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diff --git a/old/69725-0.txt b/old/69725-0.txt deleted file mode 100644 index 9c1b335..0000000 --- a/old/69725-0.txt +++ /dev/null @@ -1,3001 +0,0 @@ -The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary woodworking, by Edwin W. -Foster - -This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and -most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions -whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms -of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at -www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: Elementary woodworking - -Author: Edwin W. Foster - -Release Date: January 7, 2023 [eBook #69725] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team - at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images - generously made available by The Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING *** - - - - - - -[Illustration: “Grizzly Giant,” a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California] - - - - - ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING - - BY - EDWIN W. FOSTER - - GINN & COMPANY - BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON - - COPYRIGHT, 1903 - BY EDWIN W. FOSTER - - ALL RIGHTS RESERVED - - 25.1 - - The Athenæum Press - GINN & COMPANY · CAMBRIDGE - · MASSACHUSETTS - - - - -PREFACE - - -This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing the pupil with -the essential facts about tools and their uses. However efficient the -instruction may be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for -him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration the names of -tools and technical terms, most of which are new to him. This applies -with equal force to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of -working. - -The function of the text is to supplement the instruction of the teacher. -It is intended to gather up and arrange in a logical order the facts -which the pupil has already been told. By this means these facts will -become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work with a better -understanding and make greater progress. - -It is believed that the text can be used to the greatest advantage -by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects presented in class -immediately _after_ the close of the lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and -occasional written tests are very effective. - -No course of study in the form of a series of models is presented. It is -hardly possible for any two schools to follow the same series of models. -Local conditions necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and -better designs are being brought out continuously. - -The order in which the tools are described in the following pages is the -one that has seemed most natural. They may be taken up, however, in any -convenient and logical order. - -It is with the earnest hope that nature study and manual work may be -closely correlated, that Part II is added. No better period can be -selected in which to study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than -when the student is working with wood, learning by experience its grain, -hardness, color, and value in the arts. - -Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its economic aspects, -climatic effects, influence on rainfall, the flow of rivers, floods, -droughts, etc., will be found interesting as well as instructive, and -such interest should be instilled into every American boy and girl. - -The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game Commission of New -York state for the series of Adirondack lumbering scenes, and to the -United States Bureau of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees. - - EDWIN W. FOSTER. - - - - -CONTENTS - - - PAGE - - PART I. TOOLS - - Chapter I. Introduction 3 - - General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of - work and division of tools into groups. - - Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools 5 - - The rule: divisions; method of using. The try-square: method - of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel. - - Chapter III. Cutting Tools 11 - - Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers; - method of holding. Backsaw; use of bench hook. The turning - saw. The plane: use of cap iron; names of parts. Adjustment - of plane. Use of lever and adjusting screw; positions for - planing. The jack plane. The smooth plane. Jointers; action - of short and long planes. The block plane. The wooden plane. - The chisel: size of cutting angle; effect of careless - sharpening. The framing and firmer chisels; proper positions - for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharpening on oilstone. - Brace and bit. Center and auger bits; gimlet and countersink - bits. The spokeshave. - - Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work 31 - - The hammer; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver. - Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock; method explained in - detail. Laying out work; method of laying out a typical - joint. Securing parts; use of glue and hand screws. Nails; - method of using cut nails. Screws; method of using round-head - and flat-head screws. Mechanical drawing. The drawing - instruments explained, and method of making complete working - drawings described. Scale drawings. - - PART II. WOOD - - Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling 51 - - The forest; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The - forming and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern - sawmills. Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings; medullary - rays; formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in - wood. Warping and shrinkage. - - Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks 65 - - White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack oak. - Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak. - - Chapter VII. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Maples 76 - - Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore - maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples. - - Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves 85 - - Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and - butternut. Locust. Honey locust. Ash. - - Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves 94 - - Elm. The birches. Beech. Iron wood. Buttonball. Sweet gum. - Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry. - - Chapter X. The Evergreens 111 - - White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce. - Cypress. Balsam fir. The cedars. - - Chapter XI. The Big Trees of California 123 - - - - -ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING - -PART I - - - - -CHAPTER I - -INTRODUCTION - - -In order to obtain good results in the using of tools it is necessary to -know their construction, how to properly sharpen and adjust them, and the -correct method of handling them. It is also essential to know how to lay -out and work the material or stock. Carelessness or a lack of knowledge -is invariably followed by a failure. It is more important at first to -work carefully and accurately than rapidly. - -“Tools are made to be used, not abused.” They must be kept _clean_ and -_sharp_ and should be used only for the purpose intended. Wipe them off -occasionally with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting. Put -away all tools not in use and keep the top of the bench clean. Do not -mark it with a pencil or scratch it with a knife. Do not cut into it with -the chisel or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using glue, -shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the bench; or, better -still, do the work on a table provided for that purpose. - -The plan of work in making all models is in general the same and is as -follows: - - _First._ “Squaring up” the stock. - - _Second._ “Laying out” the work. - - _Third._ Cutting to the lines. - -When the article is composed of two or more pieces a fourth step may be -added, namely, fitting and securing the parts. - -The tools used may be divided into three groups, as follows: - - _First._ Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square, - marking gauge, bevel, and knife. - - _Second._ Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane, - chisel, spokeshave, bit, and knife. - - _Third._ Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet, - screw-driver, brace (or bitstock), and others not so common. - - - - -CHAPTER II - -MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS - - -=1. The Rule.= The standard unit of length is the yard, but the foot is -commonly used for all measurements in woodwork. If the rule be twelve -inches long it is known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long -it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided into halves, -quarters, eighths, and in some cases sixteenths. Rules are usually of -boxwood or maple, with brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once -or twice. - -[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Rule] - -The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work to be measured -errors will usually follow. It should be stood on edge so that the pencil -or knife point may touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same -time. The proper position when laying out measurements is shown in the -sketch (Fig. 2). Consecutive measurements should be laid off without -moving the rule. - -[Illustration: FIG. 2. Methods of using the Rule: _A_, incorrect; _B_, -correct] - -=2. The Try-Square.= The try-square has two distinct uses: first, to -act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across -the grain at right angles to the edge, as shown in Fig. 4; second, for -testing or trying the adjoining sides to see if they are square with each -other. - -[Illustration: FIG. 3. The Try-Square] - -The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel, but sometimes the -beam _A_ is of wood with a brass strip _C_ to protect it and to take the -wear. The blade _B_ is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into inches -and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made in several sizes, the most -convenient for general use being six inches. - -[Illustration: FIG. 4. Methods of using the Try-Square] - -In using the try-square the beam should be held firmly against the face -or edge of the stock. When working near the end of the piece, if the beam -projects, reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife point -instead of the pencil should be used for lining. - -When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it is first necessary -to mark or square clear around it with the knife and try-square. In doing -this the beam of the try-square must be used against the work face and -joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one piece are called -_framing squares_, and are used by carpenters and others for rough or -large work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 5. The Framing Square] - -[Illustration: FIG. 6. The Marking Gauge] - -=3. The Marking Gauge.= The marking gauge is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. _A_ -is the gauge stick, _B_ the gauge block, _S_ the set screw, and _P_ the -marking point, or _spur_. The gauge stick is graduated like a rule into -inches and fractions, beginning at the steel marking point; but as the -latter is not always exactly in the right place the graduations are not -entirely reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge with the rule in the -manner shown in Fig. 7. - -Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule in right. Place end of -rule against gauge block and the measurement desired at spur. Turn set -screw. The gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set at -one inch and is ready for use. - -[Illustration: FIG. 7. Setting the Marking Gauge] - -To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold the tool firmly, -with thumb and forefinger encircling gauge block. Tip the tool away from -you until the marking point (spur) barely touches the wood and push the -tool away from (never toward) you. The line made should be as fine as a -knife line. A little practice is needed to give the proper control, as -the marking point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is usually -not straight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 8. Holding the Marking Gauge] - -A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock as a practice -block, laying out lines a quarter of an inch apart, then an eighth, and -finally a sixteenth. - -=4. The Bevel.= The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable -blade. - -[Illustration: FIG. 9. The Bevel] - -This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle from zero to 180 -degrees. The blade may be fixed firmly at any desired angle by simply -turning the set screw. The method of using it is similar to that of the -try-square. - - - - -CHAPTER III - -CUTTING TOOLS - - -=5. Saws.= The saw might be described as a succession of chisels, one -back of the other. We can readily understand the action of the saw by -making cuts with a narrow chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as -shown in Fig. 10 at _a_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 10. Cutting with and across the Grain with a Narrow -Chisel] - -The little pieces of wood removed in this way are similar to the sawdust -made by the saw, the only difference being that in the saw the teeth are -narrower and the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one -chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time. - -A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for cutting along the -grain, is called a _ripsaw_. - -That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain may easily be -proved by again resorting to the narrow chisel and attempting to repeat -the first experiment. The wood will act as shown in Fig. 10 at _b_, -splitting along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident, then, -that a tool for cutting across the grain must be constructed in some -other way. - -[Illustration: FIG. 11. The Saw] - -Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with a knife point in -two parallel lines across the grain, close together, as at _c_. It will -be found that the wood between these lines may now be easily removed with -the narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which we construct the -crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharpened to a point, one on the right side, -the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points designed -to cut the fibers, as was done in our experiment with the knife. Fig. -12 shows the end view of the crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not -only are the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but each tooth -is bent outward from the body of the saw. This bending is called _set_, -and is designed to make the saw cut, or _kerf_, wider than the thickness -of the saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood after the -teeth have done their work. If it were not for this set, the fibers would -spring back against the body of the saw after the teeth had passed and -make the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set it should pass -through the wood easily. - -[Illustration: FIG. 12. Teeth of Crosscut Saw] - -[Illustration: FIG. 13. Teeth of Ripsaw] - -The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be seen in the sketch, -the bottoms are flat like a chisel instead of pointed like those of the -crosscut teeth. - -Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth, the side views, which are -also different, are shown in Figs. 12 and 13. - -We are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace article, yet -a careful examination will prove that the greatest care and skill are -needed in its manufacture. Observe that the body, which must be of the -best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the handle than at the -opposite end. This is to give strength, and to prevent _buckling_, or -bending, as the tool is pushed forward. - -[Illustration: FIG. 14. Body of Saw, showing Tapers] - -Most delicate measurements must be made, however, to discover that -not only the width but the thickness increases from _A_ to _B_, and -decreases from _C_ to _D_. How carefully this tapering must be done can -be realized when we know that the difference in thickness from _A_ to -_B_ is only three one-thousandths of an inch, and from _C_ to _D_ twelve -one-thousandths at end _A_ and five one-thousandths at end _B_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 15. Method of holding the Saw] - -The saw should be held in the right hand, with the left grasping the -board. The thumb of the left hand acts as guide, the saw is tilted, as -shown in Fig. 15, and drawn toward the worker at the first stroke. This -tool should be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance with -the general rule that we do our best work with tools when we work easily -and deliberately. - -[Illustration: FIG. 16. The Backsaw] - -Many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes, including those -which cut stone and metal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 17. Method of using the Backsaw and Bench Hook] - -=6. Backsaw.= The backsaw is a crosscut saw with small teeth, and has -a heavy steel backpiece, Fig. 17, to prevent bending. In this respect -it differs from the ordinary crosscut varieties, which bend readily. -The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine, straight cuts in delicate, -accurate work. The steel back _B_ is necessary on account of the thin -blade, but on account of the thickness of _B_ no cut can be made deeper -than the line _C_. This tool will cut in any direction with reference to -the grain, but is primarily a crosscut saw. - -[Illustration: FIG. 18. The Bench Hook] - -[Illustration: FIG. 19. The Turning Saw] - -=7. The Turning Saw.= In ordinary work the saw is supposed to cut to -a straight line, but there are certain classes of work where it is -desirable to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is -necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for this purpose. -The handles holding the saw blade may be turned in any direction with -reference to the frame. - -=8. The Plane.= The plane reduces our rough lumber to planed, or -_dressed_, stock. The cutting part is a thin, wide chisel called the -_plane iron_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 20. The Plane Iron in Action] - -Fig. 20 shows the position of the plane iron in operation. Assume the -iron to be moving in the direction of the arrow on a piece of wood. The -sharp point would enter the board and, should the grain be unfavorable, -start a splitting action, as shown at _a_. - -We wish to smooth the wood instead of roughing it, and must in some way -stop the splitting. This is accomplished by placing a cap iron on the -plane iron, as shown at _b_. The cap bends and breaks the shaving before -the splitting action has a chance to begin, and gives the spiral form so -familiar in wood shavings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plane Iron, Cap, and Set Screw] - -The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a stout screw, and this -whole combination is fastened in the throat of the plane by a clamp -(Fig. 22). The opening on the bottom of the plane through which the -cutting edge protrudes is called the _mouth_ of the plane. - -[Illustration: FIG. 22. Sectional Views of Iron Plane] - -=9. Adjustment of Plane.= There are two ways of adjusting a modern iron -plane,—by means of the set screw _s_, and of the lever _l_. - -Screw _s_ lowers or raises the plane iron so that we may take a thin or -thick shaving, and lever _l_ straightens the iron, which is liable to -project more on one side than on the other, and will then take a shaving -thicker on one side than on the other. - -Before using the plane always examine it carefully. Invert the tool, -holding it toward the light with the toe toward you, and glance along the -bottom. If the iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not, -move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cutting edge should -appear as a black line of uniform thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the -brass screw until the iron projects slightly. - -In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand with the right side -to the bench and with the shoulders thrown back. Let the pressure of the -left hand be greater at the beginning and that of the right hand at the -end of the stroke. The tool should rest perfectly flat on the wood from -start to finish. - -[Illustration: FIG. 23. Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes] - -=10. The Jack Plane.= The ordinary plane iron has a straight edge, as -shown at _a_, Fig. 23, but when a large quantity of wood is to be removed -the iron is sharpened in the shape shown at _b_. This curved iron will -cut out the wood in hollows, leaving ridges between, and it is necessary -to follow this jack plane with a finer one having a straight edge in -order to smooth the surface. The jack plane might be called a _roughing_ -plane. - -[Illustration: FIG. 24. Relative Sizes of Smooth and Jack Planes - -The lower figure is a jack plane] - -=11. The Smooth Plane.= The smoothing plane is shorter than the jack -plane, its object being to smooth the surface without regard to -straightening it, as it is supposed that the straightening has previously -been done. The cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a -sixteenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting edge of the -plane iron. - -[Illustration: FIG. 25. Action of Short and Long Planes] - -=12. Jointers.= For straightening very rough and uneven stock a long -plane is necessary (Fig. 25). In the illustration let line _ab_ represent -the edge of a very uneven board. A short plane _c_ would simply follow -the hills and hollows, smoothing but not straightening it, while a long -plane, as shown at _d_, would merely cut off the top of the high places, -as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch the bottoms of the -hollows until all the elevations were leveled; in other words, until the -surface was straightened. Such planes, which are often three feet long or -more, are called _jointers_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 26. The Block Plane] - -=13. The Block Plane.= To square the end of a piece of stock the -conditions are quite different from those just described where we were -planing with the grain. In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the -plane iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel side up. - -This tool requires more care than the others, as the stroke is usually -quite short, and if the cutting edge is allowed to reach the farther -corner, the latter will be broken off. - -[Illustration: FIG. 27. Method of using Block Plane] - -To avoid this error the plane must be lifted up before the end of the -stroke, as shown by the dotted line _a_. The piece is then reversed, and -planed as shown by arrow _b_. In this way the whole end is smoothed, -without ruining the corners. - -Besides these standard planes there are many patent and special ones for -cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc. - -=14. The Wooden Plane.= Although the iron-bodied planes just described -are now in common use, the old-fashioned wooden plane is still the -favorite of many woodworkers. - -[Illustration: FIG. 28. The Wooden Plane] - -This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of the iron plane, was -much simpler and contained a smaller number of parts. - -The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden wedge, which was -driven in by a light blow of the hammer. The workman removed the iron and -wedge by turning the plane upside down and striking the forward part a -light downward blow on the bench, while the thickness of the shaving was -increased by a light tap on the plane iron. - -One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was its liability to wear -and warp, so that it became necessary to straighten, or _joint_, the -face. No such difficulty is encountered in the iron-bodied plane. - -=15. The Chisel.= The chisel is one of the simplest forms of cutting -tools. The size of the angle _a_ depends on the kind of material to be -cut. - -[Illustration: FIG. 29. Cutting Angle of Chisel] - -A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an angle of from 30 to 35 -degrees. - -By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes formed, as shown at -_b_. - -The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the chisel were shaped like -that shown by dotted lines, and care must always be taken when sharpening -to keep the line _cd_ straight, so that angle _a_ will be the real -cutting angle. - -Two classes of chisels are in common use: the _framing chisel_ used for -heavy work, such as the frames of buildings; and the _firmer chisel_. -The framing chisel is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of -withstanding the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is designed for -finer and lighter work without the mallet. - -[Illustration: FIG. 30. The Framing Chisel] - -[Illustration: FIG. 31. The Firmer Chisel] - -[Illustration: FIG. 32. Proper Position for Horizontal Chiseling] - -The chisel must be sharp if we wish to do good and accurate work, and a -cut on the hand made by such a sharp tool is liable to be a deep one. -Special care must be used in handling it, keeping both hands away from -the cutting edge, as shown in the sketch, and placing it when not in use -where it cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the student’s -feet. - -Fig. 32 shows the method of using the tool on horizontal work, and Fig. -33 for vertical cutting. For this kind of work only a small portion of -the cutting edge can be used, the student judging for himself how heavy a -cut to take by the hardness of the wood and amount of strength required. -Good work can never be done when one has to exert all his strength on the -tool. The best results are obtained when we work easily. - -[Illustration: FIG. 33. Proper Position for Vertical Chiseling] - -Better work can usually be done with the chisel if, instead of pushing -it straight ahead or straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to -secure a slight _paring_ action. - -[Illustration: FIG. 34. Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone] - -When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has been nicked or ruined -by some accident, it is only necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone. -Hold the tool with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil may -be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked back and forth on -the face of it. Especial care must be taken to avoid a rocking motion, -which will produce a curved edge instead of a flat one. - -[Illustration: FIG. 35. Common Forms of the Brace] - -After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side firmly on the -stone, and draw toward you. This is to straighten the wire edge which -has been turned over by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed -by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block of wood. When the -chisel is nicked or very dull it must be ground on the grindstone. - -=16. Brace and Bit.= The old-fashioned augers and gimlets have given way -to the modern brace and bit. - -[Illustration: FIG. 36. The Center Bit] - -The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock, allows both hands to -be used continuously, which was not true of the old-fashioned auger. -Several varieties of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts -being common. - -Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name being applied to -a tool which is to be turned by the brace. The old-fashioned center bit -shown in the cut possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool. - -[Illustration: FIG. 37. The Auger Bit] - -The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be accurately placed. -The lip on the outer edge cut the fibers in a circle before the chisel -edge began to remove the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored; but -considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool through the wood. - -The progress that has been made in the manufacture of tools can be easily -appreciated by comparing this center bit with the modern auger bit. - -Referring to the sketch (Fig. 38), _B_ _B_ are two knife points, or -_nibs_, which cut the wood fibers before the chisel edges, or _lips_, _C_ -_C_, can touch the wood. The point _A_ allows us to accurately place the -center of the hole where we wish it, and the screw back of _A_ draws the -tool into the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the spur, or -_worm_. On this class of bits no pressure is necessary. - -[Illustration: FIG. 38. Details of Auger Bit] - -The opposite end of the bit, called the _shank_, fits into the brace. Any -tool with such a shank, and designed for use with the brace, is a bit. We -have screw-driver bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc. - -On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number. This is the -numerator of a fraction whose denominator is 16. If we find this number -to be 4, it is a ⁴⁄₁₆, or a ¼-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a -¹⁶⁄₁₆, or a one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the -hole which the tool will bore. - -In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see that the bit shank -is far enough in the brace to be fastened securely, and that the tool -is held at right angles to the wood. It may appear from the front to be -perfectly vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking at it from -another position it will frequently be found far from vertical. When -starting a hole it is well to do this several times until assured that -the tool is working in a true upright position. - -[Illustration: FIG. 39. The Gimlet Bit] - -[Illustration: FIG. 40. The Countersink Bit] - -The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we make for screws. In -this case the hole must be _countersunk_ to receive the screw head, when -flat-headed screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the cut, and -its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter on screws. - -=17. The Spokeshave.= The spokeshave is practically a short plane with -handles at the side so that the tool may be drawn or pushed. It may be -adjusted by means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and is used -principally to smooth curved surfaces. The forming of a hammer handle -is a good illustration of the kind of work it will do. It may be worked -toward or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy tool. - -[Illustration: FIG. 41. The Iron Spokeshave] - - - - -CHAPTER IV - -MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK - - -=18. Hammer.= The carpenter’s hammer is used principally to drive or -withdraw nails. - -The various trades have hammers made specially for their needs; thus -we have machinists’, roofers’, upholsterers’, stonecutters’, and other -hammers, but the claw hammer shown in the sketch is the one commonly used -by workers in wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 42. The Claw Hammer] - -The head _a_ (Fig. 43) is of steel, with the face _b_ specially hardened -so that it may not be dented by the nails. Notice the length of the -handle _h_. This length did not simply happen. Had it been intended to -hold the tool in the position shown at _A_, the handle would not have -been made so long. The proper position is that shown at _B_. Position _A_ -is frequently taken by beginners, and should be studiously avoided. - -[Illustration: FIG. 43. Using the Hammer] - -A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be kept straight for further -use by a little care. Having started the nail slightly, place a small -block of wood under the hammer head, as shown at _C_. Should the nail be -an unusually long one, the size of the block may be increased as the nail -comes out. - -[Illustration: FIG. 44. Common Forms of Nail Punch, or “Set”] - -In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar the surface of -the wood by striking the nail head after it has become even with the -surface, as this produces a depression and ruins any fine surface. - -If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface, a nail punch, -or _set_, is used. This is always necessary when the surface is to be -planed after the nailing. - -=19. The Mallet.= The mallet might be described as a hammer with a wooden -head, and is used whenever we wish to deliver a blow which shall be less -concentrated than that of the hammer. It is used in certain kinds of -heavy chiseling, such as house framing, and gives a blow which does not -shatter the tool handle as a hammer would. - -[Illustration: FIG. 45. The Mallet] - -The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making of a -mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet being used to cut the -opening known as the mortise, as shown in Fig. 46. - -=20. Screw-Driver.= The screw-driver is perhaps the most common of -household tools, and is probably abused more than any other. The handle -is usually flattened so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but -occasionally a round or fluted handle is seen. - -Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in recent years, but where -considerable force is required the brace and screw-driver bit are more -effective. - -[Illustration: FIG. 46. Cutting a Mortise] - -=21. Sandpaper.= “Sandpaper is the last resort of a poor workman.” This -statement has been made by many teachers to many thousands of students, -and is true in many cases; but there are certain kinds of work where -sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable. - -[Illustration: FIG. 47. The Screw-Driver] - -It must always be kept in mind that a surface which has been sandpapered -has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine sand has come off and is more or less -imbedded in the wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done until -all tool work has been finished, as the grit will take the edge off the -best tool, and the finer the edge the more quickly will it be ruined. - -[Illustration: FIG. 48. An Exercise involving the Use of Sandpaper] - -Again, a sandpapered surface is always a scratched surface, and the -finest of scratched surfaces cannot compare with the perfectly smooth, -satiny surface produced by a sharp plane. However, there are many places -where neither the plane nor spokeshave can be used, and here it is -allowable to use sandpaper after the tool work has been carried as far as -practicable. - -Fig. 48 is a case where sandpaper may be used with propriety. The bevels -in this lesson are to be chiseled and then sandpapered with a sandpaper -block,—the block in this case being simply a small piece of wood with -square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened closely. - -Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dispense with the block, -the sandpaper being held in the hand. - -=22. Squaring up Stock.= This term simply means to reduce a piece of -sawed or rough lumber to one having smooth, flat sides at right angles to -each other, and of definite length, breadth, and thickness (see Fig. 49). - -[Illustration: FIG. 49. The Successive Steps in squaring up Stock] - - _First._ Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or - jointer, and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the - working face, becomes the basis from which all the other sides - are squared. - - _Second._ Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with - the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must - be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the - try-square, and must be square with the working face at every - point. - - _Third._ Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge - block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face. - - _Fourth._ Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn, - squaring the edge with working face. - - _Fifth._ Set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both - edges from working face. - - _Sixth._ Plane face parallel to working face down to the two - gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only remains - now to secure the required length. - - _Seventh._ Square knife line around the four smoothed sides - with knife and try-square as near one end as possible, - carefully observing the precautions given in Chapter II. - - _Eighth._ From the line just drawn, measure the required length - along edge of working face and square a line on the four sides - at the last point, as at first end. - - _Ninth._ Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second - line is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block, - saw to the knife line with backsaw, and block-plane smooth and - square. - -The above method should always be followed in preparing stock for laying -out the exercise. - -=23. Laying Out.= Let it be assumed that the exercise to be executed is -the middle lap joint shown at _A_, Fig. 50. - -[Illustration: FIG. 50. Successive Steps in laying out and making a -Middle Lap Joint] - - _First._ Square up stock, leaving ends rough. - - _Second._ Lay off the length of each piece, in this case 4½ - inches, with an eighth of an inch between for sawing, as at _a_. - - _Third._ Square all the lines around four sides. - - _Fourth._ Saw to end lines and block-plane ends. - - _Fifth._ Lay off width of opening in piece No. 1 and square - lines across face and halfway down on both edges. - - _Sixth._ Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across - bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal lines - _ll_ from working face. - - _Seventh._ Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane - ends. - - _Eighth._ Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces. - -Although the above is the method of laying out a typical joint, each -problem will require special treatment and here the student will be -guided by his instructor. - -=24. Securing Parts.= Many articles made of wood consist of several -pieces fastened together. - -When two pieces are fitted together the surfaces of contact are called a -joint. There are many kinds and shapes in joinery, and usually some extra -fastening is required to hold the pieces together. These aids are glue, -nails, and screws; while on heavy construction still others, such as -wedges, pins, and dowels are used. The first three are commonly used in -small work. - -[Illustration: FIG. 51. The Hand Screw] - -Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made from refuse -matter,—animal glue being manufactured from such products as bone, horn, -hoofs, and hide. - -The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved in water and heated, -being applied while hot. Liquid glues sold in cans ready for use are now -very common and require no heating. - -In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold the pieces -tightly together until the glue has _set_, or hardened, and as this takes -some time, hand screws built on the principle of the vise are resorted -to. Fig. 52 shows two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of -hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the jaws of the latter -parallel. At _a_ this is shown done properly, while at _b_ is shown a -careless method which, of course, will spoil the joint. - -[Illustration: FIG. 52. Method of using the Hand Screw] - -In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or _sizing_, coat of glue must -first be made to fill up the pores, which act very much like a sponge. -This coat should be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying -the final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly, if at all. -Beginners are inclined to use too large a quantity, and this tendency -should be avoided. - -In some cases nails are used together with the glue, as at the corners -of picture frames. It is customary in this instance to nail in only one -direction, as shown in Fig. 53. - -[Illustration: FIG. 53. Miter Joint at Corner of Picture Frame] - -=25. Nails.= The nails in common use are of two kinds, _cut_ and _wire_. - -Two views of a cut nail are shown in Fig. 54, _a_ being the side view and -_b_ the front view. Notice that in the front view the sides converge like -a wedge, while in the side view they are parallel. - -[Illustration: FIG. 54. Use of Cut Nails] - -Care must always be taken that the point does not enter the wood as shown -at _c_, as the wood will be split by the wedge action; _d_ shows the -proper method. - -Steel wire nails are now in general use. They are made from wire and are -consequently round in section, with a comparatively sharp point. There -are two distinct kinds, named _flat head_ and _bung head_. - -Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin, flat heads, which -prevent the nail from being driven beneath the surface. - -Bung-head wire nails, or _brads_ as the smaller sizes are called, have -very small heads, which allow the nail to be sunk below the surface. This -is done by means of the nail punch, or _set_, and is necessary when the -surface is to be planed after the nailing. - -=26. Screws.= Screws are much used, and allow the pieces to be readily -taken apart. They are divided into two classes, _flat head_ and _round -head_, and are of steel or brass. Steel screws are either _blued_ or -_bright_. Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced by -treating the bright ones with heat or an acid. - -[Illustration: FIG. 55. Methods of using Screws] - -Fig. 55 shows a flat-head screw at _a_ and a round-head at _b_. Flat -heads are used for the more common work where it is desirable to have the -screw head flush (even) with the surface or below it, while round heads -are used where this is not necessary. In the latter case round heads are -used partly because they are more ornamental. Flat heads must always -be flush or below the surface, and in all but the softest woods it is -necessary not only to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink -it with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the head. Two -methods of fastening with flat-head screws are shown in Fig. 55. - -Sketch _A_ shows the two pieces of wood in position, the hole bored in -upper piece (only) and countersunk; _B_ shows the screw in position. In -this case the screw head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide -the screw entirely. Sketch _C_ shows the hole prepared for the screw; _D_ -shows the screw in position and a circular wooden plug driven in over it. -The plug is then leveled with the surface and the screw completely hidden. - -[Illustration: FIG. 56. The Difference between Perspective and Mechanical -Drawing] - -=27. Mechanical Drawing.= A mechanical, or working, drawing is quite -different from a pictorial drawing such as an artist produces. The -artist’s drawing represents objects as they appear, while the mechanical -drawing represents them as they really are. Things in nature do not -look as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad track the -rails appear to converge until they seem to meet in the distance. We -know that this is not the case, that the rails are really everywhere -equally distant. The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon -is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive, drawing takes no -account of perspective. In Fig. 56 _a_ is the perspective representation -of a track, while _b_ shows a track by mechanical drawing. - -In a working drawing more than one view is necessary to show the true -shape of an object. - -In Fig. 57 is shown the mechanical drawing of a cylinder,—the front -view, as its name implies, being the image it would make in a mirror -held before it vertically, and the top view the image it would make in a -mirror held directly over it horizontally. - -[Illustration: FIG. 57. Mechanical Drawing of a Cylinder] - -[Illustration: FIG. 58. Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint] - -Occasionally three views are necessary. Fig. 58 _a_ shows the front, top, -and side views of an end lap joint. The complete working drawing of this -joint, with all the necessary dimensions, is shown at _b_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 59. Drawing Board showing T Square and Triangles in -Position] - -In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy is required and -special instruments are necessary. - -The drawing board on which the paper is fastened must be perfectly flat, -with one of its edges straight. - -[Illustration: FIG. 60. The T Square] - -The T square is used for guiding the pencil or pen when drawing -horizontal lines. - -The two triangles _t_ _t_ (Fig. 59) are used for drawing vertical and -oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is needed for circles and arcs -of circles. Each triangle contains one right angle, the one on the -left being known as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining -angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively. The one on -the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle because it has two -forty-five-degree angles. - -The position of T square and triangle when drawing vertical lines is -that shown in the sketch, the line being drawn from the T square upward. -Horizontal lines are drawn from left to right. - -The rule used in mechanical drawing is called a scale, and should not be -used for drawing lines. Its purpose is measuring. - -[Illustration: FIG. 61. The Triangles used in Mechanical Drawing] - -In making a drawing the first step is to determine the spacing. The size -of the paper may be measured, the number of views are known, and also the -size of each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces between -will be in good proportion. It is a good plan to make first a free-hand -sketch, putting on dimensions and figuring the spaces before beginning -actual work on the mechanical drawing. Fig. 62 at _a_ shows a free-hand -sketch of a single dovetail joint, and _b_ the mechanical drawing -complete. - -[Illustration: FIG. 62. Drawings of a Single Dovetail Joint] - -All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible they should be so -placed as not to interfere with the clearness of the drawing. Neat, small -arrowheads and plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just -as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words. - -A drawing which is made the exact size of the object represented is -known as a full-sized drawing; but for large objects such a method would -necessitate large and unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in -such cases to make what is called a scale drawing. - -A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size, and the fact is -printed under the title in smaller letters, thus: ½ inch = 1 inch, or ¼ -inch = 1 inch. - -Other scales may be used. In map making, for example, a sixteenth of an -inch may represent one, ten, or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is -used, however, the dimensions must always give the exact size of the -object represented. - - - - -ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING - -PART II - - - - -CHAPTER V - -WOOD - - -[Illustration: FIG. 63. The Forest, Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany] - -=28. Lumbering and Milling.= It is well to remember, when using wood for -any purpose, that it was once part of a living tree which had roots, -bark, leaves, and flowers, and that the tree began life as a little -sapling, which grew taller and larger for years before it could be -called a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred years old -before it was large enough to cut down for timber. - -[Illustration: FIG. 64. Felling a Tree] - -The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight trunks. They are -usually cut with the ax, although the first cut is often made partially -through the trunk with a saw. The branches are then chopped off and the -body of the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They are -rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a sawmill, or, in case -there is no river near by, are carted on sleds or wagons to the railroad -and thence to the mill. - -The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter, the floating of the -logs, or _river driving_ as it is called, beginning with the breaking -up of the ice in the spring. River driving is a very interesting and -dangerous business. Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole -river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly that hundreds of -thousands of logs are stopped in their course, forming an immense dam -which the lumbermen call a _log jam_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 65. A Skidway of Adirondack Spruce] - -[Illustration: FIG. 66. River Drivers breaking up a “Log Jam”] - -[Illustration: FIG. 67. Log Boom and Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y.] - -[Illustration: FIG. 68. A Modern Gang Saw—Interior of Modern Sawmill] - -To break up this jam very often requires much labor and great daring on -the part of the drivers, who wear spiked shoes and are armed with long -poles having sharp steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing -of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles. - -Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the river, inclosed in -a _log boom_, until the mill men are ready to saw them into planks. - -[Illustration: FIG. 69. A Modern Sawmill] - -The boom consists of logs chained together and stretched across the river -just as a fence is built on land to inclose cattle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 70. The Circular Saw—Interior of Sawmill] - -The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic machinery, and after the log -enters it is not touched by human hands until it comes out as lumber of -various sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars. - -Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and these forms are called -_lumber_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 71. A Large Band Saw] - -_Timber_ refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams and joists. -Planks are wide strips over one inch thick, and boards are one inch or -less in thickness, varying in width and length. Lumber may be planed at a -planing mill, and is then known as _dressed_ lumber. It may be dressed on -one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which is free from knots, shakes, -and sapwood is called _clear_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 72. End of Log, showing Annual Rings and Medullary -Rays] - -By examining the end of a log we can learn a great deal of the life of -the tree. It is made up of a number of irregular rings and of lines -radiating from the center and running in nearly straight lines toward the -bark. - -The number of rings tells us the age of the tree, as a new ring is added -each year. - -As the tree grows, the old wood near the center becomes compressed and -dry and is known as the _heartwood_, while that portion between the -heartwood and bark is called _sapwood_. - -In some woods the difference between the heartwood and sapwood is very -marked. In ebony, for instance, the heartwood is coal black and the -sapwood white. - -The sketch shows half a log, the annual rings being indicated, and also -the radial lines, called _medullary rays_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 73. Log cut lengthwise, showing how “Grain” is -formed] - -Looking at the length of the log we see that the lines in a board, which -we call the _grain_, are really the edges of the annual rings. - -[Illustration: FIG. 74. Showing Weather Checks and “Shake”] - -It often happens in the forest that the wind sways the trees to such an -extent that the annual rings separate and slide one within the other; -this produces a defect in the wood called a _shake_ (see _s_, Fig. 74). - -There are other characteristics of wood known as _warping_ and -_shrinkage_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 75.] - -After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first looks like Fig. -72. If it is allowed to lie for some time exposed to the weather, its -appearance changes to Fig. 74. This is due to the evaporation of the -sap, and as there is more sap toward the outside, the shrinkage is -greatest there and becomes less toward the center where the heartwood is -comparatively dry. This is an important fact to know, because if we had -cut the log, while it was still green, into planks, as shown in Fig. 75, -the boards would have curled up or warped, as shown in Fig. 76. - -[Illustration: FIG. 76. Showing Effect of Warping] - -Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes the whole tree to -shrink in diameter, and consequently our planks will tend to become -narrower. This is called _shrinkage_, and in some woods amounts to a -quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a plank sawed twelve -inches wide will, after a few months, measure only eleven and three -quarter inches. - -When we construct anything in wood we must always consider how the object -will be affected by warping and shrinkage, remembering that the shrinkage -is only across the grain. - -Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing board to see how -warping and shrinkage may be overcome. - -If we make it of one piece, like _A_ (Fig. 77), the board will soon -change its shape to that shown in _B_, which would make it useless for -mechanical drawing, as a perfectly flat surface is necessary. We can -overcome the warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across the -grain, as shown at _C_. The cleats would need to be heavy or the warping -force would bend them. - -A better way would be to build the board up of several narrow strips -glued together, as the warping of one would be counteracted by the -warping of its neighbors in opposite directions; but to make doubly sure, -cleats fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added at the ends, -as shown at _D_. This has an advantage over the first method, as the -cleats in _C_ are often in the way and make the board clumsy to handle. - -[Illustration: FIG. 77. A Study in Construction. Methods of overcoming -Warping and Shrinkage] - -The student will find many evidences about the house of how the -woodworker has tried to prevent warping and shrinkage, as, for instance, -in the paneled doors, tables, etc. - -The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness, evenness of -grain, durability, etc., and every boy should know not only what our -woods are used for, but he should also know the trees when he sees them. - -We are indebted to the trees for many things besides wood. They give us -delightful shade and coolness in summer; many of them produce delicious -fruit and nuts; from them we obtain such valuable products as maple sirup -and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine, rubber, and tannin are only a -few of the many tree products. The houses we live in, the chairs we sit -on,—in fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our pictures, -the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we write with, are of wood -which was once part of the living forest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 78. A Large Tree being moved by a Modern Tree Mover, -showing Root Formation] - - - - -CHAPTER VI - -BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS - - -Our American trees may be divided roughly into two classes: (1) those -which keep their leaves the year round, known as _evergreens_; (2) those -whose leaves drop off in the fall, called _broad-leaved_, or _deciduous_ -trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves are usually -needle-shaped. - -Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the oak, chestnut, -hickory, maples, elms, etc.; and among the evergreens or cone-bearing -trees are the pines, spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars. - -The oak family is a very important one, the wood being hard and strong -and the tree a sturdy, healthy, and well-known specimen of tree life. - -White oak is perhaps the most common member of the oak family. It grows -to a very large size and has a leaf of the form shown in Fig. 79. Observe -carefully the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch of the -next form. - -The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its timber is used as -a standard when comparing different kinds of wood. If we say that the -strength of white pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak, -and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, just as the -yard and mile are standards of length. In work which requires strength, -such as carriage making, shipbuilding, and cooperage, white oak is used -very extensively. - -The quartered oak used so much for furniture is obtained by cutting the -logs in a special manner. The method of cutting gives a beautiful mottled -effect with the silver rays spread out in irregular white splashes on a -dark background. - -We might separate the oak into two distinct groups: (1) those trees whose -acorns ripen in one season; (2) those which require two years. The acorns -of this latter group remain on the tree throughout the first winter and -ripen the second summer. - -To the first class belong the white oak just mentioned, the post oak, -chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and live oak. - -[Illustration: FIG. 79. Typical Leaf of the White Oak] - -In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, pin, laurel, and willow -oaks. - -The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great that we need -never mistake one for the other. Notice the cut of the red oak and -compare it with that of the white oak. The latter has rounded lobes, -while the red-oak leaf has sharp points and the fingers of the leaf are -indented again with smaller teeth. - -The different trees in the white-oak family all have leaves with rounded -lobes, and most of those in the red-oak group have pointed ones, yet -there is a difference between members of the same family, just as among -human beings. - -We can tell at a glance whether a man is a negro, a Chinaman, or a white -man. If a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American; and again, if -an American, he may belong to the Jones family. But all the members of -the Jones family do not look alike and we know one from another. - -[Illustration: FIG. 80. Leaf of the Post Oak] - -This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can tell from observation -whether a tree is an evergreen or a broad-leaved tree, whether it -belongs to the white-oak group; and after studying trees a little we can -tell whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post oak, or a -mossy-cup oak. - -Compare the post-oak leaf (Fig. 80) with that of the white oak. There is -not a great difference in form, but the post-oak leaf is thick, leathery, -and dark green, while the white oak has a beautiful thin, light green -leaf, which turns red in the fall. - -The post oak is a rougher and coarser tree than the other, and is -sometimes called _iron oak_ on account of its very hard, tough wood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 81. Leaf of Mossy-Cup Oak] - -=29. The Mossy-Cup Oak.= One of the most beautiful oaks we have in -America grows in the South and West, and is only rarely found in our -parks in the East. It is called the _mossy-cup oak_ because the large -acorn which it bears is surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides -the nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The leaf is larger -than that of the white oak, and although the two leaves look somewhat -alike, the divisions of the mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those -of the white oak, and it is not so thin and delicate. - -Its wood is very strong and is valuable for many purposes, such as boats, -carriages, farming implements, railroad ties, and cooperage. - -=30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak.= These two trees are usually found -growing in wild places, and the black-jack oak is often called _barren -oak_ from the fact that it frequents bleak and barren plains, such as the -sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island. - -[Illustration: FIG. 82. Leaves of Black Oak and Black-jack Oak -(Black-jack on right)] - -The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that of the black-jack -having only three main lobes, or divisions, while the black oak has -five. However, the leaves of these two trees vary considerably, and one -must always look for the typical leaf, which is the one shown in the -sketch. The black-jack is a small, shrubby tree, with branches often -twisted and contorted, and its wood is not very valuable except as fuel -or for making charcoal. - -[Illustration: FIG. 83. Leaf of Red Oak] - -[Illustration: FIG. 84. Wood of the Red Oak, showing three sections. The -one on the left shows annual rings obtained by a horizontal cut through -the tree. Central view shows vertical cut at center of tree. View on -right shows vertical cut between center and bark as illustrated in Fig. -73.] - -The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do those of the red, -scarlet, and pin oaks. - -=31. The Red Oak.= The red oak is one of our largest and most noble -trees, growing taller even than the white oak, and may always be -distinguished by its very large, shiny, dark green leaves. - -Its bark is also much smoother and darker than the white oak. Its acorn -is very bitter and can easily be recognized by its shallow cup and by its -large size. It is the largest of the two-year acorns. The wood of the red -oak is darker than that of the white, and is used in the manufacture of -furniture. - -[Illustration: FIG. 85. Scarlet Oak] - -=32. The Scarlet Oak.= This tree is often confused with the red, but a -glance at the leaves will show a great difference. That of the scarlet -has deeper indentations and is much more slender and skeleton-like in -shape. It takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it takes -on when the leaves change color in the fall. - -=33. The Pin Oak.= The pin-oak leaf is much more readily confounded with -the scarlet oak than that of any other tree. In fact, no two trees have -leaves so nearly alike as these two; yet a glance at two typical leaves -placed side by side will show considerable difference. - -The pin-oak leaf is smaller than the other, and in proportion to its size -the indentations are not so deep. - -[Illustration: FIG. 86. Pin Oak] - -The pin-oak tree has a great many small branchlets, or stems, which give -the tree the appearance of a bundle of pins, especially when the leaves -are off in winter. It is a beautiful tree and is now being planted very -extensively as a shade tree. It is hardy, and stands city air very well -indeed. Its bark is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather. - -The oak family is such a large and valuable one that we cannot afford -to pass it over lightly. In the South grows the willow oak, famous for -its shade and its leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little -farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the _shingle oak_, so -called from the fact that its wood is mostly made into shingles. It is -also known as the _laurel oak_, because its leaves are shaped like those -of the laurel, although not so glossy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 87. Pin Oak in Winter] - -This is such an odd shape for an oak leaf that one would be likely to -pass it by and not recognize it but for the fact that it bears acorns. -This is always the test,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.” - -If we meet a new tree which seems not to be an oak because its leaves are -new to us, and it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak. - -A very interesting group of trees which come under this head are the -chestnut oaks. At first glance one would take one of these trees to be a -chestnut, but it bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch -shows the two leaves side by side. - -[Illustration: FIG. 88. - -Chestnut - -Chestnut Oak] - -Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly resemble each other, -by looking carefully we see that the teeth on the chestnut leaf are -pointed, while those on the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is -also a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long and narrow, -while that of the chestnut oak is broader. - -There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their leaves are quite -similar and they all belong to the white-oak group and ripen their acorns -in one season. They grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary -times at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson measuring seven feet in diameter. The -acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought after by the squirrels. - -The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for cooperage, railroad -ties, and fencing. - -=34. The Live Oak.= No list of American oaks would be complete without -the live oak. This is a southern tree and is remarkable in many ways. -Its leaf has no indentations, remains green all winter, and is thick and -leathery. - -[Illustration: FIG. 89. Leaf of Live Oak] - -The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic foot weighing nearly sixty pounds. -It is as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes a high polish and has -a fine grain, it soon dulls the edge of a tool. - -Before the age of steel, when all ships were wooden, it was much used in -shipbuilding, and the government bought large tracts of land where live -oak grew abundantly, so that the United States navy should never lack the -necessary timber. - -It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia, and along the -Gulf to Texas. - - - - -CHAPTER VII - -BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES - - -It is the maple family to which we are indebted for much of the glorious -coloring of our autumn landscapes. - -It is true that all trees play their part in the general color scheme, -but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of the fall foliage we must look -to the maples. - -When we think of the word _maple_ we are apt to have visions of other -things besides trees. Maple and sugar or sirup seem to go together, and -in fact some of us do not know that there are other maples besides the -sugar maple. - -This fine American tree is one of which we should be proud. Not only is -it a handsome large tree, valuable for its shade and the beautiful colors -it wears in the fall, but its wood is hard and valuable,—it is often -called _rock maple_,—and besides all these good qualities it furnishes us -with our maple sirup and sugar. - -The process of making maple sugar is quite interesting and may be divided -into two stages,—gathering the sap, and boiling down. - -Very early in the spring, often as early as March, the sap begins to flow -up through the tree. The farmer knows by experience when to tap the tree, -which he does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger. Into -this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through which the lifeblood -of the tree—the sap—flows in a steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or -bucket placed beneath to catch it. - -The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks of a clock, one -a second. This continues for two or three weeks, until each tree has -yielded something like twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons -of sap to produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five pounds -of maple sugar. In New England and New York there are maple groves -containing thousands of trees, and one farm alone produces five thousand -pounds of sugar in a season. - -Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the trees does not -kill them unless improperly done. The farmer must not tap them at the -wrong time nor in too many places. The tree will stand a great deal if -properly treated, but harsh treatment will kill it. - -The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured into large boilers -or evaporators and boiled until it becomes a sirup. The old-fashioned -test to find out when the boiling had been carried on long enough was to -drop a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish. If it -hardened, the boiling was finished. - -Fig. 90 shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that leaf which is -most often confounded with it, viz., the Norway maple. Observe the two -closely. The sugar maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while -the Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous, and the leaf is -much thinner and more delicate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 90. - -Sugar Maple - -Norway Maple] - -The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so dense a shade as the -Norway, which is a low-growing tree with close, dark foliage. - -=35. The Silver Maple.= The one which naturally comes next in the list -is the _silver_, _soft_, or _white maple_, as it is variously termed. -From the ground up to the topmost leaf the whole character of this tree -suggests the word _thoroughbred_. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy -in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty and might truly -be called the acme of perfection in tree life. Its name is derived from -the fact that the under side of the leaf is silvery white. The upper -side being dark green gives a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the -foliage, which as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the -American elm. - -[Illustration: FIG. 91. - -The Silver Maple - -The Red Maple] - -This description does not always fit, however, as it is planted -extensively in cities where horses gnaw the fine bark; smoke, soot, -and coal gas discolor the leaves; and the caterpillars complete the -work of destroying its beauty. Yet it still lives, even if it does not -thrive under such harsh treatment. Its wood is white, soft, and not very -valuable. - -=36. The Red Maple.= A relative of the silver maple and one which might -be mistaken for it is the red, swamp, or wild maple. It is this tree -which displays the brightest reds in autumn. Referring to the sketch it -will be seen that the leaf is smaller and three-fingered instead of five, -as in the silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during the -entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn. - -[Illustration: FIG. 92. The Sycamore Maple] - -=37. The Sycamore Maple.= In the rows on rows of maples so common in our -towns and cities one will often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser -than any of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an importation -from Europe, known as the _sycamore maple_ because of its resemblance to -the sycamore leaf. It is easily identified by its large size, coarseness, -the very long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire edge -is finely toothed,—in which point it differs from all the foregoing -varieties. Its value as a shade tree is nearly equal to the Norway, and -in Europe it is often planted in preference to all other maples. - -=38. The Striped Maple.= Growing in the shade of other trees and forming -part of the undergrowth of our North woods is a small tree known as the -_striped maple_, from the stripes which run up and down its bark. The New -England name for this little mountain tree is _moosewood_, from the fact -that the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which form his chief -food in winter. The leaves are quite large, but very thin, soft, and -delicate. - -[Illustration: FIG. 93. The Striped Maple, or Moosewood] - -=39. Maple Keys.= The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples are known as -_winged_. The flat, thin part gives the seed a swirling motion as it -drops from the tree. This is the way nature has of spreading the seed -over a large area so that more trees may be started in life. Many tree -seeds are winged, but the maple seed or key is so large and so common -that every one must at some time have noticed it. - -[Illustration: FIG. 94. Maple “Keys,” a Common Form of Winged Seeds] - -=40. The Ash-Leaved Maple.= The ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common -in our parks. It has no resemblance to other maple leaves, yet it bears -the unmistakable maple key,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.” It is -therefore a maple. - -The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, is interesting because it is our only -maple having a compound leaf; that is, a leaf stem with several distinct -leaflets. Compound leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and -the horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved maple is a -curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but grows almost anywhere. It is -a small tree, and its wood is not especially valuable except for making -paper pulp. - -North America has only nine varieties of maple, while China and Japan -have more than thirty. Indeed, it is to Japan, whose forests are largely -made up of maples, that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and -exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted so extensively on -our lawns and in our parks have such a variety of form and color that no -written description can do them justice. Fig. 96 will give some idea of -their shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot be shown, -range from dark purple to the most delicate combinations of white and -green. The finest of these dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to -an ostrich plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves. - -[Illustration: FIG. 95. Ash-Leaved Maple, or Box Elder] - -[Illustration: FIG. 96. Japan Maples] - - - - -CHAPTER VIII - -BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES - - -The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig with several leaves -is a compound leaf or a number of simple leaves. This is a very easy -thing to decide. At the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins the -twig or branch, is always a little bud. When the leaf drops off in the -fall the bud remains, and in the spring begins to swell and finally -develops into a leaf. This bud then is the promise of next year’s leaf, -and it is always found at the base of the leaf stem, as shown at _A_. -There is no such bud at the base of the leaflet on the compound leaf, as -shown at _B_. If then we find no bud at _B_, we must look farther down -until we discover it at _C_. This furnishes the test and we know that our -specimen is a compound leaf. - -[Illustration: FIG. 97. Method of distinguishing Compound and Simple -Leaves] - -This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chestnuts, buckeyes, -hickories, and walnuts all have compound leaves. - -The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but was imported from -Europe, where it is a great favorite. The leaflets number five or seven, -always an odd number, and they radiate from one central point, the odd -one in the center usually being the largest. - -[Illustration: FIG. 98. The Horse-Chestnut] - -It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they come out of the -sticky buds in the spring. They unfold and grow very rapidly and soon the -tree brings forth large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers. - -The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the season do not seem to -be very useful, yet they are so solid and shiny that every boy delights -to gather them. - -An American tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut is the buckeye. -The leaflets on the buckeye leaf number five, sometimes seven, and -radiate like the horse-chestnut from a common center. - -[Illustration: FIG. 99. - -Buckeye - -Hickory] - -This tree is well known through the Ohio valley, where it is very common, -Ohio being called the Buckeye State. The nuts are not edible, but the -wood is very tough and strong and is used extensively in making farm -implements. - -Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory shown in Fig. 99. Both -leaves are compound, and each has five leaflets, but they are quite -different, because the hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of -the leaf-stalk instead of radiating from one point. - -There are several varieties of hickory, including the shagbark, or -shellbark, the pignut, and pecan. - -The name _shagbark hickory_ is taken from the peculiar appearance of the -bark, which hangs in loose pieces nearly a foot long and gives the tree a -very shaggy effect. _Shellbark_ is another common name for this tree. - -The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but the kernel is very -sweet, and is considered by some superior to all other hickory nuts. - -The _pignut hickory_ is so called because the nuts in some parts of the -country are used to feed the pigs. It is also called _broom hickory_. -The nuts are small and become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood, -however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard and tough. There -is a difference between strength and toughness. Oak is strong, but not -tough. Hickory is both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will -stand bending without breaking. A wood which will bend easily but is not -strong cannot be called tough. It must be both strong and elastic, and -hickory has both of these qualities. - -=41. The Pecan.= We usually think of the pecan nut as different from -the hickory, yet they belong to the same family. The pecan hickory is a -southern tree which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio River, -and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant one hundred and fifty feet -high, producing an enormous crop of the sweetest and most delicately -flavored nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as many as -fifteen. - -[Illustration: FIG. 100. - -Black Walnut - -Butternut] - -=42. The Black Walnut and Butternut.= Perhaps no two trees are so -difficult for the city boy or girl to distinguish as the butternut and -black walnut. Both have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying -from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from fifteen to twenty-three -for the black walnut. A leaf having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong -to either tree if there were no other way to distinguish them. The teeth -on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper than on the butternut, -and the fuzzy stem is lacking. The green nuts, too, are different, the -black walnuts being just about the size and shape of green lemons, the -butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable feature is the odor. -Having once smelled the crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut, -a person will thereafter need no other test. - -The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture was at one time very -common. The great supply of this valuable wood has been exhausted and -other woods have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks, for -which purpose nothing seems better suited. - -Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good polish and is -occasionally used in cabinet work. - -=43. The Locusts.= The locust family is a large one; its members all bear -compound leaves, and their fruit is in the form of beans instead of nuts. - -The common yellow or black locust is famous for its hard, durable wood, -its delicate light green leaves, and its white flowers. - -The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are off, but its wood is -so valuable that its beauty is not considered. The wood is yellow and -becomes very hard after it has dried. - -The honey locust is another common member of this family. - -[Illustration: FIG. 101. - -The Locust - -The Honey Locust] - -=44. The Honey Locust.= Its leaves are much finer and somewhat resemble -ferns. It may always be known by the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which -grow all over the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes -being found in great bunches and as long as six inches. Its fruit is a -long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and contains little light brown -beans. The wood is strong and durable. - -=45. The Ash.= Every boy who has owned a rowboat knows that oars are made -of wood from the ash. This is because the oar must be elastic as well as -strong, and the timber of the ash tree supplies these two qualities. The -ash is one of our tallest and noblest forest trees. It is rather slim -in build, with beautiful clean shiny green foliage. The members of this -group seem to be fond of colors, and we have the white ash, red ash, -green ash, blue ash, and black ash. - -There are slight differences in the leaves and seeds, but, as in other -trees, when we have once seen an ash seed we can always thereafter -distinguish an ash tree. Fig. 102 shows the seed of the red ash. It is a -winged seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 102. Red Ash] - -The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to seven leaflets and -the black ash has from seven to eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and -elastic, has a handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides -making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those farm implements -which require strength. The Indian could find no better wood for his bow, -and even Cupid is said to have first made his arrows of ash. - - - - -CHAPTER IX - -BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES - - -=46. The Elm.= The elm is the well-known shade tree of New England. Its -tall, graceful form is familiar to every visitor and native of that -section of country, where it is found along every roadway and in every -city. - -[Illustration: FIG. 103. The American Elm] - -Who can think of New England without its noble elms? It would indeed -be a different country. The elm may be said to represent New England -character,—dignified, sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall, with -foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives the desired shade, -yet does not obstruct the view; while its stately dignity gives an air -of comfort and repose to the grounds, which it seems to protect from the -elements. - -Its wood is valuable for certain kinds of work, being tough and strong, -but it is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is difficult to polish. It -is used considerably for wheel hubs and in cooperage. - -[Illustration: FIG. 104. Leaf of American Elm] - -Observe the edge of the elm leaf carefully. The teeth not only curve -gracefully toward the extreme tip of the leaf, but they are themselves -also toothed,—a form known as double-toothed. The leaf is coarse and -rough to the touch, in marked contrast to the birch family, whose leaves -it slightly resembles. There are several elms famous in the history of -our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under which George Washington -drew his sword and took command of the American Army on July 3, 1775; -there are several other “Washington Elms” in different parts of the -country, while New Haven is known as the City of Elms. William Penn made -his famous treaty with the Indians under the branches of a magnificent -elm, which remained standing until it was over two hundred years old, -when it was finally blown down. The spot has been marked by a marble -column. - -The tree is called the _American_, or _white_, _elm_, and we have several -other varieties growing wild, including the well-known _slippery elm_, so -called because the inner bark is slippery and edible. - -=47. The Birches.= If the black birch with its sweet, aromatic bark is -not known to a boy, the white, or canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems to -be the fate of this beautiful tree to be disfigured by every wandering -youth who has strength enough to tear off a strip of its paper-like bark. - -[Illustration: FIG. 105. Leaf of Black Birch] - -The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished from the elm -by its smoothness and thinness. Its base is slightly heartshaped, the -edge is double-toothed, the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the -taste, and the leaves grow in pairs. - -[Illustration: FIG. 106. Birches bordering a Canal] - -=48. White Birch.= The famous white, paper, or canoe birch has a leaf -somewhat broader than the black variety, but without the heartshaped -base. Its bark is its peculiar feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes -off in layers and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof, -a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who constructed their canoes of -it. The wood is hard and tough. - -=49. Gray Birch.= A smaller tree, known as the _gray birch_, also has -white bark, but it is not as perfect as that of the canoe birch, does not -peel in layers, and has triangular black spots on the trunk beneath every -limb. - -[Illustration: FIG. 107. Leaf of Gray Birch] - -It loves barren, rocky places, abandoned farms, etc., and is sometimes -called _old field birch_. It has a fine, delicate foliage, which is not -duplicated in the forest. Each leaf swings from a long, slender stem, -and every passing breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen. -The leaf form is very odd,—a broad, flat base, and then a long, graceful -curve out to a fine point, the whole edge being finely double-toothed. - -=50. The Beech.= The difference in the leaf forms of the birch and beech -is very marked. Both have toothed edges, but in the beech the spaces -between the teeth are so remarkably shallow that one has to search for -them. - -[Illustration: FIG. 108. A Remarkable Growth of Beeches in Greater New -York] - -There has been a common belief for generations that the beech is proof -against lightning, and recent experiments prove that beech wood offers -considerably greater resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar, -or willow; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood is hard, strong, -and tough, and will take a high polish. - -=51. Hornbeam.= Closely related to the beeches are two little trees which -have delicate birchlike foliage and wood of great hardness,—the hornbeam, -or blue beech, and the hop hornbeam, or ironwood. - -[Illustration: FIG. 109. Leaf of American Beech] - -[Illustration: FIG. 110. Ironwood, or Hop Hornbeam] - -The leaves of these two varieties are quite similar, that of the ironwood -being somewhat the larger. - -The name _hop hornbeam_ is derived from the fruit, which resembles the -hop, and the name _ironwood_ from the great strength and hardness of the -wood. - -=52. Buttonball.= No list of trees would be complete which did not -include those three forest giants, buttonball, tulip, and sweet gum. -The names _buttonwood_, _buttonball_, _sycamore_, and _plane tree_, as -the same tree is called in different parts of the country, all apply -to that fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its leaves, -leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which produces an enormous crop -of buttonballs so well known to country boys and girls. The leaves are -in proportion to the size of the tree, often measuring a foot in length, -and being frequently covered on the under side with a white down called -_fungus_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 111. Leaf of Buttonwood] - -The wood of the sycamore, as it is incorrectly called, is valuable for -cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and taking a high polish. It is, -however, difficult to work, and has a tendency to warp. - -=53. Sweet Gum.= The sweet-gum tree also produces a crop of balls, or -seed pods, but although the same size as the buttonballs, they need never -be confused, as the gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points, -while the buttonballs are comparatively smooth. - -The leaves of the sweet gum, or _liquid amber_—so called from the -amber-colored gum the tree gives out—remind one of the starfish, being -five-fingered and decidedly different from any leaf in the forest. The -tree grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its wood is a -handsome brown color with fine and intricate markings. It warps badly, -but is valued for wood turning on account of its softness and even grain. - -[Illustration: FIG. 112. Sweet Gum, or Liquid Amber] - -=54. Tulip.= The lumber furnished by the tulip tree, commonly called -_whitewood_, is less liable to warp than gum wood, and is somewhat -harder. Just why it should be called whitewood is not clear, as it is -much darker than white pine and of a greenish-yellow color. The leaf of -the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only four points, without any -small teeth, and with an outline so odd that one often wonders if nature -did not use a pair of scissors in cutting it out. - -Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem. The glory of the -tree—which gives it its name—is the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it -bears in the spring. They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in -color, with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown cone, which -remains on the tree all winter. The tree thrives best south of the Ohio -valley, where it is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter. -The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes from its trunk, and in some -sections it is still called _canoe wood_. - -[Illustration: FIG. 113. Tulip, or Whitewood] - -=55. Basswood, or Linden.= A very valuable group of trees for both shade -and timber are the basswoods, or lindens. There are several varieties, -the European linden thriving here as readily as our native varieties. -These trees may always be distinguished by the leaves, which are -heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one side from the middle line being always -larger than the other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been -joined along the center. - -This is a very common feature among certain classes of trees, such as -the elms. Another remarkable feature is the seed, or bract, shown in the -sketch (Fig. 115). - -The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade, and has sweet -flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes called the _bee tree_, because -the bees swarm all over it in the summer time. Its timber is valuable, -being free from knots and of such an even grain that it is much sought -after for some kinds of carving. - -[Illustration: FIG. 114. American Linden, or Basswood, showing the -Sugar-Loaf Form of the Tree] - -The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from basswood. - -Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several familiar families, -all loved by some of us for some reason. - -The willow is always a striking tree, not only because of its weeping or -drooping appearance, but also because we usually associate it with water. - -What is more common in the country than a stream hidden by the willows -which crowd its bank and dip down into the clear water! - -Then, too, we watch it for the first sign of spring, and friends in -different states often vie with each other to discover the first _pussy -willow_, the name given to the soft, downy buds which appear often before -the snow has melted. - -[Illustration: FIG. 115. Leaf and Bract of Linden] - -The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs in spring the -bark can be separated from the wood and a whistle or simple flute -manufactured. - -The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being used chiefly by pulp -makers, but it grows where no other trees can exist, being found nearly -all over the world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any other -broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over one hundred and fifty -varieties, which vary from small shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high. -Its soft and gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence. - -[Illustration: FIG. 116. A Weeping Willow] - -=56. The Poplars.= In the poplars we have a group of trees similar to the -willows in some ways but very different in others. The wood is weak and -of little use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness -ends. - -To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose leaves are continually -trembling,—in fact, the whole family is a restless one, the constant -motion being due to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened. - -The people of Scotland have a superstition that it was of aspen wood -that our Saviour’s cross was made, and that the tree shivers in constant -remembrance of that fact. - -[Illustration: FIG. 117. - -Aspen - -Aspen Poplar, or Large-Toothed Aspen] - -Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen, the Lombardy poplar, -and the cottonwood. - -The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to reach toward the -clouds, and its tall, narrow form is familiar in many sections of our -country, although the tree was originally imported from Europe. - -Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known members of this family. -Cottonwood is best known in the West, where it often constitutes the -chief and only growth along the water courses, and balm of Gilead is -known as one of our common city shade trees. This latter tree, often -called the balsam, is really an important tree of the great northwestern -country, being found plentifully in the Klondike, and often forming in -that far northern country great forests thousands of square miles in -extent. It is used as a shade tree because it stands the smoke and gas of -the city where many other trees pine away and die. - -[Illustration: FIG. 118. Cottonwood, or Carolina Poplar] - -=57. Sassafras.= We find many freaks in the tree world, and nature seems -to have tried to see how odd she really could be; for instance, on the -sassafras tree we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two, -and three divisions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 119. Sassafras] - -This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite small, grows -under favorable conditions to a height of fifty feet. It is noted for -the pleasant taste of its leaves, twigs, and roots, which are used -considerably in flavoring medicines. - -=58. Mulberry.= Another tree noted for the peculiar shape of its leaves -is the mulberry. There are three common kinds, named, from the color of -their berries, _red_, _black_, and _white_. - -It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of the silkworm. The -leaves of this tree are quite regular, but those of the red and black -vary apparently as they please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in -size or shape, and they are very soft and downy. - -[Illustration: FIG. 120. Red Mulberry, showing Variation in Leaf Form] - - - - -CHAPTER X - -THE EVERGREENS - - -[Illustration: FIG. 121. White Pines at Westbury, Long Island] - -The evergreen trees, so called because their needle-like leaves remain -on the tree all winter, are fully as interesting as the broad-leaved -trees. Without them our landscapes in winter would be much more barren -and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer. A pine forest -with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered floor is a sight to be long -remembered. - -[Illustration: FIG. 122. A View showing how Evergreens help to enrich the -Landscape. Arbor Vitæ Hedges] - -The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among the soft timbers, -although the yellow pine is far from soft. - -=59. White Pine.= The king among evergreens is usually admitted to be the -white pine. Its soft, bluish-green foliage, the widespreading branches, -and the value of its fine, even-grained wood give it the first rank. - -[Illustration: FIG. 123. Needles and Cone of White Pine] - -Pines have needle-shaped leaves which grow in groups of two, three, -or five. White pine needles grow in groups of five and are from three -to four inches long. The cones which contain the seeds are about five -inches long. The tree grows tall and straight, and formerly grew in great -forests covering thousands of square miles; the wood is so free from -pitch and is so easily worked with tools that these great forests have -been almost annihilated by the lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has -become quite expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large -enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in the future white -pine will be only a memory. - -=60. Georgia Pine.= The southern yellow pine, or Georgia pine, is a very -different tree from its northern cousin, the white pine, furnishing us -with a resinous yellow wood, much harder than white pine, and a beautiful -and valuable material for the interiors of buildings. It is also very -durable and is frequently used for exposed places, such as the decks of -ships. - -The needles are very long, measuring a foot and sometimes fifteen inches -in length. - -The seed cones are from six to ten inches long, and the scales have -little prickles on their ends. The tree grows throughout the southern -states from Virginia to Texas, and the cutting of its timber is a -valuable industry of the South. - -=61. Yellow Pine.= The common yellow pine must not be confounded with -the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has needles growing three in a -bunch, and the latter short needles three or four inches long, growing -two and sometimes three in a group. The cone of the common yellow pine is -also very much smaller, being only two inches long. - -Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring, ceiling, and interior -finishing. - -[Illustration: FIG. 124. Hemlock] - -There are several less important kinds of pine, such as the northern and -Jersey scrub pines, and the red, or Norway pine. - -Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of the evergreen family. - -=62. Hemlock= is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with drooping branches -and little needles not over half an inch long. It is a northern tree -except along the Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as -Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things to be found among -the common trees. They are no longer than the hemlock needles. - -[Illustration: FIG. 125. The Influence of Hemlock on the Winter -Landscape. Snow Scene] - -The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very easily and being -afflicted with _shakes_, a defect caused by the annual layers or rings -breaking away from each other when the trees are swayed by the winter -storms. The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin. - -=63. Spruce.= The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen trees which ornament -so many of our old farm dooryards are usually some species of spruce. The -spruce is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so commonly -used for Christmas trees, but they are so different that they need never -be confused. - -There are several varieties of spruce, including the red, black, white, -and Norway, but they all bear a family resemblance. - -Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found that the needles -completely surround it. This is not true of the fir. Then the spruce -needles are sharp at the tip, while the fir needles are blunt. - -This family is distinctly a northern group, being found as far north as -Hudson Bay and forming dense forests, particularly on mountain sides. -One may often see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the -broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces extending clear -up to the summit. - -The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee, but in that latitude -it grows only at high elevations. It has cones about one and a half -inches long, and its wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is -used for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for the frames of -buildings. - -The black spruce is the northern brother of the red, and is really a -Canadian tree which occasionally reaches down into the United States. -It reaches the Mackenzie River on the north and covers large areas in -Manitoba. - -It takes its name from the dark, somber color of its foliage, which seems -almost black against the snowy hillsides. - -The cones are the same size as on the red spruce, but they persist in -remaining on the tree for several years. The wood is soft and weak and is -used for sounding-boards, pulp, and light framing for houses. - -[Illustration: FIG. 126. Black Spruce] - -The white spruce is similar to the other two, but lighter in color, cones -a trifle longer and softer, and needles more slender. It is a northern -tree; its wood is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finishing -the interior of houses. - -Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importation from Europe, where -its majestic height graces the mountains from the Alps to Norway and -Sweden. It grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and -flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones are four or five -inches long. Its wood is known in Europe as _deal_. - -=64. Cypress.= In the swamps of our southern states, from Maryland south -along the Gulf of Mexico, are found great dark forests of the bald -cypress. - -[Illustration: FIG. 127. Cypress] - -They grow directly out of the water and are famous for a peculiar -formation of the roots called _cypress knees_,—lumpy growths which come -up out of the water as if they were in search of air. The cypress is -a tall, spirelike tree, which has the most delicate, feathery needles -imaginable. They drop off in the fall, so that the tree is sometimes -called _deciduous cypress_. The cones are roundish and about an inch -long. The timber furnished by this tree is very handsome in grain and -valuable for many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing. - -=65. The Balsam Fir=, or our famous Christmas tree, is noted for its -great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria for invalids, especially -consumptives, are frequently built in the midst of great fir forests, -that the sufferers may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with -the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used to fill pillows, -which are said to soothe tired and worn-out people to sleep. - -We are all familiar with the sweet, _woodsy_ smell of the Christmas tree. -No other tree can take its place. It brings visions of the country, of -the woods and fields and flowers, and it will always be dear to us. - -The balsam fir can always be distinguished from the spruce by the fact -that the needles only come out at the sides of the twig instead of from -all directions, as in the spruce, and its end is blunt, whereas that of -the spruce is sharply pointed. - -[Illustration: FIG. 128. Balsam Fir] - -The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters which contain the -balsam, _Canada balsam_ it is usually called, well known for its healing -qualities. - -The cones are from two to four inches long, stand upright on the -branches, and the wood is not very valuable. - -=66. The Cedars.= No list of evergreen trees would be complete without -the cedars. In this group is the well-known hedge tree, arbor vitæ, -sometimes erroneously called _white cedar_. It is famous for its -flattened, bright green, scaly leaves, with their strong, pungent odor. - -This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very little knowledge as to -its real shape and height if allowed to grow naturally; but it is said to -reach a height of fifty feet under favorable conditions. - -[Illustration: FIG. 129. Arbor Vitæ] - -=67. White Cedar.= The real white cedar has a more delicate leaf and is -fond of cool swamps. - -It has a conical shape and is much larger than the arbor vitæ, reaching -sometimes ninety feet. The wood is very valuable, being soft but durable, -and is used for shingles, posts, and boats. It has the property of -enduring the changes such as posts or other structural members are -obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks next to yellow -locust in this particular. - -=68. Red Cedar= is the tree which supplies our lead pencils. It is -remarkable for its straight, even grain, and the ease with which it -can be worked. This is the familiar tree of our roadside, where the -birds who feast on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and -unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations by dropping -the seeds on the ground. - -[Illustration: FIG. 130. Red Cedar growing along Roadside from Seed -dropped by Birds] - -The red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot exist, but like -other trees responds to good treatment and reaches its best development -in the balmy and luxuriant South. - -It is found from Maine to Florida and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. -In the North it rarely grows over twenty feet high, and is of compact -growth, but in Florida it reaches eighty feet. - -The leaves are remarkable in that there are two shapes, the sharp or -awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped, growing upon the same branch. - -The wood is valuable for many purposes and has been used so extensively -that it is becoming scarce. - -Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for lead pencils for -years, and it is said that during the Civil War, when the whole southern -coast was blockaded, the European manufacturers were obliged to scour the -world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar. - - - - -CHAPTER XI - -THE BIG TREES - - -[Illustration: FIG. 131. Big Trees scarred by Fire at the Base. Redwood -Meadow, California] - -Each section of country has its own peculiar trees, and those described -have been mainly representative of the eastern states; but no list of -American trees would be complete without the “big trees,” as they are -commonly called, of California. The annual rings of these giants show -them to be from two thousand to four thousand years old. - -[Illustration: FIG. 132. Big Trees, “General Grant” and “General -Sherman,” Calaveras County, California] - -[Illustration: FIG. 133. “General Grant,” a Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, -California] - -It is hard to realize this great age. It means that for centuries and -centuries before the white men came these kings of the forests looked -down on generations and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have -seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful tales they might -relate if they could only talk! - -[Illustration: FIG. 134. Redwood Logs in Humboldt County, California] - -On that fateful day over four hundred years ago, when the three little -caravels of Columbus sighted the West Indies, these hoary old trees were -twenty-five hundred years old. They should be sacred to every American, -and not one should ever be cut down for lumber. - -There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood and the so-called -“big trees,” which are the largest trees in the world. They both belong -to the cone-bearing (coniferous) group, and the needles are only three -quarters of an inch long and the little cones an inch. - -The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike red cedar, but is -softer and is used for many purposes on the Pacific coast. - -The big trees are now carefully guarded by the government. One grove -alone which contains seven hundred of these fine trees, called the -Mariposa Grove, has been reserved as a national park, and is watched -carefully to keep out forest fires, etc. - -Many of the best known of these trees are given names. One is called -“Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” because of a peculiar opening at the base. - -The most famous perhaps is the “Grizzly Giant.” This one is ninety-three -feet in circumference at the ground, and its first branch is two hundred -feet above the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered the -largest tree in the world. - -[Illustration: FIG. 135. Redwood Logs blasted apart for Easier Handling -(a very wasteful method)] - -We can get some idea of what these figures represent when we know that it -takes five men three weeks to cut one down, and that the cost of felling -one of these monsters is five hundred dollars. - -A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances have been held on -it, and on one very large one a ballroom has been built for this special -purpose. - -As one Californian has said, “The redwood forests are apparently -imperishable, except through the ax, as the trees are rarely injured by -fire. The redwood is the only lumber that can take the place of the white -pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany and black walnut, -displace oak for railroad ties, cypress and cedar for shingles, and -surpass all other woods for durability when in contact with the earth or -when exposed to moisture.” - -[Illustration: FIG. 136. Immense Flock of Sheep being herded illegally -in a United States Government Forest Reservation. (They kill the young -seedling trees)] - - - - -INDEX - - - Annual rings, 59 - - Ash, 92 - - Aspen, 107 - - - Band saw, 58 - - Basswood, 103 - - Beech, 99 - - Bench, care of, 3 - - Bench hook, 15 - - Bevel, 10 - - Big Trees of California, 123 - - Birches, 96 - - Bit, auger, 27 - auger, details of, 28 - center, 27 - countersink, 29 - gimlet, 29 - - Black walnut, 89 - - Brace, common forms of, 26 - and bit, 27 - - Bract of linden, 105 - - Buckeye, 87 - - Butternut, 89 - - Buttonwood, 101 - - - Cap iron, 17 - - Cedar, 120 - - Chisel, cutting angle of, 23 - firmer, 24 - framing, 24 - methods of using, 24 - sharpening, 25 - - Clamp iron of plane, 18 - - Compound leaves, 85 - - Cottonwood, or Carolina poplar, 108 - - Cutting tools, 11 - - Cypress, 118 - - - Dovetail. _See_ Joint - - Drawing board, 45, 62 - - - Elm, American, 94 - - Evergreens, 111 - - - Felling trees, 52 - - Fir, balsam, 118 - - Framing square, 8 - - - Gang saw, 55 - - Glue, use of, 39 - - Grain of wood, 59 - - Groups of tools, 4 - - Gum, sweet, or liquid amber, 101 - - - Hammer, claw, 31 - use of, 32 - - Hand screw, use of, 40 - - Hemlock, 115 - - Hickory, 87 - - Honey locust, 91 - - Hornbeam, 100 - - Horse-chestnut, 86 - - - Ironwood, 100 - - - Joint, definition of, 39 - dovetail, 47 - end lap, 44 - middle lap, 38 - miter, 41 - - Joint edge, 37 - - Jointers, 21 - - - Laying out work, 38 - - Linden, or basswood, 103 - - Locust, 91 - - Log boom, 55 - - Log jam, 53 - - Logs, redwood, 126 - - Lumbering and milling, 51 - - - Mallet, 33 - - Maple, ash-leaved, 82 - Japan, 84 - Norway, 78 - red, 80 - silver, 78 - striped, 81 - sugar, 76 - sycamore, 80 - - Maple keys, 82 - - Marking gauge, 8 - - Mechanical drawing, 43 - of end lap joint, 44 - of cylinder, 44 - - Medullary rays, 59 - - Miscellaneous tools, 31 - - Mortise, cutting a, 34 - - Mulberry, 109 - - - Nail set or punch, 32 - - Nails, cut and wire, 41 - method of using cut, 41 - withdrawing, 32 - - - Oak, black and black-jack, 69 - chestnut, 74 - live, 75 - mossy-cup, 68 - pin, 72 - post, 67 - red, 70 - scarlet, 71 - white, 66 - - Oilstone, use of, 25 - - - Pecan, 89 - - Perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared, 43 - - Pine, Georgia, 114 - white, 113 - yellow, 114 - - Plan of work, 4 - - Plane, 17 - adjustments on, 18 - block, 21 - block, method of using, 22 - jack, 19 - smooth, 20 - wooden, 22 - - Plane iron in action, 17 - - Poplars, 106 - - - River driving, 53 - - Rule, use of, 6 - - - Sandpaper, use of, 34 - - Sassafras, 108 - - Saw, back, 15 - circular, 57 - method of holding, 14 - turning, 16 - - Saw tapers, 14 - - Saw teeth, shape of, 13 - - Saw tooth action, 11 - - Saw tooth set, 13 - - Sawmill, 55 - - Saws, 11 - - Scale drawing, 48 - - Screw-driver, 33 - - Screws, varieties of, and methods of using, 42 - - Sections of red oak, 70 - - Set screw of plane iron, 17 - - Shake in wood, 60 - - Shrinkage, 61 - - Spokeshave, 29 - - Spruce, 116 - - Stock, squaring up, 36 - - Sycamore, 101 - - - T square, use of, 45 - - Timber and lumber, 58 - - Trees, broad-leaved, or deciduous, 65 - - Triangles, use of, 45 - - Try-square, use of, 6 - - Tulip, or whitewood, 102 - - - Warping, 61 - - Weather checks, 60 - - Willow, 106 - - Working face, 37 - - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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