizzlies -we never saw alive were all part of the great West. So were the bucking -cayuses and kicking mules with which we lived, numerous ranchers, -prospectors, soldiers, sportsmen, and guides. Once we were joined by a -sheriff looking for an escaped desperado from Red Lodge Prison.</p> - -<p>Just before I left the Yellowstone, I visited the hot springs and -geysers. With more than 4,000 vents, the geyser basins are steaming -areas in the forest. At Mammoth, the carbonate terraces show exquisite -ripples and sculptured cups in steps. One hotter group of waters, -through the igneous lavas and granites, becomes full of silica and -deposits sinter. The other, through limestones, deposits travertine. -The alkaline siliceous waters deposit such strong silica edifices -as to hold the explosive steam boilers of the geysers. Both silica -and lime deposits are led to gorgeous sculpturing and to brilliant -colors at their borders caused by the blue-green algae, which live at -temperatures up to 150° Fahrenheit.</p> - -<p>The boiling waters have been superheated volcanically since Tertiary -volcano times, when first dark magnesian, and afterwards siliceous, -lavas were ejected. Here is the same order Daly and I found in Vermont; -the dark rocks first, rifting through slate, the granites last, with -quartz cutting the dark rocks. The cavities among the Yellowstone -geysers show quartz.</p> - -<p>The surprise to me was that the geyser basins were eternally breaking -down, cracking, dissolving, making new geysers in the forest. Instead -of being chiefly deposition, the hot spring action is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_10">[10]</span> chiefly erosion. -It is a vast cycle of hot magma gases and rainwaters from Tertiary -times to now; from 20 million years ago to now. A long time.</p> - -<p>Remember that the last retreat of the glacier-period ice was only -20,000 years ago. That ice found the geyser basins in full swing. A -thousand times farther back were the Yellowstone volcanoes in full -activity, and they kept going while the continent lifted and pushed -the Gulf of Mexico from the Great Plains to where it is now. And yet -that 20 million years was only a twenty-fifth of the time back to the -trilobites, and a Yellowstone seabottom bed of that age is under all -the lavas. Our schoolbook history is pretty small.</p> - -<p>In all directions the ground of Norris Geyser Basin is cracking and -changing. The geysers are utterly unreliable, here today and mere hot -springs or empty cracks tomorrow. Old Faithful intervals range from -thirty-eight to eighty-one minutes, quite irregular. The New Crater -was a squirting, scalding jet which killed the trees and vegetation -all about. Its seemingly regular, twenty-five foot jets shot up at -forty-five degrees inclination about every three minutes. Later, in -1922, I was to find this geyser totally different. Careful studies -have shown that water of this elevation boils at 199° Fahrenheit; one -geyser gave off 253° Fahrenheit, or fifty-four degrees of superheat, -seventy-two feet down its shaft. This is the only place of superheated -waters known on earth. The roaring steam of the Black Growler has -eighty-one degrees of superheat. The quantity of carbon, sulfur, and -chlorine in the waters is so excessive, though it is very small in the -rock, that a source of heat from volcanic gas is certain.</p> - -<p>The net result is thousands of boiling springs of rainwater, soaking a -sponge of rhyolite rock over hundreds of square miles, erupting over a -remnant volcanic furnace beneath, and eroding and dissolving out basins -at the headwaters of the Mississippi.</p> - -<p>Here is an object lesson in volcanic erosion. Here is a perpetual -eruption of volcanic gases which has dwindled after millions of years -of melting siliceous and carbonaceous rocks. It recrystallizes them -as andesites, rhyolites, and obsidians, and mixes deep steam with -rainwater to do the work of erosion and water solution and of deposits, -over a vent at the heart of the Rocky Mountains. As usual, this vent -has cluttered itself from age to age with the melt of the deep earth -crust, namely basalt, which Yellowstone’s lavas show repeatedly from -bottom to top of its accumulations. And as<span class="pagenum" id="Page_11">[11]</span> usual, the vents themselves -are hard to recognize, buried as they are under heapings.</p> - -<p>In 1897 I returned to the Yellowstone, where I visited Death Gulch, -a dismal solfataric gully with a trickle of cold, acid water near -Cache Creek. Accompanied by Dr. F. P. King, I climbed up this gorge, -where there was a bad smell and burning oppression of the lungs from -hydrogen sulfide. It was a V-shaped trench 50 feet deep in volcanic -puddingstones, whitened with alum and epsom salts. Bubbles rose through -the water in many places.</p> - -<p>The remains of eight big bears were found in the gorge, clustered in -one place. The latest victim was a young grizzly with a clot of blood -staining his nostrils from his last hemorrhage. Poison gas had killed -him. Earlier visitors had found squirrels, hares, and butterflies and -other insects killed by gas. Probably both sulfuretted hydrogen and -carbonic acid gas do murder in still weather. However, we had the wind -blowing up the gulch. We lit matches in hollows and carbon dioxide did -not extinguish them. The same thing had happened when Mr. Weed in 1888 -tested for carbon dioxide at Death Gulch.</p> - -<p>Now, knowing the case of Mr. Clive, the Englishman, and his guide, -Wylie, who were overwhelmed by hydrogen sulfide while photographing -Boiling Lake on December 10, 1901, it looks to me as though the -rotten-egg smell may play a large part in the killings at Death -Gulch, as well as in some poison tragedies of Java. Boiling Lake is -at the south end of Dominica Island north of Martinique. There are -four solfataras and the scalding lake, the latter near the interior -village of Laudat, at the head of a volcanic valley, and four miles -on horseback from Roseau, a shore town southwest. When Mr. Clive, -Wylie, and Matson—another native guide—looked down at the hot pool, -Matson noticed it boiling without vapor, and called attention to the -danger. However, they went on to the lake. Matson later reported, “I -inhaled something offensive and felt as if I was dying. I ran, and lost -consciousness. I came to in a ravine and found Wylie lying where I had -left him.” Clive, refusing to leave Wylie, sent Matson for help, but -when rescue parties arrived, both men were dead.</p> - -<p>At Boiling Lake there was no eruption, no vapor, only the very bad -smell. All the symptoms indicated a sudden change in the pool from -steam to excessive hydrogen sulfide. And five months later, at Pelée -across the channel from Dominica, excessive hydrogen sulfide set off -the great explosions.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_12">[12]</span></p> - -<p>In view of these phenomena it seems likely that Death Gulch in the -Yellowstone also kills with sulfur gas, the odor of which is so strong -there. Day and Allen associate hydrogen sulfide with the limited -Yellowstone sulfate areas, of small water discharged, and such is -Death Gulch. One part hydrogen sulfide in 200 parts of air is fatal to -mammals, and it may come up in gushes. Carbonic acid asphyxiates, but -it is not a poison and when it is free is so heavy as to mix with air -very little. Death Gulch is not a place of lime deposition like Mammoth -Hot Springs, where carbonated water decomposes underlying limestone.</p> - -<p>Europe was to be the next step in my education. As assistant in -petrography and graduate student at Harvard, I was encouraged by -Wolff to plan for Heidelberg. There I was to find H. Rosenbusch, who -had put system into the infinite series of minerals in rocks. But my -journey to Heidelberg began with a geography congress in London and -a geology congress in Zurich. These meetings were with such bigwigs -as Lord Curzon, Henry M. Stanley, and famous arctic explorers, and I -was surprised to find that all these VIP’s looked like ordinary men. -Unfortunately for me, this realization came a little late.</p> - -<p>Looking for a luncheon beer garden in Zurich, I picked up a small -side-whiskered Englishman, and suggested we join a group of foreign -geologists in a buffet. “Oh no,” he replied, “no beer. I only want a -cup of tea and a biscuit.” So I left him and crudely and youthfully -joined the younger men in the beer parlor for sauerkraut and wienies -and Munich beer. Later at the opening meeting, the Geological Congress -was addressed in French by the famous Sir Archibald Geikie, Director -General of the Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, and the -author of “The textbook of geology,” the greatest of geology manuals. -He was my pickup, whom I had deserted at lunch time. I had lost the -opportunity of a lifetime, for a tête-a-tête with the world’s most -famous geologist.</p> - -<p>Before going to Munich, Harry Gummeré of Haverford and I trekked -through Denmark in a third class carriage amid peasants smoking -fearful-smelling tobacco in long china-bowl pipes. Then we crossed to -Christiansand in Norway. We traversed the fjords north to Trondhjem -by rowboat, in “stoolcars” with little girl drivers. Then we traveled -on foot, and everywhere in rain. Waterfalls were so numerous we never -wanted to hear of another one. We climbed up to Stalheim from Bergen, -saw the Jordalsknut, a magnificent<span class="pagenum" id="Page_13">[13]</span> half dome in a vast granite canyon -like Yosemite. We rowed around the Kaiser’s yacht in the Nordfjord, -and tried to pick him out on deck. We got soaked with days of rain in -a backcountry village, and went to the inn, got into bed, and sent our -clothing to dry in the kitchen.</p> - -<p>The local Norwegian bank looked at our Brown Brothers letter of credit -and said, “Nothing doing,” which inspired us to compose a poem:</p> - - <div class="poetry-container"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div>We’re so happy we don’t know what to do.</div> - <div>We haven’t any clothes to wear,</div> - <div>We’re wet all through and through.</div> - <div>We haven’t any money and we ought to feel quite blue</div> - <div class="hangingindent">But we don’t, we feel so happy, we don’t know what to do.</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - -<p>Fortunately, the innkeeper was amused by our poem and sympathetic -toward our plight. He took our IOU’s and told us we could have all the -money we wanted and to send it back when we reached Trondhjem.</p> - -<p>From Trondhjem we crossed Scandinavia by rail to Stockholm, like Venice -a city of canals. Delightful maiden ladies kept the breakfast place -and served us with many queer breads, goats’-milk cheese, and sublime -cleanliness. The canal boat took us across Sweden to Göteborg. It was -a little steamer, from the porthole of which we saw a cow comfortably -grazing a few feet away. And we saw and were impressed by the superb -landscaping of lawns, by tree horticulture, and by lock masonry. In -both Norway and Sweden the people talked English, the national costumes -were delightful, the girls were pretty, and everybody was clean and -democratic.</p> - -<p>The winter semester of 1894–1895 was spent in Munich, where Groth’s -mineral and crystal collections were the main attraction, and where I -heard the lectures of Sir Doktor Privy-Councillor Knight Karl A. von -Zittel, author of six huge volumes on fossil shells, fossil horses, -fossil dragons, and fossil trees, and a history of geology. We once saw -him rigged out in gold braid and an admiral’s fore-and-aft cocked hat -for some imperial function.</p> - -<p>He was a forceful lecturer. The assistant arranged diagrams on the -rack, the students gathered, and then his majesty entered. Everyone -rose and Zittel held forth with a rattan pointer: “Es gibt, meine -Herren, ein ganze anzahl von ausgezeichnete beobachten über” and so -forth. Then he whacked the drawings, and made graceful<span class="pagenum" id="Page_14">[14]</span> allusion to -American investigators as he explained a giant stegosaurus.</p> - -<p>In the “Heidelberger Geologischer Panoptikum,” as an attic room on the -Neckar was called, I afterwards posted a ditty based on “Ole Uncle Ned”:</p> - - <div class="poetry-container"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div>There was an Orthopod</div> - <div>Stegosaurus Marshii</div> - <div>Laid him down on his Jurassic bed.</div> - <div>He had a row of shovels down the middle of his back</div> - <div>But he didn’t have a very big head.</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div><i>Chorus</i>:</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Hammer, hammer, hammer on the stone</div> - <div>Chisel, chisel, chisel on the bone</div> - <div>There’s no more rest for poor old Steg</div> - <div>For Zittel couldn’t leave him alone.</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - -<p>Heidelberg days were memorable for the lectures of Rosenbusch, -Goldschmidt, and Osann; for laboratory system; and for long collection -trips. With specimen bag and hammer, we went to Saxony, Bohemia and -the Vosges Mountains, the Black Forest, and the Oberwald. I had a -large, pointed hammer named Umslopagaas, after Rider Haggard’s hero who -wielded such a weapon. When Palache and Brock and I were in a quarry -and an unwieldy boulder had to be broken, the yell arose, “Umslopagaas -come quick!” The collection of rock specimens at “classical” -localities, meant the textbook rocks of Rosenbusch, or of Zirkel of -Leipzig. Every student dreamed of having a private collection.</p> - -<p>After the Ascutney experience, I was impressed by Schneeberg granite -in Saxony. At the border of the granite are slates, baked in zones -back from the granite edge: hard horn rock, spotted rock, mica rock, -then claystone. The colored geological map of Saxony was superb. This -includes the mining district of the birthplace of geology in Europe, -where in Freiberg, A. G. Werner had founded an arbitrary science in -the eighteenth century, imagining granites to be crystallized from a -world-wide ocean.</p> - -<p>In one place I found a hand specimen with tiny granite tongues which -had split their way, as liquid as alcohol, between the blackened folia -of slate. The granite itself was all crystals, but here was proof of -a fluid when the granite penetrated. What was it, how hot was it, a -gas, a foam, a paste, or a liquid? The time this occurred was millions -of years before Kaiser Wilhelm. I had found something similar in -the Yellowstone, the little dikes of sylvan intrusives in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_15">[15]</span> Absaroka -Mountains. The smallest tongues showed the most perfect granite in the -microscope, of Tertiary intrusive stocks. It was as though in these -siliceous invasions of basaltic agglomerate, nature made its best -experimental granitization on a very small scale.</p> - -<p>We soaked up the surprises of European scholarship. We pored over books -in the bookshops, loaded ourselves with microscopes, goniometers, and -four-volume textbooks. We found all the science of Europe in attractive -unbound form and had it bound in half morocco. Mineral dealers were -everywhere, offering beautifully labeled specimens. All things in -Europe seemed inexpensive.</p> - -<p>Rosenbusch, who had big brown eyes and a gray beard, came to look over -my work on feldspar, in his laboratory. When I asked enthusiastically -what make and model of German microscope I ought to buy, he turned me -around and looked deep into my eyes: “Herr Jaggar,” he said, “Es is -nicht das Mikroskop, es ist der Mensch.”</p> - -<p>Another time he produced a dense black rock and said to Matteucci of -Vesuvius, to Palache, and to me, “You are geologists. What for a rock -is that?” We, of course, got it wrong, thinking it must be a lava. It -turned out to be a black limestone, easily identified, had we scratched -it instead of putting our lenses on it. He chuckled at the gullibility -of geologists.</p> - -<p>Osann gave a course on petrographic chemistry which met at 7 -<span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>! We usually got there, but once or twice the teacher -himself was late. We would gather around Osann, who was fat and genial, -and say “Herr Professor, how about some sausages and beer and a little -breakfast?” He always replied “Why not? There is plenty of time,” and -we sought the nearest cafe.</p> - -<p>Some professors got up at two o’clock in the morning and wrote, taking -advantage of the quiet hours. Rosenbusch had a high desk and wrote -standing up. Their objectives were to produce enormous tomes listing -all crystals and all rocks and all publications, in all languages. This -is German science. Its password is “thoroughness.”</p> - -<p>The net effect of German scholarship on me was a feeling of irksomeness -and resentment, but what I learned of thoroughness and of mechanisms -I value extremely. I honor the memory of those teachers, and I -honor their pupils, who by specialism have penetrated deeper and -deeper into the smaller and smaller things of matter. The ultimate -is the background material between the galaxies of the universe and -the unknown background particles of life. But for me,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_16">[16]</span> the middle -field—the development of mountains, rivers and sea bottoms, continents -and volcanoes, earthquakes and depressions of land, the sky, clouds, -and waters—all the outside world, needed experimental engineers. -Intermediate bigger things like the crust of the earth and moon, within -the time that is measured in human years, seemed to be neglected by -science, and yet to be accessible to the giant power of engineering.</p> - -<p>Rosenbusch set me at one feldspar specimen for an entire summer. I -wanted things moving, changing, and evolving. I wanted a narrative of -that tabular feldspar crystallizing, or better, a dish wherein to watch -it crystallize. To me it seemed that Faraday or Pasteur would have -described the quality of a moving feldspar medium in pressure, heat, -gas, liquid, or changing particles. The qualitative investigator would -have a furnace and make many trials and produce synthetic feldspar, and -he would write a narrative approximating what the under earth must do. -He would make melt or froth conditions successful in imitating such -rocks as basalt or granite, using hot gases.</p> - -<p>The problem of basalt and granite began to be recognized in the -eighteenth century. Werner guessed, and taught his pupils, that -these rocks were sea bottom deposits. A few determined Europeans -in the nineteenth century—Fouqué and Michel-Lévy, Doelter, and -Morozewicz—melted mineral mixtures and made igneous rocks by cooling -them. The motive was approximation; the result was good and useful. -No one reached melting by hot gases and absorption of hot gases. No -one made granite. Volcanic rocks were imitated approximately as to -crystals, but not as to gases. And the whole of volcanism was later -proved to be gases, as is the whole of physics and astronomy and -biology. Man is largely a puff of hydrogen.</p> - -<p>These visions were what I brought back from Europe, along with much -pondering of such experimenters as Daubrée, Lacroix, Stanislas -Meunier, Reyer, and my teacher Goldschmidt, all brilliant imitators -of the earth. Goldschmidt gave a course in blowpipe analysis which -was completely original. His methods went far beyond those of his -predecessors.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, W. M. Davis had written me to come home to Harvard and give -the course in field geological surveying. This was in 1895–1896.</p> - -<p>My teaching was devised to cut up the map of Boston. I pasted the -pieces in notebooks and sent out students in pairs, equipped<span class="pagenum" id="Page_17">[17]</span> with -map books. They were to keep pencils sharp, use a uniform system, and -hammer off specimens from ledges. They were to examine the rock under -a magnifying glass, then name it; but I cautioned them, “If you don’t -know the rock, call it ‘FRDK, funny rock don’t know.’” Students marked -the page opposite each map with symbols for the rocks on that map. Then -they came together in seminar, and we made a colored map of the geology -of Boston. Laurence La Forge, now professor at Tufts College, was my -student and later my assistant. He published the results of our work -many years after the study was made.</p> - -<p>When teaching was extended into experimental geology and geology of -the United States, laboratories were set up in the basement of Agassiz -Museum and I was given carte blanche to furnish them. I equipped them -with a water tank, a gas furnace for melting and recrystallizing -minerals, pressure machines, an air compressor, and motors. Students -were assigned experiments with wax, plaster, cement, sands, coal dust, -and marble dust. They imitated strata, rivers, deltas, intrusions, and -mountain folds, and familiarized themselves with the way solids break.</p> - -<p>Each man took a special arbeit for his final thesis, and worked by -himself with clock or metronome, thermometer or pressure gauge, -spring balance or centimeter scale, and he reviewed the experiments -of the past. Prominent among my students were Ralph Stone, afterwards -state geologist for Pennsylvania; Vernon Marsters of Indiana; Julius -Eggleston of Riverside, California; and Ernest Howe of Yale.</p> - -<p>In the course on United States geology were such students as Amadeus -Grabau who became leading paleontologist of China; Stefansson the -arctic explorer; Ellsworth Huntington, afterwards the distinguished -Yale author and geographer; and Franklin Delano Roosevelt. With so -many Roosevelts at Harvard, I quite forgot my famous student until -his first visit to Hawaii, in 1934. Mr. Roosevelt had remembered his -geology professor, though, and an aide phoned the Volcano headquarters -to request that I be at Hilo when the President’s ship arrived.</p> - -<p>The United States geology course was the product of my two seasons in -the Yellowstone and my interest in the great Hayden, King, and Powell -surveys. The youthful geologists needed to know the continent and its -details.</p> - -<p>The big Washington monographs and folios have made a gallery<span class="pagenum" id="Page_18">[18]</span> of -underground pictures of one of the greatest continents, and these are -supplemented by the work of the Canadian geologists. America shows -Appalachian folds and thrusts, fault blocks of the Utah plateaus, and -eruptives of the Rockies. It contains the amazing metamorphism of very -recently upheaved sea beds along the Pacific shore. It records the -remnant sea bottoms and dust-storm deposits of the vast plains, bearing -beside the obvious buffalo skulls, the old bones of whales, reptiles, -and rhinos.</p> - -<p>Superposed on all this is so-called physiography, the science of -falling materials and water, the rotting of the lands, and the -accumulation of debris. A net of rivers over ground and under ground is -what stands out, and the living river pattern has changed incessantly -through the ages. But through and over it is a moving process of the -ages, kinetic, alive with glaciers, hot springs, underground heat or -surface cold, soaking rains and rushing storms, earthquake and uplift, -fault motions and sinkings. Everything is in motion to one who senses -slow motion, occasionally breaking down resistance and charging ahead. -And geology is a sense of slow motion and its jumps for 5 million -years, with this human year, here and now, of great importance. -Geology, like humanity, is not just history.</p> - -<p>Under all are gas and heat; Saratoga Springs, Yellowstone, the Comstock -Lode, and Mount Shasta. The series gets hotter from New York to -California. And out at sea the refuse of the continent is dumping all -day long. And science is anxiously waiting to learn how hot sea bottom -is.</p> - -<p>In addition to laboratory work, I wanted to conduct cross-country hikes -for such subjects as botany, geology, and zoology in the forests and -swamps and hills of Massachusetts. And it was in connection with these -plans that I learned a lesson in simplicity. I went to President Eliot, -remembering the high sounding “Pierian Sodality” name for the college -orchestra, to get a classical calendar name for my cross-country -tramps. He said, “What, in brief, is your idea?” I replied, “In -ordinary language they will be natural history walks.” He took a pen -and said, “Why not this for a name?” On the paper was written “Natural -History Walks.”</p> - -<p>An important part of our curriculum was the Tuesday evening geological -conference, during which any graduate worker could give a paper. To -these conferences came, at different times, Brooks, Spurr, Schrader, -Goodrich, Mendenhall, P. S. Smith, Mansfield, Matthes, Lane, Crosby, -Barton, Douglas Johnson, Daly, and all the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_19">[19]</span> Harvard staff. The men -got confidence in public speaking and exhibiting, and the professors -commented in kindly fashion. Topics ranged from summer work in the far -west and current studies in meteorology under Ward to petrographic or -experimental work with projection apparatus under Wolff and me. Jackson -and Hyatt brought in fossils, and the Geological Survey was always in -evidence as a goal for young men, or a subject for review. Shaler’s -comments were accompanied by a string of good stories. The conferences -taught students how to teach by making them speak in public. It was one -of Shaler’s most productive inventions, and has been copied far and -wide.</p> - -<p>Walcott in the Survey looked to Harvard to produce field mappers of -rocks. Graduate students had the choice between process and history, -geography linked to school teaching, microscopical petrography and -crystallography linked to the minerals and rock collections, or -evolution linked to museums and fossils. Beecher of Yale had found -hairs on the legs of fossil trilobites. Someone else had found fossil -bacteria. A group of petrographers got together and founded an -artificial classification of fire-made rocks based on chemistry—no -use at all to the field man with a rock specimen. Agassiz had built a -magnificent museum. The research motive was based on collections; the -public exhibit motive was based on evolution and big, rare things. -The publication motive imitated Europe; “be as technical as possible, -detest reporters and newspapers, and never be popular.”</p> - -<p>In 1897 Harvard University gave me a Ph.D. degree, after a double -thesis and an oral examination. I passed the examination very -awkwardly, as my capacity for remembering text book information is nil. -My theses were (1) on an invention, a mineral hardness instrument; and -(2) on the included fragments found in Boston dikes.</p> - -<p>The microsclerometer, as the instrument was called (that is, a -microscope scratcher), was designed to diamond drill a mineral to a -fixed depth. The hardness was measured by the time consumed, on the -theory that the energy required for the standard hole varied with the -time, and the time with the hardness. The number of rotations with a -constant speed motor is a measure of the time.</p> - -<p>The paper was published in America and Germany, and elaborately -reviewed by a microscopical society in England. The instrument was -borrowed by H. C. Boynton, a graduate student in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_20">[20]</span> metallurgy, and he -got good results on the microscopic crystals that constitute steel. -The inventing and constructing with the aid of Sven Nelson, a Swedish -mechanician of ability, were to me an education in themselves. For one -thing, I learned how enthusiastically science feeds on ultra-little -things.</p> - -<p>My petrography of included quartz fragments in basalt dikes was partly -published, but made no hit at all. It was outdoor work, it concerned -the granite problem, it revealed the “fluid” of granite minerals as -“waters or vapors” having no effect on augite, the green fusible -mineral of basalt. But the same fluid was revealed as corroding quartz -inclusions, harder and supposedly more infusible.</p> - -<p>If temperature had anything to do with it, the granite fluid could melt -holes in quartz inclusions, but the mantle of augite dark crystals -which the basalt had plastered on the outside of the quartz fragments -remained unmelted. This was my first adventure with the ancient problem -of fusion, or melting. I became convinced that granite fluids, like -the makers of gold quartz veins, are low temperature vapors or gasses. -This agrees with what is now well known, that silica has a low melting -point. But melting and temperature are not the whole story.</p> - -<p>To me, the spreading of one’s fame by scientific papers was -commercialization. “You must make your name known” and “what have -you published?” rang through the scientific halls of learning. No -suggestion of art, literature, drama, beauty, or philosophy ever came -to me from my scientific colleagues. Some literary friends, like -William Garrott Brown and my classmate William Vaughn Moody, thought -readability important. Brown warned me against the dullness of small -papers in scientific writing. Agassiz warned me against exactly the -opposite, namely, against popularizing or being interesting. This -antithesis between science journals and art probably never comes -into the field of vision of many young scientific writers. They see -only “Write for your scientific peers and for no one else, that is -your world.” All my life I have been plagued by “be as technical as -possible” versus “tell the public what it all means.”</p> - -<p>I suspect that our system is producing diagrams and statistics in -geology (and perhaps in science generally) and no longer produces works -of art. I know few geologists who are fine draftsmen. They accept -photography instead. I know none who is a literary stylist. They write -for ultra conciseness and tabulations. The nineteenth century taught -classical English and drawing.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_21">[21]</span></p> - -<p>Geology is a science of the dreamland of the earth’s interior and -of millennia of the ages and of the overwhelming expanse of rich, -productive, unknown ores under ocean bottoms. It is a field for men of -letters, and for new Magellans, Humboldts, and Darwins bursting with -imagination and the will to explore.</p> - -<p>This seeming digression is really germane to the purport of this book. -It is one man’s review of a half century of evolving discovery. Also -a half century of evolving error and departure from the ways of the -leaders. The leaders, from William Smith’s thoroughness with strata -in England, to Clarence King’s summary of a thousand miles across the -Cordillera, explored upward and outward. It persuaded governments. -Persuasion before the court of public opinion no longer uses and -employs explorer men of letters. The United Nations is not employing -Clarence Kings on the world geology of the remaining three quarters of -the earth.</p> - -<p>The confusion, the secrecy, and the loss of art are occasioned by -vulgarization. In 1875 real men of distinction explored the earth. -Now that is left to incorporated establishments, teaching trusts, and -calculating machines. Clarence King was a linguist and was the son of a -trader in China. His Yale training under Dana and Brush gave him real -culture. His founding of the United States Geological Survey was the -evolution of a genius who disliked politics and whose friends rejoiced -with him in great prose, good pictures, and fine sculpture. Then he was -wrecked by a false ambition and the decadence of the very thing which -made him great, the simplicity of high thinking, noble writing, and -cultivated friends. Lacking today are cultivated boys with an ambition -to explore the globe, both under the sea and in the wilderness.</p> - -<p>Geology in 1897 was a jigsaw puzzle, with a choice between the museum -and the field, between the easy thing of collections, fine microscopes, -and the scientific societies, and the hard thing of exploring the -globe. Collections and instruments were an overpowering attraction, -particularly when photography and experiment were involved. But -roughing it in the wilderness has made some of the finest characters I -ever knew.</p> - -<p>Geological surveys of the west continued to occupy me during the -summers. I worked in the Black Hills of South Dakota under Samuel -Franklin Emmons, and my associates included John Mason Boutwell, John -Duer Irving, Philip Sidney Smith, Bailey Willis, and N. H. Darton. -Boutwell was to become a copper geologist and copper<span class="pagenum" id="Page_22">[22]</span> magnate in the -mines of Utah; Irving, Professor of Economic Geology at Lehigh and -Yale; and Smith, head of the Alaskan branch of the U. S. Geological -Survey.</p> - -<p>Being with Emmons, Willis, and Darton in the Black Hills field was to -learn variously how geologists work in the field and how their minds -work. Emmons was of the Boston Brahmins, a Harvard man, mining geology -his specialty, with the Clarence King tradition of the Great West, the -40th Parallel Survey.</p> - -<p>Bailey Willis as Chief Geologist spent a week with us in camp, and I -saw his genius for drawing in line, and he explained the four-step -pacing method. Willis mapped distances by pacing across mountains, -counting in his head, while talking at the same time. He compiled in -color a geologic map of the United States. His marvellous experiments -on mountain folding, his explorations in all the continents and his -poetic faith in hydrogen and crystallization as internal forces made -his name immortal.</p> - -<p>N. H. Darton mapped the Great Plains; and his genius was for hard work, -long field hours, color photography at its very beginning, and an -extraordinary eye for detail in the field.</p> - -<p>Darton showed me how to find the Chadron Formation on the divides, -white clays easily overlooked. Darton’s many years, traversing the -entire West, and publishing superb monographs of artesian waters and -of immense fossil sea bottoms, summarizing the geology of whole states -from Texas to Canada, ranks him among the great geologists. I learned -from him detail of infinite discovery possible in every rock ledge. He -found tiny fossil shells everyone else had missed. Powell and King had -painted impressionistic geology. Darton followed and painted thousands -of miniatures, but also combined these into large books.</p> - -<p>Charles Doolittle Walcott was Director of the U. S. Geological Survey -at that time, and no greater geologist ever lived. His Cambrian -fossils, those of the first great fossil-making “Mediterranean Sea” of -North America, lay buried in the United States from shore to shore. -Unswervingly he followed every inland sea of 531 million years ago and -thereafter, through advances three times across the continent. Lands -were of moderate relief and climates were mild. Marine animals and -sea weeds, large and small, were abundant for 80 million years. And -remember that a million years is a thousand times the interval since -William the Conqueror.</p> - -<p>The continent Walcott mapped of that ancient time was the North<span class="pagenum" id="Page_23">[23]</span> -America of today, with sags that let in shallow sea strips and -pools where the Cambrian shales and limestones now lie. He wrote a -description of that vast history, and all his later summers were spent -in the Canadian Rockies, where fossil-bearing strata make the most -startling mountain peaks on earth.</p> - -<p>My Black Hills surveys of 1898 and 1899 were near Deadwood and -Spearfish and Mato Tepee, the Devil’s Tower National Monument. In -those badlands with weird desert gorges, appear the bones of ancient -rhinoceroses and many grotesque animals, huge and tiny, of 40 to 60 -million years ago. We found little bones in white earth on the divides -still preserved against erosion.</p> - -<p>Our big job was to map the laccoliths near Deadwood. A laccolith, or -rock cistern, is a lava body which in very ancient times squirted into -the cracks of the strata. The lava had penetrated between the strata of -the northern cover of the Black Hills, swelled to lenses between the -strata; and, particularly, it selected and penetrated the soft shale -beds which grow thicker and more numerous upward among the formations. -Thus after erosion of the present landscape, both large and small lava -lenses were revealed as resistant hills, the largest toward the bottom -of the pile of strata and the smallest and steepest toward the top in -thick, black ancient mud deposits.</p> - -<p>Mostly, the laccoliths were injections of volcanic fluid up a crack, -which met a hard bed and bent to squeeze the paste or lava into a soft -layer. The result was an underground lava flow which ruptured the beds. -Apparently the first rush brought up fragments of the rocks below. This -fragmentary stuff of mud and gravel was overridden by the lava, until -the latter penetrated horizontally a mile or two between strata, arched -the layers above, and solidified at the Devil’s Tower with vertical -columns like the Giant’s Causeway in Ireland.</p> - -<p>This group of subterranean volcanic eruptions between strata probably -came under sea bottom at the same time that the Yellowstone upland -began its open-air outpourings farther west. But in the Black Hills -there is no sign the laccolith lavas ever broke up to the top country.</p> - -<p>The Black Hills, like the Rocky Mountains, were a long time rising in -waves of action, whereas the lava intrusion was a relatively short -episode of one of the latest of these spasms. However, that episode -entails a long story of numerous injections. It takes us down into -crust and along through the millennia.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_24">[24]</span></p> - -<p>Always think in millions of years. It is wise also to think in millions -of miles and to remember that the sun and the Milky Way are parts of -the same system as the earth. And remember that a ledge or a boulder -doesn’t worry about living 20 million or 100 million years. A skull -is a boulder. That old brontotherium rhinoceros with a forked horn, -standing eight feet high and fifteen feet long, lived in the upper -Oligocene, when clay and volcanic ash were being deposited in the Bad -Lands of South Dakota. Probably vast flood plains of rivers were his -habitat, swamp reeds and leaves were his food, and floods washed his -bones and buried his skull where we find them today. The country of -open glades was probably like the safari land of central Africa.</p> - -<p>Brontotherium’s skull in Chicago Natural History Museum dates from -about 30 million years ago. The bones are scattered, and few complete -skeletons have been found. Man’s ancestor may have started 10 million -years ago, but the nearest approach to an ape who lived in the trees of -old Bronto’s forests was an opossum. Furthermore, nothing like flint -tools have been found in the rhino strata. The apes started in Europe -and Asia in the next geologic period, and some fossilized monkeys have -been found in South America. But men and monkeys are too soft. They -don’t make good fossils.</p> - -<p>The bones we found were of turtles, in clays upheaved on the top of the -Black Hills uplift. These clays were afterwards eroded into the present -valleys, and probably were contemporaneous with the riverbed silts, -where the rhinoceros skulls were found. So our turtles and rhinos were -no doubt neighbors in 29,998,000 B.C.</p> - -<p>Our sojourn in the Black Hills was not without adventure. One evening -when Boutwell and I were riding home to Deadwood, I dismounted and -jumped into the shrubs of a gully to knock a rock specimen off a ledge. -From beneath my feet came a buz-z-z like a swarm of bees. I had jumped -right on a rattlesnake and could feel his coils against my ankle, and -no leggings that day. Boutwell called out, “Oh let me see him! I’ve -never seen a rattlesnake.” I made a suitable reply and, somehow, leapt -clear before the snake had a chance to strike.</p> - -<p>Another adventure concerned my gold watch, a gift from my dad on my -twenty-first birthday. I lost it from a chain which broke against -the saddle pommel at some dismounting point. I advertised for it by -placards at railway stations and, amazingly, it was returned.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_25">[25]</span> A -Salvation Army man found the watch, badly trampled by my horse, at a -back country place, brought it to me in Deadwood, and received the -reward. I took it to the maker in Waltham, where it was restored; and I -am wearing it fifty-four years later, converted from a hunting case to -a stemwinder.</p> - -<p>John Irving of Yale, whose father had been a mining geologist in the -Great Lakes district, was one of the most lovable companions I ever -camped and tramped with. We were together in the Black Hills, where -we hired a wagon outfit to cross the Hills to the Devil’s Tower. The -personnel was a masterpiece of improvisation. The cook was a fat boy -who told marvellous tales of adventures. Among other things, he had -been a human ostrich in the circus, and he assured us that chewing up -glass and swallowing it did no harm if you knew how. So elaborate was -his cooking that again and again we ran out of grub. Furthermore, meals -were generally late, but we knew better than to hurry the supper and -his finishing touches. When finally a meal was ready, he advanced to -our tent, bowed, and called out, “Gentlemen, you will now proceed to -sagastuate.”</p> - -<p>Johnston the teamster was an ambitious South Dakota high school -graduate and farm boy who wanted to learn all he could from geological -surveyors. A few years ago, in the nineteen forties, I received a -letter from him in southwest Africa saying that he had been successful -in placer mining for gold and diamonds and that he was writing a book -about it.</p> - -<p>Arizona was my fourth field of fire-made irruptions; after New England, -the Black Hills, and the Yellowstone (old, middle-aged, and young). To -the Bradshaw Mountains between Prescott and Phoenix and lying south -of the Grand Canyon, I was sent with Palache to make the Bradshaw -Mountains folio.</p> - -<p>At Prescott we had the rare privilege of talks with Clarence King. An -aged bachelor dying of tuberculosis, he was living in a cottage with -an old negro servant. King was a fascinating talker and writer. He had -been the first director of the Geological Survey and was the author -of “Mountaineering in the Sierra Nevada.” His great summary volume -of the 40th Parallel, the survey along the Union Pacific, is one of -the classics in literature and in geology. His model, unhappily for -him, was Alexander Agassiz, who made a great fortune out of Calumet -and Hecla copper. When King went into mining to make a fortune he -contracted tuberculosis. He died soon after we saw him.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_26">[26]</span></p> - -<p>The problem of what makes granite was never better illustrated than -in the Bradshaws. One formation, in upright bands for miles across -country, showed dark schist, diorite, granite, diabase, granite, light -schist, quartzite, granite, gabbro, and schist again, like a succession -of dikes, slabs, and veins side by side. A mountain spur, like a -bookshelf with colored books on edge, is called Crooks Complex, and was -named after Crooks Canyon. The trend was with the pinched strata but -the stuff was mostly igneous.</p> - -<p>It was as though a mechanism of melting-up was mixed with intrusion -of fluid, but what fluid? A glass? or a gas? There was no smearing, -but clean-cut dikes and schist slabs on edge. In the big granite hills -there were contact breakups with fragments of schist imprisoned in -granite, but not smeared or streaked. The impression was of millions -of years and thousands of episodes, all dike-making and guided by the -upright lamination or vertical structure of the ancient altered tightly -folded clay and sand strata, squeezed together by horizontal pressure.</p> - -<p>Since learning of the million-year periods taught by radioactivity, and -of the many million years within a single era of geology, I have begun -to wonder whether these very old formations may represent hundreds of -millennia, with granitization happening over and over again, in each -geological revolution of upheaval and mountain building above.</p> - -<p>Granitization, then, is a process of heat pressure, gases, melting, -and crystal making, of which the ancient words magma or emulsion or -paste give no conception. And volcanism, up through the deep crust, is -the mystery devil. May it not be nucleonics and melting of deep crust, -rather than chemistry? And is not the mystery devil always hydrogen gas?</p> - -<p>At the beginning of the twentieth century I visited two places which -are close together and related to the Bradshaw Mountains. One was -Searchlight in the southern tip of Nevada, the other was the Grand -Canyon of the Colorado River.</p> - -<p>I shall never forget my arrival in Searchlight. A strike of miners was -going on, and Stanford geology students had been sent in as strike -breakers. Big Bill, the sheriff, brought the boys across the desert -from the railway. His buckboard was in front and the Stanforders -followed in a wagon. The strikers lined the road out from Searchlight, -intent on loosing the horses. But when they saw Bill’s star and his -notched six-shooter, they dropped their hands to their<span class="pagenum" id="Page_27">[27]</span> sides and stood -like a row of tin soldiers, while Big Bill led the way through at a -gallop, cursing them roundly.</p> - -<p>When I got off the train at Ivanpah, a small place with only a few -houses, I spoke to a young station agent where the ancient Wells Fargo -sign hung. He told me that the Quartette Mine team would meet me soon, -and shortly a cloud of dust on the desert proclaimed the vehicle which -came dashing up, a phaeton rig with two big horses. The five men inside -were armed, with rifles and pump shotguns protruding. One man pulled -out a heavy leathern pouch, and another stood over it with his rifle. -“Come on, Jack, lets go over to Wolf Saloon.” “No,” said Jack, “not -till I get my receipt.” The mild station man yanked out a receipt -book, filled the blank acknowledging $20,000 in bullion from the mine, -threw the pouch into an open safe, and Jack with his receipt departed, -leaving the gold brick to the mystic protection of that sign, “Wells -Fargo and Co.” Two ablebodied bandits could easily have held up the -whole rail terminus.</p> - -<p>When I started for the mine, accompanied by detectives and guards, we -all carried pistols in holsters strapped under our arms. En route, we -spent Christmas amid the smell of sagebrush and the glorious sunset -lights of a purple desert. Once more I murmured, “So this is natural -history.”</p> - -<p>I was employed to examine the Quartette Gold Mine, and the geologic -mystery of the origin of a million dollars in dirt between a level -200 feet down and another at a depth of 500 feet. The million dollars -was along a crushed, slipped, so-called vein, where a fault followed -the upright bedding of just such gneisses, granite dikes, and schists -as had made Crooks Complex in the Bradshaws. Where gold was richest, -minerals were richest—beautiful orange-colored wulfenite, green -chrysocolla, blue azurite, onyx, quartz, and calcite. Everywhere were -quantities of gouge, or crushed clays, from grinding walls. Native gold -particles were distributed through all this.</p> - -<p>The schists were filled with lava fissure fillings, and the mine -was where this pattern of bands was interrupted by a very ancient -greenstone or basalt body. Hot fluids of the volcanic period, deep -underground, had accompanied fault slipping or fracture where the ore -was, the vertical fault parallel to the upright layers and across the -greenstone contact.</p> - -<p>Ore and gold particles were directly related to fracture, to the fault -slipping on an upright crack of one mountain block against another, -to the hot vapors depositing the mineral collection, and to<span class="pagenum" id="Page_28">[28]</span> renewed -crushing and sliding on the mountain blocks. This was during or -following some part of the volcanic period when all the cracks were -injected with andesite lavas, or what the miners call porphyry. The -origin of the minerals was in lead and copper sulfides which lie deeper -down.</p> - -<p>A hundred miles to the northeast is the Grand Canyon, and all around -are granite mountains, just as in Arizona. These Searchlight schists -are the same Algonkian ancient strata, recrystallized and granitized, -that make the inner gorge of the canyon, and are traversed up cracks -by volcano-making lavas, such as dot the north bank of the canyon -with crater cones. Above in the canyon are the horizontal strata from -Cambrian up to the Coal Measures and beyond. The vast maze of castles -and turrets is a net of branch valleys of the Colorado, trenching -through these old seabed deposits.</p> - -<p>Including Searchlight ore, the whole history going backward is top -country desert, deep trench, strata piled in rivers and sea bottoms for -500 million years, and lastly faulting and cracking that squirted steam -and made gold minerals over and over again during the last 100 million -years. There were at least a dozen revolutions that lifted and lowered -mountain ranges and continents for 2,000 million years, and the remains -of iron-eating bacteria and of seaweeds and other living things that -go back for 1,500 million years. Through it all are granite injections -as a process, as a mystery, going over the whole range of years in -different ages, and meaning what?</p> - -<p>One of the puzzles of Grand Canyon, Bradshaw Mountains, and -Searchlight—if not also of New England, the Black Hills, and the -Yellowstone—is faulting. A fault is what a geologist means by a crack -down deep where the country rock has dropped down on one side so as to -make a discordance across country. Earthquake faults make a visible -bank or step or sidewise slip, changing the surface after an earthquake.</p> - -<p>The northwestern states are partly mapped as fault block mountains. The -island of Hawaii has a series of fault step blocks southeast, slipping -toward the ocean. The steep east face of the Sierra Nevada is a fault -fracture.</p> - -<p>Professor Shaler once stopped me on the street and said of my field -work, “Jaggar, you don’t teach faulting enough.” Faults were shown -along straight lines on the color maps of formation in the old Boston -books, and were located by guesswork if glacier deposits covered up -the ledges. It seemed to me that faults ought to be<span class="pagenum" id="Page_29">[29]</span> proved or else -omitted from the maps. Probably I too was wrong, for faults or cracks -completely concealed by soil and strata are tremendous unknown lines on -the globe.</p> - -<p>The Searchlight ore body is certainly a fault fracture, and so are -those of Tonopah and hundreds of mines. It was digging that proved it. -The cracking and slipping and steaming and mud-making on the fissure -are what brought up the minerals.</p> - -<p>A question arises as to how much the Grand Canyon itself and its -tributaries are guided by fault fractures under valleys. My impression -was in 1901, and it still is, that “Jaggar ought to teach faulting” -more than he then did.</p> - -<p>The primitive ocean blocks of earth crust sank, while continents -remained high, leaving the earth crust a mosaic of blocks large and -small, high and low. Between the blocks spout the volcanoes. I have -never agreed with C. E. Dutton that volcanic heat energy could come -from shallow pockets under those fault blocks. Even he acknowledged the -weakness of the argument. If the earth crust broke up and the blocks -variously sank in the core matter, leaving continents as a complex -of high blocks, then the blocks are deep and are still moving. The -movements are in years, year-thousands and year-millions. Volcanism up -the cracks releases core energy. So does much of fault movement, namely -earthquakes. And these facts geologists do not appreciate.</p> - -<p>So we get faulted river courses and fault cracks up which came fluids -that transformed sediments of rivers, lakes, deserts, and seas into -granite, felsite, and greenstone. These are the ancient names. There -are hundreds of other, geology names. But geology produced no Faraday.</p> - -<p>I disliked geology in 1902. And I disliked mining because of its -secrecy and its devotion to profits. Geology failed to tell businessmen -the mystery of granite, of felsite, and of greenstone. Astronomers told -the same men of mysteries, and they were fascinated. Physiology led -them to cells, plants, animals, and chemicals in the blood, solving -mystery after mystery. Men, money, inventions, engineers, buildings, -and staffs grew by leaps and bounds in those sciences. The best geology -could do was guesswork—a mastodon, a big reptile skeleton, a guesswork -color map—while seventy percent of the earth was seabottom rock, -unmapped, and twenty percent more consisted of fractures covered with -soil.</p> - -<p>Seeing the Carnegie and Rockefeller laboratories and observatories,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_30">[30]</span> I -grieved for field geology. The public did not even know that granite, -the mystery, is the commonest rock and that quartz, the gold maker, is -the commonest mineral. Nor did they know that both are almost absent -from the whole Pacific. Nor that geology is almost ignorant of their -origin and injection, if it is injection. Here was the globe, the -end product of astronomy, the most fascinating research in the whole -range of science. The source of all raw materials of commerce, yet its -fire-made rocks and its seabottom rocks remained a mystery.</p> - -<p>Before leaving the Grand Canyon, let me record my impressions of the -erosion. It is a gorge a mile deep usually described as “cut” by the -Colorado River. As I shall show in discussion of experiments with the -Grand Canyon model, it is possible, in stratified layers yielding grit -to flowing rainwater, to cut a deep canyon by surface runoff. It is -possible for underground water and tributaries from side rainfalls -to increase the volume of such a stream greatly in a hundred miles. -But Dutton’s showing of upheaved and downdropped big blocks of broken -mountains, and such obvious breaks as the Tonto and Bright Angel faults -shown to tourists as traced out by Bright Angel Canyon, prove that the -earth crust is broken. And Searchlight showed a fault to be a water -supply.</p> - -<p>The enormous canyon appeared to me to be a million-year break system -of earth-crust rotting. The water is a giant modern grinding mill of -rainfall, underground accumulation, and transport. But with five great -erosion surfaces shown in the discordances, from 2,000 million years -ago to the present day; and with upheaval of the high plateaus in block -faults, and bent strata age after age; and farther north with recent -volcanoes that spouted up the cracks, it seems more vivid to think -the valleys at least partly water-filled cracks and chasms. Volcanoes -cannot be shallow. The canyons and the great bend are different from -the Green River source, because of upward push in waves. The up-push -of the Uinta Mountains is well known to have been slow. It kept pace -with the ruptures followed by the river. Going back to Daubrée, rivers -follow cracks much more than do the textbooks.</p> - -<p>In 1899 two things happened which affected the rest of my life. First, -Director Walcott asked me to furnish estimates for a Hawaii geologic -survey, a request which eventually led me to Hawaii. Second, the -Yakutat Bay earthquake snapped on an astonished world, though most of -the world didn’t know it.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_31">[31]</span></p> - -<p>The Yakutat Bay earthquakes in Alaska, in September 1899, were -accompanied by the pushing up of the bedrock shoreline by forty-seven -feet. Lowered beneath the sea were whole forests, on glacial deposits -pulled down by submarine landslips. It was an uninhabited region at -the foot of Mount St. Elias, along a fjord penetrating far into the -mountains. It came in line with the Aleutian trench, under the Pacific, -4,000 fathoms deep. The earthquakes lasted two weeks.</p> - -<p>This colossal movement of blocks of the earth’s crust hundreds of miles -across gave one the impression that we knew little of what was going -on. Remembering that seventy-two percent of the earth’s surface is -covered by oceans and that less than ten percent is really inhabited, I -awoke to how much there was to learn. If whole forests and their roots -could float away into the Pacific currents, with all their plants and -animals and seeds and bacteria, what might not have occurred in past -ages, when such jostling of crust blocks was common.</p> - -<p>But before I was to experiment with live volcanoes came a decade of -laboratory experiment.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_32">[32]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter II</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Imitating Ripplemarks</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center">“<i>The Constitution is an experiment, as all life is an -experiment.</i>”</p> - - -<p>At the end of the century my experiments with the sclerometer, and with -the class in experimental geology, steered me for years into laboratory -experiment. Europe was headed toward geophysics and geochemistry, -meaning chiefly mathematical and statistical analysis. My vision was -nonmathematical, though I used pressures, temperatures, clocks, and -yardsticks to measure erosion, sediment, warping of strata, and melting.</p> - -<p>This took me away from petrography, for the polarizing microscope was -dealing with infinite series of minerals and molecules. I could see -nothing but infinite penetration into the smaller and smaller. Clarence -King and Frank Perret had been on the way to infinite journeying -outward to the bigger and bigger.</p> - -<p>The guiding formula was “erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and -eruption.” Measure these on the globe, imitate them with mud pies -in the laboratory. Compare the global examples with the mud pies. -Try to get the mud pies to illuminate the gigantic stream systems, -flood plains, sea bottoms, folded mountains, intrusions, and lavas -of the earth. Then try to measure in the field those processes with -observatories. So, to me, came the transition from collections to -experiments.</p> - -<p>The machinery of nature, whether with sand heaps or sand grains or -coral pebbles, is the same. It is impelled by currents flowing over -loose materials which make eddies in the lee of lumps. The eddies -are either billows or cyclones. At the middle they are billows; at -the ends they are cyclones. The billow eddies obstruct the heaping. -The cyclone eddies lengthen the heaps right and left of the current -direction. George Darwin studied the eddies by means of a drop of thick -ink in a glass tank on top of a ripple ridgelet. The ink migrated to -form underwater billows and cyclones, or vortexes. He<span class="pagenum" id="Page_33">[33]</span> used a dropper -to place the ink globule, and then watched the vortexes form as he -oscillated the tank.</p> - -<p>Low parts travel fastest, namely the points. High parts build on the -upstream side, and travel slowest, and the stuff tumbles over the crest -line and is corniced by the eddy. Snow does it, pebbles under sea do -it, and marine life adapts itself to it, wherever the food supply is -best.</p> - -<p>In the study of ripplemarks, Harry Gummeré, a graduate in astronomy, -was my collaborator. Ripplemarks are made by back-and-forth eddies on -the bottom, while big waves oscillate the water. We moved the bottom -instead of making waves in the water. A glass plate sprinkled with sand -under water in a tank was oscillated back and forth horizontally. It -was clamped under a carriage which oscillated on wire tracks stretched -across the tank. A string pulled the carriage against an elastic on -the other side. A wooden wheel and crank, set upright edgeways, had -holes and pegs to pull on the string, and the crank turns were timed -with a metronome. The holes in the flat wheel were a centimeter apart, -so that a revolution of the wheel pulled the string for every two -centimeters of travel of the carriage. Thus the sand-covered plate was -jerked back and forth under water two centimeters, four centimeters, -six centimeters, and so forth; once a second, or two seconds, or three -seconds, and so forth, by beats of the metronome.</p> - -<p>The result was beautiful ripplemarks on a glass which could be lifted -out of the water, dried, and placed over blueprint paper to preserve -the record. The sizes of ridge to ridge ripples were from a fraction of -an inch to two or more inches. The little ones diminished to zero when -the jerking was small, the big ones washed out when the jerking was too -big.</p> - -<p>The blueprints showed that both length and speed of strokes (amplitude -and acceleration of motion) made the ripples increase in size, and -somewhere between the largest and smallest sand ripples was the optimum -perfection of ripple form. The blueprints look like mackerel skies. -And mackerel-sky clouds are billows of condensation between an upper -cold stream of air and a lower moist one. In between are the same -back-and-forth billows of vortex as in our sand.</p> - -<p>At a geological conference at Harvard I showed blueprints made directly -from glass plates covered with artificial ripplemarks. At the same time -I exhibited rock slabs of fossil ripplemarks and photographs of others -shaped like horseshoes. These were variants of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_34">[34]</span> rippledrift process -seen on sandy beds of running streams. I also showed photographs of -swash marks running along the upper steep slopes of beaches. And of the -wind-formed rippledrift of dry sand dunes. From the deserts of Peru -come photographs of <i>medaños</i>, or crescent dunes, hills of sand -tapering to curved points at both ends. The points are downwind, the -high horseshoe toe of the hill is upwind, and like a coral atoll the -edifice is current-formed.</p> - -<p>Ripplemarks can form in hundreds of fathoms of ocean water if the storm -waves on the surface of the sea are big enough. A particle of water on -the crest of a wave is lifted up and down in a long vertical ellipse. -A particle deep down under the wave is lifted fore and aft in a long -horizontal ellipse. Under a three-hundred-foot length of wave in the -English Channel in deep water the bottom particles of water are shoving -sand back and forth, and making packed ripplemarks.</p> - -<p>A big sand grain becomes a lump for small sand grains to bump against. -They make a heap which piles up and lengthens out. The heaps merge and -we get a tightly packed and ridged sandy bottom. Each ridge has an eddy -first on one side, then on the other, as the water particles reverse in -direction. Oscillation builds first flocculence, then alignment, then -even spacing. The opposite sides of a ridge have equal slopes.</p> - -<p>Rippledrift is made by a current in one direction. It is usually not so -regular or in such straight ridges as ripplemarks. If a stream of water -is jetted over sand round and round in a ringshaped tank, ridges will -migrate along the bottom, but they are smeary. The regular ripples in -dry sand on dunes have flatter slopes upwind, steep scarps downwind. -They are regular, probably because wind blowing is intermittent and -back currents occur. So they become more like ripplemarks.</p> - -<p>On the bottoms of water streams, the horseshoe rippledrift requires -a nice adjustment of lumps and side points migrating downstream. All -rippling requires a sand of mixed sizes of grains. If they were all -alike they would not ripple, for the larger grains have to obstruct the -smaller ones in order to produce the ripple pattern. Rippledrifting -as a whole is a building mechanism. Mixed with wave currents which -move beaches along, including beach pebbles, it can be compounded -into building oceanic islands. The crescent dunes of the desert are -dependent on the prevailing winds being loaded with a sand supply at a -windward erosion source.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_35">[35]</span></p> - -<p>Oceanic currents depend on the winds, like the trades in the tropics, -and an obstructing bank or shoal adds surf action to the streaming. If -corallines and <i>Tridacna</i> clams and crabs add organic cements, a -horseshoe hill is built on the sea bottom. Big eddies will do the same -kind of work as little eddies. This phenomenon extends all the way -from the galaxies of stars with their beautiful spirals, to the spiral -eddies in molten lava rushing down a pit crater, or to the streaming of -protoplasm in a plant.</p> - -<p>De Candolle, the great botanist, studied rippledrift in order to try to -solve the most abstruse problem in all biology, the unsolved mystery of -cell division. At some critical point a budding cell decides to form -a partition and divide in two. Why or how? De Candolle thought that -the protoplasm granules circulating around the cell walls might start -regular lumps on those walls, and so build rippledrifts and make eddies.</p> - -<p>Thus a current and an eddy and mathematics might start many of the -doubles, triples, hexagons, and stars of the world of shells and living -tissues. And the cells could pile up in symmetry in the submicroscopic -world.</p> - -<p>The erosion of the earth’s surface reveals symmetries. River maps look -like trees with branches and with rivulets as twigs. Other symmetry is -in the horizontal plane of the ocean, where headland furnishes pebbles -and the sand sweeps into pure curves of beach and bar and cusp. So a -delta builds into a lake of leaf shape and annual layers are added as -the flood seasons come.</p> - -<p>Some of the fingerlike drainage of erosion cuts into plowed lands -during a rainy spell. This suggests what might be done with a spray, a -mud bank, and a tank, to see how the finger valleys form. This erosion -of the runoff of water was imitated in the Harvard laboratory.</p> - -<p>A beautiful river pattern on a slope, like the trickle of raindrops on -a windshield, was made by tipping up a rectangular glass plate covered -with very liquid clay. A portion clung to the glass, and exquisite -fernlike streams formed on the upper half of the plate, with a bank of -distributaries of V-shape on the lower slope.</p> - -<p>This glass plate was used for a surface of stamp mill slimes, of -thicker beds, and was eroded with an atomizer and water by means of a -barbershop air compressor. The slimes are very fine pounded sands with -angular fragments. To get a stream pattern, this is necessary, so as -to have fine grit to cut down the rivulets between<span class="pagenum" id="Page_36">[36]</span> the coarse grit -remnants. This resembles the requirements for ripples.</p> - -<p>The spray was kept going for hours. Meanwhile the river pattern at the -steep sides of the sloping plate ate into the bank of sediment, robbing -the streams of the main slope, because the side streams were oblique -cascades. They dug deep, took off the water, and left the main slope -streams without their headwater drainage. The pattern of the main slope -became the headwater branches of the side streams, the streams which in -plan drained over the edge of the uplifted plate right and left. This -was somewhat like stream robbery.</p> - -<p>For example, the Lewis River at the south end of Yellowstone Park -once drained Yellowstone Lake, including the Lamar River, which is -now the headwaters of Yellowstone River. The Yellowstone plateau -formerly drained south into the Snake River and the Pacific Ocean. -The Yellowstone River headwaters suddenly tapped the system, thanks -to geyser erosion and acid corrosion, and the Yellowstone Canyon cut -down rapidly, reversing to the north the outlet of Yellowstone Lake. -Thereafter the lake flowed into the Mississippi and the Gulf of Mexico. -At some critical time about the glacial period the continental divide -made a leap of thirty miles from the present head of the Canyon to the -neighborhood of Lewis Lake, or from one end of Yellowstone Lake to the -other. This is stream robbery.</p> - -<p>Spray and runoff and rainfall and wash did not alone cut down the -Yellowstone Canyon. The essentials were the rotting of rock and the -pull of gravitation on the fragments. The Yellowstone rotted away on -the north side, but it was hard granite and mountain-built quartzites -on the south, toward the Tetons. Hot spring rotting, geyser erosion, -acid waters, and sulfur decomposed the north country. The underground -water head followed the easiest channels, and the canyon was the -result. The canyon line encircles Mount Washburn, the old volcano, and -conceivably is over an old crack concentric to the dome.</p> - -<p>Water is a transporter, and cracking opens ways to the rotting agents. -Only in rivulets and floods does water actually corrade, or grind, the -bottoms of streams. In our spray and fern patterns there is analogy to -rainfall springs on flat strata, but nine-tenths of the elements of -erosion are left out: jointing, weathering, ice, faulting, gravitation, -rotting down, quaking, solution, sliding, and last, spring water.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_37">[37]</span></p> - -<p>Erosion by sliding continues by wind action in desert mountains, and -on volcanic cones under bombardment, and by rocks snapping under chill -and sunshine on the moon. Creep of loose stuff is the greatest eroder -on earth. Rainfall cloudbursts certainly help, especially where soil is -not held together by a mat of roots.</p> - -<p>The process of erosion is supposedly slow, as all geological processes -are slow, if we neglect the possibility of such submarine landslips -or supramarine upheavals as occurred at Yakutat in 1899. But even -New England has floods, hurricanes, landslides, forest fires, and -cloudbursts which are exclamation points on an otherwise sleepy -history. And in the past it has had ice sheets, and subsidences beneath -the sea.</p> - -<p>In other words, the making of valleys and stream patterns for the -map is accented occasionally, and the occasions may come in climatal -waves unknown to us. The stream patterns in the Bad Lands, Tennessee, -Pennsylvania, the Grand Canyon, and New England make very different -maps. The rotting of the rock, limestone caverns, rainfall, faults, and -sloping underground strata bearing spring water all influence these -maps. What is erosion and what index is written on the land to say the -Grand Canyon and tributaries are being carved downward faster than the -Mystic River in Boston?</p> - -<p>Ralph Stone tackled the Mystic River, and marked ledges and set stakes -opposite the flood plain meanders. The idea was that ledges split by -winter freezes, and that the meanders of a stream build on one side -and cut on the other. Maps were made repeatedly, and the ledge cracks -were measured in millimeters. Some movement was found, but a college -year was not enough time. If we could combine as a motion picture, -photographs from the air taken once a year for many years, doubtless -the film would show that the stream meander pattern is migrating toward -the sea like a wiggling snake.</p> - -<p>Stone next made a model three inches thick in a tank of water, by -sedimenting sixty-one very thin layers of marble dust, coal dust, -clay, red lead, and sand. He tipped it up as an island and sprayed it -in periods which lasted one to ninety-two hours, up to a total of 719 -hours. A forking stream and its delta were formed in the lagoon of -the tank. The stream cut a canyon with waterfalls, treelike branches, -esplanades, and a flood plain. There were three principal hard white -multiple strata layers in the model, separated by sand.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_38">[38]</span> The white -layers made waterfalls and were eaten back to form the canyons.</p> - -<p>When the cross section of the delta was sliced with a knife, it showed -three white layers foreset at thirty degrees under the tank pool -and separated by more sandy strata. The bottommost of these was the -sediment of the top thick marble dust layer of the model as first -eroded by the spray, and the top frontal layer of the leaf-shaped delta -was the product of the erosion of the canyon bottom on the lowest of -the white layers. This must happen in nature where one formation in -reverse order is derived by river erosion undermining a stratified -older pile of sediments.</p> - -<p>We called this the Grand Canyon model, and it showed many features -similar to those of South Dakota Bad Lands and the Colorado River -drainage. It was strictly rainfall erosion and stratification soakage -and seepage. The model surface sloped ten degrees, the high divide -at the top had a backslope of forty-five degrees, and everything was -sprayed for two months with special hose nozzles, making during part of -each day a mistlike rainfall.</p> - -<p>The steep backslope did not trench itself at all despite its steepness. -This slope, on the contrary, absorbed moisture and carried the rainfall -underground down the dip of the strata to add spring water to the main -streams. The backslope was a “steep escarpment,” supposed in physical -geography to migrate by trenching backward, but the rills never gained -volume enough to cut into it. All the water volume acquired its grit -for cutting from the large surfaces, which were gradually tilted in the -direction of the rivers.</p> - -<p>When the complete series of experiments on erosion and sediment -was published, it showed that the treelike branching of rivers is -dependent on underground water surfaces; that meanders on a flood plain -are partly a bubbling-up process of flood-plain soakage; that when -side tributaries form by undermining, the upstream branches cut off -underground water from the downstream branches; and that when a country -is tilted in one direction, there is a tendency to parallel streams, -separated by intervals controlled by underground water areas reached by -the undermining tracery of headwater springs.</p> - -<p>This arborescence in a spray model is a regular and delicate -adjustment, where a bunch of tributaries is not mere catchment of -rainfall, but is the product of sheet flood in belts of underground -water related to the tilt of the country. Arborescence of river<span class="pagenum" id="Page_39">[39]</span> -drainage on a surface of flat strata, like the coastal plain of the -southeastern United States, is a rhythmical pattern of exquisite -design capable of reproduction and study in the laboratory. It is a -mathematical forking and headward development dependent on volume -of water, undermining impermeable strata along permeable ones. And -after the “tree” map is formed, the bulb of branches and twigs and -underground leaves of spring water holds all the downslope country in -its “shadow,” so that no new rivers can form there. This is what makes -our great maps of river systems. It is not haphazard. It is a vast -ocean of underground water, with mountains of water and valleys of -water.</p> - -<p>A great lake marks an underground soakage water level. A riverbed marks -an underground seepage topography. The sea of water inside a continent -is just as much a map of hills and dales of water as the land is a -map of the hills and valleys of geography. The water is dynamic, it -is flowing. The land surface is dynamic and rain fed; it is creeping -soils. Together, groundwater and rivers are melting down the landscape -as a living thing. Man dams the water and uses the power of the erosion -melting down the land.</p> - -<p>When we went to Haystack Basin north of the Yellowstone Park, we found -that all of the mountains surrounding it were audibly crumbling. -Ultimately, the continent is all one thing: a falling body of rotten -rock, ice, water, sand, boulders, and soils, self carved into valleys -and mountains, always tumbling. And down below are the fault blocks, -prisms of earth shell over the white hot core. And that also is -eternally in motion, irrupting, earthquaking, lifting, falling, -scraping, heating, cooling in waves through the ages. Man is very tiny, -but if he listens he can hear the earth’s heartbeats.</p> - -<p>At hot springs the water mantle meets the hot earth shell. So the -geyser basins of Yellowstone, California, New Zealand, and Iceland are -a hot part of the great erosion system of groundwater. This brings us -to the next group of experiments, the making of artificial geysers.</p> - -<p>Geysers as eroders show that the under earth is hot and is invaded by -rainwater. In exceptional volcanic places the water is boiling hot. The -Firehole River of the Yellowstone is carving down basins of solution -faster than the regular geysers are building up siliceous sinter. Here -is boiling-spring erosion by solution. It may be called the extreme -thermal aspect of ordinary spring-water erosion. How does spring water -erode? By bubbling up under the beds of rivers.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_40">[40]</span> The bubbling out of -springs starts rivers, and flood rainfall starts soil gullies; land -sculpture is the result.</p> - -<p>We introduce geyser experiments here because boiling springs make drama -out of ordinary springs, just as active volcanoes make drama out of -buried volcanoes. Ordinary springs and buried lavas intruding invisibly -are much more important and extensive than geysers and volcanoes. Most -people never think of a spring as one of millions bubbling up the beds -of brooks and rivers and sea bottoms.</p> - -<p>Most people never think of volcanoes erupting—properly speaking, -irrupting or inrupting—under Kansas or Brazil. Nobody denies those -places are hot underground, but it all seems remote. Yet every spring -is thermal if there is heat escaping through the rocks around it.</p> - -<p>Geyser basins lower the country around them and leave hills in relief. -The proportions of basins and hills depend upon the runoff of rotting -and dissolving rock. The shape of a hill standing high, what Davis -called a monadnock in New England, depends on its whole history, not -on its hardness. Ascutney Mountain stands high as a lump because -surrounding slates have rotted down. Mount Monadnock may stand high -because the springs under the river pattern of cracks neglected it in -the rotting and crunching of a continent.</p> - -<p>Dynamic weight eternally falling makes low places. Hardness against -weathering makes a mountain high only as a relic or residual. It is -a node in the gigantic process of gravitation rotting and the spring -squirting of groundwater. The water heats, rises, dissolves, siphons, -springs up, and transports dirt. Underneath is a definitely heated -earth crust.</p> - -<p>Accordance of summit levels of mountains and hills as one looks across -country does not have to represent an upraised plane surface. There -is more undermining where the spring squirting is most voluminous. -When spring squirting is equal, the opposed slopes of a valley adjust -themselves. The tree line, the snow line, the rain line, and the wind -line are definite levels of erosion. Under it all the rotting rock is -falling toward the earth’s center, slowly, creakingly. The everlasting -hills are not everlasting, they are everfalling; rocks, boulders, -slopes, waters, gravels, sands, and muds. And adjustment to the -atmosphere and groundwater surface is irresistible.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_040fp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_040fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>1. Experimental Geology Laboratory, Harvard -University, 1900</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_041fp" style="max-width: 434px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_041fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>2. Fountain at edge of lava lake, May 17, 1917</i></p> - </div> - -<p>The notion of erosion pulling down hills to a flat plane near sea level -is fascinating to geometry-minded people, but not to the mechanically -minded. A flat plane near sea level in the Mississippi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_41">[41]</span> delta is -where the river has swung right and left against valley walls, over -its own flood plain. A flat plain, secured by ice sheets or planed off -by encroaching wave action as land sinks is mechanically probable. In -these circumstances we look for river or ice or wave-beach deposits. -But an “almost plane” occasioned by the multiple action called erosion -down to base level is to me the delightful dream of map students. If -a landscape has been planed off, a machine router or planer did it. -The great rivers of China have had a long time to bang back and forth -against their confining boxes of rock and on top of their own mud.</p> - -<p>To return to geyser-spring experiments, I built a simple quart flask -surmounted by a four-foot glass tube. At the top the tube rose through -a cork in the bottom of a two-foot pan. In the side of the cork of the -flask was a second tube with a hose leading up to a reservoir bottle of -water. The reservoir bottle could be raised or lowered. If the water in -it was level with the pan, there was hydrostatic equilibrium: the pan -a pool, the bottle a source, the flask and tube full. When we applied -heat to the bottom of the flask, the water boiled, the pan overflowed, -and some cold water from the bottle chilled the flask. The pan had -become a boiling spring.</p> - -<p>Next we lowered the reservoir bottle. The reduced head of water -permitted no overflow at the pan, and steam bubbles accumulated in the -four-foot upright tube. The boiling point was controlled by four feet -of water pressure. If the bubble lift reduced this to three feet, there -was a lower boiling point, the pressure was reduced by overflow above, -and the whole flaskful boiled. The geyser tube became a regular geyser -at intervals of a minute and a half, with eruptions enduring twenty -seconds.</p> - -<p>This was a miniature of Old Faithful in the Yellowstone. Old Faithful -is bigger, its intervals average sixty-five minutes, and they range -from thirty-one to eighty-one minutes. It jets up 150 feet for a period -of four minutes. It throws out 3,000 barrels of water at each eruption. -Our little machine threw up about a pint to a height of four feet.</p> - -<p>We hear much about soaping geysers as an artificial stimulus. The -apparatus in our laboratory showed the effect of soap right away. When -some soap was put in the pan, the intervals of a minute and a half -shortened to one minute. Soapsuds accumulated in the tube and depressed -the water to the neck of the flask. The multiple bubbles, film against -film, made the water system viscous. The<span class="pagenum" id="Page_42">[42]</span> myriads of tiny steam bubbles -formed so fast that they shortened the lifting time for the column. -If the height of the reservoir bottle was so adjusted that the geyser -didn’t quite know whether it was a geyser or a boiling spring, the soap -made the decision, and the thing went off with a bang.</p> - -<p>This simple group of experiments makes springs very real. The -Yellowstone explosive springs differ from other springs in having -superheated steam from live lavas to heat them. The rock is cracked and -the water is doing a job of solution and deposition. It deposits stout -tough silica around some openings and builds them up against the head -of groundwater, and they become geysers. It deposits lime dissolved off -underlying limestone at Mammoth, and this makes sculptured terraces -but not explosive springs because the temperatures are not so hot. In -both lime and silica regions, blue-green algae, which love hot water, -decoratively sculpture the pools.</p> - -<p>Like a magician I exhibited the artificial geysers before New York -and Boston science academies, and gave the summaries of the results -of our geyser experiments, as follows: (1) Boiling springs are like -other springs, controlled by the head or pressure of underground water -in the hills. (2) Upstreaming of heated water and building up of -silica (convection is the scientific jargon) may push the vent of a -boiling spring even higher than its source (reversed head). (3) In this -delicate condition, even rainfall or sinter building up or outburst -at a lower level or clogging of a pipe may change spring to geyser or -geyser to spring. There are many more boiling springs than there are -geysers, and many more hot springs than there are boiling springs, and -the word cold means nothing at all. There may be boiling springs under -New York City if you go deep enough. That is why the riot of geyser -apparatus is worth thinking about. (4) Irregular geysers overflow -continually, regular geysers discharge their waters only during -eruptions. Both are methods of feeding rivers, just like any other -springs. But there is a lot of volcanic heat underground.</p> - -<p>This brings up the question of how much a volcanic eruption is like -a geyser. Geologists apply a glib word, phreatic, to Japan’s Bandai -Volcano, which blew steam and rocks out of the side of a mountain and -dammed a river. Hawaiian volcanoes squirt liquid basalt up a crack -with flames and red fume and sulfur gas, and almost no steam at all. -The answer seems to be that the Palisades of the Hudson may once have -been Hawaiian lava eruptions and, further,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_43">[43]</span> that lava is still erupting -there if you go down deep enough. New York doesn’t know about it, but -it sensed it in 1886, when it felt the Charleston earthquake.</p> - -<p>All that Catskill water supply of the great city is in cracks above the -level of the deep lava, and extends out under Long Island Sound. If the -Hudson fault fissure wiggled a little more than usual, and if the deep -lava lowered and pulled down some of the Atlantic water, an eruption -like Bandai is not impossible in the Watchung Ridge of New Jersey. -This is not likely; but the globe has been through revolutions and -cataclysms, and the Watchung explosions might start a new geyser basin. -Something like that happened in northwest Wyoming in the Pliocene -age, during 11 million years, next preceding the ice ages that began -2 million years ago. And the Yellowstone was the result. We shall see -more volcano geysers.</p> - -<p>Next, the making of deltas became a hobby in our laboratory, in -connection with the old leaf deltas scattered on the New England -landscape, partly covered with trees within the grounds of the country -villas about Boston.</p> - -<p>Delta deposits extend upstream, within the mould of the cavern within -ice of the glacial period. Thus the map shows a snake-like ridge of -gravel, ending in a maple-leaf flat, with lobate frontal slopes. These -slopes were much steeper where the dump of the stream on the delta fell -over the beach line at the lagoon or lake level in which the delta was -built. This was like the delta shown in Stone’s erosion model.</p> - -<p>Stone prospected the idea of torrential deltas in a tank, while E. W. -Dorsey and I started a tank imitation of the glacial sand delta. In the -glacier, the ice tunnel had been supplied with water by melting through -the ice crevasses, just like tunnels seen in Switzerland, floored with -sand ground up by the ice. There was thus a torrent pouring along -inside an arched tunnel, the mouth of which emerged on a delta in a -pool, with water surface either at the tunnel level or above it against -the rounded front of the ice mass.</p> - -<p>In imitation of a rounded bank of ice with a pool of water in front -and with a subglacial meandering cave fed with sands and a torrent, -an apparatus was built and supplied by a hose. A sheet of lead was -bent in the form of the glacier surface, with an arched opening, and -set in our tank. This fitted over a tunnel of sheet iron, soldered -so as to meander in plan, and fitted at its upper end with pipe and -hose connection. A sheet-iron funnel rose from the upper end of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_44">[44]</span> this -artificial cavern, wherewith to supply different colored sands to the -model subglacial river, represented by the hose jet and iron tunnel. -The iron tunnel ended flush with the leaden arch.</p> - -<p>The object of the experiments was, first, to set the leaden glacier -in a pool of water in the laboratory tank. Next, to jet water through -the tunnel, supply sediment in successive colors through the funnel, -and let that accumulate on the bottom of the tunnel and in a delta -in front of the artificial leaden glacier. The deltas and their -sliced cross sections in different experiments represented the noted -difference of kinds of sand supply or difference in water level of the -pool. In one case the water level was below the ceiling of the tunnel -where it emerged from the arch entrance. In another, it was above the -cavern mouth, so that water of the cavern stream, debouching from the -submerged cavern mouth in the lagoon, spurted up with its mud and made -a half crater against the glacier front.</p> - -<p>These experiments illuminate the gravel-quarry sections of -Massachusetts. In those cuts in eskers (serpent ridges) and sand plains -(glacial delta fans) were seen topset beds, or flood wash, or foreset -beds at forty-five degrees which are the sublagoon frontal wash, and -occasionally backset beds where cavern wash gushed upward.</p> - -<p>So our cross sections, cut with a knife in the delta, and the winding -cake extending upstream in the cavern showed topset, foreset, and -backset strata after draining the tank and lifting out the apparatus. -From the embryo delta the flood-plain beds overlap the earlier frontal, -or foreset, beds. The frontal beds are always under the lagoon. The -flood-plain beds (topset) were made by a meandering river course under -the air. Always this plain is built at beach level as a wash fan shaped -like a leaf, with the cavern stream bottom as the stem of the leaf.</p> - -<p>New England has been covered with mountainous ice, miles high. -Subglacial streams and subglacial clear ice caverns are abundantly -found at the lower ends of all glaciers in the world. They merely -represent the melting snow and ice in pulses of sunshine, snow at the -source, ice in the course, crevasses and gravitation making water seep -through. This water shapes a channel for itself and erodes a sewer -system of scouring along the bottom of the subglacial valley. This -grinds and melts the bottom ice into arched caverns; and the sediment -builds up on the stream bottoms, eventually carving the roofs of the -caverns into high arches or arcades. The subglacial caverns are self -constructed drainage pipes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_45">[45]</span></p> - -<p>The glacial stream is really a river flood cutting its valley. The ice -river grinds and scrapes, and the water under the ice pipes and drains -the melting. The ice carries chisels of broken rock. The enormous -weight, in gliding plane layers of ice, flows in accordance with the -crystal laws of snowflakes and ice crystals. The moraines, or debris -fields, at the sides and on top and underneath the eroding ice jumble -yield mud and sand and boulders. The torrent underneath removes the -rubbish.</p> - -<p>The delta in front follows laws of sedimentation. If there is no lake -in front, the delta is a flat wash fan, or valley flood plain. All -these things become clear to the student who makes a baby glacier out -of tinware, sand, a tank, a hose, and a faucet.</p> - -<p>I have spoken of cataclysms, or what early geologists called -catastrophe, happening occasionally in the world of erosion and -subterranean geysers. Such were the Yakutat crash and the Bandaisan -explosion. But each glacier-period field, like an ice mountain over -Europe and America, constituted a cataclysm lasting 500,000 years, -and this happened four times even in the centuries of early man. The -Mediterranean and the Great Lakes are offspring of such cataclysms. -But Lyell carried the doctrine of uniformity to extremes; he thought -that what man sees is what always happens. I do not believe Lyell ever -realized that earth or sun might conceivably explode in a month of our -time. Again, this is not likely.</p> - -<p>The opposite of uniformitarianism is occasional catastrophic trigger. -The process of erosion pulls the trigger for sudden deformation. Slow -deformation pulls a trigger for eruption. Eruption triggers internal -intrusions. The Frank Landslip; the Charleston, San Francisco, and -Napier earthquakes; the Pelée eruption; and the Yakutat upheaval all -created terrific surprises for geologists.</p> - -<p>The gigantic intrusions through millions of years from the core of the -earth, made of white hot star matter, percolating to surface volcano -belts up 1,800 miles of permanent, primitive cracks, are mostly -balanced by the crustal weight. This is the adjusting globe. But the -intrusive mechanism, under tides in the rock and in the oceans, always -in motion, pulls the trigger for the big geologic revolutions.</p> - -<p>The very deep broken earth blocks shift, volcanism between them heats -the surface, floods the surface with gas foam, and lifts areas of -surface by heat swellings; and on the surface, what was a glacial -period gives place to a volcanic period. The last of these was the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_46">[46]</span> -Miocene Tertiary, with large-scale volcanic eruptions all over the -world.</p> - -<p>Comparing Boston with the Black Hills showed underground eruptions in -the latter, for which a warping uplift pulled the trigger. These were -the rock cisterns or lenses of porphyry injected among the strata. The -time of this was Miocene or Eocene Tertiary, probably later than most -of the volcanoes of the Yellowstone, farther west.</p> - -<p>Boston, on the other hand, was making black basaltic dikes, probably -identical with the volcanoes of the Berkshire Hills and New Haven, of -the age of the big reptiles, 150 million years before the Black Hills -injections. The trigger which pulled off the Boston eruptions was the -Appalachian warping. That which fired off the Black Hills was the -Laramie revolution that pushed up the Rocky Mountains.</p> - -<p>The injection of lava lenses in the Black Hills was a form of -deformation of strata which we experimented with in the laboratory. The -layers of sandstone, limestone, and old ocean muds covering over the -arch of these hills were injected by dikes or fissure fillings from -below. How would injections behave?</p> - -<p>With Ernest Howe as my associate, I arranged a square tank for -sedimenting sand, plaster powder, coal dust, or marble dust in layers -under water. Under it was an iron cylinder in which wax could be -melted. A screw piston pushed the molten wax up to inclined or upright -slots in the middle of the tank box. The water was drained off, and -the hot wax was injected up into the strata. The tank sides were taken -down, and hardened lenses of wax were sliced vertically with a hot -knife to show what had happened to the strata by the process of wax -intrusion.</p> - -<p>In some of the experiments 300 pounds of shot were piled over a cloth -layer on top of the strata to imitate the weight of natural sediments. -This was before injection of the hot wax, and the result was a neat -dome of deformed layers at the surface, a domical hill over a lens of -wax inside. This hill was eroded with a spray of water to show what -kind of radial valleys would form. Such radial streams were found in -South Dakota, with infacing escarpments, around some of the dome hills -made by laccoliths.</p> - -<p>From the beginning it appeared that a lens of injection would form, -that the strata would arch over a dome of wax. The arched strata -stretched on the crest and the breaks gaped upward, while<span class="pagenum" id="Page_47">[47]</span> the side -bends cracked gaping downward. It was there that the wax could break -its way upward and make a volcano. Some nice little experimental -volcanoes of wax-built cones and craters formed on top of the model.</p> - -<p>As with all folded strata arched downward under weight, the cracks -on the bend of a downward arch, or syncline, admit lava from below, -whereas the cracks on the upward arch, or anticline, are held tight, -closed by the weight of strata above. Thus an intrusive dome will not -erupt through its crest, but through its sides.</p> - -<p>The results of all these tests showed that rigid beds carried the -arching force and that soft beds were most invaded and pushed aside by -the wax. The steepness of curvature of arch varied with the load. An -inclined pipe formed an irregular lens thickest away from the incline. -In a hard bed ruptured on a downbend, concentric fractures around a -dome let the lava up to higher strata.</p> - -<p>On the crest of a hard bed the fractures are like the spokes of a -wheel, but they do not make dikes; they yawn open upward. Liquid wax -tended to spread as a thin sheet in soft layers of strata, stiffer wax -tended to arch up in a steeper dome. Rapid injection made a higher and -smaller dome than slow injection.</p> - -<p>Compared with the arching up the whole long mountain oval of the entire -Black Hills dome, with granite on the crest, this intrusion of wax -only imitates the small domes of lava intrusion or injection, where -the injection carries the energy or stress. Indeed, in nature, even -the lava lenses are influenced by the buckling that is going on in the -strata under stresses of crust warping. For the warping crust of the -earth is always pulling the trigger and straining the strata. The lava -rising from below seeks out the weak places and assists the buckling, -as well as following the most incoherent mud or shale beds.</p> - -<p>When it comes to the big oval of the whole Black Hills uplift—swollen -up like the Rocky Mountains during millions of years and within which -the lava injections were only an item—we are dealing with a push from -below or an expansion that swelled up the pre-Cambrian ancient rocks as -well as the later granites. Such swellings were doubtless made again -and again in Massachusetts. There, also, we find lavas and granites and -Red Beds and glacial boulders, older than the Appalachian Mountains, -as well as younger. The younger Triassic lavas are definitely erupted -between fault blocks.</p> - -<p>All that our experiments showed was what melted stuff will do in<span class="pagenum" id="Page_48">[48]</span> -strata under weight, when the force of melted stuff overcomes that -pressure to find a place for itself, although the weight may be more -or less lifted by big arching that is taking place on a big scale. The -arching is bigger than the hydraulic or gas pressure squirting.</p> - -<p>There is another possibility besides buckling. This is faulting, or -movement of deep crust blocks the boundaries of which do not appear. -The deep crust is a movable mosaic above the core, and this movement -renews itself, now here, now there. Dutton shows that we may think of -the Rocky Mountains this way all the way out to the Pacific coast. We -may have the core fluids sucking down the blocks, the volcanic fluids -pushing up the local strata. And the volcanic fluids in cracks are the -degenerate gassy top remnants of the core fluids which man has never -seen and which are 1,800 miles down.</p> - -<p>The boundaries of the crust blocks do not appear because the whole -first shell of the globe is buried under lavas and intrusions and -crystals and mud, meaning by mud, countless dumpings of lakes and -rivers and seas through 3,000 million years. Such is the kind of -thinking started by making wax injections.</p> - -<p>It will be seen from the experiments that whether we are imitating -underground heat with a Bunsen burner to start a geyser, or overground -cold with delta apparatus to simulate a glacier, we are dealing with -erosion of the earth’s surface. Erosion started with the first attack -on lava by the atmosphere or by sea water. Never was the pristine -lava anything like the magma inside the globe; it snapped and chilled -and oxidized. Whether we call it basalt or obsidian, it degenerated. -Moreover, it degenerated in the outer crust when it loosed its gases, -heated itself and the rock wall, found groundwater and free air, and -started oxidation new to it. Thermal action is just as much concerned -with erosion as is rainfall or snow. Therefore, whether injecting -wax and swelling strata or imitating geysers and ripplemarks, we -were experimenting with volcanoes, for the crust of the earth is -fundamentally volcanic. For the purposes of this book these facts -demand reiteration.</p> - -<p>In what are called geosynclines, or earth sags, the great beds of -strata are accumulated. They are the dirt washed from highlands into -midland seas. They are strata of sandstone, mudstone, or limestone; -thin films in comparison with the fire-made earth crust. It was -the wrinkling of basin fills by expansion or end push that built -Himalaya and Appalachia. The mountains are etched out of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_49">[49]</span> foldings and -overthrusts and faults by rotting and water transport. Pressing the -strata endways to wrinkle them is called mountain building, much better -named strata wrinkling. The thickest of them reached twelve miles -vertically, but what is that to the earth’s crust of 1,800 miles? The -crust lifts and lowers fault blocks. The little strata basins expand -with heat on their bottoms and get pulled and pushed by underground -lava intrusions. Also they get squeezed by global contraction between -crust blocks, and shoved up and down by the agelong wobbles. The -biggest wobble was the downdrop of the great oceans over fault blocks -when the crust first cracked and settled over the core. Those oceans -have shifted and adjusted in waves of global action ever since. The -crust has kept the earth a sphere while lavas erupted and weighted down -the blocks. This block wobble extends into the innermost continents. -Eruptions up the cracks migrated from the continental seas to the -shores of the present oceans. They changed composition as they did so, -because they changed from under-air eruptions to under-sea eruptions, -fifteen pounds pressure to 600 atmospheres pressure. From erosion -eruptions with enormous heat, to deep sea eruptions with enormous -chilling and pressure. And the latter are the volcanoes of the present -day, mostly concealed except for the islands and sea borders.</p> - -<p>Meantime, the crust blocks continue to wobble up and down, and quakes -continue to creak under the rock tides of sun and moon pulls. The -creaks and wobbles are our big earthquakes, tidal waves, and eruptions. -Such big accumulations of eruptions as the Cordillera or the Hawaiian -Ridge is a terrific weight in a few million years. Both heaps have been -at it since Miocene time, or for about 18 million years, banging down -through the crust blocks on top of the core. Whether such balancing -of heavy weights on top of the crust blocks is due to change of lava -weights or sediment basins, six to twelve miles of rock vertically, the -down squeeze and underflow is called by the Greek word isostasy. It -means standing level and is a poor word because the earth’s crust never -stands still. The blocks are eternally adjusting and creaking over a -fluid core, the globe is whirling, the sun and moon are pulling, the -volcanoes are erupting, and the solar system is shooting through space. -Terra firma is never static. And our little atmospheric lives on top of -it never stand still. We are hot, and we ourselves do a great deal of -eroding.</p> - -<p>This oration is introduction to the next series of Harvard experiments, -which dealt with squeezing and wrinkling strata in imitation<span class="pagenum" id="Page_50">[50]</span> of the -folds and faults of the Appalachian Mountains. Bailey Willis, at the -Geological Survey, made a press of wax models of strata. A heavy oak -piston was advanced by a screw crank. The models were waxes mixed with -plaster for hard strata and waxes mixed with Venice turpentine for soft -strata. They were cast to imitate actual successions of hard, thick -limestones; less hard sandstones; soft mudstones; or slates. The piston -advanced at a measured rate against one end of the model, the other -end being a fixed box, the strata lying horizontally. The elongate -Appalachian basin had a continent (the piston) to the east; a wide flat -fill of limestones or sea bottom to the west (the box); and the deepest -trough of pebbles, sands, and muds on the east, toward the rivers of -the eroding continent of that ancient time. The heavy limestone tapered -from the west into these thinner beds and made a stiff rib in their -midst. The final result of their wrinkling was linear folds with axes -north and south parallel to the trough, and close set at the east. -The folds overturned toward the west, the overturns developing into -overthrust fractures westward when the beds ruptured. Also, the folds -became bigger, flatter, and wider apart westward under the deeper sea, -the famous one being the Cincinnati arch.</p> - -<p>The evidence in the middle eastern states is that the trough bottom -sank as the heavy shore sediments were dumped by rivers into the sea. -The west-central states received a wide flat of limestone. Uplift of -the continent shallowed the ocean and pushed it, narrower, over to the -great plains. So there were left a deep trough of weak beds, a massive -limestone, and an overlap of continental wash across the uplifted later -continent of the present time. The problems to be studied in Willis’ -models were how folding would affect such a pile, what transmitted the -wrinkling force, what started a single fold, and how soft and hard -strata behaved under horizontal pressure.</p> - -<p>He found that hard, thick layers of limestone transmitted the push -farthest. That soft beds piled up on each other near the piston. That -these beds showed beautiful overthrust faults inclined away from the -piston. And that the start of individual folds was favored by very -small initial bends in a transmitting layer. These downbends away from -the continent would be made as the trough bottom sank through the ages. -The nature of this sinking in upright slices of the bottom rock is -probably downfaulting. Each vertical slice would make a step-bend as it -sank.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_51">[51]</span></p> - -<p>The bottom of Willis’ box did not admit of down motion by underflow, -nor did the piston pressure create an opposed horizontal force that -might have come from the ocean area. In restraining up motion over the -folds that formed, Willis piled bags of shot on top of the model to -represent downweighting. The folding in the Appalachians was down at -the bottom of the heap where things were hot and compressed, and heat -could extend individual strata.</p> - -<p>In our pressure chest we extended the Willis conception. We made two -pistons at opposite ends of an oaken box, with thick plate glass -panes at one side, so as to watch the folding. The two pistons would -distribute the end pressure better and admit the possibility that all -the pressure did not come from the continent. The bottom under the -model was an inner box that could move down, hung on heavy spring -balances. These could be screwed up to a pressure upward to compensate -the load of shot. Thus the first fold could arch downward as well as -upward. This imitated a possible lowered trough bottom. The piston rate -of advance was controlled by metronome, one man at each screw.</p> - -<p>For examples, models E, F, and G had four white and four black layers, -all alike in substance, at fast, medium, and slow rates. The quickest -was shortened one inch in five minutes. The slowest was one inch in -an hour and three-quarters. The quick-squeeze model flexed smoothly, -all folds seemed to flow, and the model held together compactly. The -slow-squeeze model shortened the same amount, cracked in many places, -was brittle, and did not hold together compactly. This appeared to -prove that slow motion will fracture where quicker motion will hold -strata intact, under otherwise identical conditions of substance, of -folding and shortening, and of vertical confinement.</p> - -<p>We verified Willis’ conclusions that stiff and thick beds transmit the -pressure farthest and that overthrust tends to form in soft beds, which -thicken near a piston. In one model we got overthrusts in opposite -directions on opposite sides of the model along a single-fold axis, -with a twist in between. While an experiment was in progress, the chest -creaked occasionally, the equivalent of an earthquake. One model was -cast to represent overlap of strata near shore, like a coastal plain. -When squeezed, it made a group of overthrusts away from the piston -acting as shore rock.</p> - -<p>In burial of strata there is a possibility whereby they wrinkle, -and wrinkle most in one direction, which piston pressure does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_52">[52]</span> -imitate. That is the heating by burial and expansion or lengthening -of controlling layers. In a long basin like the Appalachians, the -wrinkling under expansion across the greatest length is easiest, -because the axis of stiffness is parallel to the long trough. -Transitions off the coastal line from one sediment to the next—sand -to mud, mud to lime—will be weaknesses to start bends when expansion -pressure takes place under burial along the layers separately heated. -These bends develop into wrinkles and the wrinkles, into propagated -folds, with the axis parallel to the initial change of weaknesses. -Expansion lengthwise on folds, once begun, may make long flat arches -pitching in one direction. This heating by burial distributes the -folding better and farther than pushing abutments, and makes initial -bends. All bottom strata heat and expand in all directions. The -direction of easiest yielding to a folding impulse is across the weak -transition belts. After that the motion is taken up by linear folds and -fractures in one direction.</p> - -<p>The models, after continuous or intermittent squeezing, were removed -from the chest and sliced with a hot wire for sectioning and -photographing. In one, brittle, broken series of folds in a hard layer, -the model was taken apart on that layer and the surface photographed. -The crest of the folds showed jointing or regular cracks. One set -paralleled the fold axes as would be expected; the other set crossed -the slopes diagonally and in curves. These last indicated the strains -of a twisting nature on a single layer between a downfold and an upfold.</p> - -<p>What makes the end thrust, or piston push, in nature? According to the -old idea, it was contraction of the inner earth by loss of heat. Willis -wrote that the basin sank, isostasy or deep flow was at right angles to -the length of the basin, and general contraction took effect by reason -of the deep flow. The deep flow was toward the lighter continent, from -which the sands were originally lost.</p> - -<p>The recent notion that radioactivity heat is in the outer shell denies -contraction of the inner earth. Furthermore, I do not believe in a -shallow underlayer of lava fifty or less miles down and capable of -flowing horizontally under shifting weight. I do believe in a deep -underlayer of fluid 1,800 miles down, under a block-faulted crust. -This fluid core adjusted itself to the ocean-bottom blocks originally, -making the upright slices moving-down controllers of the Appalachian -basin. There is no proof that sediment weight did it. It is more likely -that igneous, or fire-made, lava, as the thick outer armor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_53">[53]</span> plate of -the globe erupted in acts of intrusion, lubricated the vertical slices. -Intrusions are under every sedimentary mountain range on earth. It is -more likely that an agelong up of ridge fault blocks and a down of the -basin fault blocks decided where the central continental basin should -be, all of it well within the permanent side ridges of North America. -For this was a continental mediterranean sea, and the warping of its -highland of Philadelphia and its basin of Cincinnati was a mere episode -in the 2,000 million year history of Atlantic and Pacific borders of -the continent. The sinking of the intracontinental sea, relative to -the staying up of the highlands, was a wave in the history of globe -and core. Erosion and deposition were results, not causes. They were -results of the volcanic history of the ever moving active mosaic of the -globe. The permanent North America remained high, relative to Atlantic -and Pacific deeps.</p> - -<p>The folding of the sediments merges into intrusions of magma in the -southern Appalachians. Here arose the granite problem on a tremendous -scale, which is repeated in our Ascutney Mountain in Vermont. What -it was doing under the bottom of those vast fields of limestone from -Ohio to Illinois we have no idea. No more do we know what is doing -under the vast fields of lime and red ooze at the present bottoms of -the deep oceans. But we do know that fire-made rock squirts up under -all sea-laid sediments which anyone has ever studied on islands or -continents. This fire-made rock, solidified, has thickness and a -bottom. We do not know its thickness nor its bottom. We do know that -under it are big cracks 2,000 miles long rupturing it into volcano -systems. The conclusion is that the globe is mantled by a layer of -igneous matter which has spouted up cracks since more than 3,000 -million years ago. How did this matter migrate by new intrusions, -to pull, push, heat, and wrinkle through 500 million years the dirt -accumulated in shallow Appalachian trenches from Alabama to Indiana? We -do not know.</p> - -<p>The last of the Harvard experiments that I took part in concerned -melting up powders of basaltic minerals and rocks, letting them cool -down gradually, and then sectioning them for the polarizing microscope -to see how they resembled lavas. V. F. Marsters of the University of -Indiana helped me. Based on the European work of Doelter, Fouqué, -Michel-Lévy, and others, we used a French furnace with gas flame -blast and small crucibles of diatomaceous earth mixed with clay. The -specimen powders of crushed natural basalts, or mixtures of pyroxene, -feldspar and olivine, were kept glowing for<span class="pagenum" id="Page_54">[54]</span> forty to 150 hours, and -cooled either rapidly or slowly. The belief in those days was that slow -cooling was the main control of coarse crystallization. Quick or slow -cooling certainly does produce these effects in lava flows.</p> - -<p>From quick cooling, we generally got radial bunches of crystals or -spherulites, in a glassy groundmass. From slow cooling, we got diabase -structure or coarser crystallization, with some openwork hollow -crystals. And there were little grains of magnetite and spinel. Much -time was wasted on furnace safety and methods, and on fire-punctured -crucibles of platinum, carbon, and graphite.</p> - -<p>Nothing had been learned in 1900 about stirring, nor about gas as an -ingredient in basalt. It was not until years later, at the Hawaiian -Volcano Observatory, that Emerson proved that aa lava was made by -stirring a crucible. Aa is crystalline. Emerson got glassy lava by -quiet melting. No one has yet subjected lava to hydrogen blasts like -those of a Bessemer furnace, nor to other gases. There is a big field -here for imitating Mauna Loa and Etna fountains, and for critical -petrography of artificial basalts. Modern work has been concerned with -physical chemistry of limited mineral systems. So far as I know, no one -has mathematically synthesized natural rocks as an object in natural -history since the work of Carl Barus for the U. S. Geological Survey in -the nineties.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_55">[55]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter III</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Expedition Decade</span></h2></div> - - <div class="poetry-container"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="ileft">“<i>The voice of thy thunder</i></div> - <div><i>was in the whirlwind.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - -<p>Whereas small scale experiments in the laboratory helped me to think -about the details of nature’s experiments, there remained the need to -measure nature itself. The deep lavas of South Dakota, squeezing among -shale beds, posed many questions. What penetrating of strata goes on -under Vesuvius? Does lava inrush tilt or lift the ground? Does this -measure up to eruptions in or from craters? Cannot experiments with -craters themselves be made by dwelling there? Certainly the progress of -lavas can be measured as they flow forth.</p> - -<p>The decade following my mud-pie experiments saw me assistant -professor at Harvard and head professor of the geological department -at Massachusetts Institute of Technology. These appointments were -under Presidents Eliot, Pritchett, and Maclaurin. From 1901 to 1910 I -continued to serve the Geological Survey, writing up back reports. Then -nature took a hand. Along came earthquakes and eruptions in Guatemala, -a terrific disaster in the West Indies, expeditions to the Caribbees, -Italy, the Aleutian Islands, Japan, Hawaii, and Central America, -another in north Japan, and disastrous earthquakes at San Francisco, -Valparaiso, Messina, and Costa Rica. The destruction of St. Pierre in -Martinique set the stage for field work on volcanoes and earthquakes, -work which I was to continue for a half century.</p> - -<p>When the evening papers of May 8, 1902, announced the sudden -annihilation of 26,000 people that morning at 8 o’clock at St. Pierre, -Martinique, I went immediately to President Eliot. Knowing that I had -been urging field study of volcanoes, he agreed that I ought to go -to St. Pierre and wired Secretary of the Navy, William H. Moody, to -arrange for transportation. Immediate financial support came to me -from Alexander Agassiz, the National Geographic Society,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_56">[56]</span> and numerous -friends; and my Harvard colleagues agreed to give my lectures.</p> - -<p>I reported to the training ship <i>Dixie</i> in Brooklyn, where I found -Captain Robert Berry, a stalwart Virginian, in command of a cadet -crew. On board were I. C. Russell of Michigan, author of “Volcanoes -of North America”; E. O. Hovey of the American Museum; Curtis, the -maker of topographic models; R. T. Hill of the Geological Survey, and -expert on Caribbean lands; and numerous other scientists, and newspaper -correspondents.</p> - -<p>The voyage to the West Indies was unique. On the navy cruiser were -stores of food, tents, clothing, and medical supplies for the refugees -and an oddly assorted passenger list; all assembled because of warfare -against mankind by two utterly unknown volcanoes, Soufrière on the -British island of St. Vincent, and Pelée at the north end of the French -colony of Martinique. Geologists gave lectures to the crew on deck; and -in turn, we learned about naval discipline and efficiency.</p> - -<p>When we arrived at Fort de France, thirteen days after the terrific -disaster, we were transported at once to St. Pierre on the naval tug -<i>Potomac</i>. We landed and walked through the ruined sugar city, the -streets puddled with molasses and rum. Thousands of dead were buried -underfoot amid the rubble, for the day before our visit, there had -been a second blast from Pelée, the 4,000 foot volcano smoking four -miles away. This had thrown down what roofs remained after the first -explosion.</p> - -<p>We arrived opposite St. Pierre May 21, 1902, and saw a smoking, dusty -line of ruins along the shore. Before we landed we were warned that if -the tug’s whistle should blow we were to make for the boats. The dusty -hill lay on our left like a gray snow landscape, not at all like a -cone. The crater was a gorge in an ordinary mountain under clouds.</p> - -<p>We wandered through the dreary ruin and found masonry completely -destroyed and no visible large volcanic fragments. The streets were -full of rubble, and everything was coated with green-gray powder. Roofs -were gone, an occasional timber was burning, and bodies were still -numerous in the shells of houses. We saw a baby in an iron cradle, a -man face down in a tank, and a big man on his back in a deep baker’s -oven. His flesh was shriveled and drawn away from his joints by heat. -Elsewhere eight or ten bodies were crowded at the foot of a cliff.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_056fp" style="max-width: 437px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_056fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>3. Explosion cloud rising from Halemaumau during -explosive eruption, May 13, 1924</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_057fp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_057fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>4. Crag in lava lake, January 23, 1918</i></p> - </div> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_57">[57]</span></p> - -<p>The end of the town toward the volcano, all backed by cliffs, was -deeply buried under gravel, but the southern end had a covering of only -a foot or two of sand. The second explosion was greater than the first -one, demolishing third storeys and the second belfry of the cathedral. -The beautiful bells “whose soft liquid notes used to ring across the -bay with touching cadence at the Angelus hour” lay tumbled in rubbish, -splinters, and steaming vapors; their ancient embossed inscriptions -half buried in dust.</p> - -<p>The bodies were mostly shriveled to a crisp from the second eruption, -for earlier the bodies had not been much altered. The odor was a -haunting one that returned in dreams—of foundry, steam, sulfur -matches, and burnt stuff, and every now and then a whiff of roast, -decayed flesh that was horrible. It was impossible to realize that this -Pompeii had been a thriving French town two weeks before. Not a roof -was left, and scarcely a timber; steam came through little holes in the -wet brown sand, and a sickening whiff showed whence it came.</p> - -<p>It was hard to distinguish where streets had been. Everything was -buried under fallen walls of cobblestone and pink plaster and tiles, -including 20,000 bodies. A New England town would have blown away as -white ashes before the giant blowpipe acting on the flame of burning -rum.</p> - -<p>I looked toward the gray old volcano, with shrouded summit. The -landscape was dusty, like old statuary. Mountain slope and cliff were -denuded of trees. An overturned factory boiler had holes punctured by -flying stones. A circular marble fountain basin was chipped away on the -volcano side by bombardment. Old cannon used as mooring posts at the -quay had been uprooted violently. The green landscape ended abruptly at -the city along a sharp line, with coconut palms half green, half brown. -There was no motion except steam jets on Pelée’s slopes.</p> - -<p>Suddenly I wondered what those steam vents were doing. At first there -had been one or two along the sea front; but now there were eight, ten, -twenty, spurting high and scattered all over the volcano. A physician, -Dr. Church, was standing near me, and we agreed that we disliked the -outlook. Now there were forty jets, like so many ghostly locomotives -run out from the Pelée roundhouse. Meanwhile, white-coated officers and -scientists were scattered about in groups under the cliffs, some out of -sight of Mount Pelée.</p> - -<p>We looked toward the USS <i>Potomac</i>; she had seen the steam, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_58">[58]</span> -her own white steam presaged quick, repeated toots of her fog horn. -Pellmell the passengers came tumbling to the landing. The sailors -had no sooner started the boats than two more white-coated figures -appeared, and we had to put back for them. The mountain looked as -though it were rifting in a hundred places preparatory to an outburst, -and there were many stories of new craters forming. What we saw was -actually the product of a smart rain shower, falling on red hot dry -gravel; but we were to learn later about rain rill explosion. Wherever -a stream rill runs down to such contact, a jet of steam forms at once.</p> - -<p>The main water gorge of the Pelée crater was blown clear of clouds as -we steamed past, and we saw a cup under the summit amphitheater where a -lake had been, with a pile of scaly looking hot boulders in its midst -steaming violently. This crater extended into a deep gulch to the -ocean, whence had come a disastrous mud flood on May 5 which buried a -sugar mill. This had happened three days before the destruction of St. -Pierre. Water preceded steam. The cracks under the gulch undoubtedly -dipped away from the city, and from an unknown chasm athwart the gulch -line ejected water and superheated steam toward the city, like a jet -from a hose. This happened on May 8. The ejected material had been in -dry steam, and red hot, accounting for early reports of lava at night.</p> - -<p>I saw molten rock five weeks after the <i>Potomac</i> trip, when the -crater cone was above the rim of the gorge, apparently large fragments -of brown angular material resting on finer gravel. Cauliflower clouds -of reddish dust spurted up the bed of the gulch below every half hour, -and migrated down the gulch. This was followed by a low growl, perhaps -from avalanches. The basin widened during the month, and the dome -gained in height and breadth. A bright incandescent crack at night -was seen to cross the heap obliquely. A sudden increase of glow was -followed by a rumbling, as though the dome were heaving. Breadcrust -bombs of andesite, cracked on their surface in deep gashes, and picked -up on the mountain at both Pelée and Soufrière were pieces of the -internal lava.</p> - -<p>A chance clearing of the whole dome came two months after the -obliteration of St. Pierre. This we photographed, when brown dust -was rising, and steam jets appeared southeast on the dome and in the -gulch. On top was an extraordinary spine, shaped like a shark fin, with -steep escarpment to the east, curved and smooth and scraped to the -west, pushed up and out of a central rupture of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_59">[59]</span> dome. It was like -paste from a tube, a hard central pencil of lava that had been shoved -up by the expansive force within. Jagged surfaces of breaking showed -on the vertical east cliff and long, smooth, arched striations of -scrape appeared on the rounded west profile of the protuberance. Other -hornlike projections showed on the dome. The summit spine was 200 feet -above the surface of the heap.</p> - -<p>On July 6, 1902, came the first report of the famous Pelée spine. -It crumbled in August, and a year later a new spine, facing in the -opposite direction, reached a height of 1,000 feet. It was a central -tongue of the semisolid lava of the dome, sufficiently plastic to be -urged out by forces within. Otherwise the dome was a nearly solid -extrusion covered with fallen bombs. This was the magma, or lava, of -the Pelée-Soufrière eruptions. Dike ribs extended radially from the -spine athwart the dome. I published an erroneous explanation that the -dome of boulders consisted of old fragments melted by a superblast and -was not true lava. I was so far right, however, as to anticipate the -gas-heat theory and melting of all volcanism.</p> - -<p>The direct crisis of these Carib islands in 1902 was introduced by -Soufrière Volcano on St. Vincent, 100 miles south of Martinique, at 1 -p.m. on May 7, nineteen hours before the St. Pierre disaster. Soufrière -exploded, as the common saying is, through a crater lake pit southwest -of its 4,000-foot summit, the crater edge being 3,500 feet high. It -is notable how many volcanoes are 4,000 feet high, and how many have -crater pits, not at the top, but along a rift below the peak. Just this -was the case of Pelée, just this characterizes the calderas of Kilauea -and Mauna Loa. A dozen other volcanoes could be named where the vents -are through the flank of the heap.</p> - -<p>Hovey, Curtis, and I were taken by the <i>Dixie</i> to St. Vincent, -where the hospitable English colonists provided us with houses at the -base of Soufrière, and with servants and horses; and the Government -supply steamer took us around the island. We made the ascent of -Soufrière to the edge of the great crater and looked down at boiling -waters far below, green and muddy, and sending up a column of steam on -one wall.</p> - -<p>We three Americans guided by T. M. MacDonald, a Scottish planter, made -the first ascent after the fearful eruptions of May 7 and 18. Leaving -our quarters at Chateau Belair, we climbed on foot from the southwest -base, with six stalwart negroes carrying instruments, water, and food. -In the ruins of Wallibu sugar mill we encountered<span class="pagenum" id="Page_60">[60]</span> a wild-eyed East -Indian coolie and his helpers looting sugar.</p> - -<p>The Wallibu River received the brunt of the heavy, dry, red hot, -gravel of the eruptions, drifted like snow and crusted with wet mud. -Water supplied by the river broke its way into the eighty feet of -incandescent fill of the valley. Instantly a steam explosion was hurled -up in white volutes, and the river dammed its own channel with the -stone shower from upblasts. This forced its own waters into fresh hot -cinder and so maintained explosive action. One such exploding river -sent up a column three quarters of a mile high, indescribably majestic, -causing the natives to report new craters. A shower of mud and sand -fell on our party.</p> - -<p>The old road crossing Soufrière mountain was destroyed, the river -flats were deeply trenched, and difficult ridges and hollows were -encountered at every step. The gulches were deepened into gorges, the -slopes above furrowed with a feathery rill drainage pattern. Each spur -between gulches was like a very steep roof, with a smooth pathway -uphill along the watershed. This made progress easier. Big tree stumps -of <i>Ficus</i> jutted ragged through the hardened mud, the branches -charred and sharpened by sand blast.</p> - -<p>A whirl of volcanic sand made an unpleasant stinging shower of dust, -and sulfuretted hydrogen smelled of rotten eggs. But near the summit -the air was fresh and the sunshine bright. A rain would have made -the mud slippery and perilous, for the gulch slopes were practically -cliffs. Finally we did come to mud clots, resembling a cattle wallow, -knee deep and sticky. Large blocks of rock two feet across lay on the -surface, flung-out pieces of the old crater walls; and there were some -bombs of new lava.</p> - -<p>After three hours we assembled at the rim of the old crater, which -before the outbreak had been full of a high crater lake. Suddenly we -came to an immense chasm almost circular, then the profile of a black -precipice falling away 2,000 feet; and up its face we saw a silent -steam column purling away in billows. The bottom was a green pool of -boiling water, muddied by springs from the wall; and a hundred tails of -white steam joined the column on the wall.</p> - -<p>The inner walls showed horizontal bands of old lava, and intrusions -both in lens shape and as dikes. There were red brown puddingstones -made up of fragments. A funnel-shaped intrusion looked like the diagram -cross section of a volcano, making a perfect T of gray lava, like a -mushroom. A large fissure, filling west, rose from bottom<span class="pagenum" id="Page_61">[61]</span> to top. A -northern rocky horseshoe rim, or somma, at the top made the peak of St. -Vincent. The crater lip was a mile wide and the interior a half mile -deep; and the green puddle at the bottom was 1,200 feet across. The -base of the wall column sputtered fiercely and sent up spurts of black -mud and rock fragments. The lake level was 1,100 feet above the ocean, -800 feet lower than before the eruption; and the pool was shallow, with -mud flats and islets. We operated cameras, compass, and sketch books; -paced off a base line; and noted that the northwest corner of the -crater had been blown away to leave a big notch.</p> - -<p>When we returned to Chateau Belair, the negro peasant women brought out -their children to gaze at us, the godlike men who had dared the crater. -Mr. MacDonald had to steer us through the crowd, and we felt like the -twelve apostles after a miracle.</p> - -<p>The Soufrière eruption during the first week of May was more voluminous -and violent than that of Pelée, for Pelée was concentrated on one -target. Soufrière wrought havoc east and west, whereas Pelée was in -a sector southwest of the mountain. They were equally devastating, -however, and both made downblasts of superheated steam and gravels. -Scalding dust killed people, but so did water waves, conflagration, -steam, stones, drowning, and burial.</p> - -<p>Soufrière’s dust fall was reported all the way to Trinidad and -Barbados; and from ships east and southeast, directly against the -trade winds, from 100 to 900 miles away. The dust column penetrated -the antitrades of the upper atmosphere. Sounds were loud 150 miles -away, but not heard close to the mountains. In the red hot gravel were -innumerable landslides, river waters rushed into the gravel and made -false eruptions, and shore cliffs collapsed.</p> - -<p>No lava, except as fragments, appeared in St. Vincent, whereas it rose -as a crateral heap in Pelée. Floods of rivers radial to the volcanoes -appeared both before and after the first eruptions, and scientists -erroneously attributed them to cloudburst rains. Later, exact -descriptions by natives showed that the sources were hot waters gushing -out in places where there was no rain.</p> - -<p>A succession of eruptions at increasing intervals from May to December -actuated both volcanoes. In succeeding years, explosions dwindled; but -over Pelée’s crater rose a mighty dome and spine of stiff quartz-basalt -lava, like ointment from a tube.</p> - -<p>There was, on Pelée, a splitting of the bottom of the long crater -gulch. Cauliflower steam volutes charged with dust gushed up the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_62">[62]</span> -cracks, hard-edged in profile down near the shore, soft and diffuse -near the crater. Scalding waters in the gulch bottom carried mud. The -mountain was cracking open along radial gulches, and squirting up steam -and geysers, but this all concealed itself with sediment. Nobody ever -saw the cracks open. The migrating steam clouds charged with gravel -were called glow clouds and were believed to “flow” as gas fluids from -the crater.</p> - -<p>An elucidation of all this mystery came many years later, after a -thorough study of all reports. The glow clouds, which were at first -confused with the gigantic blasts that had destroyed the city, were -gradually explained. It became apparent that radial cracks are ancient -characters of lava domes, and that lava domes lie under heaps of -agglomerate. Pelée and Soufrière are heaps of agglomerate. Kilauea and -Mauna Loa are lava domes. Vesuvius is an intermediate type of volcano.</p> - -<p>I remained in the field from May to July, returned to Mount Pelée, -cruised through the northern Caribbee Islands, and went to the bottom -of the deep crater of Mount Misery, on St. Kitts. My guides on St. -Kitts were two colored men, Johnny Eddy and Samuel Jim. In the crater -we found steam and sulfur and a rotten-egg smell, on the bank of a -cold crater lake. We descended by seemingly vertical cliffs covered -with roots. This was a typical fumarole, or solfatara, one of the -unsatisfactory characteristics of craters. We collected specimens and -took snapshots, wondered how often such places change suddenly, and -knew hydrogen sulfide gas only by the smell. It all jibed with what I -was later to discover in Hawaii; that the only way to know a crater is -to live with it, and that gases can melt lava.</p> - -<p>As I look back on the Martinique expedition, I know what a crucial -point in my life it was and that it was the human contacts, not field -adventures, which inspired me. Gradually I realized that the killing -of thousands of persons by subterranean machinery totally unknown to -geologists and then unexplainable was worthy of a life work.</p> - -<p>The story of Rita Stokes made a tremendous impression on me. In -Barbados hospital I talked with this young white girl and her colored -nurse, Clara King, who had been passengers on the SS <i>Roraima</i> -which was at St. Pierre when the city was destroyed. When I saw them -they were swathed in bandages. Clara’s burns were severe on knee, arm, -and hand. Rita’s were on her head, hands, and arms, and one seriously -disfigured ear. Both were somewhat injured<span class="pagenum" id="Page_63">[63]</span> for life. Mrs. Stokes, a -boy, and a baby girl in the cabin with them had been killed. All saw -the adjacent mountain sending up puffs, as the ship lay at anchor -off the St. Pierre waterfront on the morning of May 8, but they were -reassured by the ship’s officers.</p> - -<p>Suddenly the steward rushed by shouting, “Close the cabin door, the -volcano is coming!” Mrs. Stokes slammed the door just before a terrific -explosion came which nearly burst the ear drums. The vessel was lifted -high and sank down, and all were thrown off their feet by the shock, -and huddled crouching in one corner of the little cabin. Scalding moist -ashes poured in through a broken skylight in inky darkness. Next came -suffocation, relieved by the door bursting open and air rushing in.</p> - -<p>When a little daylight came back, Mrs. Stokes and the little boy were -plastered black with hot mud, the baby girl was dying, and the nurse -and Rita were in great agony. A heap of scorching mud had collected on -one corner of the floor, and as the young girl put her hand down to -raise herself, her arm plunged to the elbow in scalding sand. They were -all taken out to the deck where mother, boy, and baby died. The ship -was on fire, and the nearby city was a mass of roaring flames. More -ashes fell and scalded the victims. Curiously, third degree burns were -left on flesh, through underclothing not burned at all.</p> - -<p>Clara said that the mountain appeared gray with smoke rolling west, -that the weather was very calm, and that the dust smelled like -gunpowder. She saw no flames during the blast and did not know what set -fire to the steamer. The fires probably came from the city. Ashes came -in sputtering splashes like “moist marl.” No rocks fell and the grit -in cabin and on burns was wet sand. Before the blast there had been -falling dust but, according to Clara, no difficulty in breathing. The -sun was brownish red.</p> - -<p>The bow of the ship was pointed seaward, and the vessel heeled over -left, then right. The stern, toward the conflagration, caught fire -first, the bow later. There was no rumbling, only shock and rattling -thunder all at once, no noise before or after. The only people Clara -King saw toward the shore were some men on a raft.</p> - -<p>I wrote President Eliot and the American Relief Committee about the -case of Rita Stokes, half American and the only white woman saved in -St. Pierre. And I rejoiced to learn from her guardian and uncle, J. E. -Croney of Barbados, that she was provided for. The sum of $450 was sent -to the committee, and $6,000 in trust was set<span class="pagenum" id="Page_64">[64]</span> aside for her. She was -never separated from her devoted nurse, Clara King.</p> - -<p>Apart from the experiences of the wounded, I found much to contemplate -in the findings of numerous geologists; in the accounts of doctors, -sailors, naval officers, resident government men, the local newspapers, -and photographers; in the specimens we collected; and in the work of -great newspaper and magazine correspondents.</p> - -<p>The facts and photographs we collected were baffling. They did not -correspond with the text books. Two volcanoes a hundred miles apart -suddenly spouted death downward. Obviously they were connected along -the island chain, with ocean to the east and ocean to the west. -Telegraph cables were broken. Why? That which lay under the ocean was -totally unknown, both events and topography. The biggest part of these -volcanoes was submarine.</p> - -<p>Earthquakes at Pelée were relatively small but often continuous. Tidal -waves were local and accompanied by downblasts of steam. The downblasts -were at first supposed to be due to fallen avalanches from the -upblasts. Then it appeared they were really sloping jets from concealed -holes or cracks in the gulches, with inclined orifices amid the blocks -of a cracked-up mountain. For at Pelée the blast that destroyed St. -Pierre shot from the crater gulch in cascades of water and steam, while -observers on high ground saw the horizon, or clear sky, over the crater.</p> - -<p>The speed of the blast was six miles in two minutes, or 180 miles per -hour. This was different from the glow clouds in the later months, -migrating slowly along cracks in the gulch bottom.</p> - -<p>Man’s perception of speed relative to himself has nothing to do with -actual speeds. It may be argued that a miniature volcano erupts faster -than a big volcanic system, but not if the whole terrestrial plexus of -systems is taken into account. An eruption of Mauna Loa is a very slow -affair, in comparison with the 10,000 underground squirtings of lava in -cracks totally unperceived, except as tremors on seismograph.</p> - -<p>Pelée’s eruption was like turning on a hose. A structural valve or -orifice, suddenly opened by underground heaving of the mountain block -and letting out steam and mud, appears to be the only reasonable -explanation of what happened. And the only agents possible were glowing -stiff lava heating boiling water underground. Both of these were later -identified.</p> - -<p>Grove Karl Gilbert of the U.S. Geological Survey, who had criticized<span class="pagenum" id="Page_65">[65]</span> -favorably my manuscript on the Black Hills intrusive lavas, wrote me -not to drop the enigma of Mount Pelée, because he found the published -reports unsatisfying. In 1949, forty-seven years after the disaster, I -published “Steam blast eruptions,” dealing with Pelée. In the interim I -studied many volcanoes.</p> - -<p>Alexander Agassiz, who had been urging me to do a memoir on volcanoes, -financed a trip to Vesuvius when it exploded and poured out lava in -1906. Ottajano northeast of Vesuvius was demolished by jets of gravel -and stones; and Boscotrecase at the south was invaded by black streams -of heavy, sprouting, bouldery slag. Here was a change of habit, -from heaping up lavas for thirty-four years, to collapse, internal -avalanching, and pure steam explosion accompanied by remnants of -stirred lava flow.</p> - -<p>Why thirty-four years? A third of a century? Three times the sunspot -interval? The previous steamblast explosion of Vesuvius before 1906 had -been in 1872. In the case of Mount Pelée and Soufrière the intervals -since past explosions had been fifty-one years and ninety years. But -it should be pointed out that the Carib volcanoes had two years of -terrifying rumblings, odors, and quakes just before 1902. Groundwater -exists in large volume under all three volcanoes. Soufrière, Pelée and -Vesuvius all began the steamblasts with collapsing craters, that is, -with internal lava going down into the bowels of the earth. The lava -usually showed in Vesuvius, whereas at Pelée and Soufrière it merely -made fumaroles, or gas vents. Man, a mere microbe, could make nothing -of hot sulfurous cracks.</p> - -<p>On April 25 the electric train slowly pushed us up as far as the -observatory station, beyond which all was destroyed. Outside Naples -the fields were covered with two inches of gray-green dust, and pines -and palms were loaded with a two or three foot drift of sand. Near -the observatory a heavy six-inch mantle of sand and dust buried the -lava fields. The Vesuvian cone was covered with straight sand slides, -whitish gray, which occasionally slipped downward. The landscape was -shrouded in drifts of white ashes revealing obscurely the slaggy -contortions of lava beneath. Pure white steam boiled up from the cavity -in the peak, surrounded by an older rain cloud, like a hat on the -volcano’s crown.</p> - -<p>My companions—Dr. Tempest Anderson and Messrs. Yeld and Brigg—were -all from Yorkshire. We started the ascent of the twenty-nine degree -slope in a strong west wind. The steam settled down on the summit, than -alternated with clear spells. We followed the west<span class="pagenum" id="Page_66">[66]</span> profile of the cone -straight up, noting how the funicular rails were twisted by landslides. -Everything was covered with pebbles, sand, and dust, with here and -there large fragments up to five feet across. We found solid footing on -the radial elevations of either scoured old lava or packed fragments. -The gullies were filled with deep sand.</p> - -<p>The rim we could see ahead was the edge of the crater itself. The -abruptness of the fall off, when we finally came to it, was startling -in the extreme. The wind was pelting our necks with stinging sand -grains which, incidentally, were ruinous to my new Kodak. Only -occasionally did sunshine sift through the mixture of sand, steam, -and cloud. We could make out an inward slope of thirty-five degrees, -terminated 100 feet below by a jutting, fuming precipice. The circular -curvature of the crater was embayed. The only noise was the howling -wind. We could not see the opposite side of the collapsed cauldron a -half mile across. The summit was 4,000 feet above sea level by aneroid -measure, 350 feet lower than before the eruption. There was a great -notch northeast toward Ottajano where thousands of tons of gravel were -hurled clear over the top of Monte Somma, the encircling old ridge. The -east-west diameter was left much greater than that of the north-south. -The radial ridges and gullies were like a corrugated roof, and sand -made a flattened angle of scree at the base of the scoured cone. The -corrugations were not rain erosion, but were made by backfallen debris -sliding. I got some photographs and Mr. Perret gave me others.</p> - -<p>The big thing was the line of mountain blocks of earth crust. In Italy -it is made up of Ischia, Pozzuoli, Vesuvius, Lipari, and Etna, whereas -the Carribbee line is made up of Mount Misery, Montserrat, Guadeloupe, -Dominica, Martinique, and St. Vincent. Such a line of broken earth -blocks is a volcanic system. Hundreds of miles long, it is never -quiet. A single place seems quiet because superficially we are totally -unconscious of the other places. A microbe on the scalp knows nothing -of the skin of the toes. Men are mere microbes on the skin of shore, -sea, and island. And they are remote from any consciousness of sea -bottom.</p> - -<p>Vast distances and long intervals are writing records, but man does not -measure them. He measures civilization, wars, and dynasties, not the -adventures of the ground he dwells upon. Ground he considers static. -Actually it is intensely dynamic. Occasionally it explodes and man -is destroyed. Earth history and volcanic systems make wars look very -small.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_67">[67]</span></p> - -<p>The tremendous accumulations of broken rocks over lava beds on the cone -of Vesuvius, and on all the Caribbee Islands, recall the breccias, or -volcanic conglomerates, of the Yellowstone and of the High Plateaus -of Utah. Floods of basalt alternate with vast falls or outwashes of -volcanic gravel. Avalanches, landslides, torrents, floods—call them -what you will—cover immense areas of the Cordillera. Vesuvius and -Pelée pile up cones, but the Caribbees and Italy are also heaped with -agglomerates. Erosion destroys cones, but erosion makes agglomerations -or valley fills of rocks and mud. This is the history of every volcanic -system on the globe. Stübel discovered smooth basalt domes like Mauna -Loa under every volcanic system.</p> - -<p>In 1904 Vesuvius had vented a lava flow which stopped in September, and -its cone was sharp, with only a little crater and inner conelet on top. -In 1905 lava had flowed from a northwest split. On April 4, 1906, a -splendid black cauliflower cloud arose. The northwest flow stopped and -a southern radial rift made lava mouths progress 500, 1,800, and 2,400 -feet below the top, more than halfway down the mountain. From the lower -mouth came glassy pahoehoe, or smooth destructive streams intensely -incandescent and liquid, quickly cooling to aa, or sprouting rough -fudge, black crusts, and clinker. The molten porridge flowed as a snaky -avalanche into the masonry village of Boscotrecase.</p> - -<p>On April 7, at the crater, a column of boulder-laden steam shot up four -miles, snapping with lightning. New lava mouths sent forking snakes -crushing and swallowing parts of the village. A graveyard was neatly -filled within its masonry wall, showing that internally the rocky -torrent was a liquid.</p> - -<p>Meantime trajectories like those of a hose sent falls of gravel for -miles, to Ottajano on the opposite side of the mountain. These also -came from the central crater. On the west flank, at the observatory, -the house was rocking, and heavy stones forced its occupants to -retreat. Matteucci and his staff went halfway down the cone, to return -next day. Explosions dwindled during the next fortnight, though one day -an adverse wind from the crater carried carbon dioxide and hydrogen -sulfide almost asphyxiating some persons. Thereafter cauliflower clouds -of white steam arose and the noise of big avalanches was heard.</p> - -<p>The clinker field that invaded Boscatrecase was 16 feet thick, and -houses were cut in two by a slaggy torrent. In Ottajano, on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_68">[68]</span> -opposite side of the mountain, flat tile roofs collapsed, buried under -three feet of heavy gravel, some of it the size of an apple. Nearer the -crater, boulders five feet in diameter were thrown a mile. The volcano -was probably blocked inside by welling lava on the Boscotrecase side, -which caused it to vomit steam and earthy avalanche material obliquely -outward on the opposite, Ottajano, side.</p> - -<p>The Italians have a word, <i>sprofondimento</i>, which means to make -profound by insucking, that expresses what happened. This plexus of -uprush of slag and inrush of avalanche, against a water-steam geyser, -both happening at once, was very different from the quiet outpouring of -lava during the preceding years. It definitely meant rupture of earth -blocks, deep escape of that lava probably at the underocean part of -the radial cracks, and deep entrance of spring water into incandescent -vacated chambers. It meant a rupture crisis, collapsing the peak, and -a new geyser quite unrecognized. The eruption ended when the slag -pressure was relieved, the mountain blocks had settled, and the frozen -slag had shut off groundwater. The remaining lava entered into decades -of deep accumulation and gas bubbling, the solfataric phase. That which -ended the thirty-year upbuilding was probably downward pressure due to -weight of surface heaping of the cone. Cracking released water inward.</p> - -<p>The next thirty-eight years were to culminate in a similar crisis -for Vesuvius which lasted ten days, and again its peak collapsed. -This was in March 1944, when our American troops entered Naples. It -is interesting that these culminations have been from a third to a -half century apart, but the meaning of intervals can only be really -understood when volcanoes like Etna, Stromboli, and Vesuvius are -grouped together. The same thing is true of Kilauea and Mauna Loa, -and of Pelée and St. Vincent. Ponte reports the eruptions of Etna as -ten years apart, similar to the sunspot interval; and Perret notes a -ten-year interval for the smaller eruptions of Vesuvius. We measured an -eleven-year interval for Hawaii, with culminations close to the minimum -of sunspots. A culmination is when lava goes down and keeps quiet, or -when sunspot numbers go down and remain few. No one knows why, or of -any connecting cause.</p> - -<p>Three eleven-year culminations make a third of a century, when at -Kilauea and Vesuvius, something bigger happens. Sunspots have numbered -a suspiciously similar curve at corresponding dates.</p> - -<p>Photographs of Vesuvius taken just before the 1944 collapse showed -the 1906 crater hole completely filled and overflowing. There<span class="pagenum" id="Page_69">[69]</span> was an -inner flat floor, a conelet standing in the middle. The 1944 eruption -collapsed the conelet, split the big outer cone, and sent flows to -destroy San Sebastiano and several villages. The torrents of ash -killed people and the electric station of the funicular railroad was -destroyed, as usual. The mountain split in several directions.</p> - -<p>Just as in 1906, the stages of the 1944 outbreak were lava flows, -mixed lava gushing intensely liquid, crateral caving in, tremendous -gas emission, black ash changing to vapor and white ash as the -emission increased, and ultimately white steam. The black ash was the -contemporaneous lava with dark augite; the snowlike white ash was -ground up old lavas, containing the white crystals, leucite.</p> - -<p>The liquid phase took an unusual fountain form, resembling that of -Mauna Loa in Hawaii, and nine spells of bright incandescent explosive -fountaining occurred. The collapse began on March 13; the fountaining -occurred during March 20 to 22, with jets of bright liquid lava and -flames, 1,000 to 3,000 feet high; and the crater became a lava lake. -The flames were occasioned by hydrogen within the lava itself, and -perhaps some carbon gases. This liquid fountaining phase was the -culmination of explosions, making pumice, with water vapor the gaseous -product. Ash fell four feet deep three miles away, and some fell on the -Adriatic coast. Both white steam clouds and black ash clouds arose with -the fountains, white and black side by side.</p> - -<p>The net effect was to leave a bowl 1,500 feet in diameter and 800 feet -deep, floored with avalanche gravel. This reconstructed the funnel -of 1906, and as in 1906, the height of the rim was 4,100 feet after -eruption. In other words, the thirty-eight years had filled the vast -crater, only to have 1944 engulf and eject the contents, and strew them -down the slopes, adding an immense weight to the outer shell of the -cone.</p> - -<p>A hundred million cubic yards of lava was poured out, and 50 million -cubic yards of ash now lie on the volcano. Three times as much was -carried far away, and the volume of gases was ten times as great. -The rock fragments, probably 200 times as great, were engulfed by -avalanches.</p> - -<p>The big achievement of an eruption is to wedge open a mountain, let -the internal lava effervesce and go down, admit ground water, and make -spectacular fireworks of burning gas and meltings. Release of pressure -by splitting open the crust permits a great show of fiery foaming, -but no geologist sees the profound accomplishment of lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_70">[70]</span> sinking -and flowing away by underground channels. It may flow out along the -Mediterranean Sea bottom. At Vesuvius, it may slip through deep cracks -in the direction of Sicily.</p> - -<p>Certainly a periodic adjustment of the big system -(Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna) has taken place deep down in the earth, and -the thirty-eight years of accumulation mean a stress by weighting down. -The pressure of 100 million tons of stored lava inside a weak cone -mountain and ready to effervesce with heat and give up its hydrogen is -what science too often forgets.</p> - -<p>The continental crack system between crust blocks and full of rain -water is waiting to assist the crisis, while the blocks are poised -over uprising gases of the ages. The gases of the ages, reaching to -the core of the globe, are eternally melting the walls with white-hot -core matter, walls of siliceous rock blocks 1,800 miles deep. In this -system, Vesuvius is a tiny pimple. Incidentally, the 1944 earthquakes -were recorded in largest number during the period when the liquid -pumice fountains were in action in the nine different spells between -March 20 and March 23. This means that the maxima of engulfing -crater, seething slag, outrushing gas, crunching mountain weight, and -avalanching inner walls were all happening together. The clogging of -vents forced the ground water steam into pulsations. This could not -last; the mountain blocks settled and resumed pressure, deep lava -drained off, heat dwindled, and gas was relieved. The bigger volcanic -system asserted its downward weight of the adjusted globe.</p> - -<p>By making much of pulsations and thirty-three year intervals, we are -dreaming of an ideal volcano such as might be constructed as was our -geyser apparatus. But there is no question of the reality of tides -in rock, as well as in ocean; of day and night; cold and sunshine; -year and century. Continent and ocean are positive, globe and solar -system are positive. The ideal volcano is part of a tidal system and -is limited in size. Therefore science has a right to inquire how it -happens that through centuries most volcanoes stay 4,000 feet high. It -has a right to look for averages and periodicities, just as a doctor -looks for respiration, temperature, and heartbeats.</p> - -<p>Like men, volcanoes are not all alike, but both men and volcanoes are -orderly organisms. The object of volcanology is to find order and -relate the small orderliness to the big regularity of globe and solar -tides.</p> - -<p>My 1906 visit at the end of the Vesuvian eruption crystallized my -lifework idea, begun at Pelée; but my accomplishment was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_71">[71]</span> dwarfed to -triviality by that of Perret, whom I first met while he was assisting -the Italian volcano observatory. He was a photographer and observer -of rare merit. He had been living in Naples and photographing all the -Italian volcanoes, and he had worked out a solar control diagram for -predicting volcano tides. Italy had made a volcanologist out of a -physicist-engineer. Discovery of Perret meant to me much more than any -phenomenon of geology.</p> - -<p>Frank Alvord Perret was an electrical engineer from Brooklyn, and a -genius with an ordinary Kodak. He took at Vesuvius, by sheer daring, -the most remarkable photographs ever made of an active volcano. His -knowledge of astronomy, meteorology, and physics made him see in a -volcano something to study close at hand, as Benjamin Franklin studied -a thunderstorm. He developed and printed his photographs himself, -and colored his lantern slides. He helped Matteucci, the observatory -director on Vesuvius, and was decorated as Chevalier by the King of -Italy. He tramped close to lava vents and explosion clouds, and took -hundreds of pictures.</p> - -<p>Perret and I had exactly the same conception of a volcano. We thought -of it as a living organism to record, just as rainfall is recorded -by the weather man. For our recording, we had to invent volcano -instruments. Though the camera was Perret’s supreme instrument, he had -been an electrical inventor all his life. Businessmen in Springfield, -Massachusetts, financed his work in Italy; and I went to Springfield to -lecture and encourage their research association, the predecessor of -our Hawaiian association.</p> - -<p>Perret photographed Etna, Stromboli, Teneriffe, Sakurajima, Kilauea, -the Carib cones and other volcanoes, and performed heroic work at the -Messina earthquake of 1908. When, in 1929, Pelée entered into another -of its periods of exploding and heaving it was studied critically by -Perret who had established a museum and observatory at Martinique. He -finally settled down at his museum in St. Pierre, and was of great -service at the Montserrat earthquake crisis of 1933 and thereafter. He -was not physically strong and the volcanic dust gave him pneumonia, but -several times he recovered from attacks. He died in New York, having -been forced north by the second World War.</p> - -<p>I also met the Yorkshire oculist, geologist, and photographer, Dr. -Tempest Anderson, on Vesuvius in 1906. This was another happy meeting. -He too was a skilled volcano photographer, and had taken pictures -in New Zealand and Iceland with his privately built cameras,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_72">[72]</span> using -methods of extreme originality. He afterwards made for me a camera -with small glass plates, dark chamber, arm sleeves, no plate-holder, -alpenstock tripod, bottle strip-testing developer, self-drying metal -case, and great perfection of rigidity and focus. We were to meet again -and again in different parts of the world. He became one of the British -experts sent to Soufrière by the Royal Society. He died of typhoid on a -volcano voyage to the Philippines.</p> - -<p>Shortly after my Vesuvius expedition I moved from Harvard to become -head of geology at Massachusetts Tech. My teaching overlapped that of -Professors W. Niles and W. O. Crosby at Tech and Wellesley, while for -a time I continued my Harvard work. It was at this time that I began -to think of possible ways of financing an expedition to the Aleutian -Islands and their forty active volcanoes. The year 1906–1907 was a -time of financial boom, so I went to Calumet and Hecla, the great -copper company of which Agassiz was president. To my astonishment they -subscribed $1,000 to start the Technology Expedition. State Street and -Wall Street raised this to $13,000 in ten days, and I learned much -about the availability of money during a boom of the stock market. -President Pritchett of Harvard approved the expedition, and I organized -it for a sailing schooner from Seattle, with nine in the crew and seven -scientists.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_072fp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_072fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>5. Scientists of Technical Expedition to Aleutians, -1907; left to right: Jaggar, Gummere, Vandyke, Eakle, Sweeney, and Myers</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_073fp" style="max-width: 459px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_073fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>6. Captain George Seeley of the </i>Lydia<i>, -Technical Expedition to Aleutians, 1907</i></p> - </div> - -<p>We set sail in the spring of 1907 and spent four months in that ocean -of gales, fogs, rain, and cold between Dutch Harbor and Atka—the -eastern half of the Aleutians. One man, Colby, was a bear hunter who -explored the Alaskan Peninsula and reported on coal and gold. The -scientists were two geologists, two mining students, a physician who -was also botanist and entomologist, and an astronomer. They were Eakle, -Myers, Sweeny, Vandyke, and Gummeré. The sailing master and mate were -uncle and nephew, both Nova Scotians named Seeley. The following poem -by the master tells the story better than I could.</p> - - <div class="poetry-container"> - <h3>AN ALASKAN IDYLL</h3> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div>An Eastern College of renown</div> - <div>Had purchased in Seattle town</div> - <div>The schooner Lydia of ill fame</div> - <div>And Seeley was the Captain’s name.</div> - <div>The Scientist they numbered seven</div> - <div>Their subjects ranged from H——l to Heaven</div> - <div>One on volcano’s one on stars</div> - <div>Botany, bugs, short cuts to Mars.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_73">[73]</span></div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Like knights of old were they prepared to shoot</div> - <div>The mighty whale, ferocious malamoot.</div> - <div>Good fellows all. I hope they’ll lenient be</div> - <div>To him who writes this verse upon the sea</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Prof. Jaggar, man of earthquake lore.</div> - <div>To climb mountain peaks and them explore</div> - <div>By delving mid their bowels, Pray dont scoff.</div> - <div>Could tell you how it was, the cussed thing went off</div> - <div>At other times on many a foreign shore</div> - <div>Had studied deep in seismologic lore</div> - <div>By looking down their throats and note the smell.</div> - <div>Could tell exactly just how far we were from H——l.</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Prof. Gummere of the Drexel Institute</div> - <div>On mighty Mount Makushin burnt his boot</div> - <div>The crater sure was hot but when we did inquire</div> - <div>Found it was done while drying them to near the fire</div> - <div>Angles and dips of the magnetic kind</div> - <div>Dry bulbs and wet were ever on his mind</div> - <div>Strong in debate on theories scientific</div> - <div>Passed many a weary hour on the Pacific</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Dr. Vandyke the foothills oft would skirt</div> - <div>Oe’r turning stones and delving in the dirt</div> - <div>Beetles and bugs, all things that fly and crawl</div> - <div>Were his delight, and well he knew them all</div> - <div>If one were ill, or hovering near the Brink</div> - <div>He’d bring you back with ointment made of Zinc</div> - <div>Fauna and Flora that is bugs and flowers</div> - <div>Were his delight. On them he’d talk for hours</div> - <div>Of stature slight by nature energetic</div> - <div>The way he’d chase those bugs was quite pathetic</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Colby and Cody hunters of renown.</div> - <div>Whose specialty was bears, white, black, or brown</div> - <div>The Aleutian Is’ds yield but fox and rat</div> - <div>But little did these Nimrods care for that</div> - <div>Blood was their hobby they but lived for gore</div> - <div>And Colby’s stomach ever called for more.</div> - <div>They left us early much to our dismay</div> - <div>To hunt the grizzly down in Bristol Bay.</div> - <div>With grape nuts, flour, bacon in galore</div> - <div>They chase the caribou, what could they ask for more<span class="pagenum" id="Page_74">[74]</span></div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div>Next is little Dr. Eakle with the twinkle in his eye</div> - <div>Who could cook a flapjack, pound up rocks.</div> - <div>Or climb the mountains high</div> - <div>I’ll bet when he gets home again on California’s shore</div> - <div>He will never travel the Bering Sea in a Sch’r any more</div> - <div>He left us at Dutch Harbor and took another way</div> - <div>To Berkeley’s Alma Mater on San Francisco’s Bay.</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="hangingindent">Messrs. Sweeney next and Myers, young men of good repute</div> - <div>The latter on his bugle would oft delight to toot</div> - <div>At any hour at any time either by night or day</div> - <div>Reveille, Mess call, any old thing</div> - <div>He’d lug her out and play.</div> - <div>He left with Eakle much to our regret</div> - <div>And in my dreams I hear reveille yet.</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="hangingindent">Now I’ve roasted and I’ve toasted these fellows good and true</div> - <div>Just incline your ear and listen</div> - <div>While I whisper unto you</div> - <div>With a better lot of shipmates have I never yet set sail</div> - <div>Mid the light Pacific breezes or the wild Aleutian gale</div> - <div>I’ll remember each and all of them</div> - <div>And I hope they’ll think of me</div> - <div>And the trip they made in the Lydia bold.</div> - <div>To the darned old Bering Sea.</div> - </div> - - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="i6"><i>George Seeley</i></div> - <div class="i6"><i>Sailing Master of the Technology</i></div> - <div class="i6"><i>Expedition 1907</i></div> - <div class="center sm">[Uncorrected from the original manuscript]</div> - </div> - </div> -</div> - -<p>We collected specimens and made notes on geology, magnetism, -topography, weather, photography, ethnology, plants, insects, birds, -ores, shipping, volcanoes and navigation—materials for years of -laboratory study. The journal of the expedition, thirty-seven pages -long with photographs, was published by the <i>Technology Review</i>.</p> - -<p>Like every such volcano expedition, we were hampered by the -necessity of using a sailing vessel, by bad weather, by rain which -interfered with photography, by long spells on the open sea in fog, -and by inaccessible craters amid the ice of mountain tops. From the -administrative viewpoint, two things stood out: the need for an -amphibian boat, independent of harbors, and the need for a land station -more or less permanent, wherefrom an amphibian boat could operate to -reach and land on determinate beaches. A permanent station could work -on specimens in bad weather. These discoveries<span class="pagenum" id="Page_75">[75]</span> determined the policy -that was to eventuate in the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, to the -building of amphibian boats, and to five other Aleutian journeys by -1932.</p> - -<p>I might describe sliding down the slippery grass of Unalaska, on the -steep slopes peculiar to the Aleutians; exploring ice craters on top -of Makushin in Unalaska; or getting storm bound for five days trying -to reach Atka’s Korovinski Volcano on foot. But these tales have been -published elsewhere.</p> - -<p>The most exciting of the Aleutian volcanoes is Bogoslof, a peak -submerged north of Umnak, with its crater, a line of erupting crags, -just at sea level. We had good luck with weather and landed on Bogoslof -in the forenoon of August 7, 1907. Hundreds of sea lions, bellowing -close to the dories, would pop up and stare at us and then plunge -frantically beneath the waves. On the beach we found one bull asleep, -but he awoke and awkwardly floundered to the sea. The islet was then -four peaks with sand flats between, the central one a steaming mass of -lava protuberances shaped like potatoes. Next to it was a half cone -broken in two, with a horned spine like a shark fin; Pelée all over -again. It was also similar to New Zealand’s White Island. At the two -ends of the island were older, peaked lava rocks. The active heap was -450 feet high with bright yellow coatings, and a ring pool of hot salt -water around it, yellow with iron-stained mud. The rocky cliffs were -covered with thousands of murres, their chicks, and eggs; and the birds -darkened the sky in flight. The stench from offal and rotten eggs was -intense.</p> - -<p>The sea was full of fish, the beaches were full of sea lions, the hot -lava and air were full of birds. Thus life and deadly volcanism lived -together. The active rock was refractory basalt, semisolid, crusting -and breaking into blocks as it rose from a submerged crater.</p> - -<p>On September 1 after we left, the crater exploded, throwing sand and -dust a distance of 100 miles to the east. The middle heap was engulfed, -leaving only a lagoon; and the remaining peaks were shrouded in a heavy -mantle of debris. Such a history of building and bursting and spreading -out as a shoal has gone on for more than 111 years. Bogoslof is the -peak of a submarine Pelée, several thousand feet above sea bottom. It -is always active, the index volcano of the Aleutians.</p> - -<p>It was about this time that the need for observatories began to be -recognized. Something new and of grave menace had come into geology, -terrible steam blasts capable of shooting out horizontally<span class="pagenum" id="Page_76">[76]</span> and -explosively. And even as I write in 1952 these have been taking human -lives at Mount Lamington in Papua and Mount Hibokhibok on Camiguin -Island of the Philippines.</p> - -<p>At Vesuvius, under Palmieri, an observatory had been established -about 1859. The director was interested in meteorology as affected by -Vesuvius, and annual reports were published irregularly. Successive -directors became interested in making instruments for volcano science -and Mercalli, the director in 1907, published a book in Italian on the -active volcanoes of the world. When I went to Mount Pelée I was mindful -of the venture at Vesuvius; and Professor Lacroix of Paris established -artillery officers near St. Pierre ruins after the disaster, to watch -and report as a volcano observatory. They furnished details and -photographs of the many eruptions and the growth of the lava dome and -spine. Doctors Hovey, Flett, Anderson, Lacroix, and Heilprin returned -to Mount Pelée and added much to the observational and photographic -record, and Dr. Stübel published a special book inspired by critical -study of the Caribbees, in comparison with Andean volcanoes.</p> - -<p>Hovey and I put through a resolution in 1907 at the meeting of the -Geological Society of America, “strongly recommending the establishment -of volcano and earthquake observatories.” Perret and I were both -inventors of instruments, both experimenters, and both convinced that -the expedition method alone would never solve the volcano problem. The -brothers Friedlaender of Zurich were establishing a “Zeitschrift für -Vulkanologie,” in Naples, and a laboratory with German, Swiss, and -Italian assistants. The Carnegie Institution established in Washington -a geophysical laboratory devoted to high temperature physical -chemistry. We others were influenced by field ambition, and since 1899 -I had fought for a Hawaii geological survey, for I was convinced that -Kilauea Volcano there must have an American volcano observatory.</p> - -<p>My experiments on erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption -convinced me that a field experimental science was bound to grow up in -each of those parts of dynamical geology. All of these needed field -observatories to determine index of erosion, index of sedimentation, -index of ground movement and earthquake, index of volcanism; these -indices to be quantitative just as the thermometer and barometer and -wind gauge made climatology a quantitative science of the air. I found -almost nothing being accomplished in these new field sciences. No one -dreamt of attacking the Mississippi<span class="pagenum" id="Page_77">[77]</span> as a field of pure science of -erosionology, compared to the Amazon. It was felt that these things -could be left to commerce and the engineers.</p> - -<p>By index of eruption I mean the geographical peculiarity of Vesuvius, -for example, as an eruption center. Perret tried to reduce this to -diagram form. I published, in Washington, a plea for geophysical -observatories.</p> - -<p>An earthquake in 1908, predicted and photographed by Perret, had killed -125,000 people in Italy at Messina, near Mount Etna. Hence I felt more -strongly than ever that something must be done. So it was that in 1909, -at my own expense, I made a journey to Hawaii and Japan with my family. -Everything within me converged on making a life work of the results of -my Pacific journey.</p> - -<p>In Honolulu I was invited to show my colored lantern slides of the -Mount Pelée disaster and to describe Massachusetts Tech’s plan for a -seismograph station on Blue Hill near Boston. When the Honorable L. A. -Thurston of the <i>Pacific Commercial Advertiser</i> interviewed me -after the lecture, and asked whether Kilauea Volcano on the island of -Hawaii would not be better than Blue Hill, I replied that it certainly -would have many more earthquakes and, in addition, would offer volcano -lavas to observe in action. Thurston asked, “Is it then a question -of money?” I replied that it was, largely, but that it also entailed -persuading Tech authorities that I was right.</p> - -<p>After visiting Kilauea, where I stayed at the Volcano House and saw -Halemaumau lava pit in action, I went on to Japan. There I visited the -seismograph stations of Professor Omori and traveled to active Tarumai -Volcano in Hokkaido. Tarumai, which was undergoing an interesting -eruption at that time, is a 4,000 foot cone in pine forests on the -north island of Japan. (Notice the usual 4,000 feet.) It had broken -out explosively, sent up a great spiral of cauliflower clouds of steam -and ash thousands of feet, and followed this by piling up a lava dome -in its summit crater, the dome lifting the crater floor and protruding -above the top of the mountain.</p> - -<p>This was an extrusion of andesite, more refractory and giving hotter -steam than Kilauea vents, as measured with an electric thermometer. We -got 450° Centigrade with Bristol thermocouple in sulfur-covered cracks -hissing on the actual face of the lava dome. Kilauea had given 300° -Centigrade in the famous “postal card crack” where visitors browned -their cards.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_78">[78]</span></p> - -<p>The stiff rising lava dome of Tarumai was a duplicate of the lavas of -Bogoslof and Pelée, but Bogoslof was a crater at sea level, and Pelée’s -big dome and spine above the mountain top developed in the second year -of eruptions. I found further inspiration in a visit to Asama volcano -in central Japan. Here, just as at Tarumai, the hard lava lay in a -rigid swirl, hissing and steaming at the bottom of the summit crater -after the crater had announced eruption by “cauliflower” uprushes.</p> - -<p>It was evident that hard lava push-ups from the bottom of craters were -characteristic of the Pacific and Carib shores, in contrast to Hawaiian -and Italian flow-downs. The pressure upward breaks a mountain, the slag -and boiling groundwater inside churns up avalanche gravel and dust, -columns of dust-laden steam rush out, the break-up lets up lava, and -according to its frothing gas and heat and the air temperature, it is -capable physically of either foaming out liquid through radial cracks -or pushing up semisolid and piling as an aa heap.</p> - -<p>The net effect is flat lava shields for Hawaii, with flows into and -under the ocean, and shapely high cones for the Andes and Japan, with -Italy somewhere in between. The difference in the lavas is a matter of -internal meltability, due to chemistry and gases.</p> - -<p>In the first decade of the twentieth century this was new to me as -a geologist, for the books did not explain internal gas in lava. -Geography understood nothing of the relation of a volcano to lines -of cracking earth crust and depth of crust, and gigantic explosions -dominated history as exceptions. Refractory slags were then believed -to be stiff by reason of chemical fusibility, and gas in solution in -a melt is not understood even today. The Japan journey explained the -textbook contrast between oceanic Hawaii and continental Ecuador, both -volcanic, and the further contrast with Yellowstone agglomerates, and -intrusions of the Black Hills of South Dakota. Clearly Hawaii must be -studied, and experimental geology extended to the globe as a laboratory.</p> - -<p>On my return to Honolulu, Professor Ralph Hosmer, forester, met me and -reported that Honolulu money was available, if Massachusetts Tech would -send me to Hawaii to found a volcano experiment station. Then and there -the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association formed by business leaders -in Honolulu became a reality, to crystallize later into an educational -corporation.</p> - -<p>In 1910, while I was still a professor at Massachusetts Tech, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_79">[79]</span> -United Fruit Company invited me to go in one of their ships to study -the earthquake destruction of Cartago, Costa Rica. I saw an opportunity -to study seismology in the field, as I had studied volcanology in -Martinique. The United Fruit Company owned the railroad and much of -the national debt of Costa Rica. F. R. Hart, treasurer of M. I. T. -and director of the fruit company told me to make my own plans and -the company would pay all expenses. Knowing that engineering is of -first importance in earthquake disaster, I invited Professor Charles -Spofford, head of our Civil Engineering Department, to go with me, and -he promptly accepted.</p> - -<p>Our journey was from New Orleans, in one of the splendid snow-white -steamers of the fruit company. This ship, going by Belize in British -Honduras, took us to Limon on the Caribbean side of Costa Rica, a place -of banana plantations and Jamaica-negro labor. From Limon we took a -mountain-climbing, narrow-gauge railroad, to the high and healthful -capital, San Jose. We passed the ruins of the city of Cartago, with -its earthquake tumbled churches and wrecked lower buildings, all -covered with heavy roofs of red tiles. Don Anastasio Alfaro, government -scientist, showed us seismographs and maps, and we called on President -Jimenez, who owned a dairy farm on the high slopes of Irazu Volcano -directly above Cartago. I arranged with the President to have the -government make an official inquiry all over the Republic, suggesting a -study of ten grades of earthquake damage, adapted to Central American -habits. These grades, from mere alarm up to wrecked churches, were to -apply to what had happened in each place. According to the answers, we -would make for each place a numerical value of intensity and plot these -on the map.</p> - -<p>We visited the wreckage of Cartago, where the quake had come like the -crack of a whip on May 4, 1910, just at the supper hour. An American -railway conductor and his family were seated at table and with the -first jarrings, they all pitched forward under the dining room table. -When the low adobe house fell on top of them, the table saved their -lives. A pathetic object was the hollow square of the Carnegie Palace, -designed by a Costa Rican architect to promote Central American -peace. It was improperly braced, and everything came down, including -the ornate stone wall around the grounds; and a cracked gate post -held a melancholy buzzard in the hideous ruin. This and several of -the big churches, cracked and disrupted, gave Spofford food for his -architectural notes.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_80">[80]</span></p> - -<p>The President’s farm on Irazu was a lovely place of green glades, fat -cattle, and attractive Spanish dairymaids, at an altitude of more than -9,000 feet. The crater of Irazu at 10,300 feet was a tumbled depression -on the top of the mountain with a steaming solfatara on one side, and a -lot of circular holes inside, within a rim more or less circular.</p> - -<p>Poas crater was very different, with a crater lake of boiling water -surrounded by bright-colored horizontal layers of ash. We found buried -bombs from a recent eruption which had punctured the soil with holes -one or two feet across. There was wild adventure for me in being given -a horse at 4 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span>, equipped with a rotten saddle, which -slipped when I mounted him. The horse resented me in the early morning -darkness, having just left his grain, and immediately bucked off both -me and the saddle. More adventure followed. On the ride up the mountain -and in the midst of the forest we encountered a jaguar trap which had -recently caught two big cats. It was a pen, roofed with logs baited -with a fowl, and disguised with brush; a shutter fell and closed the -opening when the bait was touched. On the way down we had a terrific -tropical thunder storm, with sheets of cold rain, and I got chilled to -the bone and was sick with dysentery for two or three days.</p> - -<p>There are a dozen volcanoes like these two on the backbone of the Costa -Rica rocky mountains. They trend in a ragged line from the Panama -boundary on the southeast, to Nicaragua on the northwest. All have -records of explosive activity, but lava flows are rare. Beginning at -Nicaragua the line of the Cordillera, capped with volcanoes, continues -through Salvador, Honduras, and Guatemala; and some of the lower ones -have lava flows. Cosequina is famous among them; and conspicuous as a -frequently active volcano is Santa Ana in Salvador, one peak of which -is Izalco, the index volcano of Central America, erupting frequently. -Other index volcanoes are Kilauea for Hawaii, Stromboli for Italy, and -Bogoslof for the Aleutians. The next line of volcanoes, also trending -northwest, extends from Guatemala into southern Mexico. The Costa Rica -line overlaps the northeast side of the Nicaragua-Salvador line, and -this in turn overlaps the Guatemala line, and so on. The chains of -volcanoes are over an echelon of cracks, surmounted by heaped-up lava -peaks on the continental divide.</p> - -<p>From the point of view of experimenting with volcanoes, the exploration -of the Cartago earthquake and Poas and Irazu craters<span class="pagenum" id="Page_81">[81]</span> and a study of -their relations typified the unsatisfactory combination of upheaved -mountains of strata and of volcanic eruptions and underground friction. -This extends all the way along the Cordillera from Patagonia to Alaska. -I say unsatisfactory because from the science standpoint, the action -of eruption or earthquake is far scattered in time and place, and only -local observatory geophysics and traveling scientists will do the work. -Cartago is directly at the foot of Irazu Volcano, but the volcano did -not erupt simultaneously with the earthquake. In the same way Messina -is at the foot of Etna, and Tokyo is at the foot of Fujiyama; and the -great earthquakes do not accord with eruptions. Sakurajima in 1914 was -an exception, it had a quake after outbreak.</p> - -<p>The direct outcome of my study, on the map of Costa Rica, of lines -of equal earthquake effects, showed the maximum of the 1910 quake on -the continental backbone, and the lines were crowded together along -the western mountains. However, they spread out wider and wider along -the Caribbean coastal plain, which is an elevated sea bottom on the -northeast side of the country. In other words the terrific jolt was -a deep slipping or scraping under the volcano line, and the elastic -waves of like strong effects were close together in the mountains -on the Pacific side, opposed by hard rock. On the other hand these -waves, much feebler, widened out their lines in going through flat, -soft strata on the Caribbean side. The answer seems to be that along -the jagged rupture which underlies the volcanoes there is continuous -upward pressure of lava, which occasionally is accelerated into a big -bump or slip, now here, now there, as the whole great mountain range -volcanically heaves through the ages.</p> - -<p>Our next journey was from Barrios across to Guatemala City, where we -had distant views of such volcanoes as the pure cone of Agua and the -sharp peak of Santa Maria, which in October of 1902 had blown out its -flank and left a vast hole. The Guatemalan plateau of rich soil and -abundant market products rises gradually from the wet banana lands on -the Caribbean side to a height of 4,870 feet at Guatemala City. This -is on the line of volcano cracks. Then the land plunges abruptly in a -precipitous down-faulted slope, to a low flat shelf along the Pacific -Ocean. This shelf is covered with the merging of many deltas formed -by the streams and torrents which drain the well-watered plateau. -Along this line at the top of the precipice is the chain of volcanoes, -with rich coffee lands at their feet on the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_82">[82]</span> upper slopes. Coffee -plantations were destroyed by steam, mud flood, and ash blasts in 1902, -and similar destruction was destined to begin again in 1923.</p> - -<p>A large model of Central America has been built in a park in the -open air in Guatemala City, showing magnificently the upland plateau -and its mountains, the flat slope to the east, and the long straight -steep plunge to the Pacific coastal shelf. This is one of the best -illustrations of the block faulting of a continent, lifted like a huge -flat slab along a crack, and tilted away from the Pacific. The Pacific -block dropped down.</p> - -<p>The same structure is true, on a larger scale, of the line of the -Andes, lifted as a volcano-covered slab, down-faulted along the Chilean -coastal plain. The upland slopes away to the basin of the Amazon. In -these studies we are experimenting with volcanoes on the scale of -geography, but the principles involved apply to Mexico and to the -Cascade Range in Oregon. They probably apply also to the Aleutian, the -Kamchatkan, and the western Pacific arcs, considered as upheaved and -eroded ridges. They are arcs because they are ancient calderas.</p> - -<p>We traveled by steamer along the Pacific coast to Panama, where the -canal was being finished. We were impressed by General Goethals and -his associate engineers, and with the marvellous organization of big -engineering as the United States could administer it. Yellow fever had -been conquered, ships constantly brought dairy products from New York -to canal employees, houses were screened and unglazed, and the jungle -was cut back to limits of safety from the mosquitoes. We found lively -young American college graduates, both men and women, playing tennis in -the deep tropics, where earlier hundreds had died of fever. We arrived -just at the time when sides of the Culebra Cut were continuously -sliding inward like a glacier, to close up the ditch. The ground under -a village at the top of the bank was cracking in long crevasses, and -habitations had to be abandoned. The only answer was to dig away the -hill with hundreds of dump cars, until the slope was flat enough to -stop sliding.</p> - -<p>An amusing episode occurred at the Pacific end of the canal, where -giant monitors, or hose nozzles, were being used to cut away the banks. -Engineer Williamson had conceived the idea of mounting these monitors -on concrete barges made on the spot. He covered the frames with steel -mesh, and sprayed concrete against the mesh until a water-tight hull -was produced. Fellow engineers jeered at Williamson<span class="pagenum" id="Page_83">[83]</span> and said that a -boat made of rock would surely sink. Someone asked Williamson, when his -first barge bore up the heavy monitors and was successful, what he was -going to name it. He painted the name in large letters on the barge -“Ivory Soap, it floats.”</p> - -<p>We met in Costa Rica and Panama Arthur Herschel, city engineer of -Kingston, Jamaica, who was responsible for the reconstruction of that -city after the terrific earthquake of 1907. Herschel invited Spofford -and me to stay with him on our way home, stopping off when we passed -Jamaica. We did so, were delightfully entertained, and learned about -engineering and rehabilitation after the most intense earthquake of all -history.</p> - -<p>The momentary intensity of the quake had been utterly without warning, -as though two mountains had collided, and the masonry of the business -section of Kingston crumbled almost instantaneously. A British major -was walking along the main thoroughfare, carrying a heavy walking -stick, when at the other end of the street, he noticed a commotion and -thought it was a negro riot. The disturbance came toward him with a -roar, and he saw clouds of dust rise from the street like a tornado and -approach him. He felt the ground jolting, raised his stick, and decided -to stand and fight it. The buildings right and left simply exploded, -and he was fending off bricks and stones and timbers. His feet were -half buried in rubble, and he sat down on a steel girder which had -lunged out into the street behind him. The dust was suffocating, the -noise was a traveling roar which went past him and on down the street -behind him. He called to a black man to dig out his feet, but the man -rushed by with staring, crazy eyes. He heard screams and saw women -running. It was some time before Red Cross stations were established -and the army men rescued him.</p> - -<p>The lesson taught by this earthquake, more intense than the one at -Cartago, was that the wooden bungalows of the hilly suburbs on rocky -ground stood the disaster better than even reinforced concrete in the -congested waterfront district. The better built government buildings -were preserved in part.</p> - -<p>The Jamaica law of 1907 had established definite boundaries for wooden -construction, limited to the suburbs, and made new and wider streets in -the business district. It had also established rigorous fire insurance -laws, and a city building code requiring specified construction for -all masonry. The result was a marked ring of parkway separating the -commercial center from the dwellings in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_84">[84]</span> suburbs. The trouble with -such legislation, the effect of which I saw in Kingston twenty-six -years later, is that earthquakes are hopelessly discontinuous. With -no more big earthquakes as testers, such laws become dead letter, a -new generation remembers nothing, and an irresponsible and ignorant -native population poses new problems of poverty and vice. Earthquake -construction reform becomes an impractical dream. This is part of the -unsatisfactory quality of earthquake science, where assistance to -humanity is concerned.</p> - -<p>So ends my expedition decade, 1901 to 1910, after a succession of -studies in the field, which may be called Operation Pelée-Soufrière, -Operation Vesuvius, Operation Aleutians, Operation Kilauea-Tarumai, -and finally Operation Cartago. I did not think of these at the time -as the strategic work of warring with a task force in geographical -volcanology; but now as I look back on it, I can see in each expedition -the organization of an institution and men, and progress of volcanic -geology.</p> - -<p>The Martinique event was destined, through many explorers, to reform -geophysics. Vesuvius introduced me to the importance of superb -photography as represented by Perret and Anderson. The Aleutian Islands -introduced the question of nautical exploration and the importance of -a field base laboratory for work in a land of adverse weather. The -Japan-Hawaii expedition showed me the national seismometric work of Dr. -Omori in the field, and laid the foundation for the Hawaiian Volcano -Observatory. Finally, the Costa Rica expedition introduced me to the -complexity of seismological field work in a land of volcanoes, with the -problems of engineering ably investigated, and afterwards published by -Spofford. This decade thus logically leads into a totally different -one, field experiment in geography and founding a volcano observatory -in and on the most active volcano in the world, with a permanent -dwelling on a crater.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_85">[85]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter IV</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Living with Volcanoes</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center">“<i>He took his journey into a far country.</i>”</p> - - -<p>The next decade began true experiments with volcanoes, when two -organizations some 5,000 miles apart combined their resources. The -Whitney Foundation created at Massachusetts Institute of Technology an -endowment of $25,000 for geophysical work on earthquakes and volcanoes, -expressing a preference for work in Hawaii; and a group of businessmen -in Honolulu, the Volcano Research Association, offered to pay my salary -for five years.</p> - -<p>When President Maclaurin and a group of professors at M. I. T. gave me -a dinner at the University Club in Boston to celebrate my departure for -Honolulu, the dinner table conversation turned to the terrors of the -deep sea, the dangers of volcanoes, the awfulness of leprosy in Hawaii, -and the heroism of giving up a secure teaching job in Boston. I replied -that their pessimism reminded me of the last words of Daniel Webster, -as quoted by a New England farmer, who said “Dan’l opened his eyes, -took one look at the glass of whiskey on the table at his bedside, -another at the pretty nurse, and said ‘I ain’t dead yet.’”</p> - -<p>I had organized the funds available so that a pair of Bosch-Omori -seismographs were shipped from Strassburg, and other seismographs -were ordered from Omori’s instrument maker in Tokyo. I collected -experimental instruments such as high temperature thermometers and -chronographs, of the type used in experimental physiology. Vaguely, -I was going to take the blood pressure and pulse of the globe. Also -I obtained a full set of weather bureau instruments for temperature, -rainfall, barometric pressure, and humidity, together with the electric -pyrometers, range finders, and photographic apparatus used in my -previous expeditions. And I had some small Japanese transits, as well -as plane tables and alidades for topographic experiments.</p> - -<p>I was unable to go to Hawaii until 1912, so I was delighted when<span class="pagenum" id="Page_86">[86]</span> -Perret consented to go to Kilauea Volcano in company with E. S. -Shepherd, gas chemist of the Carnegie Geophysical Laboratory of -Washington, in the summer of 1911. Dr. A. L. Day, director of the -Carnegie laboratory, kindly supplied at our expense two Leeds and -Northrop resistance pyrometers and the accompanying Wheatstone bridge, -as well as thermocouples loaned from his equipment. Perret and Shepherd -went to Kilauea Volcano House; and Perret built a hut at the edge of -Halemaumau pit, where an inner lava lake was bubbling and maintaining -an island some 200 feet below the rim. Kilauea is the big cauldron, -Halemaumau is the firepit in its floor. “Kilauea” activity generally -means Halemaumau. They have separate cliff margins.</p> - -<p>L. A. Thurston, leading journalist and publicist of Hawaii and keen -promoter of a proposed Hawaii National Park, did everything possible to -help the scientists. Perret wrote weekly reports on the condition of -Halemaumau lava, and sent in photographs to Mr. Thurston’s newspaper, -the <i>Pacific Commercial Advertiser</i>. Living and camping at the -fire pit, Perret inaugurated something new for Hawaii, and set a -standard for the Volcano Observatory. These continuous reports had been -my dream for such volcanoes as Vesuvius, where publication had usually -been in delayed annuals and gave no current news of what the volcano -was doing. Furthermore, the Vesuvius observatory was at the foot of the -peak.</p> - -<p>I had ordered from the Lidgerwood Company an equipment of cables, -including some containing electric wires. These were to span the 1,500 -feet and to lower a thermometer into the pit of Halemaumau. Assisted by -Alex Lancaster, the active little half-breed guide from Virginia, and -by numerous laborers from the plantations, whose managers, spurred on -by Thurston, took a great interest in the project, Perret and Shepherd -erected two high A-frames on opposite sides of the fire pit and built -a trolley on the cable stretched between them. Perret kept constant -angular measurement of the changing height of the liquid lava, as the -glowing slaggy pool rose and fell overflowing its banks. At one side -of a triangular island was a point of ebullition called “Old Faithful” -where gas bubbles burst in a fiery dome, irregularly, but approximately -once a minute. The objective was to find the temperature of the liquid -lava in the vicinity of the bubbling. This was achieved by actually -dipping the electric pyrometers into the molten slag, then observing -the precise temperature at the recording box, which was in the hands -of Dr.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_87">[87]</span> Shepherd, who remained on the pit rim at the upper end of the -connecting wires.</p> - -<p>Finally the day came, after numerous rehearsals, when the long steel -tube, or terminal, on the end of the movable cable could be moved out -by the trolley to a middle point over the pit, where it would make -contact with bubbling liquid lava when lowered. This was an extremely -ticklish procedure, for the lava was a heavy mat of self-crusting -liquid rock with the crust forming hard slabs; few places kept up an -appearance of bubbling porridge. No one had ever made contact before -with the liquid of a fountain like “Old Faithful.” It was fortunate -that the apparatus, which was expensive, consisting of platinum wires -imbedded in silica glass, was made in duplicate so that we had two of -everything. The splashing liquid of “Old Faithful” looked as harmless -as a kettle of boiling soup, but Perret and Shepherd were in for a -surprise. When Shepherd lowered the terminal directly into the liquid, -“Old Faithful” exploded, for the molten slag proved to be a suction -whirlpool which threw tentacles of lava over the steel pipe. The -apparatus went down to destruction “like a bass under a log,” and the -cable was bitten off like a piece of line. The entire terminal vanished -into the vortex, leaving only a corroded wire.</p> - -<p>To shorten a long story, the second terminal was lowered into a -seemingly safer liquid place. A wave of the melt slapped and strained -the pipe, and though it was recovered, no electric resistance reading -was obtained at any time with the box at the rim of the pit. Close to -$1,000 in equipment was lost. The resistance pyrometer is a sensitive -tool in the laboratory, for giving precise degrees of temperature in -the region of 1200° Centigrade, supposedly the melting point of basalt. -But it was unsuited for the rugged bubbling of basalt slag, where -flaming gases and chilling air play more important parts than mere -melting.</p> - -<p>Fortunately Shepherd and Perret were not at the end of their resources. -There still remained the thermocouple, a simpler pair of wires of -platinum and iridium encased in a steel tube. The connectors from these -go to a simple galvanometer in the hands of the operator. The trolley -could still be used, and the thermocouple pipe had no glass inside it -to be shattered. A temperature of 1000° Centigrade was recorded in a -bubbling area, and this was considered good enough for an approximation.</p> - -<p>Another experiment was to lower an iron bucket into the liquid,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_88">[88]</span> and -pull it up full and dripping with black lava glass. This was sent off -to Washington for analysis. Afterwards the lava lake went down, no more -experiments that year were possible, and Perret began the plotting of a -curve of high and low in the rise and fall at the bottom of the pit.</p> - -<p>It may seem extravagant to waste valuable apparatus on such seemingly -small results; but as a matter of fact, the Shepherd-Perret journal -of the summer of 1911 was epoch-making in the history of volcanology -and in the work of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory. It proved that -skilled observers could dwell inside an active crater and there apply -their skills in photography, chemistry, note-taking, and continuous -publication. The substance of active lava lakes was proved to have -viscosities and solidifications quite different from those implied -by gases, and it was shown that different types of thermometers -gave negative or positive results useful for the future. Above all, -the notes on volcano chemistry by Shepherd and Perret demonstrated -that engineering apparatus could be applied to the hottest and most -continuously active pit in the world. Their success was at the -relatively small expense of a journey and a few machines. Brun of -Geneva had set an example of similar work, but Perret’s curve of rise -and fall added a more detailed record of the Kilauea pit from day to -day than had ever been made before.</p> - -<p>An observatory is a place of observation and measurement, whether the -things observed are glaciers, rivers, stars, the weather, or volcanoes. -The motive of observation in modern science is either the quality of -what happens or the quantity expressed in lengths and degrees and rates -of speed. Remembering the precedent of Vesuvius, I was confronted -in Hawaii with the necessity of determining how a volcano should be -observed, the need to measure changes in a single volcano, and the need -for permanent records of what those changes are. We chose measuring -instruments, photographic equipment, and thermometers, and I invented a -note-taking system which was compiled into a single record book, from -field notes taken uniformly by many different assistants.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_088afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_088afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>7. Volcano House from Observatory, 1913</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_088bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_088bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>8. Island in Halemaumau lava lake, 1911. Photo by Perret</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_089afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_089afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>9. Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, 1912</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_089bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_089bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>10. Jaggar in seismograph vault beneath Volcano -Observatory, 1916</i></p> - </div> - -<p>The textbook needs for volcanology are records of the shape, height, -number, distribution, temperature, and differences among volcanoes. How -gaseous is lava? how radioactive is it? how often does it erupt? and -how dangerous is it for human beings? With reference to the source, -crack or crater, we need knowledge of how the earth crust is ruptured, -how deep are the fractures, and how<span class="pagenum" id="Page_89">[89]</span> much accompanied by earthquake -is the wedging upward of lava in those cracks.</p> - -<p>My first job on arriving in Hawaii was to make contact with Mr. -Thurston and his associates. The next was to get a good map made of -Kilauea Volcano as a basis for measurement of changes in the fire pit. -Governor Walter F. Frear came to my rescue and immediately sent Colonel -Claude Birdseye and Captain Albert Burkland to make a topographic map -of the proposed Hawaii National Park. These engineers brought into the -field the topographic camp of the U.S. Geological Survey, and they were -extremely sympathetic with my project, furnishing me with surveying -monuments, and sketching out methods wherewith to make an accurate base -line for measurement of changes inside the pit.</p> - -<p>A laboratory on the northeast edge of Kilauea Crater was quickly -provided through the energy of the brilliant Demosthenes Lycurgus, -hospitable Greek manager of the Volcano House, the hotel where I -stayed. All the merchants of Hilo, thirty miles away, contributed funds -and in a few weeks carpenters were at work, on land belonging to the -Bishop Estate and sublet by the Volcano House. Furniture was paid for -by the Whitney Fund.</p> - -<p>A cellar for seismographs was blasted by Territorial prisoners in -the hot rock under the laboratory, at the actual northeast edge -of the greater crater of Kilauea. The lava pit Halemaumau, always -smoking, was in full view two miles away. The cellar lined with -concrete, which shut off the steam cracks, became a warm, dry place -for instruments at a constant temperature of about 80° Fahrenheit. -Concrete tables on the floor of the cellar held the pair of east-west -and north-south horizontal pendulums, recording with delicate pens -on smoked paper, stretched over a chronograph drum. These paper -records, removed every day and fixed with shellac varnish, became the -seismograms of the permanent files. Long belts of wavy lines on each -paper exhibited seconds, minutes, and hours; and when a sharp zigzag -in one of the lines occurred, it was evidence of either a local or a -distant earthquake. H. O. Wood, who had been my assistant in field -geology at Harvard and had had experience with Omori seismographs -at the University of California, was summoned to the Observatory as -seismologist.</p> - -<p>Thus in the first six months of 1912 I became a resident of a volcano -in Hawaii and had an adequate laboratory of eight rooms, and suitable -porches, a darkroom for photography, and the beginnings<span class="pagenum" id="Page_90">[90]</span> of seismograph -records in the basement. Horses and saddles were purchased, the -necessary outer houses were built, and Alec Lancaster was employed as -janitor and field man. Francis Dodge, athletic young Honoluluan and son -of a government surveyor, was appointed topographic assistant. He was a -hardy cowboy, with some experience as rodman for the Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>From the moment of my arrival I adopted uniform pocket scratch pads -with detachable sheets for the use of all employees, insisting that -anyone who went to the lava pit should write notes, inscribe the -date and hour, tell what he saw, and hand the notes to me. Even Alec -Lancaster, whose father was a Cherokee Indian carpenter and whose -mother was a mulatto, took notes and learned about the points of the -compass and the names of the coves and blowholes of the lava lake in -the bottom of the pit. Some of Alec’s notes were very amusing, as when -he wrote, “9:30 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> April 3, Old Faithful is on her job right -sturdy.” However, he quickly learned the correct technical expressions -for surface streaming of the lava, brightness of the fountains at -night, numbers of the bubble fountains, and places of smoke on the -bottom of the pit. At all times Alec was a useful camp man, a good -cook, and a fearless climber of cliffs. When it came to making and -using rope ladders with hickory rungs for descent down a 200-foot cliff -to the edge of the lava, Alec was the first to volunteer. He drove -spikes into cracks in the rock and tested out the ladders, surrounded -by smoke. This was done in June and December of 1912, when the gas -chemists of the Carnegie Institution were conducted to the bottom to -collect gases, by pumps and vacuum tubes, from flaming spatter cones.</p> - -<p>I hope this introduction gives some idea of what the first year of -the Observatory accomplished. Meanwhile problems of policy and of the -publishing of results crowded upon me thick and fast. The notes of all -employees had to be compiled; critical scientific visitors had to be -convinced of the usefulness of the new effort; the Massachusetts Tech -and Honolulu sponsors had to be given suitable reports; a permanent -record book, reproducing surveys, notes, and photographs, had to be -devised; and I had to make occasional journeys to California, Boston, -and Washington for contact with the Government, with scientific -societies, and with scientific magazines.</p> - -<p>It was necessary to keep track of improvements in photographic plates, -for the fire pit with its dark red heat and dark red rocks was<span class="pagenum" id="Page_91">[91]</span> a -difficult subject for photography. Fortunately, the panchromatic plate -had recently been invented by Dr. C. E. K. Mees, and was a godsend for -experiments in recording liquid lava splashing at night. Dr. Mees, -chief of research at Eastman Kodak Company in Rochester, has since -been a visitor and good friend of the Observatory. Both surveying and -photographing were difficult during 1912 because the inner pit sent up -a dense column of fume which diminished only at those times when the -liquid lava became hotter and developed fountaining. There was such -smokeless development with hundreds of roaring fountains of liquid lava -in January and July. The intervening period showed a great deal of -smoke, and in August there was a dense column of silently rising gray -fume the full width of the pit, so that nothing of the bottom could be -seen.</p> - -<p>To determine the height of the bottom lava it was necessary to work -from a fixed station with a transit, using a flashlight at night, and -waiting for a view of a glowing spot or fountain. This involved reading -vertical and horizontal angles, dependent on difficult determination -from two stations, of the distance to the glow spot measured. Often -in daytime one had to wait hours in order to get a view of the bottom -through the fumes, from stations at the ends of a base line on the edge -of the pit. At no time later, fortunately, were the fume conditions -so bad as during 1912. A procedure was adopted of making a daily -photograph of the smoke of the distant pit from the window of the -observatory, and this proved of value when the inner lava lakes and -crags rose to view in 1917.</p> - -<p>Like Perret, I made reports to the newspapers in Honolulu; and -gradually these reports took the form of a monthly bulletin, edited -in Honolulu by Dr. Howard Ballou, who was the secretary of the -Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. This association had occasional -Directors’ meetings, which I attended and before which I made reports -and gave lectures. The report of the complete work done during -the first few months of the year 1912 was published in Boston by -Massachusetts Tech.</p> - -<p>The earlier history of Hawaiian volcanoes had been recorded in -excellent books by such travelers as the Misses Gordon-Cumming and -Isabella Bird, William Lowthian Green, and Drs. C. H. Hitchcock and -W. T. Brigham, and Professor James D. Dana of Yale. Dana had been -furnished with data from 1840 to 1890 by a Hilo missionary, Titus Coan. -When I arrived in Hawaii, two books on Kilauea’s activity in 1909 had -just been published, and a big<span class="pagenum" id="Page_92">[92]</span> monograph by Brun of Geneva who had -determined that Kilauea lava was free from water vapor and was the -hottest lava in the world.</p> - -<p>Furthermore, R. A. Daly of Harvard had published his “Nature of -volcanic action” on the basis of his summer at Kilauea in 1909. There -was strong controversy against Brun on the water question, but the -experts, including Day and Shepherd, came to the conclusion that -lava eruption of the Kilauea type was actuated by such flaming gases -as hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and sulfur; that these gases were in -solution in some elemental form deep down in the earth; and that the -chemistry of their emission heated the lava on its way up. The lava -lakes were hotter at the top than at the bottom. We shall see that all -lava partly solidifies at its own bottom and stays liquid above.</p> - -<p>The items of activity at Kilauea Volcano during the decade from 1911 to -1920 were marked fluctuation up and down in 1912–1913, with a notable -low level in 1913, culminating in a strong earthquake in October. In -1914 the liquid lava came back into the bottom of Halemaumau pit, and -in December Mauna Loa erupted in a fountain at its summit crater. The -lava lakes of Kilauea grew bigger in 1915, and a triangular island -appeared, lifting itself up from a shallow flat and even rotating or -hinging horizontally. Its uplift was as a peaked escarpment of lava -layers tilted in one direction, something very like Perret’s island of -1911.</p> - -<p>An affinity between Kilauea and Mauna Loa was obvious. In 1916 Mauna -Loa completed its summit gushing by splitting open the mountain’s -southwest rift and making a lava flow into ranch and forest lands of -South Kona. But just as Mauna Loa activity ended, the entire Halemaumau -bottom thirty miles away lowered dramatically during one day, leaving a -deep seething puddle of melt, surrounded by roaring red hot avalanches. -The coincidence, along with appropriate earthquakes, was unmistakable.</p> - -<p>Immediately after the lowering, the liquid lava of Halemaumau welled up -border wall cracks and cascaded through the talus to form an oval pool -in the bottom funnel of broken rock. The lava column rose 600 feet in -the next six months and a lobate lake developed, its coves separated -by sectors of overflow lava which lifted slowly into crags in the -center. In 1917 the lakes and crags inside Halemaumau were less than -100 feet down, the lake shores became accessible for experiments with -iron pipes, and the crags came into<span class="pagenum" id="Page_93">[93]</span> view from the Observatory, fully -justifying the daily photograph for comparing changes of the distant -pit.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_092afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_092afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>11. Lava lake, showing bench, March 30, 1917</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_092bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_092bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>12. Halemaumau, showing lava lake and crags, December 8, 1916</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_093fp" style="max-width: 536px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_093fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>13. Jaggar holding pipe for sounding lava lake, -1917. Cylinder on end of pipe holds Seger cones for measuring lava -temperature</i></p> - </div> - -<p>By 1918 and 1919 the pit was full and overflowing the Kilauea floor. -During the whole of 1919 Halemaumau, as a pit, was obliterated by its -dome of fill. In autumn the south flank of Mauna Loa broke out again, -into a flood of lava that reached the sea in South Kona. Remembering -1916, we predicted that, even though Halemaumau was full to the brim, -the sinking away of Mauna Loa lava would pull down Kilauea lava -suddenly, like a siphon. Exactly this happened on November 28, 1919. -During the night the crags, the clover-leaf lake, and the bulging -dome of the lava fill above Halemaumau’s edge went down as a cylinder -to a depth of 400 feet in two or three hours leaving incandescent -avalanching walls, a gratifying confirmation of theory.</p> - -<p>As in 1916, the Halemaumau lava immediately returned to the bottom of -the pit, and lifted itself thirty feet a day for three weeks, so that -in December it was a violently boiling ringshaped puddle, surrounding -a horseshoe of crags with a quiet inner lagoon and resembling a coral -atoll. The Kilauea floor, which is dome-shaped outside of Halemaumau, -split open radially to the south, made floods of lava into the Kilauea -Crater wall valley, and even escaped out into the Kau Desert. This was -extended into a mountain crack, making flank lava flows of Kilauea -Mountain, nine miles away to the southwest, something which had not -happened since 1823 and 1868. Concentric craters like Kilauea caldera -and Halemaumau pit are thus ring-in-ring, or cup-in-cup, structures -by means of slag heapings over a deep fracture in the rock crust, the -circularity determined by occasional central sinking.</p> - -<p>This circularity has sometimes reached perfection. In 1894 and 1909 -the liquid pool inside Halemaumau, by steady welling up about a -central hole, became perfectly circular within a circumferential -rampart of overflow. This is a rare condition dependent on steadiness -of upwelling, temperature, and viscosity. It is important because it -shows how the perfect circles, and rampart cauldrons, were made on the -moon, where there are also angular calderas of subsidence like Kilauea -Crater. Evidently gas heating and liquidity changed on the moon, just -as it has done in Hawaii. The sources there are over cracks, as in -Hawaii. The analogies are so complete in these and many other ways that -I completely disbelieve in meteor impact for the moon craters. The moon -awaits a complete comparison<span class="pagenum" id="Page_94">[94]</span> with active terrestrial basaltic lavas, -by a modern volcanologist.</p> - -<p>This is only a thumbnail sketch of the astonishing luck which met the -photographers and note takers of the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory -in its first decade. There were similar decades in the nineteenth -century, and there were similar jagged crags rising as islands and -shorelines around clover-leaf lakes in 1879 and at other times. There -were undoubtedly earlier similar sympathetic movements whereby Kilauea -had lowered following the end of Mauna Loa outbreaks. But none of this -had ever before been measured from day to day. Our staff from 1912 -on occupied the trig stations, every day or night when the weather -permitted, in order to measure within one foot the level of the live -lava up or down. The lava was like the mercury in a barometer and -needed incessant watching. This was done with a telescope, by people -who dwelt on the edge of the vertical pipe. After 1913 the measurements -clearly showed that sinkings were just as important as risings. They -proved that the solid overflow matter and slide-rock slopes around the -edges of lava lakes and coves measurably were a paste. This containing -bank rose and fell at a different rate from that of the gassy liquid -which streamed and fountained inside. The compiled results showed that -the source of the liquid streaming was always at the west side of the -pit bottom and that the streaming was toward fountaining grottos at -the east. The liquid might at any time overflow its banks or sink down -leaving inner cliffs, by failure of full supply up the west wall crack.</p> - -<p>All of this may sound highly technical; but notes, photographs, -seismograms, records of weather, and unceasing press releases and -reports to the sponsors, while difficult for literary description, -created a new technique. Science, when one is devising a new approach, -consists of observation first, of experiment second, and of explanation -or theory third. Something of that order has to be followed in the -record of a scientist’s life.</p> - -<p>The surprising sympathetic lowering of Kilauea following the end of -Mauna Loa eruptions was only one of numerous surprises during the first -decade of the Observatory. For instance, the temperatures of hot cracks -were repeatedly and systematically measured, and nothing sympathetic -with lava motion was found. The same may be said about the weather. -At the beginning it was supposed that rainfall, air temperature, -barometric pressure, and possibly fluctuation of the trade wind, would -affect the volcano. However, the only<span class="pagenum" id="Page_95">[95]</span> quickly evident effect was the -visible vaporing of many cracks on the Kilauea floor which dried up and -diminished when the sunshine appeared, becoming dense and increasing -in cold or wet weather. This obviously meant that the moisture content -of the vaporing cracks, some steam, but mostly moist hot air came from -shallow rain water a short distance underground.</p> - -<p>An effect that was more volcanic, but similar in principle, was the -visible vapor inside of Halemaumau, close to the lava lakes, which -always increased when the lava lowered and let the groundwater seep -inward. These visible vapors dwindled when the hot slag bubbled and -rose, and acquired a brighter glow. No steam vapor rose from the -glowing lakes. There was drying up of groundwater by increased volcanic -heat, just as the cracks of the bigger crater had their moisture dried -by the action of sunshine.</p> - -<p>I shall have more to say on the subject of the seasons, the calendar -effects on the plat of rising and falling lava, and especially the -solar equinoxes and solstices. There appeared the hint of a daily -tide-like rise and fall of the lava in the pit.</p> - -<p>Finally, there arose the question of counting earthquakes, measuring -their spacing in time and place, and seeing which belonged to Mauna Loa -and which to Kilauea fault rifts. We had to plot earthquake frequency -and size in relation to lowering lava, to day and night or to the -seasons. The study of rhythmic swelling and creaking inside the great -pasty mountains became an exciting quest. It gave promise of cycles -from the hours of the day to the decades of the century.</p> - -<p>We also discovered, by measuring vertical angles, that the inner floors -rose and fell differently from the liquid lakes, hence the floors -could be called the bench magma, as distinct from the liquid magma. -This led to a bold experiment in 1917 when the liquid lava lakes -became accessible, after a casual visitor, Mr. Walter Spalding of -Honolulu, discovered an easy path down to the overflow floors at the -edge of the north lake. Here the streaming slag rushed toward a glowing -grotto, built up by spatter of a border fountain into a huge half-dome -containing a glowing cavern hung with stalactites on the shore of the -lake. The platform outside of the grotto was overflowed, and built up -as the liquid lake rose, the platforms of overflow sloping away to -the wall valley under the pit cliff. Thus the lake was at the top of -an inner dome a thousand feet across, just as Halemaumau pit rim was -at the top of an inner dome of Kilauea floor three miles<span class="pagenum" id="Page_96">[96]</span> across. The -outer edge of Kilauea Crater is a big oval at the top of the outward -sloping greater dome of Kilauea Mountain forty or fifty miles across.</p> - -<p>When a little conelet formed on the northern or western floor platform -inside Halemaumau, its slope around a splashing and fountaining crack -would make a fourth innermost dome a few feet across in the series -of progressively smaller cone-in-cone structures from the outer rim -of the big mountain inward to the Halemaumau centers of eruption. We -saw such a conelet cave in just where I had stood and tested a flame -the day before. Quietly the cone collapsed into a fountaining well of -boiling lava beneath. The ring-in-ring conception must be held in mind -with regard to any volcano, for one thing which we discovered is that -cones are not only built up and collapsed but they are also swollen -up by internal percolation of cracks and expansion of the hot stuff. -This tumefying, or swelling, is concerned with the experiment now to be -described.</p> - -<p>Even after Perret described his “floating island” of 1911 and I saw the -triangular islands appearing like shoals in a mud flat and gradually -rising into crags in 1916 and 1917, I remained incredulous of the -possibility of a basaltic island floating. When solid lava cracked -off in pieces from inner cliffs around the lava lakes, the fragments -immediately sank. Furthermore, when solid crusts formed on top of the -foaming and streaming slag, the shells, when they got thick enough, -cracked up, tilted up, and slid down and foundered in the melt beneath. -It was obvious that lava rock is heavier than lava foam. Hence as an -island is a rock, it would not float. This raised several questions. -Where was the bottom of the lava lake on which it rested? Did the lava -lake have a bottom, and if so how far down was the bottom when the same -lake rose 600 feet in Halemaumau pit between June and December of 1916? -In other words, was the lake 600 feet deep in December?</p> - -<p>What would be the answer at any time if a stiff iron pipe were thrust -down vertically into the liquid lake as a sounding rod? No one had ever -raised the question. Cross-section drawings had always depicted the -liquid as extending downward indefinitely within a vertical tube. When -the lake became accessible in 1917, it seemed to me that a long steel -pipe might be shoved over the border rampart, end on, and allowed to -bend and sink, or to strike bottom. If the pipe could be recovered by -dragging it back, fusible samples of known melting point might show the -temperature of the depths.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_97">[97]</span></p> - -<p>For the experiment, 200 feet of one-inch iron pipe, which was screwed -together in a single long piece, was laid across the north floor of -Halemaumau. Ten assistants were distributed along the pipe twenty feet -apart, and I stood on the rampart with Alec at the edge of the central -portion of the lava lake. This was a high bank ten feet or more above -the streaming liquid lava. The men were instructed to lift the entire -long tube and walk forward with it, so that it would plunge into the -liquid lengthwise, arching down toward the center of the lake as it -came past me. Alec helped guide the pipe over the bank, and the men -came forward with it at a steady walk. The end of the pipe, covered -with a screw cap, was plunged into the liquid lava, traveling toward -the bottom at a good speed. The strong current toward the left dragged -it somewhat, but not enough to prevent its sinking. After two and -a half 20-foot joints of the pipe had plunged into the liquid at a -slope of about fifty degrees, I could feel the pipe encountering the -increasing resistance of a pasty bottom. Continued forward progress of -the pipe caused it to stop and arch up, while the surface lava streamed -past it, and its lower end was definitely stuck in the bottom substance -of the lake.</p> - -<p>I then gave the signal to the carriers to try to walk back to the -place where they had started, with a view to pulling the pipe up and -recovering the terminal length. The pipe trailed upward out of the lava -lake like a red hot rope, then stuck and refused to come out. It came -close against the bank where it was frozen solid in the stiff blankets -of pahoehoe crust, which gripped it like hot iron.</p> - -<p>The terminal length had been equipped internally with a spiral of -spring steel, containing Seger cones which are used in the porcelain -industry and which bear numbers indicating they melt at graded -temperatures. This first thermometer by meltability was never -recovered. The free lengths of pipe had to be unscrewed close to the -bank, and four twenty-foot lengths were lost. In later tests we learned -to keep the pipe oscillating back and forth so it would not freeze.</p> - -<p>The epoch-making significance of this experiment was not understood -until later. Calculation of the angle of slope of the pipe, where it -went down into the liquid and hit on the bottom, showed that vertically -the liquid was about fifty feet deep. With the aid of soldiers from the -Kilauea Military Camp, this experiment was repeated several times; and -each time the lake was found to be the same depth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_98">[98]</span></p> - -<p>This conclusion was later verified by sudden subsidences of the liquid -lava until the cliffs bordering the liquid were fifty feet high. The -eastern grottos turned into cascades, with the liquid pouring down -a well. The liquid lake had become a river pouring over a ledge of -its own bottom, across from the western source wells to the eastern -sinkholes. These latter were fountaining grottos when the lakes were -full, but they exhibited internal rectangular upright sinkholes -when the lake level was down. This was verified repeatedly, and the -phenomena of source wells at the west and cascading sinkholes at the -east were confirmed and photographed. It thus became evident that the -lava lakes were nothing more than convectional lava flows over pasty -solidified substance of their own bottom sediment. Convection means -rising foam, loss of gas, and sinking gas-free heavier liquid.</p> - -<p>In other words, the bench magma capped with overflows on the marginal -platforms was a paste, cooled from the top and bottom and sides -and making the saucer of streaming liquid. It was this paste which -constituted the swelling heart of the bench magma. The fountaining of -gas bubbles escaping from solution robbed the lava of heat and caused -it partially to solidify, always at a depth of about fifty feet. Thus -there were necessarily three substances: The deep lava fizzing with -self-heating gases (later proved to be inflammable hydrogen, carbon -monoxide, sulfur, and inert nitrogen and argon), the streaming foam -into which the deep lava expanded, and the semi-solidified refuse of -the foam created at the bottoms and banks of the liquid lava when it -cooled from bright yellow heat (about 1150° Centigrade) to a dark-red -heat (about 900° Centigrade).</p> - -<p>The streaming across the bottom from west to east meant that during six -months of rising lava, some 600 feet in the last half of 1916, the lava -column was a cylinder of semicooled lava, maintained by upward pressure -of the deep lava bubbling up in the western crack between the cylinder -and Halemaumau wall. Meanwhile, at all times, the lakes were nothing -more than streams of foam fifty feet deep and skinned over on top, -congealing on their bottoms and shores and cascading down sinkholes in -the eastern wall cracks of the cylinder. A convectional circulation -was what maintained the rising, foaming, heating, and cooling and the -changes in density of the liquid as it lost its gas. Thus the entire -fountaining phenomenon of the lava lakes was due to the self-heating -of what is known as exothermic reaction of gas escaping from solution -in molten basalt.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_99">[99]</span> Much of this is actually the burning of hydrogen in -air, creating a convectional circulation wherever the deep lava can -find an outlet.</p> - -<p>Ordinarily these outlets are along cracks or rifts in the slope of the -mountain, where they are seen to break out in gassy fountains 500 feet -high, and often to flow along the crack to a cavity where they cascade -downward when less foamy and heavier. A lava flow is always solving a -problem of foaming and liquefying, just as does champagne or beer.</p> - -<p>There still remains the unsolved problems of how much of the deep -lava is gas and whether it is mere pressure which holds the gases in -solution, as in soda water. The alternative is for the deeper magma -to be entirely gas, oozing up cracks in the globe, and reacting with -oxygen from the air and solid rock, percolating from the core of the -earth upward, and melting its walls.</p> - -<p>In a sense, the entire decade to 1920 was an experiment. The results -of that decade showed that the mountain swells and shrinks in tides -with the passages of the sun and moon, but that Kilauea Mountain and -Mauna Loa Mountain are all parts of what might be called Hawaii Island -Mountain. The island of Hawaii is above an old ocean bottom 18,000 -feet deep and is only the end of a ridge 1,700 miles long, which even -at its lowest end, Midway and Ocean Islands, is still 12,000 feet high -above the smooth mud-over-rock ball of the Pacific Ocean bottom. All -the evidence shows the ridge to be a pile of lava flows over a crack, -with a veneer of coral. If, then, the relatively small Kilauea dome -is swelling and shrinking in sympathy with the sun, the long Hawaiian -ridge is doing the same thing to a much greater degree.</p> - -<p>Michelson has shown that the solid rock of the globe rises and falls -in a tide about one foot every half day. As I have said, our daily -measurements in 1912 showed that the lava in Halemaumau had a daily -tide and that the larger movements reached maxima in June and December -and minima in the intervening months, which proved it must be a solar -effect. This was very exciting information and suggested a long train -of experiments, which were to be successful in the next decade, based -on the idea that the whole mountain swells as shown by leveling. This -extends out to a radius of twenty miles from Kilauea Crater, and -probably extends all the way to the seashore.</p> - -<p>The actual measurement of a lava tide in Halemaumau was done during -July and August 1919. R. H. Finch had just come from<span class="pagenum" id="Page_100">[100]</span> Washington to be -my assistant. Oliver Emerson of Honolulu was another assistant, and two -Harvard youths, Sumner Roberts and Charles Thorndike, who had been on -war missions in submarine chasers, sent word through their parents that -they were anxious to do something dangerous around an active volcano. I -jumped at the chance to employ them to help me measure the lava tide.</p> - -<p>The north lake in Halemaumau was quite accessible, and we organized -night and day shifts for surveying measurements from a canvas shelter -on the actual bench lava near the lake. For twenty-minute periods, each -observer critically measured a number of monuments on the bench magma -and glowing places of the lake edge. Then a new measurement was started -by leveling the transit. This sequence was kept up night and day for a -lunar month, namely twenty-eight days. One of the monuments was a fixed -Halemaumau benchmark, equipped at night with a lantern and used as a -datum for the fluctuating lake points.</p> - -<p>A second tent back from the Halemaumau rim was a camping base. Ford -cars were kept running from the Volcano House for the changing of crew, -Mrs. Jaggar looked out for the food, and I directed repeated surveys of -the position of monuments and of the observation shelter.</p> - -<p>Meantime the lava steadily rose during July, and at one time split -open the Kilauea floor making an outflow back of the shelter. The -vertical angles kept track of the movements of both the liquid and the -semisolid lava. The instrument was planted on the lava column itself. -On one occasion, Mrs. Jaggar’s glove fell into a floor crack inside the -shelter and burst into flame.</p> - -<p>In all, there were more than 20,000 observations recorded. These were -plotted on coordinate paper, and results were reduced to a smooth -curve by overlapping averages. The actual curve of measurements was -subjected to harmonic analysis at Yale University by Professor E. W. -Brown, mathematician and specialist on motion of the moon and on lunar -tides. The results showed a definite daily tide in both liquid lava -and semisolid lava; of a few inches for the lunar tide, and of larger -amounts for the solar effect. The curve plotted reached its greatest -perfection of daily up-and-down waves during July at periods when the -lava was steady. This became interrupted and ragged when accidents of -drainage out on Kilauea floor pulled the liquid lava down.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_100afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_100afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>14. River of Alika flow, Mauna Loa, October 6, 1917</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_100bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_100bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>15. Lava streaming into a sinkhole in Halemaumau lava -lake, July 7, 1917</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_101afp" style="max-width: 595px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_101afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>16. Sakurajima Volcano, Japan, 1914</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_101bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_101bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>17. Fountain in lava lake, March 19, 1921</i></p> - </div> - -<p>H. O. Wood, seismologist at the Volcano Observatory, was skilled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_101">[101]</span> in -compiling the volcano’s historical heights and depths of the nineteenth -century and in plotting our curve of surveys of the liquid lava. He -published a commentary on such plots for 1912–1913 in relation to -solar curves of solstice and equinox, and to the oscillations of the -global axis. He demonstrated a definite correlation between seasonal -fluctuation of sun and moon and the seasonal rise and fall of the lava, -presenting an extensive analysis of the rock tide in the globe and its -application to Hawaiian volcanoes for a century. Perret had made a -similar analysis for earthquakes and volcanoes in Italy.</p> - -<p>These curves applied to the seasons, if compared with our lava tide -applied to the hours of the day, left me with the conviction that the -cyclical variations are a fact. They show correspondence between the -swelling and shrinking of the globe and the movements of lava, when -those movements are free and subject to surveying measurements. For few -volcanoes are surveys possible, and our measurements were the first in -the world of any continuity.</p> - -<p>Earthquakes, too, were studied. Dr. Arnold Romberg of the University -of Texas—who has become a distinguished inventor in the world of -seismology, magnetism, gravity, and oil prospecting—was Professor -of Physics at the University of Hawaii about 1918 and for several -summers came to the Hawaiian Observatory to assist me in experimental -seismology.</p> - -<p>From 1917 to 1920 I took the records of earthquakes and other seismic -movements, as recorded by our Omori instruments, and Romberg remodelled -these instruments. With his knowledge of the fundamental mathematics -of pendulums, for at Harvard he had experimented with sensitive -galvanometers, his facility for making instruments out of nothing but -wire, solder, and old clockworks was wonderful and inspiring.</p> - -<p>I spent many months measuring our smoked-paper seismograms of 1913 -through 1918, with the assistance of Mrs. Jaggar, to whom I dictated. I -measured types of local earthquakes, of volcanic tremors (some of which -definitely accompany lava fountaining), and tilting of the ground, -publishing the results in 1920. Tilt upswelling is shown in amount and -direction by gradual change of the writing seismograph pens, and this -is correlated with the recorded rise and fall of the lava.</p> - -<p>In the course of three years, with Romberg’s valuable advice, we -changed the seismographs to record with little mirrors supported on -silken fibers and with beams of light projected on photographic<span class="pagenum" id="Page_102">[102]</span> paper. -And Romberg invented an ingenious improvement with a vane and a bath of -oil, whereby a tilt-free seismograph for earthquakes only would keep -the spacing of its lines uniform. Ground tilt crowds the lines.</p> - -<p>We also experimented with a heavy cylinder which hung as a normal -pendulum and which was capable of swinging in any direction, so that -it threw a beam of light vertically upward to a chronograph covered -with bromide paper. The chronograph was capable of being revolved and -stopped, until the mocroseisms and microtremors reached their maximum -of amplitude, for any given period of recording.</p> - -<p>The permanent waviness of ground motion, the tremors with periods of -about two-tenths of a second, and the microseisms with periods of -about five seconds showed their maxima of back-and-forth movement -when the chronograph was revolved to a position where the pendulum -swung northeast-southwest. This northeast-southwest tendency was found -to be a characteristic of the seismograph cellar for many seismic -measurements, including local earthquakes.</p> - -<p>This was the direction at right angles to the edge of the cliff -on which the Observatory stood. We concluded that this motion was -characteristic of the upright flat slabs, with cracks behind them, -which constitute the face of the crater cliff, and decided that any -motion communicated to these slabs would tend to be a swaying toward -the crater, rather than in the direction of stiffness parallel to the -crater’s edge. Omori has found a similar permanent tendency for Tokyo -city, where the directions are northwest and southeast for maximum -amplitude. This means that any spot on earth oscillates easiest in one -direction.</p> - -<p>These first ten years of the Observatory answered many questions and -pointed the way for future experiment and study. It now appears that -liquid lava is a gas froth, that Kilauea and Mauna Loa are all one -system, that hydrogen is the most elemental gas in eruption, that a -gas-free paste is the residue of flowing foam both in pits and lava -flows, that earthquakes and vibrations are a function of this paste -wedging up cracks and sinking back underground, and that the rise and -fall is in tides and cycles, short and long. These things are not -guesses, but measurements.</p> - -<p>The earthquake problem at volcanoes is misunderstood in geology. The -superstition that volcanic quakes are small is wrong. “Volcanic”<span class="pagenum" id="Page_103">[103]</span> in -volcanology is not limited to volcanoes. Los Angeles, Charleston, -Lisbon, and the deep ocean bottom are all volcanic, are all tremulous; -and all have “lava” underneath. Kilauea and Midway Island are one, Rome -and Etna are one, Iceland and St. Helena are one, Redlands and Mount -Rainier are one, and the paste is underneath. These facts concern the -globe, not a little bundle of wrinkles like the Alps.</p> - -<p>We do not know what an earthquake is or what lava is. However, “lava” -falling suddenly and rising slowly with big and few earthquakes -accompanying fall, and little and many earthquakes appearing with -rise, are facts observed at Kilauea. At Tokyo in 1923 the greatest -quake in history centered at lowered lava and lowered sea-bottom next -to Oshima Volcano island. The Messina quake in 1908 made a hissing -noise, and nearby Etna lava was low. There are long cracks in the earth -shell somewhere deep down, and we know little about them except that -volcanoes and faults are in lines. So long as the three-quarters of -the globe under oceans are unexplored by man, with no rock specimens -or even decent maps, and so long as there are no instruments planted -on sea bottoms, we cannot use the term volcanic intelligently. Most -volcanoes of the earth are undiscovered. Kilauea measurements whet -the appetite for a new scientific frontier, the prospecting for ores, -volcanoes, and mountains under the sea. The absence of core drilling -and rock sampling over three-quarters of the earth is a disgrace to the -oil-drilling and quarrying sciences of mankind.</p> - -<p>The founding decade of the Hawaiian Observatory produced two effective -expeditions, one to Japan and one to New Zealand.</p> - -<p>The Research Association voted to send me to Kagoshima in Kyushu, the -south island of Japan, where the volcano Sakurajima made earthquakes, -explosions, and lava flows in January of 1914. About the same time -Perret was sent to Sakurajima by Friedlaender of Naples, so we met in -Japan.</p> - -<p>Sakurajima, or Cherry Island, is a 4,000-foot cone in Kagoshima Sound, -a deep inlet at the southernmost end of Kyushu. The volcano threatened -22,000 persons in villages on Sakurajima Island itself, and 70,000 -in Kagoshima. It is a land of orange groves, fisherfolk, Satsuma -porcelain, and maritime commerce, situated at the north end of the -Okinawa-Ryukyu islands, a volcano chain extending north to Nagasaki.</p> - -<p>Authorities in Kagoshima knew all about Pelée; and the army,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_104">[104]</span> navy, -and governor wasted no time. Professor Omori, who had a seismograph -at the weather station of Kagoshima, went at once to the volcano, and -profiting from the lesson of Pelée, guided the lives of 90,000 persons.</p> - -<p>The Sakurajima eruption began on a Saturday and Sunday with hundreds -of earthquakes locally identified as coming from the volcano. Public -and private vessels were called into service to move all the people of -the island over to Kagoshima and beyond. With a general of the army in -command, this was accomplished in two days. On Monday at ten o’clock -the great, picturesque peak, quite like Pelée or Vesuvius, suddenly -ejected vertically and quietly, from a crack in its flank, a column of -“smoke” 30,000 feet high. This was answered by another, similar column -on the opposite side of the mountain; and the two columns joined above -into a colossal arch of cauliflower clouds consisting of sand, dust, -and boulders. The crack in the mountain which gave vent to all this -opened with slight rumble and behaved like two radial ruptures meeting -toward the peak, extending southwest and southeast. The sector of the -mountain between them appeared to have been lifted like a piece of pie -shoved up in the center. But the summit craters played no appreciable -part in the eruption, unless it was a gush of steam on Sunday evening. -The line of craterlets along the cracks and only half way up the -mountain quickly developed lava flows, and these poured down, the one -toward Kagoshima Strait, the other toward the narrow Osumi Strait, -which separated the volcano from the wilder eastern mainland. This -strait was filled up with heavy block lava, or aa, converting the -island into a peninsula. A similar aa lava flow, fifty feet high in -front, swept down to the beach on the Kagoshima side, with boulders as -big as a house tumbling over its andesite front.</p> - -<p>Tidal waves made by these two lava flows entering the sea were small -but perceptible. The principal effect was thousands of white steam jets -where the red hot blocks entered the ocean. Culmination of glowing heat -came the second night, Tuesday. The flows continued for months, but the -maximum of seismic effect had happened at six o’clock in the evening of -the first day, Monday.</p> - -<p>This was a really big earthquake damaging masonry and causing landslips -from the cliff next to Kagoshima city and killing a number of people. -The flux of refugees from the volcano villages on Monday was a -dramatic event. When the lava outbreak occurred in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_105">[105]</span> forenoon, -the schools sent the children home. On their way, the children gazed -entranced toward the terrific arch of cloud over the mountain, vomiting -trajectories of stones. Shops closed, and the city was quiet while -everybody sized up the crisis. As a schoolboy in English class wrote, -“Monster rocks went horizontally from the down to the up, with smokes -on their behind.”</p> - -<p>After the evening earthquake, however, when many buildings had shaken -down, all except public officials were ordered to leave for the back -country. Young men’s clubs organized to receive the refugees along -the roads which led into the interior of Satsuma province, while -temples and schoolhouses were impressed into service to house them. -The migration of more than 50,000 people with packs on their backs and -with handcarts bearing household goods, demonstrated how easily the -Japanese people took to a nomad existence. This hegira came to an end -on Wednesday, when Dr. Omori arrived from Tokyo, sized up the seismic -record and the fiery crisis of Tuesday night, and took the grave -responsibility of announcing that the population of Kagoshima might -safely return. This was done, he was right, and no further damage beset -the city.</p> - -<p>Through all of this eruption, so different from Pelée in administrative -control, no one was killed by the volcano, though one or two old people -died of shock. One old lady who refused to leave her home on the island -survived. Village roofs were bent down, crushed, and half buried under -a heavy snowfall of ash, and it was notable that flat-roofed cottages -were crushed, whereas those with steeper roofs were less damaged. -Orange orchards were hopelessly destroyed.</p> - -<p>At the west shore of Sakurajima in a place called Hakamagoshi, a fiery -blast rushed down to the sea from the rift. Trees were stripped of -limbs and bark, saplings were bent away from the volcano, and wood -fiber on stumps was shredded by flying rocks. This blast was very short -lived and never reached across to the city. It bore the marks of being -similar to the downblasts of Mount Pelée. The lava flows kept on for a -year and built new shore islands.</p> - -<p>I had the remarkable experience of being rowed in a skiff over the -submerged tongue of an eastern flow, trailing a thermometer in the -increasingly boiling water. When the steaming water about us reached -scalding temperature, we had the unpleasant thought that if we should -capsize we would be cooked. We found boiled horses and cattle along the -beaches, and thousands of dead fish. A climb near the eastern flank -vent showed a portion of the moving lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_106">[106]</span> flow pouring down the slope -into a glowing cavern under a shell of its own bouldery texture.</p> - -<p>The thousands of dollars of relief which came to Japan from America and -elsewhere were handled with scrupulous honesty, and the inhabitants of -the island were rehabilitated on Tanegashima, another island of the -Ryukyu Archipelago.</p> - -<p>Scientific investigations showed by leveling that the mountain had -been lifted a few feet by the internal penetration of the lava, and -reexamination of the benchmarks along roads extending out radially -indicated that the north end of the bay bottom and shore had definitely -sunk, as though underground lava had been withdrawn from that region, -to push up, swell, and overflow the mountain. This effect of subsidence -outside was traced and shown to gradually lessen for a hundred miles -from the place of greatest sinking. Investigation carried out by the -geologist colleagues of Omori culminated in a monumental publication -which demonstrates the solidarity of the Japanese methods of science. -And both Omori and Professor Koto published books on Sakurajima in -English, with maps, photographs, curves, and seismograms.</p> - -<p>Omori, in 1910, had anticipated movement of the earth about a volcanic -center as swelling up one place and sinking down in another while -eruption was going on. At that time, he described Usu Volcano at -the opposite end of Japan, where leveling instruments showed graded -changes in height made by the Usu eruption. A remarkable physiographic -character of Usu Mountain, and of the adjacent basin of Lake Toya, -is that basin and dome appear complementary, just as Kagoshima Bay -was compensated by Sakurajima. This same pairing of lake with volcano -has been noted in other parts of Japan, as though tumefaction by -lava penetration and lava eruption had robbed the underpinning of an -adjacent piece of ground, which lowered and became a lake by filling up -with groundwater.</p> - -<p>From Sakurajima I went to Bandaisan, or Kobandai, a famous volcano in -central Japan northwest of Tokyo and on the shore of a beautiful lake. -It looks like an ordinary rocky peak, but its fame was made by a steam -explosion from its flank which blew out the side of the mountain and -left avast sulfurous quarry with numerous solfataras and hot springs. -Bandai was known by geologists to be one of a chain of volcanoes, but -prior to 1885 its activity was in question. One morning the sky was -darkened by the overwhelming explosion, and vast volumes of rock from -the outbreak poured down<span class="pagenum" id="Page_107">[107]</span> as a landslide and completely dammed a river -system. It left extraordinary little heaps in the new dammed up lake. -These appeared to be individual blocks of rock against which heaps of -debris were piled so as to leave pyramidal humps scattered over the -surface of the impounded water near the volcano. An excellent report in -English on this eruption was published at the time, and the eruption -became the type of what geologists call a phreatic explosion, meaning -pure steam. There was doubt as to whether any fragments of new lava -were thrown up.</p> - -<p>I took with me to Bandaisan a photographer-guide. We camped in a -mountain inn with thatched roof, visited a hot spring resort, and hiked -to the crater where we measured temperatures and took photographs. It -was a vast flat-floored shelf, dug out of the side of the mountain, -with steam jets and puddles of boiling water at the back. Looking out -at the new water-filled valley with its many islands at the base of -the slope below the crater, we could see shoreline levels higher than -the present beach, where the damming had produced the highest stand of -the water. The eruption and landslide overwhelmed villages and killed -many people, though it lasted only a few days. It was on the side -of the mountain remote from the older lake. In clambering over the -broken debris, which looked more like glacial deposits than volcanic -agglomerate, I picked up some pieces of vesicular basalt that were -definitely lava. Wada, a Japanese geologist, had found the same thing, -and we both concluded that these were an internal live basalt blown to -fragments in the Bandaisan eruption, but that most of the material was -from the shattered old mountain.</p> - -<p>My interpretation of Bandaisan is that it is an old volcano in the -line of Asama and other volcanoes of central Japan, and that the line -is a deep crack always full of lava in the depths, which is selective -of outlet, depending upon what part of the crack opens as the path of -least resistance. Eruption may be occasioned by lava wedging upward at -one volcano, or by lava sinking downward at another volcano, according -to the way the medial rift of continental Honshu is warped and stressed -by the earthquake forces. One part of a volcano chain is always -sinking, with lava withdrawn. Another part is always swelling up, with -lava penetrating the cracks under active crater pits, like that of -Asama.</p> - -<p>Asama is the Vesuvius of central Japan near the village of Karuizawa, -famous as the resort of American missionaries. Bandaisan is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_108">[108]</span> one of a -line of volcanic peaks north of Asama, all of which have hot springs -and solfataras. The explosion of Bandaisan, where the big natural lake -represents the groundwater level of abundant rainfall, occurred when -the underground lava column suddenly sank rapidly by the gaping open -of the deep rift. The water poured into red hot cavities, while the -lava was rising and erupting by frothing up in the depths of one of -the other volcanoes. The results of Bandai’s explosion were first, -earthquake collapse, which was assisted by vast outjets of boiling -steam from groundwater, and then the blowing out of the mountainside.</p> - -<p>Of special interest is the spacing, twenty to forty miles, between -volcanoes along such a system as Asama-Bandai. The underlying cracks -must be in echelon arrangement, and the spacing is a function of the -thickness of the upper earth crust and its capacity through the ages of -producing spaced-out widenings or bends in the crack, above whatever -shell confines the lava. The same spacing of the new and old volcanoes -is true in the Caribbees and in the Costa Rica-Mexico line. There -an old peak might make a Bandaisan by unforeseen breakage and steam -development.</p> - -<p>This applies also to the Ryukyu-Sakurajima line. I visited Kaimon at -the extreme south end of Kyushu, a steep dome blocked on top by a -lava plug. South of here to Suwanose Island, an active volcano, the -spacing of islands is similar to the northward spacing of Sakurajima, -Kirishima, and Asosan, following the same law of selected vents -and offset cracks. Kirishima thirty miles north of Sakurajima is a -treacherous and dangerous volcano that made a bad explosion just prior -to the Sakurajima eruption. I saw on the rim of its summit cavity a -breadcrust bomb, a triangular block of rock eight feet long, with its -surface beautifully tessellated with gaping cracks. This breadcrust -fracture indicates that the fragment of glowing andesite was thrown -up while pasty, then congealed on its surface to smooth glass and -continued to swell evenly with internal gas, so as to rupture the -glassy surface as expanding dough.</p> - -<p>At Aso Volcano farther north I entered a natural gateway into a -cauldron nine miles across, surrounded by a wall, and with a hilly -country inside, from which a river escaped through the gateway. The -summit peak in this landscape proved to contain an active pit on top. -The pit was steaming and the source of the steam was boiling puddles -of mud at the bottom. This was the “Halemaumau” of Asosan, which has -had a record of many eruptions near the city of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_109">[109]</span> Kumamoto. The chain -of Kyushu volcanoes ends, after the usual spacing, with a volcano at -Nagasaki.</p> - -<p>From Shimonoseki Strait, going northeastward, new belts of volcanic -fissures have built the mountains of central Japan, cut across -northwest of Tokyo by what Naumann called the fossa magna or big -trench. This is famous in the history of Japanese geology, for which -this German geologist laid the foundations. The fossa magna extends -northwest and southeast, through Fujiyama and Oshima Volcanoes to the -Ogasawara Islands and the Bonin Islands, scene of volcanoes making and -disappearing, from craters under the ocean.</p> - -<p>Omori had discovered historical similarities between the eruptions of -this chain and those of the Ryukyu chain. This is significant, because -as we go from the small spacing of the individual volcanoes, we come to -some deeper and larger fracturing of the whole crust of the earth that -determines a spacing of hundreds of miles between such larger arcs of -rupture as those of Kyushu and the Bonin Islands. As all are volcanic -and have been so since the birth of the globe, it is unthinkable to me -that they are anything but deep fractures which go down to the earth’s -core. The surface geology of marine strata is a mere veneer compared -with the deep and ancient igneous rocks.</p> - -<p>I went to New Zealand in 1920, taking with me in manuscript form -the Hawaiian Observatory results of the past decade. Notable among -geologists there was Dr. Allan Thomson, director of the Dominion Museum -in Wellington. Dr. Thomson and his distinguished father, the Honorable -William Thomson, guided Mrs. Jaggar and me all the way from Auckland to -Dunedin. It was my task to give lectures on volcano research, to show -lantern slides of Mount Pelée and Kilauea, to tell about seismographs -and cycles, and to urge upon New Zealand science the importance -of establishing a volcano observatory system in the Taupo Belt of -volcanoes.</p> - -<p>Here, in 1886, had occurred the terrific eruption of Tarawera. Here -are spaced out volcanoes extending north into the islands of Tonga. -Here, possibly, along the Cook Channel between the North and the South -Islands, is a transition from volcanoes to earthquakes, and quite -possibly another fossa magna worthy of comparison with Japan. Off to -the east lies the profound linear Tonga Deep, compensating the New -Zealand volcanic uplift. This is analogous to the Tuscarora Deep east -of Japan.</p> - -<p>We were fortunate to procure accommodations in Rotorua, the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_110">[110]</span> boiling -geyser district, at the time of the visit of the Prince of Wales, later -King Edward VIII, and to see the hakas, or dances, of an encampment of -5,000 Maoris, gathered to honor British royalty.</p> - -<p>I was interested in the relics of liquid basalt collected on the lip -of the great rift through Tarawera Mountain. The rupture extends the -length of Rotomahana Lake, which sank away as a groundwater phenomenon -in 1886. This, like Bandaisan, was one of the great steamblast -eruptions of history. It was right on the line of volcano spacing -extending from White Island in the Bay of Plenty, to Ngauruhoe and -Ruapehu Volcanoes, beyond Lake Taupo at the south. Here was a land -of echelons of deep cracks, building up along scores of miles from -submarine eruptions such as Falcon Island in the Tonga group. Farther -south is the dangerous looking White Island close to the New Zealand -shoreline, resembling Bogoslof, and so on to the lava volcanoes at the -south. Big earthquakes have been characteristic, along with uplift, of -both shorelines of Cook Strait.</p> - -<p>This kind of gradation is certainly like the transitions from -submarine eruption to continental uplift, crowned with volcanoes, so -characteristic of Japan, the Aleutians, California, and Italy. It is -impossible to think of it, when we consider water depths of 4,000 -fathoms, and a step upward to such altitudes as the New Zealand alps, -all linear for a distance of several hundred miles, except in terms of -the faulted deep earth crust. And seismologists tell us that that crust -is 1,800 miles deep.</p> - -<p>The associations made on this trip were destined to have far-reaching -effect in meetings with New Zealand scientists at later dates. I -met Professor Bartrum of Auckland; the officials of the New Zealand -Geological Survey; Dr. Ernest Marsden, distinguished physicist who -had worked with Rutherford in England; and Dr. C. A. Cotton, physical -geographer and author. Cotton showed us the elevated shorelines -of Wellington associated with the big earthquakes of 1851. Other -personages were Professor Speight, geologist of Christchurch College, -and in Dunedin, Professor R. L. Jack, physicist of Otago University -and our host. Dr. C. E. Adams, government astronomer of Wellington, -we were to meet again on Tin Can Island in 1930, during the United -States Eclipse Expedition. Dr. J. MacMillan-Brown, chancellor of -the University of New Zealand, and his daughter entertained us in -Christchurch; and he later visited us several times in Hawaii in the -course of his extensive travels.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_111">[111]</span></p> - -<p>I was glad to stimulate volcanology in New Zealand and pleased when -there eventually appeared the splendid work of Dr. L. I. Grange, on -the “Rotorua District,” with a project for geophysical surveys made -imperative by the Napier earthquake disaster.</p> - -<p>Before this chapter is closed, some personalities of the first decade -of the Observatory should be mentioned. Foremost was L. A. Thurston, -founder of the Volcano Research Association and its president for many -years. It was his interest and enthusiasm coupled with that of the -other members of the Association that made the Observatory possible. -Prominent among those members was L. W. de Vis-Norton, for many years -secretary of the Association and a devoted apostle of volcanology.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Isabel Jaggar, from 1917, was my helper not only as wife and -amanuensis, but as general assistant at the Observatory. She could -operate instruments, take notes at the pit, keep the record books, and -act as buffer against an overinquisitive public.</p> - -<p>There was Demosthenes Lycurgus, genial Greek host of the Volcano House, -who did all in his power to help us, by grants of lands, raising money, -and personally promoting science with all the vigor of his wonderful -personality. He went home to Greece to be married, and alas, died -during his honeymoon. Later came my good friend George Lycurgus, who -still operates the Volcano House.</p> - -<p>Colleagues of the founding decade included H. O. Wood, who came from -Berkeley in 1912, acted as seismologist and geological assistant, and -established a seismological bulletin. He left to enter the army in -1917. In years to come Wood established in Pasadena under the Carnegie -Institution one of the great seismographic laboratories of the world, -and his name became coupled with a California Institute of Technology -physicist to name the Wood-Anderson seismograph. Later came R. H. Finch -who had worked with Dr. Humphreys of the Weather Bureau in Washington -and had been a flight meteorologist in Ireland during the first World -War. He was assigned by Marvin to me as assistant in 1919, when the -Congress took over our work for the U.S. Weather Bureau.</p> - -<p>Finally, I should like to name the numerous workers of the U.S. -Geological Survey in topography and geology, notably Birdseye, -Burkland, Stearns, Wilson, Clark, Meinzer, and Macdonald. These men -brought to reality my Geological Survey estimate of 1899, when I -recommended to Walcott a survey of the Hawaiian Islands.</p> - -<p>The Hawaii geologic survey included investigations of water, highways,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_112">[112]</span> -and minerals, and was to map lavas, volcanic processes, and island -growth. The annual cost of the work had been estimated at $22,000, -including $6,300 for salaries in geology and $10,000 for the total -cost of topography study, or $90,000 for five years. The project was -begun in 1909 in cooperation with the Territory of Hawaii. In 1951 the -mapping was completed and the cost had been many times the original -estimate.</p> - -<p>Among visitors who contributed to the Observatory work were Sidney -Powers, a voluntary observer who had been one of my students in Boston. -He explored and published on many volcanoes around the world and -followed me in Sakurajima and the Aleutian Islands. He later became an -outstanding petroleum geologist of the Amerada Company in Tulsa. Arthur -Hannon, an architect from Cleveland, acted as a volunteer mapper, and -for months aided with sketches of the changes in Halemaumau. William -Twigg-Smith, an artist from New Zealand, joined us in the lava-sounding -experiment and made numerous sketches and paintings. He later became -the illustrator and photographer for the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ -Association. Dr. A. L. Day of the Geophysical Laboratory visited us -repeatedly, in association with gas chemist E. S. Shepherd. He wrote -important monographs, along with E. H. Allen the chemist for the -Carnegie Institution, on the Yellowstone and Lassen National Parks, and -on Geyserville. Allen came to the Observatory for critical analysis of -the steam of Sulphur Bank.</p> - -<p>Among other visitors were geologists, geodesists, and biologists of the -Pacific Science Congress, held in the spring of 1920. These included -H. E. Gregory, Griffith Taylor, Frederick Wood-Jones, William Bowie, -T. W. Vaughan, E. O. Hovey, E. C. Andrews, F. Omori, H. S. Washington, -and Dr. Chilton of Christchurch, who had been one of our inspirers in -the New Zealand trip. This Honolulu world congress assigned one meeting -to Kilauea Volcano, which enabled me to summarize results before a -cosmopolitan group of scientists.</p> - -<p>The Washington executives who at this time promoted the Observatory -were Secretary of Agriculture David F. Houston, Director George Otis -Smith of Geological Survey, Chief Charles Marvin of the Weather Bureau, -and Charles D. Walcott, Secretary of the Smithsonian. Later came W. C. -Mendenhall, firm friend of the Observatory, and Director of the Survey.</p> - -<p>It was my good fortune that between 1914 and 1919 Mauna Loa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_113">[113]</span> and -Kilauea were building up lava toward a fiery crisis, and that the -sugar business of Hawaii boomed at the same time. When the 1920 -science congress convened there was much fresh lava to be seen, and -our Research Association was so prosperous that M. I. T. in Boston -kept up its financial interest. The <i>American Journal of Science</i> -under Edward Dana of Yale published our results. This was fitting, as -Dana’s father, J. D. Dana, had published much about Hawaiian volcanoes. -Consequently the end of the foundation decade made easier the financing -of the next five years. Just at this time the Geological Survey spurted -ahead, the National Park was opened, the Army built a recreation camp -and a trail up Mauna Loa, the Inter-island Steamship Company took over -the Volcano House, and a Promotion Committee was bringing many tourists.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_113" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_113.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>Fluctuations of Halemaumau lava from 1790 to 1952, -the verticals indicating maximum lowering preceding repose periods; -minor fluctuations not shown.</i></p> - </div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_114">[114]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter V</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Expansion Decade</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center">“<i>There shall be famines and earthquakes in divers places.</i>”</p> - - -<p>The decade from 1921 through 1930 was a period of tremendous events and -of experimentation at Kilauea and Mauna Loa. It was also an expansion -decade for the Observatory, and for me. Additional funds made possible -new buildings and equipment on Hawaii; observatory activity was -established at Lassen Volcano in California; and expeditionary work -included a study of the 1923 Tokyo earthquakes, explorations on Alaska -volcanoes in 1927, and a visit to Niuafoou in Tonga, part of the great -New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain.</p> - -<p>Increased government aid was largely due to the help of the Honorable -Louis C. Cramton of Michigan, Republican floor leader of Congress, who -took great interest in extending activities within national parks. -After we moved from Weather Bureau control to Geological Survey in -1924, Cramton visited our Observatory, concluded that it was an orphan -child of the government, and asked me what I wanted. I told him that -I needed men and machines, and I suggested expanding our studies to -California and the Aleutians.</p> - -<p>Meantime, the Research Association was persuaded that we needed a -fire-resistant iron building to house library accumulation, record -books, and photographic negatives, as well as seismograms and lava -specimens. These were precious relics of the very active overflows -and experiments of the 1912–1921 period. With the advice of Walter F. -Dillingham and Engineer John Mason Young of the University of Hawaii, I -built a sheet-iron house with concrete floor and wire-glass skylights, -and installed steel furniture. This became an invaluable office, -drafting room, and workroom, as well as a place for files.</p> - -<p>The Volcano Research Association, in cooperation with Hawaii National -Park, built a trail side museum and lecture hall atop the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_115">[115]</span> high western -bluff of Kilauea Crater. Later, when the drive was extended completely -around the greater crater, the museum was on the road to Halemaumau. -This museum had a plate glass front, concrete floor, skylight -illumination, and an esplanade looking down on the caldera and across -the vast panorama of Mauna Loa, Mauna Kea, and the Kau Desert. The -building protected the lookout platform from the trade winds.</p> - -<p>We housed in the museum a gleaming, nickel-plated seismograph from -Japan, suitable photographs, and the best of our specimens for visitors -to see. This combined with the magnificent views to instruct the public -in volcanology as nothing else could have done. At the same time, I -equipped machine shops and added a first class mechanic to the staff.</p> - -<p>It was during this decade and after my New Zealand trip that such -persons as Omori and Nakamura, in Japan, and geologists in Seattle, -Berkeley, and Pasadena began to take an interest in the volcano problem -as dominant in the study of earthquakes.</p> - -<p>There were conflicting theories about the earth crust. Earlier, in -Hawaii, Wood was a disciple of the tectonic or contracting theories of -the earth, whereas I increasingly believed volcanism to be profound, -crustal, oceanic, and ancient. It is more fundamental than the strata -and mountain folds of continents.</p> - -<p>This conflict extended to the water question in volcanology. I was -inclined to believe the waters of eruption to be oxidized hydrogen, -whereas such physical chemists as Day, Shepherd, and Allen believed -water vapor, like carbon dioxide, to be fundamental in magma.</p> - -<p>The whole question of the origin of oxygen—the most abundant element -of the rocks, air, and water—is a matter of startling doubt in -geology. Where oxides are known to exist in lava, flames of oxidation -make the gaseous fires; and underground water full of oxygen plays a -part in steamblast eruption. All the waters of glaciers and oceans are -oxides, and prove that the volcanic oxidation of hydrogen was the most -primitive of the volcanic processes. Dr. E. H. Allen found water vapor -dominant in the Sulphur Bank gas at Kilauea, whereas Day and Shepherd, -who opposed Brun, thought water dominant in the gases of live lava. -Its great preponderance in geological theory for such eruptions as -Vesuvius led Allen to review theories and publish a long paper designed -to refute my notion that oxidizing hydrogen is the primary volcanic -ingredient.</p> - -<p>As to earthquakes and so-called tectonic faults, the whole of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_116">[116]</span> geology -has its thinking so warped by continents, the dwelling place of -mankind, and so diverted from the great linear trenches and the ridges -of the ocean crowned with volcanoes parallel to the deeps, that I -became incredulous, along with Willis and Oldham, about the textbook -cause of earthquakes.</p> - -<p>The fascination offered by fossils, by ages of shellfish and reptiles, -and by mountains of folded strata like the Alps and the Himalaya makes -the votaries of evolutionary science neglect the mud-covered rocks and -oceanic mountain ranges of almost three-quarters of the surface of the -globe. This seventy-two percent they have never seen, nor collected -hard rock specimens from, nor even mapped topographically. They are not -acquainted with it by exploration, and their theories about it are a -blank, except that gravity pendulums indicate it to be basalt.</p> - -<p>The so-called geosyncline, or continental basin of sediments, filled -with shells and strata as is the Mediterranean, is at the heart of -all the theories of continents and mountains; and geology expressly -excludes the geosyncline and its strata from the probabilities of deep -ocean valleys. The most interesting subjects of continental geology -are simply banished from conjecture. Interest in deep-ocean geology is -lacking because science has made no field effort to bore or blast into -it, and so extend engineering science to the deep ocean bottoms.</p> - -<p>Earthquakes made a theme wherein I instinctively distrusted the word -“tectonic.” For generations the geological mind thought the earth -losing heat, contracting internally, and wrinkling a crust in bumps, -with vast overthrusts of broken strata, thus folding the Appalachians -and the Andes. All sorts of accommodations to a thin crust thirty miles -deep were invented; by Dana and Geikie, by Suess and Wiechert, and -finally by one who should have been the foremost block faulting expert, -Dutton. Hawaii convinced him that volcanoes are only skin deep and that -the thin crust is so sensitive that a shift of the weight of river -muds and sands is enough to push down the great valley of California, -while an underflow pushes up the Sierra Nevada. This is the doctrine -of “isostasy.” It agrees with the Stübel idea of shallow remnant -reservoirs for the lava of volcanoes.</p> - -<p>Isostasy was devised by Dutton and pounced upon by the mathematicians, -until they had gravity proving the whole world thin-crusted over an -understratum of plastic lava. The seismologists on continents agreed, -finding a density change, but with no evidence<span class="pagenum" id="Page_117">[117]</span> of fluidity. The world -became, mathematically and petrologically, a sphere built of layers -all the way down to the heavy fluid hot core, which was conveniently -imagined to consist of iron and nickel, because some bolides of the -solar system made of those metals occasionally fall on the earth.</p> - -<p>All my experience of volcanoes and of deep oceans militated against a -thin crust, a shallow underlayer of basalt to feed volcanoes, and a -nickel iron core. The core is heavy, and sixty-two elements are heavier -than iron. All reason seemed against the notion that the vast volcanic -sea bottoms are a thin crust wrinkling under contraction. Reason found -every evidence on both earth and moon for a thick peridotite or olivine -crust, broken into ancient blocks, bounded by long lines of fracture, -the blocks variously settling and scraping against each other from -time immemorial, actuated by volcanic forces from the core. The whole -of volcanology points toward sinking and down-faulted ocean basins, -alongside the remnant upstanding continents which are the minor feature -of the primitive earth surface. Water condensed and filled hollows. -The processes of the core that made all this were volcanism—mother of -air, ocean, seabottom, land, and life. The crust was thick enough to -make cracks 2,000 miles long on a globe 8,000 miles in diameter. If -there was a balancing of weights as in “isostasy,” it was between high -silica in continental lava and low silica basalt that spread under the -oceans. This is not static, but is a continuing process of a kinetic, -or changing, earth.</p> - -<p>This excursion into theory is intentional, so that in the middle -of this book the geologically trained reader will understand that -experience of volcanoes in Hawaii, the Caribbean, New Zealand, Alaska, -Italy, and Japan had made me a rebel against conventional geology. The -reason is that the great submerged mountain range of the long Hawaiian -Archipelago is different from the mountain ranges of Europe and Asia -and must be accounted for in global history. How would the three -decades 1921 to 1950 confirm expectation that the deep ocean bottom is -the most important and volcanic thing in geology, just as it is the -biggest thing?</p> - -<p>Routine observation and photography at Halemaumau pit reached a climax -of recording brilliant fiery events in March 1921, and it changed -to the recording of explosive steam in May 1924. The first of these -fireworks, after lava flows from a rift in the Kau Desert, draining the -pit and fluctuating with the ups and downs of the pit lava, occurred in -1919–1920. This was a return to Halemaumau of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_118">[118]</span> effervescence in frothy -volumes, so that the pit was overflowing on five sides. On March 20, -1921, occurred the most intense display of brilliancy, culminating the -gradual rising of the lava column to outflow following 1918.</p> - -<p>Then came, in the later months of 1921, a sinking away and recovery of -the lava. In 1922 came a sinking again, with the lava breaking out in -the Chain of Craters of the eastern rift, as though it had been blocked -by freezing in the southwest rift and was forced over to split open the -old cracks of the mountain to the east. This was confirmed in 1923 by -another outbreak in the forest adjacent to the sixth crater, Makaopuhi, -which with Napau pit beyond, had been the scene of the 1922 outflows.</p> - -<p>This action was all extended in April 1924 to the shoreline end of -the eastern rift, thirty miles away from Halemaumau, when the Kapoho -country cracked open with many earthquakes, and a block of the mountain -settled beneath sea level. Coconut palms at the beach were left in a -lagoon of sea water eight feet deep. Seventy-five earthquakes in a -day frightened away Filipino plantation laborers; railway and roads -were ruptured, with new cliffs forming nine feet high; and all of this -followed a monumental sinking of Halemaumau bottom, from a vast sea of -lava to a tumble of debris in two months.</p> - -<p>It was evident that between 1920 and 1924 the fracture of the long -curved rift athwart Kilauea cauldron from the Kau Desert to the east -point of the island was draining the lava out under the ocean to the -east. Forty miles from the shore, the submarine slope is covered by -18,000 feet of water.</p> - -<p>What is the result? The whole of Kilauea Mountain is charged with -groundwater, which trickles warm through the beach at Pohoiki and -partly warms ponds near Kapoho. Obviously this groundwater of the -southeastern lobe of the island mountain surrounds the shaft of -Halemaumau at some undefined depth, and the rising and falling glassy -lava in the shaft ordinarily glazes itself with a water-tight skin, and -may be thought of as a crusted tube. About this tube the groundwater -shows only as the lazy steam of the little vents of the pit margins. -On May 10, 1924, came the collapse of the Halemaumau pit walls, -introducing an explosive steam eruption such as had not been seen by -five generations of Hawaiians.</p> - -<p>The adventures of this period were glorious ones for the scientists. -First should be mentioned the amazing subsidence which occurred -suddenly at 2 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> November 28, 1919, just as Mrs. Jaggar -looked<span class="pagenum" id="Page_119">[119]</span> across Kilauea Crater at the outline of crags and lava lakes -making a glowing dome where Halemaumau pit should have been. We felt -a lot of little earthquakes and saw the dome of lava heapings, with -glowing lakes on top, sink slowly and majestically and leave the old -familiar glowing pit. For almost the whole of 1919 this had been a -dome, with overflows, now here, now there. At ten o’clock only the -evening before, old Alec had conducted tourists to the top of the dome, -where they looked down at the clover-leaf lakes. If it had started to -go down while they were there—and any of us might have been there—it -is awesome to think of the inevitable fiery engulfment.</p> - -<p>After watching the sinking, which was followed by puffs of dust and -smoke and some avalanche noise, we took a car to the pit at once. And -when we got there in the early morning hours we found the pit enlarged -to 2,000 feet across, with the pattern of the lava lakes still apparent -at the bottom, indicating that the entire cylinder had lowered as a -unit to a depth of about 700 feet. Red hot avalanches were tumbling -inward with a roar, from the veneer of lava plastered on the wall. -By the forenoon of that day the liquid lava started to pour up and -inward as a ring of bubbling fountains all around the edges. What this -ring represented was the wall crack between the subsided cylinder -of semisolid lava, now pushing upward, and the funnel of rock wall -outside. This V-shaped filling grew wider as the uprising progressed, -and so the ring lake became wider, while the top of the harder column -became a ring of crags and the space inside became a quiet lava puddle -supplied by inflow from the ring lake. The whole column of ring crags -with the lagoon inside and the brilliantly fountaining lake outside -rose with unheard of rapidity during the next three weeks.</p> - -<p>In mid-December, I took Mrs. Jaggar and a woman friend down to inspect -this amazing corolla, or lily, of hard crags which had blossomed up in -less than a month, so that the outer ring of boiling fluid was less -than a hundred feet below us. We stood at the rift in the Kilauea floor -which heads toward the southwest cliff, and suddenly we felt slight -earthquakes and saw the face of that cliff crumbling in a visible -tumble of rocks. The mountain was quietly breaking open athwart the -Kilauea caldera floor, and while we watched we saw forty or fifty low -lava fountains in a straight line burst up along a floor crack between -us and the cliff.</p> - -<p>Remember that this crack traversed the downslope between Halemaumau -edge and Kilauea wall. Looking back at the ring lake, we<span class="pagenum" id="Page_120">[120]</span> saw it -beginning to lower and leave a shoreline of black plastering spatter. -When we looked into the rift crack at our feet, only one or two feet -gaping open, the liquid lava showed about twenty feet down. We were -standing on the side of the crack away from the motor car terminus, and -floods of lava on the Kilauea floor were spreading right and left from -the straight line of vents between us and Kilauea wall. We had to get -away from there pronto, as no one could tell what ground might erupt -between us and our car.</p> - -<p>I carefully instructed our friend to be deliberate and step across the -fissure; but the girl felt sure that crossing a red hot crack called -for a leap. She stepped on a loose slab at the edge of the narrow chasm -and slipped into the crack, where she was wedged until we pulled her -out. We then stepped across the fissure, for the live lava was far -below, and made our way back to the car without further trouble.</p> - -<p>The lake lowered only apportionately to the slowing black outflow on -the south floor, which was short-lived. This was the beginning of a -splitting open of the main Kilauea Mountain flank southwest and outside -the crater which continued for months.</p> - -<p>Another adventure, and an important one, happened with the outflooding -of lava in the Kau Desert, where terrace upon terrace of pahoehoe lava -was building up. This finally became a hill over the rift, two miles -long and 200 feet high, which we called Mauna Iki, or little Mauna Loa. -The exploration, day after day, of the extending quiet lava outwelling -along this rift made it necessary to find new trails from the Pahala -roadway and across the desert to the lengthening hillock.</p> - -<p>Following the new Mauna Iki trail, Mr. Finch noticed that the ancient -ash beds, two or three feet thick, had surfaces as hard as Portland -cement. And on one of these he, like Robinson Crusoe, found the print -of a naked foot, made when the old ash was a mud. On the trail across -these old surfaces many more hardened, ancient footprints were found, -of men, women, children, and pigs headed both up and down the mountain.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_120fp" style="max-width: 443px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_120fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>18. Isabel and Tom Jaggar in woods on Kilauea Volcano -on their return from viewing 1923 eruption in Napau Crater</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_121afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_121afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>19. Lava lake, fountains, and crags, March 20, 1921</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_121bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_121bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>20. Footprints in ash west of Mauna Iki, said to have -been made by Keoua’s army during Halemaumau eruption of 1790</i></p> - </div> - -<p>These prints recalled the story of Keoua’s army when there was a big -explosive eruption of Halemaumau in 1790 and the mud rains of the -period were from ash which had been baked by the volcanic fires. If -roasted and moistened, the chemical composition of powdered basalt -is that of weak cement, and these surfaces were in hollows which had -resisted erosion wash for 130 years. Part of the slopes<span class="pagenum" id="Page_121">[121]</span> closer to -Halemaumau had been eroded bare, but they also showed footprints. -Later the trail was followed up the mountain close to Kilauea Crater -and down toward Pahala, and the ash of 1790 was found to be made up of -pisolites, or fossil raindrops, in many places. Evidently the eruption -had been accompanied by torrential thunder storms, and the natives had -walked through the deposits of mud, which had in a century been dried -by the sun into a resistant surface. These fossil footprints were to -become one of the attractions of a tourist trail in the National Park.</p> - -<p>One night in 1922, after some earthquakes of the evening, we were -awakened by friends who told us that a glow like a forest fire could -be seen from the high cliffs of Kilauea in the easterly direction of -Makaopuhi. This big crater had a platform at one end and a pit at the -other. We aroused Mr. Finch, then traveled by car as far as we could go -on the truck trail, got lost, and with flashlights made our way on foot -toward the glow and fume in a rugged wilderness, over cracked ground -and old aa lava and obstructing vegetation. We were chilled by a cold -drizzle and not at all sure where we would emerge.</p> - -<p>Fortunately, the country is sufficiently open so that we could see the -“pillar of fire by night.” It turned out that the new fire was in the -deep end of Makaopuhi itself. From the western edge of Makaopuhi pit -we looked down on ten or fifteen ribbons of lava, made by a line of -spouting fountains at the top of the talus heap, and pouring from the -top of the big slide-rock slope. We spent the night on the edge in much -discomfort, and watched the puddle of accumulation in the bottom of the -funnel and the glowing streaks which fed it. It was evident that the -eastern rift of Kilauea Mountain had opened, and the lava outflow was -found to extend to Napau Crater, a shallow saucer pit farther east. -At the same time the lava in Halemaumau went down, enlarging the pit, -and cauliflower dust clouds arose from much internal avalanching. This -anticipated and resembled the avalanche steam blasts of 1924.</p> - -<p>The adventures of the 1924 explosive eruption were too numerous and -complicated to elaborate here. However, it was a tremendous event in -the history of Hawaii and was totally unforeseeable on the basis of -earlier experience. Mrs. Jaggar and I were in New York writing magazine -articles and I was giving lectures, when word came from Finch and the -newspapers that Halemaumau was caving in and throwing up rocks. We -traveled with all haste to Honolulu,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_122">[122]</span> where the Navy agreed to send me -by plane to Hilo, though they refused to take Mrs. Jaggar.</p> - -<p>The Admiral’s car took us to Pearl Harbor, where a seaplane was ready -and Mr. Thurston was waiting to see me off, accompanied by a motion -picture cameraman. Then pilot Chourré took me into the sky over Diamond -Head on my first flight. A companion plane was piloted by Lieutenant -Sinton, who had radio communication with Pearl Harbor. Crossing high -above the Molokai Channel, I looked down at the beautiful pattern -of trade-wind formed whitecaps, and was surprised after a half hour -to observe that the wave crests were farther apart. I was even more -surprised to see Sinton’s plane far above us. The mechanic in the -forward cockpit had been putting up his fingers repeatedly during our -flight, to indicate, I later learned, how many cylinders were missing -in the Liberty engine supported above us. Our plane was getting closer -and closer to the waves and flying fish raced beside us. Finally we -felt the bump of wave after wave on the bottoms of the pontoons, and -the pilot brought the seaplane to a squelching stop, close to the surf -of the Molokai reef.</p> - -<p>We found ourselves in fifteen feet of water, the coral reef visible -below. I was deputed to throw out an anchor and make the line fast to -a cleat, while pilot and mechanic climbed up to the engine, which had -been losing compression and could not keep up the requisite speed. -Lieutenant Sinton’s pilot plane came down and circled above us until he -saw we were safe, then went on to Maui. Meanwhile, I watched the water -with great interest, for sharks. When our boys got the engine going -with a roar, I pulled up the anchor and we took off against wind and -wave, with the pontoons going bang, bang, bang, against the tops of the -waves. But finally we were airborne and out above the blue water.</p> - -<p>Then the engine gave out again and we came down. This time the men -rigged a sea anchor made of buckets with a line attached to the bow, -to hold the ship’s nose up to the wind, and battened the hatches with -canvas covers. We clambered up on top of the upper wing to wait for -rescue. The wind was blowing a gale, the whitecaps hissed by us, and we -lay on our bellies. The aviators told me that this was the first forced -landing they had had. The word landing seemed to me inapplicable.</p> - -<p>We drifted for five hours, moving slowly down the wind, before a white -motor boat appeared, coming from Molokai. At the same time smoke showed -from two rescue vessels in the Pearl Harbor<span class="pagenum" id="Page_123">[123]</span> and Maui directions -respectively. Sinton, who had radioed for help, flew back and circled -above us, reminding me of the goonies soaring over a wounded bird on a -fish line which I had seen in Alaskan waters. The Molokai boat reached -us first, picked up our sea anchor and towed us into Kaunakakai. We -pitched so and took such a pounding from the gigantic trade-wind waves -that it didn’t seem possible that the mahogany hull and the two lateral -pontoons could hold together. However, we made the harbor and tied up -to the buoy.</p> - -<p>I hoped and prayed that the commercial packet, the <i>Mauna Kea</i>, -might take me to Hilo. But no, the navy tug <i>Navaho</i> came from -Lahaina, and Captain Green put up his megaphone and announced that the -Admiral’s instructions were that he was to take Dr. Jaggar to Hawaii. -My heart sank because I knew what a seaway would be running against -that little tub. The second rescue ship proved to be the <i>Pelican</i> -equipped with a crane to swing the plane on board and take it back to -Pearl Harbor.</p> - -<p>On board the <i>Navaho</i> I was assigned a canvas camp cot in the -lower, circular wheelhouse at the bow; and all night long waves broke -over the bow and a foot of water sloshed back and forth under my cot. -The pitching was so heavy and our speed so reduced that it took us all -night to get across the Hawaii Channel, and we didn’t make Hilo until 2 -<span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span> the second day. After that wet and seasick night, I found -wry humor in our reception at Hilo Wharf, where we were met by Frank -Cody with his motion picture camera and a bunch of hula girls and leis. -Instead of five hours, the journey took thirty and quite failed to make -me air-minded. Furthermore, I arrived at Kilauea Volcano in time for -only the final stages of the explosive eruption.</p> - -<p>Finch had organized volunteers, including Oliver Emerson as -photographer, and even our collie dog, Teddy, who could hear and feel -an explosion coming before we had any other warning. All observers -wrote notes and fondled the seismographs during the three weeks of -steam blast and cavings in of the pit, which had enlarged itself by -collapse 700 feet outward radially in all directions. When I got there -it was 3,500 by 3,000 feet in diameters and 1,300 feet deep, the bottom -a funnel of converging taluses, made of avalanches from the pit walls. -The taluses were wet and steaming vigorously in vertical lines, and -at night showed red hot avalanches from the north and west walls, -where two intrusive bodies of hard rock were red hot inside. The talus -below stayed hot, and slides<span class="pagenum" id="Page_124">[124]</span> occurred for only a few seconds. The -incandescent matter was not flowing in any sense, but was, rather, the -peeling of a rocky boss of reddish color at the west and a canoe-shaped -ledge at the north about 600 feet below the rim.</p> - -<p>This showed the cross section of old screes, revealed above it, and -horizontal basalt flows overlapping above that. It was a beautiful -section of an ancient pit, of the same quality as Halemaumau itself, -and the incandescent canoe sill at the bottom appeared to be an -intrusion of fine-grained gabbro, which had pushed its way in under an -older talus funnel, similar to the present talus cup of Halemaumau, the -bottom of which was 700 feet lower.</p> - -<p>On the opposite wall of the pit the Kau Desert rift was displayed as -a vertical cavern or arcade, merging into a group of dikes higher -up and tapering to zero thinness at the top. These same dikes, less -conspicuous, cut the canoe sill on the northeast wall, to indicate -that the ring of the pit was fractured vertically from below. This -fracture is the main deep rift of the mountain which crosses under -Kilauea, bending in the direction of Kilauea Iki, and this it was which -had opened as a curved chasm to let the lava down. Lava had gone down -in a succession of flank outflows, with intervening rises, from the -Kau Desert in 1920 to the final drainage under the sea at the east. -This drainage had let in the groundwater, made a steam boiler, and so -caused the explosive eruption and engulfment of Halemaumau walls as the -mountain yawned open.</p> - -<p>A. L. Day made one of his return excursions to Kilauea at this time -and thus saw the extraordinary phenomenon of the hard basaltic -intrusive bodies half way down the walls, caving to a red hot talus. -The explosions, which started with two-hour intervals, gradually -decreased, coming at four hours and eight hours; and on May 18 came the -culminating cauliflower clouds with torrents downward of broken rock, -some of it showing low red heat. At all times the motive power was -steam jets 10 to 15 thousand feet high, which plastered the pahoehoe of -the pit edge with broken wall rock fragments of every size.</p> - -<p>There was no sign of pasty lava or glassy bombs in the ejecta, and -the red incandescence seen at night in some of the explosions was the -avalanche material of the western boss and the canoe sill.</p> - -<p>It took the pit less than two months, to mid-July, to recover its -liquid lava, which poured through the talus and made aa puddles, -to form a new pattern of cone source and short-lived flows. Then<span class="pagenum" id="Page_125">[125]</span> -everything came to rest, and lava activity was not resumed there until -the summer of 1927. However, in 1926 Mauna Loa went into action on its -southwestern rift, and sent an aa flow into the sea at South Kona, -destroying the village of Hoopuloa.</p> - -<p>Here was history in the island lava column of majestic decline and -recovery from 1914 onward. Outflow in Mauna Loa crater at 13,000 feet -in 1914 extended to outflow from the southwest rift in 1916 and 1919 at -8,000 feet. Next, in 1920, came outflow in the Kau Desert from Kilauea, -at 3,000 feet. There were alternating spurts upward within Halemaumau -pit, acting as a crater similar to Mauna Loa’s at the lower Kilauea -level of 3,700 feet.</p> - -<p>Then this whole progress downward moved over to the Chain of Craters at -2,500 feet, and finally to the ruptured earthquake rift of Kapoho on -the east point of Hawaii and at beach level. Some miles farther east, -on the same rift beneath the sea, the gigantic submarine mountain of -Hawaii drained the last lava from Halemaumau pit and let in groundwater -which caused steam explosions.</p> - -<p>July 1924 saw the deep lava recovering in the crack and sealing off the -water, so as to bubble up in the bottom debris of Halemaumau and push -its way upward into the crevices of the island. It reached the top of -Mauna Loa in 1926 and reactuated outflow at the center of the island. -This migration of vents from top to bottom and back again took twelve -years of fracturing, and it relieved from lava this big piece of the -Hawaiian ridge. In reaching the groundwater and steamblast phase, it -accomplished something which had not happened since 1790, making a -supercycle of 134 years.</p> - -<p>The decade after explosion at Halemaumau was marked by small lava -gushes in the bottom of the pit, bringing the depth from 1,300 feet in -1924 to 750 feet in 1934. The layers were something less than 100 feet -each, and they were fed by pahoehoe conelets at the slide-rock margin. -As usual, the lava was gushing up the western wall crack along the -margin of the bottom magma cylinder. There was no trace of recurrence -of steam blasts.</p> - -<p>Despite the excitement of actual events, experimentation continued; and -I continued working on inventions for the experiments. Two approaches -to our problems concerned seismic recorders which could be put in the -hands of amateurs, and range finders for improving pit surveys. I had -been convinced for many years that the three-component seismograph was -too elaborate to be operated by volunteer school teachers or telephone -operators who have other<span class="pagenum" id="Page_126">[126]</span> things to do. Such a seismograph records with -photographic paper the north-south, east-west, and up-down motion of -the ground, on a chronograph which keeps accurate time and registers a -wavy line every second, so that the recording paper has to be changed -and developed every day. Moreover, these instruments are for measuring -distance to earthquake origins by physics of wave motion, and they have -become hopelessly mathematical. Such mathematics makes for assumptions -of uniformity about a rock crust which is not uniform. Qualitative -science wants to know what happens at a specific rock location and -wants the motion recorded by the simplest possible mechanical device. -It also wants a value in number at each location, for size and -direction of the first motion. This is for an earthquake, identified -as one incident, over such an island as Hawaii, where the rock units -are many and different. This is especially true of long periods of time -when there may be no earthquakes to record.</p> - -<p>I devised a simple shock recorder, consisting of a horizontal boom of -very light wood attached to a hinged weight which swung like a door, -so that the boom scratched a line on a circular card which was rotated -and moved along by a common alarm clock. The result was a spiral mark -on the card, such that an earthquake interposed would write a zigzag -opposite a place on the clock face appropriate to the time of day. All -that was necessary was to remove and date the card, wind the clock once -a day, and measure the zigzag.</p> - -<p>Mr. Ingalls of <i>Scientific American</i> read an article by me in -which I described my shock recorder and thought it would lead amateur -machinists to devise their own machines and to record the vibrations -about them. Numerous amateurs did send in designs for instruments, and -Ingalls believed that the seismograph hobby would become as popular as -the amateur astronomical telescope hobby. But it failed because the -amateurs were waiting for earthquakes, which didn’t happen. They were -not content with vibrations from trucks, railroad trains, waterfalls, -surf on rocks, artillery practice, or wind storms.</p> - -<p>My improved shock recorder gained some use later in New Zealand -and Montserrat, after big earthquakes in those places stirred the -authorities to build simple instruments. However, popular seismoscope -simply doesn’t exist.</p> - -<p>The range finder I had been working on since my teaching days in -Massachusetts Tech, where I had made an optical device with a traveling -index mirror which moved along an upright scale of centimeters,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_127">[127]</span> and -a sextant telescope. The idea was a transit, with self-contained base -line close to the operator. My theory was that in such measurements of -distance as we had to use—to about a thousand feet or less, to the -lava fountains in the bottom of Halemaumau pit—we might read off the -vertical distance from a single station, when all other stations were -enclosed in smoke.</p> - -<p>In the Aleutian Islands and elsewhere I experimented with a Zeiss -stereoscopic rangefinder designed for artillery ranges, but it was -not accurate enough for short distances. Everything in my instrument -depended on moving a telescope parallel to itself with superlative -precision, on a scale within the instrument. I finally hit upon using -a track of taut piano wire, probably the straightest line in all -mechanics.</p> - -<p>If one first looked at an object twenty miles away (infinite distance), -the telescope could be moved along right and left and the image would -remain immovable on a vertical hair. If it were now focussed on an -object 1,000 feet away, the displacement of the telescope on the -centimeter scale would measure the distance with a high degree of -accuracy. This was the stadia principle inverted to contain the rod at -the observing position.</p> - -<p>I also made several graphic devices for surveying Halemaumau daily from -the rim benchmarks. However, when lava overtopped the rim and destroyed -the datum posts, mapping became difficult.</p> - -<p>Drilling temperature wells into the floor and rim of Kilauea Crater -was a project I had anticipated when Mr. John Brooks Henderson of -Washington came to Hawaii and offered to help finance it. We had taken -the temperature of hot cracks in many places, and found them to range -from 320° Centigrade at the Postal Card Crack close to Halemaumau, down -to 96° Centigrade at Sulphur Bank, and then on to lower temperatures at -many cracks which yielded visible vapor in damp weather but no vapor at -all in sunshine. A spectacle for tourists was a crack on the Sulphur -Bank flat, where a cigar to windward or the exhaust gas of a car would -nucleate the invisible vapor and cause a big puff of white “steam” to -show. This phenomenon, which depends on smoke particles condensing -invisible water vapor, is well known at Solfatara near Naples.</p> - -<p>The experimental approach to finding out what the temperature of the -ground really is, is to drill a hole and keep the temperature measured -repeatedly with a thermometer, and to find out the thermal gradient -change vertically if possible. This means to measure<span class="pagenum" id="Page_128">[128]</span> how much the -temperature changes with depth. The whole problem concerns how much -unusual heat energy is released at a place like Kilauea Crater.</p> - -<p>With the aid of Hobart, a drilling engineer, I started at Sulphur Bank -with a churn drill. We quickly discovered that we were going through -intensely hard basalt, containing metallic sulfide which appeared to -be pyrite but turned out to be marcasite. After drilling for several -years—with four holes at Sulphur Bank, one sixty-foot hole under -the observatory shop, and about twenty-five holes in the eastern -part of the Kilauea floor over a surveyed map pattern—we changed to -a rotary core drill using steel shot, and then changed again to a -percussion drill actuated by compressed air, for shallow holes to show -cross-country temperatures. Unfortunately core drilling requires large -quantities of water, which we did not have, for the Hawaii National -Park depends upon rainwater collected from roofs in redwood tanks. -Without water cooling, rotary bits heat and expand in hot rock, stick, -and are often lost.</p> - -<p>Two seventy-foot holes, one at Sulphur Bank and the other in the middle -of Kilauea floor, showed no definite thermal gradient; and in general -it turned out that drill holes were dependent on steam in the cracks -for their temperatures.</p> - -<p>Heat was brought up by vapor, and in a number of ten-foot holes -scattered over the Kilauea floor, the hottest were at the edge of the -floor. The Postal Card Crack, near the edge of Halemaumau and 600 -feet above red hot intrusives, was exceptionally hot, and it is not -at all clear how the water made contact with the hot intrusive rock -underneath. This place completely caved in and was lost forever within -the enlarged pit of 1924. Sulphur Bank itself is at the edge of an old -Kilauea floor on a shelf at a high level. The extra heat at floor edges -means a wall crack between the crater fill and the confining funnel, so -that hot gas comes up from intrusive lava somewhere deep down toward -the center.</p> - -<p>Thus when a mercurial thermometer was lowered, ten-foot holes would -show a hot place half way down and cold rock at the bottom. Some holes -had no heat at all, which meant that an inclined steam crack was cut -across by the hole or that no steam crack was present. The heat supply -was dependent upon vapor channels from heated rainwater, but we were -never able, owing to lack of funds, to drill a hole deep enough to find -the water supply which made the steam. It is a remarkable fact that the -casings on three wells at Sulphur<span class="pagenum" id="Page_129">[129]</span> Bank emit continuously a column of -steam exactly at the theoretical boiling point for this altitude, as -though the groundwater were boiling only a short distance below. Dr. -Allen by his analyses proved that Sulphur Bank vapor was ninety-nine -percent steam and that the remainder contained fractions of a percent -of sulfur and carbon dioxide, but this sulfur was enough in the course -of months to coat the interior of our casings with yellow crystals over -black iron sulfide. It coated the Sulphur Bank with yellow crystals of -sulfur and soaked the rock below to generate brassy iron sulfide.</p> - -<p>The result of these experiments was to exhibit the complexity of any -solfatara in its relation to underground lava, and to the soakage -of a volcanic country by rainfall. This is especially important for -Martinique and Montserrat.</p> - -<p>Another experiment was conducted by Emerson, who was equipped by the -Observatory with chemical apparatus to make qualitative analyses of -numerous Kilauea products, and he also did critical photographic -work, including some photography in the infra-red. In one valuable -experiment, he melted Kilauea lava in a refractory crucible at a -temperature of about 1200° Centigrade until it was as fluid as honey. -Allowed to chill and harden naturally, it was shiny glass like pahoehoe -lava. If stirred with an iron rod, it made sprouted black needles, -crystallized all through, like aa lava. Thus he proved that stirring -made Hawaiian lava crystallize and sprout like fudge, or like the -solidification of such metals as silver and bismuth. Sudden outbreak -and stirring anywhere will convert pahoehoe to aa; but never does aa -become converted physically to pahoehoe, unless flame melts it. The -standing pinnacles in the midst of an aa flow, which breaks up into -boulders, give evidence of the stirring process.</p> - -<p>When Emerson’s discovery is applied to basaltic lava flows, it appears -that the glassy lava of a source, when stirred by gas fountaining or -by flowing, will change from its glassy condition to a sprouting and -crystallizing condition. All flows are glassy pahoehoe pumice fountains -at source vents, and a quarter of a mile away they become aa. Later the -source pahoehoe preserves itself within a glassy skin and pours forward -under glassy shells and frontal toes.</p> - -<p>R. M. Wilson’s work supplied proof of a swelling mountain. Wilson -was one of the three leading members of the topographic party of the -Geological Survey. The other two were C. Birdseye and A. Burkland. -Wilson, whom I had known as a student in M. I. T., was a product of -Spofford’s Civil Engineering department<span class="pagenum" id="Page_130">[130]</span> and was to become the chief -computer of the Survey in Washington. As levelman in Birdseye’s -organization, he became topographic engineer of the Observatory, and -produced by precise leveling and triangulation the brilliant experiment -which showed [the swelling and shrinking of the mountain during fifteen -years.</p> - -<p>By close cooperation with the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey we -placed a tide gauge at Hilo, both for a sea level base and to record -tidal waves. Wilson also, in 1921, ran a level line from Hilo to the -Volcano House benchmark, where the Geological Survey had run levels -in 1911. The county roadway was marked with bronze plates inscribed -with leveling heights, and Wilson’s results showed the edge of Kilauea -Crater to be three feet higher in 1921 than it had been in 1911.</p> - -<p>Wilson’s determination of heights above sea level certified that the -whole mountain swelled up during the ten years prior to 1921. About -1918, lava and seismographs had proved rising overflow at the center, -while the edge of Kilauea Crater was being tilted away from the -center. This went on during the massive rising of the interior lava -of Halemaumau into a dome where the pit had been, and it proved that -Kilauea Mountain was being injected along cracks, not only under the -pit, but along the rifts, as indicated by outflow on the southwest and -east in the years 1920 and 1924.</p> - -<p>But this was not all of Wilson’s work. He revisited all surveying -stations after the big collapse of Halemaumau that accompanied the -explosive eruption of May 1924, and found that the Volcano House -benchmark lowered a little more than three feet during May 1924 and -that places close to Halemaumau dropped nearly fifteen feet. This -lowering of the mountain was graduated outward twenty miles from the -center at trig stations, or concrete posts, in the Kau Desert and at -stations along the road to Hilo. These stations changed altitude to -show that the big mountain tumefied or swelled up to that distance of -twenty miles during the big intrusion of cracks at the overflowing -time, as though the mountain dome were a tumor forty miles in diameter -with Halemaumau at the center. Of course there is no certainty that -the shore line in Puna, or even the Hilo tide gauge itself, did not go -down with the slumping of the mountain, for the thing called sea level -is nothing but an average of tide gauge readings at a fixed wharf. -Remember that the east point of Hawaii sank eight feet on the Kilauea -rift during the April crisis.</p> - -<p>Wilson also surveyed by horizontal triangulation in 1921, determining<span class="pagenum" id="Page_131">[131]</span> -that stations around Halemaumau had moved inward toward the center, -by a specified number of feet, different at each station, and that -other stations outside of Kilauea Crater had changed position -horizontally on the map, as though the mountain were shrinking. This -entire series of measurements of change between 1911 and 1926 jibed -with the seismograph’s measurements of the tilting of the ground. -The seismograph picked out 1918, when Halemaumau overflowed, as the -swelling year. In 1924 the tilt reversed itself, turning inward toward -Halemaumau, and became tremendous when the pit collapsed and exploded.</p> - -<p>It is impossible to accent sufficiently the importance of the discovery -of a measured swelling and slumping of a volcano throughout a lava -crisis occupying fifteen years. It was so tremendous that critical -engineers in Washington refused to believe Wilson’s results. However, -his findings were verified by the contemporaneous lava measurement -results, earthquake enumerations, and tilt meter results. These showed -that earthquake frequency increased when Kilauea slumped and that a -lava mountain had swelled until it was three feet higher at the summit -in ten years and had contracted by a larger amount during the years of -an explosive eruption period immediately thereafter. This all agrees -with the excellent results in Omori’s volcanic and seismic events, -obtained by Japanese army and navy engineers at several volcanoes and -earthquakes. It also agrees with the positive facts of Vesuvius and the -Canary Islands, starting with the controversy about “elevation craters” -started by Leopold von Buch in the first half of the nineteenth century -and carried forward by Mercalli on Vesuvius in 1894 when a lava hill -was seen to swell up. There, too, others would not believe. The -opposition always insisted that a volcano was built by heaped material, -that it could not possibly swell.</p> - -<p>Wilson’s results are far-reaching, for the whole of geology depends -on uplift of continents and downsinking of sedimentary basins. Most -geologists account for these things by the theory of weighting and -underflow at a thin crust (isostasy), refusing to grant that volcanic -heat and tumefaction yield intrusive power everywhere through cracks in -the deeper crust.</p> - -<p>I wish that I could describe adequately the high adventure of this -fruitful time. We built a vehicle from a model T Ford with a Ruckstell -axle, stripped of mudguards and equipped with balloon tires doubled at -the rear, so as to travel and carry loads over the smooth<span class="pagenum" id="Page_132">[132]</span> pahoehoe -of the Kilauea floor. We found that a powerful light rig of this -type, with excessively low gear, could climb up on lava lobes one to -two feet high. But this called for experienced driving and special -methods. Sending a man on foot ahead to pick a way and to drag a -crowbar which scratched a track, we could drive anywhere on the lava. -And we used this rig to haul drums of water and drill apparatus. I once -drove artillery officers out over the rough floor of the crater, and -afterwards saw similar cars used by the army in the first World War as -cross-country transportation for the doctors and wounded in No Man’s -Land.</p> - -<p>Before a roadway encircled Kilauea Crater, Mr. Finch and I, carrying -two-inch planks for bridging cracks, made the complete circuit of the -crater by way of the rifted Kau Desert in our special vehicle, which -has now been succeeded by the jeep, the most universal vehicle of World -War II. Volcanology prospected the field of war in more ways than one, -so I named my popular book “Volcanoes declare war.”</p> - -<p>Inventions led to expeditions both in Hawaii and in distant lands -during the decade of the twenties, some by invitation, some to offer -assistance at disasters, and some for the natural extension of my own -work. On September 1, 1923, came the big earthquake at Tokyo. With -Mrs. Jaggar, I was permitted to land in Japan and make a study of the -effects of the disaster. The destruction of Tokyo and Yokohama was a -final, sad tragedy for Omori, who for years had worked to protect the -Emperor and Japan by studying earthquake forecasts for Tokyo and by -conducting research in earthquake-proof engineering. It was a cruel -commentary that the disaster came while he was attending a science -congress in Australia, particularly as the great destruction of life -was occasioned by fire and typhoon winds. But Omori’s organization -handled the seismic event admirably. Omori returned at once, but almost -immediately died.</p> - -<p>We steamed into Yokohama harbor, were welcomed by Captain Gatesford -Lincoln U. S. N. and his destroyer flotilla. We went on board his -flagship, and were sent in his launch to the broken jetties of -Yokohama, where we found no custom house or police. We walked up to the -camp of United States marines, amid the wreckage of the United States -Consulate, where the Consul had been killed.</p> - -<p>Yokohama, which I had known well in 1909 and 1914, was a tumble of -ruins; and the long Bund with its splendid waterfront structures, -including the Grand Hotel, was a heap of rubble. My<span class="pagenum" id="Page_133">[133]</span> classmate -Purington, a mining geologist who had been staying at the Grand with -his family escaped with one child and went back to rescue his wife. A -second shock brought down more masonry and crushed him.</p> - -<p>We were given a tent and allowed to mess with the marines, and next -day we crowded into a train for Tokyo. It was packed to the doors and -had people seated on the roof. We were warned by Americans to dress -as roughly as possible, as the populace was on edge, and foreigners -must not appear to be tourists. By great good luck we got into the -Imperial Hotel which had withstood the shake and fire, though it was -considerably damaged.</p> - -<p>We visited the Honjo district of the river bottom, where the damage -was at maximum, and we saw the remains of a pile of corpses, clothes, -and household goods in one small yard where 30,000 people had been -incinerated. Fire had closed in from all sides, and the shrieking -mob of men, women, and children piled up on top of each other, amid -handcarts and clothing bundles—kindling which added fuel to the horror.</p> - -<p>The mayor of Tokyo sent us in a small steamer to the island of Oshima, -on which is the volcano Mihara, close to the earthquake center. We -climbed up and looked down into a glowing pit which was making no lava -outflow at the time, though Mihara is famous for basalt flows.</p> - -<p>Water soundings showed 900 feet of subsidence in Sagami Bay opposite -Oshima, and there were changed depths elsewhere, some of them -shallowing by underwater land slips. We went to the Boshu Peninsula -east of Tokyo, where the beach had been rising for many years, and -where the earthquake rising left wharves high and dry. The principal -effect of the earthquake, occurring at noon just when all charcoal -braziers were lighted for luncheon in the flimsy Japanese houses of -wood and paper, was to set fires in an area of hundreds of square miles -and a score of towns. Water reservoirs were destroyed, there was no -adequate fire department to care for a conflagration, and a high wind -was blowing in the bright sunshine. A characteristic of Japanese cities -was the absence of open parkways for refugees, hence the crushing, -burning, drowning, suffocation, and annihilation of hundreds of -thousands of people and the destruction of factories, railroad trains, -water supplies, power plants, and every essential utility in a great -metropolitan area with a population of many millions. The horizontal -movement of the ground in the shock<span class="pagenum" id="Page_134">[134]</span> was about eight inches, and -aftershocks kept on for many months.</p> - -<p>We explored Yokohama, clambering up to the Bluff where everything was -wrecked and where land slips had tumbled down the precipice. We visited -what remained of a beautiful English type villa with a slate roof, -which had been occupied by two missionary ladies and their numerous -parrots. These people were encamped, along with their parrots, in a -shack built by their yardman, for the residence had tumbled down like a -house of cards. One woman had been imprisoned between her bed and the -wall, and was quite uninjured when the gardener dug her out through -cracks of the roof.</p> - -<p>Scientifically, what happened to the ground in this earthquake was -not explained by any single fault. Whatever happened to the bottom -of Sagami Bay was not communicated across the beach to the coast as -any great rift. Small faults were identified in a number of places, -the shoreline in one place lifted a few feet and lowered in another; -but no such movement as the big subsidence of the bottom of the bay -crossed the contact of sea and land. It appeared as though the margin -of the bay itself outlined an area of sudden slumping, somehow related -to Mihara Volcano on Oshima; but the shoreline of that island was not -seriously affected. The great mountains of the foothills of Fujiyama, -and the Hakone district, were shaken to a hash of broken railway -tunnels and land slips, but the topography was not altered.</p> - -<p>A resurvey of trig stations west of Tokyo revealed movements that -indicated the country had been spirally twisted. However, it has always -seemed a mystery to me that all the motion on land was so small, when -change on the bottom of the bay was so great.</p> - -<p>There was a local tidal wave at the bay shore of Kamakura, but no great -tidal wave from the deep ocean came to Tokyo. Some volcanic effort of -deep lava had wedged open and jolted the sea bottom, but how it acted -is entirely obscure. It was quite different from the San Francisco -quake, with its side slip of twenty-one feet and a crack 400 miles long.</p> - -<p>When we returned to Japan in 1926 with the Pacific Science Congress, -the restoration of Tokyo was practically complete and a magnificent -greater city had been built with wide and large parkways. The -government was lavish in its entertainment of the scientists attending -the congress. Dr. Lacroix and I were sent to Osaka to lecture, and to -show lantern slides of Mount Pelée; and expeditions all over Japan were -arranged for the visitors. I had an opportunity<span class="pagenum" id="Page_135">[135]</span> to see for the first -time the large basaltic lava fields of the lake district at the base -of Fujiyama, and I was astonished at the similarity of the basaltic -pahoehoe to our Hawaiian outflows and the freshness of the lavas and -the lava caverns. I had never thought of Fujiyama as a “lava flow” -volcano.</p> - -<p>My next expedition was in the autumn of 1924, when I was invited by -H. E. Gregory, Director of Bishop Museum, to go on an expedition -on the USS <i>Whippoorwill</i>, Commander Samuel King, to Howland -and Baker Islands. Others on the expedition were C. Montague Cooke -(malacologist), George Munro (ornithologist), Erling Christophersen -(botanist), Ted Dranga (marine shell collector), George Collins (Museum -Trustee), and Bruce Cartwright (naturalist). These men were invited to -make up one of several Bishop Museum parties which were sent out to -south sea islands for collection and report.</p> - -<p>As geologist, my job was to carry a portable seismograph and record -earthquakes or microseisms and to take photographs. We had made up -at the Observatory a one-component horizontal pendulum, in which -the chronograph drum used smoked paper. In camp I lowered the box -containing the seismograph into a hole in the sand under my cot, with a -view to finding out what tremors occurred on these flat coral islands. -However, no movements were detected during the period of our stay, -within the sensitivity limit of the small seismograph.</p> - -<p>Howland and Baker are coral islets, not atolls, close to the equator, -with no lagoons and with deep water all around them. Howland later -became famous in the tragedy of Amelia Earhart, for whom the Coast -Guard prepared an airfield on the island. These islands had been guano -diggings for parties from Honolulu fifty years earlier, and we found -old cisterns and tracks. The islands were inhabited by thousands of -goonies (gannets), man-of-war birds, and terns. In some places they -covered the ground with their nests, eggs, and young, rising noisily -in terrifying swarms as we walked among them. The land was perfectly -flat brown guano and red weeds, with beaches of coral boulders and -<i>Tridacna</i>, or giant clams, the highest bit ridges on the windward -side. The easterly trade winds blew a powerful gale most of the time, -and our ship had to land us on the leeward beaches, where we made our -camp in a line of tents. The staff was divided into pairs for each -tent, and Filipino mess boys did the cooking.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_136">[136]</span></p> - -<p>Landing was arduous, for there was heavy surf, even on the leeward -side, and it was necessary to have a man swim in with a line in his -teeth. The swimmer, Ted Dranga, made the line fast between a buoy and -the shore, then built a signal fire while the ship stood off. Men and -baggage were loaded into a skiff and hauled ashore by the sailor in the -bow, who pulled, hand over hand, on the rope from the buoy, when the -waves were favorable. The ship had to drift away each night and come -back, as there was no anchorage. A few stunted kou trees still survived -from guano-digging days, and numerous grasses and fleshy-leaved salt -weeds grew. The beaches were covered with rats, hermit crabs, and some -white ghost crabs. The ghost crabs were seen at night flittering down -into the water when a flashlight was turned on the waves.</p> - -<p>The hermit crabs, with borrowed shells, came clanking over the canvas -floor under our cots at night; and as one walked along the beach with a -flashlight, Polynesian rats pattered away in all directions. They had -been brought by the guano schooners and doubtless lived on shellfish, -birds, eggs, and fledglings.</p> - -<p>The principal products of this expedition were notes, pictures, maps, -and collections.</p> - -<p>Within the next few years we were to combine expeditions with -experimentation in the organization of new observatories in California -and Alaska.</p> - -<p>California volcanoes as a field of observatory study were an obvious -choice when Judge Cramton proposed enlargement of the volcano -enterprise. He succeeded in getting me a Section of Volcanology in the -Geological Survey, and I sent R. H. Finch to Lassen Volcanic National -Park, where he made his headquarters at Mineral. Lassen had made -steamblast explosions in 1912 through 1914 which had rushed down into -the forest with such horizontal destruction as occurred at Mount Pelée. -It was not realized that this blast was terrible, for it was in the -backwoods on top of the Sierra Nevada and little known. The national -park there was created later. It is an area with a recent (1871?) -cinder cone and rocky lava flow, boiling lakes and mud pots, numerous -solfataras and hot springs, and a lava cavern much like those on Hawaii.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_136afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_136afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>21. The</i> Honukai <i>on Alaska beach, 1928. Jaggar -on the right</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_136bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_136bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>22. The</i> Ohiki, <i>first amphibian truck, with -passengers Isabel Jaggar, Tahara, L. A. Thurston, Jaggar, and Ted -Dranga, 1928</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_137afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_137afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>23. Lava flow entering village of Hoopuloa, 1926</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_137bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_137bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>24. Lava flow of 1926 Mauna Loa eruption approaching -Hoopuloa Village, which was destroyed. Photo section U.S. Army Air -Force</i></p> - </div> - -<p>Lassen Peak is the southernmost volcano on the line where the -Cascade Range merges with the Sierra Nevada. The line of volcanoes -extends beyond Mount Baker into Canada. North of Lassen is the Glass -Mountain region where there are obsidian lava flows.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_137">[137]</span> Like Mount -Shasta, Lassen is a volcano of very few recent eruptions, but there -were at least two outbreaks in the nineteenth century. These two -volcanoes resemble Pelée and Soufrière. Their linear quality implies -a long ragged rift in the earth’s crust, and south of Lassen there -is suggested an offset rift at Mount St. Helena, near the famous -superheated steam of Geyserville. This is near the northern end of the -great San Andreas rift, which extends many hundreds of miles southeast -of San Francisco. The rift shifted in a north-south direction during -the earthquake of 1906, and is one of the many evidences that the -north-south faults of California are all a part of the faulting up, -over lava, of the Cordillera, relative to downsunken Pacific Ocean -slabs.</p> - -<p>I put Finch in charge of Aleutian Islands seismographs, as well as -the one he was to establish at Mineral. With Wilson as seismologist -and instrument designer in Hawaii, we started constructing horizontal -pendulums, like those used in Hawaii, making the weights out of -large iron pipes, to be filled with sand at the place of operation. -These were two-component seismographs, recording on a single -chronograph drum. We sent one to the Coast Survey station at Sitka -and built two more for Kodiak and Unalaska. Finch built and set up -his own seismograph at Mineral. He started systematic surveys of the -temperatures of hot springs and steam jets in different parts of -Lassen Park and kept close contact with the Geological Department of -the University of California at Berkeley. Lassen was the subject of -geological surveys by Anderson and Finch, and later the park area was -studied by Howel Williams.</p> - -<p>I went to Washington to see government authorities, particularly -Professor Charles F. Marvin, Chief of the Weather Bureau, and Dr. G. -O. Smith, Director of the Geological Survey. I can never express my -indebtedness to Marvin, a good designer who built an inverted pendulum -seismograph in Washington. Finch had worked with Marvin when he was -weather observer in airplanes based on Ireland during the first World -War. Hence methods of government contact and reports, in the early days -of our Observatory, were kindly guided by Marvin. The Weather Bureau -was a place of self-recording instruments, something new for geology, -and much needed for volcano observation. For weather is a matter of -present changes, whereas geology had long been a matter of ancient -specimens.</p> - -<p>Director Smith was instrumental in calling a meeting in Washington, -of scientists of all bureaus interested in the Aleutian Islands.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_138">[138]</span> I -was selected to lead the symposium, which included representatives -of climatology, biology and fisheries, geology and geochemistry, -oceanography and geodesy, hydrographic charting, gravity, and -magnetism. There proved to be great interest in the Alaskan Peninsula -and the islands, and the Survey published a special bulletin on the -symposium.</p> - -<p>W. C. Mendenhall, who had written a monograph on the volcano of Mount -Wrangell in the great bend of the continent around the Gulf of Alaska, -became director of the Geological Survey and one of my best friends.</p> - -<p>In 1927 I was ready with cross-country cars and a seismograph to -explore once more the volcanoes of Alaska. Organizing an expensive -expedition which called for a special ship was obviously out, but -in the years after the Technology Expedition of 1907 I had learned -many economies which I wanted to try out. Also I had two experimental -and mechanical tests to make. The first was to set up in Alaska -a seismograph, the second was to test Alaskan beaches with a -cross-country car, with a view to building an amphibian boat. I had -read in several languages on the subject of motor vehicles with boat -bodies, and my 1907 experience of finding no anchorage on Umnak Island -had convinced me of the need for a vessel on wheels which could climb -up an Alaskan beach and be converted into a camp. So I started from -Seattle with a low gear Ford runabout. I unloaded it first in Kodiak -village, where there were only one or two cars, and made tests of -driving it along beaches.</p> - -<p>At Kodiak the Agricultural Experiment Station allowed me to set up the -seismograph in a vacant basement, and I arranged with a local housewife -to operate the instrument. Aided by a sheet of instructions, she made -tests, changed the smoked papers, varnished them, mailing them to -Hawaii, and kept notes on earthquakes which were felt.</p> - -<p>The roadster and I then traveled by the local mailboat steamer -<i>Starr</i>, Captain Johanssen, and sailed along the south shore of -the Alaskan Peninsula to King Cove, visiting Bradford on the way. -Disembarking at King Cove, I made runs on the beach with the car. With -the aid of the cannery mechanic, I tried attaching winch spools to -drive wheels, in order to haul the car up to grassy land behind the -beach. No car had ever landed at the cannery, there were no roads, -and the problem of getting from the wharf to the tundra, and from -the tundra to the beach and back again, posed practical<span class="pagenum" id="Page_139">[139]</span> mechanical -problems, the solution of which was to be useful later. We ran along -the beach as far as a rocky headland, until we needed an amphibian boat -in which to round the point and rejoin the stony beach at some place -beyond. How that boat body should be constructed was planned from this -experience.</p> - -<p>The superintendent, the physician, and the boatbuilders of the large -King Cove cannery planned an exploration for me, with John Gardner as -boatman and Peter Yatchmeneff as his mate. These two were on their way -to hunt bears for an eastern museum and were going to Pavlof Volcano, -the Vesuvius of the Alaskan Peninsula. I transferred my baggage to -their motor sloop, the <i>Plug Ugly</i>, and we headed for Pavlof Bay.</p> - -<p>At Volcano Bay we landed for a bear hunt, which was very exciting for -me. When we found bear tracks in an amphitheater under big mountains, -we climbed toward the divide at the head; but we could find no pass -over it. From the high ground we looked across the river at clumps of -alders. John borrowed my field glass, handed it back, and pointed out -a black spot far away under the bushes. “I just saw it move,” he said, -“that spot is a big brown bear where he has been holed up.”</p> - -<p>I remained watching while John and Pete, with their 25-caliber Savage -carbines, crept across the valley bottom, keeping down the wind from -the bear in the shelter of bushes. I saw that they were getting very -close to the game, lost sight of them for a few minutes, then heard two -sharp cracks and saw the bear in violent motion, thrashing around and -tearing up the ground, then quickly subsiding. I made my way across the -valley and found they had neatly shot a year old Alaskan brown bear. -The rest of the day was given to skinning it, and we sank the skull, -tied to a fish line from the sloop, to the bottom of the bay where -marine organisms would eat away remaining flesh and leave the bone -clean.</p> - -<p>Next we sailed up to the head of Pavlof Bay and camped at a barabara, -or sod hut, preparatory to a trek to a small volcano that lies near a -shallow lake on the north side of the magnificent pair of snowy volcano -cones known as Pavlof and Pavlof Sister. We were early in the season -and could see a glacier extending down from Pavlof Crater, which is a -cup containing a conelet at the side of the summit. The crater is like -a collar, the conelet like the knot of a necktie, while the glacier -is the ribbon of the necktie, itself, extending down to a jumble of -snowy hills with rocky moraines at the edge of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_140">[140]</span> the lake. We made camp -and ran into some adverse weather, and also into a party of mainland -sportsmen. We gave up further hunting and returned to King Cove, for -John had his bear and that was enough. The curved beauty of the Pavlof -cones, with a sweep of lava flows to the west of them, heavily mantled -with snow, was exquisite and a knowledge of the cones was useful when -plans were made for a later expedition.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Jaggar, after a trip by way of the Yukon into the interior of -Alaska waited for me at Kodiak while I took Captain Johanssen’s SS -<i>Starr</i> to Unalaska where I saw my friends of the Coast Guard and -received an invitation to go later on the <i>Unalga</i> to Attu. I -stayed on the <i>Starr</i> to Bristol Bay on the Bering Sea side, in -order to see the Alaskan Peninsula from the north.</p> - -<p>A rewarding view showed me the almost inaccessible Aghileen Pinnacles, -a marvelous mountain west of Pavlof, consisting of dozens of upright -spires, all covered with ice, and looking like a cluster of cathedrals -in a snow storm. At the head of Bristol Bay I saw one of the government -Indian schools, met some of the teachers, and met trappers who came -on board with interesting collections of fox furs. They told me about -Naknek Lake, which gives access to Katmai from that side by dog sled in -winter. The necessary husky dogs were tied out in the fields around a -mission station.</p> - -<p>A rumpus on deck between a storekeeper of the district and the United -States Marshall arose over a feud between two villages which were -quarreling about the placing of a United States post office. There was -no shooting, though it looked bad for a few minutes, and I realized the -far north was a replica of the far west.</p> - -<p>On my return to Unalaska, Coast Guard officers and I were invited to -a dinner on board the German cruiser and training ship <i>Emden</i>. -I had nothing to wear but a hunting coat, whereas the others were in -dress uniforms, but the Germans didn’t mind. I greatly enjoyed the -<i>Emden’s</i> officers, whom I heard from later, including Captain -Foerster, an acquaintance of my son in Seattle.</p> - -<p>On board the <i>Unalga</i> I was given the Captain’s cabin, for he was -absent on sick leave. Executive Officer Perkins, who acted as skipper, -preferred to live in his own quarters. Another guest on the trip to -Attu was Jack McCord, whose interests were sheep herding and whaling, -two industries which were making experimental progress in the islands. -We saw a sheep ranch in the western part of Unalaska Island and learned -that a recent landing on Bogoslof had<span class="pagenum" id="Page_141">[141]</span> found the conditions much like -those I had seen in 1907 when I noted the smoking cone, the millions of -murres, the three islands, the connecting beaches, the warm lagoon, and -the dozens of sea lions.</p> - -<p>At Nikolski on the west end of Umnak Island, a flat land where -sedimentary rocks appeared, we had to mine and blow up a schooner -recently sunk in the harbor. Going westward, we passed cones in groups -or on individual islands, and we met the usual fogs and gales. The -officers were interested in Adak Harbor, but our plan to enter it was -defeated by storms.</p> - -<p>We anchored off Chugul, where two Aleutian men and a boy had been -marooned for months by the non-return of the wrecked schooner. A trader -had leased the island and left them to collect blue foxes for him. When -their supplies gave out, they lived on fish, vegetation, eggs, and sea -birds. They had matches left but no ammunition, so they had loaded -cartridges by assembling match ends. However, they were sheltered in a -sod hut at one side of the grassy volcano, and were living proof that -an Aleut cannot starve. They were fat and healthy and had a good load -of furs. When we transported them to the village on Attu, the first -thing one of these men did was to marry an Attu girl, with the aid of -the local priest.</p> - -<p>Chugul was the last of the shapely volcanic cones. Attu geology was -different, with old metamorphic and sedimentary rocks and ancient -lavas, but without any sign of fresh volcanoes. It is a mountainous -island with deep fjords, and we crossed a divide in order to look down -on Sarana Bay, made famous by World War II. McCord and I walked out on -the peninsula west of the village of Chernofski, and saw snowy ranges -beyond the next bay to the west. The Aleutian uplands are covered -with luxurious grasses, many flowers, and much mossy swamp; and there -are signs of terracing in places, as though made by old elevated -beaches. The country is too wet and stormy to be attractive for raising -livestock. However, when we landed on Amchitka Island on the south side -of the chain, we found it drier with fine grassy uplands. We found also -the usual shore cliffs and foxes.</p> - -<p>We returned to Unalaska, where I was attracted by the empty hotel -building and wharves at Dutch Harbor, deserted by the Alaska Commercial -Company after the booming maritime trade of the Cape Nome gold days. I -talked to Company officers about using the buildings as a scientific -station. An old powder house would be suitable for a seismograph -cellar; the wireless station was nearby;<span class="pagenum" id="Page_142">[142]</span> and there was water, lumber, -and housing for every possible purpose. It was ideal for an Aleutian -geophysical station, if financing and collaboration could be had. -Later, in Seattle, I addressed the Chamber of Commerce and published in -our Bulletin a proposal for an Aleutian Geographical Observatory, but -nothing came of it at that time. The Aleutian Islands became a center -for landing craft, airfields, and defense forces during World War II, -and eventually our men Howard Powers and Austin Jones were employed -there.</p> - -<p>In 1928, Gilbert Grosvenor of the National Geographic Society, in -cooperation with the Geological Survey, equipped me with an expedition -to map, photograph, and survey 2,500 square miles in the vicinity -of Pavlof Volcano. Again I had John Gardner and Pete as camp men. -McKinley, our topographer, brought pack animals and Alex Bradford -transported us to our base camp in Canoe Bay. I slept during summer -in the <i>Honukai</i>, a twin-screw steel amphibian boat, which was -manufactured in Chicago, after a preliminary vessel made of wood -and impelled by paddle wheels had been constructed at our Hawaiian -Observatory shop and tried out over a 400-mile course along the shores -of Hawaii.</p> - -<p>The trial of the preliminary vessel, which we called <i>Ohiki</i>, -Hawaiian for ghost crab, took place during the spring of 1928. The -entire staff of our Observatory were engaged in it, with Mrs. Jaggar -as stewardess, as usual. Mr. Thurston went along as a passenger and -publicity man on the trip up the west coast of Hawaii, where I tested -out Kona beaches and checked on the craft’s seaworthiness.</p> - -<p>We had misadventure at the start, in that the driving wheels tended to -dig in on soft beaches; and we found it necessary to build washboards -to raise the gunwhale amidships to avoid shipping water in choppy seas. -In the cross country trek from Kilauea, using the boat as a truck, Mr. -Thurston was overwhelmed with admiration for the twenty-one foot work -skiff, thundering down the steep hills of Kona on wheels, controlled by -the low gears of a Ford. Its boat body excited all the roadside kids to -wild antics of delight. My excellent truck builder, Boyrie, used the -same Ford which had run along the beaches in Alaska, reconstructing it -in the observatory machine shop.</p> - -<p>Wilson’s photograph of the <i>Ohiki</i>, with Mr. Thurston on board, -became the frontispiece of a top secret publication on amphibians of -World War II’s joint army staffs in London. The amphibian war of the -Pacific Ocean and Normandy was to develop dozens of different<span class="pagenum" id="Page_143">[143]</span> designs -of landing craft, but war use was unforeseen by me at the time of our -experiments.</p> - -<p>With a crew of four we cruised from Kailua to Kawaihae along the west -coast of Hawaii, landing on beaches and lava flows, and camping at -Makalawena, Kiholo, and Puako. We encountered real grief at Kawaihae -against the front of a soft submerged bank in shallow water, where the -front wheels made too much resistance and the rear wheels dug into a -mud bottom. We needed front wheel pull, but we finally got the craft up -the beach by power hauling with gypsy and cable and a tree. More grief -developed on our way up to Waimea when we fractured wooden rear axle -attachments. We went gratefully into the Parker Ranch shop for some -days, until we were able to return to Hilo and the volcano, completing -the circuit of the island.</p> - -<p>The National Geographic vessel was built by George Powell who -advertised a Ford “mobileboat,” designed for the use of fishermen to -enter midcontinent lakes. He had started on a larger model, which -Grosvenor accepted for the National Geographic Expedition. Powell and -I tried it out on Bellingham roads and lakes and on beaches of Puget -Sound. We provided everything extra, for Alaska had no roadside filling -stations. A wheeled vehicle on the peninsula was unheard of. We had -elongate steel mats to give traction across the upper sands of a beach, -and this plus bow winch, levers, and manpower enabled us to abandon -beaches and enter the tundra. Our planning paid off, for in the 400 -miles along the coast of Alaska from Shumagin Islands to King Cove, -over water, beaches, and tundra, we did not even have to pump up the -tires. The <i>Honukai’s</i> numerous excessively low gears even enabled -us to drive to the snowline and bring out the heavy fur and bones of a -bear that I had shot on a snowy volcano, Mount Dana.</p> - -<p>The expedition was very productive. McKinley made an excellent -topographic map; we corrected errors in old maps; we obtained many -photographs through Richard Stewart, who carried still, color, and -movie cameras; and we obtained minerals, fossils, geologic notes, and -many plants which I collected. McKinley used a panorama camera for his -topographic work and his wide photographs were invaluable as a record -of the country.</p> - -<p>Meanwhile, I kept in tough with the seismograph station at Kodiak. The -steamers of the Pacific Commercial Company, which owned several of the -canneries and had headquarters in Bellingham,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_144">[144]</span> transported us from -Puget Sound to King Cove, and the many tugs for the canneries’ salmon -traps enabled me to make local explorations along the southern coast. -At one trap the fishermen had a tame baby seal, who would eat nothing -but little trout caught for him from the brook. He lived in a box, -and went off to sea by himself at night; but he always came home next -morning.</p> - -<p>In 1929 Finch sent Austin Jones, a seismologist, to construct and -establish a hut at the Dutch Harbor radio station for a second Alaskan -seismograph, of the Hawaiian type designed by R. M. Wilson. Jones -taught the wife of a radio operator to manipulate the station and -transmit the seismograms. The women in charge of the two stations at -Kodiak and Dutch Harbor kept their work up for several years, and kept -in constant correspondence with me. Though in the winter time they had -to dig the stations out of snowdrifts, and to cope with all kinds of -damage from rain and storm, they courageously and faithfully visited -the instruments. It is a hellish country for weather.</p> - -<p>Although both stations were within fifty miles of active volcanoes, -earthquakes were not numerous, and the story was very different from -that told by our records made at the edge of Kilauea caldera, only two -miles from an active lava center. Thus we have demonstrated that the -only way to study an active volcano is to live close to the crater -itself, even if a shelter has to be built underground.</p> - -<p>In concluding this story of our Alaskan expeditions of the twenties, in -contrast to my windjamming experience of 1907, I must underscore the -importance of water transportation and credit those who have provided -it. In fact, all transportation was by water until aircraft became -supplemental. I feel that the U.S. Coast Guard, which takes care of the -Pribilof Island seals, is the supreme achievement of our government in -policing these stormy waters. Their 60-foot motor cruiser, equipped -with sails has come to be standard for such government bureaus as -the Biological Survey and has replaced the earlier, 80-foot sealing -schooner among the traders.</p> - -<p>The canneries maintain big boatbuilding yards and operate large and -powerful tugs for visiting the salmon traps. The traps are heavy -weirs made of northwest pine logs, which are battered to pieces by -the winter storms and must be rebuilt with pile drivers every spring. -Thus a by product of cannery activities, and a godsend for trappers, -fishermen, Aleuts, and campers is the pine lumber distributed all along -the beaches from the annual wreckage of salmon traps. It is<span class="pagenum" id="Page_145">[145]</span> the only -firewood and construction material of the country to be found anywhere -west of Kodiak, for the land has no forests.</p> - -<p>Our contribution to the boating problem was the exhibition of what an -amphibian landing truck will do on Alaskan beaches and its usefulness -along those beaches where a boat may be in difficulties from stormy -weather.</p> - -<p>I returned to my Hawaii headquarters in the fall of 1928. The year 1929 -was marked by an earthquake crisis which began in mid-September with an -unusual number of shocks in the vicinity of Hualalai Volcano, a place -hitherto notably free from earthquakes. This was of interest because -events on Mauna Loa had shown higher and higher lava sources and quake -centers for the south rift. The 1926 outflow had begun by splitting -northward across the summit crater, and there making a considerable -flow eastward toward Wood Valley while Wingate and his topographic -party were in camp close to the summit. Therefore, when the 1929 quakes -began near Puuwaawaa, it looked as though Mauna Loa eruptions might -begin again at the northwest.</p> - -<p>A very strong quake of September 25 was felt all over the island, and -in our seismograph cellar was a peculiar swaying movement that set -all the instruments jiggling, dismantled recording pens, and produced -a queer feeling that the building was floating like a boat in a -whirlpool. Immediately came word that North Kona had suffered heavily, -particularly at Puuwaawaa Ranch near the cone of that name, where the -1859 Mauna Loa flow had swept past.</p> - -<p>I motored at once with Mrs. Jaggar to Puuwaawaa, where we were -hospitably entertained by the family of Mrs. Robert Hind. The damage -all about was fantastic, with houses pulled apart, stone walls flung -down in a seaward direction, redwood water tanks wrecked, and shops -on the lower side of the highway moved toward the sea leaving a chasm -between them and the road. Resting in our bedroom, we could hear the -window frames ticking like clocks for long periods of time, then coming -to a sudden wrench which felt as though a lifting wave had passed -through the mountain under us.</p> - -<p>I returned to the Observatory to get a shock recorder for use at the -ranch porch to count these strong motion shocks. Meanwhile residents in -Kona jotted down times of the shocks, which were coming by hundreds. On -October 5 at about 6 <span class="allsmcap">P.M.</span>, as I was returning through North -Kona in my car, I noticed a little unexplained excitement among people -by the roadside. I stopped at the residence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_146">[146]</span> Frank Greenwell, whose -wife was a faithful counter of quakes, to find Mrs. Greenwell and her -daughter on the veranda in tears. They had just been through fearful -earthquakes, which in a moving car I had not felt. Flower vases were -overturned, furniture was disarranged, dishes were flung off the dining -room table, and kitchen utensils and milk were in a jumble. It was hard -to believe that anything so terrific could have happened without my -feeling it.</p> - -<p>I found even more dire catastrophe at Puuwaawaa. The stone chimney was -overturned, breakage of china and of glass in the preserve closet in -the basement was severe, a stone bench was flung down and broken on -the lawn, and one side of the cellar was caved in. We took to living -in automobiles, for there had been land slips on the mountain. This -earthquake had been worse than that of September 25. Even hillside -cottages were split apart.</p> - -<p>I set up the shock recorder, which registered about 3,000 earthquakes -during the next three months, until mid-December. The intensity and -frequency of these quakes declined, as is usual with aftershocks of -a big earthquake, recalling 1868 and the south end of the island. At -that time both Mauna Loa and Kilauea had had rift outflows, and as the -seismographic center of the new earthquakes was close to the 1800 and -1859 flows from Hualalai and Mauna Loa, everybody expected a lava flow; -but none came. Armine von Tempski who was a visitor during this period -was inspired to write “Lava.” She added a Hualalai lava flow using -material that I gave her to describe it. Her description is magnificent -although she, herself, had never seen a lava flow.</p> - -<p>The October 5 shock was bad on the west flank of Mauna Kea, where -water tanks were overturned and the high wireless station was damaged, -and at Kamuela, where plumbing pipes were fractured. Parker Ranch was -damaged, and the constant racking along the entire length of the Kona -settlements caused land slips and broken masonry in many places, always -damaging north-south stone fences more than those at right angles to -the seashore.</p> - -<p>This three months of northwest earthquakes, a condition unknown since -1801, the year when Hualalai lava flowed into the sea, indicated that -lava was coming north of Mauna Loa. This had not happened since 1899, -for the flows on the southwest rift, always beginning near the summit -crater, had been during 1903, 1907, 1914, 1916, 1919, and 1926.</p> - -<p>Belief was that the southwestern rift of the mountain was filling<span class="pagenum" id="Page_147">[147]</span> -progressively higher with solidified redhot cement, not brittle enough -to fracture open easily, whereas the northern rifts—such as the -sources of 1859, 1881, and 1899—were now hard and brittle and ready -for fracture. The fracturing took the form of northwest cracking and -this was lava wedging, confirmed by the summit and northern outflows -which were to come in 1933 and 1935.</p> - -<p>July of 1929 produced a new influx of lava into Halemaumau, nineteen -degrees north of the equator. And a curiously simultaneous event -occurred on nearly the same date 2,000 miles away at Tin Can Island -(Niuafoou) in Tonga where the influx broke into basaltic eruption -fifteen degrees south of the equator. Apparently a stress lagging -behind the solstice time had acted on the equatorial protuberance to -release the wedging open of lava fractures on both sides of the equator.</p> - -<p>I was pleased when the U.S. Naval Observatory invited me to go to -Niuafoou in 1930 as the geologist on an expedition going to study -the total eclipse of the sun. The expedition, under Captain C. H. -C. Keppler, used the Naval Station at Samoa as a base. Mrs. Jaggar -accompanied me as far as Pago Pago and made trips to Western Samoa, -Fiji, and the Tonga Islands. With other wives of expedition members, -she was allowed to make a short visit to Tin Can Island at the time of -the eclipse in October. Spending some time in Samoa, she listened to -the Congressional hearings under Senator Hiram Bingham, which were to -investigate civil versus naval government. We were delighted to find -our old friend Captain Lincoln, of Tokyo earthquake relief, in command -of the Navy at Samoa, and I also renewed acquaintance with the pilot of -my companion plane in the Molokai forced landing of 1924, Lieutenant -Bill Sinton, and his family, whom we were to meet again in Honolulu. -Prominent on Captain Keppler’s staff was Lieutenant-Commander Kellers, -physician and naturalist, whose enterprise on the Niuafoou expedition, -like mine, dealt with sciences other than astronomy.</p> - -<p>From the sea, Niuafoou looks like a hat in shape. It is about five -miles in diameter with eleven villages, mostly along the eastern -shores, and at that time had a population of about a thousand people. -In the center is a circular lake, bordered by cliffs, and much like -Crater Lake in Oregon. Standing about seventy feet above sea level -and 250 feet deep, it has slightly brackish water. The naval camp was -established at Angaha on the north side of the island, and here a new -village housed the refugees from Futu to the northwest,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_148">[148]</span> destroyed in -1929 by an aa lava flow. This flow came from erupting cracks trending -north and south, along the west side of the ring ridge around the -crater lake. These lava flows had been liquid pahoehoe at the source; -had poured into the sea in many places; and had made striking tree -molds around coconut palms, which were left as stone trees when the -wood burned and the liquid lava lowered. The western source crack -extends to the south end of the island and has accounted for most of -the earlier eruptions known to history. Futu had been the only western -settlement left.</p> - -<p>Angaha came nearest to being a harbor, but was really on an open -roadstead, with a rocky boat landing and copra chute below the village -which stood on a cliff above.</p> - -<p>Copra, the only commercial product, is bought and warehoused by two -Australian firms. The two grown sons of the manager of one assisted -me in tramping and photographing all over the island. The landing -at Angaha brought about the name Tin Can Island, for the visiting -steamers stopped a mile off shore and incoming mail, soldered into -large biscuit tins by the steamship engineer, was lowered into the -sea, tied together. The tins were towed in by the village policeman. -Outgoing mail was carried out in paper packages tied on top of sticks -and held aloft by hardy swimmers with hau wood poles, which they held -under their arms as floats. A short time after our trip a shark got a -swimmer, and canoes were adopted.</p> - -<p>Thanks to the infrequent visits of vessels, the natives were unspoiled, -splendid specimens of the Polynesian race. The laws of Tonga required -every youth to cultivate an area of coconut trees and vegetables, and -the island was traversed by lovely trails. The houses and churches were -exquisite arched structures with thatched roofs, the beams tied with -coconut-fiber cords. There were native ministers, and the choirs were -superb. Services often started at 4 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span></p> - -<p>My jobs were to take photographs with three cameras and make a -geological map. Northeast of the crater lake is a cluster of sand -hills, relics of an unusual explosive eruption in 1878, another -Hawaiian eruption date. This eruption was confined to one side of -the crater and came up the wall crack, between the encircling cliff -and the top of the lava plug under the lake. Its description is very -reminiscent of the Kilauea steamblasts of 1924.</p> - -<p>We found a remarkable inhabitant of the sand in the malau bird, a small -partridge with big feet, with which it dug a deep hole in the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_149">[149]</span> sand for -its large egg which was then covered up. The sun’s heat did the rest, -with the warm sand acting as incubator. The young bird scratched its -way to freedom and flight without aid from its mother. Another item of -Dr. Kellers’ natural history was the flying fox, a giant bat with a -high singing note and odoriferous rookeries in the tops of trees. It -had a heavy flight like an eagle’s. A third item was the tiny black -crab, the size of a ten-cent piece, which lived in the midst of limey -flats at one side of the lake, where there were crusts that suggested -calcareous algae. The little black crabs, which lived by thousands in -the midst of the crust, resembled compact spiders.</p> - -<p>An artificial feature of great convenience was a trail following the -top of the ring ridge, all around the crater. The Quensell boys had -a rowboat on the lake, and Dr. Kellers and I were guided by them to -all parts of the island, making the acquaintance of the people in the -villages along the eastern trade-wind shore. Just as in Hawaii, the -trade wind is a controlling feature; and the surf erodes cliffs on -the east, whereas beaches are more common along the lava flows of the -western strand line. These are sheltered from wind but are remote from -habitations. The entire island is made of lava and ash deposits, and is -evidently the top of a volcano cone extending far below sea level. The -lava activity, as shown by the arrangement of the old and new source -cracks, depends on concentric cracking around the caldera, which makes -concentric rifts, rather than the long radial ones found in Hawaii. The -crack along the west side—which had vented the succession of flows -from south to north, ending with the Futu flow of 1929—indicated that -the next flow might threaten Angaha. This is just what happened during -the next decade, forcing the island population to be evacuated.</p> - -<p>My geology photographs and pictures of people, ships, and dwellings -were developed in a darkroom tent, which I set up in a copra shed, so -as to keep the development of negatives abreast of the exposures. Copra -bugs crawling over me in the dark and getting into developer added -excitement, and the eternal smell of copra began to tinge my dreams.</p> - -<p>The routine of our work was broken by two good fights, a fist fight -between a Filipino steward and a sailor, and a knock-down and drag-out -between two native women of Angaha. The real fun was the row between -the two women. A younger woman who was a loose, shrill character, -disliked by the villagers and the sailors, attempted<span class="pagenum" id="Page_150">[150]</span> to attack an -older woman who was a big husky dame. There was screaming and hair -pulling and fisticuffs, while the Navy men stood around and cheered -them on. The younger woman made most of the noise, while the older -woman laughed and ripped off the other’s clothes. Finally the young -woman, in tears and with clothing in tatters, retreated and disappeared.</p> - -<p>But to get back to the eclipse, telescope lenses were mounted on high -scaffolds, the ladies arrived in October, and the total eclipse of the -sun happened and was photographed at the time anticipated.</p> - -<p>When the time came for us to return to Samoa, some of us were fortunate -enough to get a place on the Flood Brothers’ copra ship <i>Carisso</i>, -out of San Francisco. Along with the family of a Navy officer, we went -ashore at Niuatoputapu (Keppel Island) after climbing down a rope -ladder to a bobbing whale boat. We found beautiful mats, which are the -wealth of the people throughout Tonga. The village men and women who -had mats to sell were not so much interested in coins or trinkets and -merchandise as they were in the clothing we wore. I literally divested -myself of a shirt and a suit for a beautiful fringed mat ornamented -with clusters of shells, made to be given to Queen Charlotte on her -next visit. We were fortunate in reaching Samoa in good weather, but -a big storm after we got there wrought havoc with the <i>Tanager</i> -carrying astronomical photo plates and bundles of Polynesian mats which -were much damaged by sea water.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_151">[151]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter VI</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Prophecy and Hope</span></h2></div> - -<p class="center">“<i>For we know in part, and we prophesy in part.</i>”</p> - - -<p>The fifth decade of my sixty years of geology, 1931 through 1940, was -a time of culmination at Kilauea; the ending of an eleven-year cycle -on Mauna Loa; and the introduction, in 1940, of a new Mauna Loa cycle. -This new cycle resembled strikingly the one which followed 1843 because -of the similarity of places—notably the north side of Mauna Loa toward -Humuula, followed by the northeast side toward Hilo—and the intervals -of eruption. Kilauea behaved differently in the nineteenth century, -because in 1840 it rent open the east flank to make a flood of lava -into the ocean, though afterwards it restored its lava to Halemaumau.</p> - -<p>In 1934, on the other hand, Halemaumau went to sleep, after adding one -more extra thick filling in the bottom of Halemaumau pit in September, -when it gushed up behind wall slabs 300 feet high, cascading down the -talus in twenty-five ribbons of lava. This proved that effervescence in -a small crack can rise far above the level of the lava lake in the pit. -It made a marvelous display in early morning darkness, and the new lava -lake rose rapidly within the flatly funneling talus. This lay at thirty -degrees, so that the outward spread enlarged the lake and reached -beyond the foot of the talus.</p> - -<p>The slide-rock slope that was conspicuous had been fed by avalanches, -and it rested against the half-circle of wall slab, behind which had -risen the cascades. This source migrated around the slab to the north -and developed the biggest fountaining jets there. By the outward and -upward spread of the new lake these jets became lake fountains, while -the cascading ribbons at the slope stopped. The lake rose and crusted -over. The northern fountains became a small oval pond and center of -accumulation and upward doming, while pahoehoe lava radiated down a -slope to the edges of the floor heap, south and east. Surveys at this -time placed the northern lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_152">[152]</span> pond definitely at the top of an inner -heap. The fountains in the pond changed to conelets with their own -craterlets. These, after a month, developed gas explosions, flinging up -lava shreds to 800 feet and sometimes higher than the edge of the pit.</p> - -<p>This started a slumping of the exploding cones. The explosions were -a symptom of increasing viscosity of lava under the bottom heap, and -the viscosity was revealed in stiff lava welling up around the edges -of the floor. This filled up the wall valley, and so compensated the -slump that the bottom became level. Then the activity ceased. It all -demonstrated how an inner dome in Halemaumau could become filled with -an intrusive lens, which by welling out around the edges, could restore -the dome to horizontality. It was like the “laccoliths” of the Black -Hills. After the 1934 eruption, Kilauea simply went out of business for -eighteen years. Halemaumau lava returned in 1952.</p> - -<p>Mauna Loa activity was renewed meanwhile, with summit crater inflows in -1933 and with intense seismic activity under the northeast rift. Depths -of seismic centers were at first seventeen miles down, and thereafter -five miles down, as reported by seismologist Hugh Waesche. He worked -with the formulae of distance, direction, and depth established -by Austin Jones, using preliminary tremor, comparative excursions -of lines, and a model of the island. These had become precise by -mathematical triangulation of the island of Hawaii, with seismograph -records from Kilauea, Hilo, and Kona stations. The distance from each -station was interpreted from the duration of the preliminary tremor; -and the meeting point of the several distances within the island model -located the seismic focus inside Mauna Loa Mountain where the lava was -splitting it open. The epicenter, or point over the focus, when the -lava in Mauna Loa’s summit crater was stiffening, lay on the northeast -rift in 1933. Therefore the eruption was expected at an old cone, -whence had come the first outbreak of 1843. This came to pass in 1935.</p> - -<p>E. G. Wingate, who had become superintendent of Hawaii National Park, -agreed with my dictum, made on the basis of seismograms and history, -that the next outflow would come at the north within two years and -would endanger Hilo. This I discussed at a public meeting of the Hilo -Chamber of Commerce in January 1934, and the report was published under -the title “The coming lava flow.” The prediction was fulfilled in -December 1935, when the flow came as it had in 1843. The eruption broke -out on top and traveled<span class="pagenum" id="Page_153">[153]</span> down to Humuula, the saddle between Mauna -Loa and Mauna Kea, then pooled in the saddle and turned toward Hilo.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_152fp" style="max-width: 473px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_152fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>25. Jaggar in office of Observatory in “Tin House,” 1937</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_153fp" style="max-width: 433px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_153fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>26. Bomb bursting on lava flow, December 27, 1935. -Photo by Eleventh Photo Section, A.C., Wheeler Field, T.H.</i></p> - </div> - -<p>The 1843 flow had reached the saddle and turned toward Kona, and the -solid remnant of that lava bank deflected the 1935 puddle to the east. -It was traveling toward Hilo at the rate of a mile a day. This was -the signal to try stopping it by bombing from airplanes, a procedure -which had been proposed from experience with flows in tunnels of their -own crust, where a person on the Kilauea floor could look through a -caved-in hole in the roof and see the glowing river inside. Thurston -and I had discussed blasting such a roof to cool off the lava and pile -it up, thus forcing it to a new outlet and stopping the frontal flow. -It was Guido Giacometti of Olaa who suggested bombing rather than -dynamiting. I called on the Army Air Force, and a conference was held -in Hilo. With Colonel Delos C. Emmons, Wing Commander, I flew over -the source tunnel. This was at 9,000 feet on the north side of Mauna -Loa, where a gleaming silvery ribbon of pahoehoe emerged from a hole -in the north slope. This was a crusted lava river, and the fliers were -instructed to smash it with 600-pound demolition bombs of TNT.</p> - -<p>The forenoon of December 27 was fixed for the bombing; and by -invitation of Herbert Shipman, Mrs. Jaggar and I went to Puu Oo Ranch -on Mauna Kea to watch what happened. The day was clear, and I saw one -explosion send up a column of incandescent liquid lava hundreds of feet -high, looking like a geyser of blood. In the foreground was the front -of the flow, which we watched as it moved toward Hilo. At the same -time we were receiving reports from cowboys on its rapidly diminishing -speed. For about a week the liquid lava remaining in the tunnels kept -spilling forward, and then it stopped. The front was in the headwaters -of the Wailuku River, Hilo’s water supply.</p> - -<p>We afterwards visited the bomb craters in the source region, to find -that there had been numerous hits on the lava tunnel and that the -cooling off had solidified the source lava back into the mountain -rift. The remainder of the eruption expended itself with internal -fountaining in the summit wells at the top end of the flank rift. From -the coincidence of the times of bombing and the slowing down of frontal -flow, there appeared no question that the smashing of the source tunnel -was effective and had saved Hilo. We had not anticipated that active -fountaining would be forced back to the summit well from the 9,000-foot -craterlet, but summit smoke continuing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_154">[154]</span> for two months verified that -this had happened. This showed the physical chemistry of bubbling slag -to be in delicate adjustment and a lava eruption once started to be -more sensitive to shock than anyone had dreamed. This conclusion was -reconfirmed by the bombing of the 1942 flow.</p> - -<p>During this period, changes in Observatory personnel led to new -researches. Wingate, who succeeded Wilson as engineer, set up -triangulation monuments in Puna to test further motion on the Kapoho -rift of 1924. He also devised and set up three tilt instruments in -three cellars which were blasted out of the lava around Halemaumau -pit. Howard Powers came from Harvard as petrologist and collected and -mapped many rock specimens in Kona, on Hualalai, and in Olaa. He also -made curves of the tilt records for the first twenty years of the -Observatory. Hugh Waesche was transferred from the Park Service to the -position of geologist at the Observatory. A skilled radio amateur, he -took over seismological work. In 1938 he dealt with an important group -of earthquakes along the Chain of Craters east of Kilauea. These were -accompanied by faulting, which made cracks, chasms, and humps in the -road, and some new hot places. This indicated a reaction underground, -back toward Halemaumau from the submarine outflow of April 1924.</p> - -<p>Finch from his headquarters at Lassen reported regularly in the -<i>Volcano Letter</i>, on hot spring temperatures and earthquakes. -He conducted two expeditions to Alaska, inspecting the seismographs -and making volcano explorations and maps on Akutan Island. Another -expedition was to Shishaldin Volcano, at the west end of the big -Aleutian island of Unimak during one of its eruptive spells.</p> - -<p>Throughout this time and earlier H. T. Stearns represented the -Geological Survey and the Territory of Hawaii in publications on -geology and water supply on all the islands. The island of Hawaii was -made the subject of a splendid geological map in color by Stearns and -Gordon Macdonald, petrographer, with a book on the geological history -of Hawaii, profusely illustrated with photographs and diagrams. Their -book is practically a modern textbook on the geology of active lava -volcanoes.</p> - -<p>Richmond Hodges, sent by the Geological Survey from Washington, was -trained in the technique of government filing and relieved me of work -with correspondence and routine. He also took over the editing of the -<i>Volcano Letter</i> and assisted Mr. Wilson with the writing of -articles when I was away in Alaska. My secretaries after Hodges<span class="pagenum" id="Page_155">[155]</span> were -Ruth Baker and Sutejiro Sato, and Miss Baker’s work extended into the -1940’s.</p> - -<p>Tilt studies made at the three cellars around the rim of Halemaumau -did not produce the anticipated results, but they answered our -questions. The three cellars were placed at 120 degrees to each other, -with reference to a meridian crossing the pit, one at the north, one -east-southeast and one west-southwest.</p> - -<p>It was thought, when these tiltoscopes were set up, that the Kilauea -floor would swell or shrink as an inner dome, with the pit at its -center. But nothing of the kind was revealed. The tilting was found to -be more or less at right angles to the long western wall of Kilauea -Crater, itself an extension from the southwestern rift of Kilauea -Mountain. The rift extends under Halemaumau pit, as was proved in -1920, when the Kau Desert outflows from the rift cracks kept pace -with the lowering of Halemaumau lava. This means that the ring of -Halemaumau’s rock wall is in two pieces, divided by the rift dikes -trending northeast-southwest, and that the tilting over upward pressure -from below is not radial but is northwest and southeast. Wilson’s -leveling results that showed the whole mountain swelling up were based -on isolated benchmarks relative to sea level, and this swelling was -probably unsymmetrical, just as the southwest rift and the eastern rift -of the Chain of Craters make a bend in plan and are unsymmetrical. The -mountain is not a uniform elliptical dome.</p> - -<p>I have said that the decade of the 1930’s was a time of culmination -for Kilauea. It was also a period of financial depression and stress -for all of us. The Volcano House burned down, the new hotel was placed -on the Observatory site, and the Observatory administration barely -survived. The Hawaiian Volcano Research Association did much to keep -the Observatory alive, but one year we all went on half pay. By dint -of this half-pay episode and because everybody insisted that volcano -records must not be permitted to lapse, the Secretary of the Interior -transferred the Observatory in 1935 to the better financed National -Park Service.</p> - -<p>With Wingate as superintendent of Hawaii National Park, we were assured -of loyal support and were able to combine scientific aims with National -Park activities. Thus, the Volcano Observatory regained its status. -We were also assisted by the publication of the economic success of -the Mauna Loa bombing, in face of the threat to Hilo which involved -some 51 million dollars of buildings and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_156">[156]</span> harbor. This threat Wingate -and I studied carefully in the light of history, and we succeeded in -getting $10,000 from Congress for an investigation by U.S. Engineers -of the possibility of a construction to protect Hilo from a disastrous -lava flow. Colonel Bermel appointed civil engineer Belcher to Hilo, -and Belcher worked for a year in 1938 on my design of a lava diversion -channel and earthworks, to extend for seven miles from the Wailuku -River gorge above Hilo to the airport.</p> - -<p>This was to take care of another such lava flow as that of 1881 by -deflecting it with the natural valleys southward from the congested -district. A critical design was made of the channel, the height of the -obstruction, and the openings needed for waterways and public roads. -The plan was not to block the passage of lava, but merely to deflect it -by means of an artificial barrier to channel it downhill. This would -send it along the natural grades, diagonally forcing a lava stream away -from the business district, the harbor, the factories, and the airport.</p> - -<p>The design was approved by a reviewing board in Washington as effective -for the purpose intended. However, with this project went a redesign -of Hilo breakwater and a plan for dredging the harbor which took into -consideration the possibility of a severe tidal wave. Unfortunately the -appropriation estimate was considered too large and was turned down in -Washington. When the great tidal wave came in 1946 it proved that such -an extended breakwater attached to the northern shore of Hilo harbor -would have lessened the terrible destruction and loss of life.</p> - -<p>A diversion in the lives of Mrs. Jaggar and myself was an invitation in -1936 from the Royal Society of London, to go to Montserrat in the West -Indies where for three years they had been having bad earthquakes. Sir -Gerald Lenox-Conyngham, whom we had met at the Japan congress, wrote -me asking for my help because Montserrat’s dormant hot volcano was -making excessive hydrogen sulfide gas at its two solfataras. The smell -sickened and alarmed the inhabitants of the port of Plymouth, and the -gas was blackening the paint of white steamships. The earthquakes had -come in spasms culminating in big damage to masonry from 1934 onward. -Perret had flown over from Martinique and tried to help by applying -sound theories to prediction of seasonal tidal controls of the volcano, -but he was scoffed at as a voodoo soothsayer by a British Navy captain. -The scientific commission appointed was Dr. C. F. Powell of Bristol,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_157">[157]</span> -now Nobel Prize physicist, and Dr. A. G. MacGregor of the Geological -Survey, besides Dr. Lenox-Conyngham, formerly Director of the Geodetic -Survey of India. Dr. Powell used adaptations of my shock recorder, both -horizontal and vertical, built by the Kew Observatory. Designs had been -obtained from instruments I sent to Dr. Marsden in New Zealand, after -the Napier earthquake.</p> - -<p>When I received the invitation to go to Montserrat, I packed up such -instruments as I could find, and telephoned Mrs. Jaggar in Honolulu -to be ready to go with me to Los Angeles the following Saturday. She -was always ready to act as secretary on a new adventure, and with much -bustle and scramble we packed her things. Later I joined her at the -steamer, a Danish freighter which was to take us through the Canal to -the Caribbean. Boarding as we did on such short notice, we were given -a steward’s room in the bowels of the ship; but we had the run of the -first cabin. It was a delightful trip through Panama and Jamaica, both -of which I was happy to see again, twenty-six years after my 1910 -experience with the canal engineers. Great changes had been wrought, -and it was a thrill to see the ship pulled through step-up after -step-up of canal locks, by the “iron mules” of that marvelous machinery.</p> - -<p>We left the delightful freighter people at Charlotte Amalie in the -Virgin Islands where we stayed at Blue Beard’s Castle. After a wait of -some days, we got a small Dutch island freighter to go to Montserrat. -We stopped at St. Martin, an astonishing place, French at one end -and Dutch at the other, with practically no custom house to mark the -boundary, though the wines and the language changed in the middle of -the island.</p> - -<p>Saba is a startling extinct volcano rising as a steep rocky cone -directly from the water, with no harbor but a stop opposite a gully -that leads up to the crater. After landing in small boats, we climbed -up the gulch to the settlement, a picturesque place, with masonry -houses and many flowers, where the government is Dutch but all talk -English, and its history goes back to the buccaneers. The village is on -a flat in the lowest part of a cup crater, the top of our climb, but -the name of the settlement is The Bottoms.</p> - -<p>Our little ship joined the main line of the leeward volcanoes at -St. Kitts, where we made connections for Antigua and Montserrat. -In Montserrat we stayed with Miss Gillie at the Rainbow House and -joined the Englishman Powell and the Scot MacGregor. I met Perret at -Antigua, and we compared notes on the similarity of the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_158">[158]</span> earthquakes -and the rotten-egg smell (sulfuretted hydrogen) at Montserrat to the -eruptions of Pelée in Martinique, where these phenomena were followed -by explosions and lava. The Montserrat authorities justly feared what -was coming.</p> - -<p>Perret had for two years kept track of events at Montserrat in relation -to equinox and solstice. He had built a hut there at the dangerous -solfatara near town, had made an instrument shelter with a thermograph, -and on a pedestal close to a nearby residence had set up an ingenious -earthquake accumulator, which had recorded at the end of twenty-four -hours the total expenditure of seismic energy in each direction. As -there were hundreds of strong shocks, the instruments recorded total -seismic energy per day and its dominant direction.</p> - -<p>I found that Powell had set up my shock recorders among volunteers on -the island, and a seismograph at the agricultural station. A new form -of the Jaggar shock recorder had the weight attached to horizontal flat -springs so as to oscillate up and down. I was especially pleased with -the earthquake records kept by a Mr. English living in the countryside. -Assisted by his wife, he had carefully listed the times and intensities -of hundreds of shocks, with notes on important events.</p> - -<p>Much help was furnished by the Agricultural Experiment Station, which -provided an assistant to take us to many geologic places and to the -second solfatara, consisting of hot springs and sulfur in a southern -valley of the volcano. The volcano of Montserrat is at the south end of -the island, while the northern part consists of older hills. The summit -crater is a remote and inaccessible forested area among peaks. The -volcano is much like Pelée in size and appearance.</p> - -<p>We were allowed to take a steamer to St. Vincent and Barbados, stopping -at Dominica. There the Governor kindly entertained us for a few hours, -sending the government launch and driving us up the valley on a fête -day when the negro women were all in picturesque costume. We saw -his summer place with lovely gardens. We had tea with his wife, and -I discussed with him the earthquake problem. On the drive we saw a -remarkable cliff of hexagonal columns, some of them curved like a fan, -representing the old lavas of Dominica.</p> - -<p>The administrative problems of the British islands involved not only -hurricanes and earthquakes, but tactful handling of the dominant negro, -Carib Indian, and mulatto population, which is very ticklish, for there -have been riots and labor troubles. I was astonished<span class="pagenum" id="Page_159">[159]</span> in several of -the islands to learn that distinguished Englishmen in government and -planter classes were partly colored. In the society club of Montserrat -we met a leading lawyer who was coal black, and we saw London-educated -negroes dancing with English girls. We found the same customs in St. -Vincent, and to a much lesser extent, in Barbados.</p> - -<p>In St. Vincent Mr. Abbot, MacDonald’s secretary, took us to see my -old friend T. M. MacDonald the planter, at Chateau Belair on the west -side of Soufrière, where Hovey, Curtis, and I had climbed in 1902. We -traveled up the west coast by automobile, and saw one of the primitive -sugar mills, where the juice is boiled down to a syrup to be shipped -to lumber mills in Canada. Nothing could be in greater contrast to -the modern sugar factories in Hawaii, and the negro labor gives the -industry an entirely different aspect. To get to Chateau Belair we had -to motor up a canyon far into the interior, around hairpin turns over -vertical cliffs and along a narrow ridge, and then return to shore -on the other side of the valley. We rode along the beach under the -volcano, and saw the rehabilitated Richmond plantation, with the west -flank of Soufrière Volcano under heavy clouds. Owing to torrents of -rain, we had to make part of the return to Kingstown in a rowboat.</p> - -<p>Later we drove over an excellent road up the east shore to Georgetown, -and beyond that on the foot of the volcano slope, where a group of -plantations had been purchased after the eruption of 1902 by Mr. -Barnard, who with his charming wife, entertained us. Hundreds of acres -of coconut trees, arrowroot, and sugar cane had replaced the utter -devastation of 1902. Barnard showed us a modern still for making rum -from sugar cane, and I was astonished to see that the product is just -as clear as alcohol, the rum color being artificial. We rode horseback -most of the way to the crater of Soufrière, over a trail through -forests and across streams, very different from hiking in horrible -desolation and fog up bare ridges covered with volcanic bombs, such as -Hovey and Curtis and I had encountered on this same slope at the time -of the eruptions.</p> - -<p>The trail still followed knife-edge divides with perilous slopes on -both sides of the path, but now concealed with mountain growth. We rode -nearly to the edge of the crater, now a very different picture, with -a large lake only a few hundred feet below, as it had been before the -eruption of 1902. Two sturdy native women coming from Chateau Belair -appeared with baskets of fruit on their heads,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_160">[160]</span> tramping a 3,000 foot -height to deliver their goods to Georgetown on the east side of the -island. This is an old story for these straight-backed natives, and -these treks across mountains were equally characteristic of the creoles -in Martinique and the northern islands. These people would spend the -night near their market on the opposite side of the islands.</p> - -<p>In Kingstown we were shown the elaborate process by which arrowroot is -made into edible starch, the powdery product being critically graded by -delicate shades of color. This corm, which makes inconspicuous fields -of low growing pointed <i>Canna</i> leaves and small white flowers, is -quite different from the cassava, or manioc, which I had known on my -first visits to the West Indies. Arrowroot has been developed by the -agricultural experiment stations of the British, who for many years -searched for a new commercial product. The St. Vincent arrowroot is -now a major industry which has spread to the other islands and is -cultivated by small planters.</p> - -<p>In the volcano islands I interviewed government people to call -attention to the crisis in Montserrat, using it as an illustration -of the need at the numerous vents for the development of observatory -methods, particularly in geology, chemistry, oceanography, and -seismology, including measurements of ground surface movements and -tilt. I had recommended this for Martinique and St. Vincent in 1902; -and Perret, with some support by the French government, had gone to -live in St. Pierre and make a museum, stimulated by the Pelée outbreak -of 1929. So far as geophysics is concerned, the governments of St. -Vincent and Jamaica have gone to sleep since the volcano disaster of -1902 and the earthquake building reforms of 1907. It is discouraging -to a scientist to know that the science of economic geophysics and -geography in such a magnificent field as the West Indian volcanoes has -to be awakened by such disasters as were now occurring in Montserrat, -with no forecasting at all. The whole Montserrat episode was like our -unforeseen Hualalai earthquakes of 1929, and in both places my shock -recorder was called in to help.</p> - -<p>We went on to Barbados, a flat non-seismic land, where in 1902 I had -interviewed the <i>Roraima</i> victims. We returned by way of St. -Lucia, where we drove to the solfatara, which as usual is in a valley -with sulfur and hot springs, near sea level, and not in a crater.</p> - -<p>We returned to Montserrat, where the earthquakes and bad gases -had died down after 1936. The investigations of the Commission<span class="pagenum" id="Page_161">[161]</span> -(Lenox-Conyngham made his visit after I left), came to publication in -Powell and MacGregor’s reports on the seismic analysis and the geology. -I sent in a report with photographs and charts on the whole chain of -volcanoes, in relation to the Montserrat crisis, by comparison with -other volcanoes. Lenox-Conyngham wrote an article for <i>Nature</i>. -MacGregor later published a critical analysis of modern data on the -probabilities of eruption in all of the West Indian volcanoes. Perret -published a large monograph on Montserrat, illustrated with his -beautiful photographs.</p> - -<p>We passed Martinique by sea, and I saw the huge pile of lava the 1929 -eruption had added, to make an entirely new summit to Mount Pelée. -Vegetation and habitation had reappeared at St. Pierre, but the -mountain was bare.</p> - -<p>We returned to Hawaii by way of Bermuda, Boston, and Washington, where -the temperature was hotter than we had felt in the tropics. Reviewing -the journey, I was encouraged to perceive that geology had changed a -great deal since the struggle that Hovey and I, after our experience at -Mount Pelée, had had to make geological societies realize that changes -in the field must be constantly measured. The real obstacles to getting -field measurements permanently manned as pure science are lack of money -and the fashions of education. Perret and I have been two isolated -enthusiasts crying in the wilderness.</p> - -<p>Any young scientist with photographic skill who will give his life -to living with and reporting upon a single volcano group can make a -great contribution to science. He must have suitable financial backers -and a publication agency and instruments not dependent upon frequent -eruptions. What volcano science needs most is permanent dwellers, using -all the resources of sensitive geophysics and chemistry and dwelling -close to craters or solfataras. Such lands as the Taupo District of -New Zealand are ideal, but not when observed at a distance. Wairaki is -now under investigation for commercial power. Hilo is being critically -examined for a lava diversion scheme. But these projects are not what -I mean, and are not pure science. The personal devotion of a lifetime, -as in the cases of Pasteur or Schweitzer, is what produces the emergent -evolution of true science.</p> - -<p>I have called this chapter Prophecy and Hope because of six fruitful -prognostications and hope for the future of volcanology. Of the -prognostications, one was the threat to Hilo which came true in 1934. -Two, the forecast to the effect that bombing would stop a lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_162">[162]</span> flow -came true. Three, the belief that a volcano observatory would be -productive of instruments came true. Four, the prediction of danger -to Hilo produced definite defensive plans by U.S. Engineers. Five, -predictions of time and place of Mauna Loa outbreaks, seismically and -historically proved practical. Six, the prediction of Kilauea sinking -lava, based on sinking at Mauna Loa, had repeatedly been fulfilled.</p> - -<p>When my government service as Volcanologist ended in 1940 and R. H. -Finch had been appointed my successor, substantial recognition of -the Observatory had come from Washington, New Zealand, and Great -Britain. Great help had come from Presidents Arthur L. Dean and -David L. Crawford of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu, and new -assistance came from President Gregg M. Sinclair. This was to lead to -my employment by the University as Research Associate in 1940. Thus -I was to continue, during the next decade, the publishing of Volcano -Observatory results.</p> - -<p>Over and over again Hawaiian volcanology demonstrated the need of -advertisement, occasionally reaching such men as Everett Morss, M.I.T. -trustee in Boston; Lorin Thurston, business leader in Honolulu; -Henderson, Washington financier, for our borings; and Cramton, leader -of Congress. The Volcano Research Association in Honolulu is a devoted -group of businessmen keeping up a small fund of $6,000 per annum, -trivial compared to the big laboratories of commerce and astronomy. A -pure science of volcanology, with world-wide laboratories is now needed -to catch the eye and ear of imaginative men of business. Friedlaender -in Naples, Perret on Mount Pelée, and Omori in Tokyo almost created -enough imaginative stimulus to real exploration of volcanoes and of the -inner earth. They were battered down by natural catastrophe and by wars.</p> - -<p>The 1940’s were enriched by three good friends Vern Hinkley, Stanley -Porteus, and Frank Rieber; respectively journalist, psychologist, and -physicist-inventor. They all took a keen interest in my writing and -mechanical inventions, and Hinkley assisted in the Observatory work -during the explosive eruption and wrote “that was the top experience of -my newspaper career.”</p> - -<p>Hinkley, who had edited the <i>Hilo Tribune Herald</i>, became managing -editor of the <i>Honolulu Star-Bulletin</i> and published a series -of my radio addresses on Kilauea. He also sent his photographer to -photograph our laboratories, thereby keeping the public informed about -volcano study. And he worked up a history of my navy monographs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_163">[163]</span> and -hardness testing instruments. He was a lovable fellow whose publicity -instinct was a great asset to volcano science. He did not think of a -volcano as something sensational, but remained moderate about it and -informed his public accurately. Through him, the Volcano Observatory -reports came to be accepted as desirable routine, and he was elected -a director of the Volcano Research Association. His many friends were -desolated by his early and sudden death.</p> - -<p>Porteus is an Australian man of science who conducted expeditions -among the Australian blacks and the primitive Africans of Kalihari and -specialized in the mental outlook of primitive peoples. He devised a -famous maze for intelligence tests. He has published numerous books -about Hawaii and several novels, including “Restless voyage,” the life -of Archibald Campbell, who lived with Kamehameha the great and survived -amputation of both legs.</p> - -<p>With Guido Giacometti, who suggested airplane bombing of the volcano -lava flows, Porteus and I foregathered at the crater frequently to -discuss the constitution of earth interior. Porteus differed with -my belief on the evolution of mind as a mutation of evolution. Like -Hinkley he became a member of the Board of Directors of our Research -Association. He is a judge of the juvenile court, skilled in curing -delinquency. Porteus is a world thinker, who agrees with me in thinking -of altruism as a form of energy. Porteus invented the title of this -present book.</p> - -<p>Rieber started from the University of California where he became -interested in making an echo from underground strata to locate oil. He -moved to Los Angeles, where his father was a professor of classical -languages and a college dean. Frank invented a complex recording -seismograph carried on a motor truck, wherewith he set off explosive -bombs and registered echo earthquakes from every important underground -layer. These layers identified oil-bearing strata, so that the marks -on a revolving drum practically mapped a section underground for -a guide to oil drilling. He moved to New York and established war -inventions, among them phonograph disks for repeating whole conferences -of many talkers. He founded Geovision Ltd., a company which greatly -abbreviated the scanning of echoes for subterranean mapping. Then he -died suddenly, like Hinkley, in the full flower of a brilliant mind. -Rieber and I corresponded for years on invention gadgets, comparing -notes by letters, and meeting all too rarely. To me he was one of -our most productive<span class="pagenum" id="Page_164">[164]</span> physicists, always inspiring. He was convinced -that discovery of petroleum will endlessly increase and will become -automatic. He and I looked downward into the shell of the globe.</p> - -<p>This decade I devoted primarily to writing and publication, some of -the writing voluminous and still unpublished. In 1941 I moved into an -office in Hawaii Hall of the University of Hawaii in Honolulu. My paper -work consisted primarily in completing, revising, and illustrating a -memoir on “Origin and development of craters,” in cooperation with the -Geological Society of America. The censor chosen by the Society was Dr. -Howel Williams of the University of California, who cordially endorsed -the book.</p> - -<p>The Society subscribed $350 from its Penrose Fund to assist with -drafting and clerical work on the substantial results of our -observations of Hawaiian craters in the twentieth century. The -groundwork had long been laid, for beginning under Alexander Agassiz at -the Museum of Comparative Zoology in Cambridge and during my visit to -Vesuvius in 1906, I planned a book on volcanology. Later, in 1910 after -careful study of the work of Dana, Hitchcock, and Brigham on Hawaiian -volcanoes, I started analysis of Kilauea Volcano in the nineteenth -century. Thus this one large volume with photogravures, maps, and -diagrams covers the history of observations and conclusions from -Hawaiian Volcano Observatory work for thirty years.</p> - -<p>My thesis is that there must be some order in time and space for what -is obviously 1,700 miles of submarine volcanic upbuilding in the -Hawaiian chain. Active volcanoes are hot and erupting in Hawaii; sunken -ones are covered with coral at Midway Island; and intermediate ones, -half coral and half lava, are in the middle of the chain. Disregarding -the ocean water, all of these are gigantic mountains below sea level. -On the island of Hawaii I found symmetry, which I called “The cross of -Hawaii” in an address to the Honolulu Chamber of Commerce in 1912. I -noted that Mauna Kea forms the top of a cross on the map; the upright -extends along the southwest rift of Mauna Loa, and two symmetrical -curved arms extend to Hualalai summit and Kilauea summit. The lava -flows from Mauna Loa north and south arrange themselves symmetrically -about this design, with every evidence that Mauna Loa dome was piled -up in a spoon underlaid by Hualalai, Mauna Kea, and Kilauea. It is -obvious on the map that Mauna Loa upbuilding was obstructed by grandpa -Mauna Kea and that it has been forced off to the southwest<span class="pagenum" id="Page_165">[165]</span> by the two -daughters, to build the elongate point of the island. Kilauea is old on -the Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line; and Hualalai is old on a right angle -line at Kea.</p> - -<p>From my training in physiography under W. M. Davis of Harvard, I was -convinced when I first saw Hawaii and studied the books about it that -downward faulting toward the sea bottom, of sliding island blocks, is -conspicuous. It shows in the V-shaped fracture of Haleakala Crater, -a broken sector, and in the straight fracture of the north half of -Molokai volcano, leaving the mighty cliffs there. It shows in the -eastern half of Kohala volcano leaving the fault facets and hanging -valleys of Waimanu, and in the Mohokea embayment of the southeast -end of Mauna Loa. The embayment shows evidence of the breakdown of -an ancient crater as described by Hitchcock. Moreover, Kilauea, Wood -Valley, Mohokea, and Waiohinu amphitheater are four old calderas of -faulting in a line. This seemed to me confirmed by the down-faulted -steps of the southeast side of Kilauea Mountain, and the observed -down-breaking there of the shoreline during earthquakes. This, in 1868, -drowned coconut trees below the sea and caused big earthquakes on a -submerged fault in 1868 and 1952.</p> - -<p>Such action was further confirmed by our experience of a down-faulted -block during earthquakes at Kapoho in April 1924, before Halemaumau -exploded, confirming the view that the active volcanoes break downward -in slices along shorelines, even when they swell upward around craters. -Harold Stearns always combatted the idea of faulting and made Mohokea, -Haleakala, and Waipio erosion forms; but this I cannot accept.</p> - -<p>The logic to the effect that in the long and large the old volcanoes -from Hawaii to Midway have been on slices of the earth’s crust faulted -downward below sea level through the ages seems incontrovertible. The -fault planes are diagonals across the main volcanic rift trend and make -the channels between the islands at an angle in plan to the trend of -the island chain. These channels are very deep. All of this philosophy -developed in my mind before I came to Hawaii.</p> - -<p>Also I thought that the origin of life might have been from volcanic -gas, owing to the prominence of carbon dioxide, water vapor, hydrogen, -sulfur, and nitrogen, all ingredients of both protein and volcanoes. -I put this up to R. T. Jackson, who taught me phylogeny when I was -studying fossils and he was studying genetics. Knowing<span class="pagenum" id="Page_166">[166]</span> the sulfurous -quality of an egg yolk, I asked him if it wasn’t possible that as -evolution goes back behind the embryo, we should find volcanic traces -chemically. Phylogeny means that the history of the embryo reenacts the -history of the race, and I merely extended this back to the inorganic. -I was laughed at for carrying biological origin back to gases of -volcanoes; but Shepherd and I collected gases from flaming Kilauea -lava, and found the five elemental constituents: carbon, oxygen, -nitrogen, hydrogen, and sulfur. These also make up the aminoacids -of protein, so my philosophy of origin still seemed to me to be -reasonable. Volcanoes erupted through the ocean, and life came out of -the unexplored deeps of the sea.</p> - -<p>Thus in 1910 I began a book on craters which came to fruition in a -Memoir of the Geological Society. This was not published until 1947, -but I was working on it, drawing the diagrams, dictating the typescript -to Sato, and selecting for illustration the best of our photographs -during the thirties.</p> - -<p>One of the diagrams shows eleven-year cycles, beginning with 1790 -and ending with 1935. I adopted this after finding in Hitchcock a -tabulation for Halemaumau, indicating big lowerings of lava in 1790, -1823, 1855, and 1891, to which we added 1924 from our own experience. -These were approximately thirty-three years apart, as I found when I -plotted the data on a curve of Hitchcock’s table. Taking other major -sinkings as punctuation points—such as the outflows and collapse -of Halemaumau in 1832, 1840, 1868, and 1931—there developed a -correspondence in the subsidence times treated as repose periods, with -the years having the least numbers of sunspots at average intervals of -11.1 years. The intervening times of maxima of sunspots all occurred in -the intermediate times of rising lava.</p> - -<p>The curve as a whole from 1823 to 1924 shows a notable crest from -1855 to 1890, and a crest of the greatest volume of Mauna Loa gushing -occurred between 1855 and 1877. Stearns and Macdonald object to this -diagram as not showing all the little intermediate events, but what I -have taken are the actual peaks and depressions above sea level and -those which correspond to the sunspot interval of 11.1 years. This is -an average even for sunspots, which had long intervals at the beginning -of the nineteenth century, a time when no reports were made for Kilauea.</p> - -<p>I have guessed a drop of Kilauea lava as dating from about A. D. 1800, -corresponding to the notable expulsion of Mauna Loa lava<span class="pagenum" id="Page_167">[167]</span> through -Hualalai, and an imaginary unreported lowering eleven years thereafter, -as it is improbable the island was wholly dead in the first twenty -years of the century. The explosive eruptions of 1790 certainly -produced a big collapse at Kilauea.</p> - -<p>My faith in this diagram is based on the fact that our own eruption -sinkings at eleven year intervals (1902, 1913, 1924, and 1935) agree -so well with an eleven-year theory that we are justified in looking -backward for eleven year averages. Perret has found intervals of about -a decade for Vesuvius. All my experience of Hawaiian lava leads to the -belief, shown by our lava tides and several short-term diagrams, that -rhythmic periods of a volcanic system are related to gravitational -control of the sun and moon. There are rhythmic controls of the globe -by the gravitational control of the sun and moon. There are rhythmic -controls of the globe by the sun, and rhythmic controls of very deep -volcanic cracks by the globe, and rhythmic controls of individual -groups of volcanoes by the long volcanic chains over cracks. Our -experimental data are limited by the little groups of volcanoes, and so -the big rhythmic movements seem inaccessible to science, mostly because -we have no record of relationships of single volcanoes 500 miles apart -in such a place as Alaska.</p> - -<p>We raise no question about night and day or about the oceanic tides or -about the moon’s phases. We know there is a rock tide in the earth, -that there is a hot earth core of about 2200° Centigrade which appears -to seismology to be a very massive liquid 1,800 miles down. Gravitation -is the controlling force of the solar system, the galaxy and the -universe, and it works by rhythms, from the orbits of the planets in -years, to the outermost spiral nebulae in millions of centuries. We -are ourselves controlled by it in locomotion and in the circulation of -the blood. Therefore to think of volcanoes as anything but periodic -and gravitational in their relation to the globe would, to me, make -the science of volcanoes entirely uninteresting. All science lives on -rhythmic action.</p> - -<p>A second manuscript entitled “Steamblast eruptions,” was based on -Mount Pelée in Martinique and a comparison with the 1924 steamblast of -Kilauea. This last had conclusively shown outflow under the sea, and -inflow of groundwater, to change lava surging to blasts from a steam -boiler. A paper published in 1940 was a study of the gas collections -from flaming basalt on Kilauea and Mauna Loa, made by E. S. Shepherd -and me. In this I plotted curves of relative<span class="pagenum" id="Page_168">[168]</span> excellence of collection -in relation to the amount of the volcanic gases, in contrast to the -non-volcanic aqueous and oceanic gases. These latter, notably water -vapor, decreased in proportion to the manipulative excellence of the -handling of vacuum tubes; and the volcanic gases increased, notably -hydrogen and the carbon gases. This convinced me that the deep gas of -volcanoes is hydrogen, associated with carbon dioxide and nitrogen.</p> - -<p>In this decade, too, war brought new demands on my time and experience -and had its effect on the Kilauea Observatory. Major James Snedeker of -the Marine Corps, legal officer for the Commanding General in Honolulu, -having heard of our experience with motorcar amphibians, told me that -the Pacific Ocean war would depend on amphibian landing craft. And a -letter from Admiral Bloch urged me to send to the Navy details of our -experience with amphibians. As this involved geology of beaches around -the Pacific Ocean, I set to work on twelve monographs for the Navy -dealing with the mechanism of amphibians and the problems they posed on -beaches in Hawaii, Puget Sound, and Alaska. Other subjects about which -I supplied information were the inflammability of Japanese buildings -in the Tokyo earthquake, the handling of earthquake and volcano -catastrophes and our material from journals on many places of volcanic -danger in the Pacific.</p> - -<p>Then W. H. Hammond, physicist in charge of a testing laboratory at -Pearl Harbor, suggested that I revive my 1897–1908 testing of steel for -abrasion hardness, later continued by Boynton, for his laboratory of -the Navy. Thus I started hardness testing at the University and carried -it on for ten years. I used diamond and other abrasives in instruments -to show directly on a dial the rate of wear of metals or minerals under -standardized conditions, with a constant and reproducible motor tool. -Abrasion hardness turned out to be as tricky a problem as my range -finders and shock recorders. This activity brought together in the -University laboratory and in the laboratory at Hawaii National Park -many records, manuscripts, and specimens. Ruth Baker, who succeeded -Sato as secretary, did valiant work sorting out materials from many -expeditions which had been dumped in disorder because of war and fire -at the Kilauea Observatory. Though the Park had built a new house for -naturalists, and for the seismographs, shops, and records, it was -taken over by the Commanding General on Hawaii, imposing considerable -hardship on Finch and his assistants. One assistant was Burton -Loucks,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_169">[169]</span> instrument maker, who married Miss Baker. Another, Austin -Jones the seismologist, was transferred to care for seismographs -set up to measure faulting and tilt around Boulder Dam. Dr. Howard -Powers, after work for the Geological Survey and the Territory on the -island of Maui, joined Jones eventually to enter into a new section -of volcanology, established in Denver under the Geological Survey, -especially to assist the Army and Navy studies of Aleutian volcanic -eruptions, wherefrom harbors and airfields were sometimes endangered.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_168fp" style="max-width: 448px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_168fp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>27. Fountain in Halemaumau lava lake, May 23, 1917</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_169afp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_169afp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>28. Rare dome fountain during eruption of Kilauea -Crater, March 20, 1921</i></p> - </div> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_169bfp" style="max-width: 600px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_169bfp.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 center sm"><i>29. Lava stream issuing from a spatter cone near rim -of Halemaumau, February 9, 1921</i></p> - </div> - -<p>Three events of volcanic and seismic importance to Hawaii during the -1940’s were the eruptions of Mauna Loa in 1940 and 1942 and the 1946 -tidal wave caused by a submarine earthquake south of Unalaska. The -wave engulfed the wharves and shorefronts of Hilo and eastern Maui and -caused considerable damage elsewhere.</p> - -<p>We were familiar with the recording by our seismographs of earthquake -centers under the sea of Alaska and Japan, and with the interval of -hours that followed before dangerous water waves reached Hawaiian -shores. We had also had a bad tidal wave in Kona, originating off -Japan; and two or three such waves which damaged Kahului and Hilo had -originated in big submarine earthquakes off the Alaskan Peninsula. The -Japanese fishermen, from our published warnings, always took their -sampans to deep water, and the Navy had instructed me to let them know -right away if the seismographs recorded a distant earthquake capable of -making a tidal wave.</p> - -<p>I earlier had had one unhappy experience with warning the Navy, when -we registered a seismogram of a big earthquake in Alaska, which if -submarine, would send us a tidal wave. I notified Pearl Harbor of the -probable time of arrival of the wave, should the quake be submarine. It -happened a big Army and Navy dinner party at Waikiki was set for just -that time, but orders went out calling officers back to their posts and -the party was disrupted. No tidal wave came, as the earthquake proved -to be on the mainland of Alaska. The newspapers unmercifully jeered at -me, but the Commanding Admiral told me not to change my policy.</p> - -<p>The 1946 wave was very large and the water rose in pulsations until it -swept away the railroad bridge and washed out the whole waterfront of -Hilo. The earthquake seismogram came at 2 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> when no one -was watching, and the water wave at 8 <span class="allsmcap">A.M.</span> came just when the -Observatory workers went on duty. When the flood of ocean destroyed the -Hilo breakwater and leaped over it to damage the<span class="pagenum" id="Page_170">[170]</span> principal wharves, -many people were drowned. Considerable damage was done on Oahu and -Maui. The disaster came when Dr. F. P. Shepard, oceanographer of La -Jolla, was occupying a summer cottage on the north shore of Oahu; and -he was delighted to experience a big tidal wave. Collaborating with -geologists in Hawaii, Shepard compiled a most thorough report on height -of waves in all bays of the Territory. Seismographs and tide gauges got -to work all around the Pacific Ocean, the place on the sea bottom which -had jolted was exactly located, and the Coast Survey and Navy started -far-reaching precautions for predicting against future combinations of -earthquake and water. This included seismographs that ring alarm bells -at night. The object of science is always prediction and assisting -humanity; and the need is always for more men.</p> - -<p>Another significant event of 1947 was the visit of Hans Pettersson of -the Oceanographic Institute of Sweden who was conducting an expedition -which followed the path of the <i>Challenger</i>. The object of the -project was to study the oceanography of the sea bottom around the -equator. Thus Pettersson was enthusiastic about my paper in <i>Natural -History</i> and its emphasis on studying sea bottoms. With him was -inventor Kullenberg who had made a device for boring into the mud of -the sea bottom and taking longer cores than had been dug previously. -His apparatus consisted of a core barrel, tripped with valves close -to the sea bottom under a heavy weight, which would allow it to sink -sixty feet in suitable bottom ooze while the core rose inside the pipe -without being compressed.</p> - -<p>Pettersson had a skilled staff consisting of biologist, physicist, -chemist, and geologist; and they had laboratories on board the -<i>Albatross</i> for study of the collected bottom materials. They -also took echo data of explosions near sea bottom, giving depths of -soft materials over hard rock. This place of transition was found to -be shallower under the Pacific Ocean than under the Atlantic. They -discovered hard lava flows in many places between Tahiti and Hawaii -and under the Indian Ocean, indicating extensive submarine volcanic -eruption. An attempt was made to measure the temperature of a core, -and this suggested that the bottom of the boring was warmer than the -top, meaning a thermal gradient of sea bottom. A core of volcanic -agglomerate was obtained in the deep trench opposite the East Indies.</p> - -<p>It was during this period that President Gregg Sinclair of the -University of Hawaii urged a plan for geophysics of the Pacific, and<span class="pagenum" id="Page_171">[171]</span> -Professor R. W. Hiatt of that institution succeeded in advancing -interest in organic oceanography. I wrote an appeal, based on such work -as that of Pettersson, Perret, and others urging the Regents of the -University to plan a large geophysical institute in Hawaii, to make a -science of the rock bottom of the Pacific Ocean.</p> - -<p>Thousands of soundings made in the Gulf of Alaska and in the central -Pacific had shown seamounts, or guyots, shaped like high volcanoes on -the sea floor, some of them with flat tops, but having characteristics -of ancient isolated volcanoes. New soundings revealed mountain -ranges on the sea floor, probably volcanic, one of them right across -the middle of the Hawaiian chain. No one had yet discovered fiery -eruption in deep water, but oceanographers were beginning to use -boring machines, cameras, electric lights, and devices for determining -radioactivity of the muds. As sea bottom occupies three-quarters of the -globe, it is inconceivable, when compared with the continents, that -it has no hot solfataras, hot springs, and hot volcanoes. In fact, -we know some of the latter in shallow water. It is only a question -of scientific organization to locate the sources of Pettersson’s -submarine lava flows. President Sinclair took to the chiefs of the -Rockefeller and Carnegie Foundations a proposal for a five million -dollar Geophysical Institute at the University of Hawaii, to utilize -the advantages of its central Pacific position.</p> - -<p>As for my own experiments, my Department of Volcanology at the -University was moved into a concrete basement room a thousand square -feet in area in the Home Economics building, and the expense was shared -with the Hawaiian Volcano Research Association. Here I had office and -shop and collections of the Research Association, and the assistance -of a secretary and a junior researcher who is an instrument maker. -Thus were assembled in a fire resistant location my petrographic and -mineral collections from Europe, the Caribbean, Central America, and -the Pacific lands, together with manuscripts from my days of Harvard -and Massachusetts Tech to the middle of the century and classified -accumulations of my Navy monographs, lantern slides, negatives, -photographs, maps, drawings, correspondence, and instruments, including -material obtained by the Research Association for experiments still -continuing on the hardness of minerals.</p> - -<p>One objective of this hardness measurement was an instrument for -machine shops which would give in half a minute the length of a -standard scratch made by a standard dental disk of silicon carbide.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_172">[172]</span> -I called this the “Jaggar Scratch Tester” and Mr. Paul Rushforth, a -Honolulu optician, made improved models of the instrument. When a -book was published on the experiments with some three hundred woods, -minerals, metals, and plastics, Dr. Grodzinski of the commercial -diamond establishments in London became interested and reproduced -the paper in a review dealing with industrial diamonds, which have -become of great importance in the world of grinding machinery. This -made a new contact with England, similar to that made by Boynton with -my microsclerometer in 1908, when he applied it to the microscopic -constituents of steel under the British Iron and Steel Institute. I -sent a copy of my new report to the Pearl Harbor industrial laboratory, -along with one of the instruments. Endorsers of this report were Mr. W. -H. Hammond and Dr. Earl Ingerson, director of the mineral laboratories -of the U.S. Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>A result of the experiments on hardness is the knowledge that the -important quality is softness, or abradability, and speed of removal -of material in any uniform mechanical cutting process. It was formerly -thought that the big intervals in values were between the hard -substances. It turns out that the biggest gaps in value are in soft -substances like coals and clays and plasters. Hardness is purely a -negative quality of resistance, and measurements are of yielding, not -of resisting.</p> - -<p>Other experiments on which I worked dealt with location of the Zenith -in the sky for quick determination of latitude and longitude from stars -and telescopic studies of the moon, an old hobby of my master, Shaler. -I have long been convinced that Kilauea lava resembles moon lava in -the craters it builds, and my special interest is that Mauna Loa and -Kilauea build structures of basalt, small and large, which are earth -experiments imitating the moon on a smaller scale. The astronomers -say their field is the stars, the geologists must explain the moon. -As a matter of fact, one geologist has made a start. My classmate -J. E. Spurr, who after retirement to Florida from work as U.S. -Geological Survey geologist among the faults and lavas of the far West, -published books on the comparison of the moon with geology. In view -of increasing attempts to explain moon craters by impact (Baldwin), I -feel that experienced volcanologists should also take a hand in moon -science. Larger arcs of circles on the globe, the Aleutian Islands for -instance, resemble moon features and are deeply volcanic. Furthermore, -magnificent detailed photographs<span class="pagenum" id="Page_173">[173]</span> of the moon from modern telescopes -are available to volcanology.</p> - -<p>I spent my summers at Hawaii National Park, becoming consulting -geophysicist. Dr. Chester K. Wentworth of the Board of Water Supply -became geologist. The laboratories were extended to a seismograph -station seven miles up the northeast flank of Mauna Loa, but operation -of the original cellar adjacent to the Volcano House was continued. -A basement under the Natural History building of the Park held -seismographs, Finch’s office and library, and Loucks’ shop.</p> - -<p>In 1948 Observatory work was returned to the administration of the -Geological Survey, and a volcanologic branch in Denver took over Dr. -Powers to make airplane studies of the Aleutian Islands. This was under -Mr. Walter Frederick Hunt, in charge of geology, U.S. Geological Survey.</p> - -<p>When Hawaii National Park was reorganized, Frank Oberhansley, -superintendent, the Natural History building was adopted as Park -Headquarters, and the Uwekahuna buildings, with their magnificent -view in all directions, were reconstructed as the Hawaiian Volcano -Observatory. A new seismograph cellar was dug, away from disturbances -of Uwekahuna cliff, and modern instruments were installed. Mr. John -Forbes became assistant machinist; and on Mr. Finch’s retirement in -1951, Dr. Gordon Macdonald became volcanologist in charge. C. K. -Wentworth moved from Honolulu to the National Park region and took -charge of magnetic measurement, which had been established at numerous -stations by physicists of the Geological Survey. During past decades -physicists and chemists had visited the Observatory, among them -Dr. Stanley Ballard, who equipped the laboratories with a Gaertner -spectrograph; Dr. Harvey White of Berkeley, who found no radioactivity -in Hawaiian lavas; and Dr. J. J. Naughton, who found a critical isotope -of carbon in the emanations of Sulphur Bank. Modern chemistry was -beginning to be applied to volcanology in the field, and this was what -Hovey, Perret, and I hoped for fifty years ago. So much for dry facts -of organization.</p> - -<p>In 1949 the summit crater of Mauna Loa erupted, with fracture and -outflow of its south end toward Kona. This was followed in 1950 by -lengthy rupture of the southwest rift with the most voluminous and -rapid outflows of history, three of them going into the ocean and -wreaking destruction in South Kona.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_174">[174]</span></p> - -<p>The sequence of these outflows was from high sources first, with others -opening farther south, and the most conspicuous flows following the -steep Kona slope into the ocean, beginning at Hookena. Macdonald and -National Park naturalists photographed and recorded everything. The old -Hookena post office on the upper road at the home of the veteran Mr. -Lincoln was carried away, and this occasioned much drama, for the old -man didn’t wish to leave his home. The next house destroyed, an old -landmark, was the Magoon Ranch. The third was the attractive and modern -Ohia Lodge, a resort built of native logs in the wilderness.</p> - -<p>A separate large flow forked away from the rift, to the eastern side -of the mountain, reaching the lowest landward elevation in the forest -of Kahuku, and short flows spilled over the southwest rift on the east -side.</p> - -<p>Several persons approached the flows in South Kona from the ocean. -The early photographs of the first flows, where the hard sprouts and -boulders of stiff aa partially cooled entered the ocean, showed big -columns of vapor from contact with sea water. Not so with the third -flow farthest south, explored from a canoe by Jack Matsumoto and a -companion, equipped with motion picture cameras. The pictures were good -color photographs, and the torrent of lava flowed down a steep bank -of its own substance, hemmed in by hardened ridges at the sides, the -stream intensely liquid and flowing directly into the ocean.</p> - -<p>The result was most remarkable. The yellow liquid lava went into the -salt water without making any column of steam at all; the sea bottom -simply received it with its rush downward, the water boiling superhot, -and the lava taking the water vapor into itself. The phenomenon was not -due to the rising of dry steam, for there was no condensation cloud -above. Scientists explained it by assuming a shell of lava making a -tunnel under the ocean, with the crust ending just at sea level.</p> - -<p>Such a submarine arch was definitely not present, for the waves surged -back and forth and, Matsumoto states, there was no sign of a submerged -reef. The motion picture bears this out. What was probably going on -is what happens to slag in a patented process of the steel mills, -where the glow liquid is flowed over a perforated surface emitting -hundreds of water jets, and the melt at 1300° Centigrade absorbs the -water without making visible steam. The slag turns into a myriad of -microscopic glassy spheres, becoming a<span class="pagenum" id="Page_175">[175]</span> kind of pumice. A peculiarity -of this substance is that if it is cooled at 700° Centigrade it will -pass a critical point and give up the absorbed water with explosive -effects. It seems likely that Matsumoto’s golden torrent sweeping -into the ocean was so excessively hot that it took up the water and -continued to flow down the sea bottom as a water-charged product. The -snapping and crackling effects, and the submarine earthquakes, making -localized tidal waves such as those noted in 1919 when such a torrent -entered the sea, may be due to the explosive cooling when the slag -gives up its water.</p> - -<p>The use of color motion pictures is one of the many improvements -owed to modern science, and the mapping of lava flows by airplane -photography. This gave Macdonald a new weapon for surveying the volume -accumulation at the time of the 1950 outflows, for from air photographs -he got exact outlines of the flows. These, checked against calculated -thicknesses, gave him volumes which could be compared with volumes of -older flows proportionate to areas. These calculations showed that -nothing since 1868 has yielded such large volumes of lava, per days of -outflow.</p> - -<p>Mrs. Jaggar and I were returning to Hawaii from a trip to Nova Scotia, -and the Matson steamer <i>Lurline</i> took us to the Kona coast toward -the end of the 1950 eruption, for inspection of the glowing flows late -at night. They looked like hot coals extending far up the mountainside -under the clouds, with occasional bright flares where trees burst into -flame. Visible motion there was none, as we were too late for the -rapid flowing and too far away to see detailed motion. This eruption -resembled the voluminous flow of Mauna Loa in 1868, from a low vent -at the south end of the mountain, and lasted only a short time after -preliminary summit outbursts. The similarity was a big earthquake -series, and this was to happen again in Kona in 1951. The cataclysmal -opening of the southwest rift in the nineteenth century eruption -followed a quarter century of northern outflows, those from 1843 to -1859. Next came those from 1929 to 1952 in the twentieth century. The -1929 earthquakes subterraneously began the northern series.</p> - -<p>The same argument applies to the twenty-six years of summit and -southern outflows, from 1903 to 1929, which followed a quarter century -of alternations north and south. None of this takes account of all the -summit crater outbreaks, the hinge line between the jostlings of the -north and south rift sectors. Roughly the whole argument centers about -a supposed rocking of the Mauna Loa<span class="pagenum" id="Page_176">[176]</span> mountain sectors, northward and -southward from the crater. The two rifts become stiff and seal up for -twenty-five years, and then break open for a new period of looseness. -The summit well is somehow full always.</p> - -<p>A remarkable event, namely repose of Kilauea for eighteen years -after 1934, may be another reaction. The previous excitement was -the buildup, collapse, and recovery of the mountain for the quarter -century preceding 1934, with its culmination the steam blast in 1924 of -underground water, the dormancy of Kilauea beginning ten years later. -Kilauea in 1790 had a bigger explosive eruption, and was in repose for -eighteen years beginning ten years thereafter, namely in 1800. Thus -it seems likely that Kilauea executes quarter centuries of crisis in -its own right. These times are not exact, but are approximations of -scientific search for order in a big machine, the Hawaiian volcanic -system, where rhythmic pulsations exist wherever gravity operates. A -third of a century may prove more exact than the estimate of a quarter -century.</p> - -<p>The end of this 1940 decade completes a half century of my experience -of volcanoes and earthquakes, dwelling with a single crater, and -learning that volcanoes and earthquakes are tied together. They appear -tied to deep ruptures 2,000 miles long, in the thick shell of the earth -over a white hot liquid core.</p> - -<p>I have recently started an experiment with a thick globe of cement, -made with a shell, proportional in thickness to the earth’s crust, -which is 1,800 miles deep, as all seismologists agree. Striking this -shell with a sledge hammer, I find it breaks in straight lines at -right angles to each other. Theory is bound to be influenced by the -observational answers derived from watching lava emerging from the -mountain rifts, at the end of the long straight belt of rifts of the -whole Hawaiian chain.</p> - -<p>I continually review my own geological muddles, the controversies over -steam, flames, volcano swelling, explosion craters, layers in the -crust, weighting and underflowing, continental uplift, the globe’s -armor plate, contraction wrinkling of basins of sediment, submarine -volcanoes, linear chains of volcanoes, siliceous shell, blocks lifted -or sunk, planets solar or from the sun’s binary twin, original heat or -radioactive heat, thick crust or thin shell, lava reservoirs or lava -core, pregeology ancestors of volcanoes, and craters on the moon. The -only way to calculate from observations on Hawaiian volcanoes is to -copy the mathematicians; namely, to guess at the answers.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_177">[177]</span></p> - -<h2><span class="smcap">Chapter VII</span><br /> -<span class="subhed">Envoi</span></h2></div> - - <div class="poetry-container"> - <div class="poetry"> - <div class="stanza"> - <div class="ileft">“<i>Tho’ world on world in myriad myriads roll round us</i></div> - <div><i>Each with different powers and other forms of life than ours.</i>”</div> - </div> - </div> - </div> - -<p>I have spent sixty years in qualitative experiments in geology. I began -with old volcanoes and geysers in the Yellowstone and the far west, -and ended with experiments on the active Hawaiian volcano, Kilauea. -Based on these experiments, I have written books about evolution of -craters, and about distinct peculiarities of explosive eruptions from -underground water.</p> - -<p>The accusation that I am not orthodox in professional geology is false. -Professional geology is largely continental because its field work has -been on continents. My work has been oceanic; my field, seventy percent -of the earth’s surface, extending over a thick crust down to the earth -core. The earth core is fluid and massive and hot, as all geology -agrees. Isostasy, which postulates a thin flexible shell, is violated -by the ocean deeps and the volcanic ridges. Volcanic rift echelons like -the Cordillera and the Hawaiian ridge are too long to be generated as -the fracture of a crust fifty miles deep. The circularity and graduated -size in linear stretches of the Pacific arcs are functions of a -fractured thick-shell sphere. Similar gradation of arcs is on the lunar -surface. Arguments, based on the knowledge of meteors, for an iron core -and for large lunar craters are without analogy. Substratum theories, -from Stübel to Daly, do not agree with oceanic volcanism. Gravitational -crust balance applies better to a primitive thick fault block crust -than to a thin shell. Earth lavas, as natural experimental models, -imitate lunar features on small and large scales. Both make consistent -history for two similar globes. Volcanology has to stand as global and -ancient, and any geologist may accept the reasonings here enumerated -without being unorthodox.</p> - -<p>The unquestioned certainties of modern seismology, the transmission of -elastic waves through the globe to sensitive recording<span class="pagenum" id="Page_180">[180]</span> pendulums, -are that the crust is 1,800 miles thick, that the core is a heavy ball -of white hot fluid, and that its temperature at crustal contact has -been estimated by Verhoogen at 2200° Centigrade. The deep crust is less -dense than the core, and is commonly conceded to be basic heavy rock -not unlike stony meteorites. The outside shell under oceans, and over -three-quarters of the earth, is covered by basaltic lava, and wherever -igneous rock has been formed by volcanic action, intrusive or extrusive -black basic lava recurs as dikes and outflows.</p> - - <div class="figcenter" id="i_179" style="max-width: 471px"> - <img - class="p2" - src="images/i_179.jpg" - alt="" /> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">ARMOR PLATE AT OCEANS</p> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">ARMOR PLATE AT CONTINENTS</p> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">EXTERIOR OF FUNDAMENTAL GLOBE TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS</p> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">CORE LIMIT TO WHICH ADJUSTMENT TENDS</p> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">VOLC. OCEAN  CHAINS OF OCEAN VOLCANOES</p> - <p class="p0 sm hangingindent">VOLC. CONT.  CHAINS OF CONTINENTAL BORDER VOLCANOES</p> - </div> - -<p><span class="smcap">On the page opposite</span> <i>is a diagram of a hypothetical globe -section near the equator, showing oceans and continents in true surface -ratio; fault block segments of rigid crust isostatically supported on -a liquid core; sixteen volcanic partitions, oceanic and continental; -and Stübel’s “armorplate” from pristine volcanic eruption. Possibly the -profile is tetrahedral. My argument for this globe section is based on -the following</i>:</p> - -<div class="blockquot"> - -<p>A globe of core, siliceous shell, and armorplate was formed by -primitive volcanic eruptions.</p> - -<p>The shell resulted from external aggregation of solids and gases -and internal segregation about a molten core.</p> - -<p>The fault blocks came from shrinkage of the shell over a liquid -core, adjusted by luni-solar gravitation and rotation through -the pre-geologic ages.</p> - -<p>The continental and oceanic boundaries of the fault blocks were -determined by elevated and sunken blocks with core volcanism of -escaping gas melting walls and laying down an exterior siliceous -armorplate on the earliest solidified globe. This in continents -is the seismologists’ lighter exterior layer underlaid by denser -rock at the armorplate bottom.</p> - -<p>Continental volcanism (VOLC.-CONT.) became differentiated from -oceanic volcanism, by light atmospheric pressure over the raised -blocks and much greater water pressure over three-quarters of -the earth, the sunken blocks.</p> - -<p>The subdivision is represented in the diagrammatic section on -the globe by three-quarters of the section being ocean, namely -twelve-sixteenths.</p> - -<p>The section shows twelve-sixteenths as sunken blocks, -four-sixteenths as raised blocks. The four sixteenths by the -tetrahedral hypothesis of Lowthian Green and Michel-Lévy make -the four continental protuberances.</p> - -<p>Twelve-sixteenths of the surface is broken by fundamental rifts -of irregular shapes, some of them north-south, controlled by -centrifugal stresses and corresponding to the north-south deeps -and heaps and known rifts. These have persisted since the first -volcanism of primitive time.</p> - -<p>Circum-continental volcanism is represented on the diagram by -VOLC.-CONT., oceanic volcanism is represented by VOLC.-OCEAN. -Both are shown as interblock rifts, adjusted through the -ages (exaggerated on the drawing) and always tensional over -expansional core pressure, with exothermal heating agencies.</p> - -<p>The sixteen fundamental block boundaries correspond -approximately to sixteen fundamental volcanic fault blocks known -vaguely on the globe. Something similar is known on the moon. -The rifts are the boundaries of sixteen blocks, some polyhedral, -some elongate. Some are oceanic like New Zealand-Tonga, some -are ancient and continental like Arabia. The imperfectly -mapped ocean deeps are boundary lines. The rifts of Africa and -Chile-Patagonia are boundary lines. The great arcs of Himalaya, -Java-Sumatra, and Aleutian ridges are boundary lines of circular -blocks. Possibly they were circular calderas of engulfment on -the primitive spheroid. The edge of Mare Imbrium on the moon -shows fault rifts. The straight alignment of lunar calderas -hints at moon rifts under an unmapped mosaic. The blocks of the -theory of continental drift, are guesses at a mosaic of crust -blocks. But the possibility drift theory omitted is that the -blocks are deep. Except for the Lowthian Green, Wegener, Holmes, -and Daly speculations, based on thin crust blocks of continents, -no mapping of the shell mosaic exists. It is not feasible until -we map the detail of ocean bottoms. Primitive blocks require -acceptance of a thick crust and justify new speculation. The -cracks between blocks are the volcanic partitions of the earth, -which I call ignisepts.</p> - -<p>There are many points for speculation, some of them subject -to mathematical inquiry. Does surface water penetrate the -partitions? Is it high pressure and saline under oceans? How -do deep earthquakes stem from friction 300 miles down under -the Cordillera and the west Pacific? Do earth and moon spheres -as rounded tetrahedra crack similarly? Because of rotation -are north-south cracks dominant? Are the core fluids changing -volcanism through the ages?</p> -</div> - -<p>The twenty-eight percent of earth surface which lies above the sea in -continents is made up of siliceous sediments of shallow water basins, -with quartz as the dominant mineral, their strata wrinkled, and eroded -into mountain ranges. Desert and lake or river bottoms make up most of -the remainder. This material, when ancient, was changed by heat and -infiltration into what are called gneisses, schists, and granites; and -the process of granitization is among the metamorphic processes. It -is a process of deep burial, heat, gases, and water which has always -been a puzzle, and may affect ancient volcanic lavas wherever they -have covered the land. It is a process of solution of silica, and its -deposition is by steam and other vapors.</p> - -<p>In the same way volcanic action by the outpouring of lava through -cracks is a process of solution of the deeper crust of the earth by hot -gases, largely burning hydrogen. Lavas emerging from Etna or Mauna Loa -are melted earth crust, dissolved and brought up by this same hydrogen -and by other gases from the walls of profound cracks leading down to -the earth core. Volcanism and metamorphism are thus the same process, -namely the action of gases up cracks through deep earth crust. But -metamorphism acts on continental sediments, whereas modern volcano -eruption acts through sea bottom and sea shore faulting, very ancient -features of the earth and distinct from continents. In Hawaii no -metamorphic rock fragments have been found.</p> - -<p>Such primitive oceanic fault fissures extend under continents remnant -from the time of evolution of continents. They bring up the metamorphic -hot gases, which in siliceous sediments, make granites and gneisses and -schists with the aid of groundwater. Geology has no knowledge whatever -of whether this metamorphic process affects the hard rock under the -oceanic muds, because geology has never collected a piece of that rock. -Geology however knows inclusions and explosive fragments from oceanic -volcanoes, and it does not<span class="pagenum" id="Page_181">[181]</span> find there granite and gneiss and schist. -However, generalization does not apply to continental volcanoes like -those of Italy and Africa.</p> - -<p>The beginning of fossils on continents is commonly considered to have -been 500 million years ago, and this may be extended another 1,500 -million years for the most ancient identifiable continental rocks, -and an estimated total thickness of 120,000 feet to the bottom of the -most ancient sediments on earth. We know nothing of thickness of most -ancient volcanic deposits under the oceanic mud.</p> - -<p>This brings us to the great German explorer Stübel, who mapped -volcanoes of the Andes, founded a museum of his work in Leipzig, and -published monographs on the Andes. He wrote a final book, including -material on Mount Pelée, on the “genetic differences of volcanic -mountains.” But such modern continentalists as Daly and Bucher in -America have disregarded Stübel. Daly is the authority on a shallow -earth shell and substratum of basalt, and Bucher of Columbia University -is a specialist on continental sediments and granitization.</p> - -<p>The point is that Stübel made a profound generalization which nobody -has proved wrong. The earth is at least 3,000 million years old, and -when oceanic fault blocks sank and received condensing atmospheric -water and continental fault blocks remained high and became eroded, -there was already a thick shell of volcanic lavas. For volcanism -was the most ancient process on the earth’s surface. It had always -brought gases up cracks from the core, making atmosphere, water, and -extrusions. Stübel, called the extrusive shell on the outside of the -primitive crust the globe’s armorplate. The primal gas escape, whatever -the ancestral turbulence inside, had to come up cracks and make -volcanic deposits. It is commonly presumed that the very thick inside -crust formed rapidly by cooling and solidifying from outside the core -inward, and from inside the atmosphere outward. The latter surface -was eventually under water cooling over most of the earth and under -air cooling over the small continental area, a marked difference of -temperature and pressure for the two areas.</p> - -<p>Seismometry teaches that most of the crust is of fairly uniform -density. Therefore, presumably, a thick crust was arrived at early. -There was obviously a time of conflict between the weighting of the -crust by its heavier accumulations next to the core, by its lighter -accumulations exteriorly under water and air, and finally by its<span class="pagenum" id="Page_182">[182]</span> -external armor plate of unknown comparative weight, made of volcanic -lava. For all we know, this might have been volcanic pumice. Rapidity -of crust thickening is speculative.</p> - -<p>Right here there is an element of mystery in speculation as to which -has to accommodate comparison with the moon, the merging of atmospheric -condensation with volcanism, and the merging of suboceanic condensation -of lava with pristine eruption. This is too hard a nut to crack, in -our current ignorance of rock under sea bottom muds. But Stübel’s -insistence on a coating of lava armor plate over both continents and -sea bottoms as the earlier volcanism, and an external veneer on the -earth, is unavoidable. If it were all basalt like the present oceanic -volcanoes, we should find basalt in continents underneath the granites. -We do not do so. If it were all light weight granitizing by segregation -of silica, we should find commonly granite and obsidian fragments -within oceanic lavas. We do not do so. We have to conclude then that -our sections, topographic and geologic, do not go deep enough. And -as for the ocean bottoms, we have no sections at all. But Stübel was -right. An unknown volcanic eruption period had to precede geologic -volcanoes.</p> - -<p>The question of ancient greenstones in Africa, Scandinavia, and Canada -is much discussed, for there were old volcanic lavas in many places; -mixed with gneisses, schists, and granites. They were not a deep -layer, but presumed to be ancient remnants of interspersed lavas among -sediments. They are one more evidence that volcanic eruption goes -back to the time of the most ancient rocks on continents and that its -lavas were affected by metamorphism. But no continuous deep stratum of -greenstones is known. At depths of fifty miles, under continents only, -is the Mohorovicic change to denser rock. This is an echo surface in -earthquake waves, but it is absent over the whole Pacific. It may be -the top of the armor plate.</p> - -<p>Justice Holmes wrote that the Constitution of the United States -was an experiment. That all law of the nation works salvation by -prophecy based on experiment. The experiments were extended to the -Bill of Rights and all the amendments to the Constitution. I feel -that geology—in view of its extreme ignorance of submarine rocks, -ores, metals, oils, spring waters, temperatures, magnetism, gravity, -and gases for most of the earth—needs a bill of rights and numerous -amendments to its constitution. Its salvation by prophecy needs to -be based on experiments with instruments, drill rigs, and anchored -laboratories in this vast area. These experiments, superficially,<span class="pagenum" id="Page_183">[183]</span> -have been conducted by oceanographic sampling of bottom materials, by -gravity pendulums operated in submarines, by cameras on sea bottoms, -and collections of bottom waters, by tests of radioactivity of -bottom materials, by echo sounding to determine thickness of muds, -by volcanology on oceanic islands, by topographic surveying of the -bottom, and by all the excellent work of the oceanographic and geologic -stations and their seismographs, with some studies of marine chemistry, -physics, and biology. The conclusions in this book amount to only one -small prophecy based on experiments with volcanoes. But the rock under -deep ocean mud is still uncollected.</p> - -<p>My volcano experiments are not influenced by any consensus of text -books. I was educated on textbook opinions and found geologic science -deficient in experimental measurement of the field progress of -erosion, sedimentation, deformation, and eruption. I expended most of -my teaching in a plea for field observatories of time measurement of -these four processes. The plea has done some good, and in this century -we have seen grow up the International Geophysical Union. Experiment -stations have multiplied, to make geophysics and geochemistry pure -quantitative sciences. But they are generally commercial and have not -extended to deep boring under oceans.</p> - -<p>While working from volcano observatories for the extension of geology -in Alaska, Japan, Hawaii, Tonga, the Caribbean and Italy, and on the -mainland of California, Central America, and New Zealand, I have found -myself on the outskirts of vast oceans, engaged in a science almost as -unsatisfactory as the textbook science of historical and continental -geology. It is always a compromise, for we are up against a crying need -for maps of the bedrock under the muds of the vast oceans. Volcanism -cries out for a knowledge of the globe, and it is helped by such work -as that of Gutenberg and Richter. These men compiled critical maps of -earthquakes, measured by elastic theory the world over. Their work -necessarily made many contacts with volcanoes. The same may be said -of the geophysical summaries of gravity, magnetism, climatology, -hydrology, and oceanography. But all our sciences stop at the immense -sea bottoms, and need salvation through experiment.</p> - -<p>Science is not doing all it can. Finances and engineering are competent -to contact sea bottom directly with expensive machines not yet invented -and to create oceanic rock science. Offshore boring for oil is not -enough. Pure science needs an example by financiers<span class="pagenum" id="Page_184">[184]</span> like Carnegie and -Rockefeller who are not seeking profit. Engineering advice positively -can reach under the few hundred feet of mud, find the rock, and bore -into it in 2,000 fathoms. The first man who does it will open a -new frontier. All honor to Shepard, Ewing, Piggot, Pettersson, and -Kullenberg, men who have barely broken ground in this science. The -whole of volcanology depends on collecting the crustal rock under the -mud.</p> - -<p>Hoyle’s book “The Nature of the Universe” takes us one step farther. -It shows that all science is essentially cosmology, and science deals -with the origin and progress of all nature. I would go farther than the -universe. I would include the science of life and of our brains. We -need an imaginative picture starting with the outer universe. We end on -the earth with volcanoes and the birth of life.</p> - -<p>Hoyle and Lyttleton of Cambridge have presented a condensation of -current astrophysics, which includes earth, moon, and planets; sun -and stars; origin and future of stars; and origin of solar systems. A -most gratifying conclusion is that the background material of space -creates hydrogen. This is proved by precise mathematical equations. -This accounts for the expanding universe under the pressure of such -creation. The outermost nebulae continually pass beyond the speed of -light. The galaxies move out into infinite space endlessly. They are -renovated endlessly by gravitation from hydrogen eternally created.</p> - -<p>The sun, by knowledge built up from the days of Jeans and Eddington, -contains more than ninety percent of hydrogen, and the small remainder -is helium, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and iron. It maintains its surface -temperature by nuclear reactions from within outward, at a rate -suitable to make helium out of hydrogen, so as to compensate for the -energy which the sun radiates.</p> - -<p>This dominance of hydrogen inside the solar star makes it impossible -that the earth should be solar. Rather, it was a product of a companion -star, a supernova which exploded and, with excessive heat, created -elements atomically. The sun was a binary pair of stars, and the -companion occupied the place of the four greater planets. The remnant -body, after explosion, moved away.</p> - -<p>A gaseous ring formed around the sun condensing from many molecules -to rotating superplanets. These broke up many hundred million years -ago into Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune. Small blobs escaped to -become the inner planets including the earth. The earth captured small -solids and acquired the moon as a satellite.<span class="pagenum" id="Page_185">[185]</span> It got radioactive matter -exteriorly, plus nitrogen, water, oxygen, and carbon dioxide.</p> - -<p>There is a hundred times more hydrogen per unit of mass in the sun than -in the planets. Its supply will last for 50,000 million years. The -solar system is tunneling through variable interstellar gas. It picks -up more or less material, and so changes climates occasionally. This -makes such episodes as the ice ages on earth. Lyttleton estimates that -the dust clouds encountered form bundles of particles captured by the -sun to make comets.</p> - -<p>The mathematics of the interior of the sun, applied by Bethe to the use -of carbon and nitrogen as catalysts and changing hydrogen to helium, is -a model of experimentation. It should be imitated to explain Hawaiian -basalt. The core of the earth produces gas reactions up cracks. The -gases act on deep crust. The surface product is olivine basalt. -What are the reactions between gas and crust to make Mauna Loa foam -fountains? This problem has not been tackled. Geologists have clung to -a theory of shallow reservoirs.</p> - -<p>The astronomers of Cambridge, successors of the American experimenter -George Ellery Hale and of Eddington and Jeans, are not the final word -in cosmology. There will be a final word. The picture created from -background material to gas, from gas to galaxies, and from galaxies to -solar systems ends for us in our planet with a white hot liquid core. -Nuclear reactions created this from the superheat of an exploding -supernova. Our erupting volcanoes are the end product. We can sit -beside erupting lava fountains and watch hydrogen flames, the same gas -that was made of the background material in the universe.</p> - -<p>All this is outcome of gravitation. It extends from the first eddies of -hydrogen in outer space to the final rotation of the earth. The final -hydrogen, with carbon, made life on the earth. The five elements of -volcanic gas are identical with the five elements of organic chemistry. -Dr. Hoyle mistakenly concludes that we have no clue to our own fate. -But he points out that the universe is continuous creation. Our picture -is one instant of time in an everlasting now. Mind is an everlasting -unit beyond which we cannot go.</p> - -<p>It is illogical to pay any attention to existence after death unless -we pay equal attention to existence before birth. All is continuous -creation. The making of hydrogen is just as true within the creation -of life as within the universe. Life is under gravitation. Gravitation -controls the instantaneous moving picture, even the emergence of<span class="pagenum" id="Page_186">[186]</span> life -from volcanic gases under enormous water pressure at sea bottom. It -is just as much subject to experiment as the outer boundary of the -universe.</p> - -<p>Life is an end product; and it thinks, worships, and experiments. -Treating life and volcanoes as end products of Hoyle’s universe makes -science fundamentally cosmology.</p> - -<p>One final comment, after looking at sea bottom eruptions through all -the ages. Continental life came out of the sea, and original life comes -continually from the earth core. This gives new dignity to the future -search for global action on the sea bottom.</p> - -<p>The “emergent evolution” of Lloyd Morgan makes much of mutation as -accounting for progress from unconscious life to consciousness, -consciousness to memory, memory to reasoning, and reasoning to -spirituality. Each one of these is a new mutation, in the same sense as -a new fruit by Burbank. The first unconscious life may be considered -a mutation from the inorganic of the globe. The totally unknown -pressure-temperature conditions of volcanic eruption through the -cracking earth of ocean bottom, and the ground waters under the ocean, -lend a final dignity to exploration of that frontier.</p> - -<p>Hoyle writes that the ultimate goal of the New Cosmology is continuous -creation in outer space. The ultimate goal of the New Volcanology is -continuous creation in oceanic depths.</p> -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop" /> - -<div class="chapter"> -<p><span class="pagenum" id="Page_187">[187]</span></p> - -<h2>INDEX</h2> -</div> - -<p class="p-index">A</p> - -<ul> - <li><b>aa</b>, - <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, - <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - - <li>Abbot, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Absaroka Range, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Adak Harbor, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Adams, C. E., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Africa, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Agassiz, Alexander, - <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>Agassiz Museum, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - - <li>Aghileen Pinnacles, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Agricultural Experiment Station, Kodiak, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Agua cone, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - - <li>Akutan Island, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Alaska, - <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137–145</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>— expeditions to, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Alaska Commercial Company, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Albatross (ship), - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Aleutian arc, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Aleutian eruptions, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>Aleutian Geographical Observatory, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Aleutian Islands, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137–145</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>— expeditions to, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Aleutian trench, - <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - - <li>Alfaro, Anastasio, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Algonkian, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - - <li>Allen, E. H., - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - - <li>Alps, the, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Alyea, Hubert, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Amazon River, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Amchitka Island, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Amerada Company, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>American Journal of Science, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - - <li>American Museum, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>American Relief Committee, - <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - - <li>amphibian vehicles, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Anderson, C. A., - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Anderson, J., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Anderson, Tempest, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li>Anderson, the cook, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Andes, the, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Andrews, E. C., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Angaha, - <a href="#Page_147">147–149</a></li> - - <li>Antigua, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Appalachian basin, - <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, - <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - - <li>Appalachian Mountains, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46–49</a>, - <a href="#Page_51">51–52</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Archean granites, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Arizona, - <a href="#Page_25">25–28</a></li> - - <li>arrowroot, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Asama Volcano, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a></li> - - <li>Asama-Bandai system, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Ascutney Mountain, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Asia, mountain ranges of, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - - <li>Aso Volcano, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>astronomy, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184–185</a></li> - - <li>Atka, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - - <li>Atlantic Ocean, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>— deeps of, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Attu, - <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li> - - <li>Auckland, - <a href="#Page_109">109–110</a></li> - - <li>Audubon, J. J., - <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, - <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - - <li>Australia, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>— science congress in, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">B</p> - -<ul> - <li>Bad Lands of South Dakota, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37–38</a></li> - - <li>Baker, Ruth, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>Baker Island, - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>Baldwin, R. G., - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Ballard, Stanley S., - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Ballou, Howard M., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Bandai Volcano, - <a href="#Page_42">42–43</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_106">106–108</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Barbados, - <a href="#Page_61">61–62</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Barnard, Mr. and Mrs., - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Barrios, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - - <li>Barton, G., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Bartrum, J. A., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Barus, Carl, - <a href="#Page_54">54</a></li> - - <li>bat, giant, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - - <li>Bay of Plenty, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>bear hunts, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Beecher, C., - <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - - <li>Belcher, ...., - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Belize, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Bellingham, Wash., - <a href="#Page_143">143–144</a></li> - - <li>Bergen, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Bergson, H., - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> - - <li>Bering Sea, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Berkshire Hills, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - - <li>Bermel, Colonel, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Bermuda, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Bernhardt, Sarah, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Berry, Robert, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>Bethe, H. A., - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - <li>Big Horn expedition, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Bingham, Hiram, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li>Bird, Isabella, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>birds, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, - <a href="#Page_148">148–149</a></li> - - <li>— gannets, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>— goonies, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>— malau, - <a href="#Page_148">148–149</a></li> - - <li>— man-of-war, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>— murres, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>— terns, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Birdseye, Claude H., - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129–130</a></li> - - <li>Bishop Estate, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - - <li>Bishop Museum, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Black Forest, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Black Growler, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - - <li>Black Hills, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46–47</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>— surveys of (1898, 1899), - <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a></li> - - <li>Bloch, C. C., - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Blue Beard’s Castle, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Blue Hill, Mass., - <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - - <li>Bluff, the, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Bogoslof, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140–141</a></li> - - <li>— eruption of 1907, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Bohemia, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Boiling Lake, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>boiling lake, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>boiling springs, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - - <li>bombing of Mauna Loa, - <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Bonin Islands, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Boscotrecase, - <a href="#Page_65">65–68</a></li> - - <li>Boshu Peninsula, - <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - - <li>Boston, - <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>— mapping of, - <a href="#Page_16">16–17</a></li> - - <li>Bottoms, the, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Boulder Dam, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>Boutwell, John Mason, - <a href="#Page_21">21–22</a>, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - - <li>Bowie, William, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Boynton, H. C., - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Boyrie, W., - <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - - <li>Bradford, Alex, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - - <li>Bradshaw Mountains, - <a href="#Page_25">25–28</a></li> - - <li>Brazil, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - - <li>Brigg, J. J., - <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - - <li>Brigham, W. T., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>Bright Angel fault, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - - <li>Bristol Bay, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Brock, R. W., - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Brontotherium, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - - <li>Brooklyn, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>Brooks, Alfred, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Brown, E. W., - <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - - <li>Brown, William Garrott, - <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - - <li>Brun, Albert, - <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - - <li>Brush, G. J., - <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - - <li>Bucher, W., - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Bund, Yokohama, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>Burkland, Albert, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">C</p> - -<ul> - <li>Cache Creek, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">California, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–113</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114–116</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136–137</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>— University of, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>— volcanoes, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>California Institute of Technology, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Calumet and Hecla, copper company, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Camiquin Island, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Cambrian, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - - <li>— fossils, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>— shales and limestones, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>Cambridge, Mass., - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>Campbell, Archibald, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>Canada, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Canadian Rockies, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>Canary Islands, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>Canna (arrowroot), - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Canoe Bay, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - - <li>Cape Nome, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Carib cones, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Caribbean Sea, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>— expeditions to, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>— islands of, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Carribee line, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>Carisso (ship), - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>Carnegie, Andrew, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Carnegie Institution, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>— Geophysical Laboratory of, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Carnegie Palace, Costa Rica, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Cartago earthquake of 1910, - <a href="#Page_78">78–84</a></li> - - <li>Cartago expedition, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li>Cartwright, Bruce, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Cascade Mountains, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>catastrophes, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Catskills, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Central America, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78–84</a></li> - - <li>— expedition to, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>Chadron Formation, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Chain of Craters, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154–155</a></li> - - <li>Challenger (ship), - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Charleston, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>Charlotte Amalie, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Chateau Belair, W. I., - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Chernofski village, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Cherry Island, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Chicago, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Chicago Natural History Museum, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - - <li>Chilean coastal plain, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Chilton, C., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>China, rivers of, - <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - - <li>Chourré, ...., - <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - - <li>Christchurch College, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Christiansand, Norway, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Christophersen, Erling, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Chugul, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Church, Dr., - <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> - - <li>Cincinnati, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Cincinnati arch, - <a href="#Page_50">50</a></li> - - <li>clams, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Clark, W. O., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Clive, ...., - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Coal Measures, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> - - <li>Coan, Titus, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Coast Survey, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>— station at Sitka, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Cody, Frank, - <a href="#Page_73">73</a>, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Colby, F. T., - <a href="#Page_72">72–73</a></li> - - <li>Collins, George, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Colorado, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Colorado River, - <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - - <li>Comstock Lode, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Congresses, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>— Australia Science, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>— Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>— Japan, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>— London Geography, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>— Pacific Science, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>— Zurich Geological, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Connecticut River, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - - <li>Constitution, U. S., - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>continental divide, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>continental mediterranean sea, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>continental volcanoes, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Cook Channel, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Cook Strait, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Cooke, C. Montague, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Cooke, Joshiah, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>copra, - <a href="#Page_148">148–149</a></li> - - <li>coral islets, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Cordillera, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_49">49</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - - <li>Cosequina, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>cosmology, - <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a></li> - - <li>Costa Rica, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>— rocky mountains of, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>Costa Rica-Mexico line, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Cotton, C. A., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>crabs, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - - <li>Cramton, Louis C., - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Crandall Creek mining claim, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>crater lake, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Crawford, David L., - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Croney, J. E., - <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - - <li>Crooks Canyon, - <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - - <li>Crooks Complex, - <a href="#Page_26">26–27</a></li> - - <li>Crosby, W. O., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>cross-country cars, - <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Crusoe, Robinson, - <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - - <li>Culebra Cut, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Curtis, G. C., - <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Curzon, G. N., - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Custer, G. A., - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">D</p> - -<ul> - <li>Daly, R. A., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177–181</a></li> - - <li>Dana, Edward, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - - <li>Dana, James D., - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>Darton, N. H., - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Darwin, C. R., - <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - - <li>Darwin, George, - <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - - <li>Daubrée, A., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - - <li>Davis, W. M., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Day, A. L., - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - - <li>De Candolle, C., - <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, - <a href="#Page_35">35</a></li> - - <li>de Vis-Norton, L. W., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Deadwood, - <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a></li> - - <li>Dean, Arthur L., - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Death Gulch, - <a href="#Page_11">11–12</a></li> - - <li>deformation, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>deltas, leaf, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Denmark, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Denver, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Devil’s Tower, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>Diamond Head, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - - <li>Dillingham, Walter F., - <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - - <li>disasters, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Dixie (ship), - <a href="#Page_56">56–59</a></li> - - <li>Dodge, Francis, - <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - - <li>Doelter, C., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Dominica, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - - <li>Dominion Museum, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Dorsey, E. W., - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Dranga, Ted, - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>Drexel Institute, - <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - - <li>Dunedin, - <a href="#Page_109">109–110</a></li> - - <li>Dutch Harbor, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Dutton, C. E., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_29">29–30</a>, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">E</p> - -<ul> - <li>Eakle, A. S., - <a href="#Page_72">72–74</a></li> - - <li>Earhart, Amelia, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - - <li>earth core, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - <li>earth crust theory, - <a href="#Page_115">115–117</a></li> - - <li>earthquake centers, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>earthquake frequency, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">earthquakes, - <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145–147</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154–165</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168–169</a></li> - - <li>— Cartago, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>— Charleston, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>— Costa Rica, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>— Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_145">145–147</a></li> - - <li>— Kapoho, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>— Kingston, - <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a></li> - - <li>— Messina, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>— Montserrat, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— Napier, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>— Sakurajima, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a></li> - - <li>— San Francisco, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>— Tokyo, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>— Valparaiso, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>— Yakutat Bay, - <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>East Indies, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Eastman Kodak Company, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>eclipse of sun, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>Ecuador, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>Eddington, A. A., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184–185</a></li> - - <li>Eddy, Johnny, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - - <li>Eggleston, Julius W., - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Einstein, Albert, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>“elevation craters”, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>Eliot, C. W., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - - <li>Emden (ship), - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Emerson, Oliver, - <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - - <li>Emmons, Delos C., - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>Emmons, Samuel Franklin, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>English, T. S., - <a href="#Page_158">158</a></li> - - <li>English Channel, - <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - - <li>English strata, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - - <li>Eocene Tertiary, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - - <li>erosion, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>— model, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>eruption cycles, - <a href="#Page_166">166–167</a></li> - - <li>eruption index, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">eruptions, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120–125</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a></li> - - <li>— Alaska, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>— Halemaumau, - <a href="#Page_120">120–124</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a></li> - - <li>— Irazu, - <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a></li> - - <li>— Mauna Loa, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a></li> - - <li>— Lassen, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>— Pelée, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>— Tarumai, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a></li> - - <li>— Vesuvius, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a></li> - - <li>Europe, mountain ranges of, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - - <li>Europe, study in, - <a href="#Page_12">12–16</a></li> - - <li>evolution, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, - <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - <li>— theory of, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - - <li>Ewing, M., - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>expeditions, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–111</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–150</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154–161</a></li> - - <li>— Alaska, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72–75</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>— Cartago, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li>— Howland and Baker, - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>— Japan, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_104">104–109</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a></li> - - <li>— Kilauea-Tarumai, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li>— Martinique, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— Montserrat, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>— New Zealand, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a></li> - - <li>— Niuafoou, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>— Pelée-Soufrière, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— Tokyo, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - - <li>— Vesuvius, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">experiments, - <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a>, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85–113</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125–132</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154–156</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171–173</a>, - <a href="#Page_176">176–177</a>, - <a href="#Page_182">182–186</a></li> - - <li>— field, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85–113</a></li> - - <li>— laboratory, - <a href="#Page_4">4–5</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171–172</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">F</p> - -<ul> - <li>Falcon Island, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Faraday, M., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - - <li>faulting, - <a href="#Page_28">28–29</a></li> - - <li>Ficus, - <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - - <li>field experiments, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85–113</a></li> - - <li>field work, - <a href="#Page_7">7–12</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21–31</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - - <li>Fiji, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Finch, R. H., - <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120–121</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136–137</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Firehole River, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - - <li>Flett, J. S., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>“floating islands”, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - - <li>flying fox, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - - <li>Foerster, Captain, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>folding, model of, - <a href="#Page_50">50–52</a></li> - - <li>foot prints in lava, - <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - - <li>Forbes, John, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Fort de France, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>Fortieth Parallel Survey, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>fossa magna, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>fossils, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Fouqué, F., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Frank Landslip, the, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>Franklin, Benjamin, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Frear, Walter F., - <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - - <li>Freiberg, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Friedlaender, I., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Fujiyama, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134–135</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">fumaroles, - <a href="#Page_11">11–12</a>, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Futu, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">G</p> - -<ul> - <li>gannets, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Gardner, John, - <a href="#Page_139">139–142</a></li> - - <li>gas-heat theory, - <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - - <li>Geikie, Archibald, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Geodetic Survey of India, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Geological Congress, Zurich, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Geological Society of America, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - - <li>Geological Survey of Great Britain and Ireland, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Geological Survey, U. S., - <a href="#Page_17">17–22</a>, - <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, - <a href="#Page_54">54–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–114</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129–131</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136–138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a></li> - - <li>Geophysical Laboratory, Wash. D. C., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Georgetown, W. I., - <a href="#Page_159">159–160</a></li> - - <li>Geovision Ltd., - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>Germany, - <a href="#Page_12">12–16</a></li> - - <li>geyser basins, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - - <li>geysers, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_39">39–40</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - - <li>— as eroders, - <a href="#Page_39">39–40</a></li> - - <li>geyser-spring experiments, - <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - - <li>Geyserville, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Giacometti, Guido, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>giant bat, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - - <li>Giant’s Causeway, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>Gilbert, Grove Karl, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_64">64</a></li> - - <li>Gillie, Miss, ...., - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>glacial periods, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>glaciers, - <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - - <li>Glass Mountain, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Goethals, General, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Goldschmidt, Victor M., - <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, - <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - - <li>Goodrich, ...., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>goonies, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Gordon-Cumming, C., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Göteborg, - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Grabau, Amadeus, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Grand Canyon, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a>, - <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28–30</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - - <li>— model of, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - - <li>Grand Hotel, Japan, - <a href="#Page_132">132–133</a></li> - - <li>Grange, L. I., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>granitization, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Grant, Willie, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>gravitation, - <a href="#Page_185">185–186</a></li> - - <li>Great Britain, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>— Geological Survey of, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Great Lakes, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>Great Plains, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Green, W. L., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Green River, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - - <li>greenstones, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Greenwell, Mr. and Mrs. Frank, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - - <li>Gregory, H. E., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Grodzinski, P., - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Grosvenor, Gilbert, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>Groth, P. G., - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Guadeloupe, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>guano diggings, - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>Guatemala, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_80">80–82</a></li> - - <li>Gulf of Alaska, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>Gulf of Mexico, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Gummeré, Harry, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_33">33</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72–73</a></li> - - <li>Gutenberg, B., - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">H</p> - -<ul> - <li>Hague, Arnold, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Hakamagoshi, - <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - - <li>Hakone, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Hale, George Ellery, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - <li>Haleakala, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Haleakala, Kohala, Kea line, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Halemaumau, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92–93</a>, - <a href="#Page_95">95</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117–119</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120–124</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–155</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - - <li>— eruption, - <a href="#Page_117">117–124</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a></li> - - <li>Hammond, W. H., - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Hannon, Arthur, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>hardness tests, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171–172</a></li> - - <li>Harney Peak, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a></li> - - <li>Hart, F. R., - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Harvard, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_3">3–7</a>, - <a href="#Page_16">16–19</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - - <li>— laboratory experiments, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a></li> - - <li>— study at, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a></li> - - <li>— teaching at, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Hawaii, island of, - <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Hawaii Channel, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Hawaii earthquake crisis (1929), - <a href="#Page_145">145–147</a></li> - - <li>Hawaii Geological Survey, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Hawaii National Park, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113–114</a>, - <a href="#Page_128">128</a>, - <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Hawaii tidal wave (1946), - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Hawaii, University of, - <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Hawaiian Is., - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_69">69</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>— journey to, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>Hawaiian Ridge, - <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - - <li>Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Hawaiian Volcano Observatory, - <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, - <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84–103</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–112</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114–130</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–156</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162–164</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Hawaiian Volcano Research Association, - <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113–114</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>Hawaiian volcanoes, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85–113</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145–147</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–176</a></li> - - <li>Hayden, F. V., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Haystack Basin, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - - <li>Heidelberg, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Heilprin, A., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Henderson, John Brooks, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Hermann, A., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Herschel, Arthur, - <a href="#Page_83">83</a></li> - - <li>Hiatt, R. W., - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>High Plateaus of Utah, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - - <li>Hill, R. T., - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>Hilo, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–153</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>— merchants of, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - - <li>Hilo Tribune Herald, - <a href="#Page_162">162–163</a></li> - - <li>Hilo Wharf, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Himalayas, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Hind, Mrs. Robert, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - - <li>Hinkley, Vern, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Hitchcock, C. H., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164–166</a></li> - - <li>Hobart, A. H., - <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - - <li>Hodges, Richmond, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Hokkaido, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - - <li>Holmes, Justice Oliver Wendell, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Honduras, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Honjo district, - <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - - <li>Honolulu, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Honolulu Star-Bulletin, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Honshu, - <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - - <li>Honukai, the, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>Hookena, - <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - - <li>Hoopuloa village, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a></li> - - <li>Hosmer, Ralph, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>hot springs, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Houston, David F., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Hovey, E. O., - <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Howe, Ernest, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Howland Island, - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>Hoyle, Fred, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, - <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - <li>Hualalai Volcano, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - <li>Hubble, E. P., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Hudson River, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Humuula, - <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>Hunt, Walter Frederick, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Huntington, Ellsworth, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Huntington, Oliver, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Hyatt, A., - <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">I</p> - -<ul> - <li>ice ages, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - <li>Iceland, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Imperial Hotel, Japan, - <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - - <li>Indian Ocean, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>index of eruption, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a></li> - - <li>index volcanoes, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>industrial diamonds, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Ingalls, Albert, - <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - - <li>Ingerson, Earl, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>injections, lava, - <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a></li> - - <li>International Geophysical Union, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>intrusions, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>inventions, - <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125–132</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157–158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Irazu Volcano, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Ireland, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>— Geological Survey of, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Irving, John Duer, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>Ischia, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>isostasy, - <a href="#Page_116">116–117</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - - <li>Italy, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>Ivanpah, - <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - - <li>Izalco Volcano, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">J</p> - -<ul> - <li>Jack, R. L., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Jackson, R. T., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Jaggar, Isabel, - <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, - <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_119">119</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a>, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - - <li>Jaggar, Rev. Thomas Augustus, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>Jaggar inventions, - <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Jamaica, - <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Japan, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65–68</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a>, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>Japanese earthquakes, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Japanese engineers, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>Java, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Jeans, J. H., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184–185</a></li> - - <li>jeep, forerunner of, - <a href="#Page_131">131–132</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Jim, Samuel, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - - <li>Jimenez, President of Costa Rica, - <a href="#Page_79">79–80</a></li> - - <li>Johanssen, Captain, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Johnson, Douglas, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Johnston, F., - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>Jones, Austin E., - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, - <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>Jordalsknut, the, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Jupiter, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">K</p> - -<ul> - <li>Kagoshima, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a></li> - - <li>Kahuku, - <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - - <li>Kahului, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>Kailua, Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Kaimon, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Kaiser Wilhelm, - <a href="#Page_13">13–14</a></li> - - <li>Kamakura, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Kamchatka arc, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Kamuela, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - - <li>Kansas, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - - <li>Kapoho, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake (1924), - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Karuizawa, - <a href="#Page_107">107–108</a></li> - - <li>Katmai, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Kau Desert, - <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - - <li>Kaunakakai, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Kawaihae, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Keewatin, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - - <li>Kellar, H., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Kellers, H., - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> - - <li>Kelvin, W. T., - <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - - <li>Keoua’s army, - <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - - <li>Keppel Island, - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>Keppler, C. H. J., - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li>Kew Observatory, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Kiholo, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Kilauea, - <a href="#Page_v">v</a>, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86–103</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–115</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117–125</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127–128</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130–132</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–147</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–155</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, - <a href="#Page_176">176</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a></li> - - <li>Kilauea Iki, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a></li> - - <li>Kilauea Military Camp, - <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> - - <li>Kilauea Mountain, - <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - - <li>King, Clara, - <a href="#Page_62">62–64</a></li> - - <li>King, Clarence, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - - <li>King, F. P., - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>King, Samuel W., - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>King Cove, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Kingston, Jamaica, - <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Kirishima, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Kobandai, - <a href="#Page_106">106–108</a></li> - - <li>Kodiak, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Kohala, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Kona, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a>, - <a href="#Page_152">152–154</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–174</a></li> - - <li>— North, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - - <li>— South, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Korovinski Volcano, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - - <li>Koto, B., - <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - - <li>kou trees, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Kullenberg, B., - <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Kumamoto, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Kyushu, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">L</p> - -<ul> - <li>laboratories, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>— Carnegie Institution geophysical, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>— Harvard, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a></li> - - <li>— Hawaii Volcano Observatory, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>— Naples, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>— Rockefeller, - <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - - <li>Labrador, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>Lacroix, Alfred, - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>La Forge, Laurence, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Lahaina, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Lake Superior, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - - <li>Lake Taupo, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Lake Toya, - <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - - <li>Lamar River, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Lancaster, Alex, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, - <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - - <li>Lane A., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Laramie, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - - <li>Lassen National Park, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136–137</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>— survey of, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Lassen Peak, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>lava injection model, - <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a></li> - - <li>lava tides, - <a href="#Page_166">166–167</a></li> - - <li>lava, analyses of, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - - <li>lava, constituents of, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - - <li>lava, moon, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Laudat, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Lehigh, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Leipzig, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Lenox-Conyingham, Gerald, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Lewis Lake, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Lewis River, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Limon, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>Lincoln, Gatesford, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li>Lincoln, Joseph, - <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - - <li>Lingula, - <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - - <li>Lipari, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>Lisbon, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>London, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Long Island Sound, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Los Angeles, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Loucks, Burton, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Lower Silurian, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - - <li>Lurline (ship), - <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> - - <li>Lycurgus, Demosthenes, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Lycurgus, George, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Lydia (ship), - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - - <li>Lyell, Charles, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>Lynn, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>Lyttleton, ...., - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a>, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">M</p> - -<ul> - <li>Maclaurin, R., - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - - <li>Macdonald, Gordon A., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–175</a></li> - - <li>MacDonald, T. M., - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_61">61</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>MacGregor, A. G., - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>MacMillan-Brown, J., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Madison limestone, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Maine, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>Makalawena, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Makaopuhi, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - - <li>Makushin, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> - - <li>malau bird, - <a href="#Page_148">148–149</a></li> - - <li>Mammoth Hot Springs, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - - <li>man-of-war bird, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Mansfield, G. R., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Maoris, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Marlowe, Julia, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Marsden, Ernest, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Marsters, V. F., - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Martinique, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–66</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - <li>— expedition to, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— museum and observatory, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Marvin, Charles F., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Massachusetts, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Massachusetts Institute of Technology, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77–79</a>, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, - <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - - <li>— teaching at, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>Mato Tepee, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>Matson, a guide, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Matsumoto, Jack, - <a href="#Page_174">174–175</a></li> - - <li>Matteucci, R. V., - <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Matthes, Francois, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Maui, - <a href="#Page_122">122–123</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Mauna Kea (ship), - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Mauna Kea, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164–165</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Mauna Loa, - <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67–69</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92–95</a>, - <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, - <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112–115</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_145">145–146</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151–154</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164–166</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169–170</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a>, - <a href="#Page_180">180</a>, - <a href="#Page_185">185</a></li> - - <li>— bombing of, - <a href="#Page_153">153–154</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>— eruption of, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a></li> - - <li>Mauna Loa Mountain, - <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - - <li>McCord, Jack, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>McKinley, C. P., - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>measurements, - <a href="#Page_129">129–131</a></li> - - <li>medaños, - <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - - <li>Mediterranean Sea, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_70">70</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>“Mediterranean Sea” of North America, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Mees, C. E. K., - <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - - <li>Meinzer, O., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Mendenhall, W. C., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Mercalli, G., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>Messina, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake of, 1908, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>metamorphism, - <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - - <li>Meunier, Stanilas, - <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - - <li>Mexico, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Michel-Lévy, A., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Michelson, A. A., - <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - - <li>microsclerometer, - <a href="#Page_19">19–20</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Midway Island, - <a href="#Page_99">99</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Mihara Volcano, - <a href="#Page_133">133–134</a></li> - - <li>Mineral, Calif., - <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Miocene, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, - <a href="#Page_49">49</a></li> - - <li>Mississippi delta, - <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - - <li>Mississippi River, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>models, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, - <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a>, - <a href="#Page_50">50–52</a></li> - - <li>— erosion, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>— folding, - <a href="#Page_50">50–52</a></li> - - <li>— Grand Canyon, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - - <li>— lava injection, - <a href="#Page_46">46–48</a></li> - - <li>— Old Faithful, - <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a></li> - - <li>Mohokea, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Molokai, - <a href="#Page_122">122–123</a></li> - - <li>Molokai Channel, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a></li> - - <li>Molokai volcano, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Monte Somma, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>Montserrat, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake (1933), - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Moody, William H., - <a href="#Page_55">55–57</a></li> - - <li>Moody, William Vaughn, - <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - - <li>moon, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>moon craters, - <a href="#Page_93">93–94</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a>, - <a href="#Page_176">176</a></li> - - <li>moon lava, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Morgan, Lloyd, - <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - <li>Morozewicz, J., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - - <li>Morss, Everett, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>motorcar amphibians, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Mount Baker, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Mount Dana, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Mount Etna, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - - <li>Mount Hibokhibok, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Mount Lamington, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Mount Makushin, - <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - - <li>Mount Misery, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>Mount Monadnock, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - - <li>Mount Pelée, - <a href="#Page_56">56–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - <li>Mount St. Elias, - <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - - <li>Mount St. Helena, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Mount Shasta, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Mount Washburn, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Mount Wrangell, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Munro, George, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>murres, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>museum, Kilauea Crater, - <a href="#Page_114">114–115</a></li> - - <li>Museum of Comparative Zoology, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>mutation, - <a href="#Page_186">186</a></li> - - <li>Myers, D. B., - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - - <li>Mystic River, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">N</p> - -<ul> - <li>Nagasaki, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Nahant, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - - <li>Nakamura, D., - <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - - <li>Naknek Lake, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Napau Crater, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - - <li>Napier earthquake, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Naples, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>National Geographic Society, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>— expedition (Alaska), - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Natural History magazine, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Nature magazine, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Naughton, J. J., - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Naumann, E., - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Navaho (ship), - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Neckar, the, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Nelson, Sven, - <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> - - <li>Neptune, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Nevada, - <a href="#Page_26">26–30</a></li> - - <li>New Crater, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - - <li>New England, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_44">44</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - - <li>New Haven, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a></li> - - <li>New Jersey, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>New Orleans, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>New York, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_121">121</a></li> - - <li>— New York City, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>— Wall Street, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">New Zealand, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a>, - <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>— expedition to, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109–111</a></li> - - <li>—Geological Survey, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>New Zealand-Tonga volcanic chain, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - - <li>New Zealand, University of, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Ngauruhoe Volcano, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Nicaragua, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Nicaragua-Salvador line, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Nikolski, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Niles, W., - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Niuafoou, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>Niuatoputapu, - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>No Man’s Land, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>Nobel Prize, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Norris Geyser Basin, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - - <li>North Island, N. Z., - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>North Kona, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a></li> - - <li>Norway, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Nova Scotia, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, - <a href="#Page_175">175</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">O</p> - -<ul> - <li>Oahu, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Oberhansley, F. R., - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Oberwald, the, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Observatories, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114–130</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135–137</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>— Alaska, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>— California, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">— Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114–130</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>— Kew, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>— Vesuvius, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - - <li>Ocean Island, - <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - - <li>oceanic volcanoes, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Oceanographic Institute of Sweden, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>oceanographic sampling, - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>Ogasawara Islands, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Ohia Lodge, Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_174">174</a></li> - - <li>Ohiki, the, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>Okinawa, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Olaa, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Old Faithful, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - - <li>— model of, - <a href="#Page_41">41–42</a></li> - - <li>“Old Faithful,” Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_86">86–87</a>, - <a href="#Page_90">90</a></li> - - <li>Oldham, R. D., - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Oligocene, - <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Omori, F., - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, - <a href="#Page_104">104–106</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Oregon, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Osaka, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Osann, A., - <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, - <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - - <li>Oshima, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Osumi Strait, - <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - - <li>Otago University, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Ottajano, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">P</p> - -<ul> - <li>Pacific Commercial Advertiser, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - - <li>Pacific Commercial Company, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Pacific journey, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a></li> - - <li>Pacific Ocean, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>— arc, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>—deeps of, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Pacific oceanography, - <a href="#Page_170">170–171</a></li> - - <li>Pacific Science Congresses, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>Pago Pago, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">pahoehoe, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_97">97</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120</a>, - <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, - <a href="#Page_148">148</a>, - <a href="#Page_151">151</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>Palache, C., - <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, - <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - - <li>Palisades, Hudson River, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - - <li>Palmieri, P., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Panama, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_83">83</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Panama Canal, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Papua, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Parker Ranch, Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - - <li>Pasadena, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Pasteur, Louis, - <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Patagonia, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - - <li>Pavlof, - <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>Pearl Harbor, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Pelée, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_104">104</a></li> - - <li>— eruption, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Pelican (ship), - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>Pennsylvania, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Perkins, Commander, ...., - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Perret, Frank Alvord, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86–89</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, - <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Peru, - <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - - <li>Pettersson, Hans, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Philadelphia, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Philippine Islands, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Phoenix, Arizona, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>Piggot, C. S., - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Planck, M., - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Pliocene, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Plug Ugly (ship), - <a href="#Page_139">139</a></li> - - <li>Plymouth, W. I., - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Poas Crater, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Pohoiki, - <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - - <li>Polynesian rats, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Ponte, S. C., - <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - - <li>Porteus, Stanley, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>Postal Card Crack, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a>, - <a href="#Page_128">128</a></li> - - <li>Potomac (ship), - <a href="#Page_56">56–58</a></li> - - <li>Powell, C. F., - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Powell, George, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Powell, J. W., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Powers, Howard, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Powers, Sidney, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Pozzuoli, - <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - - <li>pre-Cambrian, - <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - - <li>Prescott, Arizona, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>Pribilof Island, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Prince of Wales, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Princeton University, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Pritchett, H. S., - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Puako, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Puget Sound, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Puna, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Purington, C., - <a href="#Page_133">133</a></li> - - <li>Puu Oo Ranch, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>Puuwaawaa, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">Q</p> - -<ul> - <li>quakeproof engineering, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>Quartette Gold Mine, - <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - - <li>Queen Charlotte, - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>Quensell boys, - <a href="#Page_149">149</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">R</p> - -<ul> - <li>range finders, - <a href="#Page_125">125–127</a></li> - - <li>rats, Polynesian, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Red Beds, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, - <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - - <li>Redlands, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Reyer, H., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - - <li>rhythmic periods, - <a href="#Page_166">166–167</a></li> - - <li>Richmond plantation, W. I., - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Richter, C. F., - <a href="#Page_183">183</a></li> - - <li>Rieber, Frank, - <a href="#Page_162">162–164</a></li> - - <li>ripplemarks, - <a href="#Page_3">3–4</a>, - <a href="#Page_32">32–54</a></li> - - <li>Roberts, Sumner, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - - <li>Rockefeller, John D., - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Rockefeller laboratory and observatory, - <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - - <li>Rocky Mountains, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, - <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, - <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - - <li>Romberg, Arnold, - <a href="#Page_101">101–102</a></li> - - <li>Rome, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Roraima (ship), - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Roseau, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Rosenbusch, H., - <a href="#Page_12">12–16</a></li> - - <li>Rotorua, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Royal Society of London, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Ruapehu Volcano, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Rushforth, Paul, - <a href="#Page_171">171–172</a></li> - - <li>Russell, I. C., - <a href="#Page_56">56</a></li> - - <li>Rutherford, E., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Ryukyu Archipelago, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Ryukyu-Sakurajima line, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">S</p> - -<ul> - <li>Saba, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>Sagami Bay, - <a href="#Page_133">133–134</a></li> - - <li>St. Helena, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - - <li>St. Kitts, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>St. Lucia, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>St. Martin, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li>St. Pierre, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>St. Vincent, - <a href="#Page_56">56–66</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158–160</a></li> - - <li>Sakurajima, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a>, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a></li> - - <li>— earthquake (1914), - <a href="#Page_103">103–106</a></li> - - <li>Salvador, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Samoa, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>San Andreas rift, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">San Francisco earthquake (1906), - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>San Jose, Costa Rica, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>San Sebastiano, destruction of, - <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> - - <li>Santa Ana, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - - <li>Santa Maria peak, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> - - <li>Sarana Bay, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Saratoga Springs, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Sato, Sutejiro, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Saturn, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Saxony, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Scandinavia, - <a href="#Page_12">12–13</a>, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Schneeberg granite, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Schrader, F., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - - <li>Schweitzer, A., - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Scientific American, - <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - - <li>scratch tester, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>sea level, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - - <li>sea lions, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>seals, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Searchlight, Nevada, - <a href="#Page_26">26–30</a></li> - - <li>Seattle, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a></li> - - <li>Secretary of the Interior, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a></li> - - <li>Section of Volcanology created, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>sedimentation, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a></li> - - <li>Seeley, George, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - - <li>seismic recorders, - <a href="#Page_125">125–126</a>, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>Shaler, Nathaniel S., - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Shepard, F. P., - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Shepherd, E. S., - <a href="#Page_86">86–89</a>, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Shimonoseki Strait, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Shipman, Herbert, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>Shishaldin Volcano, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>shock recorder, - <a href="#Page_126">126</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Shumagin Islands, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Sierra Nevada, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136</a></li> - - <li>Sinclair, Gregg M., - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>Sinton, Bill, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li>Smith, George Otis, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>Smith Philip Sidney, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - - <li>Smith, William, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - - <li>Smithsonian Institution, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Snake River, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Snedeker, James, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Solfatara, Italy, - <a href="#Page_127">127</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">solfataras, - <a href="#Page_11">11–12</a>, - <a href="#Page_62">62</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_80">80</a>, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_158">158</a>, - <a href="#Page_160">160</a></li> - - <li>Soufrière, - <a href="#Page_56">56–55</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>South Dakota, - <a href="#Page_21">21–25</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_38">38</a>, - <a href="#Page_46">46</a>, - <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>South Island, N. Z., - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>South Kona, - <a href="#Page_92">92</a>, - <a href="#Page_93">93</a>, - <a href="#Page_125">125</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Spalding, Walter, - <a href="#Page_95">95</a></li> - - <li>Spearfish, Arizona, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> - - <li>Speight, R., - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Spofford, Charles, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a></li> - - <li>Springfield, Mass., - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Spurr, J. E., - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172</a></li> - - <li>Stalheim, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Stanford students, - <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> - - <li>Stanley, Henry M., - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> - - <li>Starr (ship), - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>State Street, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Stearns, Harold T., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - - <li>Stewart, Richard, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Stinking Water mine, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>Stockholm, - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Stokes, Mrs., - <a href="#Page_63">63</a></li> - - <li>Stokes, Rita, - <a href="#Page_62">62–64</a></li> - - <li>Stone, Ralph, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>Stromboli, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Stübel, A., - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, - <a href="#Page_182">182</a></li> - - <li>Suess, E., - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>sugar mills, - <a href="#Page_159">159</a></li> - - <li>Sulphur Bank, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_127">127–129</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Sunlight mine, - <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - - <li>sunspots, - <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a>, - <a href="#Page_166">166</a></li> - - <li>— intervals of, - <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> - - <li>surveys, - <a href="#Page_7">7–12</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a>, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>— Alaskan, - <a href="#Page_142">142–143</a></li> - - <li>— Black Hills, - <a href="#Page_23">23–25</a></li> - - <li>— Fortieth Parallel, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>— Hawaii Geological, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>— Lassen National Park, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>— New Zealand Geological, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>— Yellowstone, - <a href="#Page_7">7–12</a></li> - - <li>Suwanose Island, - <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - - <li>Sweden, - <a href="#Page_13">13</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>Sweeney, H. P., - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - - <li>swelling and slumping, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>swelling mountain, - <a href="#Page_129">129–131</a></li> - - <li>Switzerland, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">T</p> - -<ul> - <li>Tanager (ship), - <a href="#Page_150">150</a></li> - - <li>Tanegashima, - <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - - <li>Tarawera, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Tarawera Mountain, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Tarumai Volcano, - <a href="#Page_77">77–78</a></li> - - <li>Taupo Belt, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Taupo District, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Taylor, Griffith, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>teaching, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>— at Harvard, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>— at Massachusetts Tech, - <a href="#Page_55">55–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> - - <li>Technology Expedition, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a></li> - - <li>Technology Review, - <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> - - <li>Teddy, the dog, - <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - - <li>temperature wells, - <a href="#Page_127">127–129</a></li> - - <li>Teneriffe, - <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> - - <li>Tennessee, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - - <li>terns, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Tertiary, - <a href="#Page_8">8–10</a>, - <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - - <li>Tetons, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>theater, the, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a></li> - - <li>Thomson, Allan, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Thomson, William, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Thorndike, Charles, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Thurston, Lorrin A., - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_122">122</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>tidal system (volcanic), - <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - - <li>tidal waves, - <a href="#Page_134">134</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169–170</a></li> - - <li>— Hawaii (1946), - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>— Japan (Tokyo), - <a href="#Page_134">134</a></li> - - <li>tide gauge readings, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - - <li>Tin Can Island, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>Tokyo, - <a href="#Page_81">81</a>, - <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_106">106</a>, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>— earthquakes, - <a href="#Page_103">103</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Tonga, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, - <a href="#Page_181">181</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>Tonga Deep, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Tonopah, - <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - - <li>Tonto fault, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - - <li>Triassic lavas, - <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> - - <li>Tridacna, - <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a></li> - - <li>Trinidad, - <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - - <li>Trondhjem, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Tufts College, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - - <li>Tuscarora Deep, - <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - - <li>Twigg-Smith, William, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">U</p> - -<ul> - <li>Unita Mountains, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a></li> - - <li>Umnak Island, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_138">138</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Unalga (ship), - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> - - <li>Unalaska, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a></li> - - <li>Unimak, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Union Pacific, - <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - - <li>United Fruit Company, - <a href="#Page_79">79</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Army, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Army Air Force, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Army Engineers, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Biological Survey, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Coast Guard, - <a href="#Page_135">135</a>, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Congress, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Consulate (Japan), - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Eclipse Expedition, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">U. S. Geological Survey, - <a href="#Page_17">17–18</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_50">50</a>, - <a href="#Page_54">54–56</a>, - <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89–90</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111–114</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129–131</a>, - <a href="#Page_136">136–138</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a>, - <a href="#Page_169">169</a>, - <a href="#Page_172">172–173</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Marines, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_133">133</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Navy, - <a href="#Page_55">55–57</a>, - <a href="#Page_122">122–123</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Naval Observatory, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a>, - <a href="#Page_147">147–150</a></li> - - <li>U. S. Weather Bureau, - <a href="#Page_111">111–114</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a></li> - - <li>University Club, Boston, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - - <li>University of California, Berkeley, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>University of Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_101">101</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a>, - <a href="#Page_170">170</a>, - <a href="#Page_171">171</a></li> - - <li>University of New Zealand, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Uranus, - <a href="#Page_184">184</a></li> - - <li>Usu Volcano, - <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - - <li>Utah, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> - - <li>Uwekahuna, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">V</p> - -<ul> - <li>Valparaiso earthquake, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - - <li>Vandyke, E. C., - <a href="#Page_72">72</a>, - <a href="#Page_73">73</a></li> - - <li>Vaughan, T. W., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Verhoogen, J., - <a href="#Page_180">180</a></li> - - <li>Vermont, - <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, - <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, - <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - - <li>Vesuvius, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55</a>, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a>, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, - <a href="#Page_104">104</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a>, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - <li>— eruptions, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a></li> - - <li>— expedition to, - <a href="#Page_65">65–72</a>, - <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> - - <li>— observatory, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Vesuvius-Stromboli-Etna system, - <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - - <li>Virgin Islands, - <a href="#Page_157">157</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">volcanic explosions, - <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, - <a href="#Page_55">55–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_120">120–125</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130–131</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173–176</a></li> - - <li>Volcano Bay, - <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a></li> - - <li>Volcano House, - <a href="#Page_77">77</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_113">113</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Volcano Letter, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>volcano models, - <a href="#Page_45">45–47</a></li> - - <li>Volcano Research Association, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a>, - <a href="#Page_163">163</a></li> - - <li>volcanology predictions, - <a href="#Page_161">161–162</a></li> - - <li>von Buch, Leopold, - <a href="#Page_131">131</a></li> - - <li>von Tempski, Armine, - <a href="#Page_146">146</a></li> - - <li>von Zittel, Karl A., - <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - - <li>Vosges Mountains, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">W</p> - -<ul> - <li>Wada, T., - <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - - <li>Waesche, Hugh, - <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Wailuku River, - <a href="#Page_153">153</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156</a></li> - - <li>Waimanu, Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Waimea, Hawaii, - <a href="#Page_143">143</a></li> - - <li>Waiohinu, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Waipio, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>Wairaki, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a></li> - - <li>Walcott, Charles D., - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_30">30</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Wall Street, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Wallibu River, - <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - - <li>Ward, R., - <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - - <li>Washington, D. C., - <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, - <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_161">161</a>, - <a href="#Page_162">162</a></li> - - <li>— Geophysical Laboratory, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Washington, H. S., - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Watchung Ridge, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - - <li>water theory, - <a href="#Page_115">115–117</a>, - <a href="#Page_167">167</a></li> - - <li>Weed, W. H., - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Wellesley, - <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> - - <li>Wellington, N. Z., - <a href="#Page_109">109</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Wells Fargo and Co., - <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - - <li>Wentworth, Chester K., - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>Werner, A. G., - <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - - <li>West Indies, - <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, - <a href="#Page_56">56–66</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_83">83–84</a>, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>— disaster in, - <a href="#Page_55">55–65</a></li> - - <li>— volcanoes of, - <a href="#Page_156">156–161</a></li> - - <li>Western Samoa, - <a href="#Page_147">147</a></li> - - <li>Wheeler, G. M., - <a href="#Page_7">7</a></li> - - <li>Whippoorwill (ship), - <a href="#Page_135">135–136</a></li> - - <li>White, Harvey, - <a href="#Page_173">173</a></li> - - <li>White Island, - <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, - <a href="#Page_110">110</a></li> - - <li>Whitney Foundation, - <a href="#Page_85">85</a>, - <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - - <li>Wiechert, E., - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Williams, Howel, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_164">164</a></li> - - <li>Williamson, H., - <a href="#Page_82">82–83</a></li> - - <li>Willis, Bailey, - <a href="#Page_xi">xi</a>, - <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_50">50–51</a>, - <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - - <li>Wilson, R. M., - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, - <a href="#Page_130">130</a>, - <a href="#Page_137">137</a>, - <a href="#Page_144">144</a>, - <a href="#Page_154">154</a></li> - - <li>Wingate, E. G., - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, - <a href="#Page_152">152</a>, - <a href="#Page_155">155–156</a></li> - - <li>Wolff, John Eliot, - <a href="#Page_5">5</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> - - <li>Wood, H. O., - <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a>, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a>, - <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - - <li>Wood-Anderson seismograph, - <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - - <li>Wood-Jones, Frederick, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a></li> - - <li>Wood Valley, - <a href="#Page_145">145</a>, - <a href="#Page_165">165</a></li> - - <li>World War I, - <a href="#Page_132">132</a></li> - - <li>World War II, - <a href="#Page_141">141</a>, - <a href="#Page_142">142</a>, - <a href="#Page_168">168</a></li> - - <li>Wylie, ...., - <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - - <li>Wyoming, - <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">Y</p> - -<ul> - <li>Yakutat earthquake (1899), - <a href="#Page_30">30–31</a>, - <a href="#Page_37">37</a>, - <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - - <li>Yale University, - <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, - <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, - <a href="#Page_22">22</a>, - <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, - <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - - <li>Yatchmenoff, Peter, - <a href="#Page_139">139–140</a></li> - - <li>Yeld, G., - <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - - <li>yellow fever, - <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - - <li>Yellowstone Lake, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li class="hangingindent">Yellowstone National Park, - <a href="#Page_xii">xii</a>, - <a href="#Page_7">7–12</a>, - <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, - <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, - <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, - <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, - <a href="#Page_42">42</a>, - <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, - <a href="#Page_78">78</a>, - <a href="#Page_112">112</a>, - <a href="#Page_117">117</a></li> - - <li>Yellowstone River, - <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - - <li>Yokohama, - <a href="#Page_132">132–134</a></li> - - <li>Young, John Mason, - <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - - <li>Yukon, - <a href="#Page_140">140</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="p-index">Z</p> - -<ul> - <li>Zeitschrift für Vulkanologie, - <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> - - <li>Zirkel, Ferdinand, - <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - - <li>Zurich, - <a href="#Page_12">12</a></li> -</ul> - -<p class="transnote">Transcriber’s Notes:<br /> -<br /> -1. 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