diff options
Diffstat (limited to 'old/69725-h/69725-h.htm')
| -rw-r--r-- | old/69725-h/69725-h.htm | 4618 |
1 files changed, 0 insertions, 4618 deletions
diff --git a/old/69725-h/69725-h.htm b/old/69725-h/69725-h.htm deleted file mode 100644 index ee4f930..0000000 --- a/old/69725-h/69725-h.htm +++ /dev/null @@ -1,4618 +0,0 @@ -<!DOCTYPE html> -<html xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1999/xhtml" xml:lang="en" lang="en"> - <head> - <meta charset="UTF-8"> - <title> - The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary Woodworking, by Edwin W. Foster. - </title> - - <link rel="icon" href="images/cover.jpg" type="image/x-cover"> - - <style> - -a { - text-decoration: none; -} - -body { - margin-left: 10%; - margin-right: 10%; -} - -h1,h2,h3 { - text-align: center; - clear: both; -} - -h2.nobreak, h3.nobreak { - page-break-before: avoid; -} - -hr.chap { - margin-top: 2em; - margin-bottom: 2em; - clear: both; - width: 65%; - margin-left: 17.5%; - margin-right: 17.5%; -} - -img.w100 { - width: 100%; -} - -div.chapter { - page-break-before: always; -} - -ul { - list-style-type: none; -} - -li.indx { - margin-top: .5em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.ifrst { - margin-top: 2em; - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -li.isub1 { - padding-left: 4em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -p { - margin-top: 0.5em; - text-align: justify; - margin-bottom: 0.5em; - text-indent: 1em; -} - -table { - margin: 1em auto 1em auto; - max-width: 40em; - border-collapse: collapse; -} - -td { - padding-left: 2.25em; - padding-right: 0.25em; - vertical-align: top; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.sub { - text-indent: 1em; - text-align: justify; - font-size: 90%; - padding-bottom: 0.5em; -} - -.tdc { - text-align: center; - padding-top: 0.75em; - padding-bottom: 0.5em; -} - -.tdpg { - vertical-align: bottom; - text-align: right; -} - -.blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 10%; -} - -.blockquote p { - padding-left: 2em; - text-indent: -2em; -} - -.caption { - text-align: center; - margin-bottom: 1em; - font-size: 90%; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.center { - text-align: center; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.figcenter { - margin: auto; - text-align: center; -} - -.pagenum { - position: absolute; - right: 4%; - font-size: smaller; - text-align: right; - font-style: normal; -} - -.right { - text-align: right; -} - -.smaller { - font-size: 80%; -} - -.smcap { - font-variant: small-caps; - font-style: normal; -} - -.spacer { - margin-left: 5em; -} - -.titlepage { - text-align: center; - margin-top: 3em; - text-indent: 0em; -} - -.x-ebookmaker img { - max-width: 100%; - width: auto; - height: auto; -} - -.x-ebookmaker .blockquote { - margin: 1.5em 5%; -} - -/* Illustration classes */ -.illowp100 {width: 100%;} -.illowp30 {width: 30%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp30 {width: 100%;} -.illowp37 {width: 37%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp37 {width: 100%;} -.illowp40 {width: 40%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp40 {width: 100%;} -.illowp42 {width: 42%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp42 {width: 100%;} -.illowp46 {width: 46%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp46 {width: 100%;} -.illowp50 {width: 50%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp50 {width: 100%;} -.illowp52 {width: 52%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp52 {width: 100%;} -.illowp53 {width: 53%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp53 {width: 100%;} -.illowp54 {width: 54%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp54 {width: 100%;} -.illowp56 {width: 56%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp56 {width: 100%;} -.illowp57 {width: 57%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp57 {width: 100%;} -.illowp58 {width: 58%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp58 {width: 100%;} -.illowp60 {width: 60%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp60 {width: 100%;} -.illowp64 {width: 64%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp64 {width: 100%;} -.illowp65 {width: 65%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp65 {width: 100%;} -.illowp66 {width: 66%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp66 {width: 100%;} -.illowp69 {width: 69%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp69 {width: 100%;} -.illowp70 {width: 70%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp70 {width: 100%;} -.illowp71 {width: 71%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp71 {width: 100%;} -.illowp75 {width: 75%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp75 {width: 100%;} -.illowp78 {width: 78%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp78 {width: 100%;} -.illowp81 {width: 81%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp81 {width: 100%;} -.illowp83 {width: 83%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp83 {width: 100%;} -.illowp88 {width: 88%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp88 {width: 100%;} -.illowp90 {width: 90%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp90 {width: 100%;} -.illowp93 {width: 93%;} -.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;} - </style> - </head> -<body> -<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary woodworking, by Edwin W. Foster</p> -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online -at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you -are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the -country where you are located before using this eBook. -</div> - -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Elementary woodworking</p> -<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edwin W. Foster</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 7, 2023 [eBook #69725]</p> -<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p> - <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p> -<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="frontispiece" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption">“Grizzly Giant,” a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p> - -<h1>ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING</h1> - -<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br> -EDWIN W. FOSTER</p> - -<p class="titlepage">GINN & COMPANY<br> -<span class="smaller">BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON</span></p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1903<br> -By EDWIN W. FOSTER</span></p> - -<p class="center smaller">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p> - -<p class="center smaller">25.1</p> - -<p class="titlepage smaller">The Athenæum Press<br> -GINN & COMPANY · CAMBRIDGE<br> -· MASSACHUSETTS</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE</h2> - -</div> - -<p>This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing -the pupil with the essential facts about tools -and their uses. However efficient the instruction may -be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for -him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration -the names of tools and technical terms, most of -which are new to him. This applies with equal force -to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of -working.</p> - -<p>The function of the text is to supplement the instruction -of the teacher. It is intended to gather up and -arrange in a logical order the facts which the pupil -has already been told. By this means these facts will -become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work -with a better understanding and make greater progress.</p> - -<p>It is believed that the text can be used to the greatest -advantage by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects -presented in class immediately <i>after</i> the close of the -lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and occasional written -tests are very effective.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p> - -<p>No course of study in the form of a series of models -is presented. It is hardly possible for any two schools -to follow the same series of models. Local conditions -necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and -better designs are being brought out continuously.</p> - -<p>The order in which the tools are described in the following -pages is the one that has seemed most natural. -They may be taken up, however, in any convenient and -logical order.</p> - -<p>It is with the earnest hope that nature study and -manual work may be closely correlated, that Part II is -added. No better period can be selected in which to -study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than when -the student is working with wood, learning by experience -its grain, hardness, color, and value in the arts.</p> - -<p>Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its -economic aspects, climatic effects, influence on rainfall, -the flow of rivers, floods, droughts, etc., will be found -interesting as well as instructive, and such interest -should be instilled into every American boy and girl.</p> - -<p>The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game -Commission of New York state for the series of Adirondack -lumbering scenes, and to the United States Bureau -of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees.</p> - -<p class="right">EDWIN W. FOSTER.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2> - -</div> - -<table> - <tr> - <td></td> - <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#PART_I">PART I. TOOLS</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter I. Introduction</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of - work and division of tools into groups.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">5</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The rule: divisions; method of using. The try-square: method - of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter III. Cutting Tools</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">11</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers; - method of holding. Backsaw; use of bench hook. The turning saw. - The plane: use of cap iron; names of parts. Adjustment of plane. - Use of lever and adjusting screw; positions for planing. The jack - plane. The smooth plane. Jointers; action of short and long - planes. The block plane. The wooden plane. The chisel: size of - cutting angle; effect of careless sharpening. The framing and firmer - chisels; proper positions for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharpening - on oilstone. Brace and bit. Center and auger bits; gimlet - and countersink bits. The spokeshave.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">31</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The hammer; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver. - Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock; method explained in detail. - Laying out work; method of laying out a typical joint. Securing - parts; use of glue and hand screws. Nails; method of using cut nails. - Screws; method of using round-head and flat-head screws. Mechanical - drawing. The drawing instruments explained, and method of - making complete working drawings described. Scale drawings. - <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#PART_II">PART II. WOOD</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">51</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">The forest; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The forming - and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern sawmills. - Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings; medullary rays; - formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in wood. Warping - and shrinkage.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">65</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack - oak. Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter VII. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Maples</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">76</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore - maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">85</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and butternut. - Locust. Honey locust. Ash.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">94</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">Elm. The birches. Beech. Iron wood. Buttonball. Sweet gum. - Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter X. The Evergreens</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">111</a></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td class="sub">White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce. - Cypress. Balsam fir. The cedars.</td> - <td class="tdpg"></td> - </tr> - <tr> - <td>Chapter XI. The Big Trees of California</td> - <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">123</a></td> - </tr> -</table> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_I">ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING<br> -<span class="smcap">Part I</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br> -<span class="smaller">INTRODUCTION</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p>In order to obtain good results in the using of tools -it is necessary to know their construction, how to properly -sharpen and adjust them, and the correct method -of handling them. It is also essential to know how to -lay out and work the material or stock. Carelessness -or a lack of knowledge is invariably followed by a -failure. It is more important at first to work carefully -and accurately than rapidly.</p> - -<p>“Tools are made to be used, not abused.” They -must be kept <i>clean</i> and <i>sharp</i> and should be used only -for the purpose intended. Wipe them off occasionally -with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting. -Put away all tools not in use and keep the top of the -bench clean. Do not mark it with a pencil or scratch -it with a knife. Do not cut into it with the chisel -or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using -glue, shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the -bench; or, better still, do the work on a table provided -for that purpose.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p> - -<p>The plan of work in making all models is in general -the same and is as follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><i>First.</i> “Squaring up” the stock.</p> - -<p><i>Second.</i> “Laying out” the work.</p> - -<p><i>Third.</i> Cutting to the lines.</p> - -</div> - -<p>When the article is composed of two or more pieces a -fourth step may be added, namely, fitting and securing -the parts.</p> - -<p>The tools used may be divided into three groups, as -follows:</p> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><i>First.</i> Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square, marking -gauge, bevel, and knife.</p> - -<p><i>Second.</i> Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane, chisel, -spokeshave, bit, and knife.</p> - -<p><i>Third.</i> Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet, screw-driver, -brace (or bitstock), and others not so common.</p> - -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br> -<span class="smaller">MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p><b>1. The Rule.</b> The standard unit of length is the yard, -but the foot is commonly used for all measurements -in woodwork. If the rule be twelve inches long it is -known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long -it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided -into halves, quarters, eighths, and in some cases sixteenths. -Rules are usually of boxwood or maple, with -brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once or -twice.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig001" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig001.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The Rule</p> -</div> - -<p>The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work -to be measured errors will usually follow. It should -be stood on edge so that the pencil or knife point may -touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same time. -The proper position when laying out measurements is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span> -shown in the sketch (<a href="#fig002">Fig. 2</a>). Consecutive measurements -should be laid off without moving the rule.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig002" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig002.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Methods of using the Rule: <i>A</i>, incorrect; <i>B</i>, correct</p> -</div> - -<p><b>2. The Try-Square.</b> The try-square has two distinct -uses: first, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife -point in laying out lines across the grain at -right angles to the edge, as shown in <a href="#fig004">Fig. 4</a>; -second, for testing or trying the adjoining -sides to see if they are square with each -other.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig003" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig003.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The Try-Square</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p> - -<p>The try-square may be made entirely of iron or -steel, but sometimes the beam <i>A</i> is of wood with a -brass strip <i>C</i> to protect it and to take the wear. The -blade <i>B</i> is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into -inches and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made -in several sizes, the most convenient for general use -being six inches.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig004" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig004.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Methods of using the Try-Square</p> -</div> - -<p>In using the try-square the beam should be held -firmly against the face or edge of the stock. When -working near the end of the piece, if the beam projects, -reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife -point instead of the pencil should be used for lining.</p> - -<p>When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it -is first necessary to mark or square clear around it with -the knife and try-square. In doing this the beam of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span> -the try-square must be used against the work face and -joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one -piece are called <i>framing squares</i>, and are used by -carpenters and others for rough or large work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig005" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig005.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The Framing Square</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig006" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig006.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> The Marking Gauge</p> -</div> - -<p><b>3. The Marking Gauge.</b> The marking gauge -is shown in Figs. <a href="#fig006">6</a> and <a href="#fig007">7</a>. <i>A</i> is the gauge -stick, <i>B</i> the gauge block, <i>S</i> the set screw, and -<i>P</i> the marking point, or <i>spur</i>. The gauge stick -is graduated like a rule into inches and fractions, -beginning at the steel marking point; -but as the latter is not always exactly in the -right place the graduations are not entirely -reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge -with the rule in the manner shown in <a href="#fig007">Fig. 7</a>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p> - -<p>Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule -in right. Place end of rule against gauge block and -the measurement desired at spur. Turn set screw. The -gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set -at one inch and is ready for use.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig007" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig007.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Setting the Marking Gauge</p> -</div> - -<p>To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold -the tool firmly, with thumb and forefinger encircling -gauge block. Tip the tool -away from you until the -marking point (spur) barely -touches the wood and push -the tool away from (never -toward) you. The line -made should be as fine as -a knife line. A little practice -is needed to give the proper control, as the marking -point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is -usually not straight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig008" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig008.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Holding the Marking Gauge</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p> - -<p>A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock -as a practice block, laying out lines a quarter of an inch -apart, then an eighth, and finally a sixteenth.</p> - -<p><b>4. The Bevel.</b> The bevel differs from the try-square in -having a movable blade.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig009" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig009.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The Bevel</p> -</div> - -<p>This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle -from zero to 180 degrees. The blade may be fixed -firmly at any desired angle by simply turning the set -screw. The method of using it is similar to that of -the try-square.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br> -<span class="smaller">CUTTING TOOLS</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p><b>5. Saws.</b> The saw might be described as a succession -of chisels, one back of the other. We can readily understand -the action of the saw by making cuts with a narrow -chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as shown -in <a href="#fig010">Fig. 10</a> at <i>a</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig010" style="max-width: 56.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig010.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Cutting with and - across the Grain with a Narrow Chisel</p> -</div> - -<p>The little pieces of wood removed in this way are -similar to the sawdust made by the saw, the only difference -being that in the saw the teeth are narrower and -the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one -chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time.</p> - -<p>A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for -cutting along the grain, is called a <i>ripsaw</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p> - -<p>That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain -may easily be proved by again resorting to the narrow -chisel and attempting to repeat the first experiment. -The wood will act as shown in <a href="#fig010">Fig. 10</a> at <i>b</i>, splitting -along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident, -then, that a tool for cutting across the grain must be -constructed in some other way.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig011" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig011.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> The Saw</p> -</div> - -<p>Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with -a knife point in two parallel lines across the grain, -close together, as at <i>c</i>. It will be found that the wood -between these lines may now be easily removed with the -narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which -we construct the crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharpened -to a point, one on the right side, the next on -the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points -designed to cut the fibers, as was done in our experiment -with the knife. <a href="#fig012">Fig. 12</a> shows the end view of the -crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not only are -the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span> -each tooth is bent outward from the body of the saw. -This bending is called <i>set</i>, and is designed to make -the saw cut, or <i>kerf</i>, wider than the thickness of the -saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood -after the teeth have done their work. If it were not -for this set, the fibers would spring back against the -body of the saw after the teeth had passed and make -the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set -it should pass through the wood easily.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig012" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig012.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Teeth of Crosscut Saw</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig013" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig013.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> Teeth of Ripsaw</p> -</div> - -<p>The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be -seen in the sketch, the bottoms are flat like a chisel -instead of pointed like those of the crosscut teeth.</p> - -<p>Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth, -the side views, which are also different, are shown in -Figs. <a href="#fig012">12</a> and <a href="#fig013">13</a>.</p> - -<p>We are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace -article, yet a careful examination will prove -that the greatest care and skill are needed in its manufacture. -Observe that the body, which must be of -the best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span> -handle than at the opposite end. This is to give -strength, and to prevent <i>buckling</i>, or bending, as the -tool is pushed forward.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig014" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig014.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> Body of Saw, showing Tapers</p> -</div> - -<p>Most delicate measurements must be made, however, -to discover that not only the width but the thickness -increases from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i>, and decreases from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i>. -How carefully this tapering must be done can be realized -when we know that the difference in thickness -from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i> is only three one-thousandths of an inch, -and from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i> twelve one-thousandths at end <i>A</i> -and five one-thousandths -at end <i>B</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig015" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig015.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> Method of holding the Saw</p> -</div> - -<p>The saw should -be held in the right -hand, with the left -grasping the board. -The thumb of the -left hand acts as -guide, the saw is tilted, as shown in <a href="#fig015">Fig. 15</a>, and drawn -toward the worker at the first stroke. This tool should<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span> -be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance -with the general rule that we do our best work with -tools when we work easily and deliberately.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig016" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig016.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> The Backsaw</p> -</div> - -<p>Many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes, -including those which cut stone and metal.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig017" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig017.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> Method of using the - Backsaw and Bench Hook</p> -</div> - -<p><b>6. Backsaw.</b> -The backsaw is a -crosscut saw with -small teeth, and -has a heavy steel -backpiece, <a href="#fig017">Fig. -17</a>, to prevent -bending. In this -respect it differs -from the ordinary -crosscut varieties, -which bend -readily. The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine, -straight cuts in delicate, accurate work. The steel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span> -back <i>B</i> is necessary on account of the thin blade, but -on account of the thickness of <i>B</i> no cut can be made -deeper than the -line <i>C</i>. This tool -will cut in any -direction with -reference to the -grain, but is primarily -a crosscut -saw.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig018" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig018.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> The Bench Hook</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig019" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig019.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> The Turning Saw</p> -</div> - -<p><b>7. The Turning -Saw.</b> In ordinary -work the saw is supposed to cut to a straight line, but -there are certain classes of work where it is desirable -to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is -necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span> -this purpose. The handles holding the saw blade may -be turned in any direction with reference to the frame.</p> - -<p><b>8. The Plane.</b> The plane reduces our rough lumber -to planed, or <i>dressed</i>, stock. The cutting part is a -thin, wide chisel called the <i>plane -iron</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp64" id="fig020" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig020.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> The Plane Iron in Action</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig020">Fig. 20</a> shows the position of -the plane iron in operation. Assume -the iron to be moving in -the direction of the arrow on a -piece of wood. The sharp point -would enter the board and, should -the grain be unfavorable, start -a splitting action, as shown at <i>a</i>.</p> - -<p>We wish to smooth the wood -instead of roughing it, and must -in some way stop the splitting. This is accomplished -by placing a cap iron on the plane iron, as shown at <i>b</i>. -The cap bends and breaks -the shaving before the -splitting action has a -chance to begin, and gives -the spiral form so familiar -in wood shavings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig021" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig021.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> Plane Iron, Cap, and Set Screw</p> -</div> - -<p>The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a -stout screw, and this whole combination is fastened in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span> -the throat of the plane by a clamp (<a href="#fig022">Fig. 22</a>). The opening -on the bottom of the plane through which the cutting -edge protrudes is called the <i>mouth</i> of the plane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig022" style="max-width: 34.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig022.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> Sectional Views of Iron Plane</p> -</div> - -<p><b>9. Adjustment of Plane.</b> There are two ways of adjusting -a modern iron plane,—by means of the set screw <i>s</i>, -and of the lever <i>l</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p> - -<p>Screw <i>s</i> lowers or raises the plane iron so that we -may take a thin or thick shaving, and lever <i>l</i> straightens -the iron, which is liable to project more on one side -than on the other, and will then take a shaving thicker -on one side than on the other.</p> - -<p>Before using the plane always examine it carefully. -Invert the tool, holding it toward the light with the -toe toward you, and glance along the bottom. If the -iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not, -move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cutting -edge should appear as a black line of uniform -thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the brass screw -until the iron projects slightly.</p> - -<p>In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand -with the right side to the bench and with the shoulders -thrown back. Let the pressure of the left hand be -greater at the beginning and that of -the right hand at the end of the stroke. -The tool should rest perfectly flat on -the wood from start to finish.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="fig023" style="max-width: 9.375em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig023.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span> Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes</p> -</div> - -<p><b>10. The Jack Plane.</b> The ordinary -plane iron has a straight edge, as shown -at <i>a</i>, <a href="#fig023">Fig. 23</a>, but when a large quantity -of wood is to be removed the iron is sharpened in -the shape shown at <i>b</i>. This curved iron will cut out -the wood in hollows, leaving ridges between, and it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span> -is necessary to follow this jack plane with a finer one -having a straight edge in order to smooth the surface. -The jack plane might be called a <i>roughing</i> plane.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="fig024" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig024.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span> Relative Sizes of - Smooth and Jack Planes</p> - <p class="caption">The lower figure is a jack plane</p> -</div> - -<p><b>11. The Smooth Plane.</b> The smoothing plane is shorter -than the jack plane, its object being to smooth the surface -without regard to straightening it, as it is supposed -that the straightening has previously been done. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span> -cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a sixteenth -to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting -edge of the plane iron.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig025" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig025.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span> Action of Short and Long Planes</p> -</div> - -<p><b>12. Jointers.</b> For straightening very rough and uneven -stock a long plane is necessary (<a href="#fig025">Fig. 25</a>). In the -illustration let line <i>ab</i> represent -the edge of a very -uneven board. A short -plane <i>c</i> would simply follow -the hills and hollows, -smoothing but not straightening -it, while a long plane, -as shown at <i>d</i>, would merely cut off the top of the high -places, as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch -the bottoms of the hollows until all the elevations were -leveled; in other words, until the surface was straightened. -Such planes, which -are often three feet long or -more, are called <i>jointers</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig026" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig026.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span> The Block Plane</p> -</div> - -<p><b>13. The Block Plane.</b> To -square the end of a piece of -stock the conditions are quite different from those -just described where we were planing with the grain. -In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the plane -iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel -side up.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p> - -<p>This tool requires more care than the others, as the -stroke is usually quite short, and if the cutting edge is -allowed to reach the farther corner, -the latter will be broken off.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig027" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig027.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> Method of using Block Plane</p> -</div> - -<p>To avoid this error the plane -must be lifted up before the end -of the stroke, as shown by the -dotted line <i>a</i>. The piece is then -reversed, and planed as shown by -arrow <i>b</i>. In this way the whole end is smoothed, without -ruining the corners.</p> - -<p>Besides these standard planes there are many patent -and special ones for cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc.</p> - -<p><b>14. The Wooden Plane.</b> Although the iron-bodied -planes just described are now in common use, the old-fashioned -wooden plane is still the favorite of many -woodworkers.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig028" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig028.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> The Wooden Plane</p> -</div> - -<p>This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of -the iron plane, was much simpler and contained a -smaller number of parts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p> - -<p>The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden -wedge, which was driven in by a light blow of the -hammer. The workman removed the iron and wedge -by turning the plane upside down and striking the -forward part a light downward blow on the bench, -while the thickness of the shaving was increased by -a light tap on the plane iron.</p> - -<p>One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was -its liability to wear and warp, so that it became necessary -to straighten, or <i>joint</i>, the face. No such difficulty -is encountered in the -iron-bodied plane.</p> - -<p><b>15. The Chisel.</b> The chisel -is one of the simplest forms -of cutting tools. The size of -the angle <i>a</i> depends on the -kind of material to be cut.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig029" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig029.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> Cutting Angle of Chisel</p> -</div> - -<p>A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an -angle of from 30 to 35 degrees.</p> - -<p>By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes -formed, as shown at <i>b</i>.</p> - -<p>The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the -chisel were shaped like that shown by dotted lines, -and care must always be taken when sharpening to -keep the line <i>cd</i> straight, so that angle <i>a</i> will be the -real cutting angle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span></p> - -<p>Two classes of chisels are in common use: the <i>framing -chisel</i> used for heavy work, such as the frames of -buildings; and the <i>firmer chisel</i>. The framing chisel -is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of withstanding -the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is -designed for finer and lighter -work without the mallet.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig030" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig030.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span> The Framing Chisel</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig031" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig031.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span> The Firmer Chisel</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="fig032" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig032.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span> Proper Position - for Horizontal Chiseling</p> -</div> - -<p>The chisel must be sharp -if we wish to do good and -accurate work, and a cut on -the hand made by such a -sharp tool is liable to be a -deep one. Special care must -be used in handling it, keeping -both hands away from -the cutting edge, as shown -in the sketch, and placing it when not in use where it -cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the -student’s feet.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#fig032">Fig. 32</a> shows the method of using the tool on horizontal -work, and <a href="#fig033">Fig. 33</a> for vertical cutting. For this -kind of work only a small portion of -the cutting edge can be used, the student -judging for himself how heavy a -cut to take by the hardness of the wood -and amount of strength required. Good -work can never be done when one has -to exert all his strength on the tool. -The best results are obtained -when we work -easily.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="fig033" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig033.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span> Proper Position - for Vertical Chiseling</p> -</div> - -<p>Better work can usually -be done with the -chisel if, instead of pushing -it straight ahead or -straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to -secure a slight <i>paring</i> action.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig034" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig034.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span> Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone</p> -</div> - -<p>When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has -been nicked or ruined by some accident, it is only -necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone. Hold the tool<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span> -with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil -may be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked -back and forth on the face of it. Especial care must -be taken to avoid a rocking motion, which will produce -a curved edge instead of a flat one.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="fig035" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig035.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span> Common Forms of the Brace</p> -</div> - -<p>After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side -firmly on the stone, and draw toward you. This is to -straighten the wire edge which has been turned over -by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span> -by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block -of wood. When the chisel is nicked or very dull it -must be ground on the grindstone.</p> - -<p><b>16. Brace and Bit.</b> The old-fashioned augers and gimlets -have given way to the modern brace and bit.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig036" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig036.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span> The Center Bit</p> -</div> - -<p>The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock, -allows both hands to be used continuously, which was -not true of the old-fashioned auger. Several varieties -of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts -being common.</p> - -<p>Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name -being applied to a tool which is to be turned by the -brace. The old-fashioned center bit shown in the cut -possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig037" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig037.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span> The Auger Bit</p> -</div> - -<p>The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be -accurately placed. The lip on the outer edge cut the -fibers in a circle before the chisel edge began to remove<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span> -the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored; but -considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool -through the wood.</p> - -<p>The progress that has been made in the manufacture -of tools can be easily appreciated by comparing this -center bit with the modern auger bit.</p> - -<p>Referring to the sketch (<a href="#fig038">Fig. 38</a>), <i>B</i> <i>B</i> are two knife -points, or <i>nibs</i>, which cut the wood fibers before the -chisel edges, or <i>lips</i>, <i>C</i> <i>C</i>, can touch -the wood. The point <i>A</i> allows us -to accurately place the center of -the hole where we wish it, and the -screw back of <i>A</i> draws the tool into -the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the -spur, or <i>worm</i>. On this class of bits no pressure is -necessary.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig038" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig038.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span> Details of Auger Bit</p> -</div> - -<p>The opposite end of the bit, called the <i>shank</i>, fits into -the brace. Any tool with such a shank, and designed -for use with the brace, is a bit. We have screw-driver -bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc.</p> - -<p>On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number. -This is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator -is 16. If we find this number to be 4, it is a ⁴⁄₁₆, or a -¼-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a ¹⁶⁄₁₆, or a -one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the -hole which the tool will bore.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p> - -<p>In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see -that the bit shank is far enough in the brace to be fastened -securely, and that the tool is held at right angles -to the wood. It may appear from the front to be perfectly -vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking -at it from another position it will frequently be found -far from vertical. When starting a hole it is well to -do this several times until assured that the tool is working -in a true upright position.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig039" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig039.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span> The Gimlet Bit</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig040" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig040.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span> The Countersink Bit</p> -</div> - -<p>The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we -make for screws. In this case the hole must be <i>countersunk</i> -to receive the screw head, when flat-headed -screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the -cut, and its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter -on screws.</p> - -<p><b>17. The Spokeshave.</b> The spokeshave is practically a -short plane with handles at the side so that the tool -may be drawn or pushed. It may be adjusted by -means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span> -is used principally to smooth curved surfaces. The -forming of a hammer handle is a good illustration of -the kind of work it will do. It may be worked toward -or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy -tool.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig041" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig041.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span> The Iron Spokeshave</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br> -<span class="smaller">MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p><b>18. Hammer.</b> The carpenter’s hammer is used principally -to drive or withdraw nails.</p> - -<p>The various trades have hammers made specially for -their needs; thus we have machinists’, roofers’, upholsterers’, -stonecutters’, and other hammers, -but the claw hammer shown in the -sketch is the one commonly used by workers -in wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig042" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig042.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span> The Claw Hammer</p> -</div> - -<p>The head <i>a</i> (<a href="#fig043">Fig. 43</a>) is of steel, with the face <i>b</i> specially -hardened so that it may not be dented by the nails. -Notice the length of the handle <i>h</i>. This length did -not simply happen. Had it been intended to hold the -tool in the position shown at <i>A</i>, the handle would not -have been made so long. The proper position is that -shown at <i>B</i>. Position <i>A</i> is frequently taken by beginners, -and should be studiously avoided.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig043" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig043.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span> Using the Hammer</p> -</div> - -<p>A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be -kept straight for further use by a little care. Having -started the nail slightly, place a small block of wood -under the hammer head, as shown at <i>C</i>. Should the -nail be an unusually long one, the size of the block -may be increased as the nail comes out.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig044" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig044.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span> Common Forms of - Nail Punch, or “Set”</p> -</div> - -<p>In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar -the surface of the wood by striking the nail head after<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span> -it has become even with the surface, as this produces a -depression and ruins any fine surface.</p> - -<p>If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface, -a nail punch, or <i>set</i>, is used. This is always necessary -when the surface is to be planed after the nailing.</p> - -<p><b>19. The Mallet.</b> The mallet might be described as a -hammer with a wooden head, and is used whenever we -wish to deliver a blow which shall be -less concentrated than that of the -hammer. It is used in certain kinds -of heavy chiseling, such as house -framing, and gives a blow which does not shatter the -tool handle as a hammer would.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig045" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig045.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span> The Mallet</p> -</div> - -<p>The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making -of a mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet -being used to cut the opening known as the mortise, as -shown in <a href="#fig046">Fig. 46</a>.</p> - -<p><b>20. Screw-Driver.</b> The screw-driver is perhaps the -most common of household tools, and is probably abused -more than any other. The handle is usually flattened -so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but occasionally -a round or fluted handle is seen.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span></p> - -<p>Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in -recent years, but where considerable force is required -the brace and screw-driver bit are more effective.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig046" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig046.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span> Cutting a Mortise</p> -</div> - -<p><b>21. Sandpaper.</b> “Sandpaper is the last resort of a -poor workman.” This statement has been made by -many teachers to many thousands of students, and is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span> -true in many cases; but there are certain kinds of work -where sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig047" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig047.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span> The Screw-Driver</p> -</div> - -<p>It must always be kept in mind that a surface which -has been sandpapered has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine -sand has come off and is more or less imbedded in the -wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done -until all tool work has been finished, as the grit will -take the edge off the best tool, -and the finer the edge the more -quickly will it be ruined.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig048" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig048.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span> An Exercise - involving the Use of Sandpaper</p> -</div> - -<p>Again, a sandpapered surface -is always a scratched surface, -and the finest of scratched surfaces -cannot compare with the -perfectly smooth, satiny surface -produced by a sharp plane. -However, there are many places -where neither the plane nor -spokeshave can be used, and -here it is allowable to use sandpaper -after the tool work has been carried as far as -practicable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span></p> - -<p><a href="#fig048">Fig. 48</a> is a case where sandpaper may be used with -propriety. The bevels in this lesson are to be chiseled -and then sandpapered with a sandpaper block,—the -block in this case being simply a small piece of wood -with square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened -closely.</p> - -<p>Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dispense -with the block, the sandpaper being held in the -hand.</p> - -<p><b>22. Squaring up Stock.</b> This term simply means to -reduce a piece of sawed or rough lumber to one having -smooth, flat sides at right angles to each other, and of -definite length, breadth, and thickness (see <a href="#fig049">Fig. 49</a>).</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="fig049" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig049.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span> The Successive - Steps in squaring up Stock</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><i>First.</i> Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or jointer, -and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the -working face, becomes the basis from which all the other -sides are squared.</p> - -<p><i>Second.</i> Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with -the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must -be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the -try-square, and must be square with the working face at -every point.</p> - -<p><i>Third.</i> Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge -block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face.</p> - -<p><i>Fourth.</i> Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn, -squaring the edge with working face.</p> - -<p><i>Fifth.</i> Set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both -edges from working face.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span></p> - -<p><i>Sixth.</i> Plane face parallel to working face down to the two -gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only -remains now to secure the required length.</p> - -<p><i>Seventh.</i> Square knife line around the four smoothed sides with -knife and try-square as near one end as possible, carefully -observing the precautions given in Chapter II.</p> - -<p><i>Eighth.</i> From the line just drawn, measure the required length -along edge of working face and square a line on the four -sides at the last point, as at first end.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span></p> - -<p><i>Ninth.</i> Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second line -is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block, -saw to the knife line with backsaw, and block-plane smooth -and square.</p> - -</div> - -<p>The above method should -always be followed in preparing -stock for laying out -the exercise.</p> - -<p><b>23. Laying Out.</b> Let it be -assumed that the exercise to -be executed is the middle lap -joint shown at <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig050">Fig. 50</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig050" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig050.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span> Successive Steps - in laying out and making a Middle Lap Joint</p> -</div> - -<div class="blockquote"> - -<p><i>First.</i> Square up stock, leaving -ends rough.</p> - -<p><i>Second.</i> Lay off the length of each -piece, in this case 4½ inches, -with an eighth of an inch -between for sawing, as at <i>a</i>.</p> - -<p><i>Third.</i> Square all the lines -around four sides.</p> - -<p><i>Fourth.</i> Saw to end lines and -block-plane ends.</p> - -<p><i>Fifth.</i> Lay off width of opening -in piece No. 1 and square -lines across face and halfway -down on both edges.</p> - -<p><i>Sixth.</i> Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across -bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal -lines <i>ll</i> from working face.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p> - -<p><i>Seventh.</i> Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane ends.</p> - -<p><i>Eighth.</i> Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces.</p> - -</div> - -<p>Although the above is the method of laying out a typical -joint, each problem will require special treatment and -here the student will be -guided by his instructor.</p> - -<p><b>24. Securing Parts.</b> -Many articles made of -wood consist of several -pieces fastened together.</p> - -<p>When two pieces are -fitted together the surfaces -of contact are called -a joint. There are many -kinds and shapes in joinery, -and usually some -extra fastening is required -to hold the pieces -together. These aids are -glue, nails, and screws; -while on heavy construction still others, such as wedges, -pins, and dowels are used. The first three are commonly -used in small work.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="fig051" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig051.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span> The Hand Screw</p> -</div> - -<p>Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made -from refuse matter,—animal glue being manufactured -from such products as bone, horn, hoofs, and hide.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p> - -<p>The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved -in water and heated, being applied while hot. Liquid -glues sold in cans ready for use are now very common -and require no heating.</p> - -<p>In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold -the pieces tightly together until the glue has <i>set</i>, or hardened, -and as this takes some time, hand screws built on -the principle of the vise are resorted to. <a href="#fig052">Fig. 52</a> shows -two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of -hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the -jaws of the latter parallel. At <i>a</i> this is shown done -properly, while at <i>b</i> is shown a careless method which, -of course, will spoil the joint.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig052" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig052.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span> Method of using the - Hand Screw</p> -</div> - -<p>In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or <i>sizing</i>, -coat of glue must first be made to fill up the pores, -which act very much like a sponge. This coat should -be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span> -final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly, -if at all. Beginners are inclined to use too large a -quantity, and this tendency should be avoided.</p> - -<p>In some cases nails are used together -with the glue, as at the corners of picture -frames. It is customary in this -instance to nail in only one direction, -as shown in <a href="#fig053">Fig. 53</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig053" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig053.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span> Miter Joint at - Corner of Picture Frame</p> -</div> - -<p><b>25. Nails.</b> The nails in common use -are of two kinds, <i>cut</i> and <i>wire</i>.</p> - -<p>Two views of a cut nail are shown in <a href="#fig054">Fig. 54</a>, <i>a</i> being -the side view and <i>b</i> the front view. Notice that in the -front view the sides converge like a wedge, -while in the side view they are parallel.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig054" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig054.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span> Use of Cut Nails</p> -</div> - -<p>Care must always be taken that the -point does not enter the wood as shown -at <i>c</i>, as the wood will be split by the -wedge action; <i>d</i> shows the proper method.</p> - -<p>Steel wire nails are now in general use. -They are made from wire and are consequently -round in section, with a comparatively -sharp point. There are two distinct -kinds, named <i>flat head</i> and <i>bung head</i>.</p> - -<p>Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin, -flat heads, which prevent the nail from being driven -beneath the surface.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p> - -<p>Bung-head wire nails, or <i>brads</i> as the smaller sizes -are called, have very small heads, which allow the nail -to be sunk below the surface. This is done by means -of the nail punch, or <i>set</i>, and is necessary when the surface -is to be planed after the nailing.</p> - -<p><b>26. Screws.</b> Screws are much used, and allow the -pieces to be readily taken apart. They are divided -into two classes, <i>flat head</i> and <i>round head</i>, and are of -steel or brass. Steel screws are either <i>blued</i> or <i>bright</i>. -Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced -by treating the bright ones with heat or an acid.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig055" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig055.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span> Methods of using Screws</p> -</div> - -<p><a href="#fig055">Fig. 55</a> shows a flat-head screw at <i>a</i> and a round-head -at <i>b</i>. Flat heads are used for the more common work -where it is desirable to have the screw head flush (even) -with the surface or below it, while round heads are used -where this is not necessary. In the latter case round -heads are used partly because they are more ornamental. -Flat heads must always be flush or below the surface, -and in all but the softest woods it is necessary not only -to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink it -with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span> -head. Two methods of fastening with flat-head screws -are shown in <a href="#fig055">Fig. 55</a>.</p> - -<p>Sketch <i>A</i> shows the two pieces of wood in position, -the hole bored in upper piece (only) and countersunk; -<i>B</i> shows the screw in position. In this case the screw -head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide the -screw entirely. Sketch <i>C</i> shows the hole prepared for -the screw; <i>D</i> shows the screw in position and a circular -wooden plug driven in over it. -The plug is then leveled with the -surface and the screw completely -hidden.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="fig056" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig056.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span> The Difference - between Perspective and Mechanical Drawing</p> -</div> - -<p><b>27. Mechanical Drawing.</b> A mechanical, -or working, drawing is -quite different from a pictorial -drawing such as an artist produces. -The artist’s drawing represents objects -as they appear, while the -mechanical drawing represents -them as they really are. Things in nature do not look -as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad -track the rails appear to converge until they seem to -meet in the distance. We know that this is not the -case, that the rails are really everywhere equally distant. -The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon -is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span> -drawing takes no account of perspective. In <a href="#fig056">Fig. 56</a> -<i>a</i> is the perspective representation of a track, while <i>b</i> -shows a track by mechanical drawing.</p> - -<p>In a working drawing more than one -view is necessary to show the true shape -of an object.</p> - -<p>In <a href="#fig057">Fig. 57</a> is shown the mechanical drawing -of a cylinder,—the front view, as its -name implies, being the image it would -make in a mirror held before it vertically, -and the top view the image it would make in -a mirror held directly over it horizontally.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp30" id="fig057" style="max-width: 6.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig057.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span> Mechanical Drawing of a Cylinder</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig058" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig058.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span> Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint</p> -</div> - -<p>Occasionally three views are necessary. <a href="#fig058">Fig. 58</a> <i>a</i> -shows the front, top, and side views of an end lap joint.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span> -The complete working drawing of this joint, with all -the necessary dimensions, is shown at <i>b</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig059" style="max-width: 37.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig059.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span> Drawing Board - showing T Square and Triangles in Position</p> -</div> - -<p>In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy -is required and special instruments are necessary.</p> - -<p>The drawing board on which the paper is -fastened must be perfectly flat, with one of -its edges straight.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig060" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig060.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span> The T Square</p> -</div> - -<p>The T square is used for guiding the pencil -or pen when drawing horizontal lines.</p> - -<p>The two triangles <i>t</i> <i>t</i> (<a href="#fig059">Fig. 59</a>) are used for drawing -vertical and oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span> -needed for circles and arcs of circles. Each triangle contains -one right angle, the one on the left being known -as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining -angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively. -The one on the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle -because it has two forty-five-degree angles.</p> - -<p>The position of T square and triangle when drawing -vertical lines is that shown in the sketch, the line being -drawn from the T square -upward. Horizontal -lines are drawn from left -to right.</p> - -<p>The rule used in mechanical -drawing is -called a scale, and should -not be used for drawing -lines. Its purpose -is measuring.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig061" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig061.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span> The Triangles - used in Mechanical Drawing</p> -</div> - -<p>In making a drawing the first step is to determine -the spacing. The size of the paper may be measured, -the number of views are known, and also the size of -each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces -between will be in good proportion. It is a good plan -to make first a free-hand sketch, putting on dimensions -and figuring the spaces before beginning actual -work on the mechanical drawing. <a href="#fig062">Fig. 62</a> at <i>a</i> shows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span> -a free-hand sketch of a single dovetail joint, and <i>b</i> the -mechanical drawing complete.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig062" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig062.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span> Drawings of a - Single Dovetail Joint</p> -</div> - -<p>All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible -they should be so placed as not to interfere with the -clearness of the drawing. Neat, small arrowheads and -plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just -as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p> - -<p>A drawing which is made the exact size of the object -represented is known as a full-sized drawing; but for -large objects such a method would necessitate large and -unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in -such cases to make what is called a scale drawing.</p> - -<p>A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size, -and the fact is printed under the title in smaller letters, -thus: ½ inch = 1 inch, or ¼ inch = 1 inch.</p> - -<p>Other scales may be used. In map making, for example, -a sixteenth of an inch may represent one, ten, -or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is used, however, -the dimensions must always give the exact size of -the object represented.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_II">ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING<br> -<span class="smcap">Part II</span></h2> - -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br> -<span class="smaller">WOOD</span></h3> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="fig063" style="max-width: 25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig063.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span> The Forest, - Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany</p> -</div> - -<p><b>28. Lumbering and Milling.</b> It is well to remember, -when using wood for any purpose, that it was once part -of a living tree which had roots, bark, leaves, and flowers, -and that the tree began life as a little sapling, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span> -grew taller and larger for years before it could be called -a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred -years old before it was large enough to cut down for -timber.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig064" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig064.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span> Felling a Tree</p> -</div> - -<p>The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight -trunks. They are usually cut with the ax, although the -first cut is often made partially through the trunk with a -saw. The branches are then chopped off and the body of -the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They -are rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a -sawmill, or, in case there is no river near by, are carted -on sleds or wagons to the railroad and thence to the mill.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span></p> - -<p>The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter, -the floating of the logs, or <i>river driving</i> as it is called, -beginning with the breaking up of the ice in the spring. -River driving is a very interesting and dangerous business. -Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole -river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly -that hundreds of thousands of logs are stopped in their -course, forming an immense dam which the lumbermen -call a <i>log jam</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig065" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig065.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span> A Skidway of - Adirondack Spruce</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig066" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig066.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span> River Drivers - breaking up a “Log Jam”</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig067" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig067.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span> Log Boom and - Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y.</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig068" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig068.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span> A Modern Gang - Saw—Interior of Modern Sawmill</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p> - -<p>To break up this jam very often requires much labor -and great daring on the part of the drivers, who wear -spiked shoes and are armed with long poles having sharp -steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing -of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles.</p> - -<p>Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the -river, inclosed in a <i>log boom</i>, until the mill men are -ready to saw them into planks.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig069" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig069.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span> A Modern Sawmill</p> -</div> - -<p>The boom consists of logs chained together and -stretched across the river just as a fence is built on -land to inclose cattle.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig070" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig070.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span> The Circular - Saw—Interior of Sawmill</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span></p> - -<p>The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic -machinery, and after the log enters it is not touched -by human hands until it comes out as lumber of various -sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars.</p> - -<p>Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and -these forms are called <i>lumber</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig071" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig071.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span> A Large Band Saw</p> -</div> - -<p><i>Timber</i> refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams -and joists. Planks are wide strips over one inch thick, -and boards are one inch or less in thickness, varying in -width and length. Lumber may be planed at a planing -mill, and is then known as <i>dressed</i> lumber. It may be -dressed on one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which -is free from knots, shakes, and sapwood is called <i>clear</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig072" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig072.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span> End of Log, - showing Annual Rings and Medullary Rays</p> -</div> - -<p>By examining the end of a log we can learn a great -deal of the life of the tree. It is made up of a number -of irregular rings and of lines -radiating from the center and -running in nearly straight lines -toward the bark.</p> - -<p>The number of rings tells us -the age of the tree, as a new -ring is added each year.</p> - -<p>As the tree grows, the old -wood near the center becomes -compressed and dry and is -known as the <i>heartwood</i>, while -that portion between the heartwood and bark is called -<i>sapwood</i>.</p> - -<p>In some woods the difference -between the -heartwood and sapwood -is very marked. In -ebony, for instance, the -heartwood is coal black -and the sapwood white.</p> - -<p>The sketch shows half -a log, the annual rings -being indicated, and also the radial lines, called <i>medullary -rays</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig073" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig073.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span> Log cut - lengthwise, showing how “Grain” is formed</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span></p> - -<p>Looking at the length of the log we see that the -lines in a board, which we call the <i>grain</i>, are really -the edges of the annual rings.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig074" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig074.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span> Showing - Weather Checks and “Shake”</p> -</div> - -<p>It often happens in the forest -that the wind sways the trees -to such an extent that the annual -rings separate and slide one -within the other; this produces -a defect in the wood called a -<i>shake</i> (see <i>s</i>, <a href="#fig074">Fig. 74</a>).</p> - -<p>There are other characteristics -of wood known as <i>warping</i> -and <i>shrinkage</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig075" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig075.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span></p> -</div> - -<p>After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first -looks like <a href="#fig072">Fig. 72</a>. If it is allowed to lie for some -time exposed to the weather, its -appearance changes to <a href="#fig074">Fig. 74</a>. -This is due to the evaporation -of the sap, and as there is more -sap toward the outside, the shrinkage -is greatest there and becomes -less toward the center where the -heartwood is comparatively dry. -This is an important fact to -know, because if we had cut the log, while it was -still green, into planks, as shown in <a href="#fig075">Fig. 75</a>, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span> -boards would have curled up or warped, as shown in -<a href="#fig076">Fig. 76</a>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp81" id="fig076" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig076.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span> Showing Effect of Warping</p> -</div> - -<p>Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes -the whole tree to shrink in diameter, and consequently -our planks will tend to become narrower. This is -called <i>shrinkage</i>, and in some woods amounts to a -quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a -plank sawed twelve inches wide will, after a few -months, measure only eleven and -three quarter inches.</p> - -<p>When we construct anything in -wood we must always consider how -the object will be affected by warping -and shrinkage, remembering -that the shrinkage is only across -the grain.</p> - -<p>Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing -board to see how warping and shrinkage may be -overcome.</p> - -<p>If we make it of one piece, like <i>A</i> (<a href="#fig077">Fig. 77</a>), the board -will soon change its shape to that shown in <i>B</i>, which -would make it useless for mechanical drawing, as a perfectly -flat surface is necessary. We can overcome the -warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across -the grain, as shown at <i>C</i>. The cleats would need to be -heavy or the warping force would bend them.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span></p> - -<p>A better way would be to build the board up of several -narrow strips glued together, as the warping of one -would be counteracted by the warping of its neighbors -in opposite directions; but to make doubly sure, cleats -fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added -at the ends, as shown at <i>D</i>. This has an advantage -over the first method, as the cleats in <i>C</i> are often in -the way and make the board clumsy to handle.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig077" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig077.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span> A Study in - Construction. Methods of overcoming Warping and Shrinkage</p> -</div> - -<p>The student will find many evidences about the house -of how the woodworker has tried to prevent warping -and shrinkage, as, for instance, in the paneled doors, -tables, etc.</p> - -<p>The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness, -evenness of grain, durability, etc., and every boy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span> -should know not only what our woods are used for, but -he should also know the trees when he sees them.</p> - -<p>We are indebted to the trees for many things besides -wood. They give us delightful shade and coolness in -summer; many of them produce delicious fruit and -nuts; from them we obtain such valuable products as -maple sirup and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine, -rubber, and tannin are only a few of the many tree products. -The houses we live in, the chairs we sit on,—in -fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our -pictures, the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we -write with, are of wood which was once part of the -living forest.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig078" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig078.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span> A Large - Tree being moved by a Modern Tree Mover, showing Root Formation</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br> -<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p>Our American trees may be divided roughly into two -classes: (1) those which keep their leaves the year -round, known as <i>evergreens</i>; (2) those whose leaves -drop off in the fall, called <i>broad-leaved</i>, or <i>deciduous</i> -trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves -are usually needle-shaped.</p> - -<p>Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the -oak, chestnut, hickory, maples, elms, etc.; and among -the evergreens or cone-bearing trees are the pines, -spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars.</p> - -<p>The oak family is a very important one, the wood -being hard and strong and the tree a sturdy, healthy, -and well-known specimen of tree life.</p> - -<p>White oak is perhaps the most common member of -the oak family. It grows to a very large size and has -a leaf of the form shown in <a href="#fig079">Fig. 79</a>. Observe carefully -the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch -of the next form.</p> - -<p>The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its -timber is used as a standard when comparing different<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span> -kinds of wood. If we say that the strength of white -pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak, -and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, -just as the yard and mile are standards of length. In -work which requires strength, such as carriage making, -shipbuilding, and cooperage, -white oak is used very extensively.</p> - -<p>The quartered oak used so -much for furniture is obtained -by cutting the logs in a special -manner. The method of cutting -gives a beautiful mottled -effect with the silver rays -spread out in irregular white -splashes on a dark background.</p> - -<p>We might separate the oak -into two distinct groups: (1) -those trees whose acorns ripen -in one season; (2) those which -require two years. The acorns of this latter group remain -on the tree throughout the first winter and ripen -the second summer.</p> - -<p>To the first class belong the white oak just mentioned, -the post oak, chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and -live oak.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig079" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig079.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span> Typical Leaf - of the White Oak</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p> - -<p>In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, pin, -laurel, and willow oaks.</p> - -<p>The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great -that we need never mistake one for the other. Notice the -cut of the red oak and compare it with that of the white -oak. The latter has rounded lobes, while the red-oak -leaf has sharp points and the -fingers of the leaf are indented -again with smaller teeth.</p> - -<p>The different trees in the -white-oak family all have -leaves with rounded lobes, and -most of those in the red-oak -group have pointed ones, yet -there is a difference between -members of the same family, -just as among human beings.</p> - -<p>We can tell at a glance -whether a man is a negro, a -Chinaman, or a white man. If -a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American; -and again, if an American, he may belong to the Jones -family. But all the members of the Jones family do not -look alike and we know one from another.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig080" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig080.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span> Leaf of the Post Oak</p> -</div> - -<p>This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can -tell from observation whether a tree is an evergreen or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span> -a broad-leaved tree, whether it belongs to the white-oak -group; and after studying trees a little we can tell -whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post -oak, or a mossy-cup oak.</p> - -<p>Compare the post-oak leaf (<a href="#fig080">Fig. 80</a>) with that of the -white oak. There is not a great difference in form, but -the post-oak leaf is thick, leathery, -and dark green, while the -white oak has a beautiful thin, -light green leaf, which turns red -in the fall.</p> - -<p>The post oak is a rougher and -coarser tree than the other, and -is sometimes called <i>iron oak</i> on -account of its very hard, tough -wood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig081" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig081.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span> Leaf of Mossy-Cup Oak</p> -</div> - -<p><b>29. The Mossy-Cup Oak.</b> One -of the most beautiful oaks we -have in America grows in the -South and West, and is only -rarely found in our parks in the East. It is called the -<i>mossy-cup oak</i> because the large acorn which it bears is -surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides the -nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The -leaf is larger than that of the white oak, and although -the two leaves look somewhat alike, the divisions of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span> -mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those of the white -oak, and it is not so thin and delicate.</p> - -<p>Its wood is very strong and is valuable for many -purposes, such as boats, carriages, farming implements, -railroad ties, and cooperage.</p> - -<p><b>30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak.</b> These two trees -are usually found growing in wild places, and the -black-jack oak is often called <i>barren oak</i> from the fact -that it frequents bleak and barren plains, such as the -sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig082" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig082.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span> Leaves of - Black Oak and Black-jack Oak (Black-jack on right)</p> -</div> - -<p>The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that -of the black-jack having only three main lobes, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span> -divisions, while the black oak -has five. However, the leaves -of these two trees vary considerably, -and one must always look -for the typical leaf, which is the -one shown in the sketch. The -black-jack is a small, shrubby -tree, with branches often twisted -and contorted, and its wood is -not very valuable except as fuel -or for making charcoal.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig083" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig083.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span> Leaf of Red Oak</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig084" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig084.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span> Wood of the Red - Oak, showing three sections. The one on the left shows annual rings - obtained by a horizontal cut through the tree. Central view shows - vertical cut at center of tree. View on right shows vertical cut - between center and bark as illustrated in <a href="#fig073">Fig. 73</a>.</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span></p> - -<p>The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do -those of the red, scarlet, and pin oaks.</p> - -<p><b>31. The Red Oak.</b> The red oak is one of our largest -and most noble trees, growing taller even than the white -oak, and may always be distinguished -by its very large, -shiny, dark green leaves.</p> - -<p>Its bark is also much -smoother and darker than -the white oak. Its acorn is -very bitter and -can easily be recognized -by its -shallow cup and -by its large size. -It is the largest of the -two-year acorns. The -wood of the red oak is -darker than that of the -white, and is used in -the manufacture of furniture.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig085" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig085.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span> Scarlet Oak</p> -</div> - -<p><b>32. The Scarlet Oak.</b> This tree is often confused with -the red, but a glance at the leaves will show a great -difference. That of the scarlet has deeper indentations -and is much more slender and skeleton-like in shape. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span> -takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it -takes on when the leaves change color in the fall.</p> - -<p><b>33. The Pin Oak.</b> The pin-oak leaf is much more -readily confounded with the scarlet oak than that of any -other tree. In fact, no two trees have leaves so nearly -alike as these two; yet a glance at two typical leaves -placed side by side will -show considerable difference.</p> - -<p>The pin-oak leaf is -smaller than the other, -and in proportion to its -size the indentations are -not so deep.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig086" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig086.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span> Pin Oak</p> -</div> - -<p>The pin-oak tree has a -great many small branchlets, -or stems, which give the tree -the appearance of a bundle -of pins, especially when the -leaves are off in winter. It -is a beautiful tree and is now -being planted very extensively as a shade tree. It is -hardy, and stands city air very well indeed. Its bark -is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather.</p> - -<p>The oak family is such a large and valuable one that -we cannot afford to pass it over lightly. In the South<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span> -grows the willow oak, famous for its shade and its -leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little -farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the <i>shingle -oak</i>, so called from the fact that its wood is mostly -made into shingles. It is also known as the <i>laurel -oak</i>, because its leaves are shaped like those of the -laurel, although not -so glossy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="fig087" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig087.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span> Pin Oak in Winter</p> -</div> - -<p>This is such an -odd shape for an oak -leaf that one would -be likely to pass it -by and not recognize -it but for the -fact that it bears -acorns. This is always -the test,—“By -their fruits ye -shall know them.”</p> - -<p>If we meet a new -tree which seems -not to be an oak because its leaves are new to us, and -it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak.</p> - -<p>A very interesting group of trees which come under -this head are the chestnut oaks. At first glance one -would take one of these trees to be a chestnut, but it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span> -bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch -shows the two leaves side by side.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig088" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig088.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span></p> - <p class="caption">Chestnut <span class="spacer">Chestnut Oak</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly -resemble each other, by looking carefully we see that the -teeth on the chestnut leaf are pointed, while those on -the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is also -a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long -and narrow, while that of the chestnut oak is broader.</p> - -<p>There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their -leaves are quite similar and they all belong to the white-oak -group and ripen their acorns in one season. They -grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span> -times at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson measuring seven feet in -diameter. The acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought -after by the squirrels.</p> - -<p>The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for -cooperage, railroad ties, and fencing.</p> - -<p><b>34. The Live Oak.</b> No list of American oaks would -be complete without the live oak. This is a southern -tree and is remarkable in many ways. Its -leaf has no indentations, remains green all -winter, and is thick and leathery.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig089" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig089.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span> Leaf of Live Oak</p> -</div> - -<p>The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic -foot weighing nearly sixty pounds. It is -as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes -a high polish and has a fine grain, it soon -dulls the edge of a tool.</p> - -<p>Before the age of steel, when all ships -were wooden, it was much used in shipbuilding, -and the government bought large tracts of land -where live oak grew abundantly, so that the United -States navy should never lack the necessary timber.</p> - -<p>It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia, -and along the Gulf to Texas.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br> -<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p>It is the maple family to which we are indebted for -much of the glorious coloring of our autumn landscapes.</p> - -<p>It is true that all trees play their part in the general -color scheme, but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of -the fall foliage we must look to the maples.</p> - -<p>When we think of the word <i>maple</i> we are apt to -have visions of other things besides trees. Maple and -sugar or sirup seem to go together, and in fact some of -us do not know that there are other maples besides the -sugar maple.</p> - -<p>This fine American tree is one of which we should be -proud. Not only is it a handsome large tree, valuable -for its shade and the beautiful colors it wears in the fall, -but its wood is hard and valuable,—it is often called -<i>rock maple</i>,—and besides all these good qualities it furnishes -us with our maple sirup and sugar.</p> - -<p>The process of making maple sugar is quite interesting -and may be divided into two stages,—gathering the -sap, and boiling down.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span></p> - -<p>Very early in the spring, often as early as March, -the sap begins to flow up through the tree. The farmer -knows by experience when to tap the tree, which he -does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger. -Into this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through -which the lifeblood of the tree—the sap—flows in a -steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or bucket placed beneath -to catch it.</p> - -<p>The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks -of a clock, one a second. This continues for two or -three weeks, until each tree has yielded something like -twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons of sap to -produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five -pounds of maple sugar. In New England and New York -there are maple groves containing thousands of trees, -and one farm alone produces five thousand pounds of -sugar in a season.</p> - -<p>Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the -trees does not kill them unless improperly done. The -farmer must not tap them at the wrong time nor in too -many places. The tree will stand a great deal if properly -treated, but harsh treatment will kill it.</p> - -<p>The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured -into large boilers or evaporators and boiled until it becomes -a sirup. The old-fashioned test to find out when -the boiling had been carried on long enough was to drop<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span> -a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish. -If it hardened, the boiling was finished.</p> - -<p><a href="#fig090">Fig. 90</a> shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that -leaf which is most often confounded with it, viz., the -Norway maple. Observe the two closely. The sugar -maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while the -Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous, -and the leaf is much thinner and more delicate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig090" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig090.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span></p> - <p class="caption">Sugar Maple <span class="spacer">Norway Maple</span></p> -</div> - -<p>The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so -dense a shade as the Norway, which is a low-growing -tree with close, dark foliage.</p> - -<p><b>35. The Silver Maple.</b> The one which naturally comes -next in the list is the <i>silver</i>, <i>soft</i>, or <i>white maple</i>, as it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span> -variously termed. From the ground up to the topmost -leaf the whole character of this tree suggests the word -<i>thoroughbred</i>. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy -in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty -and might truly be called -the acme of perfection in -tree life. Its name is -derived from the fact that the under side of the leaf is -silvery white. The upper side being dark green gives -a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the foliage, which -as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the -American elm.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig091" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig091.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span></p> - <p class="caption">The Silver Maple <span class="spacer">The Red Maple</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span></p> - -<p>This description does not always fit, however, as it -is planted extensively in cities where horses gnaw the -fine bark; smoke, soot, and coal gas discolor the leaves; -and the caterpillars complete the work of destroying its -beauty. Yet it still lives, -even if it does not thrive -under such harsh treatment. -Its wood is white, -soft, and not very valuable.</p> - -<p><b>36. The Red Maple.</b> A -relative of the silver maple -and one which might -be mistaken for it is the -red, swamp, or wild maple. -It is this tree which -displays the brightest reds -in autumn. Referring to -the sketch it will be seen -that the leaf is smaller -and three-fingered instead -of five, as in the -silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during -the entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig092" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig092.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span> The Sycamore Maple</p> -</div> - -<p><b>37. The Sycamore Maple.</b> In the rows on rows of -maples so common in our towns and cities one will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span> -often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser than any -of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an -importation from Europe, known as the <i>sycamore maple</i> -because of its resemblance to the sycamore leaf. It is -easily identified by its large size, coarseness, the very -long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire -edge is finely toothed,—in -which point it differs from -all the foregoing varieties. -Its value as a shade tree is -nearly equal to the Norway, -and in Europe it is often -planted in preference to all -other maples.</p> - -<p><b>38. The Striped Maple.</b> -Growing in the shade of -other trees and forming part -of the undergrowth of our -North woods is a small tree -known as the <i>striped maple</i>, -from the stripes which run -up and down its bark. The New England name for this -little mountain tree is <i>moosewood</i>, from the fact that -the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which -form his chief food in winter. The leaves are quite -large, but very thin, soft, and delicate.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig093" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig093.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span> The Striped Maple, or Moosewood</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p> - -<p><b>39. Maple Keys.</b> The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples -are known as <i>winged</i>. The flat, thin part gives the -seed a swirling motion as it drops from the tree. This -is the way nature has of spreading the seed over a -large area so that more trees may be started in life. -Many tree seeds are winged, but the maple seed or -key is so large and so common that every one must -at some time have noticed it.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig094" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig094.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span> Maple “Keys,” a - Common Form of Winged Seeds</p> -</div> - -<p><b>40. The Ash-Leaved Maple.</b> The -ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common -in our parks. It has no resemblance -to other maple leaves, yet it -bears the unmistakable maple key,—“By -their fruits ye shall know -them.” It is therefore a maple.</p> - -<p>The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, -is interesting because it is our only -maple having a compound leaf; that -is, a leaf stem with several distinct leaflets. Compound -leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and the -horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved -maple is a curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but -grows almost anywhere. It is a small tree, and its wood -is not especially valuable except for making paper pulp.</p> - -<p>North America has only nine varieties of maple, while -China and Japan have more than thirty. Indeed, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span> -to Japan, whose forests are largely made up of maples, -that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and -exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted -so extensively on our lawns and in our parks have such -a variety of form and color -that no written description -can do them justice. <a href="#fig096">Fig. 96</a> -will give some idea of their -shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot -be shown, range from dark purple to the most delicate -combinations of white and green. The finest of these -dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to an ostrich -plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig095" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig095.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span> Ash-Leaved - Maple, or Box Elder</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig096" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig096.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span> Japan Maples</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br> -<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p>The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig -with several leaves is a compound leaf or a number of -simple leaves. This is a very easy thing to decide. At -the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins -the twig or branch, is always a little bud. -When the leaf drops off in the fall -the bud remains, and in the spring -begins to swell and finally -develops into a leaf. This -bud then is the promise of -next year’s leaf, and it is -always found at the base of -the leaf stem, as shown at -<i>A</i>. There is no such bud at -the base of the leaflet on the -compound leaf, as shown at -<i>B</i>. If then we find no bud at <i>B</i>, we must look farther -down until we discover it at <i>C</i>. This furnishes the test -and we know that our specimen is a compound leaf.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="fig097" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig097.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span> Method of - distinguishing Compound and Simple Leaves</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span></p> - -<p>This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chestnuts, -buckeyes, hickories, and walnuts all have compound -leaves.</p> - -<p>The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but -was imported from Europe, where it is a great favorite. -The leaflets number five or seven, always an odd number, -and they radiate from one central point, the odd -one in the center usually being the largest.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig098" style="max-width: 18.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig098.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span> The Horse-Chestnut</p> -</div> - -<p>It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they -come out of the sticky buds in the spring. They unfold -and grow very rapidly and soon the tree brings forth -large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p> - -<p>The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the -season do not seem to be very useful, yet they are so -solid and shiny that every boy delights to gather them.</p> - -<p>An American tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut -is the buckeye. The leaflets on the buckeye leaf -number five, sometimes seven, and radiate like the horse-chestnut -from a common center.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig099" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig099.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span></p> - <p class="caption">Buckeye <span class="spacer">Hickory</span></p> -</div> - -<p>This tree is well known through the Ohio valley, -where it is very common, Ohio being called the Buckeye -State. The nuts are not edible, but the wood is -very tough and strong and is used extensively in making -farm implements.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span></p> - -<p>Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory -shown in <a href="#fig099">Fig. 99</a>. Both leaves are compound, and each -has five leaflets, but they are quite different, because the -hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of the leaf-stalk -instead of radiating from one point.</p> - -<p>There are several varieties of hickory, including the -shagbark, or shellbark, the pignut, and pecan.</p> - -<p>The name <i>shagbark hickory</i> is taken from the peculiar -appearance of the bark, which hangs in loose pieces -nearly a foot long and gives the tree a very shaggy -effect. <i>Shellbark</i> is another common name for this tree.</p> - -<p>The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but -the kernel is very sweet, and is considered by some -superior to all other hickory nuts.</p> - -<p>The <i>pignut hickory</i> is so called because the nuts in -some parts of the country are used to feed the pigs. It -is also called <i>broom hickory</i>. The nuts are small and -become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood, -however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard -and tough. There is a difference between strength and -toughness. Oak is strong, but not tough. Hickory is -both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will -stand bending without breaking. A wood which will -bend easily but is not strong cannot be called tough. -It must be both strong and elastic, and hickory has -both of these qualities.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span></p> - -<p><b>41. The Pecan.</b> We usually think of the pecan nut -as different from the hickory, yet they belong to the -same family. The pecan hickory is a southern tree -which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio -River, and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant -one hundred and fifty feet high, producing an enormous -crop of the sweetest and most delicately flavored -nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as -many as fifteen.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig100" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig100.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span></p> - <p class="caption">Black Walnut <span class="spacer">Butternut</span></p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></p> - -<p><b>42. The Black Walnut and Butternut.</b> Perhaps no -two trees are so difficult for the city boy or girl to -distinguish as the butternut and black walnut. Both -have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying -from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from -fifteen to twenty-three for the black walnut. A leaf -having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong to either tree -if there were no other way to distinguish them. The -teeth on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper -than on the butternut, and the fuzzy stem is lacking. -The green nuts, too, are different, the black walnuts -being just about the size and shape of green lemons, -the butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable -feature is the odor. Having once smelled the -crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut, a -person will thereafter need no other test.</p> - -<p>The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture -was at one time very common. The great supply of -this valuable wood has been exhausted and other woods -have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks, -for which purpose nothing seems better suited.</p> - -<p>Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good -polish and is occasionally used in cabinet work.</p> - -<p><b>43. The Locusts.</b> The locust family is a large one; its -members all bear compound leaves, and their fruit is in -the form of beans instead of nuts.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span></p> - -<p>The common yellow or black locust is famous for its -hard, durable wood, its delicate light green leaves, and -its white flowers.</p> - -<p>The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are -off, but its wood is so valuable that its beauty is not -considered. The wood is yellow -and becomes very hard -after it has dried.</p> - -<p>The honey locust is another -common member of this family.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="fig101" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig101.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span></p> - <p class="caption">The Locust <span class="spacer">The Honey Locust</span></p> -</div> - -<p><b>44. The Honey Locust.</b> Its leaves are much finer and -somewhat resemble ferns. It may always be known by -the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which grow all over -the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span> -being found in great bunches and as long as six inches. -Its fruit is a long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and -contains little light brown beans. The wood is strong -and durable.</p> - -<p><b>45. The Ash.</b> Every boy who has owned a rowboat -knows that oars are made of wood from the ash. This -is because the oar must be elastic as well as strong, -and the timber of the ash tree supplies -these two qualities. The ash -is one of our tallest and noblest -forest trees. It is rather slim in -build, with beautiful clean shiny -green foliage. The members of -this group seem to be -fond of colors, and we -have the white ash, red -ash, green ash, blue ash, -and black ash.</p> - -<p>There are slight differences -in the leaves and -seeds, but, as in other trees, when we have once seen an -ash seed we can always thereafter distinguish an ash tree. -<a href="#fig102">Fig. 102</a> shows the seed of the red ash. It is a winged -seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="fig102" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig102.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span> Red Ash</p> -</div> - -<p>The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to -seven leaflets and the black ash has from seven to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span> -eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and elastic, has a -handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides -making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those -farm implements which require strength. The Indian -could find no better wood for his bow, and even Cupid -is said to have first made his arrows of ash.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br> -<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES</span></h3> - -</div> - -<p><b>46. The Elm.</b> The elm is the well-known shade tree -of New England. Its tall, graceful form is familiar to -every visitor and native of that section of country, where -it is found along every roadway and in every city.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig103" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig103.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span> The American Elm</p> -</div> - -<p>Who can think of New England without its noble -elms? It would indeed be a different country. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span> -elm may be said to represent New England character,—dignified, -sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall, -with foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives -the desired shade, yet does not obstruct the view; while -its stately dignity gives an air of comfort and repose to -the grounds, which it seems to protect from the elements.</p> - -<p>Its wood is valuable for certain kinds -of work, being tough and strong, but it -is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is -difficult to polish. It is used considerably -for wheel hubs and in cooperage.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="fig104" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig104.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span> Leaf of American Elm</p> -</div> - -<p>Observe the edge of the elm leaf -carefully. The teeth not only curve -gracefully toward the extreme tip of -the leaf, but they are themselves also -toothed,—a form known as double-toothed. -The leaf is coarse and rough -to the touch, in marked contrast to the -birch family, whose leaves it slightly -resembles. There are several elms famous in the history -of our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under -which George Washington drew his sword and took command -of the American Army on July 3, 1775; there are -several other “Washington Elms” in different parts of -the country, while New Haven is known as the City of -Elms. William Penn made his famous treaty with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span> -Indians under the branches of a magnificent elm, which -remained standing until it was over two hundred years -old, when it was finally blown down. The spot has been -marked by a marble column.</p> - -<p>The tree is called the <i>American</i>, or <i>white</i>, <i>elm</i>, and we -have several other varieties growing wild, including the -well-known <i>slippery elm</i>, so called -because the inner bark is slippery -and edible.</p> - -<p><b>47. The Birches.</b> If the black -birch with its sweet, aromatic bark -is not known to a boy, the white, or -canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems -to be the fate of this beautiful tree -to be disfigured by every wandering -youth who has strength enough -to tear off a strip of its paper-like -bark.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig105" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig105.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span> Leaf of Black Birch</p> -</div> - -<p>The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished -from the elm by its smoothness and thinness. -Its base is slightly heartshaped, the edge is double-toothed, -the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the -taste, and the leaves grow in pairs.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig106" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig106.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span> Birches bordering a Canal</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span></p> - -<p><b>48. White Birch.</b> The famous white, paper, or canoe -birch has a leaf somewhat broader than the black variety, -but without the heartshaped base. Its bark is its peculiar -feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes off in layers -and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof, -a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who constructed -their canoes of it. The wood is hard and tough.</p> - -<p><b>49. Gray Birch.</b> A -smaller tree, known as -the <i>gray birch</i>, also has -white bark, but it is not -as perfect as that of the -canoe birch, does not peel -in layers, and has triangular -black spots on the -trunk beneath every -limb.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig107" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig107.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span> Leaf of Gray Birch</p> -</div> - -<p>It loves barren, rocky -places, abandoned farms, -etc., and is sometimes -called <i>old field birch</i>. It -has a fine, delicate foliage, -which is not duplicated -in the forest. Each -leaf swings from a long, slender stem, and every passing -breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen. The -leaf form is very odd,—a broad, flat base, and then a -long, graceful curve out to a fine point, the whole edge -being finely double-toothed.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p> - -<p><b>50. The Beech.</b> The difference in the leaf forms of -the birch and beech is very marked. Both have toothed -edges, but in the beech the spaces between the teeth are -so remarkably shallow that one has to search for them.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig108" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig108.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span> A Remarkable - Growth of Beeches in Greater New York</p> -</div> - -<p>There has been a common belief for generations that -the beech is proof against lightning, and recent experiments -prove that beech wood offers considerably greater -resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar, or -willow; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood -is hard, strong, and tough, and will take a high polish.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span></p> - -<p><b>51. Hornbeam.</b> Closely related to the beeches are two -little trees which have delicate birchlike foliage and wood -of great hardness,—the hornbeam, or blue beech, and -the hop hornbeam, -or ironwood.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="fig109" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig109.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span> Leaf of American Beech</p> -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="fig110" style="max-width: 20.3125em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig110.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span> Ironwood, or Hop Hornbeam</p> -</div> - -<p>The leaves of -these two varieties -are quite similar, that of the ironwood being somewhat -the larger.</p> - -<p>The name <i>hop hornbeam</i> is derived from the fruit, -which resembles the hop, and the name <i>ironwood</i> from -the great strength and hardness of the wood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span></p> - -<p><b>52. Buttonball.</b> No list of trees would be complete -which did not include those three forest giants, buttonball, -tulip, and sweet gum. The names <i>buttonwood</i>, -<i>buttonball</i>, <i>sycamore</i>, and <i>plane tree</i>, as the same tree is -called in different parts of the country, all apply to that -fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its -leaves, leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which -produces an enormous crop -of buttonballs so well known -to country boys and girls. -The leaves are in proportion -to the size of the tree, often -measuring a foot in length, -and being frequently covered -on the under side with a -white down called <i>fungus</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig111" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig111.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span> Leaf of Buttonwood</p> -</div> - -<p>The wood of the sycamore, -as it is incorrectly called, is -valuable for cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and -taking a high polish. It is, however, difficult to work, -and has a tendency to warp.</p> - -<p><b>53. Sweet Gum.</b> The sweet-gum tree also produces a -crop of balls, or seed pods, but although the same size -as the buttonballs, they need never be confused, as the -gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points, while -the buttonballs are comparatively smooth.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p> - -<p>The leaves of the sweet gum, or <i>liquid amber</i>—so -called from the amber-colored gum the tree gives out—remind -one of the starfish, being five-fingered and decidedly -different from any leaf in the forest. The tree -grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its -wood is a handsome brown color with fine and intricate -markings. It warps badly, -but is valued for wood turning -on account of its softness -and even grain.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="fig112" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig112.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span> Sweet Gum, or Liquid Amber</p> -</div> - -<p><b>54. Tulip.</b> The lumber -furnished by the tulip tree, -commonly called <i>whitewood</i>, -is less liable to warp -than gum wood, and is somewhat -harder. Just why it -should be called whitewood -is not clear, as it is much -darker than white pine and -of a greenish-yellow color. -The leaf of the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only -four points, without any small teeth, and with an outline -so odd that one often wonders if nature did not use a -pair of scissors in cutting it out.</p> - -<p>Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem. -The glory of the tree—which gives it its name—is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span> -the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it bears in the spring. -They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in color, -with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown -cone, which remains on the tree all winter. The -tree thrives best south of the Ohio valley, where it -is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter. -The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes -from its trunk, and in some -sections it is still called <i>canoe -wood</i>.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig113" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig113.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span> Tulip, or Whitewood</p> -</div> - -<p><b>55. Basswood, or Linden.</b> A -very valuable group of trees -for both shade and timber -are the basswoods, or lindens. -There are several varieties, -the European linden thriving -here as readily as our native -varieties. These trees may -always be distinguished by -the leaves, which are heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one -side from the middle line being always larger than the -other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been joined -along the center.</p> - -<p>This is a very common feature among certain classes -of trees, such as the elms. Another remarkable feature -is the seed, or bract, shown in the sketch (<a href="#fig115">Fig. 115</a>).</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span></p> - -<p>The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade, -and has sweet flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes -called the <i>bee tree</i>, because the bees swarm all over it -in the summer time. Its timber is valuable, being free -from knots and of such an even grain that it is much -sought after for some kinds of carving.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig114" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig114.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span> American Linden, - or Basswood, showing the Sugar-Loaf Form of the Tree</p> -</div> - -<p>The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from -basswood.</p> - -<p>Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several -familiar families, all loved by some of us for some reason.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span></p> - -<p>The willow is always a striking tree, not only because -of its weeping or drooping appearance, but also because -we usually associate it with water.</p> - -<p>What is more common in the country than a stream -hidden by the willows which crowd its bank and dip -down into the clear -water!</p> - -<p>Then, too, we watch -it for the first sign of -spring, and friends in different -states often vie -with each other to -discover the first -<i>pussy willow</i>, the name given to the soft, downy buds -which appear often before the snow has melted.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig115" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig115.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span> Leaf and Bract of Linden</p> -</div> - -<p>The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs -in spring the bark can be separated from the wood and a -whistle or simple flute manufactured.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p> - -<p>The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being -used chiefly by pulp makers, but it grows where no -other trees can exist, being found nearly all over the -world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any -other broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over -one hundred and fifty varieties, which vary from small -shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high. Its soft and -gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig116" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig116.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span> A Weeping Willow</p> -</div> - -<p><b>56. The Poplars.</b> In the poplars we have a group -of trees similar to the willows in some ways but very -different in others. The wood is weak and of little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span> -use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness -ends.</p> - -<p>To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose -leaves are continually trembling,—in fact, the whole -family is a restless one, the constant motion being due -to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened.</p> - -<p>The people of Scotland have a -superstition that it was of aspen -wood that our Saviour’s cross was made, and that the -tree shivers in constant remembrance of that fact.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig117" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig117.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span></p> - <p class="caption">Aspen <span class="spacer">Aspen Poplar, or Large-Toothed Aspen</span></p> -</div> - -<p>Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen, -the Lombardy poplar, and the cottonwood.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span></p> - -<p>The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to -reach toward the clouds, and its tall, narrow form is -familiar in many sections of our country, although the -tree was originally imported from Europe.</p> - -<p>Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known -members of this family. Cottonwood is best known in -the West, where it often -constitutes the chief and -only growth along the water -courses, and balm of -Gilead is known as one -of our common city shade -trees. This latter tree, often -called the balsam, is -really an important tree -of the great northwestern -country, being found plentifully -in the Klondike, -and often forming in that -far northern country great -forests thousands of square -miles in extent. It is used as a shade tree because it -stands the smoke and gas of the city where many other -trees pine away and die.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig118" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig118.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span> Cottonwood, or Carolina Poplar</p> -</div> - -<p><b>57. Sassafras.</b> We find many freaks in the tree -world, and nature seems to have tried to see how odd<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span> -she really could be; for instance, on the sassafras tree -we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two, -and three divisions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig119" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig119.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span> Sassafras</p> -</div> - -<p>This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite -small, grows under favorable conditions to a height of -fifty feet. It is noted for the pleasant taste of its leaves, -twigs, and roots, which are used considerably in flavoring -medicines.</p> - -<p><b>58. Mulberry.</b> Another tree noted for the peculiar -shape of its leaves is the mulberry. There are three -common kinds, named, from the color of their berries, -<i>red</i>, <i>black</i>, and <i>white</i>.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span></p> - -<p>It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of -the silkworm. The leaves of this tree are quite regular, -but those of the red and black vary apparently as they -please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in size -or shape, and they are very soft and downy.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig120" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig120.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span> Red Mulberry, - showing Variation in Leaf Form</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br> -<span class="smaller">THE EVERGREENS</span></h3> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig121" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig121.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span> White Pines - at Westbury, Long Island</p> -</div> - -<p>The evergreen trees, so called because their needle-like -leaves remain on the tree all winter, are fully as -interesting as the broad-leaved trees. Without them -our landscapes in winter would be much more barren -and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer. -A pine forest with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered -floor is a sight to be long remembered.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig122" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig122.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span> A View showing how - Evergreens help to enrich the Landscape. Arbor Vitæ Hedges</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span></p> - -<p>The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among -the soft timbers, although the yellow pine is far from soft.</p> - -<p><b>59. White Pine.</b> The king among evergreens is usually -admitted to be the white pine. Its soft, bluish-green -foliage, the widespreading branches, and -the value of its fine, even-grained wood -give it the first rank.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp42" id="fig123" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig123.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span> Needles and Cone of White Pine</p> -</div> - -<p>Pines have needle-shaped leaves -which grow in groups of two, -three, or five. White pine needles -grow in groups of five and -are from three to four inches -long. The cones which contain -the seeds are about five inches -long. The tree grows tall and -straight, and formerly grew in -great forests covering thousands -of square miles; the wood is so -free from pitch and is so easily worked with tools that -these great forests have been almost annihilated by the -lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has become quite -expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large -enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in -the future white pine will be only a memory.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span></p> - -<p><b>60. Georgia Pine.</b> The southern yellow pine, or Georgia -pine, is a very different tree from its northern cousin, the -white pine, furnishing us with a resinous yellow wood, -much harder than white pine, and a beautiful and valuable -material for the interiors of buildings. It is also -very durable and is frequently used for exposed places, -such as the decks of ships.</p> - -<p>The needles are very long, measuring a foot and sometimes -fifteen inches in length.</p> - -<p>The seed cones are from six to -ten inches long, and the scales have -little prickles on their ends. The -tree grows throughout the southern -states from Virginia to Texas, -and the cutting of its timber is a -valuable industry of the South.</p> - -<p><b>61. Yellow Pine.</b> The common -yellow pine must not be confounded -with the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has -needles growing three in a bunch, and the latter short -needles three or four inches long, growing two and sometimes -three in a group. The cone of the common yellow -pine is also very much smaller, being only two inches -long.</p> - -<p>Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring, -ceiling, and interior finishing.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig124" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig124.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span> Hemlock</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span></p> - -<p>There are several less important kinds of pine, such -as the northern and Jersey scrub pines, and the red, -or Norway pine.</p> - -<p>Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of -the evergreen family.</p> - -<p><b>62. Hemlock</b> is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with -drooping branches and little needles not over half an -inch long. It is a northern tree except along the -Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as -Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things -to be found among the common trees. They are no -longer than the hemlock needles.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig125" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig125.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span> The Influence of - Hemlock on the Winter Landscape. Snow Scene</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span></p> - -<p>The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very -easily and being afflicted with <i>shakes</i>, a defect caused -by the annual layers or rings breaking away from each -other when the trees are swayed by the winter storms. -The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin.</p> - -<p><b>63. Spruce.</b> The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen -trees which ornament so many of our old farm dooryards -are usually some species of spruce. The spruce -is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so -commonly used for Christmas trees, but they are so -different that they need never be confused.</p> - -<p>There are several varieties of spruce, including the -red, black, white, and Norway, but they all bear a family -resemblance.</p> - -<p>Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found -that the needles completely surround it. This is not -true of the fir. Then the spruce needles are sharp at -the tip, while the fir needles are blunt.</p> - -<p>This family is distinctly a northern group, being -found as far north as Hudson Bay and forming dense -forests, particularly on mountain sides. One may often -see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the -broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces -extending clear up to the summit.</p> - -<p>The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee, -but in that latitude it grows only at high elevations.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span> -It has cones about one and a half inches long, and its -wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is used -for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for -the frames of buildings.</p> - -<p>The black spruce is the northern brother of the red, -and is really a Canadian tree which occasionally reaches -down into the United States. It reaches the Mackenzie -River on the north and covers large areas in Manitoba.</p> - -<p>It takes its name from the dark, -somber color of its foliage, which seems -almost black against the snowy hillsides.</p> - -<p>The cones are the same size as on the -red spruce, but they persist in remaining -on the tree for several years. The wood -is soft and weak and is used for sounding-boards, -pulp, and light framing for -houses.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig126" style="max-width: 12.5em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig126.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span> Black Spruce</p> -</div> - -<p>The white spruce is similar to the other two, but -lighter in color, cones a trifle longer and softer, and -needles more slender. It is a northern tree; its wood -is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finishing -the interior of houses.</p> - -<p>Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importation -from Europe, where its majestic height graces the -mountains from the Alps to Norway and Sweden. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span> -grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and -flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones -are four or five inches long. Its wood is known in -Europe as <i>deal</i>.</p> - -<p><b>64. Cypress.</b> In the swamps of our southern states, -from Maryland south along the Gulf of Mexico, are -found great dark forests of -the bald cypress.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="fig127" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig127.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span> Cypress</p> -</div> - -<p>They grow directly out -of the water and are famous -for a peculiar formation of -the roots called <i>cypress -knees</i>,—lumpy growths -which come up out of the -water as if they were in -search of air. The cypress -is a tall, spirelike tree, -which has the most delicate, -feathery needles imaginable. -They drop off in the fall, so that the tree -is sometimes called <i>deciduous cypress</i>. The cones are -roundish and about an inch long. The timber furnished -by this tree is very handsome in grain and valuable for -many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing.</p> - -<p><b>65. The Balsam Fir</b>, or our famous Christmas tree, is -noted for its great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span> -for invalids, especially consumptives, are frequently -built in the midst of great fir forests, that the sufferers -may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with -the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used -to fill pillows, which are said to soothe tired and worn-out -people to sleep.</p> - -<p>We are all familiar with the sweet, <i>woodsy</i> smell of -the Christmas tree. No other tree can take its place. -It brings visions of the country, of the woods and fields -and flowers, and it will always -be dear to us.</p> - -<p>The balsam fir can always -be distinguished from the -spruce by the fact that the -needles only come out at -the sides of the twig instead -of from all directions, as in -the spruce, and its end is -blunt, whereas that of the -spruce is sharply pointed.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig128" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig128.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span> Balsam Fir</p> -</div> - -<p>The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters -which contain the balsam, <i>Canada balsam</i> it is usually -called, well known for its healing qualities.</p> - -<p>The cones are from two to four inches long, stand -upright on the branches, and the wood is not very -valuable.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span></p> - -<p><b>66. The Cedars.</b> No list of evergreen trees would be -complete without the cedars. In this group is the well-known -hedge tree, arbor vitæ, sometimes erroneously -called <i>white cedar</i>. It is famous for its flattened, bright -green, scaly leaves, with their strong, pungent odor.</p> - -<p>This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very -little knowledge as to its real shape and height if -allowed to grow naturally; but -it is said to reach a height of -fifty feet under favorable conditions.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig129" style="max-width: 15.625em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig129.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span> Arbor Vitæ</p> -</div> - -<p><b>67. White Cedar.</b> The real -white cedar has a more delicate -leaf and is fond of cool -swamps.</p> - -<p>It has a conical shape and is -much larger than the arbor vitæ, -reaching sometimes ninety -feet. The wood is very valuable, -being soft but durable, and is used for shingles, -posts, and boats. It has the property of enduring the -changes such as posts or other structural members are -obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks -next to yellow locust in this particular.</p> - -<p><b>68. Red Cedar</b> is the tree which supplies our lead -pencils. It is remarkable for its straight, even grain,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span> -and the ease with which it can be worked. This is the -familiar tree of our roadside, where the birds who feast -on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and -unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations -by dropping the seeds on the ground.</p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig130" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig130.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span> Red Cedar growing along - Roadside from Seed dropped by Birds</p> -</div> - -<p>The red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot -exist, but like other trees responds to good treatment -and reaches its best development in the balmy -and luxuriant South.</p> - -<p>It is found from Maine to Florida and from the -Atlantic to the Pacific. In the North it rarely grows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span> -over twenty feet high, and is of compact growth, but in -Florida it reaches eighty feet.</p> - -<p>The leaves are remarkable in that there are two -shapes, the sharp or awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped, -growing upon the same branch.</p> - -<p>The wood is valuable for many purposes and has been -used so extensively that it is becoming scarce.</p> - -<p>Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for -lead pencils for years, and it is said that during the -Civil War, when the whole southern coast was blockaded, -the European manufacturers were obliged to scour -the world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar.</p> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span></p> - -<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br> -<span class="smaller">THE BIG TREES</span></h3> - -</div> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig131" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig131.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span> Big Trees scarred by - Fire at the Base. Redwood Meadow, California</p> -</div> - -<p>Each section of country has its own peculiar trees, -and those described have been mainly representative -of the eastern states; but no list of American trees -would be complete without the “big trees,” as they are -commonly called, of California. The annual rings of -these giants show them to be from two thousand to -four thousand years old.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig132" style="max-width: 21.875em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig132.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span> Big Trees, “General - Grant” and “General Sherman,” Calaveras County, California</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig133" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig133.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span> “General Grant,” a - Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, California</p> -</div> - -<p>It is hard to realize this great age. It means that -for centuries and centuries before the white men came -these kings of the forests looked down on generations -and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have -seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful -tales they might relate if they could only talk!</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig134" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig134.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span> Redwood Logs in - Humboldt County, California</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p> - -<p>On that fateful day over four hundred years ago, -when the three little caravels of Columbus sighted the -West Indies, these hoary old trees were twenty-five hundred -years old. They should be sacred to every American, -and not one should ever be cut down for lumber.</p> - -<p>There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood -and the so-called “big trees,” which are the largest trees -in the world. They both belong to the cone-bearing -(coniferous) group, and the needles are only three quarters -of an inch long and the little cones an inch.</p> - -<p>The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike -red cedar, but is softer and is used for many purposes -on the Pacific coast.</p> - -<p>The big trees are now carefully guarded by the -government. One grove alone which contains seven -hundred of these fine trees, called the Mariposa Grove, -has been reserved as a national park, and is watched -carefully to keep out forest fires, etc.</p> - -<p>Many of the best known of these trees are given -names. One is called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” because of -a peculiar opening at the base.</p> - -<p>The most famous perhaps is the “Grizzly Giant.” -This one is ninety-three feet in circumference at the -ground, and its first branch is two hundred feet above -the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered -the largest tree in the world.</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig135" style="max-width: 43.75em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig135.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span> Redwood Logs blasted - apart for Easier Handling (a very wasteful method)</p> -</div> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span></p> - -<p>We can get some idea of what these figures represent -when we know that it takes five men three weeks to -cut one down, and that the cost of felling one of these -monsters is five hundred dollars.</p> - -<p>A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances -have been held on it, and on one very large one a ballroom -has been built for this special purpose.</p> - -<p>As one Californian has said, “The redwood forests -are apparently imperishable, except through the ax, as -the trees are rarely injured by fire. The redwood is -the only lumber that can take the place of the white -pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany -and black walnut, displace oak for railroad ties, cypress -and cedar for shingles, and surpass all other woods for -durability when in contact with the earth or when -exposed to moisture.”</p> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span></p> - -<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig136" style="max-width: 31.25em;"> - <img class="w100" src="images/fig136.jpg" alt=""> - <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span> Immense Flock - of Sheep being herded illegally in a United States Government Forest - Reservation. (They kill the young seedling trees)</p> -</div> - -<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop"> - -<div class="chapter"> - -<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span></p> - -<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2> - -</div> - -<ul> - -<li class="ifrst">Annual rings, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Ash, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Aspen, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Band saw, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Basswood, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Beech, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bench, care of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bench hook, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bevel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Big Trees of California, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Birches, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bit, auger, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub1">auger, details of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li> -<li class="isub1">center, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> -<li class="isub1">countersink, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> -<li class="isub1">gimlet, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Black walnut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Brace, common forms of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li> -<li class="isub1">and bit, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Bract of linden, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buckeye, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Butternut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Buttonwood, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Cap iron, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cedar, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Chisel, cutting angle of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li> -<li class="isub1">firmer, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub1">framing, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub1">methods of using, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sharpening, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Clamp iron of plane, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Compound leaves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cottonwood, or Carolina poplar, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cutting tools, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Cypress, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Dovetail. <i>See</i> <a href="#Joint">Joint</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Drawing board, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Elm, American, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Evergreens, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Felling trees, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Fir, balsam, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Framing square, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Gang saw, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Glue, use of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Grain of wood, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Groups of tools, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>Gum, sweet, or liquid amber, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Hammer, claw, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> -<li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hand screw, use of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hemlock, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hickory, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Honey locust, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Hornbeam, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Horse-chestnut, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Ironwood, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst" id="Joint">Joint, definition of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li> -<li class="isub1">dovetail, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li> -<li class="isub1">end lap, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub1">middle lap, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> -<li class="isub1">miter, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Joint edge, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Jointers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Laying out work, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Linden, or basswood, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Locust, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Log boom, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Log jam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Logs, redwood, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Lumbering and milling, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Mallet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maple, ash-leaved, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Japan, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li> -<li class="isub1">Norway, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub1">red, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> -<li class="isub1">silver, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li> -<li class="isub1">striped, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sugar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li> -<li class="isub1">sycamore, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Maple keys, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Marking gauge, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mechanical drawing, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> -<li class="isub1">of end lap joint, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> -<li class="isub1">of cylinder, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Medullary rays, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Miscellaneous tools, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mortise, cutting a, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Mulberry, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Nail set or punch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Nails, cut and wire, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="isub1">method of using cut, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li> -<li class="isub1">withdrawing, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Oak, black and black-jack, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li> -<li class="isub1">chestnut, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li> -<li class="isub1">live, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li> -<li class="isub1">mossy-cup, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li> -<li class="isub1">pin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li> -<li class="isub1">post, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li> -<li class="isub1">red, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> -<li class="isub1">scarlet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li> -<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Oilstone, use of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Pecan, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Pine, Georgia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> -<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span>white, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li> -<li class="isub1">yellow, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plan of work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plane, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> -<li class="isub1">adjustments on, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li> -<li class="isub1">block, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li> -<li class="isub1">block, method of using, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> -<li class="isub1">jack, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li> -<li class="isub1">smooth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li> -<li class="isub1">wooden, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Plane iron in action, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Poplars, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">River driving, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Rule, use of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Sandpaper, use of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sassafras, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw, back, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li> -<li class="isub1">circular, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li> -<li class="isub1">method of holding, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> -<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw tapers, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw teeth, shape of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw tooth action, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saw tooth set, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sawmill, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Saws, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Scale drawing, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screw-driver, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Screws, varieties of, and methods of using, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sections of red oak, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Set screw of plane iron, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shake in wood, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Shrinkage, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spokeshave, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Spruce, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Stock, squaring up, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Sycamore, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">T square, use of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Timber and lumber, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Trees, broad-leaved, or deciduous, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Triangles, use of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Try-square, use of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Tulip, or whitewood, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li> - -<li class="ifrst">Warping, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Weather checks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Willow, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li> - -<li class="indx">Working face, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li> -</ul> - -<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***</div> -<div style='text-align:left'> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions will -be renamed. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the United -States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General Terms of Use part -of this license, apply to copying and distributing Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the PROJECT GUTENBERG™ -concept and trademark. Project Gutenberg is a registered trademark, -and may not be used if you charge for an eBook, except by following -the terms of the trademark license, including paying royalties for use -of the Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for -copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is very -easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such as creation -of derivative works, reports, performances and research. Project -Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and printed and given away—you may -do practically ANYTHING in the United States with eBooks not protected -by U.S. copyright law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark -license, especially commercial redistribution. -</div> - -<div style='margin-top:1em; font-size:1.1em; text-align:center'>START: FULL LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE</div> -<div style='text-align:center;font-size:0.9em'>PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free -distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work -(or any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full -Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at -www.gutenberg.org/license. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 1. General Terms of Use and Redistributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™ -electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree to -and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property -(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all -the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or -destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your -possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a -Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be bound -by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund from the person -or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in paragraph 1.E.8. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be -used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people who -agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a few -things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -even without complying with the full terms of this agreement. See -paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with Project -Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this -agreement and help preserve free future access to Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the -Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the collection -of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the individual -works in the collection are in the public domain in the United -States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law in the -United States and you are located in the United States, we do not -claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing, performing, -displaying or creating derivative works based on the work as long as -all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of course, we hope -that you will support the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting -free access to electronic works by freely sharing Project Gutenberg™ -works in compliance with the terms of this agreement for keeping the -Project Gutenberg™ name associated with the work. You can easily -comply with the terms of this agreement by keeping this work in the -same format with its attached full Project Gutenberg™ License when -you share it without charge with others. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also govern -what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most countries are -in a constant state of change. If you are outside the United States, -check the laws of your country in addition to the terms of this -agreement before downloading, copying, displaying, performing, -distributing or creating derivative works based on this work or any -other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes no -representations concerning the copyright status of any work in any -country other than the United States. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg: -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other -immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must appear -prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™ work (any work -on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears, or with which the -phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is accessed, displayed, -performed, viewed, copied or distributed: -</div> - -<blockquote> - <div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> - This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and most - other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions - whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms - of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online - at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you - are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws - of the country where you are located before using this eBook. - </div> -</blockquote> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is -derived from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not -contain a notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the -copyright holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in -the United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are -redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project -Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must comply -either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 or -obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project Gutenberg™ -trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted -with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution -must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any -additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms -will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works -posted with the permission of the copyright holder found at the -beginning of this work. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project Gutenberg™ -License terms from this work, or any files containing a part of this -work or any other work associated with Project Gutenberg™. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this -electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without -prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1 with -active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project -Gutenberg™ License. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary, -compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form, including -any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you provide access -to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work in a format -other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in the official -version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website -(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or expense -to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or a means -of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original “Plain -Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must include the -full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in paragraph 1.E.1. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying, -performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works -unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing -access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -provided that: -</div> - -<div style='margin-left:0.7em;'> - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive from - the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the method - you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The fee is owed - to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark, but he has - agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty payments must be paid - within 60 days following each date on which you prepare (or are - legally required to prepare) your periodic tax returns. Royalty - payments should be clearly marked as such and sent to the Project - Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation at the address specified in - Section 4, “Information about donations to the Project Gutenberg - Literary Archive Foundation.” - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who notifies - you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt that s/he - does not agree to the terms of the full Project Gutenberg™ - License. You must require such a user to return or destroy all - copies of the works possessed in a physical medium and discontinue - all use of and all access to other copies of Project Gutenberg™ - works. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of - any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in the - electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90 days of - receipt of the work. - </div> - - <div style='text-indent:-0.7em'> - • You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free - distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works. - </div> -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work or group of works on different terms than -are set forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing -from the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of -the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set -forth in Section 3 below. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend considerable -effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe and proofread -works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating the Project -Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, and the medium on which they may be stored, may -contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to, incomplete, inaccurate -or corrupt data, transcription errors, a copyright or other -intellectual property infringement, a defective or damaged disk or -other medium, a computer virus, or computer codes that damage or -cannot be read by your equipment. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for the “Right -of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the Project -Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a Project -Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim all -liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal -fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT -LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE -PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE -TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE -LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR -INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH -DAMAGE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you discover a -defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving it, you can -receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by sending a -written explanation to the person you received the work from. If you -received the work on a physical medium, you must return the medium -with your written explanation. The person or entity that provided you -with the defective work may elect to provide a replacement copy in -lieu of a refund. If you received the work electronically, the person -or entity providing it to you may choose to give you a second -opportunity to receive the work electronically in lieu of a refund. If -the second copy is also defective, you may demand a refund in writing -without further opportunities to fix the problem. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth -in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO -OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT -LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied -warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of -damages. If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement -violates the law of the state applicable to this agreement, the -agreement shall be interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or -limitation permitted by the applicable state law. The invalidity or -unenforceability of any provision of this agreement shall not void the -remaining provisions. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation, the -trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation, anyone -providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in -accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with the -production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™ -electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses, -including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of -the following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this -or any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or -additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any -Defect you cause. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 2. Information about the Mission of Project Gutenberg™ -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of -electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of -computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers. It -exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and donations -from people in all walks of life. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the -assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s -goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will -remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project -Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a secure -and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future -generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help, see -Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at www.gutenberg.org. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 3. Information about the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit -501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the -state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal -Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification -number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent permitted by -U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West, -Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up -to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website -and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 4. Information about Donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without widespread -public support and donations to carry out its mission of -increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can be -freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the widest -array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many small donations -($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to maintaining tax exempt -status with the IRS. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating -charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United -States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a -considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and keep up -with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in locations -where we have not received written confirmation of compliance. To SEND -DONATIONS or determine the status of compliance for any particular state -visit <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org/donate/">www.gutenberg.org/donate</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where we -have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no prohibition -against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in such states who -approach us with offers to donate. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make -any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from -outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation -methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of other -ways including checks, online payments and credit card donations. To -donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate -</div> - -<div style='display:block; font-size:1.1em; margin:1em 0; font-weight:bold'> -Section 5. General Information About Project Gutenberg™ electronic works -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project -Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be -freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and -distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of -volunteer support. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed -editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in -the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not -necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper -edition. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -Most people start at our website which has the main PG search -facility: <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. -</div> - -<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'> -This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™, -including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary -Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how to -subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks. -</div> - -</div> -</body> -</html> |