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+The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary woodworking, by Edwin W.
+Foster
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online at
+www.gutenberg.org. If you are not located in the United States, you
+will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before
+using this eBook.
+
+Title: Elementary woodworking
+
+Author: Edwin W. Foster
+
+Release Date: January 7, 2023 [eBook #69725]
+
+Language: English
+
+Produced by: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team
+             at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+             generously made available by The Internet Archive)
+
+*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***
+
+
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration: “Grizzly Giant,” a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California]
+
+
+
+
+                          ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
+
+                                    BY
+                             EDWIN W. FOSTER
+
+                              GINN & COMPANY
+                   BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON
+
+                             COPYRIGHT, 1903
+                            BY EDWIN W. FOSTER
+
+                           ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
+
+                                   25.1
+
+                            The Athenæum Press
+                        GINN & COMPANY · CAMBRIDGE
+                             · MASSACHUSETTS
+
+
+
+
+PREFACE
+
+
+This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing the pupil with
+the essential facts about tools and their uses. However efficient the
+instruction may be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for
+him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration the names of
+tools and technical terms, most of which are new to him. This applies
+with equal force to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of
+working.
+
+The function of the text is to supplement the instruction of the teacher.
+It is intended to gather up and arrange in a logical order the facts
+which the pupil has already been told. By this means these facts will
+become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work with a better
+understanding and make greater progress.
+
+It is believed that the text can be used to the greatest advantage
+by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects presented in class
+immediately _after_ the close of the lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and
+occasional written tests are very effective.
+
+No course of study in the form of a series of models is presented. It is
+hardly possible for any two schools to follow the same series of models.
+Local conditions necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and
+better designs are being brought out continuously.
+
+The order in which the tools are described in the following pages is the
+one that has seemed most natural. They may be taken up, however, in any
+convenient and logical order.
+
+It is with the earnest hope that nature study and manual work may be
+closely correlated, that Part II is added. No better period can be
+selected in which to study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than
+when the student is working with wood, learning by experience its grain,
+hardness, color, and value in the arts.
+
+Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its economic aspects,
+climatic effects, influence on rainfall, the flow of rivers, floods,
+droughts, etc., will be found interesting as well as instructive, and
+such interest should be instilled into every American boy and girl.
+
+The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game Commission of New
+York state for the series of Adirondack lumbering scenes, and to the
+United States Bureau of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees.
+
+                                                          EDWIN W. FOSTER.
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+                                                                      PAGE
+
+                              PART I. TOOLS
+
+    Chapter I. Introduction                                              3
+
+      General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of
+      work and division of tools into groups.
+
+    Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools                              5
+
+      The rule: divisions; method of using. The try-square: method
+      of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel.
+
+    Chapter III. Cutting Tools                                          11
+
+      Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers;
+      method of holding. Backsaw; use of bench hook. The turning
+      saw. The plane: use of cap iron; names of parts. Adjustment
+      of plane. Use of lever and adjusting screw; positions for
+      planing. The jack plane. The smooth plane. Jointers; action
+      of short and long planes. The block plane. The wooden plane.
+      The chisel: size of cutting angle; effect of careless
+      sharpening. The framing and firmer chisels; proper positions
+      for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharpening on oilstone.
+      Brace and bit. Center and auger bits; gimlet and countersink
+      bits. The spokeshave.
+
+    Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work                 31
+
+      The hammer; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver.
+      Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock; method explained in
+      detail. Laying out work; method of laying out a typical
+      joint. Securing parts; use of glue and hand screws. Nails;
+      method of using cut nails. Screws; method of using round-head
+      and flat-head screws. Mechanical drawing. The drawing
+      instruments explained, and method of making complete working
+      drawings described. Scale drawings.
+
+                              PART II. WOOD
+
+    Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling                                    51
+
+      The forest; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The
+      forming and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern
+      sawmills. Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings; medullary
+      rays; formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in
+      wood. Warping and shrinkage.
+
+    Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks                            65
+
+      White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack oak.
+      Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak.
+
+    Chapter VII. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Maples                         76
+
+      Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore
+      maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples.
+
+    Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves             85
+
+      Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and
+      butternut. Locust. Honey locust. Ash.
+
+    Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves                 94
+
+      Elm. The birches. Beech. Iron wood. Buttonball. Sweet gum.
+      Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry.
+
+    Chapter X. The Evergreens                                          111
+
+      White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce.
+      Cypress. Balsam fir. The cedars.
+
+    Chapter XI. The Big Trees of California                            123
+
+
+
+
+ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
+
+PART I
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+In order to obtain good results in the using of tools it is necessary to
+know their construction, how to properly sharpen and adjust them, and the
+correct method of handling them. It is also essential to know how to lay
+out and work the material or stock. Carelessness or a lack of knowledge
+is invariably followed by a failure. It is more important at first to
+work carefully and accurately than rapidly.
+
+“Tools are made to be used, not abused.” They must be kept _clean_ and
+_sharp_ and should be used only for the purpose intended. Wipe them off
+occasionally with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting. Put
+away all tools not in use and keep the top of the bench clean. Do not
+mark it with a pencil or scratch it with a knife. Do not cut into it with
+the chisel or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using glue,
+shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the bench; or, better
+still, do the work on a table provided for that purpose.
+
+The plan of work in making all models is in general the same and is as
+follows:
+
+    _First._ “Squaring up” the stock.
+
+    _Second._ “Laying out” the work.
+
+    _Third._ Cutting to the lines.
+
+When the article is composed of two or more pieces a fourth step may be
+added, namely, fitting and securing the parts.
+
+The tools used may be divided into three groups, as follows:
+
+    _First._ Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square,
+    marking gauge, bevel, and knife.
+
+    _Second._ Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane,
+    chisel, spokeshave, bit, and knife.
+
+    _Third._ Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet,
+    screw-driver, brace (or bitstock), and others not so common.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS
+
+
+=1. The Rule.= The standard unit of length is the yard, but the foot is
+commonly used for all measurements in woodwork. If the rule be twelve
+inches long it is known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long
+it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided into halves,
+quarters, eighths, and in some cases sixteenths. Rules are usually of
+boxwood or maple, with brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once
+or twice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Rule]
+
+The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work to be measured
+errors will usually follow. It should be stood on edge so that the pencil
+or knife point may touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same
+time. The proper position when laying out measurements is shown in the
+sketch (Fig. 2). Consecutive measurements should be laid off without
+moving the rule.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2. Methods of using the Rule: _A_, incorrect; _B_,
+correct]
+
+=2. The Try-Square.= The try-square has two distinct uses: first, to
+act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across
+the grain at right angles to the edge, as shown in Fig. 4; second, for
+testing or trying the adjoining sides to see if they are square with each
+other.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3. The Try-Square]
+
+The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel, but sometimes the
+beam _A_ is of wood with a brass strip _C_ to protect it and to take the
+wear. The blade _B_ is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into inches
+and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made in several sizes, the most
+convenient for general use being six inches.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 4. Methods of using the Try-Square]
+
+In using the try-square the beam should be held firmly against the face
+or edge of the stock. When working near the end of the piece, if the beam
+projects, reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife point
+instead of the pencil should be used for lining.
+
+When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it is first necessary
+to mark or square clear around it with the knife and try-square. In doing
+this the beam of the try-square must be used against the work face and
+joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one piece are called
+_framing squares_, and are used by carpenters and others for rough or
+large work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 5. The Framing Square]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6. The Marking Gauge]
+
+=3. The Marking Gauge.= The marking gauge is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. _A_
+is the gauge stick, _B_ the gauge block, _S_ the set screw, and _P_ the
+marking point, or _spur_. The gauge stick is graduated like a rule into
+inches and fractions, beginning at the steel marking point; but as the
+latter is not always exactly in the right place the graduations are not
+entirely reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge with the rule in the
+manner shown in Fig. 7.
+
+Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule in right. Place end of
+rule against gauge block and the measurement desired at spur. Turn set
+screw. The gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set at
+one inch and is ready for use.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7. Setting the Marking Gauge]
+
+To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold the tool firmly,
+with thumb and forefinger encircling gauge block. Tip the tool away from
+you until the marking point (spur) barely touches the wood and push the
+tool away from (never toward) you. The line made should be as fine as a
+knife line. A little practice is needed to give the proper control, as
+the marking point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is usually
+not straight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 8. Holding the Marking Gauge]
+
+A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock as a practice
+block, laying out lines a quarter of an inch apart, then an eighth, and
+finally a sixteenth.
+
+=4. The Bevel.= The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable
+blade.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 9. The Bevel]
+
+This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle from zero to 180
+degrees. The blade may be fixed firmly at any desired angle by simply
+turning the set screw. The method of using it is similar to that of the
+try-square.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+CUTTING TOOLS
+
+
+=5. Saws.= The saw might be described as a succession of chisels, one
+back of the other. We can readily understand the action of the saw by
+making cuts with a narrow chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as
+shown in Fig. 10 at _a_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 10. Cutting with and across the Grain with a Narrow
+Chisel]
+
+The little pieces of wood removed in this way are similar to the sawdust
+made by the saw, the only difference being that in the saw the teeth are
+narrower and the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one
+chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time.
+
+A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for cutting along the
+grain, is called a _ripsaw_.
+
+That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain may easily be
+proved by again resorting to the narrow chisel and attempting to repeat
+the first experiment. The wood will act as shown in Fig. 10 at _b_,
+splitting along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident, then,
+that a tool for cutting across the grain must be constructed in some
+other way.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 11. The Saw]
+
+Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with a knife point in
+two parallel lines across the grain, close together, as at _c_. It will
+be found that the wood between these lines may now be easily removed with
+the narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which we construct the
+crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharpened to a point, one on the right side,
+the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points designed
+to cut the fibers, as was done in our experiment with the knife. Fig.
+12 shows the end view of the crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not
+only are the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but each tooth
+is bent outward from the body of the saw. This bending is called _set_,
+and is designed to make the saw cut, or _kerf_, wider than the thickness
+of the saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood after the
+teeth have done their work. If it were not for this set, the fibers would
+spring back against the body of the saw after the teeth had passed and
+make the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set it should pass
+through the wood easily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12. Teeth of Crosscut Saw]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13. Teeth of Ripsaw]
+
+The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be seen in the sketch,
+the bottoms are flat like a chisel instead of pointed like those of the
+crosscut teeth.
+
+Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth, the side views, which are
+also different, are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.
+
+We are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace article, yet
+a careful examination will prove that the greatest care and skill are
+needed in its manufacture. Observe that the body, which must be of the
+best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the handle than at the
+opposite end. This is to give strength, and to prevent _buckling_, or
+bending, as the tool is pushed forward.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 14. Body of Saw, showing Tapers]
+
+Most delicate measurements must be made, however, to discover that
+not only the width but the thickness increases from _A_ to _B_, and
+decreases from _C_ to _D_. How carefully this tapering must be done can
+be realized when we know that the difference in thickness from _A_ to
+_B_ is only three one-thousandths of an inch, and from _C_ to _D_ twelve
+one-thousandths at end _A_ and five one-thousandths at end _B_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 15. Method of holding the Saw]
+
+The saw should be held in the right hand, with the left grasping the
+board. The thumb of the left hand acts as guide, the saw is tilted, as
+shown in Fig. 15, and drawn toward the worker at the first stroke. This
+tool should be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance with
+the general rule that we do our best work with tools when we work easily
+and deliberately.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 16. The Backsaw]
+
+Many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes, including those
+which cut stone and metal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 17. Method of using the Backsaw and Bench Hook]
+
+=6. Backsaw.= The backsaw is a crosscut saw with small teeth, and has
+a heavy steel backpiece, Fig. 17, to prevent bending. In this respect
+it differs from the ordinary crosscut varieties, which bend readily.
+The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine, straight cuts in delicate,
+accurate work. The steel back _B_ is necessary on account of the thin
+blade, but on account of the thickness of _B_ no cut can be made deeper
+than the line _C_. This tool will cut in any direction with reference to
+the grain, but is primarily a crosscut saw.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 18. The Bench Hook]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 19. The Turning Saw]
+
+=7. The Turning Saw.= In ordinary work the saw is supposed to cut to
+a straight line, but there are certain classes of work where it is
+desirable to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is
+necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for this purpose.
+The handles holding the saw blade may be turned in any direction with
+reference to the frame.
+
+=8. The Plane.= The plane reduces our rough lumber to planed, or
+_dressed_, stock. The cutting part is a thin, wide chisel called the
+_plane iron_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 20. The Plane Iron in Action]
+
+Fig. 20 shows the position of the plane iron in operation. Assume the
+iron to be moving in the direction of the arrow on a piece of wood. The
+sharp point would enter the board and, should the grain be unfavorable,
+start a splitting action, as shown at _a_.
+
+We wish to smooth the wood instead of roughing it, and must in some way
+stop the splitting. This is accomplished by placing a cap iron on the
+plane iron, as shown at _b_. The cap bends and breaks the shaving before
+the splitting action has a chance to begin, and gives the spiral form so
+familiar in wood shavings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plane Iron, Cap, and Set Screw]
+
+The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a stout screw, and this
+whole combination is fastened in the throat of the plane by a clamp
+(Fig. 22). The opening on the bottom of the plane through which the
+cutting edge protrudes is called the _mouth_ of the plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 22. Sectional Views of Iron Plane]
+
+=9. Adjustment of Plane.= There are two ways of adjusting a modern iron
+plane,—by means of the set screw _s_, and of the lever _l_.
+
+Screw _s_ lowers or raises the plane iron so that we may take a thin or
+thick shaving, and lever _l_ straightens the iron, which is liable to
+project more on one side than on the other, and will then take a shaving
+thicker on one side than on the other.
+
+Before using the plane always examine it carefully. Invert the tool,
+holding it toward the light with the toe toward you, and glance along the
+bottom. If the iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not,
+move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cutting edge should
+appear as a black line of uniform thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the
+brass screw until the iron projects slightly.
+
+In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand with the right side
+to the bench and with the shoulders thrown back. Let the pressure of the
+left hand be greater at the beginning and that of the right hand at the
+end of the stroke. The tool should rest perfectly flat on the wood from
+start to finish.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 23. Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes]
+
+=10. The Jack Plane.= The ordinary plane iron has a straight edge, as
+shown at _a_, Fig. 23, but when a large quantity of wood is to be removed
+the iron is sharpened in the shape shown at _b_. This curved iron will
+cut out the wood in hollows, leaving ridges between, and it is necessary
+to follow this jack plane with a finer one having a straight edge in
+order to smooth the surface. The jack plane might be called a _roughing_
+plane.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 24. Relative Sizes of Smooth and Jack Planes
+
+The lower figure is a jack plane]
+
+=11. The Smooth Plane.= The smoothing plane is shorter than the jack
+plane, its object being to smooth the surface without regard to
+straightening it, as it is supposed that the straightening has previously
+been done. The cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a
+sixteenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting edge of the
+plane iron.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 25. Action of Short and Long Planes]
+
+=12. Jointers.= For straightening very rough and uneven stock a long
+plane is necessary (Fig. 25). In the illustration let line _ab_ represent
+the edge of a very uneven board. A short plane _c_ would simply follow
+the hills and hollows, smoothing but not straightening it, while a long
+plane, as shown at _d_, would merely cut off the top of the high places,
+as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch the bottoms of the
+hollows until all the elevations were leveled; in other words, until the
+surface was straightened. Such planes, which are often three feet long or
+more, are called _jointers_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 26. The Block Plane]
+
+=13. The Block Plane.= To square the end of a piece of stock the
+conditions are quite different from those just described where we were
+planing with the grain. In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the
+plane iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel side up.
+
+This tool requires more care than the others, as the stroke is usually
+quite short, and if the cutting edge is allowed to reach the farther
+corner, the latter will be broken off.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 27. Method of using Block Plane]
+
+To avoid this error the plane must be lifted up before the end of the
+stroke, as shown by the dotted line _a_. The piece is then reversed, and
+planed as shown by arrow _b_. In this way the whole end is smoothed,
+without ruining the corners.
+
+Besides these standard planes there are many patent and special ones for
+cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc.
+
+=14. The Wooden Plane.= Although the iron-bodied planes just described
+are now in common use, the old-fashioned wooden plane is still the
+favorite of many woodworkers.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 28. The Wooden Plane]
+
+This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of the iron plane, was
+much simpler and contained a smaller number of parts.
+
+The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden wedge, which was
+driven in by a light blow of the hammer. The workman removed the iron and
+wedge by turning the plane upside down and striking the forward part a
+light downward blow on the bench, while the thickness of the shaving was
+increased by a light tap on the plane iron.
+
+One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was its liability to wear
+and warp, so that it became necessary to straighten, or _joint_, the
+face. No such difficulty is encountered in the iron-bodied plane.
+
+=15. The Chisel.= The chisel is one of the simplest forms of cutting
+tools. The size of the angle _a_ depends on the kind of material to be
+cut.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 29. Cutting Angle of Chisel]
+
+A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an angle of from 30 to 35
+degrees.
+
+By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes formed, as shown at
+_b_.
+
+The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the chisel were shaped like
+that shown by dotted lines, and care must always be taken when sharpening
+to keep the line _cd_ straight, so that angle _a_ will be the real
+cutting angle.
+
+Two classes of chisels are in common use: the _framing chisel_ used for
+heavy work, such as the frames of buildings; and the _firmer chisel_.
+The framing chisel is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of
+withstanding the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is designed for
+finer and lighter work without the mallet.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 30. The Framing Chisel]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 31. The Firmer Chisel]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 32. Proper Position for Horizontal Chiseling]
+
+The chisel must be sharp if we wish to do good and accurate work, and a
+cut on the hand made by such a sharp tool is liable to be a deep one.
+Special care must be used in handling it, keeping both hands away from
+the cutting edge, as shown in the sketch, and placing it when not in use
+where it cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the student’s
+feet.
+
+Fig. 32 shows the method of using the tool on horizontal work, and Fig.
+33 for vertical cutting. For this kind of work only a small portion of
+the cutting edge can be used, the student judging for himself how heavy a
+cut to take by the hardness of the wood and amount of strength required.
+Good work can never be done when one has to exert all his strength on the
+tool. The best results are obtained when we work easily.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 33. Proper Position for Vertical Chiseling]
+
+Better work can usually be done with the chisel if, instead of pushing
+it straight ahead or straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to
+secure a slight _paring_ action.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 34. Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone]
+
+When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has been nicked or ruined
+by some accident, it is only necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone.
+Hold the tool with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil may
+be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked back and forth on
+the face of it. Especial care must be taken to avoid a rocking motion,
+which will produce a curved edge instead of a flat one.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 35. Common Forms of the Brace]
+
+After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side firmly on the
+stone, and draw toward you. This is to straighten the wire edge which
+has been turned over by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed
+by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block of wood. When the
+chisel is nicked or very dull it must be ground on the grindstone.
+
+=16. Brace and Bit.= The old-fashioned augers and gimlets have given way
+to the modern brace and bit.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 36. The Center Bit]
+
+The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock, allows both hands to
+be used continuously, which was not true of the old-fashioned auger.
+Several varieties of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts
+being common.
+
+Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name being applied to
+a tool which is to be turned by the brace. The old-fashioned center bit
+shown in the cut possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 37. The Auger Bit]
+
+The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be accurately placed.
+The lip on the outer edge cut the fibers in a circle before the chisel
+edge began to remove the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored; but
+considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool through the wood.
+
+The progress that has been made in the manufacture of tools can be easily
+appreciated by comparing this center bit with the modern auger bit.
+
+Referring to the sketch (Fig. 38), _B_ _B_ are two knife points, or
+_nibs_, which cut the wood fibers before the chisel edges, or _lips_, _C_
+_C_, can touch the wood. The point _A_ allows us to accurately place the
+center of the hole where we wish it, and the screw back of _A_ draws the
+tool into the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the spur, or
+_worm_. On this class of bits no pressure is necessary.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 38. Details of Auger Bit]
+
+The opposite end of the bit, called the _shank_, fits into the brace. Any
+tool with such a shank, and designed for use with the brace, is a bit. We
+have screw-driver bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc.
+
+On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number. This is the
+numerator of a fraction whose denominator is 16. If we find this number
+to be 4, it is a ⁴⁄₁₆, or a ¼-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a
+¹⁶⁄₁₆, or a one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the
+hole which the tool will bore.
+
+In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see that the bit shank
+is far enough in the brace to be fastened securely, and that the tool
+is held at right angles to the wood. It may appear from the front to be
+perfectly vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking at it from
+another position it will frequently be found far from vertical. When
+starting a hole it is well to do this several times until assured that
+the tool is working in a true upright position.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 39. The Gimlet Bit]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 40. The Countersink Bit]
+
+The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we make for screws. In
+this case the hole must be _countersunk_ to receive the screw head, when
+flat-headed screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the cut, and
+its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter on screws.
+
+=17. The Spokeshave.= The spokeshave is practically a short plane with
+handles at the side so that the tool may be drawn or pushed. It may be
+adjusted by means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and is used
+principally to smooth curved surfaces. The forming of a hammer handle
+is a good illustration of the kind of work it will do. It may be worked
+toward or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy tool.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 41. The Iron Spokeshave]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK
+
+
+=18. Hammer.= The carpenter’s hammer is used principally to drive or
+withdraw nails.
+
+The various trades have hammers made specially for their needs; thus
+we have machinists’, roofers’, upholsterers’, stonecutters’, and other
+hammers, but the claw hammer shown in the sketch is the one commonly used
+by workers in wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 42. The Claw Hammer]
+
+The head _a_ (Fig. 43) is of steel, with the face _b_ specially hardened
+so that it may not be dented by the nails. Notice the length of the
+handle _h_. This length did not simply happen. Had it been intended to
+hold the tool in the position shown at _A_, the handle would not have
+been made so long. The proper position is that shown at _B_. Position _A_
+is frequently taken by beginners, and should be studiously avoided.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 43. Using the Hammer]
+
+A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be kept straight for further
+use by a little care. Having started the nail slightly, place a small
+block of wood under the hammer head, as shown at _C_. Should the nail be
+an unusually long one, the size of the block may be increased as the nail
+comes out.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 44. Common Forms of Nail Punch, or “Set”]
+
+In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar the surface of
+the wood by striking the nail head after it has become even with the
+surface, as this produces a depression and ruins any fine surface.
+
+If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface, a nail punch,
+or _set_, is used. This is always necessary when the surface is to be
+planed after the nailing.
+
+=19. The Mallet.= The mallet might be described as a hammer with a wooden
+head, and is used whenever we wish to deliver a blow which shall be less
+concentrated than that of the hammer. It is used in certain kinds of
+heavy chiseling, such as house framing, and gives a blow which does not
+shatter the tool handle as a hammer would.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 45. The Mallet]
+
+The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making of a
+mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet being used to cut the
+opening known as the mortise, as shown in Fig. 46.
+
+=20. Screw-Driver.= The screw-driver is perhaps the most common of
+household tools, and is probably abused more than any other. The handle
+is usually flattened so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but
+occasionally a round or fluted handle is seen.
+
+Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in recent years, but where
+considerable force is required the brace and screw-driver bit are more
+effective.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 46. Cutting a Mortise]
+
+=21. Sandpaper.= “Sandpaper is the last resort of a poor workman.” This
+statement has been made by many teachers to many thousands of students,
+and is true in many cases; but there are certain kinds of work where
+sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 47. The Screw-Driver]
+
+It must always be kept in mind that a surface which has been sandpapered
+has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine sand has come off and is more or less
+imbedded in the wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done until
+all tool work has been finished, as the grit will take the edge off the
+best tool, and the finer the edge the more quickly will it be ruined.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 48. An Exercise involving the Use of Sandpaper]
+
+Again, a sandpapered surface is always a scratched surface, and the
+finest of scratched surfaces cannot compare with the perfectly smooth,
+satiny surface produced by a sharp plane. However, there are many places
+where neither the plane nor spokeshave can be used, and here it is
+allowable to use sandpaper after the tool work has been carried as far as
+practicable.
+
+Fig. 48 is a case where sandpaper may be used with propriety. The bevels
+in this lesson are to be chiseled and then sandpapered with a sandpaper
+block,—the block in this case being simply a small piece of wood with
+square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened closely.
+
+Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dispense with the block,
+the sandpaper being held in the hand.
+
+=22. Squaring up Stock.= This term simply means to reduce a piece of
+sawed or rough lumber to one having smooth, flat sides at right angles to
+each other, and of definite length, breadth, and thickness (see Fig. 49).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 49. The Successive Steps in squaring up Stock]
+
+    _First._ Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or
+    jointer, and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the
+    working face, becomes the basis from which all the other sides
+    are squared.
+
+    _Second._ Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with
+    the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must
+    be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the
+    try-square, and must be square with the working face at every
+    point.
+
+    _Third._ Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge
+    block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face.
+
+    _Fourth._ Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn,
+    squaring the edge with working face.
+
+    _Fifth._ Set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both
+    edges from working face.
+
+    _Sixth._ Plane face parallel to working face down to the two
+    gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only remains
+    now to secure the required length.
+
+    _Seventh._ Square knife line around the four smoothed sides
+    with knife and try-square as near one end as possible,
+    carefully observing the precautions given in Chapter II.
+
+    _Eighth._ From the line just drawn, measure the required length
+    along edge of working face and square a line on the four sides
+    at the last point, as at first end.
+
+    _Ninth._ Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second
+    line is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block,
+    saw to the knife line with backsaw, and block-plane smooth and
+    square.
+
+The above method should always be followed in preparing stock for laying
+out the exercise.
+
+=23. Laying Out.= Let it be assumed that the exercise to be executed is
+the middle lap joint shown at _A_, Fig. 50.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 50. Successive Steps in laying out and making a
+Middle Lap Joint]
+
+    _First._ Square up stock, leaving ends rough.
+
+    _Second._ Lay off the length of each piece, in this case 4½
+    inches, with an eighth of an inch between for sawing, as at _a_.
+
+    _Third._ Square all the lines around four sides.
+
+    _Fourth._ Saw to end lines and block-plane ends.
+
+    _Fifth._ Lay off width of opening in piece No. 1 and square
+    lines across face and halfway down on both edges.
+
+    _Sixth._ Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across
+    bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal lines
+    _ll_ from working face.
+
+    _Seventh._ Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane
+    ends.
+
+    _Eighth._ Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces.
+
+Although the above is the method of laying out a typical joint, each
+problem will require special treatment and here the student will be
+guided by his instructor.
+
+=24. Securing Parts.= Many articles made of wood consist of several
+pieces fastened together.
+
+When two pieces are fitted together the surfaces of contact are called a
+joint. There are many kinds and shapes in joinery, and usually some extra
+fastening is required to hold the pieces together. These aids are glue,
+nails, and screws; while on heavy construction still others, such as
+wedges, pins, and dowels are used. The first three are commonly used in
+small work.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 51. The Hand Screw]
+
+Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made from refuse
+matter,—animal glue being manufactured from such products as bone, horn,
+hoofs, and hide.
+
+The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved in water and heated,
+being applied while hot. Liquid glues sold in cans ready for use are now
+very common and require no heating.
+
+In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold the pieces
+tightly together until the glue has _set_, or hardened, and as this takes
+some time, hand screws built on the principle of the vise are resorted
+to. Fig. 52 shows two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of
+hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the jaws of the latter
+parallel. At _a_ this is shown done properly, while at _b_ is shown a
+careless method which, of course, will spoil the joint.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 52. Method of using the Hand Screw]
+
+In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or _sizing_, coat of glue must
+first be made to fill up the pores, which act very much like a sponge.
+This coat should be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying
+the final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly, if at all.
+Beginners are inclined to use too large a quantity, and this tendency
+should be avoided.
+
+In some cases nails are used together with the glue, as at the corners
+of picture frames. It is customary in this instance to nail in only one
+direction, as shown in Fig. 53.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 53. Miter Joint at Corner of Picture Frame]
+
+=25. Nails.= The nails in common use are of two kinds, _cut_ and _wire_.
+
+Two views of a cut nail are shown in Fig. 54, _a_ being the side view and
+_b_ the front view. Notice that in the front view the sides converge like
+a wedge, while in the side view they are parallel.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 54. Use of Cut Nails]
+
+Care must always be taken that the point does not enter the wood as shown
+at _c_, as the wood will be split by the wedge action; _d_ shows the
+proper method.
+
+Steel wire nails are now in general use. They are made from wire and are
+consequently round in section, with a comparatively sharp point. There
+are two distinct kinds, named _flat head_ and _bung head_.
+
+Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin, flat heads, which
+prevent the nail from being driven beneath the surface.
+
+Bung-head wire nails, or _brads_ as the smaller sizes are called, have
+very small heads, which allow the nail to be sunk below the surface. This
+is done by means of the nail punch, or _set_, and is necessary when the
+surface is to be planed after the nailing.
+
+=26. Screws.= Screws are much used, and allow the pieces to be readily
+taken apart. They are divided into two classes, _flat head_ and _round
+head_, and are of steel or brass. Steel screws are either _blued_ or
+_bright_. Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced by
+treating the bright ones with heat or an acid.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 55. Methods of using Screws]
+
+Fig. 55 shows a flat-head screw at _a_ and a round-head at _b_. Flat
+heads are used for the more common work where it is desirable to have the
+screw head flush (even) with the surface or below it, while round heads
+are used where this is not necessary. In the latter case round heads are
+used partly because they are more ornamental. Flat heads must always
+be flush or below the surface, and in all but the softest woods it is
+necessary not only to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink
+it with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the head. Two
+methods of fastening with flat-head screws are shown in Fig. 55.
+
+Sketch _A_ shows the two pieces of wood in position, the hole bored in
+upper piece (only) and countersunk; _B_ shows the screw in position. In
+this case the screw head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide
+the screw entirely. Sketch _C_ shows the hole prepared for the screw; _D_
+shows the screw in position and a circular wooden plug driven in over it.
+The plug is then leveled with the surface and the screw completely hidden.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 56. The Difference between Perspective and Mechanical
+Drawing]
+
+=27. Mechanical Drawing.= A mechanical, or working, drawing is quite
+different from a pictorial drawing such as an artist produces. The
+artist’s drawing represents objects as they appear, while the mechanical
+drawing represents them as they really are. Things in nature do not
+look as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad track the
+rails appear to converge until they seem to meet in the distance. We
+know that this is not the case, that the rails are really everywhere
+equally distant. The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon
+is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive, drawing takes no
+account of perspective. In Fig. 56 _a_ is the perspective representation
+of a track, while _b_ shows a track by mechanical drawing.
+
+In a working drawing more than one view is necessary to show the true
+shape of an object.
+
+In Fig. 57 is shown the mechanical drawing of a cylinder,—the front
+view, as its name implies, being the image it would make in a mirror
+held before it vertically, and the top view the image it would make in a
+mirror held directly over it horizontally.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 57. Mechanical Drawing of a Cylinder]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 58. Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint]
+
+Occasionally three views are necessary. Fig. 58 _a_ shows the front, top,
+and side views of an end lap joint. The complete working drawing of this
+joint, with all the necessary dimensions, is shown at _b_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 59. Drawing Board showing T Square and Triangles in
+Position]
+
+In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy is required and
+special instruments are necessary.
+
+The drawing board on which the paper is fastened must be perfectly flat,
+with one of its edges straight.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 60. The T Square]
+
+The T square is used for guiding the pencil or pen when drawing
+horizontal lines.
+
+The two triangles _t_ _t_ (Fig. 59) are used for drawing vertical and
+oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is needed for circles and arcs
+of circles. Each triangle contains one right angle, the one on the
+left being known as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining
+angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively. The one on
+the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle because it has two
+forty-five-degree angles.
+
+The position of T square and triangle when drawing vertical lines is
+that shown in the sketch, the line being drawn from the T square upward.
+Horizontal lines are drawn from left to right.
+
+The rule used in mechanical drawing is called a scale, and should not be
+used for drawing lines. Its purpose is measuring.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 61. The Triangles used in Mechanical Drawing]
+
+In making a drawing the first step is to determine the spacing. The size
+of the paper may be measured, the number of views are known, and also the
+size of each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces between
+will be in good proportion. It is a good plan to make first a free-hand
+sketch, putting on dimensions and figuring the spaces before beginning
+actual work on the mechanical drawing. Fig. 62 at _a_ shows a free-hand
+sketch of a single dovetail joint, and _b_ the mechanical drawing
+complete.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 62. Drawings of a Single Dovetail Joint]
+
+All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible they should be so
+placed as not to interfere with the clearness of the drawing. Neat, small
+arrowheads and plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just
+as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words.
+
+A drawing which is made the exact size of the object represented is
+known as a full-sized drawing; but for large objects such a method would
+necessitate large and unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in
+such cases to make what is called a scale drawing.
+
+A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size, and the fact is
+printed under the title in smaller letters, thus: ½ inch = 1 inch, or ¼
+inch = 1 inch.
+
+Other scales may be used. In map making, for example, a sixteenth of an
+inch may represent one, ten, or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is
+used, however, the dimensions must always give the exact size of the
+object represented.
+
+
+
+
+ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING
+
+PART II
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+WOOD
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 63. The Forest, Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany]
+
+=28. Lumbering and Milling.= It is well to remember, when using wood for
+any purpose, that it was once part of a living tree which had roots,
+bark, leaves, and flowers, and that the tree began life as a little
+sapling, which grew taller and larger for years before it could be
+called a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred years old
+before it was large enough to cut down for timber.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 64. Felling a Tree]
+
+The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight trunks. They are
+usually cut with the ax, although the first cut is often made partially
+through the trunk with a saw. The branches are then chopped off and the
+body of the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They are
+rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a sawmill, or, in case
+there is no river near by, are carted on sleds or wagons to the railroad
+and thence to the mill.
+
+The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter, the floating of the
+logs, or _river driving_ as it is called, beginning with the breaking
+up of the ice in the spring. River driving is a very interesting and
+dangerous business. Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole
+river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly that hundreds of
+thousands of logs are stopped in their course, forming an immense dam
+which the lumbermen call a _log jam_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 65. A Skidway of Adirondack Spruce]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 66. River Drivers breaking up a “Log Jam”]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 67. Log Boom and Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 68. A Modern Gang Saw—Interior of Modern Sawmill]
+
+To break up this jam very often requires much labor and great daring on
+the part of the drivers, who wear spiked shoes and are armed with long
+poles having sharp steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing
+of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles.
+
+Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the river, inclosed in
+a _log boom_, until the mill men are ready to saw them into planks.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 69. A Modern Sawmill]
+
+The boom consists of logs chained together and stretched across the river
+just as a fence is built on land to inclose cattle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 70. The Circular Saw—Interior of Sawmill]
+
+The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic machinery, and after the log
+enters it is not touched by human hands until it comes out as lumber of
+various sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars.
+
+Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and these forms are called
+_lumber_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 71. A Large Band Saw]
+
+_Timber_ refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams and joists.
+Planks are wide strips over one inch thick, and boards are one inch or
+less in thickness, varying in width and length. Lumber may be planed at a
+planing mill, and is then known as _dressed_ lumber. It may be dressed on
+one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which is free from knots, shakes,
+and sapwood is called _clear_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 72. End of Log, showing Annual Rings and Medullary
+Rays]
+
+By examining the end of a log we can learn a great deal of the life of
+the tree. It is made up of a number of irregular rings and of lines
+radiating from the center and running in nearly straight lines toward the
+bark.
+
+The number of rings tells us the age of the tree, as a new ring is added
+each year.
+
+As the tree grows, the old wood near the center becomes compressed and
+dry and is known as the _heartwood_, while that portion between the
+heartwood and bark is called _sapwood_.
+
+In some woods the difference between the heartwood and sapwood is very
+marked. In ebony, for instance, the heartwood is coal black and the
+sapwood white.
+
+The sketch shows half a log, the annual rings being indicated, and also
+the radial lines, called _medullary rays_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 73. Log cut lengthwise, showing how “Grain” is
+formed]
+
+Looking at the length of the log we see that the lines in a board, which
+we call the _grain_, are really the edges of the annual rings.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 74. Showing Weather Checks and “Shake”]
+
+It often happens in the forest that the wind sways the trees to such an
+extent that the annual rings separate and slide one within the other;
+this produces a defect in the wood called a _shake_ (see _s_, Fig. 74).
+
+There are other characteristics of wood known as _warping_ and
+_shrinkage_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 75.]
+
+After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first looks like Fig.
+72. If it is allowed to lie for some time exposed to the weather, its
+appearance changes to Fig. 74. This is due to the evaporation of the
+sap, and as there is more sap toward the outside, the shrinkage is
+greatest there and becomes less toward the center where the heartwood is
+comparatively dry. This is an important fact to know, because if we had
+cut the log, while it was still green, into planks, as shown in Fig. 75,
+the boards would have curled up or warped, as shown in Fig. 76.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 76. Showing Effect of Warping]
+
+Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes the whole tree to
+shrink in diameter, and consequently our planks will tend to become
+narrower. This is called _shrinkage_, and in some woods amounts to a
+quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a plank sawed twelve
+inches wide will, after a few months, measure only eleven and three
+quarter inches.
+
+When we construct anything in wood we must always consider how the object
+will be affected by warping and shrinkage, remembering that the shrinkage
+is only across the grain.
+
+Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing board to see how
+warping and shrinkage may be overcome.
+
+If we make it of one piece, like _A_ (Fig. 77), the board will soon
+change its shape to that shown in _B_, which would make it useless for
+mechanical drawing, as a perfectly flat surface is necessary. We can
+overcome the warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across the
+grain, as shown at _C_. The cleats would need to be heavy or the warping
+force would bend them.
+
+A better way would be to build the board up of several narrow strips
+glued together, as the warping of one would be counteracted by the
+warping of its neighbors in opposite directions; but to make doubly sure,
+cleats fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added at the ends,
+as shown at _D_. This has an advantage over the first method, as the
+cleats in _C_ are often in the way and make the board clumsy to handle.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 77. A Study in Construction. Methods of overcoming
+Warping and Shrinkage]
+
+The student will find many evidences about the house of how the
+woodworker has tried to prevent warping and shrinkage, as, for instance,
+in the paneled doors, tables, etc.
+
+The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness, evenness of
+grain, durability, etc., and every boy should know not only what our
+woods are used for, but he should also know the trees when he sees them.
+
+We are indebted to the trees for many things besides wood. They give us
+delightful shade and coolness in summer; many of them produce delicious
+fruit and nuts; from them we obtain such valuable products as maple sirup
+and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine, rubber, and tannin are only a
+few of the many tree products. The houses we live in, the chairs we sit
+on,—in fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our pictures,
+the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we write with, are of wood
+which was once part of the living forest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 78. A Large Tree being moved by a Modern Tree Mover,
+showing Root Formation]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS
+
+
+Our American trees may be divided roughly into two classes: (1) those
+which keep their leaves the year round, known as _evergreens_; (2) those
+whose leaves drop off in the fall, called _broad-leaved_, or _deciduous_
+trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves are usually
+needle-shaped.
+
+Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the oak, chestnut,
+hickory, maples, elms, etc.; and among the evergreens or cone-bearing
+trees are the pines, spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars.
+
+The oak family is a very important one, the wood being hard and strong
+and the tree a sturdy, healthy, and well-known specimen of tree life.
+
+White oak is perhaps the most common member of the oak family. It grows
+to a very large size and has a leaf of the form shown in Fig. 79. Observe
+carefully the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch of the
+next form.
+
+The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its timber is used as
+a standard when comparing different kinds of wood. If we say that the
+strength of white pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak,
+and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, just as the
+yard and mile are standards of length. In work which requires strength,
+such as carriage making, shipbuilding, and cooperage, white oak is used
+very extensively.
+
+The quartered oak used so much for furniture is obtained by cutting the
+logs in a special manner. The method of cutting gives a beautiful mottled
+effect with the silver rays spread out in irregular white splashes on a
+dark background.
+
+We might separate the oak into two distinct groups: (1) those trees whose
+acorns ripen in one season; (2) those which require two years. The acorns
+of this latter group remain on the tree throughout the first winter and
+ripen the second summer.
+
+To the first class belong the white oak just mentioned, the post oak,
+chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and live oak.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 79. Typical Leaf of the White Oak]
+
+In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, pin, laurel, and willow
+oaks.
+
+The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great that we need
+never mistake one for the other. Notice the cut of the red oak and
+compare it with that of the white oak. The latter has rounded lobes,
+while the red-oak leaf has sharp points and the fingers of the leaf are
+indented again with smaller teeth.
+
+The different trees in the white-oak family all have leaves with rounded
+lobes, and most of those in the red-oak group have pointed ones, yet
+there is a difference between members of the same family, just as among
+human beings.
+
+We can tell at a glance whether a man is a negro, a Chinaman, or a white
+man. If a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American; and again, if
+an American, he may belong to the Jones family. But all the members of
+the Jones family do not look alike and we know one from another.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 80. Leaf of the Post Oak]
+
+This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can tell from observation
+whether a tree is an evergreen or a broad-leaved tree, whether it
+belongs to the white-oak group; and after studying trees a little we can
+tell whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post oak, or a
+mossy-cup oak.
+
+Compare the post-oak leaf (Fig. 80) with that of the white oak. There is
+not a great difference in form, but the post-oak leaf is thick, leathery,
+and dark green, while the white oak has a beautiful thin, light green
+leaf, which turns red in the fall.
+
+The post oak is a rougher and coarser tree than the other, and is
+sometimes called _iron oak_ on account of its very hard, tough wood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 81. Leaf of Mossy-Cup Oak]
+
+=29. The Mossy-Cup Oak.= One of the most beautiful oaks we have in
+America grows in the South and West, and is only rarely found in our
+parks in the East. It is called the _mossy-cup oak_ because the large
+acorn which it bears is surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides
+the nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The leaf is larger
+than that of the white oak, and although the two leaves look somewhat
+alike, the divisions of the mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those
+of the white oak, and it is not so thin and delicate.
+
+Its wood is very strong and is valuable for many purposes, such as boats,
+carriages, farming implements, railroad ties, and cooperage.
+
+=30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak.= These two trees are usually found
+growing in wild places, and the black-jack oak is often called _barren
+oak_ from the fact that it frequents bleak and barren plains, such as the
+sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 82. Leaves of Black Oak and Black-jack Oak
+(Black-jack on right)]
+
+The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that of the black-jack
+having only three main lobes, or divisions, while the black oak has
+five. However, the leaves of these two trees vary considerably, and one
+must always look for the typical leaf, which is the one shown in the
+sketch. The black-jack is a small, shrubby tree, with branches often
+twisted and contorted, and its wood is not very valuable except as fuel
+or for making charcoal.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 83. Leaf of Red Oak]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 84. Wood of the Red Oak, showing three sections. The
+one on the left shows annual rings obtained by a horizontal cut through
+the tree. Central view shows vertical cut at center of tree. View on
+right shows vertical cut between center and bark as illustrated in Fig.
+73.]
+
+The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do those of the red,
+scarlet, and pin oaks.
+
+=31. The Red Oak.= The red oak is one of our largest and most noble
+trees, growing taller even than the white oak, and may always be
+distinguished by its very large, shiny, dark green leaves.
+
+Its bark is also much smoother and darker than the white oak. Its acorn
+is very bitter and can easily be recognized by its shallow cup and by its
+large size. It is the largest of the two-year acorns. The wood of the red
+oak is darker than that of the white, and is used in the manufacture of
+furniture.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 85. Scarlet Oak]
+
+=32. The Scarlet Oak.= This tree is often confused with the red, but a
+glance at the leaves will show a great difference. That of the scarlet
+has deeper indentations and is much more slender and skeleton-like in
+shape. It takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it takes
+on when the leaves change color in the fall.
+
+=33. The Pin Oak.= The pin-oak leaf is much more readily confounded with
+the scarlet oak than that of any other tree. In fact, no two trees have
+leaves so nearly alike as these two; yet a glance at two typical leaves
+placed side by side will show considerable difference.
+
+The pin-oak leaf is smaller than the other, and in proportion to its size
+the indentations are not so deep.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 86. Pin Oak]
+
+The pin-oak tree has a great many small branchlets, or stems, which give
+the tree the appearance of a bundle of pins, especially when the leaves
+are off in winter. It is a beautiful tree and is now being planted very
+extensively as a shade tree. It is hardy, and stands city air very well
+indeed. Its bark is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather.
+
+The oak family is such a large and valuable one that we cannot afford
+to pass it over lightly. In the South grows the willow oak, famous for
+its shade and its leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little
+farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the _shingle oak_, so
+called from the fact that its wood is mostly made into shingles. It is
+also known as the _laurel oak_, because its leaves are shaped like those
+of the laurel, although not so glossy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 87. Pin Oak in Winter]
+
+This is such an odd shape for an oak leaf that one would be likely to
+pass it by and not recognize it but for the fact that it bears acorns.
+This is always the test,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.”
+
+If we meet a new tree which seems not to be an oak because its leaves are
+new to us, and it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak.
+
+A very interesting group of trees which come under this head are the
+chestnut oaks. At first glance one would take one of these trees to be a
+chestnut, but it bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch
+shows the two leaves side by side.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 88.
+
+Chestnut
+
+Chestnut Oak]
+
+Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly resemble each other,
+by looking carefully we see that the teeth on the chestnut leaf are
+pointed, while those on the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is
+also a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long and narrow,
+while that of the chestnut oak is broader.
+
+There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their leaves are quite
+similar and they all belong to the white-oak group and ripen their acorns
+in one season. They grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary
+times at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson measuring seven feet in diameter. The
+acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought after by the squirrels.
+
+The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for cooperage, railroad
+ties, and fencing.
+
+=34. The Live Oak.= No list of American oaks would be complete without
+the live oak. This is a southern tree and is remarkable in many ways.
+Its leaf has no indentations, remains green all winter, and is thick and
+leathery.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 89. Leaf of Live Oak]
+
+The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic foot weighing nearly sixty pounds.
+It is as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes a high polish and has
+a fine grain, it soon dulls the edge of a tool.
+
+Before the age of steel, when all ships were wooden, it was much used in
+shipbuilding, and the government bought large tracts of land where live
+oak grew abundantly, so that the United States navy should never lack the
+necessary timber.
+
+It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia, and along the
+Gulf to Texas.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES
+
+
+It is the maple family to which we are indebted for much of the glorious
+coloring of our autumn landscapes.
+
+It is true that all trees play their part in the general color scheme,
+but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of the fall foliage we must look
+to the maples.
+
+When we think of the word _maple_ we are apt to have visions of other
+things besides trees. Maple and sugar or sirup seem to go together, and
+in fact some of us do not know that there are other maples besides the
+sugar maple.
+
+This fine American tree is one of which we should be proud. Not only is
+it a handsome large tree, valuable for its shade and the beautiful colors
+it wears in the fall, but its wood is hard and valuable,—it is often
+called _rock maple_,—and besides all these good qualities it furnishes us
+with our maple sirup and sugar.
+
+The process of making maple sugar is quite interesting and may be divided
+into two stages,—gathering the sap, and boiling down.
+
+Very early in the spring, often as early as March, the sap begins to flow
+up through the tree. The farmer knows by experience when to tap the tree,
+which he does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger. Into
+this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through which the lifeblood
+of the tree—the sap—flows in a steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or
+bucket placed beneath to catch it.
+
+The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks of a clock, one
+a second. This continues for two or three weeks, until each tree has
+yielded something like twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons
+of sap to produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five pounds
+of maple sugar. In New England and New York there are maple groves
+containing thousands of trees, and one farm alone produces five thousand
+pounds of sugar in a season.
+
+Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the trees does not
+kill them unless improperly done. The farmer must not tap them at the
+wrong time nor in too many places. The tree will stand a great deal if
+properly treated, but harsh treatment will kill it.
+
+The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured into large boilers
+or evaporators and boiled until it becomes a sirup. The old-fashioned
+test to find out when the boiling had been carried on long enough was to
+drop a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish. If it
+hardened, the boiling was finished.
+
+Fig. 90 shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that leaf which is
+most often confounded with it, viz., the Norway maple. Observe the two
+closely. The sugar maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while
+the Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous, and the leaf is
+much thinner and more delicate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 90.
+
+Sugar Maple
+
+Norway Maple]
+
+The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so dense a shade as the
+Norway, which is a low-growing tree with close, dark foliage.
+
+=35. The Silver Maple.= The one which naturally comes next in the list
+is the _silver_, _soft_, or _white maple_, as it is variously termed.
+From the ground up to the topmost leaf the whole character of this tree
+suggests the word _thoroughbred_. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy
+in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty and might truly
+be called the acme of perfection in tree life. Its name is derived from
+the fact that the under side of the leaf is silvery white. The upper
+side being dark green gives a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the
+foliage, which as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the
+American elm.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 91.
+
+The Silver Maple
+
+The Red Maple]
+
+This description does not always fit, however, as it is planted
+extensively in cities where horses gnaw the fine bark; smoke, soot,
+and coal gas discolor the leaves; and the caterpillars complete the
+work of destroying its beauty. Yet it still lives, even if it does not
+thrive under such harsh treatment. Its wood is white, soft, and not very
+valuable.
+
+=36. The Red Maple.= A relative of the silver maple and one which might
+be mistaken for it is the red, swamp, or wild maple. It is this tree
+which displays the brightest reds in autumn. Referring to the sketch it
+will be seen that the leaf is smaller and three-fingered instead of five,
+as in the silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during the
+entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 92. The Sycamore Maple]
+
+=37. The Sycamore Maple.= In the rows on rows of maples so common in our
+towns and cities one will often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser
+than any of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an importation
+from Europe, known as the _sycamore maple_ because of its resemblance to
+the sycamore leaf. It is easily identified by its large size, coarseness,
+the very long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire edge
+is finely toothed,—in which point it differs from all the foregoing
+varieties. Its value as a shade tree is nearly equal to the Norway, and
+in Europe it is often planted in preference to all other maples.
+
+=38. The Striped Maple.= Growing in the shade of other trees and forming
+part of the undergrowth of our North woods is a small tree known as the
+_striped maple_, from the stripes which run up and down its bark. The New
+England name for this little mountain tree is _moosewood_, from the fact
+that the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which form his chief
+food in winter. The leaves are quite large, but very thin, soft, and
+delicate.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 93. The Striped Maple, or Moosewood]
+
+=39. Maple Keys.= The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples are known as
+_winged_. The flat, thin part gives the seed a swirling motion as it
+drops from the tree. This is the way nature has of spreading the seed
+over a large area so that more trees may be started in life. Many tree
+seeds are winged, but the maple seed or key is so large and so common
+that every one must at some time have noticed it.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 94. Maple “Keys,” a Common Form of Winged Seeds]
+
+=40. The Ash-Leaved Maple.= The ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common
+in our parks. It has no resemblance to other maple leaves, yet it bears
+the unmistakable maple key,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.” It is
+therefore a maple.
+
+The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, is interesting because it is our only
+maple having a compound leaf; that is, a leaf stem with several distinct
+leaflets. Compound leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and
+the horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved maple is a
+curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but grows almost anywhere. It is
+a small tree, and its wood is not especially valuable except for making
+paper pulp.
+
+North America has only nine varieties of maple, while China and Japan
+have more than thirty. Indeed, it is to Japan, whose forests are largely
+made up of maples, that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and
+exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted so extensively on
+our lawns and in our parks have such a variety of form and color that no
+written description can do them justice. Fig. 96 will give some idea of
+their shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot be shown,
+range from dark purple to the most delicate combinations of white and
+green. The finest of these dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to
+an ostrich plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 95. Ash-Leaved Maple, or Box Elder]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 96. Japan Maples]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES
+
+
+The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig with several leaves
+is a compound leaf or a number of simple leaves. This is a very easy
+thing to decide. At the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins the
+twig or branch, is always a little bud. When the leaf drops off in the
+fall the bud remains, and in the spring begins to swell and finally
+develops into a leaf. This bud then is the promise of next year’s leaf,
+and it is always found at the base of the leaf stem, as shown at _A_.
+There is no such bud at the base of the leaflet on the compound leaf, as
+shown at _B_. If then we find no bud at _B_, we must look farther down
+until we discover it at _C_. This furnishes the test and we know that our
+specimen is a compound leaf.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 97. Method of distinguishing Compound and Simple
+Leaves]
+
+This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chestnuts, buckeyes,
+hickories, and walnuts all have compound leaves.
+
+The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but was imported from
+Europe, where it is a great favorite. The leaflets number five or seven,
+always an odd number, and they radiate from one central point, the odd
+one in the center usually being the largest.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 98. The Horse-Chestnut]
+
+It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they come out of the
+sticky buds in the spring. They unfold and grow very rapidly and soon the
+tree brings forth large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers.
+
+The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the season do not seem to
+be very useful, yet they are so solid and shiny that every boy delights
+to gather them.
+
+An American tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut is the buckeye.
+The leaflets on the buckeye leaf number five, sometimes seven, and
+radiate like the horse-chestnut from a common center.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 99.
+
+Buckeye
+
+Hickory]
+
+This tree is well known through the Ohio valley, where it is very common,
+Ohio being called the Buckeye State. The nuts are not edible, but the
+wood is very tough and strong and is used extensively in making farm
+implements.
+
+Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory shown in Fig. 99. Both
+leaves are compound, and each has five leaflets, but they are quite
+different, because the hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of
+the leaf-stalk instead of radiating from one point.
+
+There are several varieties of hickory, including the shagbark, or
+shellbark, the pignut, and pecan.
+
+The name _shagbark hickory_ is taken from the peculiar appearance of the
+bark, which hangs in loose pieces nearly a foot long and gives the tree a
+very shaggy effect. _Shellbark_ is another common name for this tree.
+
+The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but the kernel is very
+sweet, and is considered by some superior to all other hickory nuts.
+
+The _pignut hickory_ is so called because the nuts in some parts of the
+country are used to feed the pigs. It is also called _broom hickory_.
+The nuts are small and become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood,
+however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard and tough. There
+is a difference between strength and toughness. Oak is strong, but not
+tough. Hickory is both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will
+stand bending without breaking. A wood which will bend easily but is not
+strong cannot be called tough. It must be both strong and elastic, and
+hickory has both of these qualities.
+
+=41. The Pecan.= We usually think of the pecan nut as different from
+the hickory, yet they belong to the same family. The pecan hickory is a
+southern tree which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio River,
+and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant one hundred and fifty feet
+high, producing an enormous crop of the sweetest and most delicately
+flavored nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as many as
+fifteen.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 100.
+
+Black Walnut
+
+Butternut]
+
+=42. The Black Walnut and Butternut.= Perhaps no two trees are so
+difficult for the city boy or girl to distinguish as the butternut and
+black walnut. Both have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying
+from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from fifteen to twenty-three
+for the black walnut. A leaf having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong
+to either tree if there were no other way to distinguish them. The teeth
+on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper than on the butternut,
+and the fuzzy stem is lacking. The green nuts, too, are different, the
+black walnuts being just about the size and shape of green lemons, the
+butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable feature is the odor.
+Having once smelled the crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut,
+a person will thereafter need no other test.
+
+The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture was at one time very
+common. The great supply of this valuable wood has been exhausted and
+other woods have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks, for
+which purpose nothing seems better suited.
+
+Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good polish and is
+occasionally used in cabinet work.
+
+=43. The Locusts.= The locust family is a large one; its members all bear
+compound leaves, and their fruit is in the form of beans instead of nuts.
+
+The common yellow or black locust is famous for its hard, durable wood,
+its delicate light green leaves, and its white flowers.
+
+The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are off, but its wood is
+so valuable that its beauty is not considered. The wood is yellow and
+becomes very hard after it has dried.
+
+The honey locust is another common member of this family.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 101.
+
+The Locust
+
+The Honey Locust]
+
+=44. The Honey Locust.= Its leaves are much finer and somewhat resemble
+ferns. It may always be known by the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which
+grow all over the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes
+being found in great bunches and as long as six inches. Its fruit is a
+long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and contains little light brown
+beans. The wood is strong and durable.
+
+=45. The Ash.= Every boy who has owned a rowboat knows that oars are made
+of wood from the ash. This is because the oar must be elastic as well as
+strong, and the timber of the ash tree supplies these two qualities. The
+ash is one of our tallest and noblest forest trees. It is rather slim
+in build, with beautiful clean shiny green foliage. The members of this
+group seem to be fond of colors, and we have the white ash, red ash,
+green ash, blue ash, and black ash.
+
+There are slight differences in the leaves and seeds, but, as in other
+trees, when we have once seen an ash seed we can always thereafter
+distinguish an ash tree. Fig. 102 shows the seed of the red ash. It is a
+winged seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 102. Red Ash]
+
+The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to seven leaflets and
+the black ash has from seven to eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and
+elastic, has a handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides
+making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those farm implements
+which require strength. The Indian could find no better wood for his bow,
+and even Cupid is said to have first made his arrows of ash.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES
+
+
+=46. The Elm.= The elm is the well-known shade tree of New England. Its
+tall, graceful form is familiar to every visitor and native of that
+section of country, where it is found along every roadway and in every
+city.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 103. The American Elm]
+
+Who can think of New England without its noble elms? It would indeed
+be a different country. The elm may be said to represent New England
+character,—dignified, sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall, with
+foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives the desired shade,
+yet does not obstruct the view; while its stately dignity gives an air
+of comfort and repose to the grounds, which it seems to protect from the
+elements.
+
+Its wood is valuable for certain kinds of work, being tough and strong,
+but it is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is difficult to polish. It
+is used considerably for wheel hubs and in cooperage.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 104. Leaf of American Elm]
+
+Observe the edge of the elm leaf carefully. The teeth not only curve
+gracefully toward the extreme tip of the leaf, but they are themselves
+also toothed,—a form known as double-toothed. The leaf is coarse and
+rough to the touch, in marked contrast to the birch family, whose leaves
+it slightly resembles. There are several elms famous in the history of
+our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under which George Washington
+drew his sword and took command of the American Army on July 3, 1775;
+there are several other “Washington Elms” in different parts of the
+country, while New Haven is known as the City of Elms. William Penn made
+his famous treaty with the Indians under the branches of a magnificent
+elm, which remained standing until it was over two hundred years old,
+when it was finally blown down. The spot has been marked by a marble
+column.
+
+The tree is called the _American_, or _white_, _elm_, and we have several
+other varieties growing wild, including the well-known _slippery elm_, so
+called because the inner bark is slippery and edible.
+
+=47. The Birches.= If the black birch with its sweet, aromatic bark is
+not known to a boy, the white, or canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems to
+be the fate of this beautiful tree to be disfigured by every wandering
+youth who has strength enough to tear off a strip of its paper-like bark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 105. Leaf of Black Birch]
+
+The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished from the elm
+by its smoothness and thinness. Its base is slightly heartshaped, the
+edge is double-toothed, the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the
+taste, and the leaves grow in pairs.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 106. Birches bordering a Canal]
+
+=48. White Birch.= The famous white, paper, or canoe birch has a leaf
+somewhat broader than the black variety, but without the heartshaped
+base. Its bark is its peculiar feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes
+off in layers and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof,
+a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who constructed their canoes of
+it. The wood is hard and tough.
+
+=49. Gray Birch.= A smaller tree, known as the _gray birch_, also has
+white bark, but it is not as perfect as that of the canoe birch, does not
+peel in layers, and has triangular black spots on the trunk beneath every
+limb.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 107. Leaf of Gray Birch]
+
+It loves barren, rocky places, abandoned farms, etc., and is sometimes
+called _old field birch_. It has a fine, delicate foliage, which is not
+duplicated in the forest. Each leaf swings from a long, slender stem,
+and every passing breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen.
+The leaf form is very odd,—a broad, flat base, and then a long, graceful
+curve out to a fine point, the whole edge being finely double-toothed.
+
+=50. The Beech.= The difference in the leaf forms of the birch and beech
+is very marked. Both have toothed edges, but in the beech the spaces
+between the teeth are so remarkably shallow that one has to search for
+them.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 108. A Remarkable Growth of Beeches in Greater New
+York]
+
+There has been a common belief for generations that the beech is proof
+against lightning, and recent experiments prove that beech wood offers
+considerably greater resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar,
+or willow; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood is hard, strong,
+and tough, and will take a high polish.
+
+=51. Hornbeam.= Closely related to the beeches are two little trees which
+have delicate birchlike foliage and wood of great hardness,—the hornbeam,
+or blue beech, and the hop hornbeam, or ironwood.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 109. Leaf of American Beech]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 110. Ironwood, or Hop Hornbeam]
+
+The leaves of these two varieties are quite similar, that of the ironwood
+being somewhat the larger.
+
+The name _hop hornbeam_ is derived from the fruit, which resembles the
+hop, and the name _ironwood_ from the great strength and hardness of the
+wood.
+
+=52. Buttonball.= No list of trees would be complete which did not
+include those three forest giants, buttonball, tulip, and sweet gum.
+The names _buttonwood_, _buttonball_, _sycamore_, and _plane tree_, as
+the same tree is called in different parts of the country, all apply
+to that fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its leaves,
+leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which produces an enormous crop
+of buttonballs so well known to country boys and girls. The leaves are
+in proportion to the size of the tree, often measuring a foot in length,
+and being frequently covered on the under side with a white down called
+_fungus_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 111. Leaf of Buttonwood]
+
+The wood of the sycamore, as it is incorrectly called, is valuable for
+cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and taking a high polish. It is,
+however, difficult to work, and has a tendency to warp.
+
+=53. Sweet Gum.= The sweet-gum tree also produces a crop of balls, or
+seed pods, but although the same size as the buttonballs, they need never
+be confused, as the gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points,
+while the buttonballs are comparatively smooth.
+
+The leaves of the sweet gum, or _liquid amber_—so called from the
+amber-colored gum the tree gives out—remind one of the starfish, being
+five-fingered and decidedly different from any leaf in the forest. The
+tree grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its wood is a
+handsome brown color with fine and intricate markings. It warps badly,
+but is valued for wood turning on account of its softness and even grain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 112. Sweet Gum, or Liquid Amber]
+
+=54. Tulip.= The lumber furnished by the tulip tree, commonly called
+_whitewood_, is less liable to warp than gum wood, and is somewhat
+harder. Just why it should be called whitewood is not clear, as it is
+much darker than white pine and of a greenish-yellow color. The leaf of
+the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only four points, without any
+small teeth, and with an outline so odd that one often wonders if nature
+did not use a pair of scissors in cutting it out.
+
+Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem. The glory of the
+tree—which gives it its name—is the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it
+bears in the spring. They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in
+color, with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown cone, which
+remains on the tree all winter. The tree thrives best south of the Ohio
+valley, where it is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter.
+The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes from its trunk, and in some
+sections it is still called _canoe wood_.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 113. Tulip, or Whitewood]
+
+=55. Basswood, or Linden.= A very valuable group of trees for both shade
+and timber are the basswoods, or lindens. There are several varieties,
+the European linden thriving here as readily as our native varieties.
+These trees may always be distinguished by the leaves, which are
+heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one side from the middle line being always
+larger than the other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been
+joined along the center.
+
+This is a very common feature among certain classes of trees, such as
+the elms. Another remarkable feature is the seed, or bract, shown in the
+sketch (Fig. 115).
+
+The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade, and has sweet
+flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes called the _bee tree_, because
+the bees swarm all over it in the summer time. Its timber is valuable,
+being free from knots and of such an even grain that it is much sought
+after for some kinds of carving.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 114. American Linden, or Basswood, showing the
+Sugar-Loaf Form of the Tree]
+
+The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from basswood.
+
+Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several familiar families,
+all loved by some of us for some reason.
+
+The willow is always a striking tree, not only because of its weeping or
+drooping appearance, but also because we usually associate it with water.
+
+What is more common in the country than a stream hidden by the willows
+which crowd its bank and dip down into the clear water!
+
+Then, too, we watch it for the first sign of spring, and friends in
+different states often vie with each other to discover the first _pussy
+willow_, the name given to the soft, downy buds which appear often before
+the snow has melted.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 115. Leaf and Bract of Linden]
+
+The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs in spring the
+bark can be separated from the wood and a whistle or simple flute
+manufactured.
+
+The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being used chiefly by pulp
+makers, but it grows where no other trees can exist, being found nearly
+all over the world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any other
+broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over one hundred and fifty
+varieties, which vary from small shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high.
+Its soft and gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 116. A Weeping Willow]
+
+=56. The Poplars.= In the poplars we have a group of trees similar to the
+willows in some ways but very different in others. The wood is weak and
+of little use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness
+ends.
+
+To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose leaves are continually
+trembling,—in fact, the whole family is a restless one, the constant
+motion being due to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened.
+
+The people of Scotland have a superstition that it was of aspen wood
+that our Saviour’s cross was made, and that the tree shivers in constant
+remembrance of that fact.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 117.
+
+Aspen
+
+Aspen Poplar, or Large-Toothed Aspen]
+
+Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen, the Lombardy poplar,
+and the cottonwood.
+
+The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to reach toward the
+clouds, and its tall, narrow form is familiar in many sections of our
+country, although the tree was originally imported from Europe.
+
+Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known members of this family.
+Cottonwood is best known in the West, where it often constitutes the
+chief and only growth along the water courses, and balm of Gilead is
+known as one of our common city shade trees. This latter tree, often
+called the balsam, is really an important tree of the great northwestern
+country, being found plentifully in the Klondike, and often forming in
+that far northern country great forests thousands of square miles in
+extent. It is used as a shade tree because it stands the smoke and gas of
+the city where many other trees pine away and die.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 118. Cottonwood, or Carolina Poplar]
+
+=57. Sassafras.= We find many freaks in the tree world, and nature seems
+to have tried to see how odd she really could be; for instance, on the
+sassafras tree we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two,
+and three divisions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 119. Sassafras]
+
+This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite small, grows
+under favorable conditions to a height of fifty feet. It is noted for
+the pleasant taste of its leaves, twigs, and roots, which are used
+considerably in flavoring medicines.
+
+=58. Mulberry.= Another tree noted for the peculiar shape of its leaves
+is the mulberry. There are three common kinds, named, from the color of
+their berries, _red_, _black_, and _white_.
+
+It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of the silkworm. The
+leaves of this tree are quite regular, but those of the red and black
+vary apparently as they please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in
+size or shape, and they are very soft and downy.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 120. Red Mulberry, showing Variation in Leaf Form]
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+THE EVERGREENS
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 121. White Pines at Westbury, Long Island]
+
+The evergreen trees, so called because their needle-like leaves remain
+on the tree all winter, are fully as interesting as the broad-leaved
+trees. Without them our landscapes in winter would be much more barren
+and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer. A pine forest
+with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered floor is a sight to be long
+remembered.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 122. A View showing how Evergreens help to enrich the
+Landscape. Arbor Vitæ Hedges]
+
+The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among the soft timbers,
+although the yellow pine is far from soft.
+
+=59. White Pine.= The king among evergreens is usually admitted to be the
+white pine. Its soft, bluish-green foliage, the widespreading branches,
+and the value of its fine, even-grained wood give it the first rank.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 123. Needles and Cone of White Pine]
+
+Pines have needle-shaped leaves which grow in groups of two, three,
+or five. White pine needles grow in groups of five and are from three
+to four inches long. The cones which contain the seeds are about five
+inches long. The tree grows tall and straight, and formerly grew in great
+forests covering thousands of square miles; the wood is so free from
+pitch and is so easily worked with tools that these great forests have
+been almost annihilated by the lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has
+become quite expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large
+enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in the future white
+pine will be only a memory.
+
+=60. Georgia Pine.= The southern yellow pine, or Georgia pine, is a very
+different tree from its northern cousin, the white pine, furnishing us
+with a resinous yellow wood, much harder than white pine, and a beautiful
+and valuable material for the interiors of buildings. It is also very
+durable and is frequently used for exposed places, such as the decks of
+ships.
+
+The needles are very long, measuring a foot and sometimes fifteen inches
+in length.
+
+The seed cones are from six to ten inches long, and the scales have
+little prickles on their ends. The tree grows throughout the southern
+states from Virginia to Texas, and the cutting of its timber is a
+valuable industry of the South.
+
+=61. Yellow Pine.= The common yellow pine must not be confounded with
+the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has needles growing three in a
+bunch, and the latter short needles three or four inches long, growing
+two and sometimes three in a group. The cone of the common yellow pine is
+also very much smaller, being only two inches long.
+
+Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring, ceiling, and interior
+finishing.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 124. Hemlock]
+
+There are several less important kinds of pine, such as the northern and
+Jersey scrub pines, and the red, or Norway pine.
+
+Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of the evergreen family.
+
+=62. Hemlock= is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with drooping branches
+and little needles not over half an inch long. It is a northern tree
+except along the Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as
+Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things to be found among
+the common trees. They are no longer than the hemlock needles.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 125. The Influence of Hemlock on the Winter
+Landscape. Snow Scene]
+
+The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very easily and being
+afflicted with _shakes_, a defect caused by the annual layers or rings
+breaking away from each other when the trees are swayed by the winter
+storms. The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin.
+
+=63. Spruce.= The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen trees which ornament
+so many of our old farm dooryards are usually some species of spruce. The
+spruce is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so commonly
+used for Christmas trees, but they are so different that they need never
+be confused.
+
+There are several varieties of spruce, including the red, black, white,
+and Norway, but they all bear a family resemblance.
+
+Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found that the needles
+completely surround it. This is not true of the fir. Then the spruce
+needles are sharp at the tip, while the fir needles are blunt.
+
+This family is distinctly a northern group, being found as far north as
+Hudson Bay and forming dense forests, particularly on mountain sides.
+One may often see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the
+broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces extending clear
+up to the summit.
+
+The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee, but in that latitude
+it grows only at high elevations. It has cones about one and a half
+inches long, and its wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is
+used for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for the frames of
+buildings.
+
+The black spruce is the northern brother of the red, and is really a
+Canadian tree which occasionally reaches down into the United States.
+It reaches the Mackenzie River on the north and covers large areas in
+Manitoba.
+
+It takes its name from the dark, somber color of its foliage, which seems
+almost black against the snowy hillsides.
+
+The cones are the same size as on the red spruce, but they persist in
+remaining on the tree for several years. The wood is soft and weak and is
+used for sounding-boards, pulp, and light framing for houses.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 126. Black Spruce]
+
+The white spruce is similar to the other two, but lighter in color, cones
+a trifle longer and softer, and needles more slender. It is a northern
+tree; its wood is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finishing
+the interior of houses.
+
+Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importation from Europe, where
+its majestic height graces the mountains from the Alps to Norway and
+Sweden. It grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and
+flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones are four or five
+inches long. Its wood is known in Europe as _deal_.
+
+=64. Cypress.= In the swamps of our southern states, from Maryland south
+along the Gulf of Mexico, are found great dark forests of the bald
+cypress.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 127. Cypress]
+
+They grow directly out of the water and are famous for a peculiar
+formation of the roots called _cypress knees_,—lumpy growths which come
+up out of the water as if they were in search of air. The cypress is
+a tall, spirelike tree, which has the most delicate, feathery needles
+imaginable. They drop off in the fall, so that the tree is sometimes
+called _deciduous cypress_. The cones are roundish and about an inch
+long. The timber furnished by this tree is very handsome in grain and
+valuable for many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing.
+
+=65. The Balsam Fir=, or our famous Christmas tree, is noted for its
+great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria for invalids, especially
+consumptives, are frequently built in the midst of great fir forests,
+that the sufferers may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with
+the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used to fill pillows,
+which are said to soothe tired and worn-out people to sleep.
+
+We are all familiar with the sweet, _woodsy_ smell of the Christmas tree.
+No other tree can take its place. It brings visions of the country, of
+the woods and fields and flowers, and it will always be dear to us.
+
+The balsam fir can always be distinguished from the spruce by the fact
+that the needles only come out at the sides of the twig instead of from
+all directions, as in the spruce, and its end is blunt, whereas that of
+the spruce is sharply pointed.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 128. Balsam Fir]
+
+The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters which contain the
+balsam, _Canada balsam_ it is usually called, well known for its healing
+qualities.
+
+The cones are from two to four inches long, stand upright on the
+branches, and the wood is not very valuable.
+
+=66. The Cedars.= No list of evergreen trees would be complete without
+the cedars. In this group is the well-known hedge tree, arbor vitæ,
+sometimes erroneously called _white cedar_. It is famous for its
+flattened, bright green, scaly leaves, with their strong, pungent odor.
+
+This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very little knowledge as to
+its real shape and height if allowed to grow naturally; but it is said to
+reach a height of fifty feet under favorable conditions.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 129. Arbor Vitæ]
+
+=67. White Cedar.= The real white cedar has a more delicate leaf and is
+fond of cool swamps.
+
+It has a conical shape and is much larger than the arbor vitæ, reaching
+sometimes ninety feet. The wood is very valuable, being soft but durable,
+and is used for shingles, posts, and boats. It has the property of
+enduring the changes such as posts or other structural members are
+obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks next to yellow
+locust in this particular.
+
+=68. Red Cedar= is the tree which supplies our lead pencils. It is
+remarkable for its straight, even grain, and the ease with which it
+can be worked. This is the familiar tree of our roadside, where the
+birds who feast on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and
+unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations by dropping
+the seeds on the ground.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 130. Red Cedar growing along Roadside from Seed
+dropped by Birds]
+
+The red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot exist, but like
+other trees responds to good treatment and reaches its best development
+in the balmy and luxuriant South.
+
+It is found from Maine to Florida and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
+In the North it rarely grows over twenty feet high, and is of compact
+growth, but in Florida it reaches eighty feet.
+
+The leaves are remarkable in that there are two shapes, the sharp or
+awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped, growing upon the same branch.
+
+The wood is valuable for many purposes and has been used so extensively
+that it is becoming scarce.
+
+Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for lead pencils for
+years, and it is said that during the Civil War, when the whole southern
+coast was blockaded, the European manufacturers were obliged to scour the
+world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+THE BIG TREES
+
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 131. Big Trees scarred by Fire at the Base. Redwood
+Meadow, California]
+
+Each section of country has its own peculiar trees, and those described
+have been mainly representative of the eastern states; but no list of
+American trees would be complete without the “big trees,” as they are
+commonly called, of California. The annual rings of these giants show
+them to be from two thousand to four thousand years old.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 132. Big Trees, “General Grant” and “General
+Sherman,” Calaveras County, California]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 133. “General Grant,” a Big Tree, Mariposa Grove,
+California]
+
+It is hard to realize this great age. It means that for centuries and
+centuries before the white men came these kings of the forests looked
+down on generations and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have
+seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful tales they might
+relate if they could only talk!
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 134. Redwood Logs in Humboldt County, California]
+
+On that fateful day over four hundred years ago, when the three little
+caravels of Columbus sighted the West Indies, these hoary old trees were
+twenty-five hundred years old. They should be sacred to every American,
+and not one should ever be cut down for lumber.
+
+There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood and the so-called
+“big trees,” which are the largest trees in the world. They both belong
+to the cone-bearing (coniferous) group, and the needles are only three
+quarters of an inch long and the little cones an inch.
+
+The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike red cedar, but is
+softer and is used for many purposes on the Pacific coast.
+
+The big trees are now carefully guarded by the government. One grove
+alone which contains seven hundred of these fine trees, called the
+Mariposa Grove, has been reserved as a national park, and is watched
+carefully to keep out forest fires, etc.
+
+Many of the best known of these trees are given names. One is called
+“Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” because of a peculiar opening at the base.
+
+The most famous perhaps is the “Grizzly Giant.” This one is ninety-three
+feet in circumference at the ground, and its first branch is two hundred
+feet above the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered the
+largest tree in the world.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 135. Redwood Logs blasted apart for Easier Handling
+(a very wasteful method)]
+
+We can get some idea of what these figures represent when we know that it
+takes five men three weeks to cut one down, and that the cost of felling
+one of these monsters is five hundred dollars.
+
+A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances have been held on
+it, and on one very large one a ballroom has been built for this special
+purpose.
+
+As one Californian has said, “The redwood forests are apparently
+imperishable, except through the ax, as the trees are rarely injured by
+fire. The redwood is the only lumber that can take the place of the white
+pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany and black walnut,
+displace oak for railroad ties, cypress and cedar for shingles, and
+surpass all other woods for durability when in contact with the earth or
+when exposed to moisture.”
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 136. Immense Flock of Sheep being herded illegally
+in a United States Government Forest Reservation. (They kill the young
+seedling trees)]
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  Annual rings, 59
+
+  Ash, 92
+
+  Aspen, 107
+
+
+  Band saw, 58
+
+  Basswood, 103
+
+  Beech, 99
+
+  Bench, care of, 3
+
+  Bench hook, 15
+
+  Bevel, 10
+
+  Big Trees of California, 123
+
+  Birches, 96
+
+  Bit, auger, 27
+    auger, details of, 28
+    center, 27
+    countersink, 29
+    gimlet, 29
+
+  Black walnut, 89
+
+  Brace, common forms of, 26
+    and bit, 27
+
+  Bract of linden, 105
+
+  Buckeye, 87
+
+  Butternut, 89
+
+  Buttonwood, 101
+
+
+  Cap iron, 17
+
+  Cedar, 120
+
+  Chisel, cutting angle of, 23
+    firmer, 24
+    framing, 24
+    methods of using, 24
+    sharpening, 25
+
+  Clamp iron of plane, 18
+
+  Compound leaves, 85
+
+  Cottonwood, or Carolina poplar, 108
+
+  Cutting tools, 11
+
+  Cypress, 118
+
+
+  Dovetail. _See_ Joint
+
+  Drawing board, 45, 62
+
+
+  Elm, American, 94
+
+  Evergreens, 111
+
+
+  Felling trees, 52
+
+  Fir, balsam, 118
+
+  Framing square, 8
+
+
+  Gang saw, 55
+
+  Glue, use of, 39
+
+  Grain of wood, 59
+
+  Groups of tools, 4
+
+  Gum, sweet, or liquid amber, 101
+
+
+  Hammer, claw, 31
+    use of, 32
+
+  Hand screw, use of, 40
+
+  Hemlock, 115
+
+  Hickory, 87
+
+  Honey locust, 91
+
+  Hornbeam, 100
+
+  Horse-chestnut, 86
+
+
+  Ironwood, 100
+
+
+  Joint, definition of, 39
+    dovetail, 47
+    end lap, 44
+    middle lap, 38
+    miter, 41
+
+  Joint edge, 37
+
+  Jointers, 21
+
+
+  Laying out work, 38
+
+  Linden, or basswood, 103
+
+  Locust, 91
+
+  Log boom, 55
+
+  Log jam, 53
+
+  Logs, redwood, 126
+
+  Lumbering and milling, 51
+
+
+  Mallet, 33
+
+  Maple, ash-leaved, 82
+    Japan, 84
+    Norway, 78
+    red, 80
+    silver, 78
+    striped, 81
+    sugar, 76
+    sycamore, 80
+
+  Maple keys, 82
+
+  Marking gauge, 8
+
+  Mechanical drawing, 43
+    of end lap joint, 44
+    of cylinder, 44
+
+  Medullary rays, 59
+
+  Miscellaneous tools, 31
+
+  Mortise, cutting a, 34
+
+  Mulberry, 109
+
+
+  Nail set or punch, 32
+
+  Nails, cut and wire, 41
+    method of using cut, 41
+    withdrawing, 32
+
+
+  Oak, black and black-jack, 69
+    chestnut, 74
+    live, 75
+    mossy-cup, 68
+    pin, 72
+    post, 67
+    red, 70
+    scarlet, 71
+    white, 66
+
+  Oilstone, use of, 25
+
+
+  Pecan, 89
+
+  Perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared, 43
+
+  Pine, Georgia, 114
+    white, 113
+    yellow, 114
+
+  Plan of work, 4
+
+  Plane, 17
+    adjustments on, 18
+    block, 21
+    block, method of using, 22
+    jack, 19
+    smooth, 20
+    wooden, 22
+
+  Plane iron in action, 17
+
+  Poplars, 106
+
+
+  River driving, 53
+
+  Rule, use of, 6
+
+
+  Sandpaper, use of, 34
+
+  Sassafras, 108
+
+  Saw, back, 15
+    circular, 57
+    method of holding, 14
+    turning, 16
+
+  Saw tapers, 14
+
+  Saw teeth, shape of, 13
+
+  Saw tooth action, 11
+
+  Saw tooth set, 13
+
+  Sawmill, 55
+
+  Saws, 11
+
+  Scale drawing, 48
+
+  Screw-driver, 33
+
+  Screws, varieties of, and methods of using, 42
+
+  Sections of red oak, 70
+
+  Set screw of plane iron, 17
+
+  Shake in wood, 60
+
+  Shrinkage, 61
+
+  Spokeshave, 29
+
+  Spruce, 116
+
+  Stock, squaring up, 36
+
+  Sycamore, 101
+
+
+  T square, use of, 45
+
+  Timber and lumber, 58
+
+  Trees, broad-leaved, or deciduous, 65
+
+  Triangles, use of, 45
+
+  Try-square, use of, 6
+
+  Tulip, or whitewood, 102
+
+
+  Warping, 61
+
+  Weather checks, 60
+
+  Willow, 106
+
+  Working face, 37
+
+
+*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***
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+.x-ebookmaker .illowp93 {width: 100%;}
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+  </head>
+<body>
+<p style='text-align:center; font-size:1.2em; font-weight:bold'>The Project Gutenberg eBook of Elementary woodworking, by Edwin W. Foster</p>
+<div style='display:block; margin:1em 0'>
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States and
+most other parts of the world at no cost and with almost no restrictions
+whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or re-use it under the terms
+of the Project Gutenberg License included with this eBook or online
+at <a href="https://www.gutenberg.org">www.gutenberg.org</a>. If you
+are not located in the United States, you will have to check the laws of the
+country where you are located before using this eBook.
+</div>
+
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:1em; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Title: Elementary woodworking</p>
+<p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em'>Author: Edwin W. Foster</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Release Date: January 7, 2023 [eBook #69725]</p>
+<p style='display:block; text-indent:0; margin:1em 0'>Language: English</p>
+  <p style='display:block; margin-top:1em; margin-bottom:0; margin-left:2em; text-indent:-2em; text-align:left'>Produced by: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)</p>
+<div style='margin-top:2em; margin-bottom:4em'>*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_i"></a>[i]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="frontispiece" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/frontispiece.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption">“Grizzly Giant,” a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_ii"></a>[ii]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iii"></a>[iii]</span></p>
+
+<h1>ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING</h1>
+
+<p class="titlepage"><span class="smaller">BY</span><br>
+EDWIN W. FOSTER</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage">GINN &amp; COMPANY<br>
+<span class="smaller">BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_iv"></a>[iv]</span></p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller"><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1903<br>
+By EDWIN W. FOSTER</span></p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">ALL RIGHTS RESERVED</p>
+
+<p class="center smaller">25.1</p>
+
+<p class="titlepage smaller">The Athenæum Press<br>
+GINN &amp; COMPANY · CAMBRIDGE<br>
+· MASSACHUSETTS</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">PREFACE</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing
+the pupil with the essential facts about tools
+and their uses. However efficient the instruction may
+be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for
+him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration
+the names of tools and technical terms, most of
+which are new to him. This applies with equal force
+to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of
+working.</p>
+
+<p>The function of the text is to supplement the instruction
+of the teacher. It is intended to gather up and
+arrange in a logical order the facts which the pupil
+has already been told. By this means these facts will
+become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work
+with a better understanding and make greater progress.</p>
+
+<p>It is believed that the text can be used to the greatest
+advantage by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects
+presented in class immediately <i>after</i> the close of the
+lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and occasional written
+tests are very effective.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_v"></a>[v]</span></p>
+
+<p>No course of study in the form of a series of models
+is presented. It is hardly possible for any two schools
+to follow the same series of models. Local conditions
+necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and
+better designs are being brought out continuously.</p>
+
+<p>The order in which the tools are described in the following
+pages is the one that has seemed most natural.
+They may be taken up, however, in any convenient and
+logical order.</p>
+
+<p>It is with the earnest hope that nature study and
+manual work may be closely correlated, that Part II is
+added. No better period can be selected in which to
+study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than when
+the student is working with wood, learning by experience
+its grain, hardness, color, and value in the arts.</p>
+
+<p>Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its
+economic aspects, climatic effects, influence on rainfall,
+the flow of rivers, floods, droughts, etc., will be found
+interesting as well as instructive, and such interest
+should be instilled into every American boy and girl.</p>
+
+<p>The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game
+Commission of New York state for the series of Adirondack
+lumbering scenes, and to the United States Bureau
+of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees.</p>
+
+<p class="right">EDWIN W. FOSTER.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vi"></a>[vi]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">CONTENTS</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<table>
+  <tr>
+    <td></td>
+    <td class="tdpg smaller">PAGE</td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#PART_I">PART I. TOOLS</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter I. Introduction</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">3</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of
+    work and division of tools into groups.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">5</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The rule: divisions; method of using. The try-square: method
+    of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter III. Cutting Tools</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">11</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers;
+    method of holding. Backsaw; use of bench hook. The turning saw.
+    The plane: use of cap iron; names of parts. Adjustment of plane.
+    Use of lever and adjusting screw; positions for planing. The jack
+    plane. The smooth plane. Jointers; action of short and long
+    planes. The block plane. The wooden plane. The chisel: size of
+    cutting angle; effect of careless sharpening. The framing and firmer
+    chisels; proper positions for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharpening
+    on oilstone. Brace and bit. Center and auger bits; gimlet
+    and countersink bits. The spokeshave.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">31</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The hammer; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver.
+    Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock; method explained in detail.
+    Laying out work; method of laying out a typical joint. Securing
+    parts; use of glue and hand screws. Nails; method of using cut nails.
+    Screws; method of using round-head and flat-head screws. Mechanical
+    drawing. The drawing instruments explained, and method of
+    making complete working drawings described. Scale drawings.
+    <span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_vii"></a>[vii]</span></td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="tdc" colspan="2"><a href="#PART_II">PART II. WOOD</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">51</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">The forest; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The forming
+    and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern sawmills.
+    Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings; medullary rays;
+    formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in wood. Warping
+    and shrinkage.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">65</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack
+    oak. Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter VII. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Maples</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">76</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore
+    maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">85</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and butternut.
+    Locust. Honey locust. Ash.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">94</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">Elm. The birches. Beech. Iron wood. Buttonball. Sweet gum.
+    Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter X. The Evergreens</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">111</a></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td class="sub">White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce.
+    Cypress. Balsam fir. The cedars.</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"></td>
+  </tr>
+  <tr>
+    <td>Chapter XI. The Big Trees of California</td>
+    <td class="tdpg"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">123</a></td>
+  </tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_1"></a>[1]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_I">ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING<br>
+<span class="smcap">Part I</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_2"></a>[2]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_3"></a>[3]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I<br>
+<span class="smaller">INTRODUCTION</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>In order to obtain good results in the using of tools
+it is necessary to know their construction, how to properly
+sharpen and adjust them, and the correct method
+of handling them. It is also essential to know how to
+lay out and work the material or stock. Carelessness
+or a lack of knowledge is invariably followed by a
+failure. It is more important at first to work carefully
+and accurately than rapidly.</p>
+
+<p>“Tools are made to be used, not abused.” They
+must be kept <i>clean</i> and <i>sharp</i> and should be used only
+for the purpose intended. Wipe them off occasionally
+with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting.
+Put away all tools not in use and keep the top of the
+bench clean. Do not mark it with a pencil or scratch
+it with a knife. Do not cut into it with the chisel
+or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using
+glue, shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the
+bench; or, better still, do the work on a table provided
+for that purpose.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_4"></a>[4]</span></p>
+
+<p>The plan of work in making all models is in general
+the same and is as follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>First.</i> “Squaring up” the stock.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> “Laying out” the work.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third.</i> Cutting to the lines.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>When the article is composed of two or more pieces a
+fourth step may be added, namely, fitting and securing
+the parts.</p>
+
+<p>The tools used may be divided into three groups, as
+follows:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>First.</i> Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square, marking
+gauge, bevel, and knife.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane, chisel,
+spokeshave, bit, and knife.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third.</i> Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet, screw-driver,
+brace (or bitstock), and others not so common.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_5"></a>[5]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II<br>
+<span class="smaller">MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><b>1. The Rule.</b> The standard unit of length is the yard,
+but the foot is commonly used for all measurements
+in woodwork. If the rule be twelve inches long it is
+known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long
+it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided
+into halves, quarters, eighths, and in some cases sixteenths.
+Rules are usually of boxwood or maple, with
+brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once or
+twice.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig001" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig001.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span> The Rule</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work
+to be measured errors will usually follow. It should
+be stood on edge so that the pencil or knife point may
+touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same time.
+The proper position when laying out measurements is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_6"></a>[6]</span>
+shown in the sketch (<a href="#fig002">Fig. 2</a>). Consecutive measurements
+should be laid off without moving the rule.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig002" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig002.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span> Methods of using the Rule: <i>A</i>, incorrect; <i>B</i>, correct</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>2. The Try-Square.</b> The try-square has two distinct
+uses: first, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife
+point in laying out lines across the grain at
+right angles to the edge, as shown in <a href="#fig004">Fig. 4</a>;
+second, for testing or trying the adjoining
+sides to see if they are square with each
+other.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig003" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig003.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span> The Try-Square</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_7"></a>[7]</span></p>
+
+<p>The try-square may be made entirely of iron or
+steel, but sometimes the beam <i>A</i> is of wood with a
+brass strip <i>C</i> to protect it and to take the wear. The
+blade <i>B</i> is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into
+inches and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made
+in several sizes, the most convenient for general use
+being six inches.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig004" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig004.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span> Methods of using the Try-Square</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In using the try-square the beam should be held
+firmly against the face or edge of the stock. When
+working near the end of the piece, if the beam projects,
+reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife
+point instead of the pencil should be used for lining.</p>
+
+<p>When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it
+is first necessary to mark or square clear around it with
+the knife and try-square. In doing this the beam of<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_8"></a>[8]</span>
+the try-square must be used against the work face and
+joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one
+piece are called <i>framing squares</i>, and are used by
+carpenters and others for rough or large work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig005" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig005.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span> The Framing Square</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig006" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig006.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span> The Marking Gauge</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>3. The Marking Gauge.</b> The marking gauge
+is shown in Figs. <a href="#fig006">6</a> and <a href="#fig007">7</a>. <i>A</i> is the gauge
+stick, <i>B</i> the gauge block, <i>S</i> the set screw, and
+<i>P</i> the marking point, or <i>spur</i>. The gauge stick
+is graduated like a rule into inches and fractions,
+beginning at the steel marking point;
+but as the latter is not always exactly in the
+right place the graduations are not entirely
+reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge
+with the rule in the manner shown in <a href="#fig007">Fig. 7</a>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_9"></a>[9]</span></p>
+
+<p>Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule
+in right. Place end of rule against gauge block and
+the measurement desired at spur. Turn set screw. The
+gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set
+at one inch and is ready for use.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig007" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig007.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span> Setting the Marking Gauge</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold
+the tool firmly, with thumb and forefinger encircling
+gauge block. Tip the tool
+away from you until the
+marking point (spur) barely
+touches the wood and push
+the tool away from (never
+toward) you. The line
+made should be as fine as
+a knife line. A little practice
+is needed to give the proper control, as the marking
+point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is
+usually not straight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig008" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig008.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span> Holding the Marking Gauge</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_10"></a>[10]</span></p>
+
+<p>A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock
+as a practice block, laying out lines a quarter of an inch
+apart, then an eighth, and finally a sixteenth.</p>
+
+<p><b>4. The Bevel.</b> The bevel differs from the try-square in
+having a movable blade.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig009" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig009.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span> The Bevel</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle
+from zero to 180 degrees. The blade may be fixed
+firmly at any desired angle by simply turning the set
+screw. The method of using it is similar to that of
+the try-square.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_11"></a>[11]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III<br>
+<span class="smaller">CUTTING TOOLS</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><b>5. Saws.</b> The saw might be described as a succession
+of chisels, one back of the other. We can readily understand
+the action of the saw by making cuts with a narrow
+chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as shown
+in <a href="#fig010">Fig. 10</a> at <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig010" style="max-width: 56.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig010.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span> Cutting with and
+  across the Grain with a Narrow Chisel</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The little pieces of wood removed in this way are
+similar to the sawdust made by the saw, the only difference
+being that in the saw the teeth are narrower and
+the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one
+chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time.</p>
+
+<p>A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for
+cutting along the grain, is called a <i>ripsaw</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_12"></a>[12]</span></p>
+
+<p>That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain
+may easily be proved by again resorting to the narrow
+chisel and attempting to repeat the first experiment.
+The wood will act as shown in <a href="#fig010">Fig. 10</a> at <i>b</i>, splitting
+along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident,
+then, that a tool for cutting across the grain must be
+constructed in some other way.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig011" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig011.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span> The Saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with
+a knife point in two parallel lines across the grain,
+close together, as at <i>c</i>. It will be found that the wood
+between these lines may now be easily removed with the
+narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which
+we construct the crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharpened
+to a point, one on the right side, the next on
+the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points
+designed to cut the fibers, as was done in our experiment
+with the knife. <a href="#fig012">Fig. 12</a> shows the end view of the
+crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not only are
+the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_13"></a>[13]</span>
+each tooth is bent outward from the body of the saw.
+This bending is called <i>set</i>, and is designed to make
+the saw cut, or <i>kerf</i>, wider than the thickness of the
+saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood
+after the teeth have done their work. If it were not
+for this set, the fibers would spring back against the
+body of the saw after the teeth had passed and make
+the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set
+it should pass through the wood easily.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig012" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig012.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span> Teeth of Crosscut Saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig013" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig013.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span> Teeth of Ripsaw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be
+seen in the sketch, the bottoms are flat like a chisel
+instead of pointed like those of the crosscut teeth.</p>
+
+<p>Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth,
+the side views, which are also different, are shown in
+Figs. <a href="#fig012">12</a> and <a href="#fig013">13</a>.</p>
+
+<p>We are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace
+article, yet a careful examination will prove
+that the greatest care and skill are needed in its manufacture.
+Observe that the body, which must be of
+the best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_14"></a>[14]</span>
+handle than at the opposite end. This is to give
+strength, and to prevent <i>buckling</i>, or bending, as the
+tool is pushed forward.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig014" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig014.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span> Body of Saw, showing Tapers</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Most delicate measurements must be made, however,
+to discover that not only the width but the thickness
+increases from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i>, and decreases from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i>.
+How carefully this tapering must be done can be realized
+when we know that the difference in thickness
+from <i>A</i> to <i>B</i> is only three one-thousandths of an inch,
+and from <i>C</i> to <i>D</i> twelve one-thousandths at end <i>A</i>
+and five one-thousandths
+at end <i>B</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig015" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig015.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span> Method of holding the Saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The saw should
+be held in the right
+hand, with the left
+grasping the board.
+The thumb of the
+left hand acts as
+guide, the saw is tilted, as shown in <a href="#fig015">Fig. 15</a>, and drawn
+toward the worker at the first stroke. This tool should<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_15"></a>[15]</span>
+be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance
+with the general rule that we do our best work with
+tools when we work easily and deliberately.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig016" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig016.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 16.</span> The Backsaw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes,
+including those which cut stone and metal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig017" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig017.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span> Method of using the
+  Backsaw and Bench Hook</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>6. Backsaw.</b>
+The backsaw is a
+crosscut saw with
+small teeth, and
+has a heavy steel
+backpiece, <a href="#fig017">Fig.
+17</a>, to prevent
+bending. In this
+respect it differs
+from the ordinary
+crosscut varieties,
+which bend
+readily. The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine,
+straight cuts in delicate, accurate work. The steel<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_16"></a>[16]</span>
+back <i>B</i> is necessary on account of the thin blade, but
+on account of the thickness of <i>B</i> no cut can be made
+deeper than the
+line <i>C</i>. This tool
+will cut in any
+direction with
+reference to the
+grain, but is primarily
+a crosscut
+saw.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig018" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig018.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span> The Bench Hook</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig019" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig019.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span> The Turning Saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>7. The Turning
+Saw.</b> In ordinary
+work the saw is supposed to cut to a straight line, but
+there are certain classes of work where it is desirable
+to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is
+necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_17"></a>[17]</span>
+this purpose. The handles holding the saw blade may
+be turned in any direction with reference to the frame.</p>
+
+<p><b>8. The Plane.</b> The plane reduces our rough lumber
+to planed, or <i>dressed</i>, stock. The cutting part is a
+thin, wide chisel called the <i>plane
+iron</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp64" id="fig020" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig020.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span> The Plane Iron in Action</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig020">Fig. 20</a> shows the position of
+the plane iron in operation. Assume
+the iron to be moving in
+the direction of the arrow on a
+piece of wood. The sharp point
+would enter the board and, should
+the grain be unfavorable, start
+a splitting action, as shown at <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p>We wish to smooth the wood
+instead of roughing it, and must
+in some way stop the splitting. This is accomplished
+by placing a cap iron on the plane iron, as shown at <i>b</i>.
+The cap bends and breaks
+the shaving before the
+splitting action has a
+chance to begin, and gives
+the spiral form so familiar
+in wood shavings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig021" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig021.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span> Plane Iron, Cap, and Set Screw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a
+stout screw, and this whole combination is fastened in<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_18"></a>[18]</span>
+the throat of the plane by a clamp (<a href="#fig022">Fig. 22</a>). The opening
+on the bottom of the plane through which the cutting
+edge protrudes is called the <i>mouth</i> of the plane.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp58" id="fig022" style="max-width: 34.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig022.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span> Sectional Views of Iron Plane</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>9. Adjustment of Plane.</b> There are two ways of adjusting
+a modern iron plane,—by means of the set screw <i>s</i>,
+and of the lever <i>l</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_19"></a>[19]</span></p>
+
+<p>Screw <i>s</i> lowers or raises the plane iron so that we
+may take a thin or thick shaving, and lever <i>l</i> straightens
+the iron, which is liable to project more on one side
+than on the other, and will then take a shaving thicker
+on one side than on the other.</p>
+
+<p>Before using the plane always examine it carefully.
+Invert the tool, holding it toward the light with the
+toe toward you, and glance along the bottom. If the
+iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not,
+move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cutting
+edge should appear as a black line of uniform
+thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the brass screw
+until the iron projects slightly.</p>
+
+<p>In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand
+with the right side to the bench and with the shoulders
+thrown back. Let the pressure of the left hand be
+greater at the beginning and that of
+the right hand at the end of the stroke.
+The tool should rest perfectly flat on
+the wood from start to finish.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp90" id="fig023" style="max-width: 9.375em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig023.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span> Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>10. The Jack Plane.</b> The ordinary
+plane iron has a straight edge, as shown
+at <i>a</i>, <a href="#fig023">Fig. 23</a>, but when a large quantity
+of wood is to be removed the iron is sharpened in
+the shape shown at <i>b</i>. This curved iron will cut out
+the wood in hollows, leaving ridges between, and it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_20"></a>[20]</span>
+is necessary to follow this jack plane with a finer one
+having a straight edge in order to smooth the surface.
+The jack plane might be called a <i>roughing</i> plane.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp71" id="fig024" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig024.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24.</span> Relative Sizes of
+  Smooth and Jack Planes</p>
+  <p class="caption">The lower figure is a jack plane</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>11. The Smooth Plane.</b> The smoothing plane is shorter
+than the jack plane, its object being to smooth the surface
+without regard to straightening it, as it is supposed
+that the straightening has previously been done. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_21"></a>[21]</span>
+cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a sixteenth
+to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting
+edge of the plane iron.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig025" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig025.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 25.</span> Action of Short and Long Planes</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>12. Jointers.</b> For straightening very rough and uneven
+stock a long plane is necessary (<a href="#fig025">Fig. 25</a>). In the
+illustration let line <i>ab</i> represent
+the edge of a very
+uneven board. A short
+plane <i>c</i> would simply follow
+the hills and hollows,
+smoothing but not straightening
+it, while a long plane,
+as shown at <i>d</i>, would merely cut off the top of the high
+places, as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch
+the bottoms of the hollows until all the elevations were
+leveled; in other words, until the surface was straightened.
+Such planes, which
+are often three feet long or
+more, are called <i>jointers</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig026" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig026.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 26.</span> The Block Plane</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>13. The Block Plane.</b> To
+square the end of a piece of
+stock the conditions are quite different from those
+just described where we were planing with the grain.
+In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the plane
+iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel
+side up.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_22"></a>[22]</span></p>
+
+<p>This tool requires more care than the others, as the
+stroke is usually quite short, and if the cutting edge is
+allowed to reach the farther corner,
+the latter will be broken off.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig027" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig027.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 27.</span> Method of using Block Plane</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>To avoid this error the plane
+must be lifted up before the end
+of the stroke, as shown by the
+dotted line <i>a</i>. The piece is then
+reversed, and planed as shown by
+arrow <i>b</i>. In this way the whole end is smoothed, without
+ruining the corners.</p>
+
+<p>Besides these standard planes there are many patent
+and special ones for cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc.</p>
+
+<p><b>14. The Wooden Plane.</b> Although the iron-bodied
+planes just described are now in common use, the old-fashioned
+wooden plane is still the favorite of many
+woodworkers.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig028" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig028.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 28.</span> The Wooden Plane</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of
+the iron plane, was much simpler and contained a
+smaller number of parts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_23"></a>[23]</span></p>
+
+<p>The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden
+wedge, which was driven in by a light blow of the
+hammer. The workman removed the iron and wedge
+by turning the plane upside down and striking the
+forward part a light downward blow on the bench,
+while the thickness of the shaving was increased by
+a light tap on the plane iron.</p>
+
+<p>One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was
+its liability to wear and warp, so that it became necessary
+to straighten, or <i>joint</i>, the face. No such difficulty
+is encountered in the
+iron-bodied plane.</p>
+
+<p><b>15. The Chisel.</b> The chisel
+is one of the simplest forms
+of cutting tools. The size of
+the angle <i>a</i> depends on the
+kind of material to be cut.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig029" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig029.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 29.</span> Cutting Angle of Chisel</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an
+angle of from 30 to 35 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes
+formed, as shown at <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the
+chisel were shaped like that shown by dotted lines,
+and care must always be taken when sharpening to
+keep the line <i>cd</i> straight, so that angle <i>a</i> will be the
+real cutting angle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_24"></a>[24]</span></p>
+
+<p>Two classes of chisels are in common use: the <i>framing
+chisel</i> used for heavy work, such as the frames of
+buildings; and the <i>firmer chisel</i>. The framing chisel
+is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of withstanding
+the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is
+designed for finer and lighter
+work without the mallet.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig030" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig030.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 30.</span> The Framing Chisel</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig031" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig031.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 31.</span> The Firmer Chisel</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="fig032" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig032.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 32.</span> Proper Position
+  for Horizontal Chiseling</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The chisel must be sharp
+if we wish to do good and
+accurate work, and a cut on
+the hand made by such a
+sharp tool is liable to be a
+deep one. Special care must
+be used in handling it, keeping
+both hands away from
+the cutting edge, as shown
+in the sketch, and placing it when not in use where it
+cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the
+student’s feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_25"></a>[25]</span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig032">Fig. 32</a> shows the method of using the tool on horizontal
+work, and <a href="#fig033">Fig. 33</a> for vertical cutting. For this
+kind of work only a small portion of
+the cutting edge can be used, the student
+judging for himself how heavy a
+cut to take by the hardness of the wood
+and amount of strength required. Good
+work can never be done when one has
+to exert all his strength on the tool.
+The best results are obtained
+when we work
+easily.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp56" id="fig033" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig033.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 33.</span> Proper Position
+  for Vertical Chiseling</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Better work can usually
+be done with the
+chisel if, instead of pushing
+it straight ahead or
+straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to
+secure a slight <i>paring</i> action.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig034" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig034.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 34.</span> Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has
+been nicked or ruined by some accident, it is only
+necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone. Hold the tool<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_26"></a>[26]</span>
+with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil
+may be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked
+back and forth on the face of it. Especial care must
+be taken to avoid a rocking motion, which will produce
+a curved edge instead of a flat one.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp78" id="fig035" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig035.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 35.</span> Common Forms of the Brace</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side
+firmly on the stone, and draw toward you. This is to
+straighten the wire edge which has been turned over
+by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_27"></a>[27]</span>
+by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block
+of wood. When the chisel is nicked or very dull it
+must be ground on the grindstone.</p>
+
+<p><b>16. Brace and Bit.</b> The old-fashioned augers and gimlets
+have given way to the modern brace and bit.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig036" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig036.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 36.</span> The Center Bit</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock,
+allows both hands to be used continuously, which was
+not true of the old-fashioned auger. Several varieties
+of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts
+being common.</p>
+
+<p>Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name
+being applied to a tool which is to be turned by the
+brace. The old-fashioned center bit shown in the cut
+possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig037" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig037.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 37.</span> The Auger Bit</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be
+accurately placed. The lip on the outer edge cut the
+fibers in a circle before the chisel edge began to remove<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_28"></a>[28]</span>
+the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored; but
+considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool
+through the wood.</p>
+
+<p>The progress that has been made in the manufacture
+of tools can be easily appreciated by comparing this
+center bit with the modern auger bit.</p>
+
+<p>Referring to the sketch (<a href="#fig038">Fig. 38</a>), <i>B</i> <i>B</i> are two knife
+points, or <i>nibs</i>, which cut the wood fibers before the
+chisel edges, or <i>lips</i>, <i>C</i> <i>C</i>, can touch
+the wood. The point <i>A</i> allows us
+to accurately place the center of
+the hole where we wish it, and the
+screw back of <i>A</i> draws the tool into
+the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the
+spur, or <i>worm</i>. On this class of bits no pressure is
+necessary.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig038" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig038.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 38.</span> Details of Auger Bit</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The opposite end of the bit, called the <i>shank</i>, fits into
+the brace. Any tool with such a shank, and designed
+for use with the brace, is a bit. We have screw-driver
+bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc.</p>
+
+<p>On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number.
+This is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator
+is 16. If we find this number to be 4, it is a ⁴⁄₁₆, or a
+¼-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a ¹⁶⁄₁₆, or a
+one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the
+hole which the tool will bore.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_29"></a>[29]</span></p>
+
+<p>In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see
+that the bit shank is far enough in the brace to be fastened
+securely, and that the tool is held at right angles
+to the wood. It may appear from the front to be perfectly
+vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking
+at it from another position it will frequently be found
+far from vertical. When starting a hole it is well to
+do this several times until assured that the tool is working
+in a true upright position.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig039" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig039.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 39.</span> The Gimlet Bit</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig040" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig040.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 40.</span> The Countersink Bit</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we
+make for screws. In this case the hole must be <i>countersunk</i>
+to receive the screw head, when flat-headed
+screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the
+cut, and its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter
+on screws.</p>
+
+<p><b>17. The Spokeshave.</b> The spokeshave is practically a
+short plane with handles at the side so that the tool
+may be drawn or pushed. It may be adjusted by
+means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_30"></a>[30]</span>
+is used principally to smooth curved surfaces. The
+forming of a hammer handle is a good illustration of
+the kind of work it will do. It may be worked toward
+or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy
+tool.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig041" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig041.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 41.</span> The Iron Spokeshave</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_31"></a>[31]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV<br>
+<span class="smaller">MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><b>18. Hammer.</b> The carpenter’s hammer is used principally
+to drive or withdraw nails.</p>
+
+<p>The various trades have hammers made specially for
+their needs; thus we have machinists’, roofers’, upholsterers’,
+stonecutters’, and other hammers,
+but the claw hammer shown in the
+sketch is the one commonly used by workers
+in wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig042" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig042.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 42.</span> The Claw Hammer</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The head <i>a</i> (<a href="#fig043">Fig. 43</a>) is of steel, with the face <i>b</i> specially
+hardened so that it may not be dented by the nails.
+Notice the length of the handle <i>h</i>. This length did
+not simply happen. Had it been intended to hold the
+tool in the position shown at <i>A</i>, the handle would not
+have been made so long. The proper position is that
+shown at <i>B</i>. Position <i>A</i> is frequently taken by beginners,
+and should be studiously avoided.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_32"></a>[32]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig043" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig043.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 43.</span> Using the Hammer</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be
+kept straight for further use by a little care. Having
+started the nail slightly, place a small block of wood
+under the hammer head, as shown at <i>C</i>. Should the
+nail be an unusually long one, the size of the block
+may be increased as the nail comes out.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig044" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig044.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 44.</span> Common Forms of
+  Nail Punch, or “Set”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar
+the surface of the wood by striking the nail head after<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_33"></a>[33]</span>
+it has become even with the surface, as this produces a
+depression and ruins any fine surface.</p>
+
+<p>If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface,
+a nail punch, or <i>set</i>, is used. This is always necessary
+when the surface is to be planed after the nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>19. The Mallet.</b> The mallet might be described as a
+hammer with a wooden head, and is used whenever we
+wish to deliver a blow which shall be
+less concentrated than that of the
+hammer. It is used in certain kinds
+of heavy chiseling, such as house
+framing, and gives a blow which does not shatter the
+tool handle as a hammer would.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig045" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig045.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 45.</span> The Mallet</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making
+of a mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet
+being used to cut the opening known as the mortise, as
+shown in <a href="#fig046">Fig. 46</a>.</p>
+
+<p><b>20. Screw-Driver.</b> The screw-driver is perhaps the
+most common of household tools, and is probably abused
+more than any other. The handle is usually flattened
+so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but occasionally
+a round or fluted handle is seen.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_34"></a>[34]</span></p>
+
+<p>Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in
+recent years, but where considerable force is required
+the brace and screw-driver bit are more effective.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig046" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig046.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 46.</span> Cutting a Mortise</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>21. Sandpaper.</b> “Sandpaper is the last resort of a
+poor workman.” This statement has been made by
+many teachers to many thousands of students, and is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_35"></a>[35]</span>
+true in many cases; but there are certain kinds of work
+where sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig047" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig047.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 47.</span> The Screw-Driver</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It must always be kept in mind that a surface which
+has been sandpapered has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine
+sand has come off and is more or less imbedded in the
+wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done
+until all tool work has been finished, as the grit will
+take the edge off the best tool,
+and the finer the edge the more
+quickly will it be ruined.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig048" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig048.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 48.</span> An Exercise
+  involving the Use of Sandpaper</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Again, a sandpapered surface
+is always a scratched surface,
+and the finest of scratched surfaces
+cannot compare with the
+perfectly smooth, satiny surface
+produced by a sharp plane.
+However, there are many places
+where neither the plane nor
+spokeshave can be used, and
+here it is allowable to use sandpaper
+after the tool work has been carried as far as
+practicable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_36"></a>[36]</span></p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig048">Fig. 48</a> is a case where sandpaper may be used with
+propriety. The bevels in this lesson are to be chiseled
+and then sandpapered with a sandpaper block,—the
+block in this case being simply a small piece of wood
+with square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened
+closely.</p>
+
+<p>Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dispense
+with the block, the sandpaper being held in the
+hand.</p>
+
+<p><b>22. Squaring up Stock.</b> This term simply means to
+reduce a piece of sawed or rough lumber to one having
+smooth, flat sides at right angles to each other, and of
+definite length, breadth, and thickness (see <a href="#fig049">Fig. 49</a>).</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="fig049" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig049.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 49.</span> The Successive
+  Steps in squaring up Stock</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>First.</i> Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or jointer,
+and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the
+working face, becomes the basis from which all the other
+sides are squared.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with
+the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must
+be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the
+try-square, and must be square with the working face at
+every point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third.</i> Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge
+block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth.</i> Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn,
+squaring the edge with working face.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth.</i> Set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both
+edges from working face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_37"></a>[37]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth.</i> Plane face parallel to working face down to the two
+gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only
+remains now to secure the required length.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh.</i> Square knife line around the four smoothed sides with
+knife and try-square as near one end as possible, carefully
+observing the precautions given in Chapter II.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth.</i> From the line just drawn, measure the required length
+along edge of working face and square a line on the four
+sides at the last point, as at first end.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_38"></a>[38]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Ninth.</i> Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second line
+is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block,
+saw to the knife line with backsaw, and block-plane smooth
+and square.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The above method should
+always be followed in preparing
+stock for laying out
+the exercise.</p>
+
+<p><b>23. Laying Out.</b> Let it be
+assumed that the exercise to
+be executed is the middle lap
+joint shown at <i>A</i>, <a href="#fig050">Fig. 50</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig050" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig050.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 50.</span> Successive Steps
+  in laying out and making a Middle Lap Joint</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="blockquote">
+
+<p><i>First.</i> Square up stock, leaving
+ends rough.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second.</i> Lay off the length of each
+piece, in this case 4½ inches,
+with an eighth of an inch
+between for sawing, as at <i>a</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third.</i> Square all the lines
+around four sides.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth.</i> Saw to end lines and
+block-plane ends.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth.</i> Lay off width of opening
+in piece No. 1 and square
+lines across face and halfway
+down on both edges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth.</i> Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across
+bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal
+lines <i>ll</i> from working face.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_39"></a>[39]</span></p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh.</i> Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane ends.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eighth.</i> Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces.</p>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Although the above is the method of laying out a typical
+joint, each problem will require special treatment and
+here the student will be
+guided by his instructor.</p>
+
+<p><b>24. Securing Parts.</b>
+Many articles made of
+wood consist of several
+pieces fastened together.</p>
+
+<p>When two pieces are
+fitted together the surfaces
+of contact are called
+a joint. There are many
+kinds and shapes in joinery,
+and usually some
+extra fastening is required
+to hold the pieces
+together. These aids are
+glue, nails, and screws;
+while on heavy construction still others, such as wedges,
+pins, and dowels are used. The first three are commonly
+used in small work.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp52" id="fig051" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig051.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 51.</span> The Hand Screw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made
+from refuse matter,—animal glue being manufactured
+from such products as bone, horn, hoofs, and hide.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_40"></a>[40]</span></p>
+
+<p>The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved
+in water and heated, being applied while hot. Liquid
+glues sold in cans ready for use are now very common
+and require no heating.</p>
+
+<p>In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold
+the pieces tightly together until the glue has <i>set</i>, or hardened,
+and as this takes some time, hand screws built on
+the principle of the vise are resorted to. <a href="#fig052">Fig. 52</a> shows
+two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of
+hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the
+jaws of the latter parallel. At <i>a</i> this is shown done
+properly, while at <i>b</i> is shown a careless method which,
+of course, will spoil the joint.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig052" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig052.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 52.</span> Method of using the
+  Hand Screw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or <i>sizing</i>,
+coat of glue must first be made to fill up the pores,
+which act very much like a sponge. This coat should
+be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_41"></a>[41]</span>
+final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly,
+if at all. Beginners are inclined to use too large a
+quantity, and this tendency should be avoided.</p>
+
+<p>In some cases nails are used together
+with the glue, as at the corners of picture
+frames. It is customary in this
+instance to nail in only one direction,
+as shown in <a href="#fig053">Fig. 53</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig053" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig053.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 53.</span> Miter Joint at
+  Corner of Picture Frame</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>25. Nails.</b> The nails in common use
+are of two kinds, <i>cut</i> and <i>wire</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Two views of a cut nail are shown in <a href="#fig054">Fig. 54</a>, <i>a</i> being
+the side view and <i>b</i> the front view. Notice that in the
+front view the sides converge like a wedge,
+while in the side view they are parallel.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig054" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig054.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 54.</span> Use of Cut Nails</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Care must always be taken that the
+point does not enter the wood as shown
+at <i>c</i>, as the wood will be split by the
+wedge action; <i>d</i> shows the proper method.</p>
+
+<p>Steel wire nails are now in general use.
+They are made from wire and are consequently
+round in section, with a comparatively
+sharp point. There are two distinct
+kinds, named <i>flat head</i> and <i>bung head</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin,
+flat heads, which prevent the nail from being driven
+beneath the surface.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_42"></a>[42]</span></p>
+
+<p>Bung-head wire nails, or <i>brads</i> as the smaller sizes
+are called, have very small heads, which allow the nail
+to be sunk below the surface. This is done by means
+of the nail punch, or <i>set</i>, and is necessary when the surface
+is to be planed after the nailing.</p>
+
+<p><b>26. Screws.</b> Screws are much used, and allow the
+pieces to be readily taken apart. They are divided
+into two classes, <i>flat head</i> and <i>round head</i>, and are of
+steel or brass. Steel screws are either <i>blued</i> or <i>bright</i>.
+Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced
+by treating the bright ones with heat or an acid.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig055" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig055.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 55.</span> Methods of using Screws</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><a href="#fig055">Fig. 55</a> shows a flat-head screw at <i>a</i> and a round-head
+at <i>b</i>. Flat heads are used for the more common work
+where it is desirable to have the screw head flush (even)
+with the surface or below it, while round heads are used
+where this is not necessary. In the latter case round
+heads are used partly because they are more ornamental.
+Flat heads must always be flush or below the surface,
+and in all but the softest woods it is necessary not only
+to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink it
+with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_43"></a>[43]</span>
+head. Two methods of fastening with flat-head screws
+are shown in <a href="#fig055">Fig. 55</a>.</p>
+
+<p>Sketch <i>A</i> shows the two pieces of wood in position,
+the hole bored in upper piece (only) and countersunk;
+<i>B</i> shows the screw in position. In this case the screw
+head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide the
+screw entirely. Sketch <i>C</i> shows the hole prepared for
+the screw; <i>D</i> shows the screw in position and a circular
+wooden plug driven in over it.
+The plug is then leveled with the
+surface and the screw completely
+hidden.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp66" id="fig056" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig056.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 56.</span> The Difference
+  between Perspective and Mechanical Drawing</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>27. Mechanical Drawing.</b> A mechanical,
+or working, drawing is
+quite different from a pictorial
+drawing such as an artist produces.
+The artist’s drawing represents objects
+as they appear, while the
+mechanical drawing represents
+them as they really are. Things in nature do not look
+as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad
+track the rails appear to converge until they seem to
+meet in the distance. We know that this is not the
+case, that the rails are really everywhere equally distant.
+The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon
+is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_44"></a>[44]</span>
+drawing takes no account of perspective. In <a href="#fig056">Fig. 56</a>
+<i>a</i> is the perspective representation of a track, while <i>b</i>
+shows a track by mechanical drawing.</p>
+
+<p>In a working drawing more than one
+view is necessary to show the true shape
+of an object.</p>
+
+<p>In <a href="#fig057">Fig. 57</a> is shown the mechanical drawing
+of a cylinder,—the front view, as its
+name implies, being the image it would
+make in a mirror held before it vertically,
+and the top view the image it would make in
+a mirror held directly over it horizontally.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp30" id="fig057" style="max-width: 6.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig057.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 57.</span> Mechanical Drawing of a Cylinder</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig058" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig058.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 58.</span> Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Occasionally three views are necessary. <a href="#fig058">Fig. 58</a> <i>a</i>
+shows the front, top, and side views of an end lap joint.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_45"></a>[45]</span>
+The complete working drawing of this joint, with all
+the necessary dimensions, is shown at <i>b</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig059" style="max-width: 37.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig059.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 59.</span> Drawing Board
+  showing T Square and Triangles in Position</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy
+is required and special instruments are necessary.</p>
+
+<p>The drawing board on which the paper is
+fastened must be perfectly flat, with one of
+its edges straight.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig060" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig060.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 60.</span> The T Square</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The T square is used for guiding the pencil
+or pen when drawing horizontal lines.</p>
+
+<p>The two triangles <i>t</i> <i>t</i> (<a href="#fig059">Fig. 59</a>) are used for drawing
+vertical and oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_46"></a>[46]</span>
+needed for circles and arcs of circles. Each triangle contains
+one right angle, the one on the left being known
+as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining
+angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively.
+The one on the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle
+because it has two forty-five-degree angles.</p>
+
+<p>The position of T square and triangle when drawing
+vertical lines is that shown in the sketch, the line being
+drawn from the T square
+upward. Horizontal
+lines are drawn from left
+to right.</p>
+
+<p>The rule used in mechanical
+drawing is
+called a scale, and should
+not be used for drawing
+lines. Its purpose
+is measuring.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig061" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig061.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 61.</span> The Triangles
+  used in Mechanical Drawing</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In making a drawing the first step is to determine
+the spacing. The size of the paper may be measured,
+the number of views are known, and also the size of
+each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces
+between will be in good proportion. It is a good plan
+to make first a free-hand sketch, putting on dimensions
+and figuring the spaces before beginning actual
+work on the mechanical drawing. <a href="#fig062">Fig. 62</a> at <i>a</i> shows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_47"></a>[47]</span>
+a free-hand sketch of a single dovetail joint, and <i>b</i> the
+mechanical drawing complete.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig062" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig062.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 62.</span> Drawings of a
+  Single Dovetail Joint</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible
+they should be so placed as not to interfere with the
+clearness of the drawing. Neat, small arrowheads and
+plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just
+as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_48"></a>[48]</span></p>
+
+<p>A drawing which is made the exact size of the object
+represented is known as a full-sized drawing; but for
+large objects such a method would necessitate large and
+unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in
+such cases to make what is called a scale drawing.</p>
+
+<p>A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size,
+and the fact is printed under the title in smaller letters,
+thus: ½ inch = 1 inch, or ¼ inch = 1 inch.</p>
+
+<p>Other scales may be used. In map making, for example,
+a sixteenth of an inch may represent one, ten,
+or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is used, however,
+the dimensions must always give the exact size of
+the object represented.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_49"></a>[49]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak" id="PART_II">ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING<br>
+<span class="smcap">Part II</span></h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_50"></a>[50]</span></p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_51"></a>[51]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V<br>
+<span class="smaller">WOOD</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="fig063" style="max-width: 25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig063.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 63.</span> The Forest,
+  Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>28. Lumbering and Milling.</b> It is well to remember,
+when using wood for any purpose, that it was once part
+of a living tree which had roots, bark, leaves, and flowers,
+and that the tree began life as a little sapling, which<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_52"></a>[52]</span>
+grew taller and larger for years before it could be called
+a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred
+years old before it was large enough to cut down for
+timber.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig064" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig064.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 64.</span> Felling a Tree</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight
+trunks. They are usually cut with the ax, although the
+first cut is often made partially through the trunk with a
+saw. The branches are then chopped off and the body of
+the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They
+are rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a
+sawmill, or, in case there is no river near by, are carted
+on sleds or wagons to the railroad and thence to the mill.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_53"></a>[53]</span></p>
+
+<p>The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter,
+the floating of the logs, or <i>river driving</i> as it is called,
+beginning with the breaking up of the ice in the spring.
+River driving is a very interesting and dangerous business.
+Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole
+river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly
+that hundreds of thousands of logs are stopped in their
+course, forming an immense dam which the lumbermen
+call a <i>log jam</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig065" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig065.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 65.</span> A Skidway of
+  Adirondack Spruce</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_54"></a>[54]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig066" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig066.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 66.</span> River Drivers
+  breaking up a “Log Jam”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_55"></a>[55]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig067" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig067.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 67.</span> Log Boom and
+  Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig068" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig068.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 68.</span> A Modern Gang
+  Saw—Interior of Modern Sawmill</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_56"></a>[56]</span></p>
+
+<p>To break up this jam very often requires much labor
+and great daring on the part of the drivers, who wear
+spiked shoes and are armed with long poles having sharp
+steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing
+of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles.</p>
+
+<p>Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the
+river, inclosed in a <i>log boom</i>, until the mill men are
+ready to saw them into planks.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig069" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig069.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 69.</span> A Modern Sawmill</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The boom consists of logs chained together and
+stretched across the river just as a fence is built on
+land to inclose cattle.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_57"></a>[57]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig070" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig070.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 70.</span> The Circular
+  Saw—Interior of Sawmill</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_58"></a>[58]</span></p>
+
+<p>The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic
+machinery, and after the log enters it is not touched
+by human hands until it comes out as lumber of various
+sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars.</p>
+
+<p>Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and
+these forms are called <i>lumber</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig071" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig071.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 71.</span> A Large Band Saw</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Timber</i> refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams
+and joists. Planks are wide strips over one inch thick,
+and boards are one inch or less in thickness, varying in
+width and length. Lumber may be planed at a planing
+mill, and is then known as <i>dressed</i> lumber. It may be
+dressed on one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which
+is free from knots, shakes, and sapwood is called <i>clear</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_59"></a>[59]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig072" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig072.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 72.</span> End of Log,
+  showing Annual Rings and Medullary Rays</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>By examining the end of a log we can learn a great
+deal of the life of the tree. It is made up of a number
+of irregular rings and of lines
+radiating from the center and
+running in nearly straight lines
+toward the bark.</p>
+
+<p>The number of rings tells us
+the age of the tree, as a new
+ring is added each year.</p>
+
+<p>As the tree grows, the old
+wood near the center becomes
+compressed and dry and is
+known as the <i>heartwood</i>, while
+that portion between the heartwood and bark is called
+<i>sapwood</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In some woods the difference
+between the
+heartwood and sapwood
+is very marked. In
+ebony, for instance, the
+heartwood is coal black
+and the sapwood white.</p>
+
+<p>The sketch shows half
+a log, the annual rings
+being indicated, and also the radial lines, called <i>medullary
+rays</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig073" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig073.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 73.</span> Log cut
+  lengthwise, showing how “Grain” is formed</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_60"></a>[60]</span></p>
+
+<p>Looking at the length of the log we see that the
+lines in a board, which we call the <i>grain</i>, are really
+the edges of the annual rings.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig074" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig074.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 74.</span> Showing
+  Weather Checks and “Shake”</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It often happens in the forest
+that the wind sways the trees
+to such an extent that the annual
+rings separate and slide one
+within the other; this produces
+a defect in the wood called a
+<i>shake</i> (see <i>s</i>, <a href="#fig074">Fig. 74</a>).</p>
+
+<p>There are other characteristics
+of wood known as <i>warping</i>
+and <i>shrinkage</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig075" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig075.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 75.</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first
+looks like <a href="#fig072">Fig. 72</a>. If it is allowed to lie for some
+time exposed to the weather, its
+appearance changes to <a href="#fig074">Fig. 74</a>.
+This is due to the evaporation
+of the sap, and as there is more
+sap toward the outside, the shrinkage
+is greatest there and becomes
+less toward the center where the
+heartwood is comparatively dry.
+This is an important fact to
+know, because if we had cut the log, while it was
+still green, into planks, as shown in <a href="#fig075">Fig. 75</a>, the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_61"></a>[61]</span>
+boards would have curled up or warped, as shown in
+<a href="#fig076">Fig. 76</a>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp81" id="fig076" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig076.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 76.</span> Showing Effect of Warping</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes
+the whole tree to shrink in diameter, and consequently
+our planks will tend to become narrower. This is
+called <i>shrinkage</i>, and in some woods amounts to a
+quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a
+plank sawed twelve inches wide will, after a few
+months, measure only eleven and
+three quarter inches.</p>
+
+<p>When we construct anything in
+wood we must always consider how
+the object will be affected by warping
+and shrinkage, remembering
+that the shrinkage is only across
+the grain.</p>
+
+<p>Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing
+board to see how warping and shrinkage may be
+overcome.</p>
+
+<p>If we make it of one piece, like <i>A</i> (<a href="#fig077">Fig. 77</a>), the board
+will soon change its shape to that shown in <i>B</i>, which
+would make it useless for mechanical drawing, as a perfectly
+flat surface is necessary. We can overcome the
+warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across
+the grain, as shown at <i>C</i>. The cleats would need to be
+heavy or the warping force would bend them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_62"></a>[62]</span></p>
+
+<p>A better way would be to build the board up of several
+narrow strips glued together, as the warping of one
+would be counteracted by the warping of its neighbors
+in opposite directions; but to make doubly sure, cleats
+fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added
+at the ends, as shown at <i>D</i>. This has an advantage
+over the first method, as the cleats in <i>C</i> are often in
+the way and make the board clumsy to handle.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig077" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig077.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 77.</span> A Study in
+  Construction. Methods of overcoming Warping and Shrinkage</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The student will find many evidences about the house
+of how the woodworker has tried to prevent warping
+and shrinkage, as, for instance, in the paneled doors,
+tables, etc.</p>
+
+<p>The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness,
+evenness of grain, durability, etc., and every boy<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_63"></a>[63]</span>
+should know not only what our woods are used for, but
+he should also know the trees when he sees them.</p>
+
+<p>We are indebted to the trees for many things besides
+wood. They give us delightful shade and coolness in
+summer; many of them produce delicious fruit and
+nuts; from them we obtain such valuable products as
+maple sirup and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine,
+rubber, and tannin are only a few of the many tree products.
+The houses we live in, the chairs we sit on,—in
+fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our
+pictures, the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we
+write with, are of wood which was once part of the
+living forest.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_64"></a>[64]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig078" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig078.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 78.</span> A Large
+  Tree being moved by a Modern Tree Mover, showing Root Formation</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_65"></a>[65]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI<br>
+<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>Our American trees may be divided roughly into two
+classes: (1) those which keep their leaves the year
+round, known as <i>evergreens</i>; (2) those whose leaves
+drop off in the fall, called <i>broad-leaved</i>, or <i>deciduous</i>
+trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves
+are usually needle-shaped.</p>
+
+<p>Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the
+oak, chestnut, hickory, maples, elms, etc.; and among
+the evergreens or cone-bearing trees are the pines,
+spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars.</p>
+
+<p>The oak family is a very important one, the wood
+being hard and strong and the tree a sturdy, healthy,
+and well-known specimen of tree life.</p>
+
+<p>White oak is perhaps the most common member of
+the oak family. It grows to a very large size and has
+a leaf of the form shown in <a href="#fig079">Fig. 79</a>. Observe carefully
+the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch
+of the next form.</p>
+
+<p>The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its
+timber is used as a standard when comparing different<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_66"></a>[66]</span>
+kinds of wood. If we say that the strength of white
+pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak,
+and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard,
+just as the yard and mile are standards of length. In
+work which requires strength, such as carriage making,
+shipbuilding, and cooperage,
+white oak is used very extensively.</p>
+
+<p>The quartered oak used so
+much for furniture is obtained
+by cutting the logs in a special
+manner. The method of cutting
+gives a beautiful mottled
+effect with the silver rays
+spread out in irregular white
+splashes on a dark background.</p>
+
+<p>We might separate the oak
+into two distinct groups: (1)
+those trees whose acorns ripen
+in one season; (2) those which
+require two years. The acorns of this latter group remain
+on the tree throughout the first winter and ripen
+the second summer.</p>
+
+<p>To the first class belong the white oak just mentioned,
+the post oak, chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and
+live oak.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig079" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig079.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 79.</span> Typical Leaf
+  of the White Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_67"></a>[67]</span></p>
+
+<p>In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, pin,
+laurel, and willow oaks.</p>
+
+<p>The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great
+that we need never mistake one for the other. Notice the
+cut of the red oak and compare it with that of the white
+oak. The latter has rounded lobes, while the red-oak
+leaf has sharp points and the
+fingers of the leaf are indented
+again with smaller teeth.</p>
+
+<p>The different trees in the
+white-oak family all have
+leaves with rounded lobes, and
+most of those in the red-oak
+group have pointed ones, yet
+there is a difference between
+members of the same family,
+just as among human beings.</p>
+
+<p>We can tell at a glance
+whether a man is a negro, a
+Chinaman, or a white man. If
+a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American;
+and again, if an American, he may belong to the Jones
+family. But all the members of the Jones family do not
+look alike and we know one from another.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig080" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig080.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 80.</span> Leaf of the Post Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can
+tell from observation whether a tree is an evergreen or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_68"></a>[68]</span>
+a broad-leaved tree, whether it belongs to the white-oak
+group; and after studying trees a little we can tell
+whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post
+oak, or a mossy-cup oak.</p>
+
+<p>Compare the post-oak leaf (<a href="#fig080">Fig. 80</a>) with that of the
+white oak. There is not a great difference in form, but
+the post-oak leaf is thick, leathery,
+and dark green, while the
+white oak has a beautiful thin,
+light green leaf, which turns red
+in the fall.</p>
+
+<p>The post oak is a rougher and
+coarser tree than the other, and
+is sometimes called <i>iron oak</i> on
+account of its very hard, tough
+wood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig081" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig081.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 81.</span> Leaf of Mossy-Cup Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>29. The Mossy-Cup Oak.</b> One
+of the most beautiful oaks we
+have in America grows in the
+South and West, and is only
+rarely found in our parks in the East. It is called the
+<i>mossy-cup oak</i> because the large acorn which it bears is
+surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides the
+nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The
+leaf is larger than that of the white oak, and although
+the two leaves look somewhat alike, the divisions of the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_69"></a>[69]</span>
+mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those of the white
+oak, and it is not so thin and delicate.</p>
+
+<p>Its wood is very strong and is valuable for many
+purposes, such as boats, carriages, farming implements,
+railroad ties, and cooperage.</p>
+
+<p><b>30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak.</b> These two trees
+are usually found growing in wild places, and the
+black-jack oak is often called <i>barren oak</i> from the fact
+that it frequents bleak and barren plains, such as the
+sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig082" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig082.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 82.</span> Leaves of
+  Black Oak and Black-jack Oak (Black-jack on right)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that
+of the black-jack having only three main lobes, or<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_70"></a>[70]</span>
+divisions, while the black oak
+has five. However, the leaves
+of these two trees vary considerably,
+and one must always look
+for the typical leaf, which is the
+one shown in the sketch. The
+black-jack is a small, shrubby
+tree, with branches often twisted
+and contorted, and its wood is
+not very valuable except as fuel
+or for making charcoal.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig083" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig083.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 83.</span> Leaf of Red Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig084" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig084.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 84.</span> Wood of the Red
+  Oak, showing three sections. The one on the left shows annual rings
+  obtained by a horizontal cut through the tree. Central view shows
+  vertical cut at center of tree. View on right shows vertical cut
+  between center and bark as illustrated in <a href="#fig073">Fig. 73</a>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_71"></a>[71]</span></p>
+
+<p>The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do
+those of the red, scarlet, and pin oaks.</p>
+
+<p><b>31. The Red Oak.</b> The red oak is one of our largest
+and most noble trees, growing taller even than the white
+oak, and may always be distinguished
+by its very large,
+shiny, dark green leaves.</p>
+
+<p>Its bark is also much
+smoother and darker than
+the white oak. Its acorn is
+very bitter and
+can easily be recognized
+by its
+shallow cup and
+by its large size.
+It is the largest of the
+two-year acorns. The
+wood of the red oak is
+darker than that of the
+white, and is used in
+the manufacture of furniture.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig085" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig085.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 85.</span> Scarlet Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>32. The Scarlet Oak.</b> This tree is often confused with
+the red, but a glance at the leaves will show a great
+difference. That of the scarlet has deeper indentations
+and is much more slender and skeleton-like in shape. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_72"></a>[72]</span>
+takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it
+takes on when the leaves change color in the fall.</p>
+
+<p><b>33. The Pin Oak.</b> The pin-oak leaf is much more
+readily confounded with the scarlet oak than that of any
+other tree. In fact, no two trees have leaves so nearly
+alike as these two; yet a glance at two typical leaves
+placed side by side will
+show considerable difference.</p>
+
+<p>The pin-oak leaf is
+smaller than the other,
+and in proportion to its
+size the indentations are
+not so deep.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig086" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig086.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 86.</span> Pin Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The pin-oak tree has a
+great many small branchlets,
+or stems, which give the tree
+the appearance of a bundle
+of pins, especially when the
+leaves are off in winter. It
+is a beautiful tree and is now
+being planted very extensively as a shade tree. It is
+hardy, and stands city air very well indeed. Its bark
+is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather.</p>
+
+<p>The oak family is such a large and valuable one that
+we cannot afford to pass it over lightly. In the South<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_73"></a>[73]</span>
+grows the willow oak, famous for its shade and its
+leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little
+farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the <i>shingle
+oak</i>, so called from the fact that its wood is mostly
+made into shingles. It is also known as the <i>laurel
+oak</i>, because its leaves are shaped like those of the
+laurel, although not
+so glossy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp70" id="fig087" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig087.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 87.</span> Pin Oak in Winter</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This is such an
+odd shape for an oak
+leaf that one would
+be likely to pass it
+by and not recognize
+it but for the
+fact that it bears
+acorns. This is always
+the test,—“By
+their fruits ye
+shall know them.”</p>
+
+<p>If we meet a new
+tree which seems
+not to be an oak because its leaves are new to us, and
+it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak.</p>
+
+<p>A very interesting group of trees which come under
+this head are the chestnut oaks. At first glance one
+would take one of these trees to be a chestnut, but it<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_74"></a>[74]</span>
+bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch
+shows the two leaves side by side.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig088" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig088.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 88.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">Chestnut <span class="spacer">Chestnut Oak</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly
+resemble each other, by looking carefully we see that the
+teeth on the chestnut leaf are pointed, while those on
+the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is also
+a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long
+and narrow, while that of the chestnut oak is broader.</p>
+
+<p>There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their
+leaves are quite similar and they all belong to the white-oak
+group and ripen their acorns in one season. They
+grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_75"></a>[75]</span>
+times at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson measuring seven feet in
+diameter. The acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought
+after by the squirrels.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for
+cooperage, railroad ties, and fencing.</p>
+
+<p><b>34. The Live Oak.</b> No list of American oaks would
+be complete without the live oak. This is a southern
+tree and is remarkable in many ways. Its
+leaf has no indentations, remains green all
+winter, and is thick and leathery.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig089" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig089.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 89.</span> Leaf of Live Oak</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic
+foot weighing nearly sixty pounds. It is
+as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes
+a high polish and has a fine grain, it soon
+dulls the edge of a tool.</p>
+
+<p>Before the age of steel, when all ships
+were wooden, it was much used in shipbuilding,
+and the government bought large tracts of land
+where live oak grew abundantly, so that the United
+States navy should never lack the necessary timber.</p>
+
+<p>It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia,
+and along the Gulf to Texas.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_76"></a>[76]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII<br>
+<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>It is the maple family to which we are indebted for
+much of the glorious coloring of our autumn landscapes.</p>
+
+<p>It is true that all trees play their part in the general
+color scheme, but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of
+the fall foliage we must look to the maples.</p>
+
+<p>When we think of the word <i>maple</i> we are apt to
+have visions of other things besides trees. Maple and
+sugar or sirup seem to go together, and in fact some of
+us do not know that there are other maples besides the
+sugar maple.</p>
+
+<p>This fine American tree is one of which we should be
+proud. Not only is it a handsome large tree, valuable
+for its shade and the beautiful colors it wears in the fall,
+but its wood is hard and valuable,—it is often called
+<i>rock maple</i>,—and besides all these good qualities it furnishes
+us with our maple sirup and sugar.</p>
+
+<p>The process of making maple sugar is quite interesting
+and may be divided into two stages,—gathering the
+sap, and boiling down.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_77"></a>[77]</span></p>
+
+<p>Very early in the spring, often as early as March,
+the sap begins to flow up through the tree. The farmer
+knows by experience when to tap the tree, which he
+does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger.
+Into this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through
+which the lifeblood of the tree—the sap—flows in a
+steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or bucket placed beneath
+to catch it.</p>
+
+<p>The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks
+of a clock, one a second. This continues for two or
+three weeks, until each tree has yielded something like
+twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons of sap to
+produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five
+pounds of maple sugar. In New England and New York
+there are maple groves containing thousands of trees,
+and one farm alone produces five thousand pounds of
+sugar in a season.</p>
+
+<p>Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the
+trees does not kill them unless improperly done. The
+farmer must not tap them at the wrong time nor in too
+many places. The tree will stand a great deal if properly
+treated, but harsh treatment will kill it.</p>
+
+<p>The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured
+into large boilers or evaporators and boiled until it becomes
+a sirup. The old-fashioned test to find out when
+the boiling had been carried on long enough was to drop<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_78"></a>[78]</span>
+a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish.
+If it hardened, the boiling was finished.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#fig090">Fig. 90</a> shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that
+leaf which is most often confounded with it, viz., the
+Norway maple. Observe the two closely. The sugar
+maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while the
+Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous,
+and the leaf is much thinner and more delicate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig090" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig090.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 90.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">Sugar Maple <span class="spacer">Norway Maple</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so
+dense a shade as the Norway, which is a low-growing
+tree with close, dark foliage.</p>
+
+<p><b>35. The Silver Maple.</b> The one which naturally comes
+next in the list is the <i>silver</i>, <i>soft</i>, or <i>white maple</i>, as it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_79"></a>[79]</span>
+variously termed. From the ground up to the topmost
+leaf the whole character of this tree suggests the word
+<i>thoroughbred</i>. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy
+in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty
+and might truly be called
+the acme of perfection in
+tree life. Its name is
+derived from the fact that the under side of the leaf is
+silvery white. The upper side being dark green gives
+a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the foliage, which
+as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the
+American elm.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig091" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig091.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 91.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">The Silver Maple <span class="spacer">The Red Maple</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_80"></a>[80]</span></p>
+
+<p>This description does not always fit, however, as it
+is planted extensively in cities where horses gnaw the
+fine bark; smoke, soot, and coal gas discolor the leaves;
+and the caterpillars complete the work of destroying its
+beauty. Yet it still lives,
+even if it does not thrive
+under such harsh treatment.
+Its wood is white,
+soft, and not very valuable.</p>
+
+<p><b>36. The Red Maple.</b> A
+relative of the silver maple
+and one which might
+be mistaken for it is the
+red, swamp, or wild maple.
+It is this tree which
+displays the brightest reds
+in autumn. Referring to
+the sketch it will be seen
+that the leaf is smaller
+and three-fingered instead
+of five, as in the
+silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during
+the entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp46" id="fig092" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig092.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 92.</span> The Sycamore Maple</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>37. The Sycamore Maple.</b> In the rows on rows of
+maples so common in our towns and cities one will<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_81"></a>[81]</span>
+often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser than any
+of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an
+importation from Europe, known as the <i>sycamore maple</i>
+because of its resemblance to the sycamore leaf. It is
+easily identified by its large size, coarseness, the very
+long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire
+edge is finely toothed,—in
+which point it differs from
+all the foregoing varieties.
+Its value as a shade tree is
+nearly equal to the Norway,
+and in Europe it is often
+planted in preference to all
+other maples.</p>
+
+<p><b>38. The Striped Maple.</b>
+Growing in the shade of
+other trees and forming part
+of the undergrowth of our
+North woods is a small tree
+known as the <i>striped maple</i>,
+from the stripes which run
+up and down its bark. The New England name for this
+little mountain tree is <i>moosewood</i>, from the fact that
+the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which
+form his chief food in winter. The leaves are quite
+large, but very thin, soft, and delicate.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig093" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig093.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 93.</span> The Striped Maple, or Moosewood</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_82"></a>[82]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>39. Maple Keys.</b> The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples
+are known as <i>winged</i>. The flat, thin part gives the
+seed a swirling motion as it drops from the tree. This
+is the way nature has of spreading the seed over a
+large area so that more trees may be started in life.
+Many tree seeds are winged, but the maple seed or
+key is so large and so common that every one must
+at some time have noticed it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp60" id="fig094" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig094.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 94.</span> Maple “Keys,” a
+  Common Form of Winged Seeds</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>40. The Ash-Leaved Maple.</b> The
+ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common
+in our parks. It has no resemblance
+to other maple leaves, yet it
+bears the unmistakable maple key,—“By
+their fruits ye shall know
+them.” It is therefore a maple.</p>
+
+<p>The box elder, or ash-leaved maple,
+is interesting because it is our only
+maple having a compound leaf; that
+is, a leaf stem with several distinct leaflets. Compound
+leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and the
+horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved
+maple is a curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but
+grows almost anywhere. It is a small tree, and its wood
+is not especially valuable except for making paper pulp.</p>
+
+<p>North America has only nine varieties of maple, while
+China and Japan have more than thirty. Indeed, it is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_83"></a>[83]</span>
+to Japan, whose forests are largely made up of maples,
+that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and
+exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted
+so extensively on our lawns and in our parks have such
+a variety of form and color
+that no written description
+can do them justice. <a href="#fig096">Fig. 96</a>
+will give some idea of their
+shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot
+be shown, range from dark purple to the most delicate
+combinations of white and green. The finest of these
+dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to an ostrich
+plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig095" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig095.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 95.</span> Ash-Leaved
+  Maple, or Box Elder</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_84"></a>[84]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig096" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig096.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 96.</span> Japan Maples</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_85"></a>[85]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII<br>
+<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p>The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig
+with several leaves is a compound leaf or a number of
+simple leaves. This is a very easy thing to decide. At
+the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins
+the twig or branch, is always a little bud.
+When the leaf drops off in the fall
+the bud remains, and in the spring
+begins to swell and finally
+develops into a leaf. This
+bud then is the promise of
+next year’s leaf, and it is
+always found at the base of
+the leaf stem, as shown at
+<i>A</i>. There is no such bud at
+the base of the leaflet on the
+compound leaf, as shown at
+<i>B</i>. If then we find no bud at <i>B</i>, we must look farther
+down until we discover it at <i>C</i>. This furnishes the test
+and we know that our specimen is a compound leaf.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp69" id="fig097" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig097.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 97.</span> Method of
+  distinguishing Compound and Simple Leaves</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_86"></a>[86]</span></p>
+
+<p>This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chestnuts,
+buckeyes, hickories, and walnuts all have compound
+leaves.</p>
+
+<p>The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but
+was imported from Europe, where it is a great favorite.
+The leaflets number five or seven, always an odd number,
+and they radiate from one central point, the odd
+one in the center usually being the largest.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig098" style="max-width: 18.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig098.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 98.</span> The Horse-Chestnut</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they
+come out of the sticky buds in the spring. They unfold
+and grow very rapidly and soon the tree brings forth
+large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_87"></a>[87]</span></p>
+
+<p>The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the
+season do not seem to be very useful, yet they are so
+solid and shiny that every boy delights to gather them.</p>
+
+<p>An American tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut
+is the buckeye. The leaflets on the buckeye leaf
+number five, sometimes seven, and radiate like the horse-chestnut
+from a common center.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig099" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig099.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 99.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">Buckeye <span class="spacer">Hickory</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tree is well known through the Ohio valley,
+where it is very common, Ohio being called the Buckeye
+State. The nuts are not edible, but the wood is
+very tough and strong and is used extensively in making
+farm implements.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_88"></a>[88]</span></p>
+
+<p>Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory
+shown in <a href="#fig099">Fig. 99</a>. Both leaves are compound, and each
+has five leaflets, but they are quite different, because the
+hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of the leaf-stalk
+instead of radiating from one point.</p>
+
+<p>There are several varieties of hickory, including the
+shagbark, or shellbark, the pignut, and pecan.</p>
+
+<p>The name <i>shagbark hickory</i> is taken from the peculiar
+appearance of the bark, which hangs in loose pieces
+nearly a foot long and gives the tree a very shaggy
+effect. <i>Shellbark</i> is another common name for this tree.</p>
+
+<p>The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but
+the kernel is very sweet, and is considered by some
+superior to all other hickory nuts.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pignut hickory</i> is so called because the nuts in
+some parts of the country are used to feed the pigs. It
+is also called <i>broom hickory</i>. The nuts are small and
+become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood,
+however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard
+and tough. There is a difference between strength and
+toughness. Oak is strong, but not tough. Hickory is
+both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will
+stand bending without breaking. A wood which will
+bend easily but is not strong cannot be called tough.
+It must be both strong and elastic, and hickory has
+both of these qualities.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_89"></a>[89]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>41. The Pecan.</b> We usually think of the pecan nut
+as different from the hickory, yet they belong to the
+same family. The pecan hickory is a southern tree
+which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio
+River, and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant
+one hundred and fifty feet high, producing an enormous
+crop of the sweetest and most delicately flavored
+nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as
+many as fifteen.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig100" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig100.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 100.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">Black Walnut <span class="spacer">Butternut</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_90"></a>[90]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>42. The Black Walnut and Butternut.</b> Perhaps no
+two trees are so difficult for the city boy or girl to
+distinguish as the butternut and black walnut. Both
+have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying
+from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from
+fifteen to twenty-three for the black walnut. A leaf
+having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong to either tree
+if there were no other way to distinguish them. The
+teeth on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper
+than on the butternut, and the fuzzy stem is lacking.
+The green nuts, too, are different, the black walnuts
+being just about the size and shape of green lemons,
+the butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable
+feature is the odor. Having once smelled the
+crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut, a
+person will thereafter need no other test.</p>
+
+<p>The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture
+was at one time very common. The great supply of
+this valuable wood has been exhausted and other woods
+have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks,
+for which purpose nothing seems better suited.</p>
+
+<p>Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good
+polish and is occasionally used in cabinet work.</p>
+
+<p><b>43. The Locusts.</b> The locust family is a large one; its
+members all bear compound leaves, and their fruit is in
+the form of beans instead of nuts.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_91"></a>[91]</span></p>
+
+<p>The common yellow or black locust is famous for its
+hard, durable wood, its delicate light green leaves, and
+its white flowers.</p>
+
+<p>The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are
+off, but its wood is so valuable that its beauty is not
+considered. The wood is yellow
+and becomes very hard
+after it has dried.</p>
+
+<p>The honey locust is another
+common member of this family.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp83" id="fig101" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig101.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 101.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">The Locust <span class="spacer">The Honey Locust</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>44. The Honey Locust.</b> Its leaves are much finer and
+somewhat resemble ferns. It may always be known by
+the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which grow all over
+the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_92"></a>[92]</span>
+being found in great bunches and as long as six inches.
+Its fruit is a long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and
+contains little light brown beans. The wood is strong
+and durable.</p>
+
+<p><b>45. The Ash.</b> Every boy who has owned a rowboat
+knows that oars are made of wood from the ash. This
+is because the oar must be elastic as well as strong,
+and the timber of the ash tree supplies
+these two qualities. The ash
+is one of our tallest and noblest
+forest trees. It is rather slim in
+build, with beautiful clean shiny
+green foliage. The members of
+this group seem to be
+fond of colors, and we
+have the white ash, red
+ash, green ash, blue ash,
+and black ash.</p>
+
+<p>There are slight differences
+in the leaves and
+seeds, but, as in other trees, when we have once seen an
+ash seed we can always thereafter distinguish an ash tree.
+<a href="#fig102">Fig. 102</a> shows the seed of the red ash. It is a winged
+seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp65" id="fig102" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig102.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 102.</span> Red Ash</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to
+seven leaflets and the black ash has from seven to<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_93"></a>[93]</span>
+eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and elastic, has a
+handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides
+making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those
+farm implements which require strength. The Indian
+could find no better wood for his bow, and even Cupid
+is said to have first made his arrows of ash.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_94"></a>[94]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX<br>
+<span class="smaller">BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<p><b>46. The Elm.</b> The elm is the well-known shade tree
+of New England. Its tall, graceful form is familiar to
+every visitor and native of that section of country, where
+it is found along every roadway and in every city.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig103" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig103.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 103.</span> The American Elm</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Who can think of New England without its noble
+elms? It would indeed be a different country. The<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_95"></a>[95]</span>
+elm may be said to represent New England character,—dignified,
+sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall,
+with foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives
+the desired shade, yet does not obstruct the view; while
+its stately dignity gives an air of comfort and repose to
+the grounds, which it seems to protect from the elements.</p>
+
+<p>Its wood is valuable for certain kinds
+of work, being tough and strong, but it
+is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is
+difficult to polish. It is used considerably
+for wheel hubs and in cooperage.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="fig104" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig104.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 104.</span> Leaf of American Elm</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Observe the edge of the elm leaf
+carefully. The teeth not only curve
+gracefully toward the extreme tip of
+the leaf, but they are themselves also
+toothed,—a form known as double-toothed.
+The leaf is coarse and rough
+to the touch, in marked contrast to the
+birch family, whose leaves it slightly
+resembles. There are several elms famous in the history
+of our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under
+which George Washington drew his sword and took command
+of the American Army on July 3, 1775; there are
+several other “Washington Elms” in different parts of
+the country, while New Haven is known as the City of
+Elms. William Penn made his famous treaty with the<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_96"></a>[96]</span>
+Indians under the branches of a magnificent elm, which
+remained standing until it was over two hundred years
+old, when it was finally blown down. The spot has been
+marked by a marble column.</p>
+
+<p>The tree is called the <i>American</i>, or <i>white</i>, <i>elm</i>, and we
+have several other varieties growing wild, including the
+well-known <i>slippery elm</i>, so called
+because the inner bark is slippery
+and edible.</p>
+
+<p><b>47. The Birches.</b> If the black
+birch with its sweet, aromatic bark
+is not known to a boy, the white, or
+canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems
+to be the fate of this beautiful tree
+to be disfigured by every wandering
+youth who has strength enough
+to tear off a strip of its paper-like
+bark.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig105" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig105.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 105.</span> Leaf of Black Birch</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished
+from the elm by its smoothness and thinness.
+Its base is slightly heartshaped, the edge is double-toothed,
+the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the
+taste, and the leaves grow in pairs.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_97"></a>[97]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig106" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig106.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 106.</span> Birches bordering a Canal</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_98"></a>[98]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>48. White Birch.</b> The famous white, paper, or canoe
+birch has a leaf somewhat broader than the black variety,
+but without the heartshaped base. Its bark is its peculiar
+feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes off in layers
+and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof,
+a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who constructed
+their canoes of it. The wood is hard and tough.</p>
+
+<p><b>49. Gray Birch.</b> A
+smaller tree, known as
+the <i>gray birch</i>, also has
+white bark, but it is not
+as perfect as that of the
+canoe birch, does not peel
+in layers, and has triangular
+black spots on the
+trunk beneath every
+limb.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig107" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig107.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 107.</span> Leaf of Gray Birch</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It loves barren, rocky
+places, abandoned farms,
+etc., and is sometimes
+called <i>old field birch</i>. It
+has a fine, delicate foliage,
+which is not duplicated
+in the forest. Each
+leaf swings from a long, slender stem, and every passing
+breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen. The
+leaf form is very odd,—a broad, flat base, and then a
+long, graceful curve out to a fine point, the whole edge
+being finely double-toothed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_99"></a>[99]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>50. The Beech.</b> The difference in the leaf forms of
+the birch and beech is very marked. Both have toothed
+edges, but in the beech the spaces between the teeth are
+so remarkably shallow that one has to search for them.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig108" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig108.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 108.</span> A Remarkable
+  Growth of Beeches in Greater New York</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There has been a common belief for generations that
+the beech is proof against lightning, and recent experiments
+prove that beech wood offers considerably greater
+resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar, or
+willow; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood
+is hard, strong, and tough, and will take a high polish.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_100"></a>[100]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>51. Hornbeam.</b> Closely related to the beeches are two
+little trees which have delicate birchlike foliage and wood
+of great hardness,—the hornbeam, or blue beech, and
+the hop hornbeam,
+or ironwood.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp40" id="fig109" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig109.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 109.</span> Leaf of American Beech</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp54" id="fig110" style="max-width: 20.3125em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig110.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 110.</span> Ironwood, or Hop Hornbeam</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The leaves of
+these two varieties
+are quite similar, that of the ironwood being somewhat
+the larger.</p>
+
+<p>The name <i>hop hornbeam</i> is derived from the fruit,
+which resembles the hop, and the name <i>ironwood</i> from
+the great strength and hardness of the wood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_101"></a>[101]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>52. Buttonball.</b> No list of trees would be complete
+which did not include those three forest giants, buttonball,
+tulip, and sweet gum. The names <i>buttonwood</i>,
+<i>buttonball</i>, <i>sycamore</i>, and <i>plane tree</i>, as the same tree is
+called in different parts of the country, all apply to that
+fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its
+leaves, leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which
+produces an enormous crop
+of buttonballs so well known
+to country boys and girls.
+The leaves are in proportion
+to the size of the tree, often
+measuring a foot in length,
+and being frequently covered
+on the under side with a
+white down called <i>fungus</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig111" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig111.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 111.</span> Leaf of Buttonwood</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The wood of the sycamore,
+as it is incorrectly called, is
+valuable for cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and
+taking a high polish. It is, however, difficult to work,
+and has a tendency to warp.</p>
+
+<p><b>53. Sweet Gum.</b> The sweet-gum tree also produces a
+crop of balls, or seed pods, but although the same size
+as the buttonballs, they need never be confused, as the
+gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points, while
+the buttonballs are comparatively smooth.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_102"></a>[102]</span></p>
+
+<p>The leaves of the sweet gum, or <i>liquid amber</i>—so
+called from the amber-colored gum the tree gives out—remind
+one of the starfish, being five-fingered and decidedly
+different from any leaf in the forest. The tree
+grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its
+wood is a handsome brown color with fine and intricate
+markings. It warps badly,
+but is valued for wood turning
+on account of its softness
+and even grain.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="fig112" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig112.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 112.</span> Sweet Gum, or Liquid Amber</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>54. Tulip.</b> The lumber
+furnished by the tulip tree,
+commonly called <i>whitewood</i>,
+is less liable to warp
+than gum wood, and is somewhat
+harder. Just why it
+should be called whitewood
+is not clear, as it is much
+darker than white pine and
+of a greenish-yellow color.
+The leaf of the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only
+four points, without any small teeth, and with an outline
+so odd that one often wonders if nature did not use a
+pair of scissors in cutting it out.</p>
+
+<p>Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem.
+The glory of the tree—which gives it its name—is<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_103"></a>[103]</span>
+the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it bears in the spring.
+They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in color,
+with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown
+cone, which remains on the tree all winter. The
+tree thrives best south of the Ohio valley, where it
+is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter.
+The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes
+from its trunk, and in some
+sections it is still called <i>canoe
+wood</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig113" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig113.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 113.</span> Tulip, or Whitewood</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>55. Basswood, or Linden.</b> A
+very valuable group of trees
+for both shade and timber
+are the basswoods, or lindens.
+There are several varieties,
+the European linden thriving
+here as readily as our native
+varieties. These trees may
+always be distinguished by
+the leaves, which are heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one
+side from the middle line being always larger than the
+other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been joined
+along the center.</p>
+
+<p>This is a very common feature among certain classes
+of trees, such as the elms. Another remarkable feature
+is the seed, or bract, shown in the sketch (<a href="#fig115">Fig. 115</a>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_104"></a>[104]</span></p>
+
+<p>The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade,
+and has sweet flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes
+called the <i>bee tree</i>, because the bees swarm all over it
+in the summer time. Its timber is valuable, being free
+from knots and of such an even grain that it is much
+sought after for some kinds of carving.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig114" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig114.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 114.</span> American Linden,
+  or Basswood, showing the Sugar-Loaf Form of the Tree</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from
+basswood.</p>
+
+<p>Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several
+familiar families, all loved by some of us for some reason.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_105"></a>[105]</span></p>
+
+<p>The willow is always a striking tree, not only because
+of its weeping or drooping appearance, but also because
+we usually associate it with water.</p>
+
+<p>What is more common in the country than a stream
+hidden by the willows which crowd its bank and dip
+down into the clear
+water!</p>
+
+<p>Then, too, we watch
+it for the first sign of
+spring, and friends in different
+states often vie
+with each other to
+discover the first
+<i>pussy willow</i>, the name given to the soft, downy buds
+which appear often before the snow has melted.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig115" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig115.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 115.</span> Leaf and Bract of Linden</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs
+in spring the bark can be separated from the wood and a
+whistle or simple flute manufactured.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_106"></a>[106]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being
+used chiefly by pulp makers, but it grows where no
+other trees can exist, being found nearly all over the
+world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any
+other broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over
+one hundred and fifty varieties, which vary from small
+shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high. Its soft and
+gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig116" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig116.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 116.</span> A Weeping Willow</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>56. The Poplars.</b> In the poplars we have a group
+of trees similar to the willows in some ways but very
+different in others. The wood is weak and of little<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_107"></a>[107]</span>
+use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness
+ends.</p>
+
+<p>To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose
+leaves are continually trembling,—in fact, the whole
+family is a restless one, the constant motion being due
+to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened.</p>
+
+<p>The people of Scotland have a
+superstition that it was of aspen
+wood that our Saviour’s cross was made, and that the
+tree shivers in constant remembrance of that fact.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp88" id="fig117" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig117.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 117.</span></p>
+  <p class="caption">Aspen <span class="spacer">Aspen Poplar, or Large-Toothed Aspen</span></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen,
+the Lombardy poplar, and the cottonwood.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_108"></a>[108]</span></p>
+
+<p>The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to
+reach toward the clouds, and its tall, narrow form is
+familiar in many sections of our country, although the
+tree was originally imported from Europe.</p>
+
+<p>Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known
+members of this family. Cottonwood is best known in
+the West, where it often
+constitutes the chief and
+only growth along the water
+courses, and balm of
+Gilead is known as one
+of our common city shade
+trees. This latter tree, often
+called the balsam, is
+really an important tree
+of the great northwestern
+country, being found plentifully
+in the Klondike,
+and often forming in that
+far northern country great
+forests thousands of square
+miles in extent. It is used as a shade tree because it
+stands the smoke and gas of the city where many other
+trees pine away and die.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig118" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig118.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 118.</span> Cottonwood, or Carolina Poplar</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>57. Sassafras.</b> We find many freaks in the tree
+world, and nature seems to have tried to see how odd<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_109"></a>[109]</span>
+she really could be; for instance, on the sassafras tree
+we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two,
+and three divisions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig119" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig119.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 119.</span> Sassafras</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite
+small, grows under favorable conditions to a height of
+fifty feet. It is noted for the pleasant taste of its leaves,
+twigs, and roots, which are used considerably in flavoring
+medicines.</p>
+
+<p><b>58. Mulberry.</b> Another tree noted for the peculiar
+shape of its leaves is the mulberry. There are three
+common kinds, named, from the color of their berries,
+<i>red</i>, <i>black</i>, and <i>white</i>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_110"></a>[110]</span></p>
+
+<p>It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of
+the silkworm. The leaves of this tree are quite regular,
+but those of the red and black vary apparently as they
+please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in size
+or shape, and they are very soft and downy.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp93" id="fig120" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig120.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 120.</span> Red Mulberry,
+  showing Variation in Leaf Form</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_111"></a>[111]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE EVERGREENS</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig121" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig121.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 121.</span> White Pines
+  at Westbury, Long Island</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The evergreen trees, so called because their needle-like
+leaves remain on the tree all winter, are fully as
+interesting as the broad-leaved trees. Without them
+our landscapes in winter would be much more barren
+and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer.
+A pine forest with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered
+floor is a sight to be long remembered.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_112"></a>[112]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig122" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig122.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 122.</span> A View showing how
+  Evergreens help to enrich the Landscape. Arbor Vitæ Hedges</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_113"></a>[113]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among
+the soft timbers, although the yellow pine is far from soft.</p>
+
+<p><b>59. White Pine.</b> The king among evergreens is usually
+admitted to be the white pine. Its soft, bluish-green
+foliage, the widespreading branches, and
+the value of its fine, even-grained wood
+give it the first rank.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp42" id="fig123" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig123.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 123.</span> Needles and Cone of White Pine</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Pines have needle-shaped leaves
+which grow in groups of two,
+three, or five. White pine needles
+grow in groups of five and
+are from three to four inches
+long. The cones which contain
+the seeds are about five inches
+long. The tree grows tall and
+straight, and formerly grew in
+great forests covering thousands
+of square miles; the wood is so
+free from pitch and is so easily worked with tools that
+these great forests have been almost annihilated by the
+lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has become quite
+expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large
+enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in
+the future white pine will be only a memory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_114"></a>[114]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>60. Georgia Pine.</b> The southern yellow pine, or Georgia
+pine, is a very different tree from its northern cousin, the
+white pine, furnishing us with a resinous yellow wood,
+much harder than white pine, and a beautiful and valuable
+material for the interiors of buildings. It is also
+very durable and is frequently used for exposed places,
+such as the decks of ships.</p>
+
+<p>The needles are very long, measuring a foot and sometimes
+fifteen inches in length.</p>
+
+<p>The seed cones are from six to
+ten inches long, and the scales have
+little prickles on their ends. The
+tree grows throughout the southern
+states from Virginia to Texas,
+and the cutting of its timber is a
+valuable industry of the South.</p>
+
+<p><b>61. Yellow Pine.</b> The common
+yellow pine must not be confounded
+with the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has
+needles growing three in a bunch, and the latter short
+needles three or four inches long, growing two and sometimes
+three in a group. The cone of the common yellow
+pine is also very much smaller, being only two inches
+long.</p>
+
+<p>Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring,
+ceiling, and interior finishing.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig124" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig124.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 124.</span> Hemlock</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_115"></a>[115]</span></p>
+
+<p>There are several less important kinds of pine, such
+as the northern and Jersey scrub pines, and the red,
+or Norway pine.</p>
+
+<p>Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of
+the evergreen family.</p>
+
+<p><b>62. Hemlock</b> is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with
+drooping branches and little needles not over half an
+inch long. It is a northern tree except along the
+Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as
+Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things
+to be found among the common trees. They are no
+longer than the hemlock needles.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig125" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig125.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 125.</span> The Influence of
+  Hemlock on the Winter Landscape. Snow Scene</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_116"></a>[116]</span></p>
+
+<p>The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very
+easily and being afflicted with <i>shakes</i>, a defect caused
+by the annual layers or rings breaking away from each
+other when the trees are swayed by the winter storms.
+The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin.</p>
+
+<p><b>63. Spruce.</b> The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen
+trees which ornament so many of our old farm dooryards
+are usually some species of spruce. The spruce
+is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so
+commonly used for Christmas trees, but they are so
+different that they need never be confused.</p>
+
+<p>There are several varieties of spruce, including the
+red, black, white, and Norway, but they all bear a family
+resemblance.</p>
+
+<p>Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found
+that the needles completely surround it. This is not
+true of the fir. Then the spruce needles are sharp at
+the tip, while the fir needles are blunt.</p>
+
+<p>This family is distinctly a northern group, being
+found as far north as Hudson Bay and forming dense
+forests, particularly on mountain sides. One may often
+see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the
+broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces
+extending clear up to the summit.</p>
+
+<p>The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee,
+but in that latitude it grows only at high elevations.<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_117"></a>[117]</span>
+It has cones about one and a half inches long, and its
+wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is used
+for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for
+the frames of buildings.</p>
+
+<p>The black spruce is the northern brother of the red,
+and is really a Canadian tree which occasionally reaches
+down into the United States. It reaches the Mackenzie
+River on the north and covers large areas in Manitoba.</p>
+
+<p>It takes its name from the dark,
+somber color of its foliage, which seems
+almost black against the snowy hillsides.</p>
+
+<p>The cones are the same size as on the
+red spruce, but they persist in remaining
+on the tree for several years. The wood
+is soft and weak and is used for sounding-boards,
+pulp, and light framing for
+houses.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp50" id="fig126" style="max-width: 12.5em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig126.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 126.</span> Black Spruce</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The white spruce is similar to the other two, but
+lighter in color, cones a trifle longer and softer, and
+needles more slender. It is a northern tree; its wood
+is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finishing
+the interior of houses.</p>
+
+<p>Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importation
+from Europe, where its majestic height graces the
+mountains from the Alps to Norway and Sweden. It<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_118"></a>[118]</span>
+grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and
+flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones
+are four or five inches long. Its wood is known in
+Europe as <i>deal</i>.</p>
+
+<p><b>64. Cypress.</b> In the swamps of our southern states,
+from Maryland south along the Gulf of Mexico, are
+found great dark forests of
+the bald cypress.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp57" id="fig127" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig127.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 127.</span> Cypress</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>They grow directly out
+of the water and are famous
+for a peculiar formation of
+the roots called <i>cypress
+knees</i>,—lumpy growths
+which come up out of the
+water as if they were in
+search of air. The cypress
+is a tall, spirelike tree,
+which has the most delicate,
+feathery needles imaginable.
+They drop off in the fall, so that the tree
+is sometimes called <i>deciduous cypress</i>. The cones are
+roundish and about an inch long. The timber furnished
+by this tree is very handsome in grain and valuable for
+many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing.</p>
+
+<p><b>65. The Balsam Fir</b>, or our famous Christmas tree, is
+noted for its great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_119"></a>[119]</span>
+for invalids, especially consumptives, are frequently
+built in the midst of great fir forests, that the sufferers
+may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with
+the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used
+to fill pillows, which are said to soothe tired and worn-out
+people to sleep.</p>
+
+<p>We are all familiar with the sweet, <i>woodsy</i> smell of
+the Christmas tree. No other tree can take its place.
+It brings visions of the country, of the woods and fields
+and flowers, and it will always
+be dear to us.</p>
+
+<p>The balsam fir can always
+be distinguished from the
+spruce by the fact that the
+needles only come out at
+the sides of the twig instead
+of from all directions, as in
+the spruce, and its end is
+blunt, whereas that of the
+spruce is sharply pointed.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp75" id="fig128" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig128.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 128.</span> Balsam Fir</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters
+which contain the balsam, <i>Canada balsam</i> it is usually
+called, well known for its healing qualities.</p>
+
+<p>The cones are from two to four inches long, stand
+upright on the branches, and the wood is not very
+valuable.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_120"></a>[120]</span></p>
+
+<p><b>66. The Cedars.</b> No list of evergreen trees would be
+complete without the cedars. In this group is the well-known
+hedge tree, arbor vitæ, sometimes erroneously
+called <i>white cedar</i>. It is famous for its flattened, bright
+green, scaly leaves, with their strong, pungent odor.</p>
+
+<p>This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very
+little knowledge as to its real shape and height if
+allowed to grow naturally; but
+it is said to reach a height of
+fifty feet under favorable conditions.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp53" id="fig129" style="max-width: 15.625em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig129.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 129.</span> Arbor Vitæ</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><b>67. White Cedar.</b> The real
+white cedar has a more delicate
+leaf and is fond of cool
+swamps.</p>
+
+<p>It has a conical shape and is
+much larger than the arbor vitæ,
+reaching sometimes ninety
+feet. The wood is very valuable,
+being soft but durable, and is used for shingles,
+posts, and boats. It has the property of enduring the
+changes such as posts or other structural members are
+obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks
+next to yellow locust in this particular.</p>
+
+<p><b>68. Red Cedar</b> is the tree which supplies our lead
+pencils. It is remarkable for its straight, even grain,<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_121"></a>[121]</span>
+and the ease with which it can be worked. This is the
+familiar tree of our roadside, where the birds who feast
+on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and
+unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations
+by dropping the seeds on the ground.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig130" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig130.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 130.</span> Red Cedar growing along
+  Roadside from Seed dropped by Birds</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot
+exist, but like other trees responds to good treatment
+and reaches its best development in the balmy
+and luxuriant South.</p>
+
+<p>It is found from Maine to Florida and from the
+Atlantic to the Pacific. In the North it rarely grows<span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_122"></a>[122]</span>
+over twenty feet high, and is of compact growth, but in
+Florida it reaches eighty feet.</p>
+
+<p>The leaves are remarkable in that there are two
+shapes, the sharp or awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped,
+growing upon the same branch.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is valuable for many purposes and has been
+used so extensively that it is becoming scarce.</p>
+
+<p>Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for
+lead pencils for years, and it is said that during the
+Civil War, when the whole southern coast was blockaded,
+the European manufacturers were obliged to scour
+the world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar.</p>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_123"></a>[123]</span></p>
+
+<h3 class="nobreak" id="CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI<br>
+<span class="smaller">THE BIG TREES</span></h3>
+
+</div>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig131" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig131.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 131.</span> Big Trees scarred by
+  Fire at the Base. Redwood Meadow, California</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Each section of country has its own peculiar trees,
+and those described have been mainly representative
+of the eastern states; but no list of American trees
+would be complete without the “big trees,” as they are
+commonly called, of California. The annual rings of
+these giants show them to be from two thousand to
+four thousand years old.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_124"></a>[124]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp37" id="fig132" style="max-width: 21.875em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig132.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 132.</span> Big Trees, “General
+  Grant” and “General Sherman,” Calaveras County, California</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_125"></a>[125]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig133" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig133.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 133.</span> “General Grant,” a
+  Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, California</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>It is hard to realize this great age. It means that
+for centuries and centuries before the white men came
+these kings of the forests looked down on generations
+and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have
+seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful
+tales they might relate if they could only talk!</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_126"></a>[126]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig134" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig134.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 134.</span> Redwood Logs in
+  Humboldt County, California</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_127"></a>[127]</span></p>
+
+<p>On that fateful day over four hundred years ago,
+when the three little caravels of Columbus sighted the
+West Indies, these hoary old trees were twenty-five hundred
+years old. They should be sacred to every American,
+and not one should ever be cut down for lumber.</p>
+
+<p>There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood
+and the so-called “big trees,” which are the largest trees
+in the world. They both belong to the cone-bearing
+(coniferous) group, and the needles are only three quarters
+of an inch long and the little cones an inch.</p>
+
+<p>The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike
+red cedar, but is softer and is used for many purposes
+on the Pacific coast.</p>
+
+<p>The big trees are now carefully guarded by the
+government. One grove alone which contains seven
+hundred of these fine trees, called the Mariposa Grove,
+has been reserved as a national park, and is watched
+carefully to keep out forest fires, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the best known of these trees are given
+names. One is called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” because of
+a peculiar opening at the base.</p>
+
+<p>The most famous perhaps is the “Grizzly Giant.”
+This one is ninety-three feet in circumference at the
+ground, and its first branch is two hundred feet above
+the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered
+the largest tree in the world.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_128"></a>[128]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig135" style="max-width: 43.75em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig135.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 135.</span> Redwood Logs blasted
+  apart for Easier Handling (a very wasteful method)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_129"></a>[129]</span></p>
+
+<p>We can get some idea of what these figures represent
+when we know that it takes five men three weeks to
+cut one down, and that the cost of felling one of these
+monsters is five hundred dollars.</p>
+
+<p>A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances
+have been held on it, and on one very large one a ballroom
+has been built for this special purpose.</p>
+
+<p>As one Californian has said, “The redwood forests
+are apparently imperishable, except through the ax, as
+the trees are rarely injured by fire. The redwood is
+the only lumber that can take the place of the white
+pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany
+and black walnut, displace oak for railroad ties, cypress
+and cedar for shingles, and surpass all other woods for
+durability when in contact with the earth or when
+exposed to moisture.”</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_130"></a>[130]</span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter illowp100" id="fig136" style="max-width: 31.25em;">
+  <img class="w100" src="images/fig136.jpg" alt="">
+  <p class="caption"><span class="smcap">Fig. 136.</span> Immense Flock
+  of Sheep being herded illegally in a United States Government Forest
+  Reservation. (They kill the young seedling trees)</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="chap x-ebookmaker-drop">
+
+<div class="chapter">
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_131"></a>[131]</span></p>
+
+<h2 class="nobreak">INDEX</h2>
+
+</div>
+
+<ul>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Annual rings, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Ash, <a href="#Page_92">92</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Aspen, <a href="#Page_107">107</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Band saw, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Basswood, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Beech, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bench, care of, <a href="#Page_3">3</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bench hook, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bevel, <a href="#Page_10">10</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Big Trees of California, <a href="#Page_123">123</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Birches, <a href="#Page_96">96</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bit, auger, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">auger, details of, <a href="#Page_28">28</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">center, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">countersink, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">gimlet, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Black walnut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Brace, common forms of, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">and bit, <a href="#Page_27">27</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Bract of linden, <a href="#Page_105">105</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buckeye, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Butternut, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Buttonwood, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Cap iron, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cedar, <a href="#Page_120">120</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Chisel, cutting angle of, <a href="#Page_23">23</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">firmer, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">framing, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">methods of using, <a href="#Page_24">24</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">sharpening, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Clamp iron of plane, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Compound leaves, <a href="#Page_85">85</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cottonwood, or Carolina poplar, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cutting tools, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Cypress, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Dovetail. <i>See</i> <a href="#Joint">Joint</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Drawing board, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>, <a href="#Page_62">62</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Elm, American, <a href="#Page_94">94</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Evergreens, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Felling trees, <a href="#Page_52">52</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Fir, balsam, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Framing square, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Gang saw, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Glue, use of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Grain of wood, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Groups of tools, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_132"></a>[132]</span>Gum, sweet, or liquid amber, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Hammer, claw, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">use of, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hand screw, use of, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hemlock, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hickory, <a href="#Page_87">87</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Honey locust, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Hornbeam, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Horse-chestnut, <a href="#Page_86">86</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Ironwood, <a href="#Page_100">100</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst" id="Joint">Joint, definition of, <a href="#Page_39">39</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">dovetail, <a href="#Page_47">47</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">end lap, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">middle lap, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">miter, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Joint edge, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Jointers, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Laying out work, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Linden, or basswood, <a href="#Page_103">103</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Locust, <a href="#Page_91">91</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Log boom, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Log jam, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Logs, redwood, <a href="#Page_126">126</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Lumbering and milling, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Mallet, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maple, ash-leaved, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Japan, <a href="#Page_84">84</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">Norway, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">red, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">silver, <a href="#Page_78">78</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">striped, <a href="#Page_81">81</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">sugar, <a href="#Page_76">76</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">sycamore, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Maple keys, <a href="#Page_82">82</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Marking gauge, <a href="#Page_8">8</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mechanical drawing, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">of end lap joint, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">of cylinder, <a href="#Page_44">44</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Medullary rays, <a href="#Page_59">59</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Miscellaneous tools, <a href="#Page_31">31</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mortise, cutting a, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Mulberry, <a href="#Page_109">109</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Nail set or punch, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Nails, cut and wire, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">method of using cut, <a href="#Page_41">41</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">withdrawing, <a href="#Page_32">32</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Oak, black and black-jack, <a href="#Page_69">69</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">chestnut, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">live, <a href="#Page_75">75</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">mossy-cup, <a href="#Page_68">68</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">pin, <a href="#Page_72">72</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">post, <a href="#Page_67">67</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">red, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">scarlet, <a href="#Page_71">71</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">white, <a href="#Page_66">66</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Oilstone, use of, <a href="#Page_25">25</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Pecan, <a href="#Page_89">89</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared, <a href="#Page_43">43</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Pine, Georgia, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+<li class="isub1"><span class="pagenum"><a id="Page_133"></a>[133]</span>white, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">yellow, <a href="#Page_114">114</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plan of work, <a href="#Page_4">4</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plane, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">adjustments on, <a href="#Page_18">18</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">block, <a href="#Page_21">21</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">block, method of using, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">jack, <a href="#Page_19">19</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">smooth, <a href="#Page_20">20</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">wooden, <a href="#Page_22">22</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Plane iron in action, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Poplars, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">River driving, <a href="#Page_53">53</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Rule, use of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Sandpaper, use of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sassafras, <a href="#Page_108">108</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saw, back, <a href="#Page_15">15</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">circular, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">method of holding, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+<li class="isub1">turning, <a href="#Page_16">16</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saw tapers, <a href="#Page_14">14</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saw teeth, shape of, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saw tooth action, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saw tooth set, <a href="#Page_13">13</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sawmill, <a href="#Page_55">55</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Saws, <a href="#Page_11">11</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Scale drawing, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Screw-driver, <a href="#Page_33">33</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Screws, varieties of, and methods of using, <a href="#Page_42">42</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sections of red oak, <a href="#Page_70">70</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Set screw of plane iron, <a href="#Page_17">17</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shake in wood, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Shrinkage, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spokeshave, <a href="#Page_29">29</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Spruce, <a href="#Page_116">116</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Stock, squaring up, <a href="#Page_36">36</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Sycamore, <a href="#Page_101">101</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">T square, use of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Timber and lumber, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Trees, broad-leaved, or deciduous, <a href="#Page_65">65</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Triangles, use of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Try-square, use of, <a href="#Page_6">6</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Tulip, or whitewood, <a href="#Page_102">102</a></li>
+
+<li class="ifrst">Warping, <a href="#Page_61">61</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Weather checks, <a href="#Page_60">60</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Willow, <a href="#Page_106">106</a></li>
+
+<li class="indx">Working face, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></li>
+</ul>
+
+<div style='display:block; margin-top:4em'>*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***</div>
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author	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-25 08:58:33 -0800
committer	nfenwick <nfenwick@pglaf.org>	2025-01-25 08:58:33 -0800
commit	70c7e34293c17220cf137dcc7037b84d51efb99f (patch)
tree	165f51ace4df698df0e476ecfa4b6d5312e4c8b2