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diff --git a/old/69766-0.txt b/old/69766-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index cd3b572..0000000 --- a/old/69766-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,6712 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of The training of teachers in the United -States of America, by Amy Blanche Bramwell - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The training of teachers in the United States of America - -Authors: Amy Blanche Bramwell - H. Millicent Hughes - -Release Date: January 11, 2023 [eBook #69766] - -Language: English - -Produced by: David E. Brown and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN -THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA *** - - - - - - THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS - IN THE - UNITED STATES OF AMERICA - - BY - AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc. - - _Late Assistant Mistress at the Ladies’ College, Cheltenham; Lecturer - at the Cambridge Training College for Women Teachers_ - - AND - - H. MILLICENT HUGHES - - _Lecturer on Education and Head of Training Department, University - College South Wales and Monmouthshire_ - - [Illustration] - - - London - SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO - NEW YORK: MACMILLAN & CO - 1894 - - - - - BUTLER & TANNER, - THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, - FROME, AND LONDON. - - - - -PREFACE - - -In view of the growing interest in secondary education in England, -and the important educational problems demanding solution, the -Gilchrist Trustees decided, in the early part of 1893, to send five -women teachers to America for the purpose of studying and reporting -upon Secondary Schools for Girls and Training Colleges for Women in -different parts of the States. The Trustees made their intention -widely known, and invited the governing bodies of the various women’s -colleges and associations of teachers to submit to them names of -persons specially qualified. Out of the list of able and experienced -women teachers thus furnished to them, the Trustees, after careful -consideration of the qualifications of the numerous candidates, -selected the following five: Miss Bramwell, B.Sc., Lecturer at the -Cambridge Training College; Miss Burstall, B.A., Mistress at the -North London Collegiate School for Girls; Miss Hughes, Lecturer on -Education at University College, Cardiff; Miss Page, Head-Mistress of -the Skinners’ Company’s School for Girls, Stamford Hill, N.; and Miss -Zimmern, Mistress at the High School for Girls, Tunbridge Wells. They -were awarded travelling scholarships of one hundred pounds each to -enable them to spend two months in the United States in prosecuting -their enquiries. The five scholars visited America in the summer of -1893, and submitted to the Trustees carefully prepared Reports, two of -which--viz., those by Miss Bramwell and Miss Hughes--are presented to -the public in this volume. The Trustees have aided in the publication -of these Reports because they believe that a knowledge of the -educational systems and experiments which have been tried in America -cannot fail to be of interest and value to those engaged in teaching in -the United Kingdom. - - R. D. ROBERTS, - _Secretary to the Gilchrist Trustees_. - - GILCHRIST EDUCATIONAL TRUST, - 17, VICTORIA STREET, LONDON, S.W. - 1894. - - - - -NOTE BY THE AUTHORS - - -In publishing the following reports, which we are enabled to do through -the courtesy and generosity of the Gilchrist Trustees, it may not be -altogether out of place to submit a few prefatory remarks. When the -five Scholars were appointed to visit American Schools and Colleges in -the summer of 1893, it was found advisable, in view of the magnitude of -the task, to somewhat divide the responsibility. Three of the number -undertook to visit and report upon institutions offering the means -of general education, while we desired to especially investigate the -provision made in the United States for the Training of Teachers. - -As our interests thus lay in one direction, the Trustees further -approved of our suggestion that we should travel and work together, -and this plan we found most helpful and satisfactory. It will be seen -that we have covered exactly the same field, but we have thought it -desirable to write separate reports, without mutual consultation, -rather than to embody the results of our work in a joint account. - - AMY B. BRAMWELL. - H. MILLICENT HUGHES. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - _New York_ - Educational Institutions 1 - Press Fair 2 - - _Poughkeepsie_ - Vassar College 2-3 - - _Philadelphia_ - Schools and Institutes 3-4 - - _Bryn Mawr_ 4 - - _West Chester and Millersville_ 5 - - _Connecticut_ - New Haven, New Britain, Willimantic 6 - - _Massachusetts_ - Springfield 6 - Boston-- - Perkins Institute for the Blind 7 - Harvard 9 - Women’s Annex (Fay House) 10 - Institute of Technology 11 - Wellesley 11 - Quincy 11 - Milton (co-education) 12 - Concord 14 - - _Syracuse_ - University 14 - - _Ann Arbor_ - Michigan State University 14 - Commencement 15 - - _Benton Harbour_ 16 - - _Chicago_ - University 16 - World’s Fair 17 - Educational Congresses 18 - University settlement 19 - - _Chautauqua_ 19 - - _Cornell_ - Ithaca 19 - - - _REPORT 1._ - - I. STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. - - Organization 23 - - Advantages offered to Students 23 - - Co-education. Relative numbers of men and women Students 24 - - Early Normal Schools 25 - - The early character still maintained 26 - - Academic character illustrated by the courses of study-- - (_a_) In Massachusetts 26 - (_b_) In New York 27 - - Arguments given for retaining their academic character 28 - - A. _Academic Studies_ - Importance given to Science Teaching 30 - Laboratories and Museums-- - (_a_) At Bridgewater, Mass. 31 - (_b_) At Willimantic, Conn. 32 - Manual Training 32 - Libraries and Apparatus at Willimantic, Conn. 33 - Plant Study at Worcester, Mass. 34 - The “Recitation” Method 34 - Importance given to illustration by means of concrete objects 36 - Study of many Sciences by concentrative methods 37 - - B. _Professional Work_ - Pedagogical subjects studied late in the Course 39 - Psychology and History of Education in the schools of - Connecticut 40 - Psychology and Child-Study at Worcester, Mass. 41 - “Methods” as a subject of study 42 - “Methods” in the Model Schools 44 - Unification of study 45 - - C. _Practice in Teaching_ - General plan of Practice-Work-- - (_a_) In Pennsylvania 48 - (_b_) In New York 49 - (_c_) In Connecticut 50 - Importance attached to Model Schools 51 - Special plan of Practice-Work at Worcester, Mass. 51 - - D. _Examinations_ - State Examination and “Graduation” 52 - - E. _Supply of Teachers_ - Number of Normal School Students teaching in the Common - Schools 53 - Small number of Normal School Students who become - Secondary Teachers 54 - - - II. CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS. - - Effects of local management 56 - - A. _City Normal Schools_ - Conditions of admission 57 - Functions of Normal and High School combined 58 - Examinations 60 - - B. _City Training Schools_ - Emphasis of the practical side 61 - Substitute Service 62 - Boston Normal School 62 - Courses in Massachusetts 64 - Courses at New Haven, Conn. 65 - Psychological Experiments at New Haven 65 - Criticism lessons at New Haven 66 - Reports of work of Students at New Haven 69 - - C. _City Training Classes_ - The teaching of reading at Quincy, Mass. 70 - Courses in New York State 72 - Inadequacy of Training Class Courses for qualifying for - responsible work 73 - Practice of allowing beginners to teach in the lowest - grades 74 - Importance attached to “Methods” of the Primary School 75 - - - III. UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY. - - A. _Departments of State Universities_ - Importance to the State of the Professional preparation - of Teachers 78 - Courses in Pedagogy proper, and “Teachers’ Courses” 78 - University of Michigan 79 - University of Illinois 80 - University of Missouri 81 - General Features of State Universities 83 - - B. _Departments of Universities in the Eastern States_ - - Teachers’ College, New York City 86 - (_a_) Courses of Work 87 - (_b_) Teacher’s Diploma 88 - (_c_) Purely professional character of work 89 - (_d_) Psychology 90 - (_e_) History of Education 91 - (_f_) Methods of Science 92 - (_g_) Practice department 93 - - School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New York-- - (_a_) Pedagogical Degrees 97 - (_b_) Courses of Study 97 - - Cornell University 99 - - Syracuse University 99 - - Harvard University-- - (_a_) Students’ Inspection of Schools 100 - (_b_) Teachers’ Courses 101 - (_c_) Connection with Secondary Schools 101 - - Clark University-- - (_a_) Character of work 102 - (_b_) Courses of work 102 - (_c_) Psychological Research 103 - - - IV. SUMMER SCHOOLS. - - Benton Harbour, Mich. 105 - Englewood, Chicago 108 - (_a_) Science 108 - (_b_) Blackboard Drawing 110 - Chautauqua 111 - Cornell University, Summer School 111 - - - _REPORT II._ - - _Introduction_ - - The problem of “Training” in England and America 116 - Representative States 117 - State Systems of Education 118 - Bureau of Education 118 - East and West 118 - Institutions for the Training of Teachers 120 - - _Normal Schools_ - - State, City, and Private Normal Schools 120 - Academic _versus_ Professional Studies 121 - Comparison with English Elementary Training Colleges 122 - Lack of uniformity in standard of admission and length of - course 123 - - - STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. - - _Pennsylvania_ 124 - Courses laid down by the School Law 124 - Final examinations and graduation 126 - State Certificates for untrained teachers 127 - Grants to Normal students and graduates 128 - Millersville Normal School 129 - West Chester Normal School 130 - - _Connecticut_ 131 - Conditions of admission 132 - Provision for Theoretical and Practical Work 132 - Final examinations and graduation 133 - New Britain 133 - The Printing Press in the School 133 - Practice School at South Manchester 134 - Willimantic 134 - - _New York State_ - Statistics of State Normal Schools 135 - Conditions of admission 136-138 - Courses and diplomas 139 - Albany 139 - Oswego 140 - Special Training Course 142 - Laboratory method of teaching History 143 - - _Massachusetts_ 144 - The founding of State Normal Schools 145 - Design of Schools 145 - Courses 146 - Statistics of Normal Schools 147 - Framingham 148 - Westfield 149 - “Topics” 149 - Sand-moulding 150 - Bridgewater 150 - Worcester 150 - Child-study 151 - Apprenticeship 152 - Platform exercises 153 - Children’s Class 153 - Training the “time sense” 154 - Normal Art School 154 - - _Michigan_ 155 - Ypsilante Normal School 155 - Courses of study 155 - Pedagogic degrees 156 - - _Illinois_ 156 - State Normal Universities 157 - Cook County Normal School 157 - Conditions of admission 158 - Graduation and post-graduate courses 159 - The Practice School and its use 160-161 - Theory of concentration 162-165 - - - CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS. - - Organization 165 - - _Philadelphia_ 165 - Girls’ Normal School Course 166 - School of Pedagogy 166 - - _New York_ 168 - Normal School 168 - - _Boston_ 168 - Normal School 168 - Substitute service 168 - Course of study 169-170 - - - CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS. - - Organization 171 - - _New Haven_ 171 - Welch Training School 171 - Notes of Lessons 171 - - _Springfield_ 172 - Training School 172 - Leading features of Training School 173 - List of Training Schools in Massachusetts 174 - - - TRAINING CLASSES. 174 - - Table of Training Classes, Massachusetts 175 - - - PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES. - - Theoretical side of training emphasized 176 - - _Harvard_ 177 - Lectures on Education 177 - Inspection and supervision of Schools 178 - - _Cornell_ 178 - Elective courses in Philosophy course 178 - Seminaries 179 - - _Michigan_ - Professional Training for Teachers 179 - Reasons for providing the same (extract from Calendar) 179-180 - Teacher’s diploma and certificate 181 - - _Illinois_ - Course in Pedagogy counting towards a degree 182 - - _Indiana_ - Courses in Department of Pedagogies 183 - - _University of City of New York_ 183 - Regular Students and Auditors 183 - Courses of Study 183 - Requirements for the Doctorate in Pedagogy 184 - - _University of Iowa_ 185 - - _Teachers’ Training College, affiliated with Columbia College_ 185 - Course of study leading to degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy 186 - Certificates 187 - School of Observation and Practice 188 - Extension and publishing work 188 - - _Clark University at Worcester_ 189 - Research work 189 - Educational Department 190 - Pedagogical Seminary 192 - Twofold aim of Educational Department 192 - - - TEACHER’S INSTITUTES. - - Character of Work 194 - Various kinds of Institutes 195 - - - SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES. - - Benton Harbour 196 - Chautauqua 196 - Summer course at Cornell 196 - Summer Course at Clark University 197 - The Prang System 198 - - - - -The Training of Teachers in the United States - - - - -GENERAL SKETCH OF THE AMERICAN TOUR - - -Our educational quest began in the city of New York, on May 29th, 1893. - -Having interviewed the City Superintendent, Mr. J. Jasper, who gave -valuable information as to what was most worth seeing in connection -with the educational life of the city, we proceeded to the Normal -College of the city of New York. The session was just closing, but we -were able to see some classes in physical training and cookery, and -to gain some insight into the methods employed in other subjects. Two -or three days were most profitably spent at the Teachers’ Training -College, a sketch of the work of which is given elsewhere. A hasty -visit to Columbia College, with its annex for women,--Barnard -College,--a still more cursory glance at the University of the city of -New York (our information concerning which we were fortunately able -to supplement at Chicago), with an afternoon spent at the Press Fair, -was all we were able to accomplish at New York. The Press Fair proved -to be a most interesting exhibit of specimens of the work in the public -schools of New York. The methods of teaching various subjects were set -forth, and we were especially struck, as again later at the education -exhibit of the World’s Fair, by the apparatus and illustrations made by -the children themselves. - -The power of “_making_,” whether of maps (drawn, painted, modelled), -models (in clay, putty, paper, wood), pictorial illustrations of -lessons (history, geography, literature, natural science, and even -mathematics) appears to be much more encouraged in America than in -England. We made friends with several of the school children at the -Press Fair, who proved most eager and interesting guides, naturally -anxious to fully explain what had been sent from their own special -schools. - -Decoration Day (May 30th), on which New York had a holiday, we -determined to spend at Vassar College. A pleasant railway journey -up the banks of the Hudson River brought us to the little town of -Poughkeepsie, two miles to the east of which is Vassar College. Here -we were most cordially received, and spent the day in seeing over -the various buildings connected with it, and hearing lectures. This -college was founded in 1861 by Mr. Matthew Vassar, who provided the -grounds and buildings, together with a sustentation fund of about -£50,000. He desired, to use his own words, “to found and perpetuate an -institution which should accomplish for young women what our colleges -are accomplishing for young men.” - -It led the way in opening the advantages of a liberal education to -women, and holds a place in the first rank of women’s colleges in -America. It is undenominational, but, according to the wish of its -founder, daily prayers are held in the chapel, and all classes meet -on Sunday for the study of the Scriptures. In order to emphasize the -dignity of manual labour, each student is expected to undertake a small -share in the household work of the College, at least, at some period of -her college career. The ordinary course is for four years leading to -the degree of A.B. These four years are known respectively as Freshman, -Sophomore, Junior, and Senior. A further course of two years leads -to the degree of A.M., and special courses are also provided. There -are, moreover, in connection with the college, schools of music and -painting, the latter possessing a very fine collection of casts. There -is a uniform annual fee of £80 (400 dollars) for board and tuition. The -students’ rooms are usually arranged in groups of three sleeping rooms -opening on to a common study. Just before our visit the students had -given a most successful performance of the “Antigone.” - -From New York we went to Philadelphia, where the city superintendent, -Dr. Edward Brooks, kindly explained the city system of education. He is -keenly alive to the importance of the training of teachers, and ample -provision for the same is made in the city. For the training of men -teachers, a School of Pedagogy (the scheme for which was drawn up by -Dr. Brooks) has lately been opened in connection with the Boys’ Central -High School. The Girls’ Normal School has had to serve the double -purpose of high school and place of training for women teachers, but -Dr. Brooks has long urged the necessity of separating the two, and at -this time the new building for the Girls’ High School is being erected. -Kindergarten training is also not neglected, and on our first evening -in Philadelphia we attended the commencement exercises of Mrs. van -Kirk’s Kindergarten Training School, at which the graduates read essays -on various educational topics, sang songs and acted a little scene, in -which the virtues of the Kindergarten were set forth. The next day we -were able to visit the school itself, and we found that, not content -with providing the ordinary graduating course, Mrs. van Kirk has -arranged for one that is post-graduate. - -A delightful visit to the Drexel Institute, which provides for the -technical instruction of the city, a glance at one of the largest -Friends’ Schools, and an unavailing attempt to see over the James -Forten Manual Training School, was all we had time for in Philadelphia. - -Ten miles from Philadelphia, on the Pennsylvania railroad, one reaches -the Old Welsh settlement of Bryn Mawr, with its college for women, -which bears the same name. Several halls and laboratory buildings, -standing in fifty acres of ground, make an imposing show. Of all the -colleges that we visited, Bryn Mawr appeared the most English, and it -needed the sight of a preserved specimen of a wicked-looking snake, -which had been killed in the grounds, to convince us that we were -really on American soil. - -Perhaps the fact that the Professor of Mathematics, Miss Scott, and -three of the Fellows have come there from Girton helped to build up the -illusion. - -It is a college without rules; even attendance at lectures is not -compulsory, but as failure to pass at the yearly examinations brings -with it a request to withdraw from the college, there is every -inducement to attend regularly. The same freedom is extended to the -choice of studies. Instead of the four years’ course with the more -or less definitely prescribed work for each class which we found at -Vassar, Bryn Mawr has adopted the newer plan of the group system, which -allows more opportunity for specialization. A distinctive feature of -the college is the attention paid to post-graduate work, original -research being especially encouraged. The students have adopted caps -and gowns, which, however, are only worn within college precincts. - -Acting on the suggestion of Dr. Brooks, we determined to visit the -two chief normal schools of the state of Pennsylvania--West Chester -and Millersville. The little tree-shaded town of West Chester was -a pleasant change from the heat of Philadelphia. It is a most -distinctively Quaker settlement; even the landlord of the little inn -at which we stayed was a Friend, and wished to know if “thee was -travelling all by theeself.” The normal school is a little way out, but -easily reached by means of the electric cars, which are to be found in -even the smallest American towns. - -It was interesting to us as the first co-educational normal school that -we had seen. The dining and lecture rooms are used in common, but the -dormitory accommodation is in two separate wings. - -From West Chester we went to the normal school at Millersville, near -Lancaster. Returning north through New York, we first stopped at New -Haven, Connecticut, a most picturesque place, famous as being the -location of Yale College. - -Superintendent Curtis most kindly supplied us with information about -the State of Connecticut and its normal schools. He also took us to see -the Welch Training School in New Haven, which, however, is elsewhere -described. - -From New Haven we went to Hartford (visiting the normal school of New -Britain on the way), and from thence to Willimantic, South Manchester, -and Springfield, Massachusetts. At Springfield the Training School, -and an interview with Superintendent Balliet, gave ample material for -thought. The work carried on by Mr. Balliet in the city strikingly -exemplifies what a superintendent may do for the cause of education. -Not only does he give weekly lectures on applied psychology and -kindred subjects, but he has paid special attention to the elaborating -of methods of teaching such subjects as arithmetic and geometry, -geography, English language, etc., on which he has published -pamphlets, setting forth the results of his thought and experience. -It should be noted that, as in America schools when inspected are not -judged by results, but by the methods used, and the general teaching -efficiency, it comes about that the question of methods holds a more -important place in educational thought than in England. More time, -therefore, is devoted to their study in normal and training schools, -and a superintendent has a wide field of influence in the matter of -methods in the city or district over which he presides. - -From Springfield the normal school at Westfield was visited, and from -thence we went on to Albany to see the State Normal College and City -Training School. - -Boston offered a wide choice in matters of educational interest. - -The Perkins Institute and Kindergarten for the blind well repaid a -visit. The former, associated with the name of Laura Bridgman, has -now in Helen Keller and Annie Thomas two wonderful examples of what -education may do even for those who lack what at first may seem the -necessary basis for all instruction--the senses of sight and hearing. -Helen Keller was not there at the time of our visit, but we just -saw her later at Chicago. When she entered the Institute she, being -blind, deaf, and consequently speechless, lived in a state of almost -complete isolation, but now, through the careful training of her -marvellously acute sense of touch, she can take a very full share in -the life of the world. She moves about quite fearlessly, recognising -people by a touch of the hand, speaking easily (even sometimes in -public), although, of course, those speaking to her must use the -hand-language,[1] or let her put her fingers on their lips. She is -acquainted with a good deal of the best in literature, and writes -most poetically. Indeed, from her letters it is difficult to suppose -that she has never seen or heard anything. Her life seems a very -happy one in spite of all, and she makes friends everywhere. Annie -Thomas was at the Institute, however, at the time of our visit. She, -like Helen Keller, has only the sense of touch by means of which to -gain knowledge of the world, but she too has learned to talk, write, -sew, etc. She acted as guide to us over the building, leading us from -room to room, and drawing our attention to various things, including -specimens of her own work. Younger than Helen Keller, she is very -fond of dressing dolls, and felt our dresses all over, to try to get -new ideas in dressmaking. She appears to have a good memory, and can -recognise people after a long lapse of time by just touching their -hands. We asked her through her teacher if she remembered the visit of -an Englishman, who some years before had been there and had given her -a little ring; she remembered at once, and talked about him. In the -Kindergarten we saw two other such children--Willie Robin and Tommy -Stringer. The first, a little girl, is a pretty child, and seemingly -very intelligent. It was wonderful to see all the little blind children -playing Kindergarten games, but when this child came forward and joined -in playing cat and mouse, with an evident keen sense of the fun, and -even sang the songs with the others, finding out what was being sung -by touching the throat of the child next to her, we realized what -education had done for her. The little boy, Tommy Stringer (who was -admitted mainly through the efforts of Helen Keller, who, having heard -of him, did not rest until she had secured his admission), is only -at the beginning of his training, and cannot yet do much. Of course -the first work of establishing a system of communication with these -children is the most arduous, and patient indeed must be the teachers -who devote themselves to it. - -Several times we crossed the river Charles to Cambridge, for no visit -to America would have been complete without some time spent in seeing -the leading University of the country. It seemed curious to find that -women were still excluded from the lectures, although in the Women’s -Annex they are allowed to work as if for a degree. It seemed strange -that such a state of things could exist in a land which boasts itself -of freedom and of the position given to women. Indeed, it really -appears that the eastern States of America are behind England in the -matter of offering equal educational advantages to men and women. There -are, of course, the great Women’s Colleges of Bryn Mawr, Wellesley, -Vassar and Smith, which offer splendid opportunities for work, but -their courses lead to degrees which are for women only, and which will, -for that reason alone, never be considered as of such importance as -those which are also granted to men. - -The Harvard Annex for Women has been opened at Fay House, Cambridge. -Professors and lecturers from the University give their lectures over -again at the Annex for the benefit of the women students, who can -thus go through the course for a degree, which, however, they may not -receive, having to be content with a certificate. We were able to be -there on Class Day, on which the students invite their friends to an -“at home” in honour of the women graduates. At first all assembled in -the library to listen to appropriate speeches, then they dispersed into -the lecture rooms to talk to their friends, an arrangement which gave -the English visitors opportunity to meet the various professors and -lecturers. The women’s Class Day, however, fades into insignificance -by the side of the men’s, which is the gala day of Cambridge. The -morning is devoted to speeches by the students and professors, and in -the afternoon and evening the seniors (those who graduate) have the -opportunity of giving teas and “spreads,” to which they invite their -friends. On the Tree of Liberty is hung the famous wreath, the flowers -of which are scrambled for at a given signal, and dancing and other -entertainments bring the day to a close. Commencement Day, at which the -actual degrees are conferred, is held some days later. - -From Boston we visited another famous college for women--Wellesley, -which takes rank and is conducted on similar lines to those of Vassar -and Bryn Mawr. It is quite out in the country, and has beautiful -buildings and grounds of its own. - -The Institute of Technology well repaid a visit. It is a most imposing -institution, every opportunity being afforded in it for work of all -kinds, chiefly, it is true, for scientific work (the laboratories and -various departments being most splendidly equipped with apparatus), -but almost any subject can be studied there. There are special courses -arranged for those who are actually engaged in teaching. We also -visited the Boston Normal and Rice Training School, Normal Art School, -and the Latin High School. From Boston, we went to see the State Normal -Schools at Framingham, Bridgewater Providence (Rhode Island), and the -other Training Schools at Fall River and Pawtucket. - -The fame of the Quincy Schools, near Boston, attracted us thither, and -we spent a delightful morning listening to lessons in the primary and -grammar grades of one of the best. It was of course a mixed school, and -every class had a large room to itself with a continuous blackboard, -all round the walls, of which constant use was made either by teacher -or scholars. These blackboards are an essential part of school-room -furniture in America, and without them a great deal of the teaching -could not be carried on. The teacher begins at one end of the board -facing the class, and can work right along the side of the room, thus -being able to leave all her drawings, etc., unerased during the lesson. -She can also send any or all of the children to the blackboard at once -to work sums, write or draw. It was at Quincy that Colonel Parker (now -at Cook County Normal School) began his work as school superintendent, -and through him the Quincy methods of teaching attained an almost -world-wide fame. - -The little town of Milton, a few miles out of Boston, among the Blue -Mountains, was also a place of interest. We there visited the Milton -Academy, an endowed school, chartered as far back as 1798, and opened -in 1807. It is a school for boys and girls, although there is only a -boarding-house for boys. The Academy much resembles an English High -School, in that it provides education for children between the ages of -eight and eighteen, and has an upper and lower school. It is really a -preparatory school for Harvard, the courses in the upper school being -determined by the requirements for the Harvard entrance examination. - -We asked the head-master as to the practical working of co-education -in a school of that kind. He appeared to believe in it, and gave -us an excellent opportunity of learning how the boys and girls -themselves regarded it. The upper school had to write for ten minutes -on some given subject, and on this morning the one announced was -“co-education.” We were afterwards allowed to look at the papers, and -were very much interested by them. About half the pupils expressed no -definite opinion at all--many saying that as they had never been to a -school on any other plan, they could not judge of the relative merits -of mixed or separate schools. The rest, however, had fully made up -their minds, some for and some against. Those who defended the system -did so on the grounds of the higher standard of work resulting from -the rivalry between the boys and girls, and of the good influence each -had on the other--the girls making the boys gentler, while the boys’ -admiration of courage tended to render the girls braver. The objections -brought against it were, however, almost more interesting. Several boys -objected, because they said they had to work harder than in schools for -boys only, while some of the girls who did not want to take the Harvard -entrance examination disliked the course of study rendered necessary -by it, and would have preferred to take other subjects. According -to one boy, “girls have so much more time than boys (not playing so -many games), and therefore can easily get their lessons perfect”; and -another bewailed the fact that when optional extra work was given out -by the teacher, “the girls always did it, and so got more marks.” A -more valid objection, perhaps, was that the school had no reputation -for athletics, or outdoor games, as the girls took no interest in -them. How far this was really true in this particular case, we could -not judge; but wherever we went, we were struck with the fact that -American girls do not play or get enough exercise in the open air. This -dislike to outdoor exercise and fondness for hot rooms (their rooms -are kept ten to fifteen degrees higher in temperature than we consider -healthy in England) are probably the chief causes of the delicacy and -excitability of American women. - -One day was spent at Concord, so long the home of Emerson, Hawthorne -and Thoreau, where one realized as never before what their lives and -writings have meant as educating influences in America. The life -of Concord seems to be in the past, and it appears as if quietly -awaiting the return of those great presences which made it famous. -The house once occupied by the Alcotts is now in the possession of -Commissioner Harris, of Washington (Head of the Bureau of Education), -who spends a part of each year there. The Concord schools are good, -and a new scheme, by which all children within a radius of ten miles -are collected in conveyances and brought in to school, has just been -adopted. This plan does away with the necessity for district schools, -which are rarely efficient. - -From Boston we started westward, and first stopped at Syracuse. This -is the seat of a Co-educational University, placed on the top of the -highest hill, the view from which is very fine. Besides the ordinary -departments, it has one for music and one for painting, which have both -been carefully organized. There is also an observatory. - -By way of Oswego, Niagara and Detroit, we reached Ann Arbor, the seat -of the Michigan State University, which is the centre of the life -of the town. It is co-educational and non-residential, the students -boarding with the people of the place. It appeared that nearly every -house took in students, usually only to lodge, but other houses opened -their doors at meal times, and it was a curious sight to see students -and others wending their ways three times a day to certain houses where -they had arranged for meals. - -The University has many departments, including those of law, medicine -and dentistry. Two graduates of the last were Englishwomen, who are now -practising in Chicago. - -We were fortunate enough to arrive there in time for Commencement Day, -when we saw several hundred students receive degrees. They went up on -to the platform in batches of twenty or thirty at a time, and were then -handed their diplomas. Neither the graduates nor the professors wore -any academic dress. Just below the platform, tables were arranged which -were covered with bunches and baskets of flowers and presents. These -were placed there by the friends of the students, and each bore the -name of the one for whom it was intended. At one point in the ceremony -these were handed round. An address is usually given by some well-known -speaker--this year by Dr. Charles Warner. - -This University is the crown of the Michigan State system of education, -and its advantages are equally open to men and to women. All connected -with it seemed to approve of its being co-educational. Great freedom is -allowed to all students, but he or she who will not work, and wastes -time and opportunities, has to leave. Graduation time is also that -chosen for the meeting together of old students of the University. -The students who graduate together are known as the “class” of the -year in which they take their degrees--such as the “class of 1870,” -or of “1890.” The members of the various classes try to keep in touch -with each other all their lives, and like to meet at the University at -Commencement time. Several classes, in some of which the members were -all grey-headed, had thus met together to talk over old times. - -From Ann Arbor we went to see a Summer School, at Benton Harbour, a -watering-place on Lake Michigan. The school was mostly attended by -teachers from the country, who wished to use part of their holidays in -preparing for one of the Teachers’ State Examinations. - -Here we spent the “glorious fourth,” being roused by fireworks at three -in the morning, and obliged to tread the streets most carefully by day -to avoid stepping on the fire-crackers which lay about everywhere. - -Crossing the lake by steamer (a three or four hours’ passage, in -which we were quite out of sight of land), we reached Chicago. There -we stayed at the new University, which, of course, was not then in -session. The dormitories were let out to those who came for the -Educational Congresses. Our first sight of it was not inspiriting, -for we arrived at night, and the half-finished buildings, placed at -intervals on what must at no distant date have been a swamp, looked -cheerless and forlorn. Things looked better in the morning sunshine; -and we then found that there was every promise of its being a large -and handsome University. It is co-educational, like Michigan, -and has, moreover, three women on the staff--one as Dean, one as -Assistant-Professor of English, and one as Lecturer in Spanish. It is -residential, some of the dormitories being built for women and some for -men. - -The World’s Fair was held in the parks adjoining the University. -It would take too long to describe, but one building must be -mentioned--that of the Liberal Arts, the top floor of which was -entirely given up to educational exhibits. Nearly every country was -represented, from Japan--which really appears to be far advanced in -the making of teaching apparatus--to the exhibit of our own London -School Board, which was exceedingly well arranged, and attracted much -attention. The United States had naturally the lion’s share of the -space--each State having a section allotted to it. In each section -places were given to the Universities, Normal Schools, Public and -Private Schools, and other Institutions. Specimens of work, exercise -books, apparatus, were all shown. Several States had taken great pains -to make the exhibit complete. Some had collected valuable statistics -and placed them on revolving screens, some had published pamphlets -describing certain branches of educational work in the State; and -some greatly heightened the value of the exhibits by placing some -one in charge who was competent to explain them. Some exhibits were, -of course, much more valuable than others--the States of Indiana, -Massachusetts, Minnesota and New York appeared perhaps the most -complete. - -From these exhibits, and especially from those in charge of them, we -learned much, and were able to supplement the knowledge we had gained -by visiting the various schools. - -Two Educational Congresses were held, the first under the Women’s -Branch of the World Congress Auxiliary, began on July 17th, and the -other, held under the charge of the National Educational Association, -began on July 23rd. - -Under each there were many sections, those for the first being Higher -Education, University Extension, College and University Students, -College Fraternities, Kindergarten Manual and Art Education, Social -Settlements, Chautauquean Education, Stenography, Teaching of the Deaf -and of the Blind. - -For the second: Higher, Secondary, Elementary and Kindergarten -Education, School Supervision, Training of Teachers’ Art, Vocal Music, -Technological, Industrial and Manual Business and Physical Education, -Rational Psychology and Experimental Psychology in Education. On the -whole the Congresses were disappointing, with perhaps the exception -of that on Experimental Psychology; but the people we met there were -so interesting as to quite make up for any loss in the Congresses -themselves. - -All our spare time we spent at the Cook County Normal Summer School, -Colonel Parker having given us free passes to all lectures. There we -met teachers from all parts of the States and from Canada. - -We also visited the University Settlement in one of the poorest parts -of Chicago. It is known as Hull House, and is conducted on much the -same lines as Toynbee Hall. - -From Chicago we went to Chautauqua, the huge encampment by the side of -Lake Chautauqua, in New York State. Here for several months in the year -people gather (no longer in log huts, but in hotels and boarding-houses -erected for the purpose) to attend the summer school, or the religious -meetings, or simply to enjoy the social life and popular lectures, -concerts, etc., which make the time pass quickly for them. Not only, -however, in the summer does Chautauqua exercise its influence. An -elaborate system of reading circles and education by correspondence has -been established, and connects one summer meeting with another. It does -educational work among those who are reached in no other way, and its -influence is felt not only throughout the States and America generally, -but even in Europe and far Japan. - -We returned to New York through Ithaca, where we stopped to see Cornell -University. A University Summer School was being held, and we were able -to attend some lectures, and interviewed one or two professors. - -A breakdown of the train by which we were to leave Ithaca delayed -our journey, so we arrived in New York too late to see any more -institutions, and sailed from thence feeling sad at the thought that -such a delightful tour was ended; but glad, too, at the remembrance of -the many friends we had made, and feeling that America would be no more -to us a land of strangers. - - MILLICENT HUGHES. - - - - -REPORT I - -BY AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL, B.Sc. - - -In making my report of observations in one department of the -Educational System of the United States, I am anxious to point out, at -the very outset, that the nature of that System (its complexity, its -many modifications, and the vast extent it covers) renders the work of -drawing general conclusions from the data supplied by the observations -of one person a task of extreme difficulty. The difficulty is further -increased by the fact that my personal observations were limited to -the North-Eastern States of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, -New York, Pennsylvania, Michigan, and Illinois. These States, although -covering only a small portion of the whole field of observation, differ -so greatly as regards conditions and organization that they exhibit -results widely opposed, and furnish facts from which it is not easy to -generalize. - -I had, however, many and valuable opportunities of supplementing -personal observations by a further study of educational matters in the -exhibit of the Educational Department of the World’s Fair, and by -attending the Educational Congresses held in Chicago in July, 1893. -The meetings held during the Educational Congress were, in themselves, -disappointing. Nevertheless they enabled me to meet educationalists -and teachers of all kinds from all parts of the United States, and -to learn, by personal interviews, facts which it would have been -impossible to gain by merely visiting educational institutions. I found -throughout my visit that personal interviews were an important means of -supplementing the observation of work actually done in the schools. In -some departments, the most valuable information I gained was acquired -in this way, this being especially true in connection with the Training -of Secondary Teachers in the Eastern States, where the subject, -although widely discussed, is only just beginning to have any practical -outcome. - -In reporting on the Training of Teachers in the United States, I have -chiefly confined myself to the work done in:-- - - i. State Normal Schools. - - ii. City Normal and Training Schools. - - iii. Departments of Pedagogy in Universities and Colleges. - -It will be seen that I make constant references to methods of Science -taught in the training schools, and adopted in their connected model -schools. This is due to the fact that my observations were made with -especial regard to that branch of training. I have not reported on -the training of Kindergarten teachers, for although the question of -Kindergarten instruction is one of great interest and importance at -present in America, I had little opportunity of seeing and judging the -methods employed in the preparation of teachers in that department. - -I wish to record my grateful thanks to those who so readily helped me -in my work; and to express my appreciation of the great kindness and -hospitality shown everywhere throughout my visit. I should also like to -take this opportunity of thanking the Gilchrist Trustees, through whose -liberality I have been enabled to gain much that will be very valuable -to myself, and possibly something that may be of interest or help to -other teachers. - - -_STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS._ - -The State Normal Schools are schools supported wholly by a particular -State, to provide trained teachers for the public schools of that -State. They are under the management of State Boards of Education, -which determine the length of the Normal School Course, and arrange -the studies. Much discretionary power is, however, given to the -principals or presidents of the respective schools. Instruction is -usually free to those who pledge themselves to teach in the State, -and, as a further inducement, students attending non-resident schools -are allowed to come in by train at reduced fares, or lodge and board -in houses near the school at a very low rate. Students of resident -schools have rooms and board in the school building, or in separate -smaller halls, or “dormitories,” at a rate of 150-180 dollars a year. -To very needy students the State makes extra grants. Most of the -Normal Schools are co-educational institutions; but a few admit only -women. In the co-educational schools, the men and women have classes -and meals in common, and reside in different parts of one building, or -in adjacent buildings. It is a noticeable fact, however, that in most -of the co-educational Normal Schools the women students outnumber the -men. In the two Pennsylvanian Schools I visited--those at Westchester -and Millersville--the discrepancy between the numbers of men and women -students was not so great as in the Normal Schools of Massachusetts, -Connecticut, and New York, which devote themselves more strictly to -professional training, _i.e._ to pedagogical instruction and teaching -practice. Having enquired as to the cause of the greater number of -women students, I was told it was due to the fact that teaching, as a -profession, offers few attractions to men in the United States, and -that in those few Normal Schools where the attendance of men and women -students is almost equal the courses are such as to allow of their -being used by the men as preparatory courses for college. Such an -explanation seems to be corroborated by the relative numbers of men and -women teachers in many of the States. In Massachusetts, the number of -teachers is 10,965, and of these only 992 are men. In Illinois, there -are 23,033 teachers in the Common Schools, and among them only 7,091 -men. In New York, of the 32,161 teachers in the State schools, 26,869 -are women. - -The first Normal Schools were established in Massachusetts in 1839. The -particular needs which these early schools were intended to satisfy, -and their early aims, have influenced the courses of instruction and -lines of work of most of the Normal Schools since established, whether -in Massachusetts, or in other States. The purpose of the early schools -at Lexington and Barre was to provide more competent teachers for the -lower grades of schools, and their course of training embraced:-- - - i. The subjects of an ordinary school curriculum, known as “academic - studies,” as distinguished from pedagogical or “professional studies.” - - ii. Instruction in the Art of Teaching and Governing. - - iii. Practice in Teaching in the Common Schools. - -The standard of admission to these early Normal Schools was low, and at -that time, opportunities for any thorough study outside universities -were few, especially in the case of women. Accordingly their theory -of training gave the greatest importance to “a careful review of the -branches of knowledge required to be taught in schools.” The first -business of a Normal School was said, by Horace Mann, to consist “in -reviewing, and thoroughly and critically mastering the rudiments of -elementary branches of knowledge.” And although conditions have changed -much since 1839, most of the Normal Schools of the United States still -pursue the lines of work adopted by Massachusetts. Standards of -admission have been raised, courses of study have been correspondingly -extended, but the Normal Schools, with a few exceptions, still remain -more or less efficient schools for the teaching of ordinary subjects, -and devote half the course, and in many cases even more, to academic -work. It is thus a distinctive feature of Normal School work to -pursue school subjects side by side with professional, or pedagogical -subjects. But there seems a general tendency to emphasize the academic -part, at the expense of the professional. Examples of the courses -of study for Massachusetts and New York, two of the foremost of the -Eastern States in educational matters, will indicate this. - -Normal Schools of Massachusetts. - -_Two Years’ Course_: - - Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry. - - Book-keeping. - - Physics, Astronomy, Chemistry. - - Physiology, Botany, Zoology, Geology. - - Mineralogy, Geography. - - Language, Reading, Orthography. - - Etymology, Grammar, Rhetoric. - - Literature, Composition. - - Penmanship, Drawing, Vocal Music. - - Gymnastics. - - Psychology, Science of Education, Art of Teaching. - - School Organization, History of Education. - - Civil Polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, History and - School Laws of Massachusetts. - -_Four Years’ Course_: - - Subjects required in the Two Years’ Course, with the addition of:-- - - Advanced Algebra and Geometry, Trigonometry, Surveying. - - Advanced Chemistry, Physics and Botany. - - Drawing, English Literature, General History. - - Latin, French, German or Greek. - -The order of studies, and the relative lengths of time spent on -academic and professional studies, is determined by the president -of the school. In the Bridgewater School, pedagogical subjects are -not studied systematically until the fourth term or semester, for -those who take the Two Years’ Course, and the seventh semester, for -those who take the Four Years’ Course. Thus with the exception of a -single semester, and a few hours of the first semester given to an -introduction of psychology, the whole of the two years or four years is -devoted to school subjects. In the Westfield School, the last half-year -of the Two Years’ Course is devoted to pedagogical subjects, and the -additional work of the Four Years’ Course is entirely academic. - -The studies prescribed for the Normal Schools of New York State are in -three courses: - - i. The English Course, comprising the usual English subjects, - Mathematics and Science. This occupies three years. - - ii. The Classical Course, comprising more advanced English subjects, - Mathematics and Science, with Latin and Greek, or German and French. - This occupies four years. - - iii. The Scientific Course, including all subjects of the English - Course, with two years’ study of two of the languages, Latin and - Greek, French, German. - -The order of subjects, and relative times devoted to academic and -professional studies, is approximately the same for all the Normal -Schools of New York State. Taking the schools of Oswego and Oneonta as -examples, we find:-- - -_Three Years’ Course_: Psychology, philosophy, history of education and -methods of teaching various subjects, taken up for the first half of -the third year, and sometimes made to extend into the second half of -the same year. - -_Four Years’ Course_: The same work, chiefly done in the first half of -the fourth year. - -It is maintained by some, that all the Normal School work is -professional, in that throughout the curriculum the aim is to present -the subject matter of instruction in the way that the teacher should -present it to his or her class of children, and so to make the lessons -model lessons. I was present at some excellent lessons of this kind: -a geography lesson and a history lesson in the Bridgewater Normal -School. But for the most part the needs of the Normal School pupils -themselves, and not the needs of imaginary future school children, -have to be considered, and the Normal School lessons or “recitations” -resolve themselves into ordinary school lessons. Even if we assume, -however, that this is not the case, and that great skill is shown on -the part of the Normal School teacher, may not such a plan of teaching -“Methods” be dangerous, in that it encourages imitation and rigidity. -Such appears to me to be the tendency of the generally adopted plan, -of giving professional training in “Methods,” by actual lessons in the -various subjects given by the Normal School teacher; and the danger -of encouraging cut and dried methods is intensified where it is the -custom for a Normal School student to give a lesson to children, or -her fellow-students in that subject and section of a subject which -has just been presented to her by the Normal School teacher. It is -maintained by others that apart from any advantage which may accrue to -the students from hearing good lessons in the various subjects they -will have to teach, it is absolutely necessary that each student should -change her standpoint, and review the various branches of knowledge -as a teacher, rather than as a pupil. This, it is argued, is secured -by such a plan of teaching “Methods.” As a third motive, it is held -that direct teaching of ordinary school subjects is necessary before -beginning pedagogical instruction, on account of the inadequate and -unequal preparation which the future teachers bring to their work. -It seems to me that both these necessities might be obviated by more -rigid requirements for admission to Normal Schools. The well-equipped -High Schools can do the academic work of the Normal Schools with less -effort than can the Normal Schools themselves; and were the standards -of admission such as to necessitate a thoroughly sound preliminary -knowledge in common school subjects, might not the Normal School -students be found more capable of themselves reviewing old facts from a -new standpoint, and the schools have more time and opportunity to carry -out other means of training? - - -ACADEMIC STUDIES. - -It is a marked feature in the academic work of Normal Schools that -great importance is given to the teaching of science. Here, as in -American Schools in general, a large place in the curriculum is given -to what is known as “nature study.” Extensive laboratories, for the -different branches of science, are fitted up in most of the schools; -books, microscopes, physical, chemical and biological apparatus, -specimens for observation and dissection, are supplied free to -students; outdoor work is organized, weather-charts are kept daily, and -students are encouraged to use the school workshops for making simple -physical apparatus for their own use. In all the schools great stress -is laid upon practical work by each individual student. The following -list shows the number of lesson-hours given to science at the Normal -School, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. - -_Two Years’ Course_: - - 1st year. { 1st term 12 hours per week. - { 2nd ” 7 ” ” - - 2nd year. { 1st term 6 ” ” - { 2nd ” 5 ” ” - -_Four Years’ Course_: - - 1st year. { 1st term 2 ” ” - { 2nd ” 10 ” ” - - 2nd year. { 1st term 7 ” ” - { 2nd ” 2 ” ” - - 3rd year. { 1st term 4 ” ” - { 2nd ” 8 ” ” - - 4th year. { 1st term 8 ” ” - { 2nd ” 4 ” ” - -The school, which numbers 274 pupils, has five laboratories--viz., -chemical, physical, physiological and zoological, geological and -industrial, and the equipment of these, and the care with which -students kept daily records of laboratory work, were its special -features. The chemical laboratory is in two sections: one for -elementary, and one for advanced students, and between these is a -teachers’ laboratory. The students’ daily records of work are carefully -examined by the teacher, and much use is made, by both teachers and -students, of the continuous wall slate round the class-rooms and -laboratories. Physiology is taught by aid of the skeleton and life-size -models, also by the dissection of lower animals, and microscopical -examination of tissues. The methods and means adopted for geology and -geography teaching at Bridgewater seemed to be particularly good. In -the school museum were duplicate collections of rocks and minerals, -classified on various bases; and in addition to these, the school -possessed two sets of trays of working specimens, one set containing -labelled typical class specimens, and the other containing unlabelled -specimens for identification by students. Books, giving printed -directions for work, interleaved with blank sheets for observations, -notes and drawings, were provided for all students. I heard two -excellent lessons in geography at this school. One on the Slopes of -the United States was well worked out with the students in sand, -great care being taken by the teacher to state and compare actual -distances, so that the relief-map should not convey an impression of -false proportion. The other was a lesson in map-drawing from memory. -All students had places at the slate round the room, and two minutes -were given to draw the outline of a map previously prepared. Then one -minute was given for the drawing of a particularly difficult isolated -part of the outline. When this was done, a correct map was uncovered, -and students were required to correct their own drawings. After the -drawings had been individually criticised by the teacher, faults were -generalized, and help was given. - -The special features of the science work at the Normal School, -Willimantic, Connecticut, is the emphasis placed on manual training, -and its practical connection with all science teaching. All students, -men and women, are required to invent, or make with their own hands, -simple apparatus for teaching the elementary facts of physics. I saw -students in the workshops, making relief-maps and models for their -lessons. One was constructing a very simple model of a water-wheel, to -illustrate lessons on the conservation of energy; another was making a -relief-map of paper pulp, on a ground of blue-painted wood. - -In this school the students do not, as a rule, follow stated text-books -in science. Wide reading is encouraged, and there is an excellent -library of standard text-books and works of reference. There is also a -model library of children’s literature for the students’ use, and an -exhibition of the latest devices for “busy-work.” “Busy-work” is the -work done alone by one section of a class, while the other is being -directly taught by the teacher. All sorts of occupations are devised -by the clever teacher for impressing facts already learnt, and the -“busy-work” hour is frequently employed in cutting out outline maps, -sorting beads, counting beans, etc. The object of the exhibition of -“busy-work” at Willimantic is to encourage examination and criticism -of such devices with regard to their educational value. The figures -representing the amount granted to this Normal School last year, for -“busy-work” exhibits, library books, text-books, periodicals, etc., -were kindly given to me by the Principal, and I note them here, as an -illustration of the readiness of New England States to furnish school -supplies and apparatus. A few details of expenditure for the past year, -which was by no means an exceptional year, are: - - Text-books and School Supplies for Normal } 1,500 dollars. - and Model School } - - Library 500 ” - Periodicals 60 ” - ------ - Total amount, 2,060 ” - ====== - -Thus more than £450 was spent in one year for library materials, in -a school numbering less than 150. The abundant supply of apparatus -and books for the teaching of science, and the importance given to -practical work, are a marked feature in all the schools. At the Albany -Normal School for teachers in higher grades and colleges, the students -spend most of their free afternoons in making physical apparatus for -their own future use. The laboratory here is well equipped, and the -work is done with great care, accuracy and finish. I saw a home-made -tangent galvanometer, and a Wheatstone’s bridge in constant use for -somewhat fine measurements. - -At the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts, plant study receives -special attention. This is not technical botany as usually understood, -but is rather a daily observation and record of plant surroundings, the -practical study of all stages of plant-life. A feature of the study -is the daily exhibit, made by the pupils in turn, of some plant in -bud, leaf, flower or fruit, with its common and scientific name, and -the place where it was gathered. Directories furnishing information -respecting the localities of trees and plants in the neighbourhood are -made in the school, and dates of their times of blossoming are noted -from year to year on special blank sheets provided for the purpose. -Moreover, collections of the woods of different trees, and of leaves -of trees growing within the county are made. Work of this kind is -usually done in the free hours for independent study, which each -student has several times during the day. Practical gardening is also -systematically done in free time. - -The lessons in science, unless actual laboratory lessons, are usually -given in the form of “recitations.” A “recitation” is a lesson in -which certain parts of a subject, specially prepared beforehand, are -contributed by the pupils. The teacher asks questions and explains -difficulties, and generally connects the facts brought forward; but -the material of the lesson is wholly supplied by the pupils. This way -of working out a subject has at least two distinct advantages over our -own method of lesson-giving, in which the chief work devolves upon the -teacher. By the recitation method the pupils are taught how to use -books, how to gather from many sources material for their recitation. -They also learn to rely on their own efforts in class-time, and to be -alert in thought and speech. The disadvantages of the plan, however, -seem even more apparent. Where one text-book is chiefly used in a -subject, or even where several books are referred to, there is a -distinct tendency to “recite” in the words of the book. Several times I -heard lessons in which such “recitations” were accepted by the teacher. -This method, moreover, seems likely to lead to too great a dependence -on text-books, and too constant a reference to books, on points where -thought and reflection might be better guides. It also encourages -digression in class, and a resulting slowness in getting through the -subject matter, unless the teacher be very skilful in conducting the -“recitation.” The constant raising of points by the students, at all -parts of the discussion, leads sometimes to waste of time by debating -on questions of merely individual opinion. Such results point to the -difficulty of conducting an ordinary recitation. Great skill and much -experience are needed, before such a lesson can be made completely -satisfactory, and many are the teachers’ temptations to omit careful -preparation. As a method to be used constantly, and in all subjects, -it seems open to many objections, and to show but few advantages. As -resorted to occasionally, and by skilful teachers, and as particularly -adapted to subjects such as geography or history, the “recitation” may -be made a valuable means of training. - -The tendency to bookishness and slavery to word-forms, which may seem -to be encouraged by the recitation method of teaching science in the -Normal Schools, is opposed by a greater tendency to emphasize the -concrete, to refer in all science teaching directly to the objects -themselves, to use laboratory methods wherever possible. Observation -and experiment are essentially the methods of many of the American -science teachers, and no pains are spared to illustrate all facts and -principles by an appeal to the senses. As a result, much of the science -teaching is excellent. On the other hand, there seems a possible danger -of pursuing these excellent methods too far, of appealing to the senses -alone, at stages of development in the child when reason and reflection -might be appealed to and trusted, and of generally emphasizing the -value of observation at the expense of neglecting the reflective -faculties. In the excellent _Outlines of Laboratory Work_, used by -some of the Normal Schools, the danger is to some degree recognised by -_Questions for Thought and Reference_ being placed at the end of each -lesson-scheme. Assuming, however, that the questions are followed out -carefully by the students, it may still be doubted whether this is the -best method of arousing thought. - -Another feature of the science teaching in the Normal Schools is the -taking up of many branches of science. Chemistry, physics, astronomy, -geology, mineralogy, zoology, botany, physiology, are studied by all. -In order that students may be able to take up all these, the plan -usually adopted is to concentrate attention on one science for a short -time, and then to pass on to other sciences, until five or six have -been taken. It is seldom that even one branch of science is allowed -to run through a whole course of two years. The division of science -studies for the Normal School at New Britain, Connecticut, where the -science work is most carefully done, will illustrate this point. - -_First Year_: - - Chemistry 5 recitations a week for 13 weeks. - - Physiology 5 ” ” ” 13 ” - - Physics 4 ” ” ” 40 ” - - Physical } 4 ” ” ” 4 ” - Geography } - -_Second Year_: - - Physics 4 recitations a week for 13 weeks. - - Botany 5 ” ” ” 10 ” - - Geology 4 ” ” ” 5 ” - - Biology & } 4 ” ” ” 10 ” - Zoology } - -When it is remembered that no preliminary science is required for -admission to the Normal Schools, and that many of the entering students -have not done any work in the subject at all, it seems impossible that -any very thorough knowledge can be secured in a course of five, ten, -or even thirteen weeks. It may be possible for the student to obtain -and verify a few scientific facts during a short course such as this; -but there is no time or opportunity to realize the extent or bearing of -the subject in hand, or to study it adequately in a scientific way. To -allow a beginner to feel he has completed a course in geology, botany, -or any other science in thirteen weeks is to encourage superficiality, -to arouse in him a feeling of satisfaction and attainment, and surely -nothing can be more opposed to the true spirit of science. In the New -Britain School, physics is carried through fifty-three of the eighty -weeks in the Two Years’ Course; and this seems a good plan, even if, -during some part of the time, only two or three hours a week can be -given to it. When one science, or possibly two, are chiefly taken up, -and others considered merely accessory to the main subject of study, a -more adequate knowledge of science and scientific method can be gained, -especially if the sciences taken up are such as botany, and physics, -which illustrate respectively different methods of scientific research. - -It may be maintained that the Normal School students must be prepared -for their future work in the Primary and Grammar Schools, in most of -which the elements of several sciences are taught. This, of course, -must be remembered. Nevertheless, the attitude of mind developed by the -thorough study of one science is the best possible preparation for the -safe study of the elements of others, while a superficial study of the -elements of many sciences is fatal to the proper estimation of facts in -any one of them. - - -PROFESSIONAL WORK. - -The purely professional work of the Normal State Schools consists of: - - (_a_) Instruction in the theory of education and its application. - - (_b_) Actual practice in teaching, under the guidance of experienced - teachers. - - (_c_) Theory of education. - -It is usual for the Normal Schools of the Eastern States to postpone -the study of strictly pedagogical subjects until half or more of the -course has been completed. School methods are sometimes taught in -connection with academic subjects in the early part of the course; -but such instruction, coming, as it does, before any principles of -the science of education have been considered, or any practical -experience has been gained, must be purely empirical. At the Normal -School, Millersville, Pennsylvania, school management is taken -during the first year, and applied psychology (as distinguished from -empirical methods), history of education, and school teaching, are -required during the second year. If the student takes up a further -scientific or post-graduate course, additional professional studies are -required--viz., psychology and the philosophy of education, ethics, -logic, and professional reading. In the Westchester Normal School, -Pennsylvania, no professional work is taken up until the second year. -Then psychology is studied, and history of education; and methods -and school practice are taken. The additional pedagogical studies -for the advanced courses are the same as at Millersville. At the -Normal School, Bridgewater, Massachusetts, the students, after having -studied the elements of psychology, during their first semester, leave -all technical studies until the fourth semester, when they take up -simultaneously, study of the body, study of the mind, principles of -education and methods, school organization, school government, history -of school laws of Massachusetts. A fifth semester, when it can be -given, is devoted entirely to professional work and actual teaching. -At the Normal School, New Britain, Connecticut, psychology is given -four times a week during most of the two years’ course. Text-books -are not used except for reference. No pure psychology is studied, but -school subjects are taken up one by one, and their facts and methods of -treatment are used to illustrate psychological principles. The history -of education is studied side by side with this applied psychology; -but not much time is given to this subject in class. The lives and -works of the chief educators only are taken, and private reading -is much encouraged as accessory to the class work. At the Normal -School, Willimantic, Connecticut, psychology is studied one hour a -day throughout the last year, and is treated almost entirely from the -physiological standpoint. No special text-book is used, but Spencer -and Darwin are recommended for reference. The history of education -is not taken up systematically in class, but the work and influence -of modern educators, such as Arnold, Thring, and Horace Mann, are -thoroughly discussed. At the Normal School, Worcester, Massachusetts, -class work in psychology is taken almost daily throughout the whole -course. The value attributed to the subject, and the unique way in -which it is studied, together with other points distinctive of the -professional work, give to the Worcester School a foremost place among -New England Normal Schools. The method adopted for its study is one -which entirely leaves the beaten track of ordinary text-books. It does -not, in the earlier stages, trouble the student with the divisions and -generalities of pure psychology, but rather fixes his attention solely -on the child, and seeks to gain from actual observation and individual -and combined experience laws which shall be valuable aids in teaching. -“The principal requests the students to observe the conduct of children -in all circumstances--at home, at school, in the street, at work, at -play, in conversation with one another and with adults, and record -what they see and hear as soon as circumstances will permit.” The work -thus suggested has been organized as a definite part of the school -course, and although optional, is usually taken up by all students. -It is intended, not to supplant, but to supplement later systematic -instruction in psychology, and is taken up, not for the sake of the -facts gained, which may or may not be of intrinsic worth, but for the -value of the process of such observation to the teacher. In order to -help forward the systematic study of children, a scheme of work is -drawn up. Records are to be made whenever convenient, and for these -records blank sheets of six different colours are provided. The colours -are a means of roughly classifying the records into six groups, thus: - - (i.) Facts of personal observation. - - (ii.) Facts related by others, together with names of recorder and - observer. - - (iii.) Personal reminiscences of childhood. - - (iv.) Facts gained from books. - - (v.) Observations on exceptional or defective children. - - (vi.) Continuous observations. - -Each record must contain the date of the observation, the observer’s -name, age, and post-office address, as well as the name or initials -of the child observed, its age, sex, nationality. There must be also -a statement of the length of time which has elapsed between the -observation and the record. These records are preserved and catalogued -under such heads as knowledge, imagination, feeling. Special attention -is being directed to the subject of child language, and pupils and old -students are supplied with small indexed books for records in this -particular department. Further opportunities for daily observation and -experiment in certain lines of child-study and in teaching are offered -in a newly organized children’s class or kindergarten. The students -merely watch the class, the teaching being entirely in the hands of two -experienced kindergartners. As the class exists for the acknowledged -purpose of experiment, tuition is free, and the teachers in charge have -full liberty to follow any course they wish. When I saw the school, -a long series of daily experiments were being made, with a view to -finding out whether, when left perfectly free, the boys secured places -next to girls by preference. - -Much time is given to “Methods” in all the Normal Schools. Besides the -so-called “Methods” taught by means of academic studies, the subject -is usually taken up again in connection with applied psychology. The -school subjects, treated one by one in detail, are used to illustrate -principles of education, while much reference is made at every stage to -the personal experience of teacher and students. Many different plans -are adopted in teaching “Methods.” At the Normal School, Westchester, -I heard a lesson which was in the form of a modified “recitation.” A -certain point had been chosen for discussion. The students had prepared -the subject beforehand, and some had written short essays, which they -read in turn. Afterwards the whole class was questioned by the teacher. -As new ideas were brought forward, they were noted on the blackboard -by the students who supplied them, until a complete sketch was made. A -discussion on “Noise in Class” was carried on somewhat in the same way. -At Westfield, Massachusetts, the lessons on “Didactics” are carried -out on a similar plan, the students being called upon in turn to -furnish certain parts of the subject, and to build up a sketch on the -blackboard. - -At the Normal School, Albany, methods are taught thus:--With each -of three terms of psychology, certain subjects are chosen for -consideration. A syllabus of work in a certain subject is given in -by each student. It is carefully discussed in class. Then parts of -the detailed syllabus are taken in order, methods of dealing with any -particular part discussed, and one method decided upon as best. For -the next day, all the students prepare a lesson on the part selected, -and any one of them may be called upon to give it to his or her -fellow-students. Then follows criticism by teacher and students. The -plan of requiring all students to consider detailed methods in all -subjects seems not to be altogether a good one. It assumes a knowledge -of all the subjects of study on the part of all students, a condition -only attainable at the price of superficiality. Even where a general -knowledge of subjects can be relied upon, details in method cannot do -other than encourage empiricism, in cases where the knowledge of the -subject matter is not thorough and complete. It would seem better, -especially in the case of training institutions like that at Albany, -designed to give purely professional training to teachers of higher -grades, to encourage more specialization, and to allow all students -some choice of method subjects, so that dead forms of method might -be made as few as possible. The system of giving detailed methods to -all stimulates, too, a tendency to rigid forms of lesson-giving, and -somewhat encourages the idea that there is only one good arrangement -of subject matter for a particular lesson, and one good way of giving -it. This is, I think, a danger of all method-teaching; but it is much -intensified where methods are discussed in great detail. - -The actual methods taught in the Normal Schools, and followed out in -the connected Model Schools, vary so much as regards both principles -and details, that it is almost impossible to report on them as a -whole. It is a feature of many of the Normal Schools to cling to old -methods, and lines of work of twenty, thirty or forty years ago; -while, on the other hand, a few of the Normal Schools I saw--those of -Connecticut, the Oswego Normal School, and Colonel Parker’s School, at -Englewood, Chicago--seem to be leaders in a campaign which is beginning -to revolutionize “Methods” in America. - -The educational principle which is effecting this reform is the -connection or correlation of studies, a theory the most fully expressed -and applied at the Cook County Normal School, Illinois. As a result of -this theory, the hard and fast lines between the so-called subjects -of study are being broken down. Reading is taught in all the grades -through nature study, history and literature; _e.g._, natural objects -studied by the children in different grades, or poems in the selected -literature for the year, serve as subjects for reading lessons. -The children are encouraged to express their ideas orally on these -subjects, and the teacher writes their statements on the blackboard, -and takes care that the statement is really the expression of an idea -in the child’s mind. When various sentences, given by the children, -have been connected and arranged, the class reads from the board, -and afterwards from printed or type-written copies of what has been -written. Thus the children make their own reading books, and need no -ordinary reading primers. This method, as adapted to the earliest -stages of reading, necessarily implies the learning of script before -printed characters, also the learning of words and sentences as -wholes, and their necessary association with the thought which they -express. So, too, writing and drawing, as modes of expressing thought, -are taught in close connection with all other subjects. At New Britain, -the teacher of drawing in the Model School is present at all literature -lessons, and children are encouraged to illustrate their literature -by drawings or paintings. In papers on the “Spontaneous Drawings of -Children,” read at the Chicago Educational Conference by Professor Earl -Barnes, of Leland Stanford University, California, he showed how much -of this illustrative work of children was being used by himself and -others in the cause of experimental psychology. - -At the Model School connected with the Oswego Normal School, natural -history is made the central subject, and reading, writing, and drawing -are made to bear upon it. The natural history course, including both -plants and animals, is most carefully planned to suit the seasons -of the year. As each plant or animal is studied, it is drawn by the -children, stories are told about it, the children write about it, read -about it, and make it a general object of study for some time. The work -is carefully graded for different ages, but the subject or topic of -study is the same throughout the school at the same time. - -At the Cook County Normal School, Illinois, all the teaching is made -to group itself round three subjects--science, geography, history; and -these subjects are made to include everything forming the environment -of the child. The study of form and number, instead of being followed -as separate subjects in themselves, are considered merely as means of -studying these three comprehensive subjects--as modes of thinking in -fact. Hearing, observing, and reading are regarded as different ways -of gaining ideas, and as such, silent reading is encouraged, and many -devices are used for helping the child to get quickly and clearly the -ideas from the printed or written page. Writing, music, modelling, -painting, drawing, speaking, are considered as means of expressing -ideas about objects studied--the act of expression making the ideas -clearer. Thus, number or arithmetic is taught, not, as is usual, by -means of problems specially made and arranged in books of arithmetical -examples; but in close connection with any class subject. I heard part -of a course of excellent laboratory lessons in Science, given to Summer -School Students at this school, and as the methods employed were those -of the ordinary Normal School Course, I may mention them here. At the -end of each lesson the teacher used the numerical results obtained -by individual students, and worked them into arithmetical problems. -For example, the subjects used for successive number lessons were as -follows: - -Conductivity of heat in metals. - -Expansion of metals by heat. - -Determination of boiling-point of fresh and salt water. - -Such a treatment of subjects is a strong protest against routine -work and rigid method. It allows great scope to the teacher by -concentrating attention on the child and its needs, rather than on the -artificial divisions into so-called subjects, and their methods. On the -other hand, it puts great responsibility upon the teacher, and taxes -his skill to the utmost. There are many difficulties in adopting the -plan, one of the chief being the construction of the school time-table. -In any case, the practical application of such a system can only be -partial, until all teachers are enthusiasts and experts; but the lines -of work seem to be true lines, and may be suggestive of much that shall -reform some of our own old methods. - - -PRACTICE IN TEACHING. - -It is usual for each Normal School to have attached to it a Model -School, which serves the double purpose of model and practising school -for students. The head of the Model School and her assistants are -experienced teachers, known as the critic teachers, and to the care and -supervision of these the students are submitted during their training -in practical teaching. All the Normal Schools I saw had such a Model -School except the one at Providence, Rhode Island. - -The amount of time actually devoted to teaching by each student is -different in different States, and the plans by which the required -amount is secured for all vary in the different schools. - -The State of Pennsylvania requires of its Normal School students -actual practice in teaching for one hour a day during three-fourths -of the last year of the Course; but students generally do more than -this. At Westchester, Pennsylvania, the students go into the Model -School in sections of six each morning after 10.30. A new section is -chiefly engaged in observing the children, and hearing lessons given -by the critic teachers or other students. Later, the students teach, -but always under supervision. The subject matter of their lessons is -definitely mapped out for them by the critic teacher, and they discuss -with her the best ways of treating it. There are no written notes of -lessons, and no public criticism of lessons, either by teachers or -students. Each week, meetings of teachers and students are held, for -the purpose of taking up any points noted during the students’ work of -the week. These are really talks supplementary to the ordinary method -lectures. At Millersville, Pennsylvania, each student gives two or -three lessons every day for a year. She teaches in different grades, -and takes lessons in different subjects, and has also practice in -managing simultaneously several divisions of one class. - -At the Oswego Normal School, under the regulations of the New York -State, the student is in the schools only twenty weeks, but during this -time she has much responsibility. She spends ten weeks in a primary -or elementary grade, and ten weeks in a more advanced grade, and -during the whole time is practically responsible for her class. Each -afternoon, after the school is dismissed, the teaching class remains -for an hour to discuss any points of difficulty with the Head of the -Model School. - -At Willimantic, Connecticut, the teaching class spends its first four -weeks in general observation of children, and hearing lessons. Then -each student is placed under the supervision of one special critic -teacher, and she continues some of the courses of work already begun by -the critic teacher. At least four weeks are spent by each student in -every grade in the school, first in observing, then in teaching under -the criticism of the class teacher. - -The Model School at New Britain, Connecticut, is preserved strictly -as a Model School. After observing teacher and class for some time, -the student usually gives one trial lesson in the school, but there -is no systematic teaching by the student. For the actual independent -practice, the student must go to a practising school outside New -Britain, and be entirely responsible for a class for four months. At -the large practising school in connection with the New Britain Normal -School, at South Manchester, I saw students dealing with the actual -difficulties of discipline and class-management. Each student was in -charge of a large class with different divisions or grades. There -were four responsible, experienced teachers for reference in cases of -emergency, and for criticism; but each student had her own class, and -the school of 700 children was practically managed by students. Such is -the general plan of practice-work in the Normal Schools. - -Much care is given to the Model Schools. The class-rooms are supplied -with all necessary apparatus, and they are bright and airy, and well -supplied with flowers and children’s books. It is quite customary -in some of the schools to give short periods in school hours for -private reading, or to allow one child to read to the other children -while they are doing some kind of mechanical work. Much importance -is laid upon the observation of the teaching in Model Schools. It is -possible, however, that this is insisted on too early in the course; -indeed, the hearing of lessons is usually the students’ first work -in the school. It would be much more profitable, and there would be -less danger of blind imitation, if the student had herself previously -gained experience in teaching. As it is, the danger of imitation, and -one-sided and narrow lines of teaching is increased by the fact that -one student is chiefly under the supervision of one teacher. - -At the Worcester Normal School there is no Model or practising School, -but the students teach in the public schools of the city. For the -first six months of her last year at the Normal School, the student -acts as an apprentice or pupil-teacher, serving in at least three -grades during this time. Each teacher has the direction of only one -student, who may be left in sole charge of the class for hours or -days. One day in the week the apprentice-student attends the Normal -School, where she shows her class diary for the week, and discusses any -difficulties that may have arisen. On that day, too, she takes part in -the “Platform Exercises” of the Normal School--viz., exercises in which -students speak, read or draw, on the platform, in presence of the -whole school. The apprentice-students usually give an account to their -fellow-students of anything interesting or helpful in their practical -work of the past week. - - -EXAMINATIONS. - -At the end of the Normal School Course, State examinations are -held in most of the States. In Pennsylvania each school examines -its own students, who, when they have satisfactorily completed the -required course of study, and passed the final examination, receive -a certificate, and are said “to graduate.” After graduation, they -are recommended to the State Examiner, who awards a State-Teaching -Certificate valid for two years. At the end of this period, the teacher -is required to present to the State Board a certificate of good work -from the county Superintendent under whom he or she has taught, and -also a certificate from his own school board. He is then entitled -to teach in his own State for life. The Normal School students of -Connecticut are submitted to State Examination, but in Massachusetts -no outside examination is required. Students who work satisfactorily -through the course, and pass the final examination, “graduate” at the -discretion of the President, or according to results of an examination -set by the School Board of the city. The State examination of teachers -and most of the final examinations of the Normal Schools are usually -in academic subjects only. It is not attempted to test by actual -examination the degree of skill in teaching or governing. - - -SUPPLY OF TEACHERS. - -As regards the number of teachers who have been trained in Normal -Schools relatively to the number who teach in the Common Schools of the -State without previous training, statistics are apt to be misleading, -because, in many cases, Normal Students do not take the entire -course or “graduate.” Out of 372 students enrolled at New Britain -in 1889-1890, only 77 completed the entire course; in 1890-1891, -only 61 out of 401 graduated; and in 1891-1892, out of 444 students, -only 91 were graduates. For 1888-1889 Framingham shows 30 graduates -out of 205 present in the school; Salem shows 129 out of 292; and -Bridgewater, 69 out of 232. In all these schools the courses are two, -three or four years, and if all the students completed the course, -the number of graduates each year would be ½, ⅓, or ¼ respectively of -the number of students enrolled. The Report of School Commissioners -for 1888-1889 shows that among 75,529 teachers in the Common Schools -of Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey and -Pennsylvania, there were only 1,461 students who completed the Normal -School Course in these States. In all the States, arrangements are made -for teachers who do not go through the Normal Schools. Certificates -of license to teach in the State for a shorter or longer time are -granted according to results of the State Certificate Examination. -A third-grade certificate, entitling its owner to teach for a short -time, may be exchanged for a second-grade certificate, when further -proficiency is shown by re-examination. So a second-grade certificate -may be exchanged for a life-certificate in many of the States. It -should be borne in mind that these examinations are only in school -subjects. - -The fact that in a State such as Massachusetts the qualifications of -teachers in the High and Latin Schools of Boston is stated merely as -“Education at some respectable college of good standing,” shows that -the necessity for the professional training of teachers for higher -or secondary schools is not at present fully recognised. Until the -last few years, no Institution especially devoted to the training -of secondary teachers existed in the eastern States, and those who -wished to prepare themselves for the teaching of the higher branches -of subjects had no other means of training than that offered in the -Normal Schools. At Worcester and Bridgewater, College and University -graduates may take the pedagogical course as special students, and so -prepare for teaching in the higher schools. At the Indiana and Illinois -Normal Schools, and in other places, there are courses of study chiefly -or entirely professional, for college or university graduates, if such -present themselves. At Albany, too, where the standard of admission is -high, many of the students prepare for work in the secondary schools. -On the whole, however, the number of special students preparing for -higher work in the Normal Schools is very small. In 1891-1892, the -Southern Illinois Normal University had only six special students, the -Terre-Haute Normal School, Indiana, only four; and we find in the -eastern States generally that the Normal Schools take very little part -in the training of secondary teachers. For the most part Normal School -students are found only in the lower grades of public schools; and -college graduates, even though untrained, are preferred as teachers in -High Schools, good private schools and academies. - -The reason for this is probably to be found in the nature of the Normal -School itself. It, perhaps more than any other educational institution -in America, has adhered to its old traditions. It was designed to -train teachers for the lower grades of Elementary Schools, and in the -early days was prepared to accept the only material at hand--would-be -teachers, many of whom possessed few intellectual qualifications, and -almost all were inadequately prepared for training. But with rising -standards of work, and increased facilities for good preliminary -preparation, the Normal School has not yet closed its doors to students -whose general attainments do not qualify them to profit by courses -in the Science and Art of Teaching. In one or two cases only is the -standard of college graduation insisted upon, and in many cases the -admission standard is lower than that required to complete the course -in a city High School. Hence it results that most of the teaching in -High Schools and academies is given into the hands of professionally -untrained teachers--college graduates, whose scholarship can be relied -upon, but who have no previous technical training, rather than to -trained teachers, whose knowledge of the actual subject matter of -studies may or may not be thorough. The choice, open to heads of -Secondary Schools when appointing assistants, is, moreover, not between -good scholarship and good training. Without adequate preparation the -training must be inadequate, and in many cases cramping and injurious. -On the other hand, it is only after the preliminary preparation has -been sound and complete that the work of training can be carried out in -the best possible way. - - -_CITY NORMAL AND TRAINING SCHOOLS._ - -The existence of State Normal Schools and City Training Schools -side by side suggests at once a fact which has an important bearing -on educational questions in the United States--viz., the absolute -distinction, as regards jurisdiction, between schools outside the -limits of a town or city, under the supervision of a State Board and -State Superintendent, and schools within the city radius, and under the -supervision of a Town or City Superintendent. In educational matters, -the city areas are completely exempt from State control. Their schools -and training schools are managed by local authorities, and supplied for -the most part by local funds. Hence it follows that City Normal and -Training Schools show even greater diversity of methods and arrangement -than is found in State Normal Schools, for their lines of work and -efficiency are entirely dependent upon the respective City Boards of -Education. One effect of local school administration is distinctly -undesirable. The appointment of the principal of the school by the -Educational Board, and the election of that Board by local vote, -produces, in many cities, a tendency to display, in order to cull -popular favour. The “graduation exercises,” yearly public ceremonies, -held in connection with almost all American schools and colleges, -consist, in the case of training schools, of various kinds of students’ -and children’s exercises, to which the public are invited. Much -valuable time is taken by the students in preparing essays to be read -and lessons to be given in public; and in some cases the student or -teacher conducts an examination of her class in the presence of parents -and friends. Several such public exercises I heard, but in all cases -it was evident that true results of training, or honest results of -teaching, were not demonstrated. The endeavour to impress the audience, -besides involving great waste of time, seems likely to create an -unconscious dishonesty on the part of teachers, students, and children. - - -CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS. - -The City Normal Schools are the local training schools, maintained by -the larger cities for the preparation of their own teachers. - -They require as conditions of admission:-- - - i. Residence in the city. - - ii. Satisfactory completion of the high schools course of the city. - - iii. Statement of intention to teach in the schools of the city. - -To all those who satisfy these conditions, and are eighteen years of -age or more, instruction is free, and completion of the professional -course entitles the student to become a teacher in any of the Common -Schools of the city. - -The City Normal Schools of New York and Philadelphia combine the -functions of Normal and High Schools, admitting students who do not -intend to become teachers to their academic studies, without requiring -of them any professional study or practice in teaching. The necessity -of extending the function of a Normal School in this way has arisen -from the fact that there are no public High Schools for girls in these -cities. - -At the Normal College of the city of New York there are two separate -courses of work:-- - - i. An academic or classical course of five years. - - ii. A normal or training course of four years, with an optional extra - year for specializing in any branch of manual training. - -In the normal course, two full years are given to the study of school -subjects only. In the third year two hours a week, in the first half of -the fourth year six hours a week, and in the last half of the fourth -year three hours a week, are given to the study of pedagogy. At the -beginning of the fourth year, the Normal students enter the training -or practice department connected with the school, and every third week -hear and give lessons, and take part in criticisms and discussions on -teaching. At the same time, they attend lectures and recitations in -English, Latin, modern languages, natural science, drawing and music, -chiefly with a view to gaining an insight into the methods of those -subjects. The college had in December, 1892, 1,868 students, of whom -460 had belonged to the training department during the year--_i.e._, -had observed and actually taught in the training or practising -school. As large numbers are engaged in observing and teaching in one -practising school, much individual practice in the actual work of -teaching is impossible; for although the students are divided into -groups for the school work, the groups are necessarily large. It has -been found necessary for ninety-two students to be in the practising -school at one time, a number too large to allow of much actual teaching -being done by any individual student. Only a small part of the twelve -hours spent weekly by each student in the practising school is given to -teaching. The remaining time is given to hearing lessons and observing -children. - -I noticed a similar need for more practical work in the Philadelphia -Normal School. Here, as in the New York Normal College, much purely -academic work is done, and very little importance is given to actual -school-room practice. Students are divided into six sections, each -group containing about fifty. A whole division goes into the practising -school at one time, and stays there for two weeks only. The remaining -thirty-eight weeks of the last school year are entirely devoted to -the study of pedagogical subjects, psychological methods and drawing. -Kindergarten work is compulsory to all during the last year. The two -weeks which each student spends in the schools are chiefly employed -in hearing lessons, and observing children and teachers. Only two days -in the whole course are spent in actual teaching. This arrangement of -work and distribution of time in the Philadelphia Normal School is -seen by the city school authorities to be far from satisfactory, and -a scheme has been made out for a thorough revision of the course. The -present school, which is inadequate for purposes of training, is to be -made into a public High School for girls, and a new Normal School is to -be built, in which three years are to be devoted to academic, and two -years to professional work; but the two parts are to be kept entirely -distinct. The training course is to consist of elementary and advanced -sections, and much more time is to be given to actual teaching. - -The examinations of the City Normal Schools are usually conducted by -the faculties of the schools, under the supervision of sub-committees -of the Board of Public Education of the city. In the Philadelphia -School, a certificate is awarded by a “Committee on the Qualification -of Teachers” for a general average of 85 per cent. on two examinations. - - i. In academical subjects, at end of three years. - - ii. In professional subjects, at the end of four years. - -An average of 85 per cent. on the teaching in the school of practice is -also required. Two certificates are awarded for lower averages of marks -on work of the course, viz.: - - An “Assistant’s Certificate” for average of 70 per cent., and a - “Trial Certificate” for less than an average of 70 per cent. on work - in the school of practice. Such a “Trial Certificate” is for one year - only. If, at the end of that time, the teaching shall be reported - as satisfactory by the Superintendent of the Schools, the “Trial - Certificate” may be exchanged for an “Assistant’s Certificate.” - - -CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS. - -The City Training Schools are purely professional institutions. They -admit only graduates of High Schools of the city, and give them a -course of one or two years in theory and practice of teaching. The -amount of time given to theory varies a good deal in the different -cities. Practice in teaching is usually gained in a practising school -well equipped with good teachers, who help and guide the students in -their work. In some instances, however, students gain their experience -by teaching under supervision, in the schools of the city. - -Emphasis of the practical side of the teacher’s work seems to be -a good feature of the training schools generally. In all the City -Training Schools which I visited much opportunity was given for actual -teaching, and for practically dealing with the problems of discipline -and organization in the school-room. Such opportunities are multiplied -by the system of substitute service, which seems to be organized in -most of the cities of the United States. Students of the training -schools, during the latter part of their course, are registered on a -substitute list, and may be called to supply the place of teachers -temporarily absent from the Common Schools. Responsibility taken for a -week, or even a day, is excellent training for future teachers, and in -cases where permanent vacancies occur the student who has shown herself -capable in such an emergency is often appointed to the post. - -Among the largest and most successful of the City Training Schools -is the Boston Normal and Rice Training School. This, although a -City Normal School by name, differs in many respects from the City -Normal Schools of New York and Philadelphia. Its work is strictly -professional, and seems to correspond rather with the Training -Schools of other cities than with those known as Normal Schools. The -Rice Training School offers an ordinary course of two years, and an -advanced course for further professional work. The practising school -in the same building gives the opportunity to the students of teaching -and observing children, and beyond this the “Supervisors of Public -Instruction” in the city have made arrangements for allowing the -students to watch and teach in some of the best Primary and Grammar -Schools of Boston. Completion of the Boston High School course, or -college graduation, exempts from the entrance examination of the school. - -Theoretical instruction in pedagogical subjects is given in the -morning, teaching in the practising school occupies the afternoon -hours. Psychology is taken almost every day throughout the course. -Theory of the kindergarten is studied in the second term, and logic in -the third. The history of education is also taken in outline. - -“Methods” of subjects are taught in great detail, and on the same -lines as in the State Normal Schools--viz., by means of lessons in -the various subjects given to the students themselves. I heard a very -interesting lesson in methods of arithmetic. A class of twenty girls -were, by very skilful questioning, made to thoroughly discuss the -process of simple addition, and also the methods of teaching children -to realize numbers greater than ten. I heard, too, very skilful -teaching in methods of English--viz., a literature lesson, and a first -lesson in English composition. In the literature lesson, the teacher -first reminded her pupils of the various poems and prose selections -studied during the term. After having given short explanations, she -read selections from other authors. Then the students were asked if -these new selections reminded them of any parts in the poems already -studied, and when the suggested parts had been quoted, the class was -set to discover whether the similarity was in the subject matter, the -underlying thought or the mode of expression. Many suggestions were -given by the class, and much interest was aroused. The lesson was a -most helpful illustration of how a teacher should stimulate her class, -and how she should use her materials for the purpose of training. -The study of methods of training occupies a prominent place in the -curriculum of the school, and includes special work in illustrative -drawing on the blackboard in connection with the teaching of geography, -and the drawing of plants and animals. As part of the course on -gymnastics, each student, besides studying the theory and doing daily -drill, must act for one term as leader and teacher of drill, and must -criticise drill lessons. - -Practical work in the schools is arranged for each term. In the -first half-year, the students’ work in the training school consists -chiefly in observing methods of teaching, and hearing lessons, under -the guidance of the critic teacher. She does not begin to teach in -the school until the second term, two weeks of which she spends in a -primary grade, and two weeks in a higher or grammar grade. In the third -term she spends eight weeks in the schools, and in the fourth term four -weeks. It is usual for each student, while in the schools, to give two -or three lessons every day, under the supervision of the class teacher -with whom she is placed. The teacher criticises and suggests in all -cases. In the advanced course, students take up a further study of the -principles of education. They also study the history of education, give -more time to actual teaching in the schools, and act as substitutes in -the city schools. - -In addition to the Boston Training School, there are fourteen city -training schools in the State of Massachusetts. In all these the time -of training is fixed from one to two years; admission is by the High -School graduation certificate, or an equivalent entrance examination, -and is only at fixed annual times; a school is attached for practice, -and the teacher at its head conducts the training class. - -At the Springfield Training School the course may be extended to two -years. A little academic work is done in science during the first -term. Methods are treated of by means of lectures and discussions, -and these, with organized observation of children and a few criticism -lessons, constitute the practical work from September until Christmas. -At Christmas, systematic psychology begins, and also teaching in -the schools for one hour a day. The subjects of the lessons are -chosen by the critic teacher, and the teaching is in all cases under -supervision. At Easter the student begins to teach three hours a day, -and occasionally has to give lessons in public. These, however, are not -considered as test-lessons. Certificates to teach in the schools of the -city are granted on the results of an examination, held by the City -Board of Education each year. - -At Newhaven, Connecticut, the City Training School has more than -thirty students. The course is a year in length, the first half of -which is devoted entirely to theoretical subjects, and the last half -to teaching. Here, as at the Worcester Normal School, I found students -being introduced to methods of psychological experimentation, more -especially in the senses of sight and hearing. It is interesting to -notice that these are special lines of research in the psychological -laboratory of Yale University. I saw the records of several students -who had been finding the average voice pitch of thirty children. -The tendency in all the psychological teaching here was to make -the subject really experimental, and the results those of actual -observation. The history of education is not taught by means of set -lectures, but topics are announced from time to time, with references -for the students’ reading. After the class has collected facts on a -certain subject, the teacher supplements the facts already given by -selections from other books, and references to other parts of the -subject. In treating the history of education in each country, general -chronological order is followed, and the facts of each period are -studied under four heads: - - Religion, social and political movements; extent of education; - character of education; methods of education. - -The school has a good library for the students’ use, and also one for -the children of the practising school. Students give one criticism -lesson during the first half-year, and for this they write elaborate -notes under fixed headings prepared by the head of the department, and -the other students hand in, after the lesson, elaborate criticisms done -in a similar way. Blank schedules with printed headings, such as the -following, are given to students to fill up before giving the lesson: - - +----------------------------------------------------------------+ - | I. SUBJECT. | - | II. PURPOSE. | - |III. MATTER. | - | IV. PLAN. | Review Work | _What._ | _How._ | _Illustrations._ | - | | | _a_ | | | - | | | _b_ | | | - | | | _c_ | | | - | | Advance Work | | | | - | | | _a_ | | | - | | | _b_ | | | - | | | _c_ | | | - | | Drill | | | | - | | | _a_ | | | - | | | _b_ | | | - | | | _c_ | | | - | V. METHOD. | - | VI. MECHANICAL DETAILS. | - | Arrangement of Class. | - | Distribution of Materials, etc. | - +----------------------------------------------------------------+ - -I noticed in schedules which had been thus filled up by students that -the notes supplied under the heading of “Method” consisted entirely of -proposed questions of the teacher, and assumed answers by the children. -Such an item in the prepared plan of a lesson seemed to me unadvisable, -and in many cases useless. Even if the prepared questions were asked -by the teacher, the answers would not always be the ones assumed, and -the lesson would be stiff, unnatural, and wanting in spontaneity. -Broad lines of questioning might be indicated in the schedule, rather -than the actual questions to be given. This would result in much more -natural methods of questioning. The outline for criticism given to -other students is according to the following plan: - - _Purpose_ What. Whether accomplished. - Why. Cause of failure or - success. - - _Matter_ Amount--accuracy. Adaptation, - to purpose and to class. - Order of presentation. - - _Plan_ Completeness. Order of parts. - Manner of presentation. - - _Method_ Questions--number--order--kind. - - _Language_ Relative amounts used by teachers - and pupils. Correctness. Accuracy. - Clearness. Completeness. - Adaptation. - - _Illustrations_ What amount. Adaptation. Use. - - _Manner_ - - _Voice_ Of teacher and pupils. - - _Mechanical details_ Directions for work. Distribution - of material. - - _Control_ - - _Results_ Training in mental power; accuracy; - neatness; promptitude; - expression. Moral Training. - Knowledge gained. - -The suggestion of these points for criticism indicates a very complete -and thorough analysis of a lesson. Such an elaborate form of criticism, -if employed occasionally, seems to me good in encouraging a habit of -mental analysis in those who hear the lesson. It may be useful, too, -as a guide to those unaccustomed to criticising exercises, and may be -helpful in impressing the fact that a lesson is a very complex thing, -difficult to give, and far reaching in its results. The constant use -of rigid forms, however, either for preparation of lessons, or for -their criticism, is to be deprecated as stultifying, and as not adapted -to all lessons and all occasions. It is probable that in many cases -valuable criticisms might be given which would not come under any of -the formal headings, even though the schedule were as complete as -possible. For the last five months the students work entirely under -the direction of teachers of the practising school. Plans of work and -lesson-subjects are discussed with the teacher, and when the lessons -are over, private criticisms only are given. Each student learns to -make her own maps, charts and pictures, which she takes with her when -she leaves the school. - -At the end of the course of training, an elaborate report of the -student’s work and standing is issued as regards her standards; -enthusiasm; force; manner; language; writing; questioning; power of -illustration; originality; interest; thoroughness; control. - -A certificate qualifying to teach in the schools of the city is given -to those who complete the training course satisfactorily, and who gain -an average of 70 per cent. on examinations at the end of the year. - -At Pawtucket, I saw a training school of from seven to nine students, -with an excellent model and practising school attached. The course -lasts for one and a half years. For a whole year, the class has -instruction in theoretical subjects in the mornings, with observation -of children and some lesson-giving in the afternoon. The last six -months are spent by the students in the actual charge of children. Each -student works under a Model School teacher, and for one week during -the half-year has sole charge and responsibility of the class. - - -CITY TRAINING CLASSES. - -Closely allied to the work of the Training Schools is that done by -City Training Classes. These are usually found in the smaller towns -or cities of the various States. The general features of the Training -Classes are the same as those of the City Training Schools. The -differences are mainly: - - (1) No special model or practising school is attached, but the - students gain their experience by teaching classes in city or town - schools. - - (2) The work of training is carried out, not by a specially appointed - person, as in the Training Schools, but by the Superintendent of - Schools of the district, who holds classes in professional subjects, - and arranges and criticises the work of the students. - -The members of the Training Classes, while under the general guidance -of the heads of the schools, where they act as assistants, are helped -and instructed in methods of teaching various subjects by the Town -Supervisors of Instruction, appointed for those special subjects. The -appointment of supervisors in drawing, singing, reading, etc., whose -sole work is to visit the schools and conduct and examine classes, -gives unity to the methods in the various schools of a town, and -affords much practical help to the student-teachers in the various -schools. - -At Quincy, Massachusetts, there is a training class of thirty -students. The pupil teachers act as assistants in the schools, -receiving no compensation, except the guidance of experienced teachers, -and theoretical instruction from the superintendent. They usually teach -in several grades during the year, but those who show special aptitude -or wish to teach in any particular grade are allowed an alternative of -remaining in that grade. At the Coddington school, one of the training -schools for the Quincy Training Classes, I heard very good lessons -given in reading, phonics, number, English and geography. A reading -lesson, given to ten or twelve children about seven years old, was to -teach one new word, “Flag.” The class stood around the teacher at one -part of the wall slate. After carefully revising many of the words -learnt in previous lessons, the teacher drew a flag on the board. Then -she wrote the word as a whole, underneath the drawing. Then she told a -short story about a flag, wrote the word in different coloured chalks, -wrote sentences involving only known words and the new word “flag.” -When the children could read these sentences easily, they were made to -pick out the word “flag.” Some were allowed to erase the word, some -to write it again. Every possible device was used in the lesson to -associate the complete written expression with the spoken word and the -idea. At the end of twenty minutes, when the association was complete, -the new word “flag” was written among the list of known words, kept -constantly on the board, and the children were sent to their seats. -I noticed in all the reading lessons in which words and sentences -were taught as wholes, that clever teachers constantly used the device -of erasing the word or sentence to be taught. This, when skilfully -done, secures concentration of attention on each word, by allowing the -children only a limited time to note its general shape, before being -required to represent it on the board or slate. The constant erasure -and repeated re-writing of a word ensure repeated short acts of intense -attention on the part of the children, and so help greatly in the -learning of the new word. A lesson in “number” or arithmetic, given -to the same class, was devoted to problems in addition, subtraction, -multiplication and division of numbers below ten. Many devices were -used for interesting the class. The children were sent to work at -different parts of the wall slate, and were encouraged to contribute -problems for the class. The general use of the wall slate is seen to be -of great advantage, especially in such lessons as these. By means of -it, supervision of individual work is very easy, and corrections can be -made valuable to the whole class. - -The Training Classes of the State of New York show more uniformity -of courses and methods than those of many of the other States. This -is due to their organization by the State Superintendent, who issues -regulations and a definite course of study. The course is a short one, -from ten to thirteen weeks. Two hours each day is given to instruction. -Methods in reading, spelling, number, language and primary geography -are studied, and observation and criticism of lessons is a definite -part of the work. Actual teaching is done wherever possible; but this -is not a requisite. The time given to each subject is apportioned -somewhat on the same principles as in the Normal Schools--viz., one -subject is followed up for a very short time, another is taken up in -the same way, and then another. On this plan, only a few days can be -given to some subjects. The syllabus of work for 1889 gives four days -to laws of mental development, seventeen days to school economy, ten -days to the history of education, and four days to school law. Other -set times are given to Methods. Such a course, lasting for a very short -time, and including so many subjects, cannot but be inadequate and -superficial when used as the only means of training. The experience -gained in such a way is not sufficient in itself to qualify for -responsible work in a town school. This is shown by the fact that those -who have taken a course in the training class of a city are often -expected to gain experience elsewhere, before taking responsible work -in that city. In many instances, students are urged to take Normal -School courses as well. - -It may indeed be stated generally, that the work of Training Classes -is to supplement a longer and more thorough course in training, rather -than to train. Training Classes, for the most part, provide practice -under supervision for those who have already gained some insight into -the science of education and methods of teaching, but the small amount -of time given to other sides of training prevents their work being at -all adequate as the sole preparation for teachers. Training Classes -exist, and will exist, to meet the needs of those would-be teachers -who, in small towns, where there is neither Normal nor Training -School, cannot afford to leave their homes to prepare for their work. -The urgent demand for trained teachers for all the Common Schools -has resulted in the establishment of many institutions, which, while -fulfilling a present need, are existing under conditions which must -prohibit work of the best kind. Among such institutions we must enrol -the City Training Classes. - -It is a noticeable fact, that in both Training Schools and Training -Classes, the beginners usually practise first in the lowest grades. -It is considered easier to teach little children than older ones, and -less dangerous to the pupils. Indeed, the heads of many schools, far -from adopting the theory that the primary teaching should be in the -hands of the most skilled and efficient teachers, give their youngest -classes into the care of those disqualified to teach in higher grades, -on account of lack of knowledge, or want of skill. It may be urged -in support of the plan of allowing teachers unqualified for other -grades of teaching to become teachers in the primary schools, that the -knowledge actually used in the teaching of little children is much less -than that needed for work with elder children, and that certain devices -for keeping children quiet, and for interesting them, can be followed -empirically by the unskilful teacher. But this argument, instead of -sanctioning the practice so commonly adopted, would serve to show that -it is in the lower grades that bad teaching can remain undetected, and -results, rather than means, made criteria of success. Much of the -growth of the child-mind, in its early stages, depends on the teacher’s -width of interest, a width only secured by a thorough knowledge of -the subjects taught, and a broad range of subjects. This breadth of -interest not only influences the class, but reacts on the teacher; for -teachers of young children, having little necessity to make constant -intellectual efforts, stand in great danger of becoming intellectually -narrowed. - -Partly as a result of the fact that most of the students in Normal -and City Training Schools are prepared for work as primary teachers, -and that others who hope eventually to teach in higher grades must -first gain their experience in primary grades, we find that much more -attention is given to primary methods than to methods of the Grammar -School. This is true not only in Practising Schools and Model Schools, -but elsewhere. - -Therefore, the most rapid progress in American Education has been -connected with elementary teaching. The present movement to reform -the curriculum and methods of the Grammar School is only of recent -development. - - -_UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY._ - -The pedagogical courses connected with the Universities of the United -States differ so much in organization and scope, and in the nature of -their connection with the University, that it is impossible to consider -them under one comprehensive title, unless the exact meaning of the -term “University Department” be defined. In the present case, the title -“University Department of Pedagogy” is used to include all higher -courses of study in philosophy, psychology, history, science or art of -education established by Universities or Colleges of high standing, in -definite recognition of the fact that the work of secondary teaching -requires distinct and special professional or technical preparation, -beyond a sound general education. Such instruction may be given in -connection with Chairs of Pedagogy by series of lectures on science and -art of teaching, theory and practice of teaching, etc., or it may be so -complete as to constitute a school of pedagogy in itself, thoroughly -organized and equipped to carry out professional training in all its -branches. Pedagogical study may be a so-called “elective”--viz., one -of the subjects chosen by the student to count towards his degree, or -it may be a course for post-graduates only. It may consist merely of -courses in special pedagogy or “methods,” by the various professors -of different subjects in a University, or it may be chiefly the study -of education from a scientific standpoint, as in Clark University, -Massachusetts, where experimental and physiological psychology is -pursued, not with the view of meeting the needs of intending teachers, -but of offering opportunities of thorough study to scientific experts, -whose results may be of great value to education in general. The -number of Universities or Colleges in the United States which report -pedagogical courses of some kind is 114. In many of these, however, -the work is mostly of the Normal School type, with a view to prepare -for teaching in the Grammar Schools of the State, and the certificate -of proficiency given on completion of the course is not such as to -entitle the work to be called “Higher Instruction in the Theory and Art -of Teaching.” Leaving such departments out of consideration, as not -belonging to the field of higher education, the departments of pedagogy -in connection with Universities may, for convenience, be considered -under two heads: - -1. Those in connection with State Universities. - -2. Those connected with other endowed Universities or Colleges of high -standing. - - -DEPARTMENTS OF STATE UNIVERSITIES. - -State Universities, founded in accordance with the resolution, -“Schools and the means of education shall for ever be encouraged,” -have naturally been looked up to as the institutions more fitted than -any other to supply higher instruction in the science and art of -teaching. The first was established as the result of the Ordinance -of 1787, by which two townships of land were appropriated from the -North-West Territory for the support of a State University. Since then, -twenty-eight States of the Union have set apart funds, derived from the -sale of State lands, for the founding and endowing of institutions for -higher education. These universities, gradually increasing in number -and influence, and spreading from their origin in Ohio both west and -east, are dependent for the most part for their students upon the -city High Schools and other secondary schools; and the efficiency of -their work depends greatly upon the efficiency of the preparatory work -done in these schools. It is, therefore, to the interest of the State -Universities to secure that the secondary schools are well equipped and -well taught, and from this point of view one of the distinctive lines -of work of a State University should be the professional preparation -of secondary teachers. The University of Michigan, at Ann Arbor, was -the first State University to recognise the necessity of this work. -In 1879 it established a Chair to give instruction in science and -art of teaching, and since then, Training and Normal departments, or -courses in pedagogy, have been established in the State Universities of -Colorado, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nevada, N. Dakota, Ohio, Washington -and others. - -In some Universities the work of training is entirely given over to -the pedagogical department and the professor of pedagogy. In some, -there are no purely professional departments, but “Teachers’ Courses” -are organized in various subjects of the college curriculum. These -courses are given by college professors of the various subjects, and -deal with the different methods of treating the subject. In some -State Universities, however, training is provided both in pedagogical -departments and “Teachers’ Courses”; and good work in both is required -before a student can gain a “Teacher’s Diploma.” Where the two parts -of the work are maintained harmoniously together, they must greatly -strengthen each other, and advantages must accrue both to the students -and to the work of training generally. In such a case the scientific, -but more or less theoretical instruction of the professedly pedagogical -department of the University is supplemented by the practical -instruction, which is the result of the experience of experts in the -respective subjects. The discussion of “methods” in any subject, with -a specialist, who is constantly teaching that subject, must be most -valuable to the future teacher, and especially so when the specialist -can illustrate his methods by actual class work, and the learner is -himself somewhat of a specialist. The existence of these double lines -of work is also important, where it occurs, as illustrating unity of -opinion among the presidents and professors of colleges as regards the -needs and means of training of secondary teachers. Thus it will help on -the cause of secondary training generally. - -One of those State Universities which recognise these two distinctive -branches of professional training is the University of Michigan, at -Ann Arbor. Work in both departments has been required in order to gain -a “Teacher’s Diploma,” ever since the pedagogical course was arranged -in 1879. The student must have completed three courses offered by the -professor of pedagogy--one a practical course in the art of teaching -and governing, school hygiene, school law, etc.; one a theoretical and -critical course on the principles of teaching or applied psychology; -and one other course which may be either: - - History of education, ancient and mediæval. - History of education, modern, or, - School Management. - -He must also have taken a “Teacher’s Course” in connection with one of -the subjects in the college curriculum--work which implies not only -extra professional instruction in methods by the college professor, -but also a special examination in the subject matter of study. Beyond -the courses of study already enumerated as belonging to the Department -of Science and Art of Teaching in the Michigan University, there is -one on the comparative study of educational systems, and a section -for seminary work. This seminary work, taken up in pedagogy, as in -other subjects, only towards the completion of the course, is very -much on the lines of the German “Seminar.” It is work of research and -discussion, done with the help of the educational library. Special -points are taken up by the students and worked out. The teacher guides -the work and reading, and generally conducts the Seminary. As regards -the time devoted to different parts of the pedagogical curriculum, -four hours a week are given to each of the courses on the art of -teaching and the principles of teaching, three hours a week to each of -the history courses and those on school supervision, and two hours a -week to the other optional subjects. The required course may be taken -among the graduate or post-graduate studies. “Teachers’ Diplomas” are -presented on graduation, provided the prescribed course has been taken. -A “Teachers’ Certificate” given by the Faculty, on the gaining of -degree and diploma, qualifies to teach in any school of the State. - -At the State University, Illinois, the course in pedagogy is work -which counts towards a degree. It is placed among one of the major -or principal subjects of the “restricted electives,” that is, one of -six subjects, each occupying six terms, two subjects of which must be -chosen by the student for graduation work. Pedagogy is suggested as -part of the work of the third and fourth year in the classical course, -and when taken up for a third and fourth year, after any ordinary “Two -Years’ Course,” it constitutes a course in philosophy and pedagogy. The -different branches of pedagogy taken up in this way are: - -Educational psychology, hygiene, philosophy of education, history of -education, school supervision. - -The “Pedagogical Seminary” is open only to students who have taken -two other pedagogical courses. Psychology, school hygiene, and school -supervision, constitute full courses for a term--the rest are half -courses. In connection with the Philosophical Department is a course -of lectures and laboratory work in experimental psychology. Apparatus -has been purchased and considerably used in making psychological -experiments. - -In the University of Missouri there are two distinct courses, -elementary and advanced. The elementary course corresponds very much -to a Normal School course. The subjects for the first year’s study -are chiefly English, algebra, physiology, zoology, botany, physical -geography, rhetoric. In the second year, pedagogics, including applied -psychology, history and school organization, are taken up with history, -literature, physics, chemistry and civil government. Drawing and -elocution are required subjects during all but one term of the course. -The certificate at the end of the elementary course qualifies the -holder to teach for two years in any public school of the State. The -advanced course leads on to the degree of bachelor of pedagogics. The -required work in this department may be taken by students who are -preparing for degrees in other courses, or by those who have already -a degree conferred by this or any approved University. The graduate -students may, by selecting four of the offered subjects, and devoting -five hours a week to the pedagogical work, complete the course in one -year. Others, take certain prescribed courses, and certain optional -courses in pedagogics, during the third and fourth years of their -ordinary graduate work. The degree entitles to a life-certificate to -teach in any of the public schools of the State. It is noticeable, in -connection with the prescribed courses in this University, that the -study of education, historically, comes before the consideration of -theory or philosophy of education and its application in school work. -The elective or optional studies are four--viz., school systems of -Europe; school systems of the cities and States of the United States; -the educational theories of Herbert Spencer; the philosophy of Froebel. - -Of the other State Universities, some make pedagogics a complete course -for graduates or undergraduates, while some, as at Missouri, make it -an elective study during the third and fourth years of an ordinary -graduate course. Where two complete courses exist--an elementary and -an advanced--in the same department, the distinction is based chiefly -on the difference of qualification needed for admission. Students -qualified to enter the University may pursue the elementary course; -only those of the third year or fourth year, or graduates, may take up -the advanced course. As a rule, the students of the elementary course -teach in the Primary or Grammar Schools, those of the advanced courses -become teachers of secondary schools and colleges. - -The State Universities of America, as a whole, follow, more or less -strictly, the lines of German Universities. This is not only so as -regards organization merely, but as regards methods of study, and -lines of thought. In no department is the German influence more seen -than in that of pedagogics, where methods of the German “Seminar” are -increasingly used and valued by professors and advanced students. -Few State Universities having pedagogical departments would be found -which had not begun to use Seminar methods. In many Universities, a -“Seminar room,” in which is a pedagogical reference library, is set -apart especially for research and conference in matters educational. -A natural accompaniment of these methods is much study of German -pedagogical theory, and a constant tendency to emphasize and elaborate -German lines of thought. The two great Schools in American psychology -to-day, both of which are making rapid strides in progress, and -influencing the whole of American education to an important extent, -are the Herbartians and the Experimental Psychologists. Both had their -beginnings in German Universities. - -The most modern feature of German University Departments of Pedagogy -is, however, one which has not yet been adopted by American State -Universities. A means of connection between the theoretical and -practical sides of training, by the establishment of a practising -school attached to the University, has been made at Jena for some time. -Such a connection would be of the greatest value to American State -University Departments, but until now actual practical departments -have not existed. The instruction in university departments of -pedagogy, although such as to be of the greatest possible value and -stimulation as a theoretical basis for teaching and organizing in -secondary schools, is however incomplete unless opportunities are also -supplied of gaining actual experience in teaching. A practising school, -organized as a part of the University, and having as its principal one -of the University Faculty, might, besides affording such a practising -ground for secondary teachers, be the means of supplying tested facts -to the teaching world in general, and would greatly help the University -Department to fulfil its true function--that of stimulating teachers -and unifying education in the State. - - -UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENTS OF PEDAGOGY IN THE EASTERN STATES. - -The study of pedagogy in connection with the universities and colleges -of the Eastern States is a department of work of comparatively recent -origin. The conservative attitude of the older Universities, such as -Harvard and Yale, with regard to the recognition of the claims of -pedagogy to be a science, and the needs of distinctly professional -instruction for those who intend to become teachers in higher schools -and colleges, has resulted in the fact that the training of secondary -teachers has, until a few years ago, been almost entirely restricted -to the Western State Universities. It is remarkable, however, that -since the older educational institutions of the Eastern States have -recognised education as a science, rapid progress has been made, and -one finds on surveying the work of university departments of pedagogy -as a whole certain features which, when further developed, will -possibly cause university instruction to be the most valuable means of -training secondary teachers. Among such lines of work, already begun in -these pedagogical departments, are: - - i. Supervision of secondary school work. - - ii. Stimulation of all teachers by research work in educational - matters. - - iii. The acknowledgment by scientific workers in the field of - pedagogy and psychology of the results of teachers’ observations of - children in the school-room, as helpful to the scientific researches - of the laboratory. - - iv. Preparation and stimulation of professors of pedagogy, and of - teachers for higher schools and colleges. - -A very early attempt was made in Brown University, Providence, Rhode -Island, to arrange courses in theory and methods of teaching, but -the movement was not successful. Little actual work in the training -of secondary teachers was done in the Eastern States, until the -Industrial Education Association of New York City, feeling the demand -for skilful teachers in manual training, began to organize plans for -preparing them for their work, and sending them out daily to teach in -the schools. At the beginning of 1889, the work had developed so much, -not only in connection with one branch of training, but many, that the -institution gained a provisional charter from the Board of Regents of -the University of the State of New York, under the name of the New York -College for the Training of Teachers. - -In 1892 the charter of the New York College for the Training of -Teachers was made absolute, and the name changed to Teachers’ College. -An agreement was also made, whereby certain pedagogical courses in -the Teachers’ College are considered as courses in the Faculty of -Philosophy at Columbia University, New York, and count towards a -Columbia University degree. By the same agreement, qualified students -of the Teachers’ College are admitted to the courses in philosophy -and pedagogy at Columbia University. In this way we may regard the -Teachers’ College as the newest of University departments, although, -on the other hand, it has developed and become a most important -and successful means of secondary training, quite apart from any -connection with a college or university. The courses in pedagogy given -at Columbia University, and open to students of the Teachers’ College, -are: - - The History of Educational Theories and Institutions--a course given - each alternate year. - - Systematic Pedagogics; the Psychology of Childhood; Principles of - Teaching; (given also every alternate year). - - A Pedagogical Seminar (one hour a week for advanced students). - -The lectures in philosophy and experimental psychology are also open -under the same conditions. Among them are the following courses: - - (_a_) Logic and Psychology; (_b_) Ethics; (_c_) Introductory course - in Physiological Psychology (lectures and laboratory work); (_d_) - Advanced course in Physiological Psychology (experiment work in the - laboratory); (_e_) Introductory course in Experimental Psychology - (lectures, themes and laboratory work); (_f_) Vision (lectures, - reports and advanced laboratory work); (_g_) Advanced work in - Experimental Psychology and Research (individual instruction daily). - -The courses at the Teachers’ College, open to all Columbia University -Students, are: - - i. Educational Psychology; Study of Children. - - ii. Science and Art of Teaching, with illustrations from the - Kindergarten and Elementary Schools. Observation. - - iii. Introductory course on the History of Education. - - iv. _Institutes of Education_, by Laurie. Rosenkranz’s _Philosophy of - Education_ and Herbart’s _Science of Education_. - - v. Methods of teaching History in secondary schools. - -The following can be taken only by advanced students: - - i. Methods of teaching Science in elementary and secondary schools. - - ii. Methods of teaching Manual Training in elementary and secondary - schools. - - iii. Methods of teaching Latin, Greek, French and German. - - iv. Reading and discussion of German and French pedagogical works in - the original. - - v. Methods of teaching Educational Psychology. Observation and - Practice. - - vi. Practice in teaching and supervision. Criticism, School - Management, Discipline. - -Candidates for the A.B. degree of Columbia University may specialize -for the last year in the department of pedagogy. They are required to -take two subjects, one as major or principal subject, one as minor -subject. A third optional subject may be taken. - -To gain a Diploma of the Teachers’ College, a two years’ course of -study is required. This includes: - - i. Elements of Psychology--“a course to give skill in description and - explanation of mental phenomena and insight into the observing and - training of children.” - - ii. Educational Theories since the Renaissance, with a general survey - of earlier theories. - - iii. A course in Psychology, History of Education, or in Principles - of Logic and Psychology as applied to Science and Manual Training. - - iv. Study of range of child’s mental activities as the basis - of primary instruction: the vocabulary as a basis of language - teaching; the child’s power and skill of hand as the basis of manual - expression; Methods of Teaching: Observation lessons; Language, - including Reading; Number; Manual Exercises. - - v. Principles of Teaching, with special reference to application - of Psychology to the cultivation of intellectual powers, the - feeling, the will. The application of the principles of education to - classification, organization, and school discipline. - - vi. Observation and practice teaching, under supervision, and - independently. - - vii. Physical training. - - viii. Special methods of one subject of study. - -The college is distinctly and solely a professional school. There is -no direct instruction in the subject matter of study, the admission -qualification being such as to exclude all persons who have not had -a satisfactory secondary education. Each college department provides -training in the principles and practice of teaching the subjects which -more especially belong to it; but all instruction is entirely from the -standpoint of the teacher. It is particularly stated in connection -with this teaching, that no student is admitted to a course in the -methods of any particular subject unless he can show himself to be -proficient in the subject matter of that branch of instruction. For -those not qualified, by training or academic standing, to pursue the -ordinary work of the college, it has been found advisable to arrange an -introductory course to occupy one year. The preparatory course includes -the study of English, an introduction to science, either drawing, -domestic science, or wood-carving, and either constructive geometry, -with the solution of original problems, or one branch of science with -laboratory work. I spent several days in this college and heard some of -the teaching in psychology, and in science. The psychology and history -of education are both two years’ courses. In psychology the students -begin by learning to make records of their individual observation of -children. The chief use of psychology to the teacher is regarded as -the making him conscious of processes of thought, which before might -have been accurate, but were not known. As the end of education is -assumed to be a moral end, in so far as it has to do with character -and conduct, the will is made the basis of educational psychology and -is treated first in order. One advantage of such an order of treatment -is that the practical value of the study of psychology to education -can be early shown. As the whole question of education is a question -of the guiding and controlling of action, great importance is given to -the practical study of action in its three phases of instinct, will and -habit. Each of these is followed out as far as possible by means of -the observation of children at play, or by the study of the student’s -own willed movements. All questions of physiological psychology are -avoided as much as possible in the study of psychology for educational -purposes, the two reasons given being: - - i. That most students have not a sufficient knowledge of physiology - to take up physiological psychology. - - ii. That those who have a sufficient knowledge of physiology find - the correlation difficult. In beginning to study psychology, the two - aspects of one set of facts and their bearings upon each other cannot - be easily seen. Much work in both sciences is needed before good work - can be done in physiological psychology. - -The students use Sully, James, and Höffding as text-books. The lines -of work, however, are not those of any particular writer or school. -The students have ample opportunities of wide reading and research, -not only in psychology, but in all branches of pedagogy. These are -afforded by the Bryson Pedagogical Library in the college building. -This library, founded in connection with the Teachers’ College, for -the purpose of affording opportunities of research to students of -the college, is open to all teachers of the city and to the public -generally. It contains 5,000 volumes, including books on pedagogy and -connected subjects, text-books of all kinds, and the current literary, -scientific and educational periodicals published in America and Europe. - -In the study of the history of education, the plan adopted is a -thorough and exhaustive treatment of one or two great educational -reformers, with mere outline sketches of others. The reformers -specially considered are regarded, not only as educators, but in -all other possible aspects. Their lives and works, their ideas, the -contemporary history of their own and other countries, are fully -discussed. When this has been done, all other facts of educational -history are as far as possible compared with, and illustrated by, the -facts connected with the reformer who has been specially considered. -Such a method seems very stimulating and interesting to the student, -and much more satisfactory, than a general treatment of the whole, -suggested by many text-books on the history of education. - -Methods of chemistry, physics, physiology-botany, geology, are taught -by means of actual lessons in the various subjects, given by the heads -of departments and their assistants, to children in the practising -school. Students are required to observe the teaching, to attend -lectures and discussions upon the methods pursued, to learn the art of -experimenting, and to prepare themselves for directing laboratories. -They are also guided and helped in making a careful inspection of the -science teaching in the public schools of the city. In addition to -this, they are introduced to some of the practical problems of science -teaching in the school-room, such as the difficulties of teaching -science without a laboratory, or without fixed times for experimenting. -All students who take science as their major or principal subject -are required also to take courses in:--(i.) The use of tools for -constructing home-made apparatus; (ii.) fundamental principles of -drawing and their applications for students who take special work in -other departments; (iii.) the specified courses in psychology, history -of education, and science and art of teaching; (iv.) outlines of the -lives and work of eminent scientists, as illustrating methods of -scientific research. A Time-Table for the Two Years’ Course in Science -is as follows:-- - - _First Year._ - - _Time._ - - MONDAY. - - Physics for High Schools 9.20-10.15. - Psychology 10.50-11.30. - Lecture and Laboratory 12.55-2.15. - - TUESDAY. - - Botany for High Schools 9.20-10.15. - - WEDNESDAY. - - Physics for High Schools 9.20-10.15. - Psychology 10.50-11.30. - Methods 11.15-12.15. - Lab. Practice 12.55-2.15. - - THURSDAY. - - Geology for High Schools 9.20-10.15. - History of Education 10.50-11.30. - - FRIDAY. - - Use of tools 9.20-10.15. - Psychology 10.50-11.30. - Methods 11.15-12.15. - - _Second Year._ - - _Time._ - MONDAY. - - Psychology 10.50-12.15. - Lect. and Lab. Instruction 12.55-2.15. - - TUESDAY. - - Observ. and Practice 9.20-10.45. - Drawing 10.50-12.15. - Chemistry for High Schools 12.55-2.15. - - WEDNESDAY. - - Observ. and Practice 9.20-10.45. - Lab. Practice 12.55-2.15. - - THURSDAY. - - Observ. and Practice 9.20-10.45. - Drawing 10.50-12.15. - Chemistry for High Schools 12.55-2.15. - - FRIDAY. - - Observ. and Practice 9.20-10.45. - -The practice department of the Teachers’ College is one of its most -important features, for a fundamental assumption is that practice -is the key-note of all training, that no one can consider himself -trained who has not taught, and that the future teacher must observe -good teaching, and must teach under normal conditions. The Horace -Mann School for the observation and practice of the students of the -Teachers’ College comprises kindergarten, primary, grammar and high -school grades. The heads of departments arrange the teaching of the -students, and great care is exercised in keeping the school efficient, -as the observation of good teaching is considered only second in -importance to actual practice. - -I heard a botany lesson in the practising school, given by the -instructor in methods of botany. The class, numbering about twelve -children, of about ten years of age, was furnished with lenses, and -needles, and a plentiful supply of flowers. Each child was required to -see and examine all the flowers that were given to him, to describe -carefully and exactly what he had observed, and to take nothing for -granted. The methods adopted were such as to make the children original -investigators, and the attitude of the teacher towards her subject was -such as to develop a spirit of reverence in the children, and to arouse -an interest æsthetic as well as scientific. No technical terms were -used in descriptions. The botany lessons are adapted to the different -seasons of the year. For example, the scheme of work for the Autumn -term is:-- - - Autumn Flowers. - - How differing from Spring flowers in - - Colour. - Size. - Growth. - - Autumn Fruits. - - Their growth. - ” parts. - ” use to man. - ” use to animals. - - Study of Seeds. - - Growth. - Methods of Distribution. - { Food. - Uses for { Oil. - { Medicine. - Grain and harvesting. - - Observation of Trees. - - Falling of leaves. - Colours ” ” - Leaf-buds. - Deciduous trees. - Evergreen trees. - - Preparation for winter by plants. - - Seeds. - Buds. - Leaves. - -The herbarium is not much used, but in autumn each child and student -brings a specimen of one tree or plant. All the specimens are kept and -are used for the study of seeds during the winter. Twigs are brought -into the school-room and made to grow in water, seeds are grown in -shavings, and plants of all kinds are watched during the year. - -The work in geology is a special feature of the practising school. -Courses of work have been adapted by the head of department to the -lowest grades of the grammar school--viz., to children about nine -years old. The work is closely connected with the geography teaching, -and children are encouraged to collect specimens of different kinds -of building stone they see, or to bring any other specimens of rock -or minerals. Trays of quartz, felspar and mica are provided for each -child, for beginning practical work in geology. After examination of -these minerals, granite is studied, and afterwards gneiss, as leading -the way to the general history of rocks. Slag structures are given for -examination, as specimens to illustrate the effects of heat. Artificial -geodes and lavas are also studied, when connecting the history of rocks -with their structure. Students who are preparing to become specialist -teachers in geology have special work with the children. They prepare -lessons under the guidance of the teacher--submitting written notes -of the subject matter, but talking over with their head of department -the proposed methods of dealing with the facts. They have also special -laboratory work, in constructing simple apparatus, and making maps, -charts and drawings. - -The physiology lesson I heard was given to a high school class, by the -director of the department of physiology. It was a revision lesson, -conducted with the special object of making the class discover the -general position of Man in the Animal Kingdom. The particular features -I noticed about the lesson were:-- - - (i.) No technical terms were used in description, if the required - meaning could be expressed in ordinary language. - - (ii.) Any difficulty as regards animal structure which arose during - the process of classification was settled by actual reference to the - museum specimen at hand. The doubt as to whether a fish might be - said to have a brain was settled by inspection of a haddock’s brain, - brought from the museum. - - (iii.) Great care was exercised by the teacher in order to prevent - hasty or incorrect inferences being drawn. - - (iv.) There was constant reference to text-books. The pupils had been - taught to use a reference library. - -It is evident to those who have watched the movement of the training of -secondary teachers in the Eastern States that the Teachers’ College of -New York has done a work peculiarly its own. It was organized on the -present lines, to combat the idea, even still existent to some extent, -that college graduation equips for successful teaching. It has done -this, not by emphasizing the value of professional training in itself, -apart from its connection with scholastic equipment, but by insisting -that the secondary teacher can only be fully prepared for his work -when careful scholastic preparation is supplemented by a consideration -of principles and methods of teaching, and by actual class work. Much -of the successful work of the Teachers’ College is probably due to -the thorough preparation required before beginning work, and to the -maturity of the students who take the courses. With such material, -and under such conditions, it is possible to make training thorough -and very valuable. This is especially so in an institution, such as -this, which can extend its interests, and broaden its outlook, by -alliance with a University like Columbia, securing by this means the -philosophical as well as the practical standpoint. - -The School of Pedagogy of the University of the City of New York, -established to give opportunities of higher training to graduates -of colleges or of Normal Schools, differs fundamentally from other -departments of Universities already considered, in only offering its -pedagogical degrees to those persons who can show evidence of three -or four years’ successful teaching experience. This is a necessary -qualification for admittance to the junior or senior pedagogical -course of the University. A student who has a college degree, and -who is credited with a sufficient number of attendances during two -years’ membership of the senior class, becomes “Doctor of Pedagogy,” -after passing an examination on five prescribed courses of work, -and presenting a satisfactory thesis on some educational subject. -Students of the junior class are required to pass an examination in -four subjects, and to attend the required number of lectures during -one year, in order to obtain the degree of “Master of Pedagogy.” The -courses studied are:-- - - (i.) History of Education from Socrates to the present time (lectures - and Seminar). - - (ii.) Psychology and Ethics, special attention being paid to the - Physiological Psychology and the Psychology of Experiment. - - (iii.) Institutes of Education, including-- - Educational values; incentives; co-ordination of studies; school - hygiene; school organization; child-study; methods. - - (iv.) Educational classics and æsthetics. - - (v.) Systems of Education:--European, American, National, State, - County, City, District. - -Opportunities are given for visiting schools in the city, and observing -teachers and children, but no practice department is connected with the -University. - -At Cornell University, at Ithaca, New York, systematic instruction in -pedagogy is given as a part of the Department of Philosophy. There is -a professor of pedagogy, who gives courses of lectures on:--Institutes -of Education; School Systems and Organization; Logic and Methodology; -History of Education. Simple problems for experimental investigation in -the psychological laboratory are discussed. Pedagogical conferences, -somewhat on the lines of the German “Conferenz,” are arranged, for -criticism of school reports and plans of teaching various subjects; -and seminaries of pedagogy and psychology have been instituted -for laboratory work and original research. Beyond these strictly -professional courses, there are courses in English, mathematics, Latin, -etc., with direct reference to those who wish to become teachers in -these subjects. Attendances at such courses counts towards a “Teachers’ -Certificate.” The “Teachers’ Certificate” is given to graduates of -Cornell University, who have successfully pursued the first course on -the Science and Art of Teaching, or that portion of it which relates -to the general theory of education; and have also attained marked -proficiency in a course of five hours’ advanced work per week, for two -years, in each subject for which the “Teachers’ Certificate” is given. - -At Syracuse University, New York, pedagogy is an elective subject -during the third terms of the third and fourth university year, for -those who take the philosophical course. There are also Normal Courses -given by the university professors in their various subjects. - -The introduction of pedagogy as a definite branch of the philosophical -department at Harvard University, is perhaps one of the most important -movements in the progress and development of the Science of Teaching -in America. In establishing its course, “adapted to the purpose of -teachers and persons intending to become teachers,” Harvard has made -recognition of the fact that something more than pure scholarship is -needed to produce the successful teacher or professor. Accordingly, it -has established two departments of training:-- - - i. Strictly professional courses in educational theory, history of - educational theories and practice, lectures on the management of - public schools and academies, and on the curriculum of the public - schools; and a seminary course for advanced students. - - ii. Other courses in methods, in connection with actual university - instruction in the different parts of the curriculum. - -Connected with the lectures on methods, and the organization and -management of public schools, is the systematic inspection of -designated schools by students, and a detailed report on some phase -of school life observed there. Each student is required to make a -comparative study of the teaching of a chosen subject, in all the -grades of at least two schools; or he may make a study of supervision -and discipline in two schools. Students must also make a comparative -study of not less than three city school systems, of three State school -systems, and of the school system of England, France, and Germany. This -work of inspecting and reporting is considered a very important part -of the pedagogical course. - -The courses in methods, given by the professors of different college -departments, are conducted by means of lectures and conferences in -connection with Greek, Latin, English, German, French, history, -mathematics, physics, chemistry, botany, zoology, geology and -geography. Most of these “Teachers’ Courses” require attendance at -some other college course in the same subject, where the professor -illustrates his own method. In a few cases, attendance at lessons in -the specified subjects, in schools near the University, is required. - -The courses in pedagogy have, until the present year, been closed to -all but graduates. Lately, however, the regulations have been changed, -and pedagogical work may now count towards a degree. - -There is no opportunity given to the Harvard pedagogical students for -actual teaching; but the connection brought about between the college -department and the secondary schools, by the constant attendance of -students in the school-rooms of the neighbourhood, may possibly develop -into a system wherein trained students may act as substitutes in these -schools. Quite apart, however, from this possible future connection, -there is even now an important practical relationship between -Harvard University and some of the secondary schools--viz., that of -supervision. In establishing a system of examination of the teaching -in such schools as make application, Harvard has acknowledged the -important principle that chief among the functions of an university is -that of directing and stimulating secondary education. - -The Department of Education at Clark University, Worcester, -Massachusetts, is a branch of the Department of Psychology. While doing -much to advance the cause of the professional training of teachers, -it does not strictly adapt its courses to the wants of the future -secondary teacher. The fact that Clark University, unlike any other -University in the United States, exists solely for the purpose of -research, and admits only graduates as its students, determines that -the pedagogical work shall also have a special character, well marked -off from that of any other university. The department is purely one of -higher pedagogy. Its aim is stated to be twofold:-- - - i. To give instruction and training to those who are preparing to - be professors of pedagogy, superintendents, or teachers in higher - institutions. - - ii. To make scientific contributions to education. - -The work pursued is in six courses, with an additional seminary course. -These are:-- - - i. Present status and problems of higher education in America and - Europe. - - ii. Outline of systematic psychology. - - iii. Organization of schools in Europe. Typical schools and typical - foundations. - - iv. School hygiene. - - v. Educational reforms. - - vi. Motor education of children, involving the study of writing and - drawing, manual training, play, and gymnastics. - -The _Pedagogical Seminary_, an educational magazine edited by Dr. -Stanley Hall, the President of Clark University, exists chiefly for the -purpose of publishing results of work in this department. There is a -special pedagogical library for research, and a complete collection of -the current educational literature of America and Europe. - -Among the other departments of psychology, there are many of great -interest to the student of higher pedagogy. - -Some of these are:-- - - i. History of psychology. - - ii. Experimental psychology. - - iii. Anthropology (the investigation of myth, custom, belief). - - iv. Ethics (the investigation of criminals, paupers, defective - classes). - - v. Feeling (investigations of conditions of the agreeable and - disagreeable, abnormal states, the hypnotic, the insane). - - vi. Neurology (researches on brain fatigue, etc.). - -For investigation in these departments, there are four psychological -laboratories, a neurological laboratory, and an anthropological -laboratory. Opportunities are also given to students to observe -patients in State and city lunatic hospitals, and in institutions -for the defective and criminal classes. The departments of research, -most closely bearing upon the teacher’s work, are perhaps those of -experimental psychology and neurology. Investigations on muscle and -brain fatigue, the diurnal variations of mental vigour, the memory of -children, etc., bring results important to the teacher, and especially -so when carried out as at Clark University, by experts in scientific -experiment. The _American Journal of Psychology_, edited by Dr. Stanley -Hall, and published quarterly, contains the results of many of the -researches in the psychological laboratories of Clark University. - -It is to the contribution of new scientific facts to the educational -world that Clark University chiefly devotes itself, and in doing this -valuable work it has shown itself quite willing to acknowledge the -results of observation and experiment of a very different kind from -its own--viz., that of parents and teachers in the home and school. -The records of the observation of children made by the students of the -Worcester Normal School are given to Dr. Stanley Hall to be used in -any way that may help true scientific research on the subject. It is -evident that results gain by approaching the same problems from the -practical and scientific standpoints, will be much more secure than -they could be otherwise, and will supply valuable contributions to the -educational world. - - -_SUMMER SCHOOLS AS ACCESSORY TO THE WORK OF TRAINING._ - -Among the most distinctively American educational institutions are -Summer Schools for Teachers. They are meetings organized during the -long summer vacations by private individuals, or in connection with -some University Normal or Training School, for the help and stimulation -of teachers who have otherwise no opportunity for training. - -The exact character of the work of a school is dependent entirely upon -the educational aims and methods of the principal of the school, and -the purpose for which teachers give up three or four weeks of their -holiday to attend a Summer School may be different in different cases. -The teachers of country schools, inadequately prepared for their work -of teaching, often attend the Summer School in their county, in order -to gain a State training certificate of a higher grade than that which -they already possess; while teachers in city schools, most of whom have -been trained in Normal Schools, attend a Summer School like that of -Colonel Parker, at Englewood, to get stimulation for future work, and -to pursue, in addition, a systematic study of pedagogy. Graduates, who -are teaching in schools and academies during the year, often attend -a Summer School in connection with an University, in order to pursue -further study in various branches. The Summer Schools I visited at -Benton Harbour, Englewood, Chautauqua, and the Summer School of Cornell -University, illustrate the different lines of work mentioned. - -At Benton Harbour, a small town on the shores of Lake Michigan, a -Summer School was held for four weeks, and was attended by about fifty -teachers of the rural districts of Michigan, who came to prepare -for a third-grade Teachers’ Certificate of the State of Michigan. -Lessons were given in ordinary school subjects, pedagogy and drill -from half-past seven in the morning until three or four o’clock in the -afternoon. I spent three or four days at this school, heard daily -lessons in psychology, physical culture, civil government, English, -elocution, and other subjects, and saw the working of the school -generally. The teaching in all subjects was very elementary, as little -previous knowledge could be assumed. - -Daily work began with exercises in which the whole school took part. -The singing of a hymn afforded an opportunity for a singing lesson -being given to the whole school, the principal acting as instructor. -Then came the reading of Holy Scripture, or of selections from -literature, and a short discourse by the principal, after which -students were called upon to give quotations from the works of famous -men and women, or to recite short poems which had been previously -prepared. At the end of these public exercises, the students were -required to dismiss according to word of command, to turn, march to -music, and to drill as a class of children would have been required to -do. This was intended to teach the students how to dismiss and drill a -school or class. - -Lessons in psychology were given by the principal. The treatment of the -subject was necessarily very elementary, and, indeed, superficial. I -noticed that the teacher constantly digressed on practical points, and -seemed to know exactly when digression would be of advantage to his -pupils. - -Daily lessons on “Experiments” were also given. These were talks on -some of the most elementary principles of science, and easy experiments -showing how such principles might be illustrated in class. Capillary -attraction was illustrated in a lesson I heard, and its bearing on -everyday life was shown. Pupils were required to come out of their -seats, and to arrange simple apparatus before the class. As they were -quite unaccustomed to manipulate even the simplest materials, they -seemed to find considerable difficulty even in drawing out glass tubing -and clamping together glass plates. - -The feature of the school, perhaps, the most interesting, was the -anxiety shown by these rural teachers to lose no opportunity for -improvement, and the keenness with which they followed their daily -lessons. Some of them were so untrained as to find great difficulty -in following the word of command during drill, but these, who were -painfully conscious of their defects, made rapid progress even in a -week’s time. Summer Schools like that of Benton Harbour may give real -help to the ill-prepared and untrained country teachers, in increasing -their knowledge, and widening their interests. They offer advantages -to those who have no opportunity for training, but their conditions -are such as to prevent their becoming an adequate substitute for -it. Indeed, their very existence acknowledges the fact that country -teachers have no opportunities for preparation, and in itself sanctions -a certain amount of superficiality. - -The principal object of Colonel Parker’s Summer School, held in -previous years at Chautauqua, New York, but this year at Englewood, -Chicago, is to stimulate teachers of all kinds, and to suggest lines of -work to be developed by them during the year. Attracted by the name -and work of Colonel Parker, more than 200 teachers, superintendents of -schools, and persons interested in education, came from nearly all the -States of the Union to attend the Summer School at Englewood. Most of -the ordinary school staff of the Cook County Normal School at Englewood -acted as teachers in the Summer School, and Colonel Parker himself gave -daily lectures in psychology. Daily lessons were also given in the -teaching of science, language, and reading, “number” or arithmetic, -music, drawing, and also in voice culture, Sloyd, physical culture, -blackboard drawing, and other subjects advantageous to the teacher. -The methods of teaching taught in the Normal School at Englewood were -explained and exemplified in the Summer School, and Kindergarten and -primary classes attached to the Normal School were taught during -the weeks in which the Summer School was held, in order to show the -practical application of the methods discussed. The students selected -their courses of study. All, however, were expected to attend the -psychology lectures. The classes in methods of teaching science, -methods of laboratory work, methods of teaching language and reading, -and methods of teaching “number” or arithmetic, were the most largely -attended. Very keen interest was also taken in the blackboard drawing. - -The work in methods of science was carried on by lectures, laboratory -work by students, and field work. An important feature of the science -lectures was the attention paid to methods of meteorological -observation. Blank charts, to show the daily range and variation of -temperature and air-pressure, were filled in by the students; United -States Weather Bureau maps were studied; the origin and course of -storms in the United States were followed. The relation of science to -other subjects, number, reading, modelling, painting, drawing, writing, -language, was brought out in the lectures, all the instruction being -such as to suggest methods of actually dealing with the subjects before -a class of children. The laboratory work was especially suggestive. The -Summer School pupils did individual experimental work, and had the same -instruction and treatment as a class of children would have had. The -practical science course for the Summer School was: - - (i.) Making a magnetic needle. - - (ii.) Heat. Conductivity of Metals. - - (iii.) ” Expansion of Metals. - - (iv.) ” Determination of boiling-point of fresh and - salt-water. - - (v.) ” Expansion of liquids and air. - - (vi.) ” Chemical change. - - (vii.) Pressure of air. Pump and syphon. - - (viii.) Mechanical constituents of soil (1). - - (ix.) ” ” ” (2). - - (x.) Physical properties of soils (1). - - (xi.) ” ” ” (2). - - (xii.) Mineral constituents of soils (1). - - (xiii.) ” ” ” (2). - - (xiv.) Transpiration of plants. - - (xv.) Specific gravity of minerals. - -Field excursions were made weekly, and methods of conducting children’s -field excursions were suggested and discussed. - -The instruction in blackboard drawing, as illustrating geographical -forms, was excellent. In all cases, the students worked on paper with -charcoal, at the same time as the teacher drew on the wall slate. -After making a sketch, the teacher erased her work at once, in order -to secure rapidity in those who were copying. The members of the class -then distributed themselves round the room at various parts of the wall -slate, and were required to reproduce on the wall slate the drawing -they had just made, the teacher meanwhile giving individual help and -criticising. The subjects for blackboard drawing for the fifteen -lessons of the course were: - - (_a_) Illustrations to show how Blackboard Drawing can be - used. - - (_b_) Hills, valleys, mountains, plateaus. - - (_c_) River-basins, waterfalls, lakes, deltas. - - (_d_) Erosion, cliffs, cañons, terraces, gorges. - - (_e_) Mountains, ranges, parallel, etc. - - (_f_) Continent of N. America. Esquimaux huts; Indian - wigwams; logging camps. - - (_g_) United States. Cotton fields, rice swamps, sand bars. - - (_h_) Mexico. Central America. Cacti; ruins. - - (_i_) S. America. Fiord coasts, volcanoes; tropical forests. - - (_j_) Africa. Deserts, sand-dunes, oases, canals. - - (_k_) Abyssinian Highlands: Nile Basin, pyramids, palms. - - (_l_) Australia Islands, coral, volcanoes. - - (_m_) Eurasia; plateaus of Thibet and Gobi. - - (_n_) India; Spain; Italy; banyan trees. - - (_o_) Norway and Sweden; glaciers, icebergs. - -Through the kind permission of Colonel Parker, I was able to hear all -lessons and to see the entire working of the school. Daily visits for -nearly a fortnight served to show, that much educational life was -centered there, and that teachers who occupied responsible positions in -all parts of the States were receiving new light and stimulation for -the working out of their own particular problems. - -At the college of the well-known summer assembly at Chautauqua, New -York, there was no professional instruction for teachers this year. I -heard some excellent teaching in physics, German and French; but beyond -the fact that many of the Chautauqua college students were teachers -taking holiday courses of study to equip themselves better for future -teaching, the work that I saw here had no direct bearing upon the -training of teachers. - -At Cornell University, courses in pedagogy are usually given in -connection with the summer course in philosophy. These are for graduate -students only. Psychology lectures, with experimental demonstrations, -are given every day in the week; lectures on psychological and -psychophysical method, with demonstrations and laboratory practice, are -delivered three times a week; pedagogy and the history of education are -studied by means of lectures and conferences; methods of teaching the -special subject of study are discussed in connection with the other -summer courses for graduates at Cornell University. I was present at -a very interesting meeting of teachers who were attending a summer -course in English. Individual members of the class gave their own -experience as regards the teaching of English and literature in the -schools. The students were mostly specialists in English, and teachers -in private academies, or High Schools, and an informal discussion of -special difficulties and methods which had been actually tried was very -interesting and helpful to the class as a whole. - -A general survey of Summer Schools of all kinds seems to show that -their work cannot be regarded as that of “Training,” but rather as -accessory to it. Where the principal or conductor of the Summer School -is a man of enthusiasm and enlightenment, teachers can be refreshed and -stimulated in many ways, by a summer course of work; but to regard a -course as training which supplies no practice-work, and exists under -highly artificial conditions, for a few weeks only, is to overlook some -of the most important features of training. - -As a general summary of the work of Training, seen in Normal Schools, -City Training Schools and University Departments, it may be stated: - -(i.) That the State Normal Schools, adhering to old traditions, and -failing to insist on adequate and thorough scholarship as an entrance -qualification, have been obliged to devote themselves, either to -securing that scholarship, or to the pursuance of so-called training -under conditions the most conducive to mechanical lines of work, and -dead forms of method. - -(ii.) That the City Training Schools, being entirely local -institutions, supported by local funds, and only supplying teachers to -the schools of the vicinity, are in danger of being cramped in their -methods by seeking to win public favour. - -(iii.) That the University Departments of Pedagogy, especially those -belonging to State Universities, are capable of affording the widest -and best opportunities for the thorough training of primary and -secondary teachers, and in supplying these opportunities, they will not -only help forward the cause in which they are immediately engaged, but -afford a valuable means of unifying and stimulating education generally. - -The existence of the good and the bad side by side is as marked a -feature in training institutions as in any other department of American -education, and suggests great rapidity of progress in some directions. -Where the training is bad, old methods have been retained under new -conditions; and where good results have been obtained, they are due -to the readiness to try new methods, and to keep in touch with the -educational progress of the day. The stimulus to much that is good -in the present training of teachers in America is the psychological -study of children, which now is being systematically organized in a -“National Association for the Study of Children.” Not only scientific -workers, but teachers and parents throughout the country, are beginning -to realize the important bearing of child-study upon all educational -questions, and nowhere is their enthusiasm for matters educational more -shown than in their united devotion to the solution of this new problem. - - AMY BLANCHE BRAMWELL. - - - - -PART II. - -BY MILLICENT HUGHES. - - -In America, as in Europe, it is becoming increasingly recognised, that -the fact of having received a good education, even if that education -have included a University course, is no guarantee of fitness for -the teaching profession. That some special professional preparation -is also necessary before a teacher can be safely entrusted with -teaching responsibility can hardly be said to be any longer a matter -of debate among those who have devoted time and thought to educational -questions. There may be much difference of opinion as to the best way -of giving that preparation, but that it should be given is becoming -more and more a foregone conclusion. There seems at last some chance -that a well-earned rest may be allowed to the well-worn comparison -made between the doctor’s and teacher’s professions, with its obvious -moral--that just as no right-thinking parent would allow an unqualified -practitioner to prescribe for his child’s body, so it should be -impossible for that far less understood and delicate something, which -we call the mind, to be entrusted to the care of one whose only -qualification for the post is the possession of a certain amount of -useful information. There are many battles yet to be fought, many -experiments yet to be tried, many failures yet to be faced, ere all -shall be agreed on the best kind of professional training that can be -given to teachers; yet I have returned from America encouraged in the -belief that the decisive battle in favour of training has been fought -and won on both sides of the Atlantic, and that the old world and the -new may with advantage to both join hands in the endeavour to discover -the best ways and means of such training. - -And it would seem especially fitting that England and America should -thus join hands, for, after all, few things about the Americans -impressed me more than the fact that they are really English, and that -the inhabitants of Great Britain and the United States really form part -of one great English-speaking nation, with the heritage of a noble -language and literature, and a common life of thought and feeling. In -matters educational, the truth of this oneness impressed me vividly. -Allowing for such differences as must exist between an old and a new -country, it is nevertheless true that most of the problems in education -which they are trying to solve are those which perplex us also, and -of these the problem of the Training of Teachers holds a place in -the front rank. But it is a curious and interesting fact, that the -solution should be attempted in both countries, and yet that so little -attention should be paid in each to what is being done in the other. -The ignorance that prevails among American teachers as to what is being -attempted in England is, I fear, only equalled by our own ignorance -of American educational life. This ignorance is largely the result of -the difficulty that both American and English teachers experience, in -obtaining definite information on educational matters in connection -with either country. This fact made it very difficult for me even to -map out my tour, so as to include as far as possible what was typical -of American Training in the short time at my disposal, and had it not -been for the unvarying kindness and courtesy shown me by American -teachers, in directing my notice to what was best worth seeing, my -task would have presented almost insuperable difficulties. As it is, I -have, of course, been unable to cover the whole ground, and indeed have -been able to personally examine into the opportunities for training -in a very few States. These, however, I believe to be representative -States, from a study of the means of training in which it is possible -to arrive at a very fair conclusion of its condition in the States as -a whole. They include the following: Pennsylvania, Connecticut, Rhode -Island, Massachusetts, New York, Michigan and Illinois. I was, however, -fortunate in being able to supplement the information thus obtained by -a careful study of the many excellent State exhibits in the Educational -Department of the Liberal Arts Building, at the World’s Fair, and to -further correct and intensify the impressions I had received by many -conversations with educationists from all parts of the United States, -whom it was my good fortune to meet at the Educational Congresses, held -at Chicago in July. - -In considering any American educational question, there are one or two -points which must never be lost sight of, and perhaps it will be well -to indicate them here. In the first place, it must be remembered that -there is not one American educational system, but many. Each State has -complete control of its own educational matters, has its own School -Law, sets aside common lands, or levies taxes for the support of its -own schools, and is responsible to no higher authority. The only part -taken by the Central Government of the United States in connection with -education has been in the establishment of a Bureau of Education, the -chief functions of which have been (1) the collecting of statistics and -general information respecting education in all the various States, -which are embodied in an annual report made by the Commissioner -of Education, (2) the publishing of monographs and circulars of -information on topics of educational interest, such as Co-education, -Teaching of History, etc., and (3) the maintaining of a valuable -Pedagogical Reference Library at Washington. - -Secondly, a distinction must be made between the Western States, of -which Michigan might be taken as representative, and the Eastern, of -which Massachusetts might be considered typical. In the former we find -a most complete system of State education, leading from the Primary -School right up to the great co-educational University of Michigan. -The State Schools there have few private rivals, and the University -none. In the State of Massachusetts, on the contrary, although Primary, -Grammar and High Schools are maintained at the public expense, yet -the children of a large proportion of the inhabitants attend private -schools and academies, which undertake to prepare them for Harvard or -the Women’s Colleges, such as Wellesley. In fact, few of those who -enter upon a University career do so straight from the common school, -as is the case in the Western States. It follows from this that there -are two classes of teachers to be considered in the Eastern States--(1) -those who teach in the common schools (Primary, Grammar and High), and -(2) those who teach in private schools and in the academies. Those -of the second class are largely recruited from the ranks of College -graduates, who rely upon their University course as preparation for -the profession of teaching, and amongst whom the idea of a special -training for their work has only here and there been awakened. It is -mainly in connection with State education that the idea of the training -of teachers has been developed, although the fact that several of -the older Universities, including Harvard, are providing courses of -lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching may be taken as a hopeful -sign of the gradual growth of the idea among all classes of teachers. - -It will be perhaps well to enumerate the various means available for -the Training of Teachers in the United States, and then to describe -more particularly the special features of the training to be obtained -in each kind of institution. - -Training may be obtained at: - - { Public or State. - i. Normal Schools { City. - { Private. - - { Schools. - ii. City Training { - { Classes. - - iii. Pedagogical Departments in Universities. - - iv. Teachers’ Institutes. - - v. Summer Schools. - - -_NORMAL SCHOOLS._ - -There are three kinds of Normal Schools to be considered--State, City -and Private. It was my privilege to visit a good number belonging to -the first two classes, but I was not fortunate enough to be able to -inspect any of the Private Normal Schools. These latter are, of course, -chiefly to be found in those States which have few or no State or City -Normal Schools. - -The difference between State and City Normal Schools is mainly one of -control. The State Normal School forms part of the State Common School -system, and is under the direct supervision of the State Superintendent -and Board of Education, while the City Normal School belongs to -the City School system, and is under the jurisdiction of the City -Superintendent. The State Normal School is intended to provide teachers -for the schools in any part of the State, while the City Normal School -has for its object the preparation of teachers for the City schools -alone. - -At present one of the most hotly debated questions in connection -with Normal Schools relates to the subjects to be included in the -curriculum. Shall the Normal School give professional training alone, -or shall it also provide instruction in Academic subjects? There is at -present much divergence of opinion on the subject, and some schools are -organized on the one principle, and some on the other. - -At present some of the Normal Schools have a double function to -perform, that of serving as High Schools, and at the same time as -professional Training Colleges. There is, however, a growing feeling -against this plan, and a tendency, wherever possible, to separate -those who intend to become teachers from those who do not. But many -Normal Schools, while claiming to be only professional, yet include -Academic subjects in their curricula. Two reasons for this are commonly -urged. In the first place, it is said that it is impossible to get a -large enough supply of candidates for training who are sufficiently -well equipped for their profession from the point of view of mere -information; and secondly, that even those who have the necessary -information have acquired it in such a way that it is almost useless -for teaching purposes. For such, a complete revision of the various -subjects, taken in conjunction with a consideration of the best methods -of teaching the same, is regarded as necessary; it being maintained -by those in favour of this plan that it is almost impossible to get -instruction in the various subjects that will be of any value to them -as teachers, outside a Normal School. - -On the other hand, there are some who maintain that the Normal School -should be strictly professional, admitting none to its courses but -those who can give evidence of having had ample academic preparation. -Many, however, who believe that the courses in academic studies are at -present necessary yet look forward to the time when they will be no -longer required. - -There appears to be a growing feeling in the States in favour of the -complete separation of the professional from the academic course, and -it is interesting to note that the question is agitating the minds -of those who have to do with the training of teachers in America, at -the same time that it has become a burning question in England in -connection with the training of our Elementary Teachers. The Normal -Schools correspond more or less closely with our English Elementary -Training Colleges, and an examination of their points of likeness and -difference may not prove unprofitable. - -In the first place, it should be noted, that the absence of any uniform -standard of attainment, such as is more or less secured in England by -the fact that there is one government examination for all Colleges, -makes it possible for there to be a great difference in the rank held -by different Normal Schools. As each school fixes its own standard -of graduation, and the conditions for admission, length of course -and final tests vary with each institution, it comes about that much -depends upon the Normal School, of which a given teacher is a graduate. - -Some Normal Schools, for instance, have a course extending over four -years, in others it only lasts from one to two years, while some offer -a choice of courses of varying length. In England, on the contrary, -the Elementary Training course is uniformly two years in all Colleges, -the length being only occasionally varied in the cases of individuals, -as when, on special recommendation, a third year is allowed, or a -candidate who has already obtained a certificate is admitted to a -Training College for one year’s training. - -This lack of uniformity in the length of course in American Normal -Schools is largely the result of the absence of any _one_ standard -of admission. While in England there is one examination, the Queen’s -Scholarship, which must be passed by all, except University graduates -who desire to enter an Elementary College, in America the conditions -vary with each individual Normal School. Some require at least a -certificate of graduation from a High School, some have an entrance -examination of their own, which none may be excused, while others offer -one to those who have no certificates to show. - -Some Normal Schools are regarded as affording suitable preparation -for the Universities, and are attended by those who hope to take up a -University course later on, while others grant degrees of their own, -or arrange special courses for those who have taken degrees elsewhere. - -The fact that there are so many differences in respect of length of -course and choice of subjects, between the Normal Schools of various -States and Cities, makes it exceedingly difficult to form any accurate -generalizations. It will probably, therefore, be wiser at this point -to give a more detailed account of the Normal Schools which I had an -opportunity of studying in the above-mentioned States. - - -_PENNSYLVANIA._ - -Pennsylvania has eleven State Normal Schools, the two most important -of which I was able to visit. The Normal School Law for this State -provides for two courses of study; the Elementary Course and the -Scientific Course. The first of these leads to the certificate Bachelor -of the Element (B.E.), while the diploma of the second constitutes its -holder Bachelor of the Sciences (B.S.). - -The outlines of these courses are laid down by the State as follows, -but each Normal School can adapt them as seems best. Most Normal -Schools also arrange for a Preparatory Course. - - - ELEMENTARY COURSE.--JUNIOR YEAR. - - _Pedagogics._--Elements of School Management and Methods. - - _Language._--Orthography and Reading; English Grammar, including - Composition; Latin, sufficient for the introduction of Cæsar. - - _Mathematics._--Arithmetic; Elementary Algebra. - - _Natural Sciences._--Physiology and Hygiene. - - _Historical Sciences._--Geography--Physical, Mathematical, and - Political; History of the United States; Civil Government. - - _The Arts._--Penmanship, sufficient to be able to explain some - approved system--writing to be submitted to Board of Examiners; - Drawing, a daily exercise for at least twenty-eight weeks--work to - be submitted to the Board of Examiners; Book-keeping, single entry, - seven weeks; Vocal music, elementary principles, and attendance upon - daily exercises for at least one-third of a year. - - _Manual Training._ - - - ELEMENTARY COURSE.--SECOND YEAR. - - _Pedagogics._--Psychology, embracing the intellect, sensibilities, - and will; Methods; History of Education; Model School Work--at least - twenty-one weeks of actual teaching daily during one period of not - less than forty-five minutes; a Thesis on a professional Subject. - - _Language._--The outlines of Rhetoric, together with at least - a fourteen weeks’ course in English literature, including the - thorough study of one selection from each of four English classics; - Latin--Cæsar. - - _Mathematics._--Arithmetic; Mensuration; Plane Geometry. - - _Natural Sciences._--Elementary Natural Philosophy; Botany. - - _Historical Sciences._--Reading of General History in connection with - the History of Education. - - _The Arts._--Elocutionary Exercises in connection with the study of - English literature. - - _Manual Training._ - - - SCIENTIFIC COURSE.--TWO YEARS. - - _Pedagogics._--Moral Philosophy; Logic; Philosophy of Education; - Course of Professional Reading, with abstracts, notes, criticisms, - to be submitted to Board of Examiners; a Thesis on a professional - subject. - - _Language._--Latin, six books of Virgil, four orations of Cicero, - the Germania of Tacitus, or a full equivalent; an equivalent of - Greek, French, or German will be accepted for Spherical Trigonometry, - Analytical Geometry, Calculus, Mathematical Natural Philosophy, and - Mathematical Astronomy; Literature. - - _Mathematics._--Higher Algebra; Solid Geometry; Plane and Spherical - Trigonometry and Surveying, with use of instruments; Analytical - Geometry; Differential and Integral Calculus. - - _Natural Science._--Natural Philosophy, as much as in Snell’s - Olmsted; Anatomy, Descriptive and Mathematical; Chemistry; Geology or - Mineralogy; Zoology; Astronomy. - - _History._--General History. - -To graduate at a Pennsylvanian State Normal School, students must -attend at least twenty-one weeks. The Faculty first examines the -candidates in all the branches of study; if they find them qualified -they recommend them to the State Board of Examiners, and certify that -they have completed the course of study as required by law, and have -taught the required time in the Model School. - -The final examinations are conducted by a State Board of Examiners, -who are appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, -from the following classes:--the State Superintendent or Deputy -Superintendent, who is President of the Board, the Principal of another -Normal School, two County or Borough Superintendents from the First -District, and the Principal of this Normal School. Each student must -receive four votes out of the five in order to pass the examination, -and to graduate. - -The final examination occurs about two weeks before Commencement,[2] -the date being fixed by the State Superintendent. The examination is -almost wholly in writing, and lasts two or three days. - -Regular graduates who have continued their studies for two years -(_i.e._ have completed either the Elementary or Scientific Course), and -have practised their profession for two years in the Common Schools -of the State, and who have presented to the Faculty and Board of -Examiners a certificate of good moral character and skill in the Art -of Teaching from the Board or Boards of Directors by whom they were -employed, countersigned by the proper County Superintendent, receive -further diplomas, constituting them Masters in the Course in which -they graduated, and conferring upon them one of the following degrees: -Master of the Elements (M.E.); Master of the Sciences (M.S.). - -These diplomas confer upon their holders the right to teach the -subjects therein named, in the public schools of Pennsylvania, without -further examination. - -It is also the duty of the Pennsylvania Normal Schools to grant State -certificates to such teachers in the Common Schools of the State who -make application for the same, and who fulfil the following conditions: - - i. Each applicant must be twenty-one years of age, and must have - taught in the Common Schools of the State during three successive - years. - - ii. Each must present certificates of moral character, and skill in - practical teaching. - - iii. The examination must be either in the subjects of the Elementary - or Scientific Course, and must be taken at the time of the Annual - Examination of the Normal School at which application is made. - - iv. Each applicant is required to present an original Thesis on some - educational subject. - -The School year is usually forty-two weeks, and is divided into two -sessions--a winter session of about twenty-eight weeks from August to -March, and a summer of fourteen weeks, beginning with the end of March. - -The usual charge for the Winter Session is $140 (about £28), and for -the Summer Session $70 (about £14). - -By a recent Act of the Legislature the following appropriations are -made by the State to Normal students and graduates. - - i. Each student over seventeen years of age who shall sign a paper - declaring his intention to teach in the Common Schools of the State - shall receive the sum of fifty cents (about 2_s._) per week toward - defraying the expenses of tuition and boarding. - - ii. Each student who upon graduating shall sign an agreement to teach - in the Common Schools of the State two full school years shall - receive the sum of fifty dollars (about £10). - - iii. Any student desiring to secure the benefits must attend the - School at least twelve consecutive weeks, and must join a class in - Methods of Instruction or School Management. These benefits will be - deducted from the regular expenses of board and tuition. - -About four miles from Lancaster, and connected with it by an electric -railway, is the little village of Millersville, where is located -the oldest Normal School of the State. It was established in 1855, -and recognised as the First State Normal School in Pennsylvania in -1859. It is a co-educational school with accommodation for about 500 -students, although permission is also sometimes given to students to -board out. The buildings are typical of this kind of Normal School. -There is a central building containing the Chapel, recitation[3] and -dining-rooms, etc., while on either side are two dormitories, one for -the men students, and one for the women. There is also a gymnasium; -and two handsome buildings--a Library, and a Science building with -lecture rooms and laboratories--are in process of erection. There are -more women students than men, and fewer of the latter intend to become -teachers in the State; often they only use the Normal School as a -stepping-stone to the University. - -An excellent Model School, comprising a Kindergarten and eight grades, -is attached to the Institution, in which the students observe the -methods used by the critic teachers in various subjects, and also -teach under supervision. I heard one of the critic teachers give -a model lesson on a brook basin, and afterwards deliver a lecture -to the students on the teaching of Geography, in which the special -points of teaching method in connection with the brook basin, school -district and township were dwelt upon and discussed. I had, moreover, -the opportunity of hearing one of the students teach, and was also -fortunate enough to be able to listen to a reading lesson given by the -head of the Model School on the sentence method. - -I next visited the Normal School at West Chester, which was started in -1871. Its buildings are on much the same plan as those at Millersville, -with the two wings for men and women students, and the dining and -recitation rooms in the centre. The Principal, with pardonable pride, -drew my special attention to the gymnasium building, which, with the -single exception of the new Yale Gymnasium, is believed to be the -most complete connected with any school or college in the States. -It contains a full supply of the best apparatus, running tracks, -bath-rooms, large swimming-pool, bowling alleys, ball cage, etc. A -thoroughly trained physician[4] and his wife are in charge of the -gymnasium, and all exercise is taken under their supervision. I was -able to attend several of the classes--one on School Method, which -took the form of a discussion of such points as the following: “What -degree of quiet is necessary in a school?” “On what does ability to -govern depend?” “Can ability to govern be acquired?” I was much struck -here, as in other American schools and colleges, with the ease in -speaking, and the keen interest shown by the students in taking part -in the discussion. A lesson in Arithmetic, in which the students made -excellent use of that distinctive feature of an American recitation -room--the continuous blackboard, one on United States history, and a -lesson on physiology given in the Model School, helped to fill up a -most interesting morning. - - -_CONNECTICUT._ - -There are two State Normal Schools in the State of Connecticut--one at -New Britain, started in 1850, and the other at Willimantic, opened in -1889. These schools have for their object the definite preparation of -teachers for work in the State schools, and no encouragement is given -to other students to enter. They thus differ from the Pennsylvania -Normal Schools, which are often attended by those who do not intend -to become teachers. This difference appears to produce one curious -and instructive result--namely, that while a large number of men -students are to be found in the Pennsylvania Normal Schools, they are -conspicuous by their absence from those in Connecticut. This is easily -understood when one remembers that an overwhelming majority of the -teachers in the Common Schools are women, and that as few men intend to -take up teaching as a permanent profession, they are not likely to be -found in those Normal Schools, the courses of which will not serve as -stepping-stones to a future college or other career. - -Neither of these two Schools are residential, but the Principals -undertake to assist students in finding comfortable accommodation. -Board and lodging can usually be obtained from $3 to $4 (14_s._ to -17_s._) per week. - -Candidates for admission must either (1) pass an entrance examination -held at certain centres in the State, or (2) present a certificate of -graduation from a High School or State Teachers’ Certificate, or (3) -have taught successfully for three years. - -The course is arranged for two years, but no student can graduate from -the schools unless considered fit to teach by the Faculty. They may -either remain longer as students, or if thought to be hopeless may be -requested to withdraw. - -At both schools there are at least two parts to the course: (1) that -done in the Normal School, including the Theory of Education, and -special work in science and other subjects; and (2) that done in the -Model or Training Schools. Each School has also a Kindergarten, and at -New Britain there is a special course for the training of Kindergarten -teachers. - -Students who attain the required standard of scholarship in every -prescribed subject, and exhibit a fair degree of skill in teaching and -governing children, _and_ pass the State Examination for Teachers, -receive a Diploma of Graduation. - -The fitness of any teacher for her profession is thus determined partly -by the authorities of the Normal School, and partly by the State. - -All necessary text-books are free, but students are encouraged to -purchase a few books of reference. - -The aim of this school is entirely professional, but it is found so -difficult to obtain a supply of sufficiently prepared students that -some academic work, especially in science, is found to be necessary, -and each student is expected to learn to make certain sets of -apparatus, which will be afterwards helpful in the teaching of science -in the schools. The Principal informed me that he considered that the -school was stronger on the practical than on the theoretical side. -Most certainly the practical training of teachers is most thoroughly -arranged for. A Model School of 500 children is attached to the school, -the classes in which are in the hands of trained and enthusiastic -teachers, who are constantly endeavouring to improve existing and -devise new methods of teaching. In reading, for instance, the children -make their own reading lesson, the subjects being taken from lessons -on elementary science, literature, etc., which they have had. With the -help of the blackboard, simple sentences, giving an account of the -lesson or its story, are collected, and then printed by the school -printing press, which proves an invaluable addition to the school -apparatus. Drawing is also taught almost entirely in connection with -other school subjects, the illustrating of Science, History and -Geography lessons being thus utilized. - -During the training course, the students give a few lessons in the -Model School, and spend a good deal of time in observation. But -a comparatively new and important feature in connection with the -practical training is the six months which students are encouraged -to spend after graduation at a Practice School which has been opened -at South Manchester. Here the graduates teach under supervision, and -obtain that amount of practice under favourable circumstances which is -so necessary to the perfecting of the teacher. - -At Willimantic, as at New Britain, especial stress is laid on preparing -the teacher for the practical part of the profession. The child, -however, is the unit of the school, and on the right understanding of -the child depends the teacher’s success in teaching. The child has -both a body and a mind to be trained, and the two cannot be separated. -It is therefore necessary that a teacher should know something about -each, and students are therefore expected to devote a good deal of time -to the study of Physiology in the Junior year, and to the study of -Psychology in the Senior. - -The Model Schools[5] are most carefully staffed, and the students spend -as much time as possible in observing work done in these schools. - -During the last term of the course, each student serves as an assistant -in the various grades of the Model Schools, thus having experience in -teaching under the guidance and criticism of an expert in each grade. - -The course is for two years, but the Principal is anxious to have the -time extended. - - -_NEW YORK STATE._ - -The first Normal School for the State of New York was opened at Albany -in 1844. There are now eleven such schools in the State, two of -which--Albany and Oswego--are entirely professional, while the others -provide also for academic work. - - -STATISTICS OF NEW YORK STATE NORMAL SCHOOLS. - - +-------------+---------------------------+---------------------------+ - | | Normal. | Academic. | - | +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - | Location. | No. | Average | No. | Average | - | | Registered. | Attendance. | Registered. | Attendance. | - | | Last Year. | Last Year. | Last Year. | Last Year. | - +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - | Albany | 375 | 305 | | | - | Oswego | 382 | 323 | | | - | Brockport | 370 | 283 | 108 | 61 | - | Cortland | 384 | 312 | 35 | 25 | - | Potsdam | 490 | 395 | 182 | 134 | - | Fredonia | 253 | 196 | 67 | 49 | - | Buffalo | 357 | 295 | 12 | 7 | - | Geneseo | 535 | 391 | 78 | 65 | - | New Paltz | 227 | 170 | 26 | 13 | - | Oneonta | 365 | 304 | 23 | 15 | - | Plattsburgh | 142 | 106 | | | - +-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+-------------+ - -The following extracts from the circular issued by the Superintendent -of Public Instruction give the principal features common to all the -Normal Schools of the State of New York. - -“Students will be appointed to the Normal Schools by the -Superintendent, upon the recommendation of superintendents and -school commissioners. These officers will be relied upon to properly -represent to possible candidates the needs of the public schools -for well-qualified teachers, and the necessity of professional and -technical training on the part of all who intend to teach. No students -can be admitted who have not already acquired a substantial elementary -education. This can be gained in all of the ordinary schools, and the -professional training schools cannot be properly taxed with work which -the common schools can perform as well. Through the quality of the -work performed, through the attainments and the professional spirit -and purpose of graduates, rather than through mere multiplicity of -numbers, can the Normal Schools best promote the educational interests -of the State. There is room and welcome in the Normal Schools for -the graduates of the elementary and secondary schools, and even for -those who have made substantial advancement in the elementary course -without technical graduation, provided that they give promise of -becoming successful teachers, and possess the desire to become such; -but there is no room for students who have laid no real foundation -for professional training, and who have no well-determined purpose -about the matter and no fair conception of the responsibilities and -obligations of a teacher’s occupation. - -“Appointments will ordinarily follow recommendations, but students -will be admitted or retained in Normal Schools only when they show -scholarship and other qualities in justification of the appointment. - -“The following form of recommendation will be used, and will be -supplied from the department or from any of the schools upon -application. When filled out it should be mailed to the Superintendent, -and when approved it will be by him sent direct to the school. No -student can be appointed who is not fully sixteen years of age. - - TO THE SUPERINTENDENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION:-- - - I hereby recommend of in the County of - aged years, as possessing the health, scholarship, mental - ability and moral character requisite for an appointment to the State - Normal and Training School at - - _School Commissioner_ - _District of the County of_ - Or, _Superintendent City of_ - - _Dated._ - -“Students duly appointed, and presenting the diplomas of colleges, -universities, high schools, academies or academic departments of union -schools, State Certificates or Commissioner’s Certificates, granted -under the uniform examination system, and still in force, showing -a standing of seventy-five per cent. in arithmetic, grammar and -geography, may be admitted at any time and without examination. - -“Students duly appointed, but unable to present either of the -above-named evidences of proficiency, may be admitted at the opening of -each term upon duly passing an entrance examination to be held at the -school. - -“Non-residents of the State are not to be solicited or encouraged to -enter our Normal Schools, but such persons as specially desire to -do so, and who comply with the requirements as to admission, may be -admitted upon paying to the treasurer of the Local Board a tuition -fee of twenty dollars per term of twenty weeks in advance. No mileage -fees[6] will be paid to non-residents. - -“No student will be received into the academic department connected -with any State Normal School who is not a bona fide resident of the -territory whose people have heretofore given Normal School property -to the State, and for whose benefit the State has pledged itself to -maintain an academic department. - -“Tuition and the use of all text-books are free. Students will be held -responsible, however, for any injury or loss of books. They are advised -to bring with them, for reference, any suitable books they may have. -The amount of fare necessarily paid on public conveyances in coming to -the school will be refunded to those who remain a full term. - -“A year is divided into two terms of twenty weeks each. The Autumn term -commences on the first Wednesday in September, and the Spring term on -the second Wednesday in February. There will be an intermission for a -week during the holidays.” - -There are three courses of study which can be followed: an English -course arranged for three years, a Classical and a Scientific arranged -for four years. (Albany and Oswego have specially arranged courses.) - -Students who satisfactorily complete any one of the above courses -receive diplomas, which serve as licenses to teach in the public -schools of the State. - -The first Normal School of the State was located at Albany. Until -1890 it had, like most of the other schools, academic as well as -professional work, but it was then reorganized on a new plan, under -the title of “New York State Normal College.” This College now devotes -itself entirely to the giving of instruction in the Science and Art of -Teaching. - -The courses of study are as follows:-- - -1. _English Course_, which extends over two years, and embraces -Psychology, History and Philosophy of Education, Methods of -teaching all ordinary school subjects, School Economy and School -Law, Kindergarten methods and practice in teaching under criticism. -Graduates from this course receive a life diploma or license to teach. - -2. _Classical Course._ This is also a two years’ course on much -the same lines as the English, but with the addition of Methods of -teaching Latin and Greek, or German, or French. A much severer entrance -examination must, however, be passed to gain admission to this course -than is required for the English. A life diploma and the degree of -Bachelor of Pedagogy are conferred on graduates from this course. - -3. _Supplementary Course._ This takes one year, which is devoted to the -reading of leading educational authors, the discussion of educational -subjects, and the preparation of an original thesis. Those who take -this course in addition to the English receive the degree of Bachelor -of Pedagogy, and those who take it in addition to the Classical receive -that of Master of Pedagogy. - -4. _One year Course for graduates_ from Colleges and Universities in -which they are allowed to select a course (approved by the Faculty) for -one year, and can receive a life diploma and the degree of Bachelor of -Pedagogy. - -5. _Kindergartner’s Course._ - -I unfortunately reached Albany too late to see the school in working -order, but from what its Principal, Dr. Milne, told me, it appears to -possess the most purely professional course of any Normal School in the -States. - - -OSWEGO. - -The Oswego School was first organized as a City Training School in -1861, but was adopted as a State School in 1863. The history of this -school is the history of its Principal, Dr. Sheldon. When quite young, -he became interested in the question of the education of the poor -of his native city, Oswego. With the help of friends the first free -school was started, but as no teacher could be found, he had to teach -himself. He was able, in 1853, to organize a city system of schools, -and became superintendent. Dissatisfaction with the teaching results -of his schools led him to consider the question of methods. On a visit -to Toronto, he saw in the National Museum a collection of educational -appliances used abroad, and especially at the Home and Colonial -Training School in London. He brought back all the apparatus that he -could, but both he and his teachers realized the need of training, and -finally some of them resigned half their salaries for one year, in -order that a training teacher might be brought over from the Home and -Colonial Training College. Miss M. E. M. Jones, an ardent disciple of -Pestalozzi, came in response to their request, and day by day, after -school hours, she met this enthusiastic little band of teachers, which -was the first Training Class. After she left, those she had taught were -able to carry it on, and the training of teachers was an established -fact in Oswego. The course was at first only for one year, but was -later extended to three and four when the school was taken over by the -State. - -With the consent of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction, -the classical department has been dropped out of the Oswego School, -and more extended lines of English work have been taken up as elective -courses. The regular English course is taken for three years, and one -of these for the fourth. - -This course includes advanced work in science, history, higher English, -psychology, pedagogy, drawing, and teaching under criticism, and -occupies two terms of twenty weeks each. - -Those who show marked talent for primary and kindergarten work may, -after graduation, be invited by a vote of the Faculty to take an -additional year in special training for kindergarten and primary -teachers. At the end of this course diplomas are granted, indicating -fitness to take charge of kindergartens; and in addition, certificates -of special qualifications for primary work are given, signed by all the -members of the Faculty. - -In order to meet the increasing demand for teachers who can undertake -training work in Normal Schools, a special course has been started, -which lasts for five months, and includes lectures in psychology, -pedagogy, kindergarten principles and methods; observation of the work -in the kindergarten; attendance upon the criticisms of the critics in -all the departments of the training work; making out criticisms on the -work in the different departments of the school of practice and actual -teaching under criticism; making out time-tables for the different -grades of schools; observation of work in the school of practice as -done by practice teachers, to gain an idea of arrangement, distribution -and grading of subject matter; observation of special lessons, followed -by criticisms of same. A course of professional reading is prescribed, -as well as the preparation of papers on various topics connected -with method and criticism. Occasional opportunities are provided, to -put into practice ideal and experimental lines of work, by teaching -classes; and instruction is given in making apparatus, charts, etc., to -illustrate the subjects taught in the common schools. - -Teachers for this course are also selected by the Faculty, on the -ground of their superior moral, intellectual, physical and professional -qualifications, and of special fitness for the work; and on the -satisfactory completion of the same, receive certificates, signed by -all the members of the Faculty, indicating their fitness to act as -critics and teachers of methods in Normal and Training Schools. - -Experience in teaching in the various grades of the public schools is -considered important before entering upon this work. - -It is not in a strict sense a residential college, but students from -a distance are expected to live in a boarding-house attached to the -school. - -Great stress is laid upon the elaboration of methods of teaching -of various subjects, and from the Oswego School have come many -improvements in ways of teaching. Perhaps the chief contribution to -methodology is that known as the “laboratory” method of teaching -history, which is said to have revolutionized the teaching of history -in American Schools. It is an adaptation of the seminary method -introduced by the German historian Ranke. In order to make this method -possible in the schools, specially prepared text-books were needed, and -these Dr. Sheldon’s daughter undertook to write. Two text-books have -been published: _Studies in General History_, and _Studies in American -History_, both of which have been extensively adopted in American -Schools. In these books there is presented to the pupil a carefully -chosen body of original historical material--typical extracts from the -laws, constitution, creeds and other records of the past--pictures of -monuments, temples, statues and relics, together with questions upon -this material that test and train the pupil’s powers of judgment and -reason. In connection also with the teaching of history the plan -is advocated, and carried out in connection with the Model School, -of allowing the children to compile the history of their own town, -collecting the information for themselves, and recording it in a -manuscript book kept for the purpose, which they can also illustrate by -original drawings of their own. I saw a delightful history of Oswego -compiled in this way, and in several other towns I found that school -children were undertaking similar work. - -Most of the method-teaching is carried on by means of discussions on -topics given. I was able to attend one of these, and also to see some -of the teaching in the Practice School. - -Perhaps what impressed me most about the school was the large amount -of liberty allowed to the students, and the absence of rules. Dr. -Sheldon told me that the experience of his lifetime had only confirmed -him in the belief, that the fullest freedom is necessary for the -right development of character, and that year by year he had given -his students an ever-increasing amount of liberty. The idea of -self-government and responsibility is inculcated, and rare are the -cases in which this freedom is abused. - - -_MASSACHUSETTS._ - -To Massachusetts belongs the honour of having led the way in the -establishment of Normal Schools. The Massachusetts Board of Education, -established in 1838, at once took up the question of the training of -teachers for the public schools. A member of the Board, the Hon. -Edmund Dwight, of Boston, offered $10,000 on condition that the -Legislature would appropriate an equal amount towards providing for -such training. His offer was accepted, and three Normal Schools were -opened, each of which was to continue for three years as an experiment. -The experiments proved completely successful. There are now six State -Normal Schools, which are under the direct control of the Board of -Education, and supported entirely by the State. Tuition is free to -all who undertake to teach in the State Schools. The arrangements for -boarding vary with each school. - -The State appropriates $4,000 per annum to be divided among those -students of Normal Schools who stand in need of such aid. - -Text-books and reference books are free. - -[7] “The design of the State Normal Schools is strictly professional; -that is, to prepare in the best possible manner the pupils for the -work of organizing, governing and teaching the public schools of the -Commonwealth. - -“To this end there must be the most thorough knowledge; first, of the -branches of learning required to be taught in the schools; second, of -the best methods of teaching those branches; and third, of right mental -training. - -“The time of one course extends through a period of two years; of the -other, through a period of four years, and is divided into terms of -twenty weeks each, with daily sessions of not less than five hours, -five days each week.” - - -STUDIES. - - _Two Years’ Course_: - - Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, book-keeping. - - Physics, astronomy, chemistry, physiology, botany, zoology, - mineralogy, geology, geography. - - Language, reading, orthography, etymology, grammar, rhetoric, - literature, composition. - - Penmanship, drawing, vocal music, gymnastics. - - Psychology, science and art of education, school organization and - history of education. - - Civil polity of Massachusetts and of the United States, history, - school laws of Massachusetts. - -In accordance with a vote of the Board of Education, pupils are -encouraged to add a half-year to this course of study, provided six -months of their entire time be spent mainly in additional practice and -observation. - - _Four Years’ Course_: - - In addition to the studies named above, the four years’ course - includes advanced algebra and geometry, trigonometry and surveying. - - Advanced chemistry, physics and botany. - - Drawing, English literature, general history. - - Latin and French required; German and Greek as the principal, and - visitors shall decide. - -This course is intended to give pupils that broad culture indispensable -to the highest success in schools of any grade, but especially to fit -them for service as teachers in high schools. The studies are so -arranged that graduates from the shorter course may complete the four -years’ course in two additional years. - -The following statistics and extract are from the Public Document of -the Board of Education for 1893. - - -NORMAL SCHOOLS. - - +-------------------+----------------------------------+ - | | STATISTICS FOR THE YEAR 1891-92. | - | +----------------+-----------------+ - | | Number | Number | - | | of Students. | of Graduates. | - +-------------------+----------------+-----------------+ - | Bridgewater | 262 | 67 | - | Framingham | 159 | 50 | - | Salem | 260 | 77 | - | Westfield | 147 | 33 | - | Worcester | 181 | 36 | - | Normal Art School | 215 | 24 | - | +----------------+-----------------+ - | | 1,224 | 287 | - +-------------------+----------------+-----------------+ - -“There are now in the Commonwealth six State Normal Schools, -established for the purpose of training teachers to teach in the public -schools. The Normal Schools are now well provided with the means of -communicating professional instruction. - -“As a knowledge of the principles and method of teaching seems to be -one thing, and skill in the application of principles quite another, -it is necessary that ample opportunity be given in the training -schools connected with the Normal Schools for practice in teaching -by the normal students as they study the principles. Such practice, -if systematically and intelligently conducted during the course -of instruction, will prepare the normal graduate to enter upon the -practice of his profession with the advantages of experience. - -“If the standard for admission to the Normal Schools be raised, as the -Board of Education now contemplates, they will be relieved of a large -amount of academical work now required, and of many candidates whose -limited knowledge and capacity for acquiring it make them improper -subjects for professional training. - -“The time has come when a professional training should be considered a -requisite for teaching in the public schools of the Commonwealth.” - -Framingham, the first State Normal School in the United States, was -first located at Lexington, where it was opened July 3rd, 1839, with -three students. In 1852 the school was removed to Framingham. It admits -women students only, who reside in the boarding halls attached to the -school. - -“The design of the school is to give: - -1. “A review of the studies taught in the public schools. - -2. “A careful study of the history of education and the school law of -Massachusetts. - -3. “A study of Psychology, for the purpose of ascertaining true -principles and good methods. - -4. “A practical application of these principles and methods in teaching. - -5. “A high estimate of the importance and responsibility of the -teacher’s work, and an enthusiasm for it.” - - -WESTFIELD. - -Another school was opened at Barre, September 4th, 1839, but was moved -to Westfield in 1844. It is intended for both men and women students, -but out of 147 students in 1892 only 7 were men. - -There is a Normal Hall of Residence, erected and furnished by the -State, at which either men or women students can live. - -The subjects taken are the same as those in the other Normal Schools of -the State, for the two or four years’ course. All studies are pursued -on the topical plan, and with special reference to the best ways of -teaching them. Every student frequently takes charge of a class, and -teaches topics, so that throughout the course he is under actual -training as teacher. - -I had the opportunity of hearing a class in Didactics, conducted by -Principal Greenough on the topical method. I found that “topics” -simply meant the heads or divisions of subjects. The students had been -previously given topics to prepare, and they were called on two at a -time to go to the blackboard and write up and explain to the class -alternately the various points to be considered under each head. These -points were one by one discussed with the Principal and other students. -This topical method is adopted at many other schools and colleges. It -often happens that one or two students only are entrusted with topics -to prepare, which they are expected to be ready to explain to the rest -of the class, subject of course to the criticism of the teacher and -discussion by the class. - -The students obtain the necessary practice in teaching, partly in the -above way by teaching each other, and partly by giving lessons in the -Model School under the critic teachers. Each student is also required -to teach for four weeks continuously, and to spend a good deal of time -in observing children, and the work of the teachers in the Model School. - -The school is very well provided with apparatus. Almost every subject -taught has its special room with appropriate appliances for teaching. -I was especially struck by the apparatus for teaching geography. Large -wooden trays lined with zinc, and placed on supports so as to resemble -low tables, were used for modelling in wet sand. Special classes were -held to instruct the students in the art of sand-moulding. - - -WORCESTER. - -Bridgewater Normal School was opened in 1840. It receives both men and -women students, the number for this year being 272, of which 58 are -men, and 214 women. - -There are two Halls of Residence, at which students may reside. - -Four courses are possible: 1. Two years’ course. 2. Three years’ or -intermediate course. 3. Four years’ course, and 4. Post-graduate course -for college graduates. - -There appears to be especially good provision for the teaching of -science, the new buildings having ample laboratory accommodation. - -Worcester is the youngest of the Normal Schools, having been opened -in 1874. It is open to both men and women, but the latter largely -preponderate. - -In addition to the ordinary two and four year courses, college -graduates are allowed to take up a special elective course. - -This school has certain special features which distinguish it and -require note. - -The study of psychology is pursued in part by the original observation -of children. The students are asked to observe the conduct of children -in all circumstances, and to record what they see and hear as soon as -possible, in a simple and concise manner, without any comment by the -writer. They are advised to note the usual rather than the unusual -conduct of the children observed. For convenience of classification, -blanks of five colours are used: white for observations made by the -students themselves; red for those reported by others; yellow for -reminiscences of the student’s own childhood; green for records made -from books, and chocolate for a continued series of observations -made on the same child. The date, name of observer and post-office -address; the name, sex, nationality and age of child observed; and also -the length of time elapsing between the making and recording of the -observation, are all set forth on these papers. - -The making of these observations is quite voluntary, but the students -become so interested in the work that an ever-increasing number of -reports are sent in. Some 16,000 have already been collected. These -are placed at the disposal of the Clark University, which has from time -to time made use of the material thus brought together. These records -are valuable in themselves, but still more valuable is the training in -observation of children afforded to the students in making them. - -The students in this school have the opportunity before graduating -of serving an apprenticeship as teachers in the public schools of -Worcester. - -The “apprentice” acts as assistant to the teacher of the city school; -takes part in the instruction, management and general care of the -pupils under the direction of the teacher; and is sometimes entrusted -with the sole charge of the school during the teacher’s absence for an -hour, a half day or a day. One student only at a time is assigned to -any teacher, but each apprentice serves in at least three grades of -schools. - -The time taken for the apprenticeship comes just before the final -term in the Normal School, and amounts to half a school year. But -the apprentices spend one day of each week (Wednesday) at the Normal -School, where they are occupied in the following manner: - -They consult with the teacher, and with one another, and make use of -books. - -They make informal statements to the school of such facts of their -experience as it may profit the other pupils to know,--concerning ways -of teaching, cases of discipline and the like,--keeping in mind always -the private character of the daily life of the school-room, and under -special warning against revelations that might seem objectionable. - -Each apprentice keeps a diary of the occupation and experience of every -day, and this record is inspected by the Faculty of the Normal School. - -The Faculty of the Normal School have the right of visiting the -apprentices while at work, and of giving advice and suggestion. When -the six months are over, the teacher of the school makes a report on -the work of the student. The School Board approves the system, as those -students who have been apprentices are found afterwards to be the -most capable teachers in the Worcester public schools. Students are -not forced to undergo apprenticeship, but most choose to do so. After -it is over, they return to the Normal School for six months, before -graduating. - -Forty minutes each day are assigned to “Platform Exercises,” which -consist in reading, speaking, drawing on the blackboard, etc., before -the assembled school. They are found to be very useful in helping the -students to overcome nervousness. Each student can choose her own time -and subject, but at least nine must be ready to take part each day. No -exercise is to be prepared for more than four minutes, but as questions -may be asked by the teachers or other students, and criticism is -sometimes offered, they often take longer. - -A new and interesting feature of the school is the children’s class -which has just been started. Between twenty and thirty children between -three and five have been admitted. No charge is made for tuition, and -it is understood that the class can be taught in any way thought good -by the Principal. This class affords a good field for child-study and -experiment in methods of elementary teaching. It is in charge of an -experienced kindergartner. - -I was attentively listening to a lecture on Psychology, given by -Principal Russell, when suddenly, to my amazement, the whole class -rose and left the room while he was still speaking. To my surprise, -he did not seem at all disturbed, and he then proceeded to explain, -that finding that most students were deficient in “time sense,” such a -necessary possession for a teacher, he had adopted the plan of making -the students keep their own time at lectures. - -The Normal Art School, Boston, aims at training art teachers and -supervisors for the State. Two courses are offered--one of four years’ -training in the scientific and artistic branches and their practical -application to industry, and one of two years’ training for the work of -teaching or supervising Art in the public schools. - -The following is a comprehensive plan of the work of this second course: - - _First Year_: - - 1. Elements of psychology. - - 2. Outline course of drawing for Primary and Grammar Schools. - - 3. Practice teaching. - - _Second Year_: - - 1. History of education. - - 2. Principles and methods of teaching. - - 3. Outline course of drawing for High and Evening Schools. - - 4. Practice teaching. - - 5. Practical details of supervisor’s work. - - 6. Presentation of the subject of drawing by each pupil before a body - of assumed teachers. - - -_MICHIGAN._ - -The State of Michigan maintains only one Normal School, but, as we -shall see later, this State has other means of providing for the -training of its teachers. - -This school is located at Ypsilante, and is not residential. It is -open to men and women, and tuition is free to those who undertake to -teach in the State Schools. Graduates from recognised High Schools, -approved by the Board of Education upon recommendation of the Faculty, -are admitted without examination, and are credited with advanced work -already done. Other candidates must pass an entrance examination. - -The school offers three classes of courses: - -1. Those covering three years of instruction leading to a certificate, -which is a license to teach in the schools of Michigan for a period of -five years; of these there are two, one especially for kindergartners, -and the other to prepare teachers for the rural schools and for the -lower High School grades. - -2. Courses covering four years, leading to a diploma and a -life-certificate. Of these there are many to choose from, but all are -more or less distinctly literary, scientific or classical. - -3. Advanced courses, leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics -and a life-certificate. One for graduates of any of the four year -courses, and can be completed in two years. - -Any one holding an academic degree from the University of Michigan, -or from an incorporated college, may receive the degree of B.Pd. by -spending one half-year at the school, and attending professional -instruction for 250 hours, and teaching under supervision for 100 hours. - -Any person holding the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogics of the Michigan -State Normal School may, upon application, receive the degree of Master -of Pedagogics upon the following conditions: - -(_a_) He shall furnish evidence satisfactory to the Faculty that he has -been engaged in teaching or in school supervision continuously, and -with pronounced success, for five years since receiving the Bachelor’s -degree. - -(_b_) He shall prepare and present a thesis acceptable to the said -Faculty, upon some subject connected with the history, science, or art -of education, the Faculty reserving the right to assign the subject of -such thesis. - -The design of the School is professional--_i.e._, only those students -are admitted who intend to teach, but a large portion of the various -courses is devoted to academic work. The school is directly under the -control of the State Board of Education, which grants all certificates, -diplomas and degrees upon recommendation of the Faculty. - - -_ILLINOIS._ - -This State, which, like that of Michigan, is typical of the West, has -provided two Normal Schools, known under the somewhat imposing names -of the “Illinois State Normal University,” and the “Southern Illinois -State Normal University.” Neither of these, however, are purely -professional schools. The first of them has three departments--Normal, -Training and High School, while the second has also three--Normal, High -School and Preparatory. - -Tuition is free in the Normal Department of both schools, to those who -intend to teach in the State. - -The courses in the Normal Departments are usually for three years, but -may be extended to four, and at the completion of any course a diploma -is granted. - -The work is very largely academic, and in the first year hardly any -really professional work is done. - -One of the Counties of Illinois--Cook--possesses a Normal School -which, although not technically a State School, yet is so in reality, -or indeed something wider, for it attracts to itself students from -all parts of the States. This is known as the Cook County School, or -perhaps quite as often as Colonel Parker’s School. - -It is situated at Englewood, a suburb of Chicago, and has a student’s -hall attached to the school, where students may obtain board and -lodging. - -As a school it is probably unique, and as such exceedingly difficult -to estimate. When visiting it, the charm of the School falls upon one, -the enthusiasm of Colonel Parker and his band of teachers creates an -atmosphere of inspiration which disarms criticism, and few would come -away without feeling that the world was better than they thought, and -a little child the most beautiful thing to be found on the earth. I -think that it is in this genuine love and care for children that the -real strength of the School lies, and that if it can continue to send -out teachers who really love and understand children, it need fear no -outside criticism. A chance remark of Colonel Parker’s seemed to me -typical of the spirit of the School: “I do not want any of the children -to know that I am not one of them.” - -The following extracts from his report to the Cook County Board explain -the distinguishing features of the School: - -1. Any graduate (four years’ course) of an accredited High School, -or a graduate of a college or university, will be admitted to the -Professional Training Class, on presentation of diploma. - -2. A teacher of three years’ successful experience in a Graded School, -and holding a first-class certificate, will be admitted on presentation -of said certificate, and certificates of success as a teacher. - -Candidates with the above credentials will be admitted to the -Professional Training Class at any time. - -1. Students must be members of the Professional Training Class at least -one year of forty weeks before they are eligible for graduation. - -2. Whenever, after one year, the members of the Faculty are convinced -that a student has the necessary knowledge, skill and governing power -to teach and manage a school satisfactorily, the said candidate is -recommended for graduation to the Board of Education. - -The County Superintendent of Schools grants to each graduate a -certificate to teach in Cook County, outside of Chicago, first or -second grade, upon his own examination and the recommendation of the -Principal. - -First-grade certificates are given to those graduates who have -manifested during their course marked ability in study and teaching. - -Elective courses are allowed to those students only who have received -diplomas of graduation. - -Graduates of the Professional Training Class may elect for a one or two -years’ course any one of the following post-graduate courses: - - 1. Kindergarten Training Class, physical training, elocution. - - 2. History, geography and literature. - - 3. Science, art and manual training. - - 4. Mathematics and manual training. - - 5. Modelling, painting, drawing and manual training. - - 6. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression, - music, anatomy, physiology and hygiene. - - 7. Advanced course in psychology, pedagogics and methods. - -In all elective courses psychology, pedagogics and methods are included. - -The Practice School consists of eight grades (nine rooms) and the -kindergarten. There are two first primary rooms (A and B). - -Each room in the Practice School is under the immediate charge of a -critic teacher, who teaches the pupils in her room, and supervises the -practice teaching in her grade. - -The Practice School, with the exception of the kindergarten, is a -public school of the city of Chicago. - -The Practice School is an essential feature in the training of -teachers. The entire professional work of the school is concentrated -upon the teaching and training in this department. - -One hour each day is devoted to teaching in the Practice School by -members of the Professional Training Class. - -The Practice School is divided, for the purpose of practice teaching, -into forty or more groups, each group consisting of from six to ten -pupils. Two groups are united, forming one section; two sections are -united to form a division. - -Pupil teachers are very carefully selected for merit, as (1) heads of -groups; (2) leaders of sections; (3) teachers of divisions; (4) special -assistants. Pupil teachers not thus chosen are assistants to group -leaders. - -The purpose of these divisions into groups, etc., is to give each -pupil-teacher as much practice as possible. The teacher begins with -a small number of pupils, and advances, as teaching power increases, -to the leadership of a section, a division, and at last to a special -assistant’s position. The latter position requires the ability to -teach and govern an entire grade or room. - -The entire work of the Professional Training Class is, in reality, -preparation for practice teaching,--preparation in knowledge, theory -and methods. - -The course of work for the Training Class includes the following -subjects: - - 1. Psychology, pedagogics, the history of education and methods of - teaching. - - 2. Science in primary and grammar schools. - - 3. Geography with modelling, painting, drawing and chalk modelling as - means of geographical study. - - 4. History and literature. - - 5. Mathematics; number, arithmetic, form and geometry. - - 6. Art, including modelling, painting and drawing. - - 7. Physical training, elocution, the Delsarte system of expression - and vocal music. - - 8. Manual training, paste-board and wood sloyd and construction of - apparatus for science teaching. - -The special teacher at the head of each department presents the -conditions for the knowledge needed for teaching his or her subject, -and decides whether the pupil-teacher has the requisite knowledge and -skill to prepare a plan for teaching. - -The special teacher also teaches the principles and methods of his -subject, and supervises the practice-work in his department throughout -all the grades. - -The practice teaching is divided into ten periods for one year, one -period continuing for one month. - -Each pupil-teacher is required to prepare one plan for teaching, each -month, upon a subject selected by the critic teacher, under whose -direct supervision the pupil-teacher is to work. This plan must be -approved by the critic teacher, and also by the special teacher in -charge of the subject taught, before the one who prepares the plan is -permitted to teach. - -Each month, certain group, section and division leaders are transferred -from grade to grade in order that every pupil who has requisite ability -and skill may teach in the eight grades during the course. - -Whenever a pupil-teacher has reached the rank of special assistant, he -or she is sent out to the county schools to act as substitute[8] upon -the order of the County Superintendent. - -The course of study followed in the school is the application of a -doctrine or theory of education, called the Theory of Concentration. -Upon this theory it was my privilege to hear Colonel Parker lecture -from time to time, and the following is a short synopsis of his -lectures as drawn up by himself. - -“In this theory, the subjects of thought and study are the natural -sciences, geography and history. The unity of these subjects is found -in the study of life--the laws of life--and the laws which support life. - -“The laws of life enter into the child through education, and become -the essentials in his intellectual and moral character. - -“Form, geometry, number and arithmetic are the indispensable means -for the study and investigation of the laws of the universe acting -through matter; therefore form and number must be studied in order to -understand any and all subjects of thought. - -“Attention is the one mode of study. Attention may be divided into -three modes of thinking: (1) observation, (2) hearing language, (3) -reading or book study. The subjects or objects of attention are the -natural sciences, geography and history--therefore observation, -hearing language, and reading are the means of knowing and thinking. -The subjects of knowing and thinking should be immediately educative. -Therefore, all acts of attention, observation, hearing language and -reading should be concentrated upon these subjects, and objects -of intrinsic thought. For example: all reading should be the most -educative thinking, and therefore should consist of the purest and most -thoughtful literature. Every word and sentence learned by the pupil -should be learned under the immediate impulse of intrinsic thought. - -“Under the theory of concentration, the modes of expression--gesture, -music, modelling, painting, drawing, speech and writing, are used as -the direct and immediate means of intensifying intrinsic thought, and -under these impulses and stimuli the technical forms of expression in -each mode are adequately acquired. - -“The central and sole design of concentration is the harmonious -development of individual character--knowledge, skill, are means, -not ends--the eternal is the end. It goes without saying that the -application of this doctrine of concentration requires the highest -grade of knowledge, skill, art and devotion to human development. - -“Considering this course of study from the standpoint of ‘knowledge -for the sake of knowledge,’ taking the subjects presented in the light -of ‘going over,’ ‘going through,’ ‘being marked upon,’ ‘final tests by -written examinations,’ there must be a hopeless confusion; the burden -would be greater than any corps of teachers could possibly bear. - -“A course of study is a means to an end, and that end the full -development of all the possibilities for good and growth in a human -being. It should consist of all the subjects of thought, the germs of -which a child spontaneously assimilates and enjoys before he enters -school. A course of study should be very carefully arranged and adapted -to the successive stages or steps of development. - -“Its application, however, depends wholly upon the knowledge and skill -of the teacher, the teacher who watches closely and sympathetically -every movement of her pupil’s mind; the teacher who looks upon a course -of study as a rich storehouse of mental food, to be presented as the -mind needs it, or rejected when the conditions are not favourable to -growth. - -“Following or ‘going over’ a course of study belongs to the trade of -school keeping, and not to the art of teaching. - -“This course of study cannot be understood by studying the work of -one grade alone--it must be studied as a whole and applied with the -comprehensive knowledge of the whole. - -“The final decision as to what should be applied to each individual -pupil must be left to the teacher of that pupil. - -“No authority outside of the teacher of a pupil can possibly determine -what that pupil needs at any given moment. - -“Grading and promotion, properly understood, are economical means of -knowing and helping each individual pupil. - -“The course of study in its best form and last analysis is the best -means of helping each child, and of helping each child to be of -immediate and essential aid to all his mates.” - - -_CITY NORMAL SCHOOLS._ - -Very similar to the State Normal Schools in organization and curriculum -are those maintained by certain cities. Of these the Philadelphia, New -York and Boston schools may be taken as representatives. Such schools -belong to the City School systems, and are under the supervision of the -City Superintendent. Graduates from these schools are supposed to teach -in the public schools of the city. - -At Philadelphia the Normal School is in a transition state. Hitherto -the Girls’ Normal School has at the same time been the Girls’ High -School, and it was only possible to make a distinction in length -of course between those who were going to teach and those who were -not--the fourth year being especially devoted to professional work. -The tendency in such a school would be, of course, to emphasize the -academic work at the expense of the professional. According to the -new scheme, the High School and Normal School will be separated, and -the latter be purely professional. Admission to the Normal School will -only be granted after a three years’ course at the High School, and the -former will have a course of its own for two years. The present course -of study and the future scheme are subjoined. - - * * * * * - -Subjects to be studied in the two years’ course at the new Girls’ -Normal School, Philadelphia: - - 1. Educational Psychology. - 2. Methods of Teaching. - 3. School Economy. - 4. The History of Education. - 5. The Philosophy of Education. - 6. Methods in Mathematics. - 7. Methods in Language and Literature. - 8. Methods in History, Sociology, and Civics. - 9. Methods in Natural History. - 10. Methods in Physics and Chemistry. - 11. Methods in Elocution. - 12. Methods in Vocal Music. - 13. Methods in Modelling and Drawing. - 14. Methods in Kindergarten. - 15. Methods in Gymnastics and Physical Training. - 16. Methods in Sewing and Fitting. - 17. Methods in Wood-work, etc. - 18. Observation in Model School. - 19. Practice in Model School. - 20. Discussion of Observation and Practice. - 21. Educational Reading and Original Investigation. - -Mention must also be made of the provision made for the training of -men teachers in the new School of Pedagogy which has been opened in -connection with the Central High School for boys. The students must be -graduates of the latter, or of similar institutions. The course is for -one year, and includes professional subjects only. - -The New York Normal College is conducted in the same way as the present -one at Philadelphia, it being at once a High and Normal School. - - -PRESENT COURSE OF STUDY IN PHILADELPHIA GIRLS’ NORMAL AND HIGH SCHOOL. - - +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - | COURSE OF STUDY IN THE GIRLS’ NORMAL SCHOOL. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | A | B | C | D | - | 4th Year. | 3rd Year. | 2nd Year. | 1st Year. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |History of | Literature. | Rhetoric. | Grammar. | - | Education. | Theme Writing.| Theme Writing. | Composition. | - | | Reading of | History of the | History of the | - | | English | English Language; | English | - | | Classics. | including the | Language; | - | | | study of the | including the | - | | | derivations, | study of the | - | | | formations, etc., | derivations, | - | | | of words. | formations, | - | | | English | etc., of words. | - | | | Literature. | Reading of | - | | | Reading of English | English | - | | | Classics. | Classics. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |Mental and | Elocution. | Elocution. | | - | Moral | | | | - | Science in | | | | - | their | | | | - | relations to | | | | - | Education. | | | | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | MATHEMATICS. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |Methods | Higher | General Review of | Algebra. | - | of Teaching. | Arithmetic; | Arithmetic. | Arithmetic. | - | | including | Geometry. | | - | | Mensuration, | Algebra. | | - | | Principles of| | | - | | Accounts and | | | - | | Book-keeping.| | | - | | Geometry. | | | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | SCIENCE. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |Philosophy | Chemistry. | Zoology. | Physical | - | and method | Natural | Geology. | Geography. | - | of the | Philosophy. | Natural Philosophy.| Botany. | - | Kindergarten.| Astronomy. | | | - | | Human | | | - | | Physiology | | | - | | and Hygiene. | | | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | HISTORY. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |Drawing; with | | General History. | History and Civil| - | instruction | | | Government of | - | in methods of| | | the United | - | teaching this| | | States. | - | study. | | | General History. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | DRAWING. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |School | Drawing. | Drawing. | Drawing. | - | organisation | | | | - | and | | | | - | management. | | | | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | SEWING. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - |Modelling in | Sewing. | Sewing. | Sewing. | - | Clay. | | Cooking. | | - |Instruction | | | | - | in the Gifts | | | | - | and | | | | - | Occupations | | | | - | of the | | | | - | Kindergarten.| | | | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | | MUSIC. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | Music. | Music. | Music. | Music. | - +--------------+---------------+--------------------+------------------+ - | 1. Physical exercises throughout the first, second, and third years. | - | 2. Laboratory work in chemistry when possible. | - | 3. Laboratory work as far as possible in physics. | - | 4. Drawing to include the treatment of Geometric Drawing, | - | Construction, Decoration, Representation, and Object Drawing. | - +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ - - -_BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL._ - -The Boston Normal School is of the professional type, with an ordinary -course of a year and a half, although many students stay for a -post-graduate course. - -The course of study in this school is pursued with special reference to -teaching, and is as follows: - - 1. Psychology and Logic. - - 2. Principles of Education. - - 3. Methods of Instruction and Discipline. - - 4. Physiology and Hygiene. - - 5. The Studies of the Primary and Grammar Schools. - - 6. Observation and Practice in the Training School. - - 7. Observation and Practice in the other Public Schools. - - 8. Science of Language. - - 9. Phonetics. - - 10. Gymnastics. - - 11. Vocal Music. - - 12. Drawing and Blackboard Illustration. - - 13. Special study of the Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten, - for those members of the post-graduate class who desire to qualify - themselves for teaching in that department. - -The students practise and observe in the Rice Training Schools, and in -the post-graduate class substitute service begins--_i.e._, any city -school having a teacher absent may apply for a student to take her -place. - - -BOSTON NORMAL SCHOOL.--COURSE OF STUDY. - - - FIRST TERM. - - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | | Hours per | No. of | - | SUBJECTS. | week. | weeks. | - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | Psychology | 5 | 20 | - | Physiology and Hygiene | 4 | 16 | - | Arithmetic | 4 | 4 | - | Language-- | | | - | Oral Expression and Composition | 3 | 9 | - | Penmanship | 3 | 3 | - | Grammar | 3 | 8 | - | Geography | 4 | 20 | - | Drawing | 2 | 20 | - | Vocal Music | 1 | 20 | - | Gymnastics-- | | | - | Theory | 1 | 20 | - | Practice 12 minutes daily. | - +--------------------------------------------------------+ - - - SECOND TERM. - - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | | Hours per | No. of | - | SUBJECTS. | week. | weeks. | - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | Principles of Education | 5 | 16 | - | Language-- | | | - | Reading, including Phonics | 4 | 8 | - | Spelling | 4 | 2 | - | Literature | 4 | 4 | - | Grammar | 4 | 2 | - | Arithmetic | 4 | 16 | - | Elementary Science-- | | | - | Minerals | 3 | 5 | - | Plants | 3 | 11 | - | Drawing | 2 | 12 | - | Form | 2 | 4 | - | Vocal Music | 1 | 16 | - | Gymnastics-- | | | - | Theory | 1 | 16 | - | Practice | 12 minutes daily. | - | Observation and Practice in the | - | Public Schools all day, 4 weeks. | - +--------------------------------------------------------+ - - - THIRD TERM. - - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | | Hours | No. of | - | SUBJECTS. | per week. | weeks. | - +-----------------------------------+-----------+--------+ - | Principles of Education | 5 | 7 | - | Logic | 5 | 3 | - | Language-- | | | - | Oral Expression and Composition | 4 | 3 | - | Science of Language | 4 | 4 | - | History | 4 | 3 | - | Arithmetic | 3 | 10 | - | Elementary Science-- | | | - | Plants | 4 | 2 | - | Animals | 4 | 6 | - | Colour | 4 | 2 | - | Drawing | 1 | 10 | - | Kindergarten | 2 | 10 | - | Gymnastics-- | | | - | Theory | 1 | 10 | - | Practice 12 minutes daily. | - | Observation and Practice in | - | Public Schools all day, 10 weeks. | - +--------------------------------------------------------+ - - -POST-GRADUATE COURSE. - - The work of the post-graduate class includes: - - 1. A further study of the principles of education, with special - reference to their application in teaching the different subjects of - the regular course, and in school discipline; - - 2. The history of education. - - -_CITY TRAINING SCHOOLS._ - -In several cities an ordinary school is set apart for the special -training of teachers, and is presided over by a head-mistress capable -of giving instruction in the theory of education. In such a school -the ordinary teaching of the children is largely carried on by the -students, who at certain hours receive instruction in Methods, etc. -These students often receive a small sum in return for their services. - -I was able to visit several of these Training Schools, including those -at New Haven (Connecticut), Fall River (Rhode Island), Pawtucket (Rhode -Island), Springfield (Massachusetts), and Albany (New York). - -At New Haven a most interesting Training School is carried on in -connection with the Welch School. There are about thirty students in -training for one year. The various classes of the school are in charge -of regular teachers, who teach almost entirely during the first half of -the year, for the students devote five or six months to the study of -theory alone, only giving a few criticism lessons during that time. For -the second half of the year the students teach more in the schools, and -are supervised both by the critic teacher and the regular teacher of -the class. Notes of lessons are prepared in various ways--sometimes the -students are required simply to put the matter of their lessons into a -series of logical statements, sometimes the matter and illustrations -alone are given, and sometimes the lesson is written out as it is to -be given in the order of statements and questions. - -On the completion of the year’s training the students are usually -appointed as substitute teachers to the districts, at a small fixed -salary, and obtain permanent posts as vacancies occur. - -At the Springfield Training School from ten to sixteen students take -the course, which is usually for one year, but can be taken in two. -Tuition is free to those living in the city, a charge of about £10 -being made to those from a distance. - -Students enter in the autumn, and devote the first term to theoretical -work, only giving a few criticism lessons, and spending some time in -observing the work of the school, and carefully recording observations. - -The work in psychology is partly based on the observation of individual -children, and partly carried on by discussion classes. The students -also attend lectures given by Superintendent Balliet to all the -teachers of the city. At the end of the year they take the city -examination in order to graduate. In January they begin to teach for -an hour a day in the school, and in the summer term this is increased -to three hours a day. At the end of the course they give lessons in -public, but they are not counted as necessary for graduation. - -Some of the leading features of the Training School are the -following:-- - -1. It is incorporated with a city or town Graded School covering -from four to eight years’ work. This school is used as a place for -observation and practice. - -2. The Practice School, or school of observation, employs one or more -regular teachers, who conduct the training class. In most Training -Schools, “trainers” are relied upon for much of the teaching. - -3. The course in the Training School includes a study of the principles -of teaching and the history of education, with practice in the art. - -4. The length of the term of study and practice is fixed, extending -from one to two years in the greater number of schools. - -5. A new class is admitted at a fixed time; the admissions are annual -or semi-annual. - -6. The maximum number of trainers is prescribed. - -7. Admissions are made by a course of studies previously pursued, or by -examination. Most require the equivalent of a four years’ course in a -High School. - -8. All provide for dropping unpromising students from the roll. - -9. Most allow some compensation to trainers after the first term. - -A list of Training Schools in Massachusetts is appended. It is taken -from a useful little pamphlet drawn up for the information of visitors -to the World’s Fair Educational Exhibit. - - -TABLE OF TRAINING SCHOOLS REPORTED, 1891-92. - - +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+ - | |Graduates.| Period |Grades.| Regular | - | | Annual | of | |Teachers.| - | | Average. |Training.| | | - +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+ - |Adams | 5 | 1 | | | - |Cambridge | 15 | 1 | | | - |Fall River | 12 | 1½ | | | - |Haverhill | 14 | 1½ | | | - |Holyoke | 12 | 1½ | | | - |Lawrence | 12 | 1½ | I.-VI.| 2 | - |Lowell | 32 | 1½ | I.-IX.| 6 | - |Lynn | 12 | | | | - |New Bedford | 14 | 1½ | | 2 | - |Newburyport | 4 | 1½ | | 1 | - |North Adams | 6 | | | | - |Pittsfield | 8 | | | 2 | - |Springfield | 8 | 1 |I.-VII.| 7 | - |Taunton | | 1 | | | - +------------+----------+---------+-------+---------+ - - -_TRAINING CLASSES._ - -In many cities training classes are held for one year. The students -are distributed amongst the best schools of the city or town, and -the instruction and criticism is given by the Superintendent and the -highest teachers. - - -TABLE OF TRAINING CLASSES, MASSACHUSETTS. - - +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+ - | |Graduates.| | | - | | Average | Time of | Remarks | - | | Number |Training.| from Superintendents. | - | | per | | | - | | Annum. | | | - +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+ - |Chelsea | 17 | 1 year. | Practice limited to | - | | | |four city schools, normal| - | | | |graduates preferred. | - |Clinton | 5 | ” | Not equal to normal | - | | | |graduates. | - |Concord | 6 | ” | All urged to attend | - | | | |normal schools. | - |Dedham | 6 | ” | | - |Hingham | 8 | ” | Not given school in | - | | | |town until experience is | - | | | |gained elsewhere. | - |Leominster | 6 | ” | | - |Malden | | ” | No teacher employed | - | | | |not a normal graduate | - | | | |or person of experience. | - |Quincy | 30 | ” | | - |Watertown | 4 | ” | Graduates expected to | - | | | |teach out of town before | - | | | |being employed at | - | | | |home. | - |Weymouth | 14 | ” | | - |Woburn | 5 | ” | | - +-----------+----------+---------+-------------------------+ - - -_PEDAGOGICAL DEPARTMENTS IN UNIVERSITIES._ - -It has been seen that a certain number of college graduates enter -the Normal Schools for a course of training, but most of the leading -Universities of America are now providing courses in the Science and -Art of Education for those who desire to prepare for the teaching -profession. I was able to visit a good many of these pedagogical -departments, and was much interested in the work I saw. This work, -however, differs so widely in the various institutions in which it -is carried on that it is hardly possible to make any very general -statements concerning it. In some universities the only provision made -for the special preparation of teachers is in connection with special -classes held by the professor or lecturer on any subject, for those who -wish to discuss with him the teaching of it. However insufficient for -training purposes this plan may be, it yet has, I believe, very special -advantages to recommend it, not the least being the influence that may -be thus exerted by the University through those who are about to become -teachers on the Schools. In addition to these discussions, some provide -for a few lectures on Pedagogy, and in others, again, Pedagogy may be -taken as an elective subject, and count towards an ordinary degree. -The Universities of Harvard, Cornell, Michigan, Illinois, Syracuse and -others have adopted one or other of these plans. - -The University of New York grants degrees in pedagogy, while at the -Clark University, to which only graduates are admitted, education -may be taken as part of the Ph.D. work. It should be noted, however, -that the courses of training provided at these Universities is almost -entirely theoretical, little or no attempt being made to arrange for -practical work. In so far as this is not arranged for, the training -seems to fall short of the ideal, it being surely nearly as bad to -attempt to train teachers without providing for practical work as to -teach chemistry without giving any time to the laboratory, or to train -a doctor without arranging for hospital work. Probably the fact that -a course on pedagogics is usually taken at the same time as other -subjects, and also that those who take such courses very often do not -intend to teach in the schools, but rather to take posts as lecturers, -superintendents, etc., has caused this side of training to be -neglected, and a still stronger reason is to be found in the location -of so many of the Universities at a distance from the schools. In many -places, however, I found that the question was being faced, and schemes -considered for the introducing of practical work. - -Harvard has begun to realize its responsibility with respect to the -training of teachers, and a subdivision of the department of Philosophy -is devoted to Education, the following courses being arranged for: - - 1. Course of twelve lectures on Topics in Psychology of interest to - teachers. - - 2. Course for Graduates and Undergraduates: - - The History of Educational Theories and Practices. - - 3. Course primarily for graduates: - - (_a_) Organization of Public Schools and Academies. - - (_b_) The Theory of Teaching. - -These courses are, however, but short, and intended to be taken at the -same time as other subjects. There is as yet no attempt to arrange -for a complete course of training, but every prospect that from the -beginning already made there may develop a graduate school for the -training of teachers. - -Harvard has already realized its responsibility in respect to the -inspection and supervision of schools, for which I was given to -understand very special arrangements are being made, and it will be -but a step further for it to provide such training for the teachers it -sends out to these schools as shall fit them duly for their work. - -There are certain elective courses allowed in the philosophy course, -at the University of Cornell, which really constitute a pedagogical -department. They include the following: - -1. Institutes of Education (Lectures). - -2. School Systems and Organizations (Lectures). - -3. Pedagogic Conference, Discussions and Essays on Educational topics, -and reports on visits to schools. - -4. History of Education (Lectures). - -5. Pedagogical Seminary. - -It is understood that none must take these courses unless they also -know something of physiology, psychology and logic. These courses may -either be attended so as to count towards a degree or may be taken as -graduate work. - -The only arrangement for practical work is in connection with the -visits to schools for purposes of observation. The location of the -University on the top of a hill overlooking Ithaca, although most -advantageous in many other respects, would make the arranging for -work in the schools or the establishment of a University School of -Observation a matter of serious difficulty. - -Seminaries are held in most subjects, at which the teaching methods are -discussed, and thus opportunity is afforded to those students who are -specializing in any subject with the intention of afterwards teaching -it, to study it from the point of view of the teacher as well as of the -learner. - -To Michigan belongs the honour of having been the first University to -undertake to provide professional training for teachers. Professor -W. H. Payne was made the first professor of the Science and Art of -Teaching in 1879, and on his leaving the University Professor Hinsdale -carried on the work.[9] The following extract from the Calendar of the -Michigan University explains the views held by its faculty as to the -importance of the training of teachers: - -“The aims of the University in providing instruction in the Science and -the Art of Teaching are: - -“1. To fit University students for the higher positions in the public -school service. - -“It is a natural function of the University, as the head of our system -of public instruction, to supply the demand made upon it for furnishing -the larger public schools with superintendents, principals, and -assistants. Year by year these important positions are falling more -and more into the hands of men that have received their education in -the University. Till recently the training given to our graduates has -been almost purely literary; it has lacked the professional character -that alone gives special fitness for the successful management of -schools and school systems. Now, however, the University offers -students that wish to become teachers ample facilities for professional -study. - -“2. To promote the study of educational science. - -“The establishment of a chair of teaching is a recognition of the truth -that the art of education has its correlative science; and that the -processes of the school-room can become rational only by developing -and teaching the principles that underlie these processes. Systems of -public instruction are everywhere on trial, and the final criteria by -which they are to stand or fall must be found in a philosophical study -of the educating art. - -“3. To teach the history of education, and of educational systems and -doctrines. - -“The supreme right of the school is to grow; and much hurtful -interference might be avoided by ascertaining the direction of -educational progress and the history of educational thought. - -“4. To secure to teaching the rights, prerogatives, and advantages of a -profession. - -“5. To give a more perfect unity to our State educational system -by bringing the secondary schools into closer relations with the -University.” - -The Teacher’s diploma is given to a student at the time of receiving a -Bachelor’s degree, provided he has completed three Courses of study -offered by the professor of the Science and Art of Teaching, viz., -Courses 1 and 2, and one of Courses 3, 5, 4, 6, or 7, and, also, at -least one of the Teachers’ Courses offered by other professors, and by -special examination has shown such marked proficiency in the Course -chosen as qualifies him to give instruction in the same. The diploma is -also given to a graduate student at the time of receiving a Master’s -or a Doctor’s degree, provided he has pursued teaching as a major or -a minor study, and has also taken a Teacher’s Course in some other -department. - -By authority of an Act of the State legislature, passed in 1891, the -Faculty of this Department give a Teacher’s Certificate to any person -who takes a Bachelor’s, Master’s, or Doctor’s degree, and also receives -a Teacher’s diploma as provided above. By the terms of the Act, the -certificate given by the Faculty “shall serve as a legal certificate -of qualification to teach in any of the schools of this State, when a -copy thereof shall have been filed or recorded in the office of the -legal examining officer or officers of the county township, city, or -district.” - -To meet these special requirements the following courses have been -arranged:-- - - _First Course_: - - 1. Practical: the arts of teaching and governing; methods of - instruction and general school-room practice; school hygiene: school - law. Recitations and lectures. - - 3. History of education: ancient and mediæval. Recitations and - lectures. Text-book: Compayré’s History of Pedagogy. - - 5. School supervision; embracing general school management, the art - of grading and arranging courses of study, the conduct of institutes, - etc. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; Payne’s chapters on School - Supervision. - - _Second Course_: - - 2. Theoretical and critical; the principles underlying the arts of - teaching and governing. Lectures. - - 4. History of education; modern. Recitations and lectures. Text-book; - Compayré’s History of Pedagogy. - - 6. The comparative study of educational systems, domestic and - foreign. Lectures. - - 7. Seminary. Study and discussion of special topics in the History - and Philosophy of Education. - - Special Teachers’ Courses are also arranged for in most subjects, and - attendance at one at least of these is necessary in order to obtain - the Teacher’s diploma. - -The University of Illinois has a course in Pedagogy which may count -towards a degree. It may count towards most of the degrees granted, but -for the degree in philosophy and pedagogy, and which implies a four -years’ course, the arrangement is as follows:-- - -The first and second years of this course may be those of any course in -the College of Literature. - - THIRD YEAR. - - 1. Psychology; Chemistry or History; Latin, German or French. - - 2. Logic; Zoology, or History, Latin, German, or French. - - 3. Philosophy of Education; Geology, or History; Latin, German or - French. - - FOURTH YEAR. - - 1. History of Education; Educational Psychology; History of - Civilization; English (half course); Elocution. - - 2. School hygiene; Constitutional History (England); English, (half - course); Elocution. - - 3. School Supervision; Pedagogical Seminary; Political Economy, or - Constitutional History (U.S.); English, (half course); Elocution. - -The University of Indiana possesses a department of pedagogics the -courses of which count towards a degree. There are three courses. - -I. - - (_a_) Educational Psychology (a knowledge of Psychology being - presupposed). - (_b_) The School as an Institution. - (_c_) The General History of Education. - -II. - - (_a_) The Science of Education. - (_b_) Didactics. - (_c_) City School Systems. - (_d_) School Supervision. - -III. - - (_a_) Contemporary Education. - (_b_) School System of Indiana. - (_c_) Philosophy of Education. - -Special Teachers’ Courses in certain subjects are also given. - -The School of Pedagogy in connection with the University of the City of -New York, is based upon the idea that a degree should follow successful -teaching. It has three professors and a lecturer. Only those are -admitted as regular students who are graduates of Colleges, or of the -New York State Normal Schools, but others may, at the discretion of the -Faculty, be admitted as auditors. It was established in 1890 and has -had 134 students. - -The courses of study are as follows:-- - - 1. History of Education. - 2. Psychology and Ethics. - 3. Institutes of Education. - 4. Educational Classics and Æsthetics. - 5. Systems of Education. - -For the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy a thesis to be known as the -“Thesis for the Doctorate in Pedagogy” has to be submitted for approval -to the Faculty. This thesis must discuss a subject belonging to the -field of one of the courses of study, and must show original treatment, -or give evidence of independent research. - -Each student who has been a member of the Senior Class for two or more -years will be entitled to the degree of Doctor of Pedagogy upon the -following conditions:-- - - 1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required - lectures. - - 2. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required - seminaria. - - 3. He must have passed an examination upon each of the five courses. - - 4. He must have presented the prescribed final thesis, and have - received approval of the same. - - 5. He must have presented upon entering the School of Pedagogy a - certain certificate showing four years’ successful experience in - school-room work. - -Each student of the School who has been a member of the Junior Class -for one or more years, and a resident student at least one year, will -be entitled to the degree of Master of Pedagogy upon the following -conditions:-- - - 1. He must have been credited with attendance upon the required - lectures. - - 2. He must have passed the examination upon each of the four courses - first named. - - 3. He must present a certificate showing three years’ successful - experience in school-room work. - -The Iowa University was the first to allow pedagogics to count towards -a degree. Graduates of the University who have included in their course -the year’s course of pedagogy may, after two years of successful -teaching, be granted the degree of Bachelor of Didactics. - -There is at New York an Institution which appeared to me to be unique -in America, but of which the work more nearly resembled the best -Secondary Training as carried on in Great Britain than any other -which I had the opportunity of studying. It is known as the New York -College for the Training of Teachers. It received its charter from -the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York in -1889, constituting it a Training College with the power of granting -professional degrees. This year, however, it enters on a new phase of -its life, having been affiliated with the Columbia College at New York. - -Columbia College had already made provision for lectures on the Science -and Art of Education, but its connection with the Teachers’ College, -will enable it to offer in addition the advantages of training in the -practical art of teaching to its students. On the other hand, it is -felt to be an advantage to the Teachers’ College to be allied with a -College of University rank--Columbia College--which will thus show by -example that it is possible to combine both theoretical and practical -training in a University Course. - -The full course of study leading to the degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy -occupies two years. All candidates for admission must pass an entrance -examination unless they are graduates from Colleges or other specified -Institutions. - -The ordinary course of study includes the following subjects:-- - - 1. Psychology (pure and applied). - - 2. History and Principles of Education. - - 3. Methods of Teaching. - - 4. Observation and Practice in the School of Observation and Practice. - - 5. School Organization and Administration in the United States, - England, France and Germany. - - 6. Theory and Practice of the Kindergarten. - - 7. Teaching of Natural Science and construction of simple - illustrative Apparatus. - - 8. Manual Training (this includes Form Study, Drawing, Domestic - Economy, Mechanical Drawing and Wood Working). - -All are recommended to take the general Course by special opportunities -offered to those who wish to become specialists. - -Any teacher of high scholarship and experience may come to the College -for one year and take up an advanced elective course. - -I. The degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy and the College diploma, -respectively, are conferred, upon recommendation of the Faculty, upon -such students, being duly qualified candidates for the same, as have -completed a course of study covering two years, as follows:-- - -_Required work in the following Departments_: - - Department of History and Institutes of Education. - Department of Science and Art of Teaching. - Department of Kindergarten, Course I. - Department of Form Study and Drawing, Course I. - Department of Physical Training. - -_Elective_: - - A major course or minor courses. - -II. The College Certificate is conferred, upon recommendation of the -President, the Dean, and the Professor in charge of any department, -upon such qualified candidates as have completed a course of study -covering one year, as follows:-- - - _Required_: - - Department of History and Institutes of Education. - Department of Science and Art of Teaching. - Department of Physical Culture. - - _Elective_: - - In any department, a major course, together with such other minor - courses as will suffice to make up the required amount of work. - -III. The Departmental Certificate, Major or Minor, is conferred, upon -recommendation of the professors in charge of the departments in which -studies leading to this certificate are pursued, upon such qualified -candidates as have completed a course of study as follows:-- - -Department of History and Institutes of Education, Course I. - -In any department or departments, either Major or Minor courses. - -There is also a two years’ course for the training of Kindergartners, -on the completion of which a certificate is granted, and a -post-graduate course for those who desire it. - -One hundred and twenty-six students were in training when I visited it, -and of these only three or four were men. - -The whole course of training centres round the School of Observation -and Practice. The lecturers on method also teach in the school, and are -responsible there for the teaching of their own special subjects. They -give lessons on these, which are listened to by the students, and they -also criticise lessons given by the latter. A good deal of the time -devoted to the study of methods is employed in the learning how to make -simple apparatus and illustrations. - -Classes are held on Saturdays for those who are engaged in teaching -during the rest of the week. - -The college has also undertaken the publication of a series of -pamphlets on educational subjects. - -The whole work of this college impressed me as being of a very high -character, and there was such an atmosphere of life and enthusiasm that -it would seem that teachers must go forth from thence inspired with a -love for their work and a determination to advance it by every means in -their power. It is just this rousing to enthusiasm which seems to lie -at the root of training, and the surest means of bringing this about -is for those who undertake it to be enthusiastic themselves. I had the -opportunity of talking to most of the lecturers, and shall not readily -forget the keen interest and pleasure they all seemed to take in their -special departments, the readiness, nay eagerness, with which they -appeared to welcome new ideas and work them out, and the willingness -with which they shared with others the results of their own experience -and research. - -One of the most interesting of the many institutions which I visited -was the Clark University at Worcester. It is entirely devoted to -Graduate work, and consists of a group of five departments: 1. -Mathematics; 2. Physics; 3. Chemistry; 4. Biology; 5. Psychology (with -sub-department of Education). - -Two or three years’ work at the University and an original thesis are -the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. - -There is no very clearly marked line between professors and students. -Students are often specialists, and as such asked to give short courses -in their special subjects, and professors and lecturers attend each -other’s courses. - -Docents, or those who, having fulfilled certain conditions, desire to -undertake research work, are provided with rooms and apparatus for -their work. - -The President, Dr. Stanley Hall, is especially interested in the -department of Education. The following outline of the course is from -the University Calendar:-- - - “EDUCATION.--This has been made a sub-department of the department - of Psychology, and now offers a course which can be taken as a Minor - for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Its work is in the closest - connection with the work in psychology and anthropology, and in part - based on these. The work in this department is intended to meet the - needs of the following classes of men: - - “_First._--Those intending to teach some other speciality, but - who wish a general survey of the history, present state, methods, - and recent advances in the field of university, professional, and - technical education. - - “_Second._--Those who desire to become professors of pedagogy, or - heads or instructors in normal schools, superintendents, or otherwise - to become experts in the work of education.” - -The programme of the Educational Department includes courses upon the -following subjects: - - I. (_a_) Child-Study. (_b_) Educational Psychology. (_c_) School - Hygiene. - - II. (_a_) Principles of Education. (_b_) History of Education and - Reforms. (_c_) Methods, Devices, Apparatus, etc. - - III. (_a_) Organization of Schools in different countries. (_b_) - Typical Schools and Special Foundations. (_c_) Motor Education, - including manual training, physical education, etc. (_d_) Moral - Education. (_e_) Ideals. - - IV. Higher Education, including university work, technical education; - training in law, medicine, and theology; recent progress, present - state and prospects of the most advanced education in different - countries, including our own. - -The courses in education for 1893-94 are as follows:-- - -_Dr. G. Stanley Hall’s Courses_: - - (_A_) Present status and problems of Higher Education in this country - and Europe. One hour weekly, half a year. - - (_B_) Outline of Systematic Pedagogy. One hour weekly, half a year. - -_Dr. Burnham’s Courses_: - - (_C_) Organization of schools in Europe, especially the schools of - France, Germany, Sweden, and England. Typical schools described, and - educational principles illustrated by them, expounded and discussed. - References made to important literature, and the work may serve as an - outline for further study. One hour a week, half a year. - - (_D_) School Hygiene, following and supplementing his “Outlines of - School Hygiene,” and considering special topics. One hour a week, - half a year. - - (_E_) Educational reforms, involving the discussion of a few - fundamental educational principles and the presentation of chapters - in the history of education. One hour a week, half a year. - - (_F_) Motor Education of children. This course will endeavour to - elucidate the principles that should govern this side of education, - and will involve the study of writing, drawing, manual training, and - of play and gymnastics as means of motor education. The course may - include also the study of motor training and muscular development - in relation to intellectual ability and moral character. One hour a - week, half a year. - - (_G_) The work of the Seminary, once a week throughout the year, will - be, for the most part, adapted to individual students. It is hoped - that each student will select, after conference with President Hall - and Dr. Burnham, a topic for special investigation. The results of - such study may be published. - -The courses as announced above may be modified somewhat as the needs of -the students or other circumstances may require. - -The library of the department is especially rich in foreign educational -literature, and a considerable amount of illustrative apparatus has -been collected. The Worcester Public Library and the library of the -American Antiquarian Society are also accessible to students. - -The _Pedagogical Seminary_ is published by this department, and offers -facilities for printing digests, reviews, and more valuable papers -prepared by the members of the department. - -This department has the twofold aim of (1) preparing professors, -superintendents and teachers for their future work, and (2) making -contributions to the Science of Education. The second of these aims -is being vigorously taken up, research of some kind being expected -from every one. The fact that there is no school of observation in -connection with the University is of course a drawback to the complete -carrying out of both of the above aims. Visits, for purposes of -observation, are however made to schools in the neighbourhood, the -records now numbering some fifteen thousand made by the students of the -Worcester Normal School, in connection with the study of children, are -available for reference, and a scheme for establishing a University -School is even now under consideration. Should this scheme become a -reality, we might look forward hopefully to getting fresh light on many -school problems. One especially, to which Dr. Hall drew my attention, -might well have its solution attempted in such a school. It concerns -the duty of teachers toward the bright, quick-working children in a -school. In every class some will be found who work quicker and have -more intellectual power than the others, and at the same time some who -are dull and slow-witted. Now the power of detecting and directing -one’s teaching to the latter is often made the test of a good teacher, -and in a very true sense it may be said to be so. But there is -another side to the question, and those of us who have taught cannot -fail to have often been conscious that while the needed attention -and explanations are being given to the dull ones, the time of the -quick-working children is being practically wasted. As Dr. Hall points -out, we have perhaps not yet realized how much power is lost to the -world in consequence. It would be an interesting experiment to select -such bright, quick-witted children, and putting them into a class by -themselves, in charge of an able teacher, to note the results of thus -allowing them to work at their own rate. - -The Clark University is unfortunately not open to women, if the summer -school (to which they are admitted) be not considered. - -Students are expected to possess a reading knowledge of the French and -German languages, and a knowledge of Elementary Psychology is also -considered desirable. - -There are many other Universities which have opened more or less -complete pedagogical departments; but these which have been described -will suffice to give a general idea of the courses offered in them. On -the whole it appeared to me that while in America excellent provision -is made in many of the States for the training of teachers for the -Primary Schools on the one hand, and for the positions of professors, -lecturers, superintendents on the other, far too little attention is -given to the training of teachers for the High, Collegiate and Private -Schools. High School teachers are mainly those who have worked their -way up through the grades (salaries tend to increase with the grade, -which brings about that inexperienced teachers are too often put to -the lower classes), while the teachers in Collegiate and Private -Schools have usually taken up the work straight from college without -any special preparation at all. England and Wales have, I think, made -much better provision for the training of such teachers, but I think we -have a good deal to learn from America in providing for the training -of lecturers, school inspectors, etc., etc., and perhaps also in the -matter of setting the seal of University approval upon training, by the -bestowal of educational degrees. - - -_TEACHERS’ INSTITUTES._ - -Teachers’ Institutes form an integral part of most state and city -systems of education. They have been defined as “normal schools with -a very short course,” and this definition is substantially correct. -The work done by them is of much the same character as that done in -the Normal Schools, and they have the same end in view--that of making -teachers more fit for their profession. They, however, vary somewhat in -character, and it will be perhaps well to distinguish between-- - - 1. Those which are held on Saturdays for teachers in the city or - district, and which are usually conducted by the superintendent, - who gives lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching, discusses - educational problems and methods, or follows out with them a - course of reading. Attendance at these institutes is often made - compulsory, and loss of part of salary is sometimes made the penalty - for non-attendance. By the statistics returned from ninety-six - cities holding institutes, it appears that forty-four thus enforce - attendance. - - 2. Those lasting for about six to ten days, having short courses in - certain subjects, and especially on the theory of teaching. These are - usually those organized by the State Superintendent, who has however - the power of delegating the conduct of these institutes to other - persons whom he may deem qualified. Again, attendance at many of - these is made compulsory. - - 3. Such institutes as are held at some country or sea-side place - for a length of time, varying from a fortnight to six weeks. These, - however, are mostly started by private agencies, and have little - besides the name to distinguish them from Summer Schools. The summer - meeting of teachers at Martha’s Vineyard is known as an Institute, - and is of this class. The Teachers’ Institutes do not aim at - supplying a complete course of Training, but rather at supplementing - the work of the Normal Schools and Colleges. - - -_SUMMER SCHOOLS AND COURSES._ - -A Summer School seems to differ from an Institute mainly in relation -to the amount of professional work undertaken. It is usually open for -from four to six weeks, and has a great variety of courses. I was able -to attend several of these, and was kindly allowed to hear some of the -lectures given and to observe the work. - -One of these held at Benton Harbour, Michigan, was chiefly attended -by those district teachers who wished to prepare for the teachers’ -examinations. It was really a private Normal School, which used its -buildings in July for a Summer School. The subjects given were mainly -those necessary for the teachers’ certificates, with some classes on -Methods, and School Management and Drill and Elocution. - -Of quite a different kind was that held at the Cook County Normal -School. This was almost entirely professional, and held on much the -same lines as the ordinary work of the school. - -The Summer Assembly at Chautauqua includes a Summer School, which -again may be said to include a special course for teachers, called the -Teachers’ Retreat. - -In addition to the Summer Schools, there are summer courses provided -for teachers at many universities. Cornell University makes special -provision for such a course, of which the following is an announcement. - -“In the summer of 1892, courses of instruction were offered by -professors and instructors of this University in Botany, Chemistry, -Mathematics, Philosophy, Physics, English, French, German, Drawing, and -Physical Training. The Summer School has now been made an integral part -of the University, and for the summer of 1893, courses are offered in -the following subjects: - - Greek, - Latin, - German, - French, - English, - Elocution, - Philosophy, - Pedagogy, - History, - Political and Social Science, - Mathematics, - Physics, - Chemistry, - Botany, - Drawing and Art, - Mechanical Drawing, - Physical Training. - -Without excluding others qualified to take up the work, these -courses are offered for the special benefit of teachers. They afford -a practical scheme of university extension, by which the teachers -themselves are taught under university instructors, by university -methods, and with access to university libraries, museums, and -laboratories. - -The courses are open to women as well as to men, and the same -facilities for work are extended to these students as to the regular -students of the university. The amount of work implied in these courses -is so great that students are advised to confine their attention to -one or two subjects. Every opportunity will be given for original -research under the guidance and with the assistance of members of the -instructing corps.” - -In 1892 a summer course in Psychology and Pedagogy was held for -two weeks at the Clark University. All the resources of the -University--books, apparatus, etc.--were placed at the disposal of the -students. About seventy men and women attended. Other universities -arrange for similar courses, but these two suffice to indicate the -lines of work. - -The Prang system, which aims at the complete organization of Form -Study, Drawing and Colour teaching in the schools, demands also the -training of its teachers. The system is being introduced into an -ever-increasing number of schools, and necessitates some preparation -on the part of the teacher in order that its principles shall be -rightly understood and effectively carried out. This preparation is -being carried on by correspondence. The courses of study are definitely -arranged, and the student chooses the one she desires. The text-books -and materials are sent to her; she works lessons at home, and -forwards to the instructors the results of such work--clay modelling, -paper-folding, drawing, etc., written observation exercises describing -the appearance of models placed in prescribed positions, written -outlines for various class exercises, together with any questions she -desires to ask. This work is examined and returned to the student with -full criticisms. At the end of the course a certificate is awarded to -those who have successfully completed it. This plan of training appears -to answer well, and will ensure the success of the system. - - MILLICENT HUGHES. - - -Butler & Tanner, The Selwood Printing Works, Frome, and London. - - - - -FOOTNOTES: - - -[1] This is, of course, not the ordinary deaf-and-dumb language,--for -which sight would be required,--but a special variety in which the -thoughts of the speaker are conveyed by means of varying pressure on -different parts of the hand of the one spoken to. - -[2] The term “Commencement” is always used in America to indicate the -ceremony which takes place at the _end_ of a School or College course. -The idea appears to be that the close of the College career really -marks the beginning of life in the world. - -[3] The word “_recitation_” is always used in the United States to -signify lesson, class or lecture. Its use in this extended sense may -be explained by the fact that in early days of American education (and -the practice still survives to a greater extent than is desirable) -_teaching_ a class merely implied the hearing of lessons learnt by -heart from a text-book. - -[4] _i.e._, specialist in the subject of physical exercise. - -[5] The Connecticut School Law provides for the establishment and -maintenance of such schools for the benefit of the students. - -[6] _i.e._, allowance to cover railway or other fares. - -[7] It should be noted that although the _design_ of these schools is -professional, yet in all of them academic studies are pursued. - -[8] The idea of making special provision for a supply of teachers to -act as substitutes in case of emergency is almost universal in the -States. In many cities a certain number of teachers receiving regular -salary are set apart for this work alone, while in some places students -in a Normal School or Training Classes undertake such work by special -arrangement. - -[9] The University of Iowa had, however, in 1873 made pedagogics a -sub-department of general philosophy. As early as 1860 a course of -lectures on the Science and Art of Teaching had been given by the State -Superintendent, Dr. Gregory, in the University of Michigan. - - - - -TRANSCRIBER’S NOTES: - - - Italicized text is surrounded by underscores: _italics_. - - Obvious typographical errors have been corrected. - - Inconsistencies in hyphenation have been standardized. - - Archaic or variant spelling has been retained. - - The table on page 167 has been reformatted from the original to better - fit a narrow screen. - - The cover image for this eBook was created by the transcriber and is - entered into the public domain. - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE TRAINING OF TEACHERS IN THE -UNITED STATES OF AMERICA *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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