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If you are not located in the United States, you -will have to check the laws of the country where you are located before -using this eBook. - -Title: The history of the Jews - From the war with Rome to the present time - -Author: Henry Cadwallader Adams - -Release Date: December 20, 2022 [eBook #69593] - -Language: English - -Produced by: Richard Hulse, Bob Taylor and the Online Distributed - Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was - produced from images generously made available by The - Internet Archive) - -*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS *** - - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - Italic text displayed as: _italic_ - - - - - THE - - HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - _FROM THE WAR WITH ROME TO THE - PRESENT TIME_. - - - - - THE - - HISTORY OF THE JEWS - - _FROM THE WAR WITH ROME TO THE - PRESENT TIME_. - - - BY THE - - REV. H. C. ADAMS, M.A. - - VICAR OF OLD SHOREHAM. - - _Author of ‘Wykehamica,’ ‘Schoolboy Honour,’ etc., etc._ - - - London: - - THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY, - 56, PATERNOSTER ROW. - - 1887. - - - - - BUTLER & TANNER, - THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS, - FROME, AND LONDON. - - - - - CONTENTS. - - - PAGE - - PREFACE 3 - - - PART I. - - FROM THE DEPOSITION OF ARCHELAUS TO THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH - CENTURY. - - CHAP. A.D. - - I. 7-70. From the Revolt of Judas to the Siege of - Jerusalem 17 - - II. 71, 72. The Siege of Jerusalem by Titus 27 - - III. 72-131. The Jews under the Emperors Trajan and Adrian 37 - - IV. 131-135. The Revolt of Barchochebas 46 - - V. 135-323. The Jews under the Roman Emperors from Adrian - to Constantine 53 - - VI. 323-363. The Princes of the Captivity.—Manes.—The Jews - under the Roman Emperors from Constantine - to Julian 62 - - VII. 363-429. Jovian to Honorius.—Mutual Jealousies and - Outrages.—Suppression of the Patriarchate - of Tiberias 71 - - VIII. 429-622. Honorius to Heraclius.—Jewish Slave-holders. - —Justinian.—Chosroes 79 - - IX. 622-651. Mahomet.—Conquest of Arabia, Persia, Syria, - and Egypt 89 - - X. 622-740. The Jews in the Eastern Empire, in Spain, - in France 98 - - XI. 740-980. The Jews under the Caliphs in the East 106 - - XII. — The Jews of the Far East 114 - - XIII. 740-980. The Jews under Charlemagne 122 - - XIV. 980-1100. The Jews in Spain.—In England.—The Crusades 131 - - XV. 1100-1200. The Crusades.—Jews in France, Spain, - Germany, and Hungary 139 - - XVI. 1100-1200. The Jews in England.—Jewish Impostors 148 - - XVII. — Great Jewish Doctors.—Aben Ezra, Maimonides, - Benjamin of Tudela 156 - - XVIII. 1200-1300. The Jews in France and Germany 163 - - XIX. 1200-1300. The Jews in Spain 171 - - XX. 1200-1300. The Jews in England 179 - - - PART II. - - FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY TO THE PRESENT - TIME. - - XXI. 1300-1400. The Jews in France 189 - - XXII. 1300-1400. The Jews in Italy 196 - - XXIII. 1300-1400. The Jews in Germany, the Low Countries, etc. 203 - - XXIV. 1300-1400. The Jews in Spain 211 - - XXV. 1400-1500. The Jews in Germany and Italy 219 - - XXVI. 1400-1500. The Jews in Spain 227 - - XXVII. 1400-1500. The Jews in Spain (_continued_) 235 - - XXVIII. 1400-1500. The Jews in Portugal 243 - - XXIX. 1500-1600. The Jews in Italy 251 - - XXX. 1500-1600. The Jews in Portugal, Spain, and Holland 259 - - XXXI. 1500-1600. The Jews in Germany and Central Europe 267 - - XXXII. 1500-1600. The Jews in Asia and Africa 275 - - XXXIII. 1600-1700. The Jews in Germany and Central Europe 283 - - XXXIV. 1600-1700. The Jews in Holland.—Da Costa, Spinoza 291 - - XXXV. 1600-1700. The Jews in Spain, England, and Italy 300 - - XXXVI. 1600-1700. The Jews in the East.—Sabbathai Sevi 308 - - XXXVII. 1700-1800. The Jews in Spain, Italy, and France 316 - - XXXVIII. 1700-1800. The Jew’s in Germany and Central Europe 323 - - XXXIX. 1700-1800. The Jews in Poland: The Chasidim.—Frank. - —Mendelssohn 331 - - XL. 1700-1800. The Jews in England 339 - - XLI. 1800-1885. The Jews in England (_continued_) 348 - - XLII. 1800-1885. The Jews in France, Italy, and Germany 356 - - XLIII. 1800-1885. The Jews in other European Countries 364 - - XLIV. 1800-1885. The Jews in Africa, America, and Asia. - —Conclusion 372 - - - APPENDICES. - - APPENDIX - - I. Statistics of Jewish Population 379 - - II. The Talmuds 385 - - III. The Targums, Massora, Cabbala, Sepher-Yetzira, and Zohar 392 - - IV. The Attempt, under Julian, to Rebuild the Temple 398 - - V. The Blood Accusations 403 - - - - - PREFACE. - - -The reader will understand that this work does not profess to be -anything more than a popular history, with just so much reference -to Jewish learning and controversy as may be necessary to a due -comprehension of the facts related, and the character of the people -treated of. But such references will not, for various reasons, be -frequent. Of the vast accumulations of Jewish literature, the most -valuable portions are the Commentaries of their doctors on Scripture, -and their contributions to grammar, mathematics, and physical -science. With these, however, the writer of history has but little -concern. The abstruse and intricate speculations of the Rabbins, -the subtleties of the Cabbalists, the wild fancies—or what, at all -events, the sober Western intellect accounts such—of the Talmuds, the -Sepher-Yetzira, and the Zohar, might absorb whole years of study, -but would yield the historian only a barren return for the labour. -The poetry of the Hebrews is said to be plaintive and touching, but -too exclusively national to have interest for any but Jews. Their -ancient historians, again, overlay their narratives with exaggeration -and fable to such an extent that their statements cannot be received -without the greatest caution. It is mainly from writers belonging to -other races that we must derive our record of the strange and varied -fortunes of the people of Israel. - -This must, of course, place them at some disadvantage. Yet there -is no history so full of striking incident and mournful pathos -as theirs, none which stirs such solemn questions, or imparts so -profound a wisdom to those who rightly study it. As an illustration -of the sad interest it awakens, the words of Leopold Zunz, one of -the greatest of modern Jews, may suffice. ‘If there are gradations -in suffering,’ he writes, ‘Israel has reached its highest acme. If -the long duration of sufferings, and the patience with which they are -borne, ennobles a people, then the Jews may defy the high-born of -any lands.’ In truth, again and again, in every succeeding century -of their annals, the evidences of a heroism which no persistence in -severity could bend, and no pressure of persecution could break, -engage the attention of the reader. Whatever may be his estimate of -the worth or the demerits of the Jews, their tragic story at least -commands his sympathy. - -In these respects other nations, though they may not have rivalled, -at least resemble, them. But there are peculiarities in their history -which separate them from every other people on the earth. Foremost -among these is the question—Are we still to regard them, as our -fathers for so many generations regarded them, as lying under the -special curse of God, a perpetual monument of His anger? Was the -imprecation uttered before Pilate’s tribunal (St. Matt. xxvii. 25), -‘His blood be on us, and on our children!’ ratified, so to speak, by -Almighty God? Is the Lord’s blood still upon them? Is that the true -explanation of their past miseries and their present condition? - -Let us consider what the guilt of the Jews, who slew the Lord, really -amounted to. They do not, I believe, themselves deny that they are -suffering under Divine displeasure, or that that displeasure has -been occasioned by their sin. On the contrary, they hold that it -is their sin that has delayed, and still delays, the coming of the -Messiah. But, far from thinking that sin to have been the murder of -Jesus Christ, they do not consider that their fathers were guilty in -that matter at all. Their law, so they contend, requires them to put -to death blasphemers and setters up of strange gods. The assertion -of Jesus, ‘I and My Father are one,’ say they, was both blasphemy -and the setting up of a strange god. They would only therefore have -obeyed a Divine command if they had put Him to death. But, they add, -it was not they, but the Romans, by whose sentence He died, for -declaring Himself King of the Jews. This, they say, is sufficiently -evident from the manner of His death by crucifixion, which was one -never inflicted by Jews, and by the inscription on the cross, ‘This -is the King of the Jews.’ It is extremely doubtful, they add, whether -their fathers possessed the power of putting Him to death, but at -all events they did not exercise it. The Jewish people, according to -their view, had nothing to do with the matter. Some of the multitude -may have imprecated the blood of Jesus on themselves and their -children; but if so, the curse could only come on those few persons -on whom it had been invoked. Jost and others even deny that the -Sanhedrim was ever legally convened, the meeting that condemned Jesus -and delated Him to Pilate being, as they hold, merely a tumultuary -assembly of the enemies of Christ. - -It will, of course, be answered that to charge our Lord with -blasphemy and setting up of a strange god, is simply to beg the whole -question at issue between Jew and Christian. Indeed, considering that -the Hebrew Scriptures distinctly declare the Messiah to be God[1] -(Psa. xlv. 6; Isa. vii. 14; ix. 6, etc.), according to this view of -the matter, at whatever period He might come, it must be the duty -of the Jews to put Him to death, as soon as He declared His true -character. It might be asked—How were the Jews to know that Jesus -was really what He proclaimed Himself? Our answer is, that in the -fulfilment of prophecy in Him, in the exercise of His miraculous -powers, and the superhuman holiness of His teaching, they had -sufficient evidence that He was indeed the Christ. They had, in fact, -_the_ evidence of it which Divine wisdom accounted sufficient. - -Again, it was doubtless by the order of a Roman magistrate that He -was crucified; and it may perhaps be true that during the Roman -Procuratorship the Sanhedrim had no power of pronouncing a capital -sentence.[2] But it was the Jews who carried our Lord before Pilate -and demanded His death. Far from being anxious to condemn Him, Pilate -was most reluctant to order the execution. It was only when the -dangerous insinuation of disloyalty to Cæsar was suggested that he -consented to their wishes. Who can doubt that the guilt was theirs? -Pilate might as well have put off the blame on the centurion who -commanded the quaternion at Calvary, or he on the three soldiers who -put in force the sentence. The statement again, that the Sanhedrim -was not convened, is in direct contradiction to that of St. Mark -(xv. 1). Nor does it appear that the Evangelist’s assertion was ever -called in question by contemporary writers. - -There can be no reasonable doubt in the mind of any man who accepts -the Gospel narrative as a true—I do not here say an inspired—history, -that the Jews of that day were guilty of the blood of our Lord, and -that it was a deed of the most flagrant wickedness. But it remains -to be proved that they slew Him, knowing Him to be their Incarnate -God, and I think that would be found extremely difficult of -proof. If we are to be guided by Scripture in the matter, we shall -entertain a different opinion. St. Peter said to these very men, -not many weeks afterwards, ‘I wot that ye did it in ignorance,’ and -then called upon them ‘to repent, that their sin might be blotted -out.’[3] Our Lord also pleaded their ignorance of the nature of the -deed they were perpetrating, in their behalf.[4] Both these passages -are inconsistent with the idea of an abiding and inexorable curse. -Their guilt was like that of the Athenian people when they condemned -Socrates to death, or of that of the Florentines, when they similarly -murdered Savonarola, or again of the Romans, when they assassinated -Count Rossi—like theirs, though doubtless more aggravated. The sin of -rejecting the preachers of holiness, and silencing their voices in -their blood, is one of the worst of which a people can be guilty, and -must needs draw down the heavy wrath of the All Just; but surely not -on their descendants for all after ages. - -As regards the other argument advanced, no doubt the slayers of -Socrates or Savonarola did not imprecate on themselves and their -children the consequences of their deed, as the Jews did. But what -then? The Jews at the crucifixion could have had no more power than -other men to cut themselves off from repentance, much less to cut -their children off from it. The blood of Christ can cleanse men -from _any_ sin. This, even if it were not the plain declaration of -Scripture, would be proved by St. Peter’s address to them, already -quoted. Even were this otherwise, what claim could these men have -had to represent the Jewish people? There were, as is shown -elsewhere,[5] probably some six or seven millions of Jews in the -world. Of these not one half, in all likelihood, had heard of our -Lord till after His death. Many never heard of Him for generations -afterwards. Of the two or three millions present in the Holy Land -when the crucifixion took place, not the thousandth part could have -heard Pilate’s protest, or the rejoinder of the crowd. On what -principle is this small section to be regarded as representing the -whole Jewish people, for whose words and acts it is to be held -accountable? When the Cordeliers, with their frantic blasphemies, in -the name of the French people disavowed God, doubtless they drew down -Divine anger on all concerned; but are we to believe that the guilt -of their impiety will rest on the French nation for ever? Such an -idea appears to me to be alien alike to the spirit of both natural -and revealed religion. - -But it will, no doubt, be asked—How, then, is the strange and -exceptional condition of the Jews for so many centuries to be -accounted for? No careful student of God’s Word will have any -difficulty in answering this question. Great and enduring blessings -had been promised to Abraham, ‘the friend of God,’ and to his -posterity for his sake. These had been repeated to David, ‘the man -after God’s own heart,’ with an assurance of still greater mercies. -The faithfulness of God to His promises is a thing wholly independent -of lapse of time. To us, a promise given nearly 4,000 years ago may -seem a thing wholly obsolete; to Him it is as fresh and binding as -if it had been made yesterday. Therefore, although any other nation -but that which sprung from the loins of Abraham would have been -destroyed and rooted out for such a series of rebellious deeds as -that which culminated in the crucifixion of the Lord, the remembrance -of Abraham and David has prevented its entire destruction. We are -distinctly told that this was the case at other periods of their -history. When Jeroboam relapsed into idolatry, he and his whole race -were cut off root and branch. But when Solomon did the same, the -kingdom, though with reduced strength and splendour, was continued to -his posterity. When the kingdom of Israel offended beyond endurance, -it was scattered into all lands, and its nationality perished. -When that of Judah was equally guilty, its dispersion was only for -awhile, and then it was allowed to return and resume its national -existence. A remnant of the nation was preserved for Abraham’s sake, -that particular remnant, for the sake of David. Such, it is most -reasonable to conclude, is the true explanation of their marvellous -history for the last eighteen hundred years. Their protracted -existence in their present condition is indeed a miracle, but a -miracle, not of wrath, but of mercy. This they are themselves quick -to perceive. - -But, as in the cases above alleged, the continuance of the sceptre -to Solomon’s descendants, and the restoration of Judah after the -Captivity, did not exempt them from the penalty of their subsequent -disobedience, so now the preservation of Israel through so many -centuries of danger and suffering, does not annul or modify the -consequences of their unbelief. Like all nations which come into -contact with Christianity, but do not accept Christ, they share the -benefits of His sacrifice, in the amended moral tone of the world, -which is the slow growth of His teaching; but they can only gain, or -to speak more correctly, regain, His favour, by taking Him as their -Lord and their God.[6] They cannot rightly be said to be living under -a curse, but they assuredly fail to obtain a blessing. But to this -they continue persistently blind. - -This is the key to their history. This is the explanation of their -persistent isolation, their resolute endurance, their unconquerable -self-reliance. Descendants of the special favourites of Heaven, -fully persuaded that its favour has not been forfeited, but only -temporarily withdrawn, this high-spirited and gifted race has -ever felt that, supported by this conviction, it could, like ‘the -charity’ of St. Paul, hope and endure all things. Races that had -not sprung into existence when theirs had reached the highest point -of civilization and glory, might pretend to despise them: but, to -use the language which Sir Walter Scott puts into the mouth of the -bard, Cadwallon, they knew that the blood which flowed in the veins -of their persecutors, when compared with their own, ‘was but as the -puddle of the highway to the silver fountain.’[7] - -Their history is sad and humiliating to read; and no less sad and -humiliating to them, than to those whose ancestors trampled upon and -persecuted them. It brings out into strong relief, not only the good, -but also the bad points of their national character. The stubborn -unbelief of generation after generation; the way in which business -ability, under the pressure of injustice, developed into craft, into -the power of heaping up wealth by usury, and relentless exaction of -the uttermost farthing; the slow processes by which the most manifest -characteristic of a Jew became that of the harsh and merciless -creditor;—these are the dark shadows upon a great national character, -and a national story of the deepest interest. - -On the other hand, their history shows, as no other can, the -folly and wickedness of that most deadly, though sometimes most -fair-seeming, of all Satanic influences, religious persecution. -Our fathers were wont in those evil times to enlarge with horror -on the sin of the Jew in obstinately rejecting Christ. In the day -when account will be required of all, may it not be found that the -deadliest of their own sins was, that by their hideous travesty of -the Christian faith they shut out from the Jew the knowledge of the -reality? - -For centuries the bitterest persecutions came from those who, while -robbing and ill-treating the Jews, because they charged them with -heaping ridicule upon Christianity and eagerly aiding its enemies, -were themselves ignorant of the first principles of the Gospel, and -devoted adherents of the Church of those times. As the Reformation of -the Church developed, and as the power of evangelical principles has -increased, the persecution of the Jew has ceased. More and more has -the Church everywhere realized the truth, that Christ died for the -Jew no less than for the Gentile, and that He can be better served -in this respect by the proclamation of His own loving message of -forgiveness, than by any attempts to usurp His function as Judge, or -to compel an outward submission, in which the heart has no part. - -Israel has, indeed, a heavy account against the Anglo-Saxon race, -though, it may be, not so heavy as against the Goth, the Teuton, -and the Slav. There is some comfort in reflecting that we in this -century have done somewhat to reduce the balance that stands against -us. May our children learn the lesson of mercy and toleration in -all its fulness, and so make such reparation as is possible for the -mistakes and sins of our fathers! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[1] A Jew would doubtless deny this. I do not pursue the question -further, as this is not a work of controversial theology; and, -besides, the point has been made so clear by Christian divines that -there can be no need of any advocacy of mine. Let the reader who may -have any doubt on the subject consider Isa. xl. 10; xlv. 24; xlviii. -17; Jer. xxiii. 6; Hosea i. 7; Zech. ii. 10, 11; Malachi iii. 1, -where not the title Elohim only, but that of Jehovah, is given to the -Messiah. - -[2] No question has been more disputed than whether the Sanhedrim, -during the rule of the Roman Procurators, possessed the power of -putting to death persons convicted of capital crimes. The statement -made, St. John xviii. 31, and the action of Albinus, who, A.D. 63, -deposed the High Priest Ananus, because the Sanhedrim had put St. -James to death without his sanction, seem conclusive that they could -not capitally punish persons _convicted of blasphemy_, unless under -the Procurator’s order. The case of St. Stephen, Acts viii., does -not disprove this; for that was evidently a tumultuary procedure, -no sentence having been pronounced. But the Sanhedrim certainly had -the power of capitally punishing _some_ offenders, as, for instance, -any Gentile passing beyond the barrier between the Temple Courts -(see Jos. _B.J._ vi. 2, 4), an offence closely resembling blasphemy. -Possibly they could inflict death for certain specified crimes, but -only for these. It would be quite consistent with the principle -of Roman government to allow the High Priests to punish capitally -persons convicted of grave moral offences, but not such as were only -guilty in matters relating ‘to their own superstitions,’ as they -would phrase it. - -[3] Acts iii. 17. - -[4] St. Luke xxiii. 34. - -[5] See Appendix I. - -[6] ‘Ye shall not see Me, until the time come when ye shall say, -Blessed is He that cometh in the name of the Lord’ (St. Luke xiii. -35)—that is, ‘ye shall not apprehend Me, and the blessings I come to -bring you, until you acknowledge Me as the true Messiah and Saviour -of the world.’ To ‘_see_’ the Lord is, in the New Testament phrase, -spiritually to discern and understand Him. - -[7] _Betrothed_, chap. 31. - - - - - _PART I._ - - FROM THE DEPOSITION OF ARCHELAUS TO - THE END OF THE THIRTEENTH CENTURY. - - - - - CHAPTER I. - - A.D. 7-70. - - FROM THE REVOLT OF JUDAS TO THE SIEGE OF JERUSALEM. - - -It is not proposed in these pages to deal with the history of the -Jews during the long period which intervened between the origin of -the nation in the family of Abraham[8] and their final revolt from -the Roman power. The records of those times are to be found in the -inspired volume, or in the narrative of Josephus; and we have no -further concern with them than to inquire how the various changes -in their fortunes—from bondage to freedom, and from freedom to -bondage, under lawgiver, judge and high priest, foreign tyrant and -native sovereign, contributed to the formation of their national -character—the most strongly marked, it may confidently be affirmed, -that ever distinguished any people. - -The childhood of the Jewish nation was a hard and harsh one. They -grew up into national existence under alien rulers, who feared and -hated them, imposed on them intolerable burdens, and would have -destroyed them from off the face of the earth, but for the Divine -protection extended over them. Delivered by the same visible display -of Divine power from these tyrants, they were transported to a rich -and genial land, powerful and warlike nations being ejected to make -way for them. Their first national, and true, idea must needs have -been their special privileges as the favoured people of Heaven; but -to this they added the untrue persuasion that nothing could ever -forfeit them; and this rooted itself so deeply in their belief, that -all the experience of after generations was unable to destroy, or -even modify it. Their own participation in the sins of neighbouring -nations—those very sins which had drawn down Divine vengeance on -_them_—did not shake this confidence in their secure possession of -Almighty favour. Visited with sharp chastisement for disobedience, -they were for the moment alarmed and humbled; but they resumed their -old complacency the moment that deliverance from suffering was -vouchsafed. The woes of foreign subjugation, exile and captivity, so -far affected them, that they abandoned the idolatry which had been -the main cause of their miseries. But it did not abate their sense of -ascendency over all other races, and of their special and inalienable -possession of the favour of the Most High. - -It was impossible, they believed, that they could be under the -dominion of any foreign people. They might seem to be so for a while, -but they were not really so. The fact that they were for seventy -years the vassals of the King of Babylon; for two hundred more the -dependants, to use a mild term, of the sovereigns of Persia; for -several generations afterwards at the mercy of one potentate or -another, who dealt with them as his caprice might dictate; that their -own Asmonæan kingdom was, in reality, but a dependency of Imperial -Rome, existing only so long as she chose to permit it—all this went -for nothing with them. Nay, even the reduction of Judæa to the -status of a Roman province, and the residence of a Roman procurator -in Judæa, did not prevent them from replying to our Lord that ‘they -were Abraham’s children, and had never been in bondage to any man.’ -So long as it was possible, on any pretext however transparent, to -assert their independence, they persisted in doing so. - -At the same time, they were too intelligent not to be aware that -Imperial Rome would endure neither opposition to her arms nor evasion -of her claims. It must needs have been long evident to them, that the -time must come, sooner or later, when they would have to make their -choice between genuine allegiance to, or open rebellion against, -the empire of the Cæsars. They were purposed, however, to defer it -as long as they could. Requirements might be made, which they would -rather perish than comply with; but until these were advanced, there -was no need to anticipate them; and the mildness which always marked -the Roman sway, when unopposed, its strict observance of justice in -all its dealings with a conquered people,[9] and its toleration of -their customs and prejudices, long delayed the terrible struggle -which ensued at last. - -The deposition of Archelaus, and the conversion of Judæa into a -Roman province, brought about the first overt act of rebellion. -Judas, called the ‘Galilæan,’ raised an insurrection, which was -with difficulty put down. He took for his watchword the significant -sentence, ‘We have no other master but God.’ The reasons already -alleged, in all likelihood, restrained the more influential classes -of the Jews from lending him the support he expected. He was crushed -and put to death. But the spirit he evoked lived long after him, -and Josephus attributes to it all the outbreaks which ensued, which -culminated at last in the destruction of Jerusalem and the dispersion -of the Jews.[10] - -Coponius, the first Roman governor, was allowed to take up his abode -at Cæsarea without opposition. That city, rather than Jerusalem, was -chosen as his seat of government probably out of consideration for -the feelings of the Jews. He was succeeded after a short interval by -Ambivius and Rufus. After him Valerius Gratus held the reins of power -for nearly twelve years. Throughout their prefectures, and for some -years afterwards, Judæa remained tranquil. But at Rome, the Jews, who -under Augustus had been treated with great indulgence, were expelled -from the city by his successor, Tiberius. This act is said to have -been really due to the enmity of Sejanus, though the pretext alleged -was their extortion of money from Fulvia, a noble matron. Four -thousand Jews were forced to enter the army, the greater part of whom -died of malaria, in the island of Sardinia. After Sejanus’s fall, the -edict against the Jews was revoked. - -To Gratus succeeded Pontius Pilatus, who held office for ten years. -During the government of this procurator, another formidable -insurrection occurred, or rather, series of insurrections, caused -in the first instance by the removal of the Roman army, with its -idolatrous standards, to Jerusalem. On this occasion there was a very -general rising of the people; and if Pilatus had remained in power, -hostilities with Rome might have broken out a generation previously -to their actual occurrence. But after committing, with apparent -impunity, several sanguinary massacres of Jews, whom his wanton -disregard of their feelings had stirred up to insurrection, Pilatus -was accused to Vitellius, the Prefect of Syria, by the Samaritans, of -a similar outrage on them. Vitellius ordered him to Rome, to take his -trial. There he was deposed, and sentenced to exile. - -Some time afterwards Judæa was again converted, for a brief space, -into a Jewish kingdom under Agrippa I., whose strange and terrible -end is recorded in the Acts of the Apostles. Agrippa was the son -of Aristobulus, and grandson of Herod the Great. He early attached -himself to Caligula, and thereby aroused the suspicion of Tiberius, -who threw him into prison. He would probably have been put to death, -if the decease of the emperor had not rescued him from the danger. -On his succession to the empire, Caligula gave him the tetrarchies -formerly held by Lysanias and Philip, together with the title of -King. But his reign was soon beset with trouble. The royal dignity -bestowed on him roused the jealousy of Herod Antipas, Tetrarch of -Galilee. Accompanied by his wife, Herodias, he sailed to Rome, in the -hope of ousting Agrippa, by charges of disloyalty, from the Imperial -favour. But Agrippa retorted on Antipas with a counter-charge of -treasonable correspondence with the Parthians; and the result was -the banishment of Antipas, and the addition of his dominions to -those already ruled by Agrippa. The latter was a rigid observer of -the Mosaic law; and his murder of St. James and persecution of St. -Peter were probably due to this, rather than to tyranny or cruelty. -During his reign of seven years he seems to have done his best for -his kingdom and country. He built the third wall round Jerusalem, -and endeavoured to reconcile the contending factions, which were -destroying the life of the nation. - -It was a short time before his accession that the event occurred -which roused the anger of the Jews to a higher pitch than had ever -before been manifested; and had the outrage been pushed further, -a civil war would have undoubtedly been the result. This was the -attempt of the Emperor Caligula to erect his statue as that of ‘The -Younger Jupiter,’ as he styled himself, in the most sacred part of -the Jewish Temple. - -The design seems to have been the result of a mere whim, conceived -by the half-crazy emperor, and pertinaciously persisted in, when he -learned (as he did from both the Jews themselves, and Petronius, -the Procurator of Syria) that its execution would occasion among -the worshippers of the God of the Hebrews unspeakable horror and -alarm.[11] There can be no doubt that the impiety was intended. -The statue had been ordered, if not completed; but the wise and -generous procrastination of Petronius, the earnest representations -of Agrippa, who was a favourite of the emperor, together with the -death of the emperor himself, which followed almost immediately -afterwards, averted the accomplishment of the design. The narrative -of the transaction is valuable, because it shows that at that -time the Jews were disposed to wise and moderate counsels, which -contrast forcibly with their reckless violence a generation later. -When the fatal intentions of Caligula were made known, the whole -population, we are told, of all ranks and ages, from a vast distance -round Jerusalem, crowded round the chair of the Roman procurator, -declaring their determination to die rather than witness so fearful -a profanation.[12] Their demeanour so deeply affected Petronius, -that he thenceforth strove by every means in his power to avert the -dreaded catastrophe; and, aided by circumstances and the intercession -of Agrippa, he succeeded in his attempt. Caligula, however, could not -forgive his disobedience, and it is said that the emperor’s death -alone saved Petronius from the consequences of his anger. - -Through the favour of Claudius, who now mounted the Imperial throne -(and whose reign, notwithstanding one act of severity,[13] was -favourable to the Jews), Agrippa succeeded to the whole of the -dominions of his grandfather, Herod the Great, and held them for four -years, when he died, A.D. 44, in the manner already referred to; and -Judæa again became a Roman province, Cuspius Fadus being sent as -governor.[14] During his rule, and that of his successor Tiberius -Alexander, the peace of Palestine continued undisturbed, except by -the outbreaks of one or two of the turbulent incendiaries, of which -the land contained great numbers. These were easily put down. But -during the procuratorship of Ventidius Cumanus, the animosity between -the people and the Roman soldiers, which had long been smouldering, -burst out into a flame. During one of the Jewish festivals, a soldier -offered a gross insult to the ceremonial in progress, which roused -the fury of the Jews against, not only the offender, but Cumanus -himself. The latter, hearing the furious cries with which he was -assailed, marched his whole force into the Antonia, and commenced -an indiscriminate massacre, in which 20,000 perished. For this -outrage and his subsequent conduct in a hostile encounter between -the Jews and Samaritans, Cumanus was tried at Rome, and condemned to -banishment. - -He was succeeded by the profligate Felix, whose government was worse -than that of any of his predecessors. It was, in fact, one long scene -of cruelty and treachery. He allied himself with some of the bands of -robbers now infesting Judæa, and by their aid murdered, in the very -precincts of the Temple, Jonathan, the high priest, who had rebuked -his vices. After eleven years of misrule, he was accused by the Jews -in Cæsarea of the barbarous slaughter of some of their countrymen. He -was tried at Rome, but escaped through the interest of his brother, -Pallas. He was, however, a vigorous ruler, and put down the notorious -Egyptian Jew, who, with 30,000 followers, had raised a formidable -insurrection (Acts xxi. 38). - -After his prefecture, and that of his more humane and upright -successor Porcius Festus, the inveterate evils which afflicted the -whole of Judæa continued to grow in violence and intensity. Banditti -overspread the country, and carried on their lawless depredations -almost with impunity. Impostors and fanatics started up on every -side, and drew after them great multitudes, to whom they preached -rebellion against their Roman governors as a religious duty. Riot -and bloodshed, and armed encounters with the Roman soldiery, -became matters of continual occurrence, which the authority of the -procurator was unable to restrain. The evil was aggravated by the -succession of the corrupt Albinus to the office vacated by the death -of Festus; but it was not until he, in his turn, was superseded by -the infamous Gessius Florus that the discontent of the unhappy Jews -culminated in the rebellious outbreak which brought on their ruin. - -It can hardly be supposed that it was actually Florus’s object to -drive the Jews into rebellion; yet the course he pursued persistently -from the very commencement of his rule could have had no other -result. It was not merely that he took bribes from all men who -sought his favour or feared his anger. He leagued with robbers and -assassins, sharing their gains and countenancing their crimes. He -exacted large sums alike from public treasuries and private coffers, -on the flimsiest pretexts, and often on no pretext at all. He -inflamed the angry feelings, already dangerously excited, by every -possible insult and outrage which lawless power could exercise; and, -finally, having by pillage and butchery stirred up the infuriated -Jews to refuse obedience to an authority which appeared to exist only -for their destruction, he called in Cestius Gallus, the Prefect of -Syria, to lead the Roman forces under his command to put down the -sedition. - -This officer, though a man of narrow views and mediocre ability, -was a Roman functionary, and, as such, would not act on _ex parte_ -evidence. He sent a tribune named Neapolitanus to Jerusalem, to -inquire into the truth of Florus’s charges; and Agrippa,[15] who -was cognisant of what had passed, and was anxious to avert the ruin -that threatened his country, accompanied him to the Jewish capital. -Fully convinced of the truth of the charges against Florus, they -nevertheless hesitated to uphold his accusers, and endeavoured to -persuade the people to make submission to him. But they had been too -deeply incensed by Florus’s barbarities: and the seditious spirits -among them had gained too much ascendency to allow this advice to -prevail; notwithstanding that the upper classes of the citizens, -who were still desirous of avoiding war, declared in its favour. -They drove Neapolitanus and Agrippa, with insult, from the city, and -openly renounced allegiance to Rome.[16] - -Shortly afterwards a new adventurer, Menahem, the son of Judas the -Gaulonite, appeared, and was gladly welcomed by the people. But he -soon provoked the jealousy of Eleazar, the leader of the Zealots, by -whom he was deposed and slain. Eleazar having gained complete mastery -in the city, proceeded to murder, with shameless treachery, the -Roman garrison, which had surrendered on condition of being spared. -Almost coincidently with this shocking deed, one of equal horror was -perpetrated at Cæsarea, where 20,000 Jews were slaughtered by the -Greek inhabitants. In this atmosphere of treachery and bloodshed -the whole nation appears to have gone mad. They were resolved, -apparently, that as every man’s hand was against them, so should -their hand be against every man. They took up arms, plundered several -of the Syrian cities, laying waste the whole country round them. The -Syrians retaliated with equal barbarity, everywhere slaying without -mercy their Jewish fellow-citizens. Neither Agrippa’s dominions nor -Egypt escaped the contagion. In the former, a feud between Varus, the -deputy, to whom Agrippa had committed the government of his kingdom -during his absence at Antioch, and Philip, the general of his army, -very nearly caused a civil war. At Antioch another quarrel between -the Jews and Greeks, relative to the right of the former to attend -public assemblies, led, first to a riot, and then to a general rising -of the Hebrew population. The governor, Tiberius Alexander—who was -by birth a Jew, and had some years previously been Procurator of -Judæa, afterwards holding a command in Titus’s army at the siege of -Jerusalem—sent for the principal men among the Jews, and exhorted -them to use their influence in quieting the disturbance. Failing in -this attempt, he ordered out the troops, and made an attack on the -Jews’ quarter, in which 50,000 persons were slain. Throughout the -whole of Palestine, Syria, and Egypt, strife and bloodshed prevailed. -The advance of the Roman army was anxiously looked for by all who -retained their reason, as the only hope of putting an end to the -frantic anarchy wherewith the whole land was now overspread. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[8] It is an error, I think, to connect the name Hebrew with Heber, -or Eber, the great-grandson of Shem. Abraham was called the Hebrew, -or passer over, ὁ περάτης (Gen. xiv. 13, LXX.), because, in obedience -to Divine command, he ‘passed over’ the Euphrates, leaving his home -and people, to settle in a strange land. Heber was the progenitor, -not of the Hebrews only, but many other nations. The notion that -they were called after him, because at the dispersion of Babel he -retained and transmitted the primitive language of the world to one -only of his descendants, is a mere fancy. He may have been, and very -probably was called the ‘passer’ or ‘carrier away,’ because he was -the patriarch of the dispersion. But Abraham’s name was given to him -for a different reason, and altogether independently of Heber. - -[9] In proof of this may be alleged the fact, that in the brief space -of sixty years no less than four Roman procurators were summoned -before the Imperial Tribunal to answer complaints brought against -them by the Jews; and two of them were punished by banishment for -life. - -[10] Judas was born at Gamala, a city of Gaulonitis. He was a brave, -able, and eloquent man. Supported by Sadoc, an influential Pharisee, -he founded the party of the Gaulonites, who were the predecessors of -the Zealots and Assassins of later times. Though multitudes gathered -round his standard, he was not supported by the nation generally, -and the power of Rome was too great for him to contend with. He was -overpowered and put to death. He is referred to in Acts v. 37. - -[11] It was not in Judæa only that these feelings were aroused. In -Alexandria, the proposal made by the Greeks, to place the emperor’s -statue in the Jewish Proseuchæ, provoked riots, in which much -property was wrecked, and terrible carnage took place. The Roman -governor, Flaccus Aquilius, for many years a wise and able ruler, -but who had grown reckless since the accession of Caligula, towards -whom he bore no good will, made no attempt to repress, but rather -encouraged, the outrages. He was so unwise as to openly insult the -emperor’s friend, Agrippa. He was arrested by order of Caligula, and -put to death with barbarous cruelty. - -[12] The celebrated Philo came from Alexandria on this occasion to -plead the cause of his countrymen. - -[13] Banishing the Jews from Rome A.D. 54. Acts xviii. 2; Suet. -Claud. 25. - -[14] During his tenure of office, an impostor named Theudas, who -claimed to be a prophet, raised a formidable insurrection. But Fadus, -a man of action, arrested and executed him. He is mentioned in Acts -v. 36. - -[15] This was Agrippa II., son of Agrippa I. It was before him that -St. Paul pleaded (Acts xxvi.). Suet. (_Vesp._ 4). - -[16] According to Suetonius, Florus was slain by the Jews in a -tumultuous outbreak. Josephus has been thought to contradict him. But -his language may be interpreted so as to harmonize with Suetonius. - - - - - CHAPTER II. - - A.D. 71, 72. - - SIEGE OF JERUSALEM BY TITUS. - - -War was now openly declared, and Cestius marched on Jerusalem with -10,000 Roman soldiers, and a still larger force of allies, to put -down the rebellion and avenge the murder of his countrymen. The -result was the most terrible disaster to the Roman arms which they -had sustained since the defeat of Varus. Unsuccessful in some -preliminary skirmishing, Gallus assaulted the city, and after five -days of indecisive fighting, forced his way on the sixth to the wall -on the north side of the Temple. Every effort to scale this having -failed, he ordered the legionaries to lock their shields together and -form the testudo, their usual mode of obtaining a cover, under which -they undermined fortifications which they could not surmount. The -manœuvre was successful. The wall was all but pierced through, and -the garrison on the point of flight, when Gallus suddenly, without -any apparent reason, ordered a retreat,[17] withdrew in haste, first -to his camp, and afterwards to Antipatris, losing in his retreat his -whole battering train and 6,000 soldiers. - -The Jews had now offended beyond hope of forgiveness, and both -parties braced themselves for the fierce and deadly struggle which -had become inevitable. The rebels recruited their comparatively -scanty numbers by securing the support of the inhabitants of Idumæa -(of whom 20,000 were enlisted), Peræa, and Galilee. On the other -side, Rome summoned into the field a formidable force, which was -placed under the command of T. Flavius Vespasian, the greatest -soldier of his day. In the hope, apparently, that the Jews, when they -learned the strength of the force sent against them, would submit -without further resistance, Vespasian delayed the attack on Jerusalem -for more than two years, choosing first to reduce the cities of -Galilee—Gadara, Jotapata, Gischala, and others; which, indeed, no -prudent general could leave unsubdued in his rear. The whole of -this province, which had been placed under the government of the -celebrated historian, Josephus,[18] remained throughout this period -in a state of internal dissension, fomented in a great measure by the -notorious John of Gischala, giving but little hope of a successful -resistance to Rome when the actual struggle should begin. Yet some -of these cities, notably Gamala Tarichæa, above all Jotapata, where -Josephus commanded in person, offered a protracted and desperate -resistance.[19] - -When the road to Jerusalem had been laid fully open, the civil -strife, by which the empire had been distracted, had come to an -end. Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, one after another, had succeeded -to the Imperial sceptre, only to have it snatched from their grasp; -and, finally, Vespasian had been advanced to the throne of the -Cæsars. Leaving to his son Titus the task of reducing to obedience -the rebellious city, Vespasian set sail for Italy; and the Roman -army, 60,000 strong,[20] advanced under its new leader to the final -encounter in the spring of A.D. 70. - -Jerusalem was at that time one of the strongest, as well as one of -the most picturesque, cities in the world. It stands upon a rocky -plateau about 2,600 feet above the level of the sea. On all sides -except one it is surrounded by mountains; which do not, however, rise -to a much greater altitude than the city itself. The plateau consists -of two principal eminences, Zion and Acra, on the former of which -stood the Upper City, or the City of David, and on the latter what -was called the Lower City. A third—a smaller and somewhat lower hill, -called Moriah—was anciently divided from Mount Acra by the Tyropœon, -or Valley of the Cheesemongers, which was filled up by the Maccabees, -who raised Moriah to the same level as the neighbouring hill. It was -on the summit of Moriah that the Temple stood. In later times the -suburb called Bezetha was added to the city, and the whole environed -by walls. - -Of these there were three—one inside another. The first began on the -north side at the tower called Hippicus, terminating at the western -cloister of the Temple. The second wall began at the gate called -Gennath, enclosing the northern quarter of the city only, and ending -at the Tower of Antonia. The third, which was designed to protect -Bezetha, was incomplete at the time of the outbreak of the Jewish -war, but was then completed, in anticipation of the approaching -siege. These walls were strengthened by towers of solid masonry—some -of the stones being of enormous size—and rose to a great height above -the level of the walls. The Tower of Antonia stood on a rock ninety -feet high, the fortress itself being fully seventy feet higher; and -at the portions not defended by these walls, the platform of rock -itself, sinking down, as it did almost with a sheer descent, into the -ravines below, formed an impregnable defence. In times when the use -of gunpowder was unknown, it could be captured only by blockade, or -after the most frightful waste of human life. - -Meanwhile the city was distracted by factions, which appeared to be -more likely to destroy one another than to maintain a successful -defence against an enemy. After the massacre of the Roman troops, -Ananus the High Priest, a wise and good man, gained some authority in -the city, and endeavoured to counteract the influence of the Zealots. -He might have succeeded in averting the war. But Eleazar, the leader -of the Zealots, and John of Gischala,[21] the chief of the Galilæans, -conspired against him, and by night introduced the Idumæans, in -overwhelming force, into the city. By them Ananus and his friends -were murdered, and Jerusalem thenceforth was given up to hopeless -anarchy. - -Such authority as there was, rested with the chiefs of the three -factions, Eleazar, John, and Simon;[22] but between these there was -not only no accord, but the most bitter and persistent animosity. -Of the Zealots there were about 2,500, of the Galilæans 6,000, and -of the Assassins (as Simon’s followers were called) 10,000 Jews and -5000 Idumæans. Few of these, comparatively speaking, had undergone -any military training. But their desperate and fanatical courage, -stimulated by their total disregard of all laws, human and Divine, -rendered them the most formidable enemies that Rome herself ever -encountered. Not only between the three leaders, but their followers -also, there subsisted the bitterest hate, which they gratified by -continual quarrels and murders; and had it been in their power, they -would gladly have exterminated one another. Yet in the field they -combined against the common foe with the most perfect unanimity. - -The great bulk of the inhabitants awaited the approach of the -Romans with uneasiness and alarm. The city was densely crowded, -multitudes having come in from the country to celebrate the Passover. -Josephus’s numbers are doubtless an exaggeration.[23] But, on the -other hand, there has been a tendency among modern writers to err -in the opposite direction. It may safely be affirmed that the total -of inhabitants, when the Roman standards came in sight, could not -have been less than a million, and probably exceeded that amount. -There was much, independently of the terror of the Roman name, to -awaken their apprehensions. There had been signs in heaven and on -earth of approaching disaster. A fiery sword is said to have hung -over Jerusalem, day and night, for many months. The whole sky on -one occasion was full of what seemed to be chariots and horses of -fire, environing Jerusalem. It was whispered that the great gate of -the Temple had opened of itself at midnight, and a voice had been -heard to exclaim, ‘Let us depart hence.’ A simple herdsman, Jesus, -the son of Hanani, was suddenly seized with the spirit of prophecy, -and for several years went up and down the city exclaiming, ‘Woe, -woe, to Jerusalem!’ He was carried before the Roman governor, and -scourged till his bones were laid bare. But he never desisted from -his mournful chaunt, until one day during the siege he was struck by -a stone from a catapult, and slain. - -But nothing daunted the determined spirits of the garrison. At the -very outset of the siege, Titus had a signal proof of the character -of the enemies with whom he had to deal. He had approached the city -for the purpose of surveying it, accompanied by 600 horsemen, never -dreaming that they would be rash enough to assail him, and rather -anticipating that his presence would strike terror into them, and -induce them to capitulate. But the moment he approached the walls the -Jews sallied out, surrounding his troop, and cutting him off from his -supports; and it was only by the most desperate exercise of personal -valour that he escaped being slain. On the following day they twice -attacked the tenth legion, while engaged in fortifying the camp, and -threw it into confusion; and it was Titus’s promptitude alone which -averted a great disaster. Soon afterwards they contrived to allure -a body of Roman soldiers under the walls, by a pretended offer of -surrender, and almost entirely cut it off. It became at once evident -that if these men were to be conquered, or even kept in check, the -utmost vigilance and promptitude would be required. - -Two fortified camps were accordingly formed, too strong to be -attacked even by desperate men; and then the siege proper commenced. -After careful survey, Titus resolved to assault the triple wall on -the north side of the city; which was, after all, less difficult to -surmount than the mighty ramparts, reared by nature and aided by -art, which the other parts of the defences presented. He accordingly -constructed three great walls, cutting down for the purpose all -the timber which was to be found near the city. On these he set up -his military engines, which hurled huge stones and darts against -the defenders of the wall, and then set the rams at work to batter -it down. Towers were also erected, sheeted with iron, so as to be -proof against fire, and overtopping the defences, thus rendering it -impossible for the defenders to man the ramparts. After a desperate -attempt to set the works of the besiegers on fire, the Jews were -obliged to abandon the outer wall, and fall back on the second. - -This was captured and thrown down in a much shorter space of time -than had been spent on the reduction of the former. But the success -was not obtained without more than one repulse, and heavy loss; -and the defences still to be surmounted appeared so formidable, -garrisoned as they were by men whom nothing could daunt or weary out, -that Titus resolved to make a display under their eyes of his whole -military array, in the hope that by showing the impossibility of -ultimate resistance, he might induce them to surrender. He caused all -his troops to pass in review before him, in sight of the city, all -arrayed in their complete accoutrements and observing the strictest -form of military discipline—a splendid but terrible sight to men who -knew that it was impossible for them to offer effectual resistance. -But Simon, and John, and their fierce followers knew also that they -had offended too deeply for forgiveness; they looked sternly and -gloomily on, but made no sign; nor would they reply to Josephus, -when soon afterwards he offered his intercession. Titus saw that all -efforts at conciliation were vain, and the last scene of the fearful -tragedy began. - -So unconquerable was the ferocity of the Jewish soldiery,[24] that it -may be doubted whether even the stern discipline, the high military -spirit, and the overwhelming numbers of the Romans would not have -been compelled ultimately to give way before them, if it had not been -that Rome now acquired two new allies, more terrible than any they -had yet brought into the field. Jerusalem, at all times a populous -city, was now crowded to excess by strangers, who had come over -to keep the Jewish Passover, and had been unable to withdraw. The -supplies of food soon began to fail, and the famine which ensued grew -every hour more pressing. The soldiers had to supply their own wants -by making the round of the houses, and tearing their daily meals -from the mouths of their starving fellow-citizens. Numbers of these -were driven by hunger to steal out of the city by night, to gather -herbs and roots, which might afford temporary relief. Titus, hoping -to terrify the besieged by a display of severity which would save in -the end more lives than he sacrificed, ordered these unhappy wretches -to be crucified in the sight of their countrymen; and the city in -which the Lord of Life had undergone the same form of death was -surrounded by a multitude of crosses, on which the agonized sufferers -slowly yielded up their lives in torment. Others, who implored -the protection of the Romans, were ruthlessly ripped open in vast -numbers by the barbarous soldiery, who believed that the fugitives -had swallowed gold, which they would find in their entrails. The -fate of these, dreadful as it was, was less terrible than that of -the wretches who remained to perish of famine. Scenes almost too -shocking for belief have yet been recorded on authority which cannot -be disputed. Husbands saw their wives perishing before their eyes, -and were unable to save them; parents snatched the food from the -mouths of their starving children; hungry wretches crawled to the -walls, and entreated the soldiers to slay them, and failing to obtain -this last mercy, lay down by hundreds in the streets, and died. -Nay, the last horror of all but too surely was accomplished, and -mothers slew and ate their own nursing children! The numbers of the -dead lying unburied soon bred pestilence, and added to the horrors -of the time. An attempt was made to bury the corpses at the public -expense; but the accumulating numbers rendered this impossible, and -they were thrown by thousands over the walls in the sight of the -horror-stricken Romans. - -Through all these frightful scenes the siege of the inner wall -went on. The frantic followers of Simon and John continued to -fight with unabated ferocity against their enemies without and -their countrymen within the wall, undeterred by the sufferings of -their fellow-citizens or the near approach of the avenging swords -of the besiegers. It was at this time that the judicial murder of -the High Priest, Matthias, took place. He was an inoffensive old -man, who had introduced Simon into the city, hoping that he would -restrain the violence of John. Simon now accused him of a treacherous -correspondence with the enemy.[25] He was put to death along with his -sons and several of the Sanhedrin. - -Titus now built fresh walls on which to plant his engines; but -they were undermined or destroyed by fire, and he was compelled to -surround the whole city by a vast circumvallation, and then to erect -fresh platforms and towers, from which the inner wall, with Antonia -and the Temple, might be assailed. After several repulses and severe -fighting, this was accomplished. The heights were scaled, Antonia -levelled with the ground, and the Temple itself laid open to attack. -Struck with horror at the profanation of a place dedicated to the -service of God, which must ensue if the strife was continued, Titus -offered to permit the Jews to come forth and meet him on any other -battle ground, promising in that case himself to keep the Temple -inviolate from the step of any enemy. He represented that the daily -services had already ceased, and the holy ground had been polluted -by human blood. He wished to have no share in such impieties, and -would prevent them, if he could. His overtures were contemptuously -rejected. The Jews themselves set fire to the western cloister, and -so laid bare the space between the remains of the Antonia and the -Temple. - -Another assault was now ordered, and a close and murderous strife, -which raged for eight hours, ensued without material gain to either -party. It was the 10th of August—the anniversary, always dreaded by -the Jews, of the destruction of Solomon’s Temple. Both parties seemed -to have entertained the idea that the day would prove fatal to the -second Temple, as it had to the first. But this apparently had proved -fallacious. The Romans had retired, and the guard for the night had -been set, when suddenly a cry was raised that the Temple was on fire. -Some of the Jews had again provoked a skirmish. The Romans had not -only driven them back, but had forced their way into the innermost -court, and one of them had hurled a firebrand into the sanctuary -itself, which had instantly caught fire. This was contrary to the -express order of Titus; and he instantly hurried down, accompanied -by his officers, to extinguish the flames. The courts were full of -armed men engaged in desperate strife, and his commands were unheard -or unheeded. The devouring fire wreathed round the stately pillars -and surged within the cedar roofs. Before the resistance of the few -survivors had ceased, the Temple was one vast pagoda of roaring -flame; and when the morning dawned, the Holy House and the chosen -nation had passed away forever. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[17] By this the Christians in Jerusalem were enabled to secure -their retreat to Pella, where they remained uninjured by the fearful -sufferings which ensued, so making good the Lord’s promise, St. Luke -xxi. 20, 21. - -[18] Flavius Josephus was born A.D. 37 at Jerusalem, and was -connected on the mother’s side with the Asmonæan family. He received -a liberal education, and at the age of 20 attached himself to the -sect of the Pharisees. When the war with Rome broke out he was made -Governor of Galilee, and defended Jotapata for nearly seven weeks -against Vespasian. When it was taken, he fell into the hands of the -enemy, by whom he was favourably received. He now attached himself -to the Romans, and was present in Titus’s camp during the siege of -Jerusalem. He accompanied the conquerors to Rome, where he wrote his -historical works. He died about the end of the first century. His -countrymen have generally regarded him as a traitor. - -[19] The fall of Jotapata is one of those occurrences, often repeated -in the history of the Jews, which strikingly illustrate their -national character. After a desperate defence, when the place had -been carried by assault, the remnant of the garrison took refuge in a -cavern; and here, rejecting the offers of the Romans, they, by mutual -consent, slew one another, until only Josephus and one of his men -were left alive. These two then gave themselves up to the mercy of -Vespasian. - -[20] Titus had four Roman legions, and a large force of Greek and -Syrian auxiliaries. The number, 60,000, has been objected to, as an -exaggeration, but it is probably rather under than over the mark. - -[21] John was the son of Levi, and a native of Gischala, who began -his career as a robber, and raised a band, it is said, of 4,000 men. -In craft, daring, and merciless cruelty he has never been exceeded. -He defended Gischala, from which he fled when its capture was -imminent. He repaired to Jerusalem, where he gained great ascendency, -and with Eleazar and Simon defended it to the last. At its capture, -he surrendered to the Romans, and was sentenced to imprisonment for -life. - -[22] Simon, the son of Gioras, was a man as fierce and lawless, -though hardly as crafty, as his rival John. He was a native of -Gerasa, and first appeared in history when he attacked the troops -of Cestius Gallus in their retreat from Jerusalem. Driven out of -Judæa by Ananus, he took possession with his banditti of Masada, and -ravaged the neighbourhood. The Idumæans rose against him and, after -several battles, drove him out of the country. Soon afterwards they -captured his wife, whom they carried to Jerusalem. Simon repaired -thither with his followers, and terrified the citizens, by his -barbarities, to surrender her to him. In the spring of the following -year, A.D. 69, a party in Jerusalem, headed by Matthias, invited -Simon to enter the city. Then ensued an internecine struggle between -the three factions, which lasted until the Romans environed the city, -and indeed to the end of the siege. When the city was at length -captured by the Romans, he surrendered himself prisoner, was conveyed -to Rome, figured in the triumphal procession of Vespasian and Titus, -and was then put to death. - -[23] See Appendix I. - -[24] An extraordinary instance of the desperate courage with which -the Jews fought occurred about this time. Antiochus, King of -Commagene, had arrived in Titus’s camp, with a chosen band of youths, -armed in the Macedonian fashion. He expressed his surprise that -Titus did not take the city by escalade. Titus suggested that he -should himself make the attempt with his warriors. This he did; but -though his men fought with the utmost valour, they were all killed or -severely wounded. - -[25] There may have been some grounds for this suspicion. A -considerable number of the chief priests (including one of the -sons of this same Matthias) effected their escape, and were kindly -received by Titus. - - - - - CHAPTER III. - - A.D. 72-131. - - THE JEWS UNDER THE EMPERORS TRAJAN AND ADRIAN. - - -The destruction of the Temple, though it was the death-knell of the -Jewish people, did not at once put an end to the siege. The Upper -City, into which Simon and John had retreated, still held out, and -was to all appearance stronger and more difficult to assault than -what had been already captured. But the spirit of the Jewish leaders, -fierce as it was, had been broken by the failure of their cherished -hope—the direct interference of Heaven in behalf of the Temple. -They demanded a parley, which was granted them, and Titus would -have spared their lives, on condition of absolute surrender. But -they required terms which he refused to grant, and hostilities were -renewed. After incessant labour, occupying nearly three weeks, Titus -raised his works to a sufficient height to enable him to attack the -walls by which the Upper City was guarded, and an assault was made. -It was almost instantly successful. The determined obstinacy of the -defenders had sunk into sullen despair. They gave way on all sides; -their leaders took refuge in the vaults beneath the city, soon -afterwards surrendering to the mercy of Titus; and the whole city -fell into the hands of the besiegers. - -But even this did not put a period to the war. Three strong -fortresses, Herodion, Machærus, and Masada, garrisoned by men as -fierce and resolute as the defenders of Jerusalem itself, still -remained unconquered. The first of these, indeed, surrendered as -soon as summoned; and the second, after some fierce conflicts with -the Romans, was induced to do the same. But the third, Masada, the -favourite stronghold of Herod the Great, offered a long and desperate -resistance. It stood on a lofty rock, on the south-west border of -the Dead Sea, and was only accessible by two narrow paths on the -east and west, winding up lofty precipices, where the slightest slip -of the foot would be inevitable death. When these tracks, which -were three or four miles in length, were surmounted, the fortress -of Masada appeared, standing in the centre of a broad plateau, and -surrounded by a wall twenty-two feet high, defended by massive -towers. It was strongly garrisoned, and supplied with provisions -sufficient for a siege of almost any duration. Silva, as the Roman -general sent against it was called, blockaded the place, and then -erected a mound of enormous height, on the top of which he planted -his battering rams. A breach was made, to which the besieged opposed -an inner wall of timber. But this the Romans set on fire and reduced -to ashes; upon which the besieged, finding it impossible to offer -further resistance, and resolved not to surrender, took the desperate -resolution of perishing by their own deed. They first slew their -wives and children. Then, appointing ten executioners for the work, -they all submitted their own breasts to the sword: the ten then fell, -each by his neighbour’s hand, and finally the surviving one drove the -weapon into his own heart! This terrible catastrophe forms a fitting -conclusion to the long catalogue of horrors which the Jewish wars -record. - -Judæa being now completely subdued, it remained for Titus to -determine how the vanquished were to be dealt with. Further -severities could hardly be required, even if they were possible. The -numbers which had already perished are very variously stated. Those -given by Josephus may certainly be regarded as an exaggeration, -while the estimate of some later writers clearly fall short of the -fact.[26] It is enough to say, that the whole of Galilee and Judæa -had become one vast wreck—the fields and vineyards wasted, the woods -cut down, the cities heaps of ruins, the land a graveyard. The very -soldiers were weary of the work of carnage. Yet even of the miserable -remnant of the inhabitants of Jerusalem, such as were old and weakly, -and would not therefore realize a price in the auction mart, were -put to death. Of those that remained, the tallest and best looking -were reserved to grace the triumph of the conqueror at Rome. The rest -were sent to labour in the Egyptian mines, or despatched in batches -to distant provinces—to work as slaves, or be exhibited in the -amphitheatres, as gladiators or combatants with wild beasts. A large -proportion of the captives is said to have died of hunger. - -As regards the leaders, the life of John was spared, though of all -men who took part in the defence of Jerusalem he least deserved -mercy. Simon was carried to Rome, and walked in the triumphal -procession which Vespasian and Titus led up to the Capitol. This is -said to have exceeded in splendour all previous pageants. Among the -spoils displayed were the golden table, the silver trumpets, the -seven-branched candlestick, and the book of the law; and these, the -sole surviving monuments of the glories of the Latter House, still -remain sculptured on the entablature of the Arch of Titus, to attest -to posterity this terrible tale of crime and suffering. - -With the fall of Jerusalem and the overthrow of the Temple, as has -been already observed, the national existence of the Jews terminated. -Thenceforth, though they were to be found in large numbers in almost -every country in the world, they were strangers and sojourners -among other nations, no longer themselves a people. It must not, -however, be supposed, though the mistake is a common one, that their -dispersion dates from the conquest of Judæa by Titus. They had spread -into distant lands long before that time, and had formed large and -powerful communities. It was only a portion of the Jews that returned -from Babylon after the captivity. A large number had remained -behind, occupying the homes which they had made for themselves, -and enjoying prosperity and peace. In Egypt and Cyrene they were -almost as numerous; in Rome, and in other great Italian cities, they -constituted no small section of the inhabitants. How widely they were -scattered may be gathered from the catalogue given by St. Luke, in -his narrative of the doings of the Day of Pentecost. - -The real change which now took place consisted in the destruction of -their great centre of life and unity. It was like cutting off the -main fountain in some system of artificial irrigation. The waters -still remained in a hundred reservoirs, but the system itself existed -no longer. With any other nation in the world, the result, in the -course of a few generations, would have been the disappearance of -all the peculiar and distinctive features of the people. They would -have become fused with, and incorporated in, the nations among whom -they were dwelling, as was the case with the Danes and Saxons among -ourselves. But though they have resided among alien races for two -thousand years, they have ever dwelt, and still dwell, apart from -them. They obey the laws and comply with the customs of the land -in which they reside; they converse in its language and respect -its religious observances. But they cling to the Jewish laws and -customs, so far as it is possible for them to do so. The Hebrew is -still their national language; the ancient worship of Israel the -only one they will render. Like the stream of the Rhone at Chalons, -which mingles with that of the Saone, yet continues to retain the -peculiarity of its colour, they are dwellers among many nations, but -Jews after all, and Jews only. - -It was this distinctive feature that enabled them, before the -lapse of many years, to resume something of the organization which -had been, to all appearance, destroyed by the heavy blow they had -sustained. The Sanhedrin, which they had always acknowledged as the -chief authority of Palestine, had escaped, it was said, the general -wreck, and was presently re-established at Jamnia. How far this may -have been the case is a moot point in history. But it is certain that -a school of theology, commanding very wide and general respect, grew -up in that city; and its presidents exercised considerable influence -over their countrymen. The Eastern Jews were under the authority of -a chief, known as ‘the Prince of Captivity,’ while those lying more -to the west acknowledged a similar ruler, who assumed the title of -‘the Patriarch of the West.’ The synagogues also, which had in later -generations been set up in every Jewish city, though they could not -supply the void caused by the destruction of the Temple, afforded, -nevertheless, something of a centre of religious unity. In this -manner, before the lapse of two generations, the Jews, with the -amazing vitality that has ever distinguished them, had recovered in -a great measure their numbers, their wealth, and their unconquerable -spirit. - -Throughout the reigns of Titus, Domitian, and Nerva, little is heard -of them. It is said indeed that Vespasian ordered search to be made -for any blood-relations of Jesus, the Son of David, whom he purposed -to put to death, as possible aspirants to the crown of Judæa; and -Hegesippus affirms that two grandsons of St. Jude were cited before -Domitian for the same reason. But we learn that they were at once -dismissed as unworthy of notice. Nor, throughout Nerva’s reign, was -any burden laid upon them, beyond the didrachma imposed by Vespasian. -But during Trajan’s Parthian wars, which necessitated the absence -of the Roman troops from the garrison towns of Africa, the Jews in -Egypt and Cyrene broke out into insurrection, and terrible bloodshed -ensued. It began with the massacre of the entire Jewish population -at Alexandria by the Greeks, who had taken up arms to oppose them. -Maddened by the tidings of this disaster, the Cyrenian Jews are -said to have committed unheard-of atrocities; sawing in twain the -bodies of their prisoners, or compelling them to fight in the -amphitheatres—it was even alleged, feasting on their flesh. They are -thought to have slaughtered more than 200,000, some say 600,000 men. -The revolt had hardly attained its height, when it was followed by -two others, one in Cyprus, and the other in Mesopotamia. They were -put down after a little while, with frightful carnage, by the Romans -and more particularly by Lucius Quietus, one of the ablest generals -of the day. Trajan’s anger seems to have been greatly roused by the -outbreak, for which he felt that his mild and equitable government -had given no adequate cause. He required their total expulsion from -Mesopotamia; and it is likely that his death in the ensuing year -alone prevented the accomplishment of his purpose. - -The Jews, however, fared little better under his successor, Adrian. -This emperor had been a witness of the atrocities perpetrated by -the Jews during the insurrection in Cyprus; and he had probably -some reason for anticipating a similar demonstration in Palestine. -Scarcely fifty years had elapsed since that land had been reduced to -the condition of a desert.[27] But so irrepressible was the vigour of -the Hebrew race, that the fields had been recultivated, the forests -replanted, most of the cities rebuilt, and tenanted by large and -thriving populations. It was obvious, if Jerusalem should rise from -its ruins, and a new temple crown Mount Moriah, that a repetition -of the war, which had cost Rome so much blood and treasure, would -inevitably ensue. It is not known with any certainty what was the -condition of Jerusalem at this time. When the city fell entirely into -the hands of Titus, he ordered the whole of it to be destroyed, with -the exception of the three stately towers of Hippicus, Phasaelus, and -Psephinus, together with part of the western wall,—which was left as -a shelter to the Roman camp, where about eight hundred legionaries -were stationed, as a garrison, to preserve order in the neighbouring -country. How long they remained there is uncertain. But no one seems -to have interfered with such persons as chose to return to the -deserted spot, and erect new homes out of the heaps of ruin that lay -scattered round. What numbers may by this time have assembled on the -site of the Holy City we are not told. But Adrian resolved to put a -stop to the fancies which, not improbably, really were current among -the Jews, by establishing a Roman colony on the spot, and building on -Mount Moriah a temple of Jupiter.[28] - -It is probable that the emperor did not understand—indeed, no heathen -could understand—the horror and despair which the publication of -the design caused among the unhappy Jews. It was in their eyes the -most fearful impiety—the most horrible profanation. Their only hope -lay in the advent of the long-promised Messiah; who now surely, if -ever, might be expected to appear on earth, and redeem His people -from the depth of degradation and misery to which they had sunk. In -the midst of these alternations of despondency and reassurance, a -rumour suddenly reached them, that the long-expected deliverer _had_ -at last made his appearance, and was even then, on his way, at the -head of an armed force, to take possession of the ruins of Jerusalem, -and prevent the perpetration of the intended impiety. His name, they -were told, was Barchochebas, ‘the son,’ that is to say, ‘of the -star,’—the star predicted by Balaam, ‘which was to come out of Jacob, -and smite the corners of Moab, and destroy all the children of Sheth.’ - -It is likely that the faith of the Jewish people in the appearance -of a promised Messiah was by this time a good deal shaken. So many -impostors had appeared, and lured their thousands to destruction, -that even the deeply seated belief in his speedy advent was not -sufficient to induce them to admit the pretensions of any fresh -aspirant without careful inquiry. But in the present instance there -were two considerations, each of which had been enough by itself to -remove all doubt or hesitation. The first is, what has been already -mentioned, the flagrancy of the insult offered to Almighty God; -which, in the judgment of the Jews, was certain to bring down signal -and immediate judgment on its authors. The other was the fact that -Barchochebas had been accepted as the veritable Messiah by Akiba, -the greatest of their Rabbis, and chief of the schools at Bethor. -Something should be said of both these men, who played so conspicuous -a part at this crisis in Jewish history. - - - NOTE TO CHAPTER III. ON THE NUMBER SLAIN IN THE JEWISH WARS. - - The numbers of those slain in the Jewish wars, as reported by - Josephus, are as under. - - At Cæsarea 20,000 | At Mt. Gerizim 11,600 - ” Scythopolis 13,000 | ” Jotapata 40,000 - ” Alexandria 50,000 | ” Gamala 15,000 - ” Damascus 10,000 | ” Gadara 15,000 - ” Ascalon (3 massacres) 20,000 | ” Jerusalem 1,100,000 - ” Joppa 15,000 | - - At other places there were smaller totals, amounting altogether to - upwards of 100,000, and making the entire sum of slain something - less than a million and a half. But, as is elsewhere intimated - (Appendix I.), Josephus’s statements must be received with caution. - The large population found in Palestine in Adrian’s reign is not - easily reconcilable with it. Lightfoot’s opinion seems the more - probable one. Notwithstanding the great carnage, he says, ‘Tantum - abfuit gens a totali et consummatâ deletione, ut undique adhuc - restaret innumera multitudo, quæ se pacate Romano nutui dedidisset, - et pace sedibus suis quiete frueretur. Ita ut Templum et Metropolim - quidem desiderares, verum terram habitatoribus repletam, compositum - Synedrii, Synagogarum, Populi statum illico cerneres.’—Lightfoot, - vol. xi. 468. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[26] According to Josephus’s account, 600,000 perished of hunger -during the siege; and the total of those who died during the -campaign amounted to little short of a million and half. But that he -exaggerates is beyond dispute. See Appendix I. - -[27] See note at end of chapter. - -[28] He is said at the same time to have issued a decree forbidding -the Jews to circumcise their children. - - - - - CHAPTER IV. - - A.D. 131-135. - - THE REVOLT OF BARCHOCHEBAS. - - -Rabbi Akiba was a proselyte of Canaanitish descent, a herdsman in -the employ of a wealthy man named Kalba-Sabua. His master’s daughter -fell in love with him, and they were married, though without the -father’s knowledge. When he learned the fact, he drove them from -his house; and Akiba, at the age of forty, began the study of the -law. He obtained great reputation in it, being accounted one of -the chief authorities of that Rabbinical school of interpretation -which upholds the absolute integrity of the received text, and -teaches that every word, nay every letter of it, has its special and -mystical meaning. After twelve years of study, when he had risen -to considerable eminence, he paid a visit to Kalba-Sabua, followed -by 12,000 disciples, who attended on his teaching. The old man -continuing inflexible, Akiba returned to his studies for twelve years -more, when he again appeared at his father-in-law’s house, this time -accompanied by 24,000 scholars. This evidence of the honour in which -his son-in-law was held overcame Kalba-Sabua’s resentment, and he -bestowed a large portion of his riches upon him. At the time of the -revolt from Adrian, Akiba was nearly 120 years old.[29] He had been -recently travelling in Northern Africa and Mesopotamia, where he had -witnessed the zeal of his countrymen for the Hope of Israel; and he -was resolved that he and his should not fall behind them in courage -and devotion. - -His feelings must have been very warmly awakened to allow of his -accepting Barchochebas, as he called himself, as the true Messiah -that was to come. Who Barchochebas really was, has always been a -problem with historians. By some he is said to have been a captain -of banditti, notorious for his robberies and murders. But this may, -not impossibly, be a calumny. He may have been the leader of one of -the bands of wild warriors, who in those lawless times lived, like -the more modern Bedouins, after a predatory manner, but are hardly -to be regarded as mere robbers. Though undoubtedly an impostor, and -conscious of his own imposture,[30] he was nevertheless a man of -courage and ability, who might, under more favourable circumstances, -have succeeded in establishing the independence of his country. - -His first step, as we have seen, was to march with such forces as he -could raise to Jerusalem; where he put a stop to the sacrilegious -work which had been already commenced by Adrian’s order. He then -proceeded to the strong city of Bithor, or Bethor, which lay at no -great distance from Jerusalem. Here he was publicly acknowledged by -Akiba as the Messiah, and large numbers of Jews, not from Judæa only, -but from other neighbouring countries, flocked in to his standard. -The levies at his command are said to have amounted at one time -to 200,000 men; a force with which the Roman troops in Judæa were -wholly unable to cope. The whole country fell under his dominion, -and the utmost zeal and loyalty were displayed in his service. The -only persons throughout the whole of Palestine who stood aloof -were the Christians; who, knowing that Jesus Christ was the true -Deliverer of the Jewish people, could not acknowledge any other to be -such. Barchochebas is said to have punished their defection, as he -considered it, with the most savage cruelty, regarding them as rebels -and traitors, more criminal than the Romans themselves. - -Adrian, who could not for a long time be induced to believe that -the Jews, after the terrible lesson which their fathers had learned -of the consequences of rebellion against Rome, would again provoke -a mortal quarrel, treated the outbreak as a matter of but small -importance. But the tales that reached him, of large military stores -being in the possession of the Jews, who had for a long time past -been secretly collecting them; of their countrymen from Egypt and the -East thronging to their standard; and even of multitudes of strangers -to their faith and nation nevertheless joining them, in the hope of -obtaining plunder, roused him at length to vigorous action. He sent -a reinforcement of troops to Ticinius, or Tinnius, by some called -Turnus Rufus,[31] who commanded in Judæa, and recalled from Britain -Julius Severus, the ablest officer of his time, to put down, what—it -was now impossible to disguise—had become a dangerous rebellion. - -Severus, on his arrival, found the condition of things so -unfavourable to the Roman arms that he did not venture to meet -Barchochebas in the field. The latter was in possession of fifty -fortified places, and nearly a thousand villages and towns. Rufus -had done little but exercise the most merciless severities on all, -even women and children, who had fallen into his power; thus, -without really diminishing the strength of his enemies, increasing -tenfold their exasperation. If he had continued in command, it is -far from improbable that the yoke of Rome would, for a time at all -events, have been cast off. But Severus had learned the art of war -in his campaigns in Britain; and the consequences of the change of -the general in command soon became evident. Avoiding, as has been -already intimated, any decisive engagement, he harassed the Jews by -an endless succession of petty conflicts, in nearly all of which they -were worsted, driving them into their strongholds, which he then -besieged and captured,[32] until nearly all that had revolted were -reduced to submission.[33] By the end of the third year of the war, -the rebels were driven into the strong city of Bithor, or Bethor, the -situation of which is uncertain, but is generally believed to have -been somewhere in the neighbourhood of Bethhoron. Here Barchochebas -and Akiba sustained, we are told, a long and terrible siege, ‘the -rebels being driven,’ says Eusebius, ‘to the last extremities -by famine.’ But there is no historian of this war to record its -particulars with the minuteness and accuracy of a Josephus. The -Rabbins have indeed given many details; but it is impossible to rely -on their statements. Thus, they relate, that when the prospects of -the besieged became gloomy and threatening, one of the most zealous -of their body, Rabbi Eliezer, the son of Hamadai, following the -example of Moses at Rephidim, remained on his knees in prayer during -the whole time that the fighting was going on; and the result of his -prayers was, that the Jews fought with signal success, everywhere -driving the besiegers back. To avert the disaster which seemed likely -to result to the Roman arms, a treacherous Samaritan pretended to -be discovered in carrying treasonable communications between the -Rabbi and the Romans. Barchochebas, without inquiry, ordered the -Rabbi to be slain; and from that moment, it is said, the courage -of the besieged gave way. Bithor was at length taken by storm. -Barchochebas, according to some, was killed in action, according -to others, put to death with cruel tortures by the conquerors. The -slaughter that ensued is described as exceeding anything on record. -The streams of blood were so great as to carry heavy stones the whole -way from the city to the sea, and the ground for eighteen miles -round is said to have been covered with corpses! These flights of -Rabbinical imagination may be dismissed as worthless; but the more -sober historian, Dion Cassius, reports that more than half a million -perished by the sword, independently of vast numbers who died by -disease and famine. Judæa once more became a barren waste. The cities -were reduced to heaps of ruin, and the wild beasts tenanted the -streets. The inhabitants who escaped the sword were sold as slaves, -and transported to foreign lands. - -The fate of the stern old Rabbi Akiba should not be passed over. He -was treated with the utmost barbarity by Rufus, who seems to have -been in command at the capture of the city. While under examination -before the Roman tribunal, the hour of prayer came round, and Akiba, -wholly disregarding the presence of his judge, and his own mortal -peril, fell on his knees and calmly went through his usual devotions. -Only a scanty pittance of water was allowed him in his dungeon; -but though he was consumed with thirst, he applied the water to -the customary ceremonial ablutions. He was sentenced to death, and -executed with the most barbarous cruelty, some writers affirming that -he was flayed alive, and afterwards slain, others that he was torn -to pieces with iron combs.[34] - -Adrian now carried out his design, the commencement of which had -been the immediate cause of the war, and built a heathen city on -the site of ancient Jerusalem. This he called Ælia Capitolina—Ælia -after his own name Ælius, and Capitolina, because it was dedicated -to the Capitoline Jupiter. It was built in the style prevalent among -the Romans of that day; and was enclosed by a wall, which included -Mount Calvary and the Holy Sepulchre, but did not take in Mount Zion. -In the execution of his plan he was careful to show all possible -dishonour to the localities which the Jews and also the Christians -regarded with veneration. The temple of Jupiter Capitolinus was -erected on the site of the Temple itself; over the gate which looked -towards Bethlehem, the city of David, a marble figure of a hog was -set up; on Mount Calvary was placed a statue of Venus, the foulest -of the heathen deities; and in the grotto at Bethlehem, where the -Saviour was born, the worship of Adonis was established. Why Adrian -should have been thus studious to profane these latter places, -which, though they possessed special sanctity in the eyes of the -Christians, had little or none in those of the Jews, does not appear. -We can only suppose that the confusion between the Jews and the -Christians, who for many generations were regarded as being merely -a schismatical Jewish sect, misled the Roman emperor, even at this -date and that he regarded Mount Calvary and the Holy Sepulchre as -spots especially venerated by Jews. It is certain that no part of his -anger was levelled against the Christians. He suffered them to settle -within his newly erected city, and carry on their worship there -without interruption. Ælia became, not long afterwards, the seat of a -Christian bishopric. - -But to the Jews he extended no such grace. He issued two edicts; one -renewing the order which forbade the circumcision of their children; -the other interdicting them, on pain of instant death, from entering -the newly-built city, or even approaching so near to it as to be able -to discern with their eyes the sacred precincts. It would seem that -this prohibition was subsequently relaxed, so far as one day in the -year was concerned, the anniversary, namely, of the capture of the -city in the war with Titus, and again, in that with Barchochebas; for -it is a singular fact that the two events occurred in the same month -and on the same day.[35] On the recurrence of that day of misery -and despair, they were allowed to pass the Roman sentinels, and -gaze once more on the ruins of the past. Jerome has given a moving -account of the scene, which, it would appear, he himself witnessed, -two centuries afterwards—the crowd of dejected exiles, the sobs of -the women, the agonized despair of the men, the jeers and scoffs of -the bystanders, and the rude demands of the Roman soldiers for bribes -of money, as the only condition on which they could be allowed to -indulge their sorrow.[36] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[29] So, at least, say the Jewish biographers. But as they labour to -assimilate him in all things to Moses, it is not unlikely that they -have accommodated his age to their theories. - -[30] He is said to have resorted to the expedient, already practised -by pretenders before him, of filling his mouth with lighted tow, and -so appearing to vomit flame. - -[31] The Jews often confounded this man, who is the object of their -special enmity, with the Terentius Rufus to whom Titus entrusted the -final demolition of Jerusalem, and who is almost equally detested by -them. - -[32] It is a doubtful point whether Jerusalem was one of the places -so taken. It appears most probable that it was; and that the work of -demolition, which had been begun by Titus, was completed by Adrian, -and every trace of old Jerusalem destroyed. - -[33] There is evidence, however, that these successes were not -obtained without severe reverses. The language of Adrian in his -despatches to the Senate, in which he omits his usual assurance, that -all is well with the army, is significant of this fact. - -[34] The Talmud affirms that his cheerful demeanour, while subjected -to the most agonizing tortures, amazed his executioners, and that he -told them, that having the love of God in his heart, he could not but -rejoice. - -[35] August 9th. This was also the day of the taking of Jerusalem by -Nebuchadnezzar. One cannot but entertain suspicion of the accuracy of -these statements. - -[36] Their exclusion from Jerusalem is mentioned by many writers -earlier than Jerome—Justin Martyr, Eusebius, and Tertullian, amongst -others. - - - - - CHAPTER V. - - A.D. 135-323. - - THE JEWS UNDER THE ROMAN EMPERORS FROM ADRIAN TO CONSTANTINE. - - -Deplorable as had been the condition of the Jews after the war with -Titus, that of their descendants appeared to be still worse, when -their struggle for independence was closed by the fall of Bethor. -The devastation of their lands, and the destruction of their cities, -could not have been worse than it was on the former occasion. But -they were not then forbidden by their conquerors to return to their -ancient homes, or practise the initiatory rite of their religion. To -all appearance, the total extinction of the nation, by the absorption -of its scattered members among the various communities to which they -had fled for shelter, must inevitably ensue. Nevertheless, this did -not occur. On the contrary, a period of nearly two hundred years -now elapsed, during which they continued, undisturbed by Imperial -severity or intestine commotion, to recruit their numbers and -increase their wealth and influence in almost every portion of the -Roman Empire. This appears to have been due in the first instance -to the favour of Antoninus, who succeeded to the Imperial purple on -the death of Adrian. A story is told of a miraculous cure of the -Emperor’s daughter by a Jew,[37] in requital of which the edict -forbidding circumcision was repealed. But the story rests on no -trustworthy authority. The prohibition was renewed by Aurelius, when -the Eastern Jews offended him by joining the standard of the rebel -Avidius Cassius. But it was soon repealed, if it was ever acted on. - -It is evident, however, that, notwithstanding the toleration extended -to the Jews, they were closely watched, and little trust was reposed -in their good faith. At Jamnia (a town, according to Eusebius, -between Diospolis and Azotus), where a great Rabbinical school had -been established after the fall of Jerusalem, the jealousy of the -Romans was roused by an imprudent speech made by the celebrated Simon -(or Simeon) Jochaides, the reputed author of the Book of Zohar, -and the person by whom (as the reader is informed in the note) the -cure of Antoninus’s daughter is said to have been effected. On -the occasion of some public debate, he denounced the rapacity and -selfishness of the heathen rulers. For this expression of opinion -he was condemned to death, which he only escaped by flight; and the -school at Jamnia was suppressed. On another occasion the periodical -sounding of the trumpet, in the month Tisri, was mistaken by the -governor of the city for the signal of a general revolt. - -In Rome itself—indeed, in all the great cities of the Empire—during -the reigns of the emperors who succeeded Aurelius, up to the time -of Constantine, the Jews were but little interfered with. This was -owing partly to their long residence in the capital. The date of -their first settlement there is unknown. It has been supposed to be -coincident with Pompey’s victories, which probably did bring a large -number of Jewish slaves to Rome. Philo’s testimony to this fact, and -to their general emancipation by their purchasers, seems trustworthy -enough. But it is certain that the Jews had spread far and wide -among all nations before that date, and hence it is most unlikely -that so great a commercial centre as Rome would be overlooked by -them. Josephus says that 8,000 of them attended when Archelaus was -received by Augustus; and though Claudius banished them, it was -only temporarily. It is plain that there were great numbers there, -when St. Paul was imprisoned at Rome. Juvenal, again, speaks of -the mendicant hordes who profaned the grove of Egeria; and the -testimony of Tacitus and Martial is to the same effect. The Jews were -regarded with contemptuous dislike, but there was no inclination to -persecute them. There was another reason, too, why they were treated -with leniency. After Adrian’s time, attention was directed to the -Christians, as the professors of a faith distinct from, and alien to, -Judaism. Thenceforth the Jews were regarded in a different light. -As Christianity grew and spread throughout the empire, its converts -came to be accounted the deadly enemies of the State; and the Jews, -who disliked them as much as the heathen did, were naturally welcomed -as allies against the common enemy. In any persecution of the ‘New -Superstition,’ the Jews were ever ready to take their part[38]; and -their wealth, their numbers, and their zeal rendered their help -valuable. The Pagan rulers felt but little inclination to inquire -into the shortcomings and offences of such useful partisans. - -It will be proper here to say a few words respecting the Sanhedrin, -which, during this period, as well previously and subsequently, -exercised a certain authority. The origin of this National Council -is a matter of dispute. By some it is affirmed that it was first -instituted by Moses (Num. xi. 16), and is identical with the ‘Elders’ -of Joshua xxiv. 1 and Judges ii. 7. But even if that be so, there is -no mention of it in subsequent Jewish history for some 1,200 years, -and the absolute power exercised by the kings (as _e.g._ 1 Kings ii. -27-46) is altogether inconsistent with the existence of any such -judicial body in their day. Others hold that the Great Synagogue, -which Ezra established after the return from the Captivity, gradually -developed into the Sanhedrin. But it is denied by writers whose -opinion is of weight that there was any connection between the Great -Synagogue and the Sanhedrin. Its true origin seems to have been in -the time of Judas Maccabæus, or possibly his brother Jonathan. We -read how the latter wrote a letter to the Lacedæmonians in the names -of ‘Jonathan the High Priest, the Elders of the nation, the priests -and other people of the Jews.’ It is likely that the High Priest and -the Elders continued from that time forth to exercise supreme power -in judicial matters, including that of life and death, until the time -when Judæa became a Roman province, and disputes and jealousies with -the Roman procurators on the subject ensued. - -The statement has already, been noticed, that the Sanhedrin escaped -destruction during the war with Titus. Some of its members were -slain, but the greater part were allowed—so it is averred—to depart -from Jerusalem, and settle at Jamnia. Thence they removed to -Sepphoris, and afterwards to Tiberias, on the Sea of Galilee, whence -the President of the Sanhedrin came to be styled ‘the Patriarch -of Tiberias.’ His authority was acknowledged by all Jews residing -within the limits of the Roman Empire.[39] How far obedience to -him was voluntary, how far a matter of compulsion, it would not -be very easy to determine. The Romans in all likelihood would be -tolerant enough of the exercise of any such authority, which did not -infringe their Imperial power—nay, would probably refer to it all -matters relating to the peculiar usages of the Jews, in the same -spirit in which Claudius Lysias wrote to Felix, and Gallio refused -to listen to the Jewish disputants. The people on their part would -readily submit themselves to the Patriarch of their own nation, if -only in protest against the hated rule of the stranger. Hence, for -many generations, Gamaliel and his successors wielded a wide and -undisputed authority.[40] - -The Sanhedrin consisted of seventy-one members, who were chosen -entirely for the moral excellence of their characters. No young or -unmarried man, no alien, and no one who followed a disreputable -calling, was eligible. With these exceptions, membership was open to -all ranks and conditions of men. - -To this era belongs the Jerusalem Talmud; but of that, and also -of the Babylonian Talmud, the reader will find a full account in -Appendix II. - -To resume our narrative. At the accession of Septimius Severus, who -attained the Imperial purple at the close of the struggle which -ensued after the murder of Commodus, the Jews are said to have -received harsh treatment at his hands; which may well occasion the -reader surprise, as they almost everywhere joined his standard, -as the rival of their bitter enemy, Niger. Yet it is certain that -he re-enacted the old laws against proselytism, or entering the -precincts of Jerusalem; and, if Eusebius is to be credited, he -actually made war on the Jews, and a triumph was decreed him for -his successes in the campaign.[41] But even if this be true, his -anger must soon have subsided; for during his reign they enjoyed -a considerable share of his favour, for which writers hint that -they had to pay heavily. It would appear again that they prospered -under the rule of his depraved and barbarous son Caracalla.[42] -This Emperor is said in early life to have been warmly attached -to a Jewish playmate, the only person for whom he seems ever to -have felt any affection. A few years afterwards they had a still -more extraordinary and discreditable patron in Heliogabalus, the -very vilest, it may safely be affirmed, of all the Roman emperors. -Actuated by the strange caprice which commonly swayed his actions, -he adopted the Jewish customs of circumcision and abstinence from -swine’s flesh. It does not appear, however, that he bestowed -any special marks of regard on the Jews, in consequence of the -inclination he showed for their peculiar tenets. Their religion, -in fact, was only one out of many from which he borrowed one -observance or another; and if it is true that he was on the point of -proclaiming himself to be the chief object of all religious worship, -which all must render him on pain of death, his murder came only just -in time to save them from a sharp persecution. Under his successor, -Alexander Severus, they are thought to have experienced unusual -kindness,[43] because that prince had imbibed from his mother Mammæa -(the disciple, it is said, of Origen) a great prejudice in their -favour. He did show some feeling of this kind, in that he set up the -statue of Abraham in his private chapel, as one of those worthy of -Divine honours. - -But it should be borne in mind that this virtuous prince was after -all a heathen, and had very vague and imperfect ideas about religion. -He regarded all good men as equally worthy of honour, and his -theology hardly extended further. In the shrine already referred to, -he placed not only the statue of Abraham, but of Orpheus, Apollonius -Tyaneus,[44] and Jesus Christ! It is needless to say that the man who -did this could have been no proselyte to Judaism (let the Rabbins say -what they will), or to Christianity either. - -A similar protection was extended to the Jews during the reign of -Philip the Arabian—another sovereign about whom similar fancies are -entertained by Jewish writers, and with no more reason, apparently, -than in the other instances. The Christians also experienced the -same merciful sway. But with the accession of Decius, A.D. 249, the -persecution of the Christians, which had slumbered, with only some -slight and partial renewals, since the time of Aurelius, broke out -with greater violence than ever, and continued to rage, with rare -intermissions, through the reigns of successive emperors, until -the accession of Constantine. There is little or nothing to record -respecting the Jews during this period, so far as those of the West -are concerned, unless the war waged by one of the most powerful of -the later occupants of the Imperial throne, Aurelian, with Zenobia, -Queen of Palmyra, may be thought to have some relation to Jewish -affairs. This princess is said to have been a descendant of the -Asmonæan family, or, at all events, of Jewish birth,[45] and to have -been brought up in the Jewish faith. Some go so far as to say she was -a zealous professor of it.[46] It is certain that she built splendid -synagogues for the use of the Jews, and advanced them to the highest -posts of dignity. The celebrated Paul of Samosata,[47] who enjoyed -her special favour, has been thought to have attempted to effect a -reconciliation between Christianity and Judaism, insisting on the -necessity of the rite of circumcision, and teaching that Jesus was, -although a man, one in whom the Divine Λόγος dwelt. This, it is -thought, may have had her approval. If such was really his design, it -proved, as might have been expected, a total failure, both parties -alike rejecting his teaching. After the fall of Zenobia, he was -deprived of his office, and vanished into obscurity. - -But in any case her history belongs more properly to that of the -Eastern Jews, that large section of the Hebrew race which had spread -far to the eastward of the great river, and who dwelt under the -rule of the Patriarch, known by the title of the ‘Prince of the -Captivity.’ It will be proper now to turn to their affairs. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[37] According to others, it was the daughter of Aurelius who was -healed. A deputation had been sent to protest against the severe -edicts of Verus. The celebrated mystic, Simon ben Jochai, was the -envoy, and he cast an evil spirit out of the Emperor’s daughter. The -Rabbins assert also that Antoninus received circumcision. But their -testimony on this, as on many similar matters, cannot be relied on. - -[38] Thus it is mentioned that the Jews were more forward than the -heathen in bringing faggots to burn the Christian martyr Polycarp—‘as -is their habit,’ says the historian (_Polyc. Martyr._ xiii.). - -[39] Origen affirms that the power of the patriarchs was little less -than that of a king (Orig., _Epist. ad Afric._). - -[40] The Presidents of the Sanhedrin are said to have been— - - 1. Ezra, who, according to this list, must have survived to the - reign of Darius Codomannus, fully 200 years. - - 2. Simon the Just (identified by some with Jaddua who received - Alexander the Great). - - 3. Antigonus of Soco. - - 4. Joseph of Zeredah. - - 5. Joshua, banished by Hyrcanus. - - 6. Judah, contemporary with A. Jann. - - 7. Shemaiah. - - 8. Hillel, the renowned Jewish Doctor. - - 9. Simeon, son of Hillel, supposed by some to be the same who took - Jesus into his arms (St. Luke ii. 25). - - 10. Gamaliel (St. Paul’s teacher). - - 11. Simeon, son of Gamaliel, killed during the siege of Jerusalem. - - 12. Jochanan. - - 13. Gamaliel II., son of Simeon, first Patriarch of Jerusalem. - - 14. Simeon, called the Just. - - 15. Judah II., called Hakkadosh. - - 16. Gamaliel III., in whose time the Sanhedrin is said to have - ceased to exist. - - 17. Judah II. - - 18. Hillel II., who drew up the permanent Jewish calendar. - - 19. Judah III. - - 20. Hillel III. - - 21. Gamaliel IV., with whom the Patriarchate of Tiberias expired, - A.D. 429. - - -[41] It may be that it was not against the Jews, but the Samaritans, -that Severus waged war, and that he temporarily confounded them with -the Jews. The Romans continually made such mistakes. - -[42] Some of the Rabbins assert that Caracalla received circumcision, -but with no more evidence in support of their statement than in the -instance of Antoninus. There was, however, something unusual in the -education of Caracalla. Tertullian says that he received a Christian -education ‘lacte Christiano educatus’ (Tertull. _ad Scop._). If so, -he profited but little by it. - -[43] This seems to have been notorious, as the nickname of the -‘Ruler of the Synagogue,’ given him by the wits of the day, seems to -indicate. - -[44] This extraordinary man was born at Tyana, in Cappadocia, a year -or two before our Lord. Hierocles, A.D. 300, wrote a comparison -between him and Jesus Christ, in which the main points of resemblance -are his (supposed) miraculous birth and power of working miracles, -his attempt to reform the religion of the world, and the voice from -heaven, which is said to have summoned him from earth. His history, -written by Philostratus is overlaid with exaggeration and fable; but -he is to be regarded rather as an enthusiast and a mystic than as an -impostor. His fame was at its zenith in the time of Alexander Severus. - -[45] Theodoret, _de Hær. Fab. Athanas, de solit. vit._ - -[46] Zenobia has been claimed as an upholder of, if not a convert to, -Christianity. She was probably an eclectic with no settled faith. -Hence her patronage of Paul. - -[47] This notorious heresiarch was a native of Samosata, in Syria. He -was made Bishop of Antioch A.D. 260; but his elevation seems to have -turned his head. He thenceforth affected great state and splendour. -Encouraged by the favour of Zenobia, he usurped great power in the -Church. To gain her favour, it is said, he attempted the alleged -compromise between Judaism and Christianity. A council was held A.D. -265, to consider his opinions, over which Firmilian presided, and by -which he was condemned. He refused to obey the decree; but a second -council was thereupon summoned, by which he was deposed, and its -sentence was confirmed by Aurelian. - - - - - CHAPTER VI. - - A.D. 323-363. - - THE PRINCES OF THE CAPTIVITY.—MANES.—THE JEWS UNDER THE ROMAN - EMPERORS FROM CONSTANTINE TO JULIAN. - - -It is probable that the authority exercised by the Patriarchs of the -East[48] grew up after the abandonment by Adrian of his predecessor’s -conquests beyond the Euphrates. The power of the Parthian kings had -been broken by the victories of Trajan; and in the remoter parts of -their dominions they exercised but a feeble authority. Hence little -opposition would be offered to the rule of the Jewish Patriarch—the -less, because the respect and obedience rendered to him did not in -any way trench on the allegiance due to the civil ruler. - -His power appeared to be everywhere firmly established; yet in -the ensuing generation it was assailed, and in a great measure -superseded, by the interference of his Western rival, the Patriarch -of Tiberias. Simeon, son of Gamaliel II., called ‘the Just,’ was a -man of ambitious and restless character. Believing that Jerusalem -was the true centre of Jewish unity, and that his Patriarchate was, -in reality, the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, he argued that he ought -to exercise undivided sway over the whole of the Jewish community, -and regarded his brother of Babylon as a usurper. He sent a delegate -to him, accordingly, who was instructed to approach him with all -possible deference; but as soon as he had made good his position, -to throw off the mask, and demand his submission. His scheme took -effect: the delegate was kindly received, and admitted to the -confidence of his entertainers; when he suddenly changed his tone, -and sharply censuring some of the prince’s acts, required, in the -name of the Patriarch of Jerusalem, that they should be rescinded. A -scene of angry resistance followed. But the name of Jerusalem had too -strong a hold on the heart of every Jew to allow of any successful -opposition. The Babylonian potentate was obliged to succumb, and -until the Patriarchate of Tiberias ceased to exist continued to hold -a place subordinate to his rival. - -But in the succeeding century the Prince of the Captivity recovered -all, and more than all, the power exercised by his predecessors. -Tales are related of his grandeur and magnificence, which it is -difficult to credit, and the more so, because they do not seem to -have diminished after the accession of the Persian kings,[49] who -might reasonably have been expected to be jealous of such subjects. -The Patriarch was wont to be installed in his office with the -greatest pomp. He was carried in a splendid procession, attended by -the Rabbins, and preceded by trumpets, to the Synagogue, where he -was formally admitted to his office, amid the prayers and blessings -of the people. He then returned in like fashion to his palace, where -he entertained his chief officers at a sumptuous banquet. He lived -in the seclusion usual among Eastern potentates. But whenever he -went abroad or entered a house he was received with every token of -respect. He would sometimes, we are told, pay a visit to the king; -when one of the royal chariots would be sent for his use—which, -however, he would decline, remembering that, after all, he was an -alien and a captive. But this studied humility was visible in nothing -else. He was robed in the most splendid vestments, and preceded by -a guard of fifty soldiers. The way was cleared before him, and all -who met him saluted him with the profoundest respect. At the door of -the palace he was met by the royal officers, who conducted him to -the king’s presence; where, after the first reverence had been paid, -he was placed on the left hand of the throne, to confer with the -sovereign on the affairs of the State. - -It seems that intercourse with the Persians, who were fire -worshippers,[50] and at least as bigoted in their religious opinions -as the Jews, did not bring about enmity and persecution. Yet many of -the Jewish practices must have been highly offensive to them. Thus -the Jews have always interred their dead, and that practice is an -abomination in the eyes of the Ghebirs. Again, there were certain -occasions when no lights were permitted to be kindled except in the -Fire Temples;[51] and the Jews were, in consequence, obliged to -extinguish their household fires. We should naturally have expected -that some at least among the Jews would refuse compliance, and so -bring themselves into collision with the law. But we do not hear of -any disputes of this kind[52] until the time of Sapor, who, at the -outset of his reign, had shown the Jews great favour. But having -embarked one day in a controversy with the Rabbins on the subject -of the burial of the dead, he required that they should produce some -passage out of their Scriptures in which interment in the earth was -ordered. The doctors, unable to do this, gave some evasive answer; -which so incensed him that he began a fierce persecution. Sapor, -however, died A.D. 272, and we do not hear that the persecution was -continued. - -This is also the era of the notorious Mani, or Manes, who founded -the sect which caused such widespread strife and division in the -Christian Church. He is said by some to have held many conferences -with Jewish doctors during Sapor’s reign, and to have urged upon them -that the acts attributed to their God in the Old Testament, such as -the extirpation of the nations of Canaan, were inconsistent with -the Divine attribute of mercy. He was, in fact, according to Mani’s -teaching, the God of Darkness; from whom they ought to turn, to -worship the God of Light. It is needless to say that the Jews utterly -rejected his teaching. Through their influence, he lost the favour of -Sapor, and was banished from his dominions.[53] - -Turning again to the West, we now come to the era of Constantine, -when the pagan idolatry was abolished by law, and the religion of -Christ publicly recognised. It is obvious that this was a matter -which gravely affected the Jews no less than the heathen. They were -as much opposed to the newly authorized faith as any pagans could -have been—far more so, in fact, because they had a profound belief -in, and an earnest zeal for, their own creed, which was altogether -wanting in the instance of the heathen. It would seem that the Roman -Emperor contemplated making the religion of Christ the religion of -the world; in which case he must insist on its adoption by the Jews, -as well as by all the other subjects of the Roman empire. Whether -the idea of compulsory conversion was ever entertained must remain -doubtful. But it is tolerably clear that Constantine did hope for, if -he did not anticipate, their adoption of his own faith. Conferences -with Jewish doctors were held in his presence, at which the -disputants on both sides not only upheld their cause by argument, but -endeavoured to prove its truth by resort to miracles. If Constantine -hoped anything from trials like these,[54] in which anything that -appeared to be preternatural was claimed on the one side as having -been effected by the finger of God, and denounced on the other as due -to the agency of Satan—he was certainly disappointed; and to this -failure perhaps may be imputed the severe laws against the Jews, -some of which he certainly decreed. Thus he issued an edict that any -Jew who imperilled the life of a Christian should be burned alive; -he forbade proselytizing by the Jews on the severest penalties; he -prohibited Jews from having Christian slaves. In one of his Acts -he styles the Jews ‘the most hateful of all people.’ On the other -hand, he has been unjustly charged with acts of positive cruelty -towards them, which would have soiled the lustre of his name, if they -had been really committed. It is said, for instance, that having -heard that large numbers of them had assembled for the purpose of -rebuilding Jerusalem, he ordered their ears to be cut off, and -themselves banished,[55] and again that he required them to accept -baptism, whether they would or not, and to eat swine’s flesh on -Easter Day.[56] But these charges refute themselves. Jerusalem was -a large and noble city in his day, and it is absurd to talk of the -Jews having wished to rebuild it. Nor among all his edicts, preserved -in the Theodosian Code, is there a word about cutting off ears or -compulsory eating of pork. - -During this reign the Jews in Persia are accused of having stirred up -a sanguinary persecution against the Christians. The latter had, for -a long time past, been making their way into Sapor’s dominions, to -the great vexation of the Jews. But when at last they had succeeded -in converting to their faith Ustazades, one of Sapor’s chief -officers, the irritation of the Jews rose to so great a height that -they persuaded Sapor to put down the growing evil by the severest -measures. A long and bloody persecution ensued, in which Simeon, -Bishop of Ctesiphon, suffered martyrdom, the newly built churches -were destroyed, and every trace of Christianity obliterated. - -Constans, the son of Constantine, who succeeded to the throne A.D. -353, far from relaxing any of the severities laid on the Jews by -his father, proceeded to greater lengths against them. Provoked by -an insurrection they had raised in Judæa, he re-enacted the laws -of Adrian and his father—adding to them that any Jew who married a -Christian, who circumcised, or even kept, any Christian slave, should -be put to death. He also greatly increased the heavy taxes with which -they were already loaded. - -It is no wonder that the accession of Julian—who, immediately after -his assumption of the purple, publicly declared his abnegation of -Christianity—should have been hailed by the Jews, as well as the -pagans, as the dawn of a new day of freedom and prosperity to them. -They hastened to present him with an address, representing, among -other grievances, the great wrong done them in their exclusion from -Jerusalem, the scene of the ancient glories of their race, the -never-forgotten home of their ancestors, though the heathen were -permitted to dwell there without molestation. While the most sacred -sites were hidden by Christian churches, and devoted to Christian -worship, the spot where their own beloved Temple had once stood lay -desolate, and they were not even permitted to approach and gaze -upon its ruins. Julian replied even more favourably than they could -have hoped. He addressed the Jewish patriarch as ‘his brother;’ he -inveighed against the unmerited severity with which they had been -treated; he remitted the imposts of which they complained; annulled -the decree by which they had been forbidden to enter Jerusalem; -and finally gave them permission to rebuild the Temple on Mount -Moriah, promising them every help in the execution of the work, and -appointing one of his own favourite officers, Alypius, to superintend -it. - -His motives for this extraordinary step are not difficult to -conjecture. He had not the slightest inclination to Judaism, being -a devoted follower of the ancient creed of Greece and Rome, as held -by the sages, whom he had made his study. But he wished, in the -first place, to repair the injustice of past years; in the second, -to conciliate the Jews, whose help might be of the greatest service -to him in his Persian expedition; and in the third, to confute and -establish the falsehood of Christianity. It was well known that the -universal belief among the Christians was, that the voice of prophecy -had declared that the Jewish Temple should never be rebuilt;[57] at -all events, never until the Jewish people had accepted Jesus Christ -as their God. If then he could prove that their belief was untrue on -one point, why might it not be untrue on all? - -It is needless to say that this unexpected grace filled the whole -Jewish world with wonder and delight. Funds for providing the -required materials poured in, in abundance; thousands offered -themselves as labourers; men of the highest position and wealth, even -delicately nurtured ladies, were seen digging up the ground with -pickaxes made of gold and silver, or carrying away the earth in -silken handkerchiefs. The work advanced with great rapidity, till it -was suddenly interrupted by flames bursting forth from the ground, -accompanied by earthquakes, which repeatedly injured or destroyed -the labourers engaged in the undertaking, and ultimately compelled -them to desist from it.[58] Other strange circumstances are said to -have accompanied this occurrence. Fiery crosses filled the air, and -were seen on the dresses of the fugitives, as they escaped from the -dangerous precincts. Some of the latter, who fled to the shelter of -a neighbouring church, found the doors closed by some unseen power -against them. - -Doubtless much that has been related must be regarded as idle tales, -the result of panic or exaggeration. But to suppose the whole -occurrence to be simply attributable to natural causes appears -impossible. This, however, is a matter requiring careful and minute -inquiry. The reader will find a full examination of it in Appendix IV. - -Not long afterwards (on the 26th of June, 363) the death of Julian, -in battle with the Persians, put a period—not only to any renewal of -this particular undertaking—but to the hopes in which the Jews had -indulged, of Imperial favour especially bestowed on them. So ended -the last recorded attempt to rebuild the Jewish Temple. - - -NOTE TO CHAPTER VI. ON THE RELIGION OF THE MAGI. - - The origin of this religious belief is lost in the darkness of - antiquity. The Magi existed, a body highly honoured, long before - the time of Zerdusht or Zoroaster, who lived B.C. 589. He seems to - have remodelled and formulated the ancient doctrine. According to - his teaching, there are two independent ruling powers, Ormuzd and - Ahriman, the principles of good and evil, symbolized by light and - darkness.[59] Ormuzd created man good and happy. Ahriman marred his - happiness by the introduction of evil. The strife between these two - is to continue, until the victory is finally gained by Ormuzd. - - Their religious rites are of a very simple character. They had - originally neither temples, altars, nor statues, though later on, - fire temples were built. They adored fire, light, and the sun, as - the emblems of purity and beneficence. But, in the first instance - at all events, they did not regard these as independent deities; - though afterwards, following the rule of all false religions, they - offered worship to the symbols themselves, instead of the principles - symbolized. They exposed their dead to be devoured by vultures, - considering it an abomination to bury them in the earth. They still - exist, a numerous people, in India, under the name of Parsees, - a name derived from Pars, said to be the ancient designation of - Persia. By some it is affirmed that Zoroaster maintained the - existence of a third deity, superior to the other two. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[48] Josephus, who wrote as late as Trajan’s reign, evidently knows -nothing of them. - -[49] The Parthian kingdom, after a long decline, may be said to have -died out, A.D. 230. - -[50] See note at the end of the chapter. - -[51] Such is Jost’s statement (ii. 141). He adds that the Jews obeyed -the edict, but very unwillingly. - -[52] Nothing more, that is, than discontented murmurs. It is related -that when Abba bar Huna lay sick at Pumbeditha, and Rabbi Jehuda was -attending him, a Magian came into the room and carried off the light: -whereupon the Rabbi prayed that the people might pass under the -dominion of the Romans again, rather than endure such ignominy. - -[53] The date of Mani’s birth seems uncertain. The time when he -attracted notice was circ. 272. He returned to the Persian Court -circ. 278, when Hormisdas, or some say Varanes, caused him to be -flayed alive, for failing to cure the king’s son; but Beausobre -discredits this story. - -[54] To quote an example of these. A disputation was held between -the Rabbins and the Christians, headed by Pope Sylvester. The Jews -brought in an ox, and one of their miracle-mongers whispered the name -of God in its ear, whereupon it instantly fell dead. But Sylvester, -no-way discomposed, ordered the ox, in the name of Jesus Christ, to -return to life. Upon which, we are told, it got up and began feeding! - -[55] Chrysost. _Or. in Jud._ He seems to have confounded Constantine -with Adrian. - -[56] Eutych. vol. i. 466. - -[57] Probably founded on Daniel ix. 26, 27. But that prophecy is -obscure, and susceptible of a different interpretation. Even if the -Temple had been rebuilt, every one of our Lord’s prophecies would -still have been fulfilled. (See Appendix iv.) - -[58] Cyril, it should be remarked, says nothing of these miracles, -which are reported by Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret. - -[59] Comp. Isa. xlv. 6, 7, where the idea is directly confuted. - - - - - CHAPTER VII. - - A.D. 363-429. - - JOVIAN TO HONORIUS.—MUTUAL JEALOUSIES AND OUTRAGES.—SUPPRESSION OF - THE PATRIARCHATE OF TIBERIAS. - - -Jovian, a stern enemy of the Jews, succeeded to the throne vacated -by Julian, but, fortunately for them, reigned for a few months -only. Valens and Valentinian, who followed, reinstated the Jews in -the possession of their ancient rights, but withdrew the exemption -from serving public offices, which they had hitherto enjoyed. Under -their rule, as under that of all succeeding emperors to the time -of Justinian, the main things that attract the reader’s notice are -the mutual jealousies of the Jews and Christians, for ever breaking -out into acts of lawless violence, the blame of which does not lie -wholly on one side. The idea seems to have possessed the minds of the -Christians, even of their bishops (whose training and office should -have taught them better), that the Jews as a race were the personal -enemies of Christ,[60] and, as such, objects of aversion and horror. -This was a fruitful source of the wrongs, oppressions, and cruelties -with which the pages of their after history are so deeply stained. -The emperors strove, to the best of their ability, to hold the -balance of justice evenly between the contending parties, but often -found it impossible to do so. Thus, a synagogue having been burnt by -the Christians at Rome (A.D. 387), Maximus the Usurper, who was at -that time in possession of the capital, ordered it to be rebuilt by -those who had wrecked it. For this righteous act he was denounced -by Ambrose,[61] Bishop of Milan, who attributed his subsequent fall -and ruin to that act, and induced Theodosius to revoke the decree. -A similar outrage having been committed at Osrhoene, a city of -Mesopotamia (A.D. 395), the same order was issued by Theodosius -himself. But Ambrose again interfered, and addressed a most indignant -letter to the Emperor. Overlooking altogether the wrong committed by -the Christians, he argued that it was most unjust to require them -to take part in building up a Jewish synagogue; which was, he says, -‘the home of perfidy, the dwelling-place of impiety.’ It is said -also, by Zonaras, that he preached publicly to the same effect at -Milan; but of that there is no evidence. Theodosius, who entertained -the profoundest respect for Ambrose, was overawed, and withdrew his -edict.[62] But that his conviction as to the justice of the case was -unaltered, we may see by the law which Theodosius promulgated in the -last year of his life, which secured protection to the Jews in the -exercise of their religion, and decreed the punishment of all who -assailed them.[63] - -On the other hand, the Jews were not behindhand in displaying a -very turbulent and rancorous temper. On all occasions which offered -themselves, and these were neither few nor trivial, they did their -best to harass and mortify the Christians. The Arian controversy, -which so grievously distracted the East, and for so long a period, -could not have concerned them. Yet they were always ready to support -the Arian leaders with their influence, and unite with Arian mobs -in attacking the churches of the Orthodox. Nor were these the only -outrages they committed. At some of their feasts, when, ‘flown with -insolence and wine,’ they issued forth from the banqueting chamber, -they were wont to insult and attack any Christians they might meet. -At the feast of Purim in particular such displays were likely to -occur. On that occasion it was their practice to erect a gibbet, to -which a figure representing Haman was fastened, and whenever his -name occurred in the service for the day they broke out into furious -execrations against him. On the occasion of one of the celebrations -of this feast at Inmestar, a city of Chalcis, near Antioch, their -insolence was carried to a most shocking height. Rushing out into the -street, some of the drunken Jews seized on a Christian boy whom they -met, and dragging him into the house, fastened him to the gibbet, -from which the figure of Haman had been removed, and which, in -mockery doubtless of the crucifixion, had been fashioned in the shape -of a cross.[64] They then proceeded to scourge the lad so severely -that he is said to have died under their hands. The Christians were -roused to fury by the murder, and a bloody fight ensued, in which -many lives were lost. This occurred A.D. 412. - -Several strange stories are told of occurrences during the early part -of the fifth century, which illustrate the temper of the times. They -are mostly concerned with conversions; to effect which great zeal -was undoubtedly displayed; but it is not often of a kind that we can -either admire or approve. Offers of worldly advantages of one kind or -another were made by those who were anxious to secure converts; and -no one will wonder at hearing that many, in consequence, professed -themselves willing to submit to baptism. These converts, however, -were not inclined to be content with profiting once only by so -easy a mode of obtaining the good things of life. They presented -themselves as candidates for baptism at the churches of every sect in -Constantinople. The practice was detected. A tradition relates that -when one of these pseudo-converts was brought to the font, the water -receded from the sacred vessel, so that the ministrant could not -perform his office. Startled at so strange an occurrence, he set on -foot a strict inquiry, and elicited the fact that the man had already -been baptized in the churches belonging to every sect in the city, -except the one in which this incident was reported to have occurred. -Unfortunately, the church belonged, not to the Orthodox, but to the -Novatians. The extent to which the scandal had reached is proved by -the enactment of a law, which forbade the baptism of any Jew, until -strict inquiry had been made as to his character and motives, and a -certain noviciate passed. - -Not unfrequently the conversions were what may be termed wholesale, -large bodies of men offering themselves at the same time for -admission to the Church; and these were brought about after what most -persons would consider a strange fashion. Thus, in the island of -Minorca (A.D. 418), Severus, the bishop, had been greatly distressed -by the presence of a Jewish synagogue under a Rabbi named Theodorus, -and exerted himself to the utmost to effect their conversion. -He had heard that Theodorus was a man of unusual learning and -ability, as well as of the highest character, and well accustomed to -controversy—a formidable antagonist, in fact, for whom, it was to be -feared, the bishop himself was no match. Nevertheless, fortified by -the possession of the relics of St. Stephen, which, it appears, had -been left in the island, he challenged Theodorus to a disputation, -which he proposed to hold in a church at Magona. The Jews declined -the contest, on the ground that it was their Sabbath day, on which -they could enter no unclean place. The bishop then proposed that the -meeting should take place in the Jews’ synagogue; and when they came -up in large numbers to his house, to decline that suggestion also, -he solved the difficulty by marching with all his followers to the -synagogue. A riot broke out in the street, and the Christians pursued -their opponents into their place of worship, which they plundered -and then burned. This procedure failing to convert the Jews, a -disputation was at last held, at which Theodorus made an oration so -learned and powerful that Bishop Severus was unable to answer him. -Happily, however, there was no need for him to do so. When he had -concluded, the whole of the Christians, anxious to gain so worthy -a proselyte, broke out into a general cry, ‘Theodorus, believe in -Christ.’ The Jews mistook the words for ‘Theodorus _believes_ in -Christ,’ and straightway, stricken to the heart by this terrible -apostasy, fled into the woods, leaving Theodorus in the hands of the -Christians. The bishop did not fail to point out to him that the hand -of Heaven was plainly discernible in what had passed; and Theodorus, -perplexed by the position in which he found himself placed, angered -at his desertion by his countrymen, and possibly influenced by the -hopes of worldly advancement, submitted to baptism; and his example -was followed by his congregation. The bishop plumed himself on his -victory, and besought his brethren everywhere to adopt the same -method with the Jews. In burning down synagogues, as Milman remarks, -they were ready enough to adopt his advice. - -Another general conversion took place in Crete (A.D. 432) where the -circumstances, though not exactly similar, were equally strange. An -impostor, who had assumed the name of Moses, gained so much influence -over the Jews in that island, who, we are told, were numerous and -wealthy, as to persuade them that he could open a way for them -to the Holy Land through the waters of the Mediterranean, as his -namesake had done of old through those of the Red Sea. The delusion -spread so far, that the Jews abandoned their houses and lands and -all their personal possessions, except such as they could carry with -them, and having been led by their conductor to the top of a high -rock, threw themselves by his order into the sea. He himself then -disappeared,[65] having probably reaped all that he could hope to -gain by the transaction. Great numbers were drowned, and more would -probably have shared their fate, if it had not chanced that there -were some fishing boats lying off that part of the coast, which came -to their assistance. The occupants of these boats were Christians; -and this circumstance, added to the fact that the impostor had been a -Jew, induced large numbers to adopt Christianity. - -Turning to Egypt, always a place of importance in Jewish history, we -learn that there were, about the middle of the reign of the Emperor -Theodosius II., great disturbances, caused mainly by the continual -feuds between the Christians and Jews. The latter had always been -conspicuous, not more on account of their wealth and numbers, than of -their turbulent spirit. This, however, was in a great measure stirred -into action by the accession of Cyril to the bishopric of Alexandria, -vacated by Theophilus, A.D. 412. Cyril was a man of great force of -character, but vain, hasty, and imperious. He soon obtained a most -commanding influence in the city, of which the Prefect Orestes -was naturally jealous. Desiring to punish the insolence of Cyril’s -followers, he ordered one of them, Hierax, a schoolmaster, who had -committed some breach of the peace, to be publicly scourged. Cyril -sent for the Jews who had delated Hierax to Orestes, and threatened -them with his anger unless they adopted a different course in their -dealings with the Christians. Anticipating that this threat would -soon be followed by an open attack upon them, the Jews resolved -to be beforehand with him. Having put on rings of bark, in order -to be able to distinguish one another in the dark, they raised at -midnight the cry that one of the principal churches was on fire. The -Christians rushed out in great numbers to extinguish the flames, and -the Jews falling upon them, made a great slaughter of them. In the -morning Cyril armed his followers, and assailing the Jews in his -turn, slew great numbers, plundered and burned their houses, and -drove the survivors out of the city. Orestes interfered on their -behalf, but was himself attacked, and wounded in the head by a stone. -Both parties made their appeal to Theodosius, at that time a boy of -fourteen. Whether it was that the Court of Constantinople was too -much engaged with affairs of State to attend to troubles in Egypt, -or that Cyril’s private influence gained the ascendency, we are not -told; but it does not appear that any of the criminals, not even the -murderers of Hypatia,[66] were ever punished, or the Jews, who had -been expelled from Alexandria, reinstated in their homes. - -Some years afterwards (A.D. 429), the Jews received a severe blow in -the suppression of the Patriarchate of Tiberias; which had existed -for about three hundred years, but now expired in the person of -Gamaliel IV., the ninth patriarch who had held that office. The -revenue by which the patriarchs had been supported, was derived -from certain duties levied upon the Jews residing in all quarters -of the empire, the patriarch’s collectors being sent everywhere for -that purpose. It is probable that the tie which united the Jews to -the ancient centre of their faith had for a long time been growing -gradually weaker, as the severance itself widened; and the periodical -visits to Jerusalem, which had kept up the bond of attachment, had -long ceased to be observed. It is said that petitions were presented -to the emperors requesting the abolition of the impost. However -that may have been, an edict was issued by Honorius, forbidding the -levying of the duty at Rome, and, most probably, in any part of the -Western empire. That raised in the East appears to have gone directly -into the Imperial treasury. This step did not formally abrogate the -patriarchal office, but it was a deathblow to it. Gamaliel retained -the name, and some show of authority, during the remainder of his -life, but no successor was appointed when he died. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[60] I have elsewhere pointed out how fearfully mistaken is such -a belief. Granting, for the argument’s sake, that the Jews who -crucified our Lord are to be regarded as His enemies, and, as such, -just objects of our abhorrence, their genuine descendants, those who -should inherit that abhorrence, are not their children according to -the flesh, but they (St. John viii. 41, 44) who imitate their deeds. -These are their genuine children. These ‘crucify the Son of God -afresh.’ If we must abhor any as the enemies of Christ, let us abhor -these. - -[61] Ambrose, _Epist._ xxix. - -[62] A similar case occurred at Antioch, under Theodosius II. (A.D. -423), where the clergy were ordered to make restitution to the Jews, -whose synagogue they had gutted and plundered. The celebrated Simeon -Stylites interfered on this occasion, and succeeded, as Ambrose had -done, in annulling the Imperial order. - -[63] Cod. Theod. viii. 16. - -[64] It is not improbable that the tradition of this occurrence gave -rise to the charge so often made, and which seems so inexplicable, -against the Jews in after ages, of crucifying boys in mockery of -the Saviour’s passion, though no evidence of such an act was ever -produced. - -[65] The historian Socrates is persuaded that the impostor was a -demon, who assumed human shape to beguile the Jews. But seeing that -the cheat resulted in a numerous conversion to the Christian faith, -it is strange that he should have entertained such a notion. - -[66] Hypatia was a young lady of Alexandria, professing heathenism, -and of rare accomplishments, great beauty, and unspotted character. -Cyril is said to have been jealous of her influence in the city; and, -in the hope of pleasing him by the deed, the fierce Christian mob -tore her from her chariot, and cut her to pieces with oyster shells. -This barbarous and revolting murder is the worst deed of those cruel -and lawless times. - - - - - CHAPTER VIII. - - A.D. 429-622. - - HONORIUS TO HERACLIUS.—JEWISH SLAVE-HOLDERS.—JUSTINIAN.—CHOSROES. - - -The great change in the condition of Europe, the first symptoms of -which had appeared a generation or two previously to this era, now -began to make itself everywhere felt. The irruption of the barbarian -tribes of the North, which resembled at first the few drops of an -approaching shower, became, as the century advanced, the heavy -downpour of the storm itself. Every year witnessed their further -advance into Europe, in vast and irresistible hordes, disorganizing, -and, in some instances, wholly changing the face of society. There -were new rulers in the seats of Government, new languages spoken in -the streets of cities. The armies carried strange standards, and -wielded weapons hitherto unknown in European warfare. Even at the -plough and by the cottage fireside, there were forms and faces of a -type hitherto unknown. In many places the ancient inhabitants had -been driven into exile; in many more, they had been put to the sword; -in many more, they cowered out of the sight of their new masters. -There must have been terrible and protracted suffering among high and -low alike. - -But there was one class upon whom these woes fell harmlessly, and -this class was the Jews. It is bitter for men to be driven from their -homes and deprived of their rights of citizenship. But the Jew had -no home to lose, no right of citizenship to forfeit. His nationality -had long been destroyed, and could not be taken from him. He was -like Ladurlad, in Southey’s poem, whom the flood could not swallow -up or the sea-monster destroy, because Kehama’s curse had rendered -him secure against all minor ills. If the country in which the Jew -was a sojourner was threatened by the approach of an invading horde, -he simply removed elsewhere, and took his money with him. Nay, the -march of the barbarian armies, which brought terror and destruction -to others, was to him a source of profit. When some bloody defeat -on the battle-field, or some frightful sack of a populous town, had -plunged a whole people in misery and desolation, the Jew would drive -a thriving trade with the ignorant conquerors, purchasing of them -the spoil they had obtained by the plunder of palaces and churches, -for, it might be, the twentieth part of their value, and conveying -it to lands which were, as yet, safe from invasion; where they sold -it again at an enormous profit. Their establishment in all the great -cities of the known world, and the strong bonds of brotherhood which -subsisted among them, made it easy for them to carry on mercantile -transactions of this kind; nor can the rapidity with which they -acquired wealth—and which was popularly attributed to their alliance -with the Evil One—be any cause of wonder to us. Even in times when -the principles on which commerce is conducted have become generally -understood and acted on, the Jews have always had the advantage over -their Christian neighbours, by reason of their greater astuteness and -perseverance. But in those days, when they alone understood those -principles, even in the rudest manner, it would have been a marvel -indeed, if they had failed to gather riches, almost as easily as a -child gathers pebbles on the shore. - -One very profitable, but somewhat odious, branch of commerce seems -to have fallen almost entirely into their hands. After one of the -great victories of the Goths or Huns, when large numbers of captives -became the property of the barbarian conquerors, their native -ferocity often induced them to put their vanquished enemies to the -sword; and possibly they might always have done so, had it not been -that avarice, stimulated by the offer of money in exchange for them, -proved the more potent passion of the two. The Jew knew what would -be the value of an able-bodied slave in the markets of Alexandria or -Constantinople, and was willing to pay, it might be, the sixth part -of that price to the Goth or the Hun, for the prisoner whom he had at -his disposal. None but the Jews, as has been observed, pursued this -particular traffic; and the consequence was, that large numbers of -Christian slaves passed into the possession of Hebrew masters, who -in every city exposed them publicly for sale. It would not have been -human nature if the Jews, despised and rejected as they were by their -Christian fellow-citizens, had not experienced a sense of triumph, at -finding themselves in this manner the undisputed owners and masters -of those who had long held them in contempt. It is even less wonder -that the spectacle should have roused the greatest indignation among -the Christians themselves. - -By the ancient law it was illegal, nay, a capital offence, for a -Jew to keep a Christian in bondage. But either this law was treated -from the first as a nullity, or it had been repealed by one of -Constantine’s successors; for the edict of Honorius, while it forbids -Jews to proselytize their Christian slaves, allows the full right of -ownership over them. Now, however, the Jews had become the masters, -not of a few Christian bondsmen, but of large numbers of them, many -being persons belonging to a higher station, and reduced to their -present state of degradation by having been conquered in battle -with the barbarians. This appeared an intolerable scandal; and it -is not unlikely that the old law of Constantine would have been -re-enacted, if it had not been for the pretty certain fact that, -in that case, all prisoners taken in battle would thenceforth be -massacred. Therefore, though many efforts were made, and especially -by the Church, to mitigate the evil, it was never proposed to -prohibit the purchase of slaves by Hebrew masters. The Council of -Macon, A.D. 582, distinctly lays down that ‘the conditions upon which -a Christian—whether as a captive in war or by purchase—has become the -slave of a Jew, must be respected.’ All that is stipulated for by -that, or any other of the many Councils which deal with the subject, -is, that the slaves shall have the right of purchasing their own -freedom, or that others shall have the right of purchasing it for -them. The Councils, further, continually exhort the clergy, indeed, -all Christians, to shelter any slaves who may take refuge with them -from the tyranny of their masters, and even to pay the price which -will redeem them from captivity. - -It is needless to add that these injunctions had but little effect. -Neither clergy nor laity have, in any age, except that of the -Apostles, been thus ready to part with their money for the benefit -of any unhappy sufferer who might appeal to them. Gregory the Great, -who succeeded to the Papal chair A.D. 590, was very earnest in his -efforts to put down a traffic which he regarded as abominable. His -letters, addressed to kings and bishops and others in authority, -evince the warmth of his zeal and the nobility of his nature; but -they show also that all efforts, up to that time, to eradicate the -evil had proved abortive. - -The condition of the Italian Jews at this period seems to have been -unusually prosperous. They were protected by Theodoric, who several -times—at Rome, at Milan, at Genoa—interfered to chastise those who -had wrecked and plundered Jewish synagogues, and directed that due -reparation should be made. The Bishops of Rome, throughout the -century, and especially Gregory, towards its close, treated them -with justice and clemency, and, though filled with an earnest desire -for their conversion, repressed all violence or imprudent zeal. - -But it was different in other parts of the world about this time. -The attempts at proselytizing, which had hitherto erred on the side -of holding out worldly inducements to bribe men to embrace the -Gospel, were now exchanged for the still worse method of violent -compulsion. Chilperic, the youngest son of Clotaire I., a monster of -lust and cruelty, appears to have been the first who practised this. -Believing, perhaps, that his own misdeeds might be atoned for by what -he regarded as zeal in the cause of Christ, he forcibly compelled -all the Jews in his dominions to receive baptism on pain of instant -death. They appear to have complied—nothing more than the mere -performance of the ceremony having been required of them—but to have -carried on their own form of worship exactly as before. - -Turning now to the Eastern Empire, we find that there is but little -mention of the Jews during the fifth century of Christianity. But, -whatever changes took place in their condition, we may reasonably -infer that they were changes for the worse. Notwithstanding the -religious distractions of the reign of the Eutychian Anastasius, the -Church continued throughout this century to grow in power, several -of the Roman emperors, Theodosius II., Marcian, and Leo, being her -devoted adherents. We do not wonder at hearing that in the reign -of Justin I., A.D. 518, who was at least as orthodox as any of his -predecessors, the Jews were excluded by statute from all offices of -state, as well as from holding commissions in the army. His nephew, -Justinian, who succeeded him, not only confirmed these laws, but -evinced such harshness to both Jews and Samaritans, as provoked a -rebellious outbreak among the latter people. One Julian, who (like -so many before and after him) professed himself the Messiah, stirred -up an insurrection, and was only put down and slain after a bloody -battle. Many of the Samaritans, we are told, became converts to the -Gospel: but there are shrewd reasons for suspecting that their motive -was to escape thereby the consequences of their rebellion. - -Encouraged apparently by this success, Justinian proceeded to still -harsher measures against the Jews. He no longer allowed their -evidence to be taken against Christians. He materially limited their -power of making wills and disposing of their property. He enacted -that in case of a marriage between a Jew and a Christian—which he -strongly discouraged—the control of the children should belong to -the Christian parent. Finally, he interdicted the use of the Jewish -Mishna, as a production full of absurdity and falsehood, and urged -the use of the Greek language by the Jews, instead of the Hebrew. It -is hardly necessary to add that these harsh measures had but little -effect. The use of the Talmud was not discontinued, and the empire -experienced, in the alienation of a wealthy and powerful body, such -as the Jews then constituted, a sensible loss of strength.[67] A few -years afterwards a new Imperial decree somewhat modified the rigour -of these enactments. The Samaritans were allowed to make wills; -but in case of intestacy, if any of their children had embraced -the Christian faith, they inherited the father’s property to the -exclusion of the others; if a will had been made, unbelievers could -inherit one-sixth only of the property under it. About twenty-five -years afterwards, the Jews and Samaritans in Cæsarea broke out in -insurrection, and were with difficulty put down. - -Farther eastward, under the reigns of the Persian sovereigns, -beginning with that of Artaxerxes (the successor, A.D. 384, of -Sapor), the Magians, who had obtained the upper hand in the royal -counsels, persecuted Jews and Christians with equal severity. -Even the observance of the Sabbath by the former is said to have -been suppressed. Nevertheless, we are told that the Prince of the -Captivity still retained his office, and even his wealth and dignity. -The animosities between him and Chanina, the master of the Jewish -schools, are related at length by the historians of those times; -but are intermingled with wild and fanciful tales, to which it is -impossible to attach any credit. It was at some time during this dark -period that the Babylonian Talmud, to which reference was made in a -recent chapter, first saw the light. It was mainly the work of Rabbi -Asa, or Asche, chief of the schools at Sora. But he died before its -completion, and the finishing touches were given to it by his pupils. -The date of its appearance is a matter of much dispute; but the -probability is that it was first published during this period. (See -Appendix II.) - -Not long after its appearance—early in the sixth century—a fierce -persecution was set on foot by Cavades, or Kobad, one of the Persian -kings, who desired to oblige all unbelievers in Magianism to embrace -its tenets. In his time a Rabbinical impostor, named Meir, who -probably pretended to be the Messiah, raised a rebellion, which was -prolonged for seven years. Whether the insurrection was due to the -persecution or the persecution to the insurrection, does not clearly -appear. The impostor pretended, as nearly all his prototypes had -done, to work miracles, and, amongst others, to raise up a fiery -column, which always accompanied his march, as had been the case with -his fathers in the wilderness. He was defeated, and slain by Kobad, -and the Prince of the Captivity was involved in his fate.[68] - -The Jews fared no better under Chosroes, or Nushirvan, called ‘the -Great,’[69] who closed their schools and forbade the propagation of -their faith. But, notwithstanding this harshness, the severities of -Justinian were felt by the Western Jews to be so intolerable, that -they sent a deputation to Chosroes, inciting him to make war on the -empire. They roused his cupidity by describing to him the riches -which were to be found in Jerusalem, and offered to aid him with -50,000 men. Chosroes listened to their overtures, and twice made -preparations for war. But on the first occasion Justinian purchased -peace by payment of a large bribe; and on the second the superior -generalship of Belisarius obliged him to retreat. - -After a reign of nearly fifty years, Chosroes was succeeded by -Hormisdas, a weak and vicious ruler, but who nevertheless permitted -the Jews to reopen their schools; and a new series of presidents of -these, called the Geonim, or the illustrious, assumed authority. -Hormisdas was assassinated after a reign of eleven years, and a -usurper named Behram (or Varanes, as he is also called) seized the -throne, and received considerable support from the Jews. By the -help of the Greek Emperor Mauritius, Hormisdas’s son, Chosroes II. -succeeded in crushing Behram, punishing at the same time with great -severity the Jews, who had upheld him. Among others, the Jews of -Antioch were put to death, or reduced to slavery. - -In A.D. 602, Mauritius was murdered by Phocas, who usurped the -throne; and Chosroes, claiming to avenge his old ally, declared -war on the assassin and marched on Constantinople. Meanwhile the -Jews in Palestine, too eager to wait for the arrival of Carusia, -Chosroes’s general, rose against Phocas, who had attempted their -forcible conversion, and laid siege to Jerusalem. It was defended by -the Bishop Zacharias, whose first step was to seize all the Jews in -the city. The besiegers gained possession of the suburbs, and began -burning the Christian churches. The besieged retaliated by beheading -100 Jewish prisoners for every church destroyed. Neither party would -be outdone in barbarity. Twenty churches were demolished, and the -heads of 2000 Jews were thrown over the city wall! Unable to reduce -the place, the Jews retired to join Carusia, under whose standard -they presently entered Jerusalem. They had the insults and wrongs -of five centuries to avenge, and they exacted the penalty with no -sparing hand, their Persian allies permitting them apparently to do -much as they pleased. Every Christian church was destroyed, and the -entire Christian population, to the number of 90,000, massacred. - -But neither they nor Chosroes reaped much advantage from this -success. The war with Phocas was carried on with various fortune -until 610, when Heraclius,[70] the son of the Exarch of Africa, -attacked Constantinople, overthrew Phocas, and was proclaimed emperor -in his place. After a few years of inaction, he roused himself -to confront the enemies of the empire. In a campaign, extending -over several years, conducted with amazing energy and ability, he -recovered the whole of the provinces overrun by Chosroes, who was -soon afterwards deposed and slain. Palestine was among the countries -reconquered; and we are told that in 629 Heraclius went as a pilgrim -to Jerusalem, where the cross was replaced in its ancient position, -the Christian bishop restored to his patriarchal throne, and heavy -retribution exacted of the Jews. Among other severities, the law of -Adrian was revived, forbidding the Jews to approach nearer than three -miles’ distance from Jerusalem. - -But a new actor now appears on the scene, destined to exercise -the most momentous influence on the fortunes of the Jews for many -generations to come. We must direct our attention to him. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[67] What injury they were capable of inflicting on their oppressors, -was seen plainly enough at the siege of Naples by Belisarius. -Convinced that they would receive no mercy at his hands, the Jews -persuaded the citizens to abandon the proposals for capitulation -which they were meditating, by promising them supplies of provisions -and arms. The siege was in consequence considerably prolonged; and -when the assault took place, the Jews defended one quarter with a -desperation which caused great loss of life. - -[68] He was hanged, together with the President of the Council. No -successor to him was appointed. His son, Zutia II., fled to Judæa, -and became President of the Senate there. The office, however, was -subsequently revived, and lasted as late as the eleventh century. The -Resch Glutha, or Exilarch, as the Prince of the Captivity was called, -was, it should be remarked, a distinct person from the Geon. The -latter was concerned with religious matters only; the former, with -politics. - -[69] Of this king many fables are related. A monkish chronicler says -that he besieged a fortress defended by evil spirits. Failing to take -it by assault, he summoned the ministers of all the religious bodies -in his dominions, and ordered them to use their superhuman powers -for its capture. The Magi, the Magicians, and the Jews, each in turn -essayed the task, but in vain. But, it is added, when the Christian -priests employed the sign of the cross, the place was immediately -captured. - -[70] Heraclius is one of the most extraordinary characters in -history. Some of his exploits are as grand as any achieved by the -most renowned of his predecessors, while sometimes his conduct was -unaccountably weak and contemptible. He began by restoring the -ancient glory of the Roman empire, but he left it at last weaker than -he had found it. The first few years of his reign are the last of -Roman glory. - - - - - CHAPTER IX. - - A.D. 622-651. - - MAHOMET.—CONQUEST OF ARABIA, PERSIA, SYRIA, AND EGYPT. - - -Mahomet was born at Mecca, in the April of the year 569. His father -Abdallah, and his mother Amina, belonged to the illustrious tribe of -the Koreish; and the guardianship of the Kaaba,[71] the great centre -of Arabian worship, was hereditary in his family. Brought up in a -priestly household, a man of his intelligent mind would naturally -be drawn to examine the received traditions and ceremonial of the -national faith; and, considering how corrupt and degraded this had -become in his day, we can well understand how an earnest desire -to reform and purify it would suggest itself to him. That Mahomet -was, in a certain sense, an impostor cannot be denied; though he -cannot fairly be considered such at the outset of his career. But -his genuine wish to rescue religion from the grossness of idolatry, -and his enthusiastic belief in the sacredness of his mission, -became gradually lessened by the admixture of worldly policy, -which is ever the besetting danger of reformers. Then pious frauds -were resorted to, to ensure the success which zeal and honesty had -failed to obtain. When these, too, failed, simple imposture was -employed—though, so far as we can judge, his belief in his divine -office remained unimpaired to the last. Such has been the history of -many a religious zealot before, and since, his time, though none have -ventured to put forth claims so daring, or have produced results so -vast and enduring. - -All sorts of portents are related to have occurred coincidently with -his birth. A divine light illuminated Mecca and its vicinity; the -palace of the Persian kings tottered to its foundations; the sacred -fire of the Magi was extinguished in the Gheber temples; the newborn -infant raised his eyes to heaven, and exclaimed, ‘God is great.’ But -notwithstanding these, and many other, divine tokens of the mission -he was to accomplish, he continued to lead the life of an ordinary -Arab, until at the age of twenty-five a marriage with a wealthy -widow, named Kadijah, lifted him to a position of importance amongst -his countrymen. - -Some fifteen years afterwards the corrupt state of the national -religion[72]—which, it is probable, had always more or less engaged -his thoughts—seems wholly to have engrossed them. He withdrew from -society, passing his days and nights in mountain caverns, visited by -continual dreams and visions. The idea took possession of his mind -that the Deity had sent into the world a succession of Prophets, each -of whom was to restore to its pristine purity the faith, which had -been gradually declining since the removal of his predecessor. Noah, -Abraham, Moses, Jesus Christ, had all in this manner succeeded one -another. Now the time had arrived for the appearance of another—that -other being himself. This was the revelation which had been -vouchsafed to him; this was the message[73] he was to deliver to men. - -He returned home, and began to attempt the conversion of proselytes -to this belief; but his progress was slow, and the opposition he -provoked bitter and deadly. He was in his fifty-third year when the -crisis of his career arrived, and he had to fly, at the imminent -peril of his life, from Mecca to Medina. This is regarded by the -disciples of Islam as the first open promulgation of their faith. At -Medina he found himself at the head of an armed force, with which -he resolved to enter on his mission of converting the world. At the -same time he determined that the instrument by which this was to be -effected was the sword. - -The attempt seemed a wild one. Yet we must remark that the condition -of the world at that period was unusually favourable to it. There -existed then but two powerful sovereignties—the Eastern Empire, -governed by Heraclius, and the Persian kingdom of Chosroes and -afterwards of Yezdegird. The two last named were men of very -ordinary capacity; and either indolence or the pressure of external -circumstances kept Heraclius inactive. Nor could they command -the services of any great soldier, such as Aetius, or Narses, or -Belisarius, whose military genius might avail in driving back the -invasion of barbarous and fanatic hordes. They were also greatly -weakened by long and desolating wars. But, however propitious the -occasion may have been, it is obvious that Mahomet, whatever might be -his ultimate views, could not then attempt hostile measures against -them. Necessarily his first task must be to reduce to obedience the -inhabitants of Arabia itself; and the most formidable of these were -the various Jewish communities, with which the land was at that time -overspread. - -For many centuries previously to this time, seven or eight at the -least, a Jewish kingdom had been established in that district of -Yemen which was known as Homeritis. During the long ages when their -brethren, in the Holy Land and elsewhere, were experiencing the -most terrible miseries, the Jews of Homeritis seem to have lived in -unbroken peace and prosperity in the lovely and fertile valleys of -Arabia Felix. The Arians, after a while, had made their way into -the country; and with them, as seems always to have been the case, -the Jews lived on terms of amity. But when the Catholic Christians -also obtained a domicile in the country, under the protection of the -neighbouring King of Ethiopia, Dunaan, the Homeritic king, made an -effort to exterminate them. He attacked their principal city, Nagra, -with a large army, induced it to capitulate, and then, breaking -faith, slew and imprisoned the chief men among the Christians. -They were avenged in the ensuing year by the King of Ethiopia, who -marched against Dunaan with 120,000 men, conquered, dethroned, and -slew him. With him the Homeritic kingdom expired; but the subjects -of Dunaan formed themselves into a number of independent tribes, -more difficult, probably, to subdue than any single community would -have been. Mahomet seems to have hoped at first to bring these over -to his views. As has been pointed out, their faith was nearly the -same as that proclaimed by himself, except as regarded that one -article of his own supernatural claims. But the fact of his descent -from Ishmael, instead of Isaac, was an insuperable obstacle to any -acknowledgment of him by them; and he was obliged to resort to the -method of conversion which he had himself proclaimed. The tribes of -Kainoka and of Nadir, the inhabitants of Koraidha, Fadai, and Khaibar -were attacked in turn, and in every instance overpowered and almost -exterminated. The most merciless severity was shown to the conquered. -Seven hundred Koraidhites, who had surrendered to his mercy, were -dragged into the city of Medina, and slaughtered in cold blood, in -the presence of the Prophet, who himself enjoined and applauded the -deed. - -In the same spirit, after the capture of the citadel of Khaibar, -Kenana, the gallant Jewish prince, was put by the conquerors to the -severest tortures, to induce him to confess where he had concealed -his treasure; and when these failed to accomplish their purpose, his -head was struck off with a sabre. But Mahomet narrowly escaped, at -this time, feeling the vengeance of the Jewish people, by the act of -a woman. On his arrival within the citadel, he required that some -food should be served, and a shoulder of lamb was placed before him -and his followers. But the first mouthful caused him severe internal -pain; and though he instantly vomited forth what he had eaten, -his system had imbibed so much of the poison which the meat had -contained, as to cause him continual paroxysms of suffering during -the remainder of his life. The Jewish woman by whom the lamb had -been poisoned calmly avowed and justified the deed.[74] Her fate is -uncertain. - -Having now attained the position of an independent potentate, -Mahomet despatched letters to Heraclius, Chosroes, and the Governor -of Egypt, inviting them to adopt his faith. By Chosroes these were -received with scorn and anger; by the other two, we are told, with -civility and feigned respect. Nevertheless, reports were brought that -Heraclius was assembling an army for the purpose of crushing him; and -it is probable that Mahomet would now have followed out what had long -been his persistent purpose, and entered on the forcible conversion -of neighbouring nations, if he had not felt the approaching decay -of the powers of life. He did go so far as to assemble an army, and -advance across the country to Tabuc; but the tidings brought him that -the Syrians had collected large bodies of troops, and the experience -of the battle of Muta, in which they had proved themselves formidable -enemies, induced him to withdraw to Medina. - -But after his death, Abu Beker, the first Caliph, prepared to carry -out without delay the programme of his predecessor. An army was sent -into Irak, the ancient Chaldæa and Babylonia, under Khaled, called -the ‘Sword of God,’ and one of the most able of the Moslem leaders, -with orders to overrun and subdue Hira, Cufa, and Aila, all of them -tributary kingdoms owning the suzerainty of Persia.[75] Khaled -accomplished his task with astonishing rapidity and completeness; and -when he was withdrawn to take the command in Syria, his successors -followed up his victories, with but few reverses, into the very heart -of Persia, won great battles, captured Modayn, Hamadan, and Istakan -(the ancient Ctesiphon, Ecbatana, and Persepolis), and finally hunted -down and slew the hapless Yezdegird. With him the Sassanian dynasty -came to an end, and the whole of Persia, A.D. 651, submitted to the -dominion of the Caliphs. - -The like amazing success marked the progress of the warriors of Islam -in Syria and Egypt. In the former country, notwithstanding that they -were opposed to disciplined troops, who still retained the tradition -of ancient Roman warfare, their fiery valour proved everywhere -victorious. The light Arab horsemen recoiled indeed from the serried -ranks of the Grecian phalanx; but only to return again and again to -the encounter, till their trained antagonists were daunted or wearied -out. Whether they fought behind the ramparts of a fortified city or -in the open plain, it was the same. Bosra, Damascus, Baalbec, Emesa, -after protracted sieges, were compelled to open their gates to the -conquerors. At Aizhadin, and on the banks of the Yermouk, military -skill and superior numbers were alike of no avail to check the -overwhelming tide of conquest. - -After allowing themselves a brief repose, the victorious Saracens -advanced to besiege Jerusalem, a city regarded by them with a -reverence almost as deep as that of the Jews themselves.[76] The -reader has already been told how nature and art have combined to -render this city almost impregnable to assault. In the present -instance its fortifications had been carefully repaired and -strengthened, in expectation of a siege; it was well victualled, -and garrisoned by a large and disciplined force. Against an enemy -so inexperienced in the arts of warfare as the Saracens, it might -well have defied even the most persistent blockade. Yet but four -months elapsed before an offer of surrender was made and accepted, -and the Caliph Omar[77] arrived to arrange the terms. These were, -that the lives and property of the inhabitants should be spared, and -the free exercise of their religion allowed; but upon conditions -to which nothing but the fear of immediate and inevitable death -could have induced the Christians to submit. They were to build -no new churches; set up no new crosses; were to make no proselytes -to their faith; nor hinder any Christian from professing Islamism. -They were to wear a peculiar dress, carry no arms, possess no Moslem -slaves, and salute every Mussulman as a superior! On the site of the -Jewish temple, which had so long lain desolate, a Mahometan mosque -was erected: in which, from that day to this, with but a brief -intermission, the worship of Islam has been carried on. - -If the narratives of the conquests of Persia and Syria appear to us -surprising, that of Egypt must be regarded with still greater wonder. -The empire of the Pharaohs had indeed greatly deteriorated from its -ancient consequence and strength; but it was still a powerful State, -capable of bringing numerous armies into the field. Nevertheless, -Amru, who was entrusted with the command of an expedition to overrun -and subdue it, had but five thousand men assigned him for the -purpose. With these he proceeded to invest Farwah, or Pelusium; and -having captured this city through the treachery of the governor, -marched on to Alexandria. That also, after a siege of fourteen -months, was surrendered to them, and the submission of all Egypt -followed. - -In recording this extraordinary career of conquest, our concern of -course is, how it affected the Jews; and everywhere it will be found -that—as in the instance of the incursion of the Northern nations—what -was ruin and misery to others failed to injure, nay, benefited -them. In Persia, Yezdegird had visited them with the most cruel -persecutions, had shut up their synagogues and schools, and slain -numbers who refused to embrace Magianism. In Palestine they had been -subject to harsh laws, unmerited scorn, and exclusion from their -ancient capital. In Africa, they had similarly undergone violence -at the hands of Arian Vandals and Catholic Christians. All this had -now come to an end. Their new masters allowed them equal rights of -residence and citizenship, the free exercise of their religion, the -secure tenure of their property, equality of imports with their -Christian neighbours. Whoever else might have reason to lament the -change which had passed over the face of the world, they, at least, -had none. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[71] The Kaaba is said to have been built by Ishmael, aided by -his father Abraham, in imitation of the shrine which, according -to legend, existed in Paradise, and in which Adam worshipped. In -one corner of it stands the sacred stone, believed by the Arabs to -be the Guardian Angel of Adam and Eve, changed into that shape, -in punishment of the neglect which permitted their fall. It was -originally of a dazzling white colour, but the kisses of sinful men -have reduced it to its present blackness. To this shrine the Arabs -make their pilgrimages, performing seven circuits round it, in memory -of the seven circuits which the Angels in Paradise had been wont to -practise. - -[72] The idolatry of the Arabs was, at this time, of the grossest -kind. No less than 360 idols had been set up in the Kaaba—many -of them gods of neighbouring nations, or of deceased kings and -patriarchs. - -[73] The Koran claims to be, not the composition of Mahomet, but a -divine revelation, which he had to report with the minutest accuracy. -It professes to republish what had been already delivered to Abraham, -Moses, and Christ, and now more explicitly, to Mahomet. It teaches -I. The Unity of God. II. The Ministrations of Angels and Prophets. -III. Absolute Predestination, or Fatalism. IV. The Resurrection and -Future Judgment. It rejects the Trinity, and Godhead of our Lord, and -insists on the divine mission of Mahomet. In this last particular, -and in the respect shown to Christ, it differs from Judaism. - -[74] ‘If he is the Messiah,’ she said, ‘the poison cannot hurt him; -if he is not, he is an impostor, and deserves death.’ - -[75] When Chosroes received Mahomet’s letter, inviting him to embrace -Islamism, he disdainfully tore it in pieces. When Mahomet heard of -this he exclaimed, ‘Even so shall his kingdom be torn.’ Doubtless Abu -Beker had this in mind when he sent out the expedition. - -[76] On the morning of the assault on Jerusalem, the address of -Moses to the Israelites in the Koran, ‘Enter, O ye people, into the -Holy Land, which God hath destined for you,’ was shouted aloud after -morning prayer, by the whole besieging army. - -[77] Omar had succeeded Abu Beker, A.D. 633, less than two years -after the death of the Prophet. He was the Caliph who burned the -Alexandrian library, and was the first of the Ommiades. - - - - - CHAPTER X. - - A.D. 622-740. - - THE JEWS IN THE EASTERN EMPIRE; IN SPAIN, IN FRANCE. - - -Recurring now to the Jews under the rule of the Eastern emperors, we -cannot fail to be struck by the difference of the demeanour exhibited -by these latter towards them from what has been recorded of the -Moslem conquerors. Mahomet, it is true, would permit the existence of -but one faith in Arabia; but outside the bounds of that sacred land, -all who would acknowledge the dominion of the Caliph were secure from -insult or wrong. But the Christian emperors of Constantinople—such -of them, that is to say, as felt themselves strong enough to invade -the rights of any portion of their subjects—made it a matter of -conscience to endeavour to require the acceptance of Christianity -by the Jews, though at this period they did not proceed to inflict -penalties in case of refusal. Even Phocas, whose zeal for the faith -could not have been very keen, had sent the Prefect Georgius to -Jerusalem, requiring the principal Jews there, on their allegiance, -to receive baptism. Heraclius attempted the same, using, it is -said, violent and cruel measures to accomplish his purpose, but -with very partial success. This emperor had two special causes of -dislike to them, one of which appealed to the nobler, the other to -the weaker side of his character. The first was the recollection of -the barbarities practised by them at the capture of Jerusalem by -the Persian troops; the second, the prediction delivered to him by -a soothsayer in whom he trusted, that the Roman empire should be -overthrown by a circumcised people.[78] Ignorant altogether of the -storm which was gathering in the mountains of Arabia, he naturally -presumed the people in question to be the Jews, and therefore sought -to avert the evil by converting these to the Gospel. He is said to -have been so far influenced by his alarm as to despatch letters to -the Kings of Spain and France, urging them to unite with him in the -extirpation of the dangerous race. - -Whether any of the many feeble successors to the purple who -intervened between him and the Isaurian Leo pursued the same policy, -we are not informed. But it is unlikely that they would attempt it. -The existence of a circumcised and warlike race different from that -of the Jews, would in their time have become matter of notoriety; -and alarm would have been directed to a different quarter. Nor -would it have been either safe or politic to attack the Jews. Their -wealth and intelligence rendered them useful instruments in carrying -out the imperial policy, and their numbers and turbulent spirits -discouraged interference with them. In the numerous riots which took -place between the Orthodox Christians and their adversaries, the Jews -were wont to interfere and give the preponderance to the latter.[79] -Unless they provoked interference of the authorities by actual -sedition, it is likely that they would be left to themselves. - -But when a powerful ruler in the person of Leo again grasped the -sceptre, A.D. 716, the case became different. It was said, indeed, -that this emperor had been promised the purple, on condition of his -employing the power thus committed to him in the destruction of -images in Christian churches; but the tale rests on no trustworthy -evidence, and is disproved by his acts at the very outset of his -reign; for he was no sooner seated on his throne than he required -that all his Jewish and Montanist subjects should submit to baptism. -The Jews seem to have consented to the ceremony, though they -continued the exercise of their own faith without change. What part -they took in the subsequent destruction of images,[80] and wrecking -of Christian churches, may readily be surmised from what has been -already told. - -Passing to Spain, we find the Jews, during this century, occupying -a different position, and subjected to far heavier penalties. In -this country they had long been settled, certainly previously to the -Christian era, and, as it would appear, lived in peace and security. -Previously to the Council of Elvira, no law is recorded to have been -made which restrained their liberty. But it was then decreed that -no marriages should take place between Christians and Jews, nor -should they sit down to table together. This was the first note, as -it were, of the bigotry and intolerance which afterward rang with -such hideous discord throughout the length and breadth of Spain. The -outburst was checked for a while by the incursion of the Visigoths, -who, though Christians, professed the Arian creed. With them, as -has been already remarked, the Jews always lived on terms of amity. -But towards the end of the sixth century Reccared abjured Arianism, -embracing the Catholic faith; and a new condition of things was soon -the result.[81] By the decree of the Council of Toledo, held in the -fourth year of his reign, Jews were not allowed to have Christian -slaves, or to hold public offices, or marry Christian wives, or sing -psalms when carrying their dead to the grave. - -These decrees were soon followed up by much severer measures. -Sisebut, who succeeded to the Gothic kingdom A.D. 612, is supposed to -have received an urgent entreaty from the Emperor Heraclius, as has -already been intimated, to put down Judaism throughout his dominions. -Whether the report be true or not, he certainly acted as though such -was his intention. He issued the command that all Jews should offer -themselves for baptism, imprisoning many, and putting to death many -more, who would not obey his order. Large numbers abandoned their -whole possessions, and migrated to various parts of Gaul. Yet the -Spanish historians affirm that as many as 90,000 were baptized, not -because of any change in their convictions, but through dread of the -consequences of refusal. After the death of Sisebut there seems to -have been a short lull in the storm of persecution, and many of the -pseudo-converts thereupon returned to the profession of their ancient -faith. - -The fourth Council of Toledo, held A.D. 633, under the presidency -of Isidore of Seville, enacted that ‘men ought not to be forced -into believing, but believe of their own free will.’ But although -Isidore—to whom in all likelihood this single ray of light in the -midst of surrounding darkness must be attributed—could thus give -expression to the language of charity and truth, he was not wise -enough, or perhaps influential enough, to be consistent; for the -decree adds, immediately afterwards, that all who had received -baptism—whether willingly or unwillingly—must be compelled to abide -by it, ‘because otherwise the Holy Name of God would be blasphemed, -and the faith disgraced;’ as though there was not worse blasphemy and -deeper disgrace in a false profession than in an honest renunciation! - -The same Council adds decrees against which Isidore’s large and -charitable nature must have rebelled. The 60th canon requires ‘that -the sons and daughters of Jews should be separated from their -parents, lest they be involved in their errors;’ the 63rd, that ‘Jews -who have Christian wives, if they wish to live with them, must become -Christians; and if they refuse to obey, they are to be separated;’ -the 64th, that ‘Jews who were formerly Christians are not to be -admitted as witnesses;’ the 65th, that ‘Jews and their descendants -are not to hold public offices, and any one who obtains such office -shall be publicly scourged.’ A still more monstrous decree enacts -that any Christian convert who so much as speaks to a Jew shall -become a slave, and the Jew he spoke to be publicly scourged! - -The twelfth Council of Toledo, in 681, repeats these merciless -severities, which (it is no wonder to find) could not be carried -into effect, except by direct State interference, and adds others -of a like character. ‘The Jews,’ it is ordered, ‘are to offer -themselves, their children, and their servants for baptism:’ they -‘shall not celebrate the Passover, or practise circumcision:’ they -‘shall not presume to observe the Sabbath or any Jewish festival:’ -they ‘shall not dare to defend their religion to the disparagement -of the Christian faith:’ and ‘they shall not read books abhorred by -the Christian faith.’ The penalties for breach of these and the like -statutes had hitherto been death. But the extreme severity of such -a sentence, it is argued, had acted as a preventive to its being -enforced. Therefore new orders were issued, by which the rigour of -the punishments was abated. Henceforth, if a Jew profaned the name -of Christ or of the Holy Trinity, or rejected the Sacraments, or -kept the Jewish feasts, or worked on the Sunday, he was _only_ to -receive one hundred lashes on his naked body, and afterwards be put -into chains and banished from the country, his whole property being -confiscated to the State! If a man circumcised his child, he was to -suffer mutilation, or if it were a woman who so offended, she was -to lose her nose. If a Jew presumed to take a public office under a -noble, he was to forfeit half his property, and suffer scourging; -but if it was under an ecclesiastical superior that he undertook a -situation of trust, he was to lose his whole estate, or be burned -alive! The reader will surely call to mind Solomon’s saying, -respecting the ‘tender mercies of the wicked,’ as he reads these -ordinances. - -But the avenger was at hand. For some years past the tide of Saracen -conquest had been rolling along the northern coast of Africa, until -it had reached the kingdom of Morocco; when it must turn southward -into the barren wastes of the Sahara, or northwards, into the -populous and fertile land of Spain. There could be little doubt -which of the two they would prefer; and Wamba, one of the wisest -and ablest of the Gothic sovereigns of Spain, in anticipation of -such a catastrophe, collected a fleet, with which he encountered the -Saracens, A.D. 675, and inflicted on them a disastrous defeat, which -deferred the invasion of Spain for nearly forty years. But in the -reign of Egica, and still more in that of his successor, Witiza, the -imminent danger of the Spanish monarchy became so evident, and the -fear that the Jews would co-operate in and accelerate the Mussulman -invasion so alarming, that measures were taken to prevent it which -indicate at once terror, haste, and self-reproach. - -At first attempts were made to intimidate the Jews. Egica declared -that he had learned, by their open avowal, that the Jews had plotted -with enemies beyond the sea to effect the ruin of Christendom. -Therefore, to counteract their efforts, all Jewish children upwards -of seven years old were to be taken from their parents, the males -married to Christian girls, and the girls to Christian men, and the -children in all instances brought up in the Christian belief, so -that in the next generation the Jews might cease altogether to exist -as a separate people. This seems to have had no other effect than -that of causing a general flight of Jews from Spain, the very thing -of all others likely to bring about the mischief that was dreaded. -Witiza endeavoured to repair the mistake. He issued a proclamation -permitting all Jews to return to Spain, and enjoy there the full -rights of freedom and citizenship. But the step was taken too late. -If the Jews had concerted with Muza the invasion of Spain, as their -enemies affirmed, their intrigues could not be annulled. In the year -711, two years after the accession of a new sovereign, Roderic,[82] -to the throne, the Moors crossed into Spain; a decisive battle was -fought on the banks of the Guadelete, in which the Moslems were -victorious, and the Gothic kingdom of Spain ceased to exist. - -Once more the miseries of fire and sword, which laid waste the whole -of the Spanish peninsula, inflicted no suffering on the Jews residing -within it. Whether any of the accusations with which the Christians -have assailed them—of leaguing with the Moslem, furnishing them with -secret information, opening the gates of beleaguered cities to them -and the like—contain any admixture of truth, it would be difficult to -say. In some instances the charges are manifestly false; in others -the decision is very doubtful. But even allowing them to be true, -it cannot be matter of wonder that men so persistently wronged and -slandered should turn on their oppressors, when the opportunity was -given them. The settlement of the Moors in Spain was followed by a -long period of prosperity and peace, during which the Jews became -famous throughout Europe for their wealth, their intelligence, and -their learning. A famous Hebrew school was founded at Cordova, to -which students from all parts of Europe are said to have resorted. - -In France, during this century, something of the same spirit seems to -have prevailed, by which the Catholic kings of Spain were actuated. -Chilperic, as has been already recorded, towards the end of the -previous century had insisted on the compulsory baptism of his Jewish -subjects. - -Early in the seventh century Clotaire II. issued a decree forbidding -Jews to hold any military or civil office. Dagobert, who reigned from -628 to 638, enacted still more sternly, that the whole of his Jewish -subjects should forswear their faith or depart from his dominions. -It is said that he too acted under the influence of the Emperor -Heraclius.[83] But of this there is no evidence, and it has been -urged that the royal order, if issued, was but little observed, since -the Jews, in the southern parts of his kingdom at least, continued -to be a numerous and wealthy body throughout his reign. Wamba, -the Gothic king of Languedoc, however, certainly took the step in -question, and banished them from his kingdom. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[78] One would suspect the genuineness of this story, but that -historians accept it apparently without doubt. - -[79] The Jews took the opportunity of the popular outbreak against -Martina and Heracleonas, to desecrate the church of St. Sophia with -every kind of outrage, and apparently with impunity. - -[80] Beyond doubt they were charged with having incited it. - -[81] I do not desire to imply that the concord between the Arians -and Jews, as contrasted with the disagreements between the Catholics -and Jews, is any ground for commending the one or blaming the other. -It may not unreasonably be argued that it is the indifference of the -Arians to our Lord’s honour, and the zeal of the Catholics for its -maintenance, which occasion both the concord and the strife. I only -record the fact. - -[82] The commonly received story—that Count Julian persuaded Muza -to invade Spain, in order to avenge the violation of his daughter -Florinda—is in all likelihood mere fiction. It is not mentioned -by any historian for nearly 500 years after Roderic’s death, and -then only as a legend. Considering the manners of the time and the -unbounded licence of the Gothic kings, it is most unlikely that such -an act, if perpetrated, would have been so furiously resented: and -the invasion of Spain is to be accounted for in a more simple way, -viz., the carrying out of Mahomet’s plan of progressive conquest. - -[83] Rabbi Joseph, i. p. 2. - - - - - CHAPTER XI. - - A.D. 740-980. - - THE JEWS UNDER THE CALIPHS IN THE EAST. - - -The period which ensued after the Conquest of Persia and Syria in -the East, and of Spain in the West, is called by Milman the ‘Golden -Age of Judaism’; but the title does not suit very well with the -circumstances of the case. It was not, as the Golden Age of legend is -represented to have been, a peaceful and happy beginning, which the -crimes of men gradually embittered and corrupted. It rather resembled -a succession of cool showers on a burning summer day, when the fierce -heat of the morning is tempered during the midday hours, but only to -break out with more intolerable oppression as the afternoon comes on. -The contrast which this lull in the storm of injustice and cruelty -presented to the savage fury of preceding, as well as after times, is -indeed most striking. Everywhere the flames of persecution sank down; -and what had been a consuming fire smouldered on, with only a feeble -flicker here and there, to show that it was not quite extinct. - -In the Byzantine empire we are told singularly little of the -condition and actions of the Jews during this period. The emperors -who filled the throne were, for the most part, men of very ordinary -ability. Nor were there among their subjects men of greater mark. -‘On the throne, in the camp, and in the schools,’ says the historian -Gibbon, ‘we search, perhaps with fruitless diligence, for names -and characters that deserve to be rescued from oblivion.’ This may -in itself explain why so little is heard of the Jews. Occupy high -positions in Church or State we know they could not, or openly -interfere with the direction of public affairs; and what private -influence they might exercise in these would be carefully kept -secret. As for attacks upon them, we have already seen that their -numbers, their rare intelligence, and their ever increasing wealth, -rendered them a dangerous body for any but a powerful ruler to -assail; and assuredly the weak and incompetent occupants of the -imperial throne at that era would be but little inclined to make the -experiment. What little has been recorded goes to prove that the -emperors were anxious to conciliate them. Nicephorus, who received -the purple A.D. 793, is said to have shown them particular favour, -probably because of their acquiescence in his iconoclastic views; and -Michael the Stammerer, whose reign dates from 821, was reviled by his -enemies as being half a Jew.[84] When we remember how Constantinople -was at this period distracted at once by civil and religious -factions, and that the Jews—however little they might seem to be -personally interested in the question at issue—were always ready to -throw their weight into the one scale or the other, we shall cease to -wonder that they remained wholly unmolested. - -In the dominions of the newly established Caliphs they were not only -left in peace, but treated with especial honour.[85] The victorious -Arabs were but a rude and uncivilized people, and the aid of the -Jews in teaching them the arts and pleasures of a refined state of -society was found alike useful and welcome. Their learning, their -intelligence, their widespread knowledge of foreign lands, rendered -them especially qualified for this office. Omar, the second Caliph, -is related to have entrusted the coinage to a Jew, immediately after -his accession to the throne. It was a subject with which, as might -be expected, he had no acquaintance, nor was there any one among -his principal officers who knew more of the matter. Similarly, -if an embassy was to be despatched to a foreign sovereign, or a -subsidy negotiated, the person selected for the office would in -all likelihood be a Jew. When Abu Giafar imposed a heavy fine on -the Christians, it was to Hebrew officials that the collection of -the impost was committed; and even between sovereigns so potent -as Charlemagne and the Caliph Haroun Alraschid, the envoy who was -entrusted with the letters and presents was a Jew. - -In war they were no less necessary than in peace. The sums required -for the equipment of a fleet or the victualling of an army were -furnished from Hebrew coffers. Nor were their avocations limited to -this. The Jews would accompany the march of the Mussulman armies, -and—as their fathers had done in the instance of the Gothic and -Hunnite invasions—purchase from the ignorant soldiery the plunder -they had amassed, at a price which brought them an enormous -profit,[86] or it might be a captive whose family or friends -afterwards redeemed him at a price tenfold exceeding what they had -given. We learn that at this time they almost entirely abandoned -agriculture; partly because of the heavy tax laid on unbelievers, and -partly because trade had become so much more profitable to them. -They cultivated also astrology and medicine, and became everywhere -the most successful professors of both sciences. In many, if not in -most of the royal courts, the chief physicians and astrologers were -Jews. Nor were they less successful in literature. In the East and -West alike, their schools were crowded with students, and the names -of their learned men of this era are held in reverence even to the -present day. - -It is at this date that we first hear of a sect called the -Karaites.[87] They claim, indeed, a far greater antiquity, insisting -on their descent from the ten tribes led captive by Shalmaneser, and -putting forward a catalogue of their doctors, in regular succession -from the time of Ezra. But it is believed that their first founder -was one Ananus, a Babylonian Jew of the race of David, who, together -with his son Saul, A.D. 750, entered a public protest against the -extent to which tradition had corrupted the written word, and -insisted on this latter as the sole rule of faith. We have evidence -in the Gospels, of the length to which tradition had run even in -our Lord’s day, and how He had, declared that the Pharisees ‘had -made the Word of God of none effect’ through it. But after that -time the Cabbalist and Masoric Rabbins, who were the successors of -the Pharisees, laid greater stress than ever on the importance of -tradition; and the completion of the Babylonian Talmud in the sixth -century, was, as it were, the keystone of their work. We cannot -wonder that men of sense and reverent feeling should be shocked at -the wild fables and ridiculous fancies of the Talmudists. It would -appear that a strong feeling was widely entertained in secret on -the subject; but its first expression was due to the failure of -Ananus to obtain the dignity of Prince of the Captivity, for which -office he was a candidate. Disgusted at the election of a younger -man to the post, Ananus gathered together the remains of the old -Sadducean party, or what was so called, and induced them to nominate -him as a rival to his successful opponent. Ananus was thrown into -prison, but gained the ear of the Caliph sufficiently to obtain his -release. He then retired, with his followers, to the neighbourhood of -Jerusalem, where they established themselves as a separate sect. They -still exist, chiefly in Eastern countries, and in parts of Europe, -especially the Crimea.[88] - -Notwithstanding the general prosperity enjoyed by the Jews at this -period, there were some reverses. Giaffir, called the Great, is -said to have issued an edict requiring Christians and Jews alike to -embrace Islamism. Al Wathek also, the successor of Mamun, one of -the Abasside Caliphs, residing at Cufa, inflicted heavy fines upon -them, partly because they had committed frauds in the management of -the finances entrusted to them, and partly because they refused the -religion of Mahomet. But the amount of suffering inflicted could -not, in either instance, have been great. Motakavel, however, his -brother and successor, was still harsher in his dealings with them. -He compelled them to wear a leathern girdle, to distinguish them from -the Faithful. He prohibited them from using stirrups when they rode -on horseback, and afterwards from riding horses at all. A summary of -the various badges and marks of degradation imposed on the Jews by -European and Asiatic sovereigns would form a curious study. - -To this period also belongs the strange story of the kingdom of -Khozar, which has been regarded by some historians as being full of -misstatement and exaggeration, and by some as simple fiction. Khozar -belonged to the Turcomans, a heathen people; and it is reported -that, somewhere about the middle of the eighth century, Bular, its -king, a pious and thoughtful prince, received a revelation through a -dream,—or, according to another version, through the instruction of -an angel,—which showed the hollowness of the religion he professed. -Thereupon he began to make inquiry after a purer faith: and having -conversed with learned men professing Christianity, Islamism, and -Judaism, he made his election in favour of the last-named creed. -According to one version of the story, he came to this resolution -in a somewhat singular manner. Conversing apart with a Christian, -he asked of him whether he did not consider Judaism preferable to -Mahometanism, and was answered that he did. Then holding a similar -discussion with a Mahometan, he inquired whether _he_ did not regard -Judaism as superior to Christianity. Receiving an affirmative answer -here also, he decided in favour of the first-named faith, as it -appeared that it held the first place in the estimation of the Jew, -and the second in that of each of the other two. Having himself -received circumcision, he sent for learned Jews from neighbouring -countries, by whom in time the whole of his people were brought over -to the faith of Israel. A tabernacle was erected, similar to that -set up by Moses in the wilderness, and the Jewish worship regularly -carried on. - -The authenticity of the story having been disputed some two centuries -and a half afterwards, Rabbi Hosdai, a learned man, much patronized -by Abderraman, the Caliph of Cordova, resolved to ascertain the -truth respecting it, and obtained, with considerable difficulty, a -letter from Joseph, the reigning sovereign of Khozar. In this the -king repeated the history of his ancestor’s conversion, very much -as popular rumour had stated it. The letter of Hosdai is still -extant, as well as the reply, and there seems no reason to doubt the -authenticity of the former, at all events. - -Basnage and others reject the whole story as fable. It is argued -that this kingdom of Khozar, when searched for, could no more be -found than the Eldorado of the Spaniards, or the dominions of Prester -John; even the famous traveller of Hosdai’s time, Benjamin of Tudela, -though anxious, for the credit of his patron, to discover it, -entirely failed to do so. But modern research has proved that such a -kingdom did at all events exist; and the most judicious historians, -Jost among them, incline to believe that the story may have at all -events a groundwork of truth. - -In Spain, during this period, all seems to have gone prosperously -with the Jews, except that an impostor named Serenus, who professed, -as so many before and after his time have done, to be the Messiah, -taking advantage of the unsettled state of things between France and -Spain, persuaded large numbers of his countrymen to follow him into -Palestine, where he proposed to set up his kingdom. He does not seem -to have reached the Holy Land, and the greater part of his followers -perished in the attempt. Those who survived returned to their homes, -but only to find that their possessions had been confiscated to the -State. - -In the year 750 a revolution took place at Damascus, during which -nearly the whole of the Ommiad dynasty (as the descendants of -Caliph Omar were called) was cut off, and Abul Abbas succeeded to -the Caliphate. Yusef, the Mussulman Emir in Spain, sided with the -usurping family; but the Moorish chiefs generally were desirous of -establishing their own independence, and finding in Abderachman ben -Moasiah a still surviving representative of the Ommiad family, placed -him on the throne, under the title of the Caliph of Cordova. His -government was wise and powerful, and under him the Jews attained the -zenith of their prosperity. - -We are now about to transfer our attention to the countries of -Western Europe, where occurred almost every event of importance in -which the Jews are concerned for several ensuing centuries. But -before doing so, it will be proper to record what is known of the -Hebrew communities who dwelt in those countries of the distant -East which acknowledged neither the sceptre of Rome nor of Persia. -The records of these are very scanty, and rest upon very doubtful -authority, but that affords no sufficient reason for not preserving -all that can be gleaned from various sources respecting them. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[84] Similarly, and for the like reason, Constantine Copronymus was -nicknamed ‘the Jew.’ - -[85] The Caliph Almamon, a great patron of learning, caused many of -the Rabbinical books to be translated into Arabic, and placed in the -Royal Library at Bagdad. - -[86] After the capture of Rhodes, a Jew belonging to Edessa purchased -the remains of the celebrated Colossus, which had been lying on the -ground since its overthrow by an earthquake. It had been seventy -cubits high, and was constructed of brass. The fragments are said to -have loaded nine hundred camels. Probably the purchase money was a -sum ridiculously small, the profit enormous. - -[87] Textualists, that is. It was attached to them in the first -instance as a term of reproach. - -[88] The tenets of the Karaites are said to have been: - -1. The Creation of the world, as opposed to its eternal existence. - -2. That God had no beginning, has no form, and that His unity is -absolute. - -3. That He sent Moses, and delivered to him the Law. - -4. That every believer must derive his belief from the simple -interpretation of Holy Scripture, without regard to tradition. - -5. That God will raise the dead, and judge men hereafter. - -6. That He has not cast away His chosen people. - -In recording these opinions, it should be noted that it is quite -possible (indeed, likely) that a party existed among the Jews, -long previously to the time of Ananus, who held notions identical -with or very like them, and who were also called Karaites, _i.e._, -‘Textualists;’ but they did not withdraw themselves into a separate -community, under the name of Karaites, until A.D. 780. - - - - - CHAPTER XII. - - THE JEWS OF THE FAR EAST. - - -How far the bounds of the authority possessed by the Prince of the -Captivity extended must always be a matter of uncertainty. Records -exist of what occurred in the Roman empire down to the time of its -fall, which may be relied on with tolerable certainty. The kingdom -of Persia also has its historians, who throw a fair amount of light -upon what passed in that country during the centuries with which we -have been dealing. But of what took place farther eastward we have -no trustworthy knowledge at all. In Arabia, as we have seen, there -existed numerous and flourishing Jewish communities—indeed, a Jewish -kingdom had endured for many ages there, able to hold its own with -neighbouring sovereignties. Again, it is certain that there were not -only Jews in Parthia and Media, in Elam (or Persia), Mesopotamia, -Cappadocia, Pontus, Phrygia, Pamphylia, and Ionia,[89] as noted in -the second chapter of the Acts; but there are grounds for believing -that they extended much farther eastward. - -The traditions of the Early Church affirm that the Gospel was -preached by several of the Apostles—notably by Thomas,[90] Simon -Zelotes, and Matthias—in Asiatic Ethiopia, or the Land of Cush; the -bounds of which are wholly uncertain, but which extended a long -way to the eastward of the two great rivers. It is stated that -they encountered opposition from the Jews of those regions.[91] -Benjamin of Tudela also affirms that the authority of the Resch -Glutha ‘extended eastward to the Iron Gates, and as far as India.’ -This assertion must be regarded as doubtful; but it certainly goes -to prove that there were Jewish communities in the districts he -names. Nothing, indeed, is more probable than that the Jews should -have migrated towards the East, when Chosroes let loose against them -the merciless wrath of an Eastern despot. To the West lay the Roman -empire, where harsh laws against their nation were in force: to the -South the new Arabian impostor was persecuting their countrymen: to -the North all was barren and ungenial. But to the East were rich and -pleasant regions, where, though they might encounter hostility from -neighbouring tribes, they were strong enough to maintain themselves -in peace and security. But though there is great likelihood of -their having done this, there is no certainty. We must acquiesce in -Milman’s opinion, that ‘the history of the Oriental Jews at this -early period is so obscure, so entirely or so nearly fabulous, that -it may wisely be dismissed.’ - -But though authentic history does not record the immigration of the -Jews into these countries, there are not wanting incidental evidences -to the fact. Take as an example the collection of Eastern tales -called the Arabian Nights. The date of these cannot be later than the -eighth century, and they are probably much older. In the various -countries to which they relate,—Persia, Turkestan, India, China, -etc., the presence of Jews as an integral part of the population is -assumed as a matter of course. In Balsora, in Kashgar, and other -cities, there is the Jewish merchant, the Jewish physician, the -Jewish banker—no strangers evidently, but recognised citizens. In -the tale of ‘The King of the Black Isles,’ described in the story -as a part of India, lying to the east of Persia, the people of the -country are represented as being changed by enchantment into four -different kinds of fishes, the four being the Mahometans, _the Jews_, -the Christians, and the Parsees. No writer would have introduced -this into his story, if the Jews had not formed a considerable and -recognised part of the population. - -A fact also is recorded by a Mahometan historian of the ninth -century, which shows that even so far east as China, the Jews were -to be found in large numbers. He states that when the rebel Baechoo -took Canton, he massacred 120,000 Mahometans, _Jews_, Christians, and -Parsees. - -The most interesting evidence on this subject is derived from the -narrative of the Jesuit Ricci in the sixteenth century.[92] It will -be remembered how, 150 years before, Francis Xavier had failed in his -earnest efforts to gain access to the Celestial Empire. When Ricci -succeeded, and had established himself in Canton, he was visited, -soon after his arrival, by a stranger, who professed his satisfaction -at the presence of persons of the same faith with himself. Ricci -took his visitor into the chapel, where he bowed reverently to the -altar-piece representing the Virgin Mary and the pictures of the four -Evangelists, whom he assumed to be ‘some of the Twelve.’ But further -conversation elicited the fact that the man was a Jew, and had -mistaken the picture of the Madonna for that of Rebekah with Jacob -and Esau, and supposed the portraits of the Evangelists to be some -of the twelve Patriarchs. - -Great curiosity was aroused in Europe by the publication of Ricci’s -narrative, but further inquiries were checked by his death in 1610. -His successors later in the same century, Fathers Gozani, Domenge, -and Gaubil, transmitted a good deal of interesting information -to their friends in Europe, though they were greatly hampered by -their ignorance of Hebrew. Towards the close of the century other -missionaries arrived, who were acquainted with the Jewish language; -and probably a very complete knowledge of them would have been -arrived at, if it had not been that in 1723 the Jesuits were driven -out of China, and the country remained closed for nearly 100 years to -Christian missionaries. - -Nevertheless, much valuable and interesting information was -obtained. It appeared, in the first place, that the Chinese Jews -were ignorant of our Lord’s existence, and did not understand the -meaning of the crucifix. When asked if they had heard of Jesus, they -replied that there was a holy man so called, who was the Son of -Sirach, but they knew of no other. They also had never heard of the -Septuagint or Samaritan versions, and their Hebrew text is without -the vowel points.[93] Further, they do not call themselves Jews, but -Israelites. They are strict observers of the Sabbath, never kindling -fires or preparing food on that day. They practise circumcision, and -intermarry only with their own people. They keep the Passover, the -feasts of Weeks and Tabernacles, and the great Day of Atonement. They -believe in a resurrection, in Purgatory and Hell, in Paradise and -heaven, in angels and spirits, and in a final judgment. - -Their place of worship more nearly resembles the ancient Jewish -Temple than the synagogue of later times. It has a Holy Place, and -a Holy of Holies, in which are deposited the Books of the Law, and -which is entered by the High Priest only. The latter, however, does -not wear the Aaronic vestments, a scarf of red silk being his sole -distinguishing badge. They still expect the Messiah to come, but -their belief on this point is vague. - -From some of the particulars recorded of them, the idea was once -entertained that they were the descendants, not of the remnants of -the Captivity, but of the ten tribes. This, however, is an evident -error, as they not only possess the Book of Ezra, for whom they -profess profound respect, but those of Esther and Maccabees also. - -There is the greatest difficulty in determining when they first -arrived in China. According to some authorities, the immigration -began several centuries before the birth of Christ. According -to others, it was coincident with the persecution of Antiochus -Epiphanes, or Pompey’s Jewish wars, or the siege of Jerusalem under -Titus. Others date it from the period of Chosroes’s attempts at -forcible proselytism; and it is certain that there is a mixture of -Persian words in their language, which lends some likelihood to this -belief. - -The most reasonable opinion at which we can arrive is, that although -there may have been some connection for commercial purposes in very -early times—as early even as those of David and Solomon—there was -nothing like a settlement before the 3rd or 4th century preceding the -birth of Christ. Then it seems likely that a number of Jews, who may -in the first instance have left Palestine under terror of Haman’s -persecution, established themselves in China. There may have been -other immigrations between that time and the destruction of Jerusalem -by Titus. But at that period there was a second and a larger influx. -From the Jews who then entered China the greater part of the modern -Chinese Jews are descended. A third considerable entrance into the -country may have taken place in the reign of Chosroes, the likelihood -of which has already been pointed out. Supposing these various -bodies to have settled in different districts widely removed from one -another, the strange variations in their statements respecting their -ancestry and date of settlement[94] in China would be accounted for. -This theory is in some degree supported by the fact that many of the -Chinese Jews report themselves as having sprung from seven tribes, -each called after the name of one of the emperors of China. It is not -unreasonable to argue that each of these tribes was called after the -name of the emperor during whose reign it arrived in the country. - -But, whatever may have been the true length of their residence, it is -certain that the Taou-kin-keaon (dividers of the sinew, Gen. xxxii. -32), as the Chinese call them, have retained in those far distant -lands, and in that extreme isolation, their own habits, sentiments, -and religious peculiarities as inflexibly as their countrymen in -other lands have always done. - -The annals of the Jews of Malabar date their arrival in that country -as having occurred A.D. 70, the time of the destruction of Jerusalem -by Titus. But others place this event in the fifth century of -Christianity, when one of the persecutions occurred in Persia, and -caused a numerous exodus of the Jews. The title which the Hebrew -leader of the refugees is said to have borne is Rabbana; and that -variation of the title Rabbi is said to belong to that special epoch. -In features and colour these Indian Jews very nearly resemble the -other inhabitants of the country; but their religious customs, their -prayers, and their reverence for the Talmud, distinguish them clearly -enough from all others. - -The Jews of Cochin China also claim a very high antiquity. In the -latter part of the 17th century a letter was sent by them to the -Synagogue of Portuguese Jews at Amsterdam, in which they asserted -that their fathers had emigrated to the Indies when the Romans -conquered the Holy Land; that they had founded an independent -kingdom, which had lasted for a thousand years, during which time -seventy-two kings had succeeded one another. But a civil war -having broken out in consequence of the rivalry of two brothers, a -neighbouring sovereign had subdued them. Since that time they had -been in subjection to him; but they were nevertheless well treated -and their religion tolerated. How much of this may be true, it would -be difficult to say; but it appears to be beyond a doubt that the -Jews of that country have long enjoyed great prosperity, and populate -large and important cities. - -Mention is also made of another race of Jews dwelling in the -neighbourhood of the Mahrattas. They call themselves Beni-Israel, -and acknowledge no relationship with the Jews of Malabar, China, or -Cochin China; but we are told that their Jewish physiognomies allow -of no doubt of their origin; nor do they bear any resemblance to -their Hindoo or Mahometan neighbours. There are other distinctions -also between them and the other Oriental Hebrews. While they resemble -them in the invocation of the Supreme God, in the observance of -circumcision on the eighth day, in their observance of feasts and -fasts, and especially of the great Day of Atonement, they do not -celebrate the Feast of Purim and Dedication, do not possess the -prophetical writings, have no remembrance of the destruction of the -second Temple by Titus—in fine, are unacquainted with the history of -their people since the time of the Babylonish captivity. If it were -not a subject which past experience warns every prudent man to avoid, -one would be tempted to inquire whether here were not to be found -some genuine traces of the lost tribes of Israel. - -Other fancies have been put forward by one writer or another, -intimating the wide dispersion of the Hebrew race, which may be -mentioned as curious historical puzzles, though nothing more. Among -these is the tale of the Jewish inscription found on a tomb in the -island of St. Michael, one of the Azores, which seems to intimate -that some Jews once settled there; who must have subsequently died -out. Also the report of the Spaniards who conquered Peru, and -who affirmed that they found in that country a large and stately -edifice, built after a fashion and by the use of tools unknown to -the Peruvians. Tradition affirmed that it was the work of ‘bearded -men’ in very ancient times. It was dedicated to the one Maker of the -world, and bore all the appearance of a Jewish synagogue! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[89] ‘Asia’ in Acts ii. 9, no doubt means the Roman province, over -which a pro-consul ruled. It comprised Ionia and Mysia, Ephesus being -its capital. It is mentioned also Acts xvi. 6. - -[90] Matthias is said to have been martyred by the Jews at -Sebastople, whichever of the towns of that name may be intended. - -[91] See further on what is said of the Jews of Malabar. - -[92] For a very complete account of the Jews in China, see Brotier’s -note, in the third volume of his edition of Tacitus. - -[93] When questioned as to the absence of these vowels, they are said -to have answered, that God delivered the words to Moses with such -rapidity that he had no time to insert the vowels. - -[94] Thus, Father Alvarez, the Portuguese Jesuit who wrote a history -of China, affirms that the Jews had not been settled there for more -than 600 years. - - - - - CHAPTER XIII. - - A.D. 740-980. - - THE JEWS UNDER CHARLEMAGNE. - - -The Mahometan invaders of Spain having accomplished the conquest of -that country, again turned their arms northwards, and passed the -Pyrenees, but only to encounter, on the plains of Tours, decisive -and disastrous defeat.[95] We learn that the Jews were suspected of -having invited, or at least encouraged, the attempt. To repeat the -remark made in a previous chapter—when we call to mind the treatment -they had received at the hands of some of the Frankish kings, and -contrast it with the toleration exhibited by the Moslem conquerors -of Spain, such an accusation does not seem to us a very improbable -one, though no certain evidence of it has been produced. Similarly, -some sixty years afterwards,[96] when the Moors again burst into -Aquitaine, and were repelled by the Count of Toulouse, the Jews -are charged with having betrayed that city into the hands of the -invaders. After the retreat of the enemy, and recapture of the town, -it is said that the emperor had resolved to punish severely the -treachery of the Jewish conspirators, but was persuaded to limit the -retribution he exacted to their leaders. Basnage disputes altogether -the accuracy of the allegation. But some truth in the story there -must be. It is an unquestioned fact that for a considerable period -after the Saracen irruption—as late indeed as the twelfth century—it -was the custom at Toulouse for a Jew, acting as the representative of -the whole of his co-religionists in the city, to appear three times -in every year at the gate of one of the churches in Toulouse, and -there receive a box (or, as some report, three boxes) on the ear,[97] -and at the same time pay over a fine in the shape of thirteen pounds -of wax. It would be difficult to understand what could have been the -origin of a custom like this,—which reminds us of the penalty imposed -on the citizens of Oxford, for their alleged participation in the -bloodshed of St. Scholastica’s day, and which was exacted up to the -commencement of the present century,—unless it was the story of their -betrayal of the city, as above related. - -But if Charlemagne was cognisant of the disaffection of his Jewish -subjects, he took the wisest, and, as the sequel proved, the most -effectual mode of curing the evil. A study of this great man’s life -will convince us that he regarded his sovereignty, not merely as -a trust committed to him by the Divine Ruler of the Universe—for -that many sovereigns have done—but as a trust held on behalf of the -Catholic Church of Christ, which was, in his view, identical with -the State.[98] It followed therefore that, in his eyes, whosoever -refused obedience to the Church was a rebel to the State; and -the Jews, according to this view of the matter, must be the most -inveterate of all rebels. It is creditable to him, therefore, that -he not only abstained from religious persecution, but awarded the -most even-handed justice to his Hebrew subjects. He required of them -no more than simple obedience to the laws of the land in matters -which did not put any constraint on the conscience. Thus, in the -instance of nuptial contracts, he did not allow them to marry within -the degree prohibited to his other subjects, nor to dispose of -their property after a manner contrary to his laws. But these are -requirements to which citizens of any country might be reasonably -expected to conform. So again, the edicts which forbade them to keep -Christian slaves, or to purchase or keep in pawn the sacerdotal -vestments, or the sacred vessels used in churches, were obviously -made, not for the injury of the Jews, but for the benefit of the -Christian community. Had such practices indeed been permitted, they -could have had no other effect than that of exciting prejudice and -disgust against the Jews. But there was no restriction imposed on -their commerce, no special fines levied on their effects. They dwelt -in ease and luxury, in houses as handsome and well furnished as their -inclination prompted and their purses would allow. The most splendid -quarter in the rich town of Lyons was that inhabited by the Jews. In -Narbonne, of the two prefects of the city, one was always a Jew. - -The same state of things continued through the reign of the son and -successor of Charlemagne, Louis le Debonnaire. At his court we are -told the Jews possessed so much influence, that nobles and envoys -of foreign princes paid court to them, and offered bribes to secure -their favour. An officer known as the ‘Master of the Jews,’ whose -business it was to take special care of their interests, resided in -the precincts of the palace. They were permitted to enjoy, not only -all rights possessed by their Christian fellow-subjects, but even -more. The day on which markets were wont to be held, if it chanced -to be a Saturday, was sometimes altered for their convenience. -Charters are still extant, in which special privileges, such as -exemptions from tolls and taxes, or permission to hire Christian -slaves, are granted to Jews. In criminal and civil actions, their -rights were as much respected, their evidence was accounted as good, -as that of the other citizens of the country. Their lives were -protected by a heavy penalty imposed on any one who slew them. They -were exempted from ordeal by fire or water. Their slaves could not -be baptized without their consent. They were free to build their -synagogues where they pleased, and carry on their peculiar form of -worship within them. - -A condition of things like this could hardly fail, sooner or later, -to provoke the anger and jealousy of the clergy. Agobard, Bishop -of Lyons, saw with indignation the growth of their wealth and -importance. It was not only that the ports were crowded with their -merchantmen, the quays piled with their bales, the streets thronged -with their slaves; that while Christian men walked afoot, clad in -mean apparel, and lodged in humble cottages, the Jew reclined in his -chariot arrayed in gorgeous attire, or feasted in a splendid palace. -This might be borne. But their synagogues vied in magnificence with -the stateliest Christian churches, and their preachers drew away -crowds who ought to worship at Catholic altars. It was even said that -they sold Christians as slaves to the Moors. Agobard exerted his -episcopal power to remedy the mischief, so far as he was able. He -forbade under pain of spiritual censure, his flock to sell Christian -slaves to the Jews,[99] or to work for them on Sundays or holidays, -or to buy wine of them, or deal with them at all during the season of -Lent. - -It is a marked sign of the times, that the Jews ventured to appeal to -the king against this exercise of the bishop’s authority. Louis sent -three commissioners to Lyons to inquire into the matter, who decided -against the bishop. Mortified and astonished, he preferred fresh -charges against the Jews, and when these also failed of their effect, -himself repaired to Paris, and demanded a personal interview with the -emperor; it was all in vain. He was refused an audience, informed -that the emperor had dismissed his appeal, and was ordered to return -to his diocese! We can hardly believe that this took place in a -country which, two centuries before, had seen Jews forcibly dragged -to the font for baptism, and, three centuries afterwards, witnessed -their forcible expulsion from the country, for no other offence than -that of their national existence. - -Under Louis’s successor, Charles the Bald, the Jews still continued -to enjoy immunity from the persecution; but signs were not wanting -that this state of things was not long to endure. Remegius, Bishop -of Lyons, following up with more success the efforts of Agobard, -caused—we are not told by what means—so many Jewish boys and girls -to be brought to baptism, that the parents were fain to send their -children to be educated in Arles and other cities. Following up -his advantage, Remegius petitioned the emperor that the Bishop of -Arles might be admonished to pursue the same course as himself. It -would appear that Charles granted this request, for we are informed -that great numbers of Jewish children were now baptized. Not long -afterwards he is said to have been poisoned by his Jewish physician, -Zedekias, who was believed to have been incited to the murder by -his countrymen. Whether this is true or not must be regarded as a -doubtful matter. It was certainly a most fatal as well as a most -wicked policy, if it was really adopted. The effect of the death of -Charles was to break up the existing authority in France. The strong -hand which upheld the law was withdrawn. Disorder and anarchy ensued, -from which none suffered so much as the Jews. Popular rumours accused -them of secretly abetting the inroads of the Normans, from which the -country now began seriously to suffer. It was urged that when the -invaders overran districts and sacked cities, the Jews alone escaped -injury. This was possibly due to the same causes which had exempted -them from suffering during the incursions of the Goths and Huns and -other Northern nations, and which have been adverted to in a previous -chapter. But, however that may be, it was believed that they were -secretly in league with the Northmen, and they became in consequence -everywhere the objects of popular execration and attack. At Beziers, -in Languedoc, it became the practice every year to drive them about -with volleys of stone, from Palm Sunday to Tuesday in Easter Week. -During the feeble reigns of Louis II., III., and IV., Lothair, -Charles II., and III., scarcely any mention is made of them. But what -little is told goes to prove that their position was continually -growing worse. As the power of the kings diminished, the protection -they were able to extend to the Jews diminished also. The great -feudatories dealt with them as they pleased, disregarding the royal -authority, or employing it for the oppression of the Jews. During -the reign of Charles III., called the Simple, we find the Archbishop -of Narbonne demanding (A.D. 897) and obtaining from the king a grant -of all the landed property in the possession of the Jews throughout -his diocese. Whether this was the effect of an act forbidding the -Jews to hold landed property, or mere lawless pillage, makes little -difference. Similarly, in 889, the Archbishop of Sens, without any -cause assigned or reference to the royal authority, expels the whole -of the Jews from the bounds of his episcopate. - -In Spain, however, the interval of peace and goodwill lasted long -beyond the times of which we are now writing. From the foundation of -the Moorish kingdom of Cordova by Abderachman I., A.D. 755, to the -close of the tenth century, whatever civilization and learning still -existed in Europe found its most congenial home in his dominions. -Under him and his successors, the Jews appear to have enjoyed, not -only the impartial protection of the laws, but free participation in -all public offices and distinctions. They were eminent as ministers -of state, ambassadors, and financiers. Under him and his successors, -the schools at Toledo, Granada, and Cordova became famous throughout -the world, and it was said that there was not a Jew to be found -through the whole of Spain who could not read his Bible. - -Hitherto the great centres of learning had been in the East, and -the most promising scholars, even from Spain itself, had resorted -thither. But the Persian Caliphate had, for a century or two, -been undergoing a gradual but total change. The sovereigns were -enervated by ease and luxury; usurpers rent away large portions of -their dominions; and the great Emirs grew ever more independent, -grasping at last nearly the whole power of the Crown. It was probably -these new rulers who set on foot the persecution of their Jewish -fellow-subjects. Indifferent as Omar himself could have been to the -high repute which the Oriental Academies had attained, they shut -up the Jewish Colleges, exiled their learned doctors, and in fine, -A.D. 980, drove the Jews altogether from Babylon. Four of the most -renowned of the Rabbins were captured, on their outward voyage, by -one of the corsairs belonging to the Caliph of Cordova, whom he -had sent to cruise in the Greek Archipelago. These four were Rabbi -Shemariah, Rabbi Hoshiel, Rabbi Moses, and his son, Rabbi Hanoch. -The fate of these four was remarkable. Utterly ignorant of the -high value which men of culture and refinement would set upon his -prisoners, the corsair sold Shemariah at Alexandria, and the slave -rose to be the chief man among the Alexandrian Jews. Rabbi Hoshiel -he similarly disposed of to a purchaser on the coast of Africa; and -Hoshiel was thence conveyed to Alkihoran, where he attained the rank -of Chief Rabbi. Rabbi Moses and his son he conveyed to Cordova. It -chanced that the wife of the former was a beautiful woman, and the -brutal corsair, captivated by her charms, assailed her with his -importunities. Finding herself wholly in his power, she inquired -of her husband whether, at the Day of Judgment, the sea would give -up its dead. He answered her from the 68th Psalm, ‘The Lord said, -Mine own will I bring again from Bashan, I will bring again from the -depths of the sea;’ on receiving which reply, seeing no other way -of escaping violence, she plunged into the sea and was drowned. A -similar tale is told of Esther Cohen in the sixteenth century. - -On the arrival of the captives at Cordova, the two Rabbins were -ransomed by their countrymen, though the latter knew nothing of -their ability and learning. Their condition was so miserable that -they had no clothes, but only some rags of sackcloth to cover their -nakedness. In this sordid guise they entered the schools, over which -Rabbi Nathan presided. The discussion in progress was on the subject -of the Day of Atonement. Rabbi Moses took part in it, and expounded -it with such learning and clearness that Rabbi Nathan rose from his -seat and said, ‘The stranger in sackcloth is my master, and I am his -pupil. Make ye him judge of the Congregation of Cordova.’ All present -assented. Riches and honours became immediately his portion, and he -allied himself with one of the wealthiest families in Cordova. The -captain of the vessel, learning the value of the captive, for whom he -asked no more than the ordinary price of a slave, wished to cancel -the sale; but when the matter was referred to the Caliph, he would -not allow it. By one of the disciples of Moses, Rabbi Joseph, the -Talmud was translated into Arabic, and gained the translator great -repute, though he was afterwards disgraced and driven into exile. -Rabbi Hanoch, the fourth of the captives, succeeded to his father’s -office at his death. By him the fame of the College of Cordova was -raised to the highest pitch it attained. - -The decay of the Babylonian schools had been in progress throughout -the tenth century, learning and ability alike, as the reader has -heard, being transferred to the flourishing Rabbinical establishment -in Cordova. The quarrels between David ben Zacchai, the Prince of the -Captivity, and the celebrated Saadi ben Joseph, the Geon, did much -towards bringing this about. There was a temporary rally, when the -renowned Scherira, and after him, his scarcely less distinguished -son, Hai, held the office of Geon. But the former was deposed and -put to death by the Caliph Ahmed Kader; and though Hai escaped and -transferred his office to Hiskiah, the great-grandson of David -Zacchai, yet the respite was for two years only. At the end of that -time the Caliph Abdalla deposed Hiskiah, and finally closed the -schools. With Hiskiah, A.D. 1038, the line of the Resch Glutha is -generally considered to have become extinct. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[95] At the hands of Charles Martel, A.D. 732. - -[96] A.D. 793. It is likely that the Jews of Beziers were charged at -the same time, or possibly a few years later, with a similar offence. -(See p. 27.) - -[97] Hallam (‘Middle Ages,’ vol. ii. p. 225) quotes from a French -historian that it was the custom at Toulouse, at this time, to give -_every_ Jew a blow on the face on Easter Day, and that this was -commuted for a fine some time in the 12th century. This is plainly -the same story, with some variations. - -[98] The theocracy of the Old Testament, where the religious and -civil ruler were one and the same, and which probably was the -primitive form of government (Gen. xiv. 18), was the model which -Charlemagne considered all rulers ought to follow. - -[99] It would appear from this, that the law prevalent in the last -reign forbidding Jews to hold Christian slaves, had been relaxed. - - - - - CHAPTER XIV. - - A.D. 980-1100. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN.—IN ENGLAND.—THE CRUSADES. - - -With the downfall of the Carlovingian dynasty, a period of seven -centuries began, during which the Jews underwent the most terrible -wrongs and sufferings in almost every European country. In some -lands persecution showed itself earlier, in others later; in some it -reached a greater height, in others it lasted longer. But several -generations passed before it was displayed in all its horrible -deformity. During the interval we have now under consideration, A.D. -980 to 1100, though acts of injustice and cruelty were occasionally -perpetrated, and a fierce spirit of intolerance manifested—which, it -was but too evident, needed only to be roused by some popular tumult, -to run to the most fearful heights—yet none of the terrible tragedies -were enacted by which the succeeding generations were disgraced. - -It is somewhat strange that the first massacre should have occurred -among a people heretofore remarkable, not merely for their toleration -of the Jews, but for the kindness and consideration uniformly shown -them. But in 1068 an insurrection broke out in Granada, during which -1500 families were slaughtered. It had been caused partly by the -pride of Rabbi Joseph, the chief minister of the Moorish king. His -father, Rabbi Samuel, had gained the royal favour by his knowledge -and ability; and at his death the same high office had been continued -to his son. But the latter differed in character from his father, -who had ever shown himself humble-minded and forbearing. The hauteur -and implacable temper of the son raised him up enemies among the -grandees, who were ever on the watch for an occasion to effect his -fall. About the same time a fanatical zealot provoked an insurrection -by attempting to convert the Moorish people of Granada to the Jewish -faith. This is an act forbidden by the laws of every Moslem State, -under penalty of death. The indiscretion was taken advantage of by -the enemies of Joseph. He was assassinated by the insurgents; the -preacher was hanged, and the mob, not satisfied with this revenge, -and doubtless in no way unwilling to despoil the wealthy Jews, -attacked and pillaged their houses, massacring them, as the reader -has heard, to the number probably of seven or eight thousand persons. - -Monstrous and barbarous as this outbreak was, it must be allowed that -it was mainly provoked by the Jews themselves; but in what ensued a -few years afterwards at the Court of Ferdinand the First, called the -Great, the aggression was wholly unprovoked. This monarch, who united -under his sway the crowns of Leon and Castile, had resolved on a -religious war for the extirpation of the Moslem power in Spain. But, -before entering on this, he was advised by his queen, Donna Sancha, -that the surest way to call down the blessing of Heaven upon his -enterprise, would be to massacre all the Jews in his dominions! It is -a redeeming feature in the sad history of that time, that the Spanish -bishops interfered, and forbade the massacre on pain of spiritual -penalties, and the reigning Pope, Alexander II., upheld them in their -action. Ferdinand’s successor, Alphonso VI., adopted a totally -different policy. He found himself so hardly pressed by the action -of the Moors in Africa, that the help of the Jews became a matter of -pressing necessity with him.[100] He in consequence not only avoided -all persecuting measures, but bestowed on them so many favours and -privileges, that Pope Alexander’s successor severely censured him for -his policy, which he declared to be ‘a submission of the Church to -the synagogue of Satan.’ - -At this period we have to mention, as we have not done previously, -the position of the Jews in England. It is a popular mistake to -suppose that they made their appearance there, for the first time, -in the train of William the Norman. Many Jews, no doubt, settled in -England at that time; but others had been resident there, though -probably in scanty numbers, before this date. A canon of Egbert -of York (made A.D. 740) prohibits Christians from taking part in -the Jewish festivals. There is mention of them a hundred years -later in a charter granted to the monks of Croyland. The laws of -Edward the Confessor (A.D. 1041) declare them to be the property -of the sovereign, as was the case at that time in France. But it -was not until the reign of William Rufus that they took any part -in English history. Then we find that that king, who cared little -for religion in any shape, and entertained a bitter dislike to the -clergy, permitted the Jews publicly to uphold their religion in any -way they pleased. Nay, he proclaimed a formal disputation between -the advocates of the rival religions in London, and swore, if the -Rabbins got the better of the Bishops, ‘by St. Luke, he would turn -Jew himself!’ The Jews are said to have claimed the victory, though -we do not hear of the king keeping his vow. At Rouen, afterwards, he -entertained a complaint made by certain Jews, that their children had -been beguiled into professing Christianity, offering at the same -time to pay a handsome sum if the children returned to their ancient -faith. The king took the money, and ordered the converts to abjure -their new profession. Failing in one or two instances to effect this, -we are told he was very unwilling to refund the money paid him. - -These incidents, scandalous as doubtless they are, show nevertheless -that the Jews at this time enjoyed immunity from persecution; -unless, indeed, the heavy and lawless exactions made on them by the -Norman kings themselves are to be regarded as acts of persecution. -The property of the Jews was by no means secure from _them_, but -it was secure from all other spoilers. We are told that in London -and York they dwelt in splendid mansions, resembling the castles -of the barons; while in Oxford they possessed three halls for the -education of their youth,—Lombard Hall, Moses Hall, and Jacob Hall; -nor does their presence seem to have been objected to.[101] They had -a cemetery at St. Giles’s, Cripplegate. - -But it will now be proper to enter on a consideration of the causes -which led to the renewal of popular bitterness against the Hebrew -race in all the countries of Europe. First among these must be noted -the prevalence of the Feudal System. This singular institution was, -we must allow, in theory, both comprehensive and consistent. The -position and duties of every man were defined, the rights of every -man secured and protected. The serf tilled his feudal superior’s -lands; the freeman fought his battles. Both received in return -maintenance and protection, while from the feudal baron there lay an -appeal to the sovereign. But at the same time we must also allow, -as a matter of fact, that under it the very extremity of lawless -injustice prevailed—that every feudal castle was practically the -stronghold of an arbitrary and irresponsible despot, whose soldiers -executed his pleasure, however iniquitous or barbarous, without -scruple and without remorse. Still, all classes had nominally the -guardians of their rights and interests, with the single exception of -the Jews. The latter could not be feudatories. The law of the land -and the prejudice of the people would not have suffered that; nor -could they be serfs or vassals. They never practised agriculture, -and the noble profession of arms would have been thought disgraced -by their admission to it. Consequently, they had no place in -society, nor were there any to whom they could appeal for justice or -protection, except where they were directly the dependants of the -sovereign himself. But even where this was the case, any attempt to -obtain justice was precarious and perilous. If one of the robber -barons seized a Jew who might be travelling through his domains, -and subjected him to agonizing tortures until he had obtained his -release by paying a large sum of money—there was practically no -remedy. The attempt to obtain it would probably end in twofold loss -and suffering to himself. Any sympathy shown him by the peasantry -or townsfolk would bring, in all likelihood, the vengeance of the -aggressor on them. If they concerned themselves in any way with the -sufferer, it would probably be by following the example set them by -their superiors, and maltreating and plundering him. In this manner -the Jews became the outcasts of society; and all classes of men were -willing enough to adopt the ignorant and rancorous intolerance of the -clergy of the day, who (with some noble exceptions) inveighed against -them as the enemies of Christ, finding in the odium thus cast on them -an excuse for them own lawless rapacity and violence. - -Another reason for the general dislike in which they were held was -their wealth, and the manner in which it had been amassed. They were, -as has been already intimated, the only bankers, almost the only -traders, of the day. They had become an absolute necessity of life to -many classes of men. If the sovereign wished to negotiate a marriage, -or embark in a foreign war, a large sum of money was required, which -the Jews alone could supply. The same was the case with the nobles -and land-owners of lesser rank; and even the Christian merchant -could sometimes save his credit only by a timely loan, which was to -be obtained from none but Hebrew coffers. It was affirmed that the -usury exacted for these was inordinate; that the Jews took advantage -of their opportunity to accumulate enormous gains, to the total ruin -of their debtors. The rate of interest demanded was, as a general -rule, extortionate. Yet it should be borne in mind that the monstrous -injustice often shown them, when they were,—on any pretext, or on -no pretext at all,—despoiled of their money, if it did not render -the exaction of these terms necessary to secure to the lender, in -the long run, his fair profit, it did offer a strong temptation for -exaction, and gave him a ready excuse for offering only the hardest -terms to the borrower.[102] Whatever value, however, this argument -may possess, it was utterly disregarded by the enemies of the Jews -in those days, who took into account only two facts—one, that the -Jews demanded an enormous amount of usury, which brought them immense -wealth, and the other, that its payment reduced themselves to poverty. - -These influences had been for a long time at work, causing the Jews -to be regarded with ever-increasing disfavour. But it may be doubted -whether they would ever have burst forth into the furious volcano -of persecution which the next generation witnessed, if it had not -been that the element of religious fanaticism was now added to -those already at work. The cry that Christ was dishonoured through -the profanation of the scenes of His birth and crucifixion by the -unhallowed rites of the Infidels, and that it was the bounden duty of -all faithful Christians to wrest the holy places from their grasp, -now resounded through Christendom, and roused an enthusiasm of which -the world had never before beheld the like. - -It may surprise us, not that this feeling should have been awakened, -but that it should not have been awakened _before_. Three hundred -and fifty years had elapsed since the conquest of Jerusalem by the -Saracens; and ever since then it had been in the occupation of the -unbelievers. Why was the possession of the Holy City by them a -greater outrage on the feelings of Christian men in one generation -than in another? Or are we to suppose that men were more zealous -for God’s honour in the eleventh than they had been in the seventh -century? No, not so. The causes which provoked the Crusades were -different from these, and they are of importance to us, because they -throw a light on the feeling which simultaneously arose against the -Jews also. - -During the first two centuries of the occupation of the Holy City by -the Saracens, the latter had been ruled by the Ommiad or Abasside -Caliphs—men who, for the most part, governed equitably, and were -courteous and tolerant in their dealings with strangers. The number -of pilgrims who visited Palestine was small, and they were uniformly -received with friendliness. But in the tenth century, when the idea -was widely entertained throughout Western Europe that the world was -on the very point of coming to an end, and further, that all who -died in the Holy Land would certainly be saved, the number of those -who travelled thither was greatly multiplied. Those who returned -brought back with them tales of outrage and unprovoked insult, which -everywhere roused indignation. Jerusalem had passed into the hands of -the Turks, a fierce and uncultured race, who had adopted Islamism in -its most fanatic spirit. The murder of men, and the outrages offered -to women, were good deeds in their eyes; and where they abstained -from this extremity of violence, it was only to display their hate -and scorn under some other form. The resentment which these wrongs -called forth had spread through all European countries. The air -was, as it were, everywhere charged with inflammable vapour, and it -needed only the torch which Peter the Hermit had lighted to cause it -to burst forth in one consuming flame. ‘Death to the Infidels. It -is the will of God!’ was the cry that rang throughout Europe. All -men hastened to obey the call. From the king on his throne to the -journeyman in his workshop, they bound the cross on their shoulders, -and went forth to rescue the Holy Land from the profane grasp of the -unbelievers. - -This is the age of the five celebrated Talmudists, called ‘the Five -Isaacs,’ all of them bearing that name. They are distinguished as -Isaac of Cordova, of Lucena, of Barcelona, of Pumbeditha, and of Fez. -The Spanish Poet Halevi was born towards the close of this period. -From the middle of the eleventh century, Spain was for four hundred -years the chief seat of Rabbinical learning. The great schools were -at Barcelona, Granada, and Toledo. - -To this era also belongs the renowned Solomon Gabriol, poet and -philosopher, author of ‘The Fountain of Life.’ He was born at Malaga, -1021, and died A.D. 1070. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[100] It was this Alphonso who wrote the singular letter to Yusef, -king of the Almoravides, inviting him to fight a pitched battle -on the ensuing Monday, ‘because,’ he said, ‘Friday would not suit -the Mahometans in his army, or Saturday the Jews, or Sunday the -Christians.’ - -[101] There appears, indeed, to have been at that time an amount -of toleration which may well surprise us. One Mossey, a Jew of -Wallingford, was wont, we are told, openly to ridicule the miracles -of St. Frideswide. He would crook his fingers as if they were -paralysed, and presently straighten them, or limp like a cripple, and -then suddenly leap or dance, crying out ‘A miracle!’ This was a calm -on the edge of a storm such as has rarely been seen!—‘Rise, Fall, and -Future Restoration of Jews,’ ch. iii. - -[102] It is plainly intimated by Bernard of Clairvaulx that there -were Christians (he probably meant Lombard merchants) who exacted -more excessive usury than the Jews themselves. - - - - - CHAPTER XV. - - A.D. 1100-1200. - - THE CRUSADES.—JEWS IN FRANCE, SPAIN, GERMANY, AND HUNGARY. - - -‘Death to the infidel. It is the will of God!’ Such was the cry -that rang through Europe—‘Death to the Moslem, whose unhallowed -shrine overshadows the holy place, in which the Saviour Himself has -worshipped, whose blasphemies awake the same echoes which His Divine -preaching once called forth!’ Yes. But were these the only shrines -where false worship was offered? were they in Jerusalem the only ones -who blasphemed the Lord? If the slaughter of the unbelieving Turk was -acceptable to the Most High, why not that of the unbelieving Jew? -It was strange that this peril should not have been dreaded by the -Jews dwelling in the lands which the mania called forth by Peter the -Hermit overspread. But it does not seem to have done so; they made no -attempt to escape from the approaching danger. They even continued -the ordinary course of their business, making the same enormous gains -out of the Crusaders’ necessities, which they had done out of every -other political movement for generations past. The great baron, who -had vowed to lead his hundreds, or it might be his thousands, of -armed followers to the rescue of the Holy Sepulchre, mortgaged his -lands, or his jewels, or perhaps sold them outright, to the Jews, on -such terms as we can hardly believe that the one could have asked or -the other agreed to. Poorer men parted with their all on the like -terms. But that there were some shrewd men left among the Christians, -who were not carried away by the tide of popular excitement, the -whole wealth of the community would have passed into the hands of the -Jews. It is needless to add that the bitter feelings towards this -isolated race—who were for ever battening on the wants and sufferings -of others—were greatly aggravated by these proceedings, and it was -not long before this burst out into a flame. - -All over Northern France and Germany, the Jews seem to have been -numerous at this time; but in what is now Rhenish Prussia, and along -the banks of the Moselle, they were to be found in the greatest -abundance. It was near the city of Treves that the first vast -multitude of undisciplined fanatics assembled, under the leadership -of Walther von Habenicht and Peter the Hermit. As they set forth, -under the guidance of a goat and a goose, to find their way to the -Holy Land, a cry was suddenly raised, doubtless by some enemy of -the Jews, that while they were marching to destroy the enemies of -the Lord Jesus in Palestine, they were leaving unassailed at home -those who were not only His enemies, but His murderers—the Jews! The -cry was instantly caught up, the frantic crowd rushed into Treves, -and began a general pillage of the Jews’ houses, and a massacre -of their occupants. Taken by surprise, the authorities offered -no interference; indeed, no interference they could have offered -would have been of the slightest avail. The unhappy Jews, equally -unprepared, could neither resist nor escape. Scenes too shocking -for description ensued. Women tied heavy weights round their necks, -and threw themselves into the rivers to avoid the last dishonour. -Men slew their own children, to save them from the tortures to -which they would be subjected; their own lives they yielded up in -despairing silence. Some fled to the citadel, hoping to be protected -against the violence of their assailants; but the Bishop of Treves -received them with threats and reproaches, refusing to interfere in -their behalf, unless they would accept baptism. The same scenes took -place in Cologne, Worms, Spires, and Mayence. Everywhere the only -hope of escape from torture and death was baptism; except, indeed, -where a heavy bribe had been paid for episcopal protection, or where, -as at Spires, the Jews armed themselves and sold their lives dearly. -The tide of murder rolled on, sweeping the shores of the Maine and -the Danube, the same scenes being everywhere repeated. In Bavaria, -it is said that as many as 12,000 Jews were slaughtered. The Emperor -Henry IV. seems to have been the only potentate whom these atrocities -struck with horror. He issued a decree, repairing, so far as was -possible, the wrongs that had been done, and forbidding them for the -future. But, for the most part, the historians of those times relate -the horrors that took place with a _sangfroid_ which speaks volumes -as to the light in which they were regarded by those who witnessed -them. - -But the three mighty hosts, led by Peter and his two colleagues, -passed on and perished, and the exhaustion succeeded which such a -drain on the population must necessarily occasion. It was not until -half the twelfth century had passed away that the crusading mania -was again roused. Then a fanatic monk, named Rodolph, commenced -a mission through the German cities, calling on all men, by the -watchword ‘Hep, Hep’ (the initials of the words _Hierosolyma est -perdita_) to assist in slaying and crushing the enemies of God. The -Jews knew too well, by past experience, that they were included under -this latter term, and many effected a timely retreat. Nevertheless, -a frightful carnage took place in Strasburg, Mayence, and the other -Rhine cities, encouraged, unhappily, by too many of the clergy. It -is like a bright gleam of sunshine on a dark November day, to read -the protest addressed by the saintly Bernard of Clairvaulx, to his -brother clergy against the blind and savage spirit by which Rodolph -was possessed.[103] - -‘The Jews,’ he writes, ‘ought not to be persecuted; they ought not to -be put to death, they ought not to be driven into banishment. What -says the Scripture? “Slay them not, lest My people forget.” The Jews -are living monuments to remind us of the sufferings of the Lord. -Therefore it is that they are scattered.... Therefore they endure a -hard bondage under Christian princes; yet, in the eventide of the -world, they will be converted, and He will remember them. Addressing -Rodolph himself, he says, ‘You are of another mind from Him who said, -“Put up thy sword into the sheath, for he that taketh the sword shall -perish with the sword.” Does not the Church triumph more gloriously -over the Jews when she refutes and converts them, than if she slew -them with the edge of the sword?’ It is satisfactory also to learn -that Pope Eugenius III. advocated the same view, and that Rodolph was -ordered back to his convent, though not before he had occasioned the -most terrible crimes and sufferings. - -But the condition of the Jews grew no better, but rather worse, as -the century advanced. The calumny—whether it was the revival of -an ancient accusation against the Jews, or one newly invented at -this period—of crucifying boys at their Passover, in mockery of the -Saviour’s passion, was widely diffused and credited. It was reported -that, about A.D. 1180, during the youth of Philip Augustus, they had -in this manner murdered one Richard, a youth belonging to Pontoise; -and, in confirmation of the truth of the story, the body, when it -was conveyed to Paris, worked many miracles. Philip had no sooner -ascended his throne than he put forth an edict, A.D. 1182, whereby -all debts due to Jews were annulled, and all pledges held by them -were to be restored to the original owners. Not satisfied with this -display of somewhat cheap generosity, he made a second proclamation, -confiscating all their property which was not removable, and -commanding them to sell everything else belonging to them, and depart -from his dominions. In vain they appealed for mercy. King and nobles -and bishops alike closed their ears. The twofold offence of holding -heretical opinions and mortgages on estates was not to be forgiven. -It will readily be credited that at the enforced sale of their goods -the prices bidden were of the lowest. The unhappy Jews were compelled -to depart, amid the execrations of the populace, from the homes in -which their whole lives had been passed, carrying with them little -but their wives and children. It was not enough that they had been, -by the most high-handed injustice, stripped of their possessions; -they were not to be allowed to remain in the land where the wrong had -been done, and so remind the doers of their crime! - -It will surprise no one to be told that their removal did not -increase the wealth or relieve the public burdens of the nation. -It was found that the expulsion of the Jews was, as Fouché said of -the murder of the Duke d’Enghien, ‘more than a crime, for it was a -blunder.’ Within twenty years Philip found it necessary to issue -a new edict, permitting their return. But it _does_ occasion our -wonder to hear that the Jews consented to the step. It speaks volumes -for the depth of the misery to which they had been reduced, that -they could be prevailed on to trust themselves again to the justice -and mercy of a king who had so flagrantly proved his disregard of -both.[104] Not long after their return, we are told that they held -an assembly by permission of the Queen’s mother, at a castle on the -Seine. Here the old charge of scourging, crucifying, and crowning -with thorns a youth whom they had seized was once more alleged -against them. Philip repaired in person to the spot, where he -condemned eighty of the accused to be burned alive.[105] - -In Spain, during this century, the Jews were still equitably dealt -with, though there were signs of the change of feeling towards them -which was gradually taking possession of the public mind. For this -two causes may be assigned. In the first place, the power of the -Mahometans, who had always been the protectors of the Jews, was fast -waning; and the Christian sovereigns no longer dreaded the enmity -of the Jews, who in previous generations might have been dangerous -allies to their rivals. In the second, the downfall of the Ommiad -Caliphs, who had uniformly been just and generous in their dealings -with the Jews, proved most disastrous to them. The Almohades, -who, A.D. 1150, superseded them, were fierce and bloody fanatics, -inclined to force the faith of Islam on all with whom they came in -contact. One of the first edicts of Abdel-Mumen, the founder of the -dynasty, required all his subjects, of whatsoever creed, to profess -Mahometanism. The usual consequences followed. Many Jews went into -voluntary exile; many more made an outward profession of their -persecutor’s creed, still secretly retaining their own. The happy -days of the Spanish Jews were over. Moorish rule was ended. - -In the Christian kingdom, however, justice and right still prevailed. -The royal authority was uniformly exerted for the protection of -peaceable and unoffending men. But there were occasions on which this -power proved insufficient to restrain the violence of the people, who -had probably learned from their neighbours to regard the Jews with -disfavour. Thus, a riot occurred at Toledo, A.D. 1108, instigated, -in all likelihood, by the crusaders, who were just on the point of -setting out for Palestine. The populace, under the usual pretext of -slaying the enemies of Christ, attacked and burned the houses of the -Jews, wrecked the synagogues, immolating the Rabbins, as it were, on -their own altars, and made a general massacre of the common people. -Alphonso tried in vain, first to repress, and then to punish, the -offenders. - -But this occurrence, shocking as it was, was a mere temporary -outburst of popular fury. It was not repeated, not even in the reign -of his descendant, Alphonso VIII., in 1171, when, above all other -times, a Jewish massacre might have been looked for. This king -had become deeply enamoured of a beautiful Jewess, named Rachel -Fermosa. For her society he neglected his queen, and withdrew himself -from public business. Grave misfortunes ensued: his forces were -defeated at Alarcos, and the kingdom menaced by the hostility of -the neighbouring states. The people believed that these calamities -were due, not to the bad administration of public affairs, but to -the indignation of Heaven at the king’s unhallowed affection for an -unbeliever. Their jealousy was also roused by the favour shown to -her countrymen. A rebellion broke out, the rioters burst into the -king’s palace, and assassinated Fermosa before the eyes of her lover. -But they satisfied themselves with her death, and did not molest the -Jewish favourites whom she had patronized. - -Alphonso IX. showed even greater favour to the Jews than had been -bestowed on them by his predecessors. Innocent III. repeated in -his instance the charge which Gregory VII. had brought against his -ancestor, ‘of elevating the Synagogue at the cost of the Church.’ -He relieved both Jews and Moors, we are told, from the payment of -tithes, and allowed them to hold landed property,—a rare privilege -in those days. One of his laws—which allowed a Jew, in the event of -one of his slaves being converted to Christianity, to claim, at the -hands of the person who had converted him whatever indemnity he -might think proper—seems to be as unfair to the Christians as the -legislation of those times usually was to the Jews. - -In Hungary, Germany, and Bohemia, their condition, during the period -we have under consideration, appears to have been prosperous. -Ladislas, King of Hungary, convened, we are told, a Synod in 1092, -in which various regulations relating to the Jews were made. It -was ordered that if a Jew bought a Christian slave of either -sex, the slave should be set at liberty, and the price paid for -him confiscated to the bishop. His son Coloman re-enacted this -prohibition against the use of Christian slaves, but permitted the -Jews to purchase and cultivate lands, on condition of employing -Jewish or pagan labour, and settling in such places only as were -under the jurisdiction of a bishop. These laws prove that the Jews -must have been both a numerous and wealthy part of the population. - -In Germany and Bohemia they had many stately synagogues, particularly -in the great towns, and were not interfered with by the government. -Nevertheless, they did not escape persecution. A fanatic priest, -named Gotesel, incited a band of lawless ruffians, amounting in -number to fifteen thousand, to attack the Jews; and he was supported, -it is believed, in secret, by persons high in authority. He plundered -the property of the Jews, outraged their women, and massacred the -men all over Franconia. He then entered Hungary, and commenced -perpetrating the like atrocities; when he was attacked and slain, -together with the greater part of his followers. Soon afterwards -the Landgrave of Leiningen declared in like manner a religious war -against the Jews, and having assembled a body of troops, committed -great havoc among them, pursuing them at last, like his predecessor, -into Hungary; where, like his predecessor again, he was defeated and -slain.[106] - -In Russia, early in the twelfth century (A.D. 1113), there was a -savage outbreak in the city of Kief, against the Jews. The same cry -seems to have been raised which has so frequently been heard in other -lands, their accumulation of wealth, at the cost, it was supposed, of -their neighbours. The merciful Vladimir, who succeeded to the throne, -tried to protect them, but could only do so by assenting to their -expulsion from Russia. This was their first, and their longest, term -of banishment from any European country. They were not allowed to -return for 600 years. - -During this period lived Solomon, called Rashi, or as it is more -commonly written, Jarchi. He was the most renowned of the many -commentators on the Talmud. It is said that no edition of that work -has appeared since his time which had not his commentary appended to -it. He was born A.D. 1040, and died A.D. 1105. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[103] Arnold, Archbishop of Cologne, also did his best to -discountenance the persecutors. He gave them the fortress of -Wolkenstein as a refuge, and they there made an armed and successful -defence. - -[104] They were not readmitted without the enactment of several laws -which materially affected their future position. Among others, they -were obliged to wear a distinctive badge; and the persons to whom -they might lend money, the articles they might receive in pledge, -and the amount of interest they might require, were all settled by -statute. - -[105] See a full discussion of this charge and its probable origin. -Appendix V. - -[106] Rabbi Joseph has given us (vol. i. 30, 35) a long and terrible -picture of the barbarous cruelties inflicted at this period on his -countrymen, in consequence of their refusal ‘to submit to the proud -waters, or enter the House of Error’ (_i.e._, to be baptized, or be -admitted to the Church). Comp. Psalm cxxiv. 4. - - - - - CHAPTER XVI. - - A.D. 1100-1200 (_continued_). - - THE JEWS IN ENGLAND.—JEWISH IMPOSTORS. - - -It has been noted in a previous chapter that, up to the end of -William Rufus’s reign, the chief hardship that befell the Jews in -England was, that the Norman kings extracted large sums from them, -partly as loans—for which, perhaps, payment was hardly contemplated -by either party—and partly as the price of the protection afforded -them. The same state of things continued during the reigns of Henry -I., Stephen, and Henry II. Throughout this long period,—not much -less than a hundred years,—the Jews continued to gather in riches -without molestation, to an extent which proved ruinous to themselves -in subsequent generations, little as they anticipated such a result -at the time.[107] There were not wanting signs, however, which -might have indicated the approaching danger. During the reign of -Stephen, A.D. 1145, the charge was made against the Jews,—for the -first time in England, if not in Europe,—of having kidnapped and -crucified a boy at Norwich, in contemptuous parody of the Saviour’s -passion. The case was brought before the notice of the king, and the -accused were adjudged to pay a fine to the Crown—a most suspicious -termination of the inquiry. No further outbreak, however, occurred: -and during the protracted reign of his successor, Henry II., the -same condition of things continued. That able and powerful monarch, -whatever might be his difficulties with the clergy, repressed with a -strong hand all overt acts of violence against the peculiar people, -who looked to him for protection.[108] But he could not prevent their -growing unpopularity. Society had become largely influenced by the -crusading spirit. The loss of Jerusalem,—which had been wrested by -so large an expenditure of blood and treasure from the hold of the -Infidel,—roused everywhere a more bitter feeling than ever against -the enemies of Christ. It was mainly through the Crusades that the -Jews had acquired their wealth; and the spectacle of unbelievers -living in ease and luxury, at the cost of the faithful servants -of Christ, whose bones were whitening the plains of Palestine, or -who had returned to England to pine in poverty, stirred public -indignation to the utmost. The train was already laid for a furious -onslaught upon them. It needed but a spark to bring about the -explosion. - -The crisis came almost immediately after the death of Henry. Anxious -at once to show their loyalty and secure the protection of the -new sovereign, the Jews sent a deputation, consisting of men of -the highest repute among them, to attend the coronation of King -Richard, and present him with rich gifts suitable to the occasion. -Their presence was regarded as a profanation of the ceremony, and -orders were sent them to stay away. They obeyed, but a few of their -number, supposing themselves unknown, or that they would not be -noticed, ventured into the Abbey. They were detected and dragged -violently out. The popular fury was inflamed. The houses of the Jews -were everywhere broken open, plundered, and set on fire. The king -endeavoured to put a stop to the riot, but in vain. The pillage and -murder went on throughout the entire night. On the following day -order was restored, many of the rioters were arrested, and a strict -inquiry made. Three were hanged, but it is a curious illustration -of the state of the public feeling of the day, that none of these -were punished for injuries done to the Jews. Two of the three had -robbed a Christian, pretending that he was a Jew, and the third had -set on fire the house of a Jew, but, unluckily for the offender, a -Christian’s house had been burned along with it. It would really seem -that, in the existing state of public feeling, the government dared -not punish any one for the simple offence of injuring a Jew! - -The news of the outbreak ran like wild fire through the country, and -everywhere the rabble were roused to the same violence. In Norwich -and Stamford, and other large towns, the Jews were attacked, their -houses gutted, themselves maltreated and slain. At Lincoln, the -humane governor of the castle gave them timely warning. They retired -with their valuables within its shelter, and were preserved. At -York, a Jew named Benedict, who had declared himself a convert to -Christianity to save his life, and had afterwards recanted, became -the special object of popular fury. He had died of exhaustion -and terror before the commencement of the _émeute_; but the mob, -disregarding that circumstance, attacked his house, burned it to -the ground, and murdered his wife and children. The other Jews—as -many of them, that is, as had heard in time of the danger that -was threatening them—took refuge within the walls of York Castle, -thinking, probably, to escape as their brethren at Lincoln had done. -Those who were left behind were ruthlessly massacred, man, woman, and -child, a few only excepted, who submitted to be baptized. - -The Jews within the castle seem to have been received favourably by -the governor. But they suspected him of treachery. Unhappily, their -Christian brethren had given them but too good reason for their -suspicious temper. A rumour was circulated among them that he meant -to open the gates to the rioters, conditionally on being rewarded -for his treachery by receiving a large portion of the plunder. One -day, when he had gone out into the town, they took the desperate step -of shutting the gates against him, and, manning the walls, declared -they would defend themselves against all who might attack them. The -governor’s indignation was roused to the utmost at this ingratitude. -It chanced that the sheriff of the county was in York, attended by an -armed force. The governor appealed to him to recapture the fortress -from the traitors who had seized it. The sheriff assented, and, aided -by the mob, made an assault on the castle. The besieged defended -themselves manfully, and for a long time kept their enemies at bay. -At last it became evident that they could resist no further. Then -their Rabbi, a man of learning and high character, addressed them, -and warned them that there was nothing but death before them—a speedy -and honourable death by their own hands, or a death attended by every -circumstance of insult and barbarity by the hands of their enemies. -Surely it was better to choose the first. - -This proposal was agreed to by nearly all present. They collected -their valuables. Such as were combustible they burned, the rest they -buried. They then set fire to the castle in several places, slew, -first of all, their wives and children, and then one another. The -Rabbi was the last to die. He stabbed the last survivor of his flock, -and then drove the sword into his own heart. The fearful scene which -had taken place, a thousand years before, in the Castle of Masada, -was repeated, with scarcely any variation but those caused by the -difference of time and place. If any evidence were required of the -resolute and unchangeable character of the Jewish people, this story -would surely suffice. - -In the morning a renewed assault was made, and then came the fearful -discovery of what had taken place. The conduct of the victors fully -justified the forebodings of the Rabbi; the few who had shrunk from -death at the hands of their countrymen were dragged out of their -hiding-places and butchered. Then the work of plunder began. The gold -and jewels were carefully secured, but the papers, of which there -was a great store, were burned. This was an unhappy mistake for the -rioters. The papers were mostly bonds and acknowledgments of debts, -the reversion of which, by the law, became the property of the Crown. -Consequently, by this act, large sums were forfeited which would have -enriched the royal treasury. The reader will not be surprised to -hear that a commission of inquiry was straightway sent down to York. -But the papers had been hopelessly destroyed, and the ringleaders of -the outrage had fled to Scotland. The chief citizens entered into -recognizances for the better observance of order; but it does not -appear that any of the perpetrators of this horrible murder of 500, -or some say 1500, innocent persons ever underwent any legal penalty. - -When Richard returned from his captivity, however, he resolved to -place the affairs of the Jews in a more satisfactory condition. He -found that during his absence the utmost lawlessness had prevailed. -The Norman baron had been in the habit of seizing on any wealthy Jew, -carrying him to his castle, and inflicting any amount of torture on -him, till he paid the sum demanded of him.[109] He forbade this, -declaring the Jews to be the chattels of the Crown, with which it -would be treason to meddle. A special court in the king’s Exchequer -was set apart for the management of Jewish finances. The amount of -property belonging to every Jew was duly registered and assessed. -This was no doubt arbitrary and extortionate, but still it was better -than lawless pillage, and probably did not prevent the Jews from -continuing to amass large fortunes. During the remainder of his short -reign they experienced no further persecution. - -Richard died in the last year of the century, and John, the cruellest -and most detestable of the English kings, succeeded to the throne. -But for a time his usage of the Jews was milder than that of any -of his predecessors. He issued a charter restoring to them all the -privileges they had possessed in the times of the pure Norman kings. -They might dwell where they pleased; might hold lands and fees; their -evidence was to be of equal value with that of Christians; and, if -charged with an offence, they could be tried only in the King’s -Court. With what motive this was done, it is not easy to say. John -may have simply wished to conciliate their goodwill and so induce -them to be as liberal to him as possible. But the suspicion that -he meant to allow them time and opportunity for accumulating vast -riches, and then seize on them himself, has much to justify it. It -is, again, not unlikely that the countenance which he showed them -rendered them more than ever odious to his subjects; and when this -became patent, he was in no way inclined to incur unpopularity on -their account.[110] Any way, some ten years after his accession, -there was a sudden and total change in his demeanour towards them. -Without any reason assigned, the whole of the Jews were arrested, -cast into prison, and their property confiscated to the Crown. -Suspecting that they had disclosed to the authorities only a portion -of their wealth, and that large secret hoards still existed, he -caused them to be put to the most cruel tortures, to compel them -to give up these also. The well-known tale of the Jew of Bristol, -of whom 10,000 marks of silver[111] were demanded, and who, on his -refusal, was sentenced to lose a tooth every day until he paid it, is -perfectly well authenticated. He allowed, it is related, seven of his -teeth to be knocked out of his head, and then, to save the remainder, -consented to the payment. The king is said to have obtained as much -as 60,000 marks by this pillage of his subjects. Nor did the cruelty -and injustice end here. The rebellious barons, regarding the Jews as -the property of the Crown, seized upon their treasures and demolished -their houses, to repair the breaches in the walls of London. - -Before concluding the history of the twelfth century, it will be -proper to give some brief account of the various impostors claiming -to be the expected Messiah who made their appearance during its -continuance, and also to say something of the great doctors and -learned men who adorned the period in question. - -As regards the first of these subjects—adventurers claiming to be the -Messiah of prophecy have put forward their pretensions throughout -the whole of Jewish history, from the times of Judas of Galilee to -those of which we are now writing; but never in such numbers as at -this era. The first of them appeared in France in 1137. He was put -to death, many synagogues were destroyed, and their congregations -severely punished on his account. Another followed, a few years -afterwards, in Spain, where he received the support of a learned -Rabbi in Cordova. Notwithstanding this, he seems to have had but -few disciples, and soon subsided into insignificance. A third, in -Moravia, attracted more attention. He claimed to have the power of -rendering himself invisible, and several times—it is presumed by the -help of some juggling trick—succeeded in escaping from his pursuers. -His followers at last, dreading the anger of the king, delivered him -up, and he was hanged. - -Several more made their appearance in the East, chiefly in Arabia -and Persia. One of these, who had been cured, by what he thought -a miracle, of his leprosy, drew great multitudes after him. His -pretensions were exposed by the Jewish doctors; but nevertheless -large numbers of Jews were slain in consequence of the tumults he -excited. Another, an Arabian, is chiefly remarkable for the ingenuity -by which he escaped torture. He told the king that if his head should -be cut off he would rise again from the dead. The king instantly -beheaded him with his scimitar, but only to find that the impostor -had by this stratagem baffled his tormentors. - -But the most famous of all was Eldavid, on whose strange history -Disraeli has founded his ‘Wondrous Tale of Alroy.’[112] He was -born about the middle of the twelfth century, in Amaria, a city -tributary to the sovereign of Persia. He was acquainted with -Talmudical learning, and had learned, it was said, some strange -cabalistic secrets. He raised an insurrection among his countrymen, -whom he deluded by several apparent miracles. After some unavailing -attempts to get him into their power, the Persians bribed his -father-in-law, with a promise of ten thousand crowns, to betray him. -His father-in-law invited him to a feast, and there assassinated him. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[107] At a Parliament held at Northampton, when it was proposed -to raise a tax for an expedition to the Holy Land, the Jews were -assessed at £60,000, and the whole of the rest of the population of -the country at £70,000 only. - -[108] Two of these, similar to the outbreak in Stephen’s time, -occurred in 1160 and 1181. It has been shrewdly remarked, that the -Jews were always charged with this crime just at the times when the -kings wanted money. - -[109] The readers of Sir Walter Scott will remember the graphic scene -in ‘Ivanhoe,’ where Front de Bœuf threatens to roast Isaac of York -alive, unless he pays his demand. - -[110] It is said that, deceived probably by the long continuance of -their immunity from ill-usage, the Jews had begun to make display of -their wealth, in a manner which gave great offence to the citizens of -London; who treated them, in consequence, with many indignities. This -had reached the king’s ears, and he wrote a letter to them respecting -it. - -[111] Between six and seven thousand pounds, English money. - -[112] His history is given in detail by the celebrated Benjamin of -Tudela. - - - - - CHAPTER XVII. - - GREAT JEWISH DOCTORS.—ABEN EZRA, MAIMONIDES, BENJAMIN OF TUDELA. - - -It would be impossible, within the limits of a work like this, to -give even an outline of the great schools of Jewish learning, which -date from an age anterior to the coming of Christ, and have been -continued even to modern times. The mere enumeration of the names of -their renowned Rabbins, each the author of some profound thesis or -learned commentary, would fill a volume. During the gloomiest ages -of Christendom, when the lamp of learning was all but extinct, even -in the cloister, where alone it glimmered, the Jews had light in -their dwellings, like their ancestors of old who sojourned in Goshen, -while the world without was wrapped in Egyptian darkness. They are, -as a rule, but little known to ordinary readers, one reason of which -doubtless is, that they concern themselves mainly with subjects -which very nearly affect their own people, and find exercise for -their peculiar mode of thought, but which neither suit the fancy nor -awaken the interest of other races. Their treatises on the Talmuds -and the Cabbala, on cosmogony and judicial astrology, even their -commentaries on the Pentateuch and the Hebrew Prophets, are read -with profound attention by their own people; but their learning and -ability is lost on other readers. Nevertheless, there are some great -names among their literary celebrities, which are familiar to the -ears of all students, and with which all ought to be acquainted who -would know anything of their history. There are three in particular, -belonging nearly to the era with which we are now dealing, which -ought not to be passed over. These are Aben Ezra, Moses the son of -Maimon, commonly known as Maimonides, and Benjamin of Tudela. - -Aben Ezra was born about A.D. 1092 at Toledo, of a family already -distinguished for learning and literary ability. He was an eminent -commentator and Cabbalist, a writer on grammar, philosophy, -mathematics, and astronomy, celebrated also as a physician and a -poet. His commentaries include nearly the whole of the Old Testament, -the earlier prophets being the only ones on which he has not written. -Being a man of substance, he was able to gratify his fancy for -travelling, which was a rare taste in those days, but possessed -by several others of his brethren also. The places at which his -various writings were composed may serve to illustrate the extent -of his wanderings. Thus one of his treatises is dated from Mantua, -another from Rome, a third from London, and a fourth from some Greek -city, and the like. He visited Africa also, as well as Palestine, -and conferred with learned men of his own race at Tiberias, where -the Patriarch of the West had once fixed his abode. He died on his -return from this pilgrimage, in his seventy-fifth year, A.D. 1174. -Posterity has bestowed on him the title of ‘Hachacham, or the Wise,’ -and learned men of all races and ages have done justice to his genius -and learning.[113] - -Still more renowned for the extent and variety of his knowledge -was Moses Maimonides. He was born March 30th, 1135, in Cordova. -His father, Maimon, held the office of Judge of the Jews in his -native city, which, indeed, for generations past had been almost -hereditary in his family. Two different accounts are given us of -his early youth; one says that he showed from the first symptoms -of extraordinary ability, and his father began, almost from his -cradle, to instruct him in the elements of science; the other, that -he was treated by his family generally with contempt, because his -mother had been a woman of inferior birth, and by his father with -harshness, on account of his intellectual dulness. According to -the latter statement, he was sent away from home to be under the -charge of another teacher, but returned home so greatly improved in -learning and manners that the opinion of his relatives respecting -him was altogether changed. He studied astronomy and medicine under -the famous Averroes. It was in this last-named science that he -became especially excellent, both as a practitioner and a writer. -From Averroes, also, he acquired the knowledge of the writings of -Aristotle, which were unknown in Western Europe at this date. - -Intrigues among the Jews of Cordova obliged Maimon to fly with his -family from Spain, and take refuge in Morocco; but after a short -residence in that country he removed to Egypt, and settled at Cairo. -Maimon died soon afterwards, and his two sons maintained themselves -for a while by trading in jewels; but a revolution having taken -place in Egypt, by reason of the conquest of the country by the -Turks, Maimonides attached himself to Abdebrahim, one of the Turkish -generals, whom he served in the twofold capacity of counsellor and -physician. Though we do not hear of his having previously practised -medicine, it is probable that he did so, as his knowledge of it -appears to have been always considerable. Through his connection with -his Turkish employer he was not long afterwards brought to the notice -of the famous Saladin, now Soldan of Egypt, who took him into his -employ as his physician. He retained this post at the court not only -of Saladin but of his successor, until his death in 1204. There was, -however, a very unhappy episode in his life during this period, when -he was accused of having attempted to poison the Sultan; and he was -in consequence sent away in disgrace from the court. He is said to -have spent the whole time of his exile in a cave, where he studied -incessantly, filling many volumes with the fruits of his researches. -He was afterwards recalled and replaced in his former office. During -what is called the Third Crusade, we are told that he was invited to -attend the English King, Richard Cœur de Lion, during his illness, -but that he declined the office. - -Maimonides had advanced far beyond his contemporaries in knowledge. -Instructed in the philosophy of Aristotle, and a devout student of -Plato, his mind broke loose from the fetters of Judaical Rabbinism, -and sought to base religion on philosophy rather than on revelation. -At one period of his life it is known that he did, under strong -external pressure, make an outward profession of Mahometanism, or -at least conformed to its ritual. Possibly his experience of its -rigid stereotyped creed—on account of which Gibbon has bestowed such -strange praise upon it—may have made him less tolerant of the fetters -of Rabbinical tradition. It is certain that he introduced new lights -and strange forms of thought into his teaching, which alarmed and -irritated his brother Rabbins. His opinions were attacked by able and -learned men; their supposed errors exposed and condemned. In France, -more particularly, the feeling against them became so strong that his -works were publicly burned as heretical. A fierce warfare was waged -over his writings, which lasted many years, but ended at last in his -entire restoration to the respect and admiration of his countrymen. A -deputation was sent, in 1232, to his grave in Hebron, to ask pardon -of his ashes. If strict justice were done in this life, of how many -of its greatest men would not the same entreaty for forgiveness have -to be asked! In Maimonides’ instance, at all events, the entreaty -was sincere. He is now acknowledged by the Jews to have been the -greatest man that has arisen among them since the days of the great -Lawgiver who led them out of Egypt. Their common saying about him is, -‘From Moses to Moses there arose not a Moses!’ His writings consist -of commentaries and expositions, partly of Scripture, partly of -the Talmuds, treatises on logic, metaphysics, medicine, astrology, -natural history, and other subjects, in such numbers that they would -of themselves form an extensive library. - -Here also should be mentioned some others of the chief writers of -that golden age of Jewish literature—the three Kimchis, Moses, -Joseph, and David, born in 1160, 1190, and 1192, all of them Jews -of Spanish descent, but natives of Narbonne, and renowned for their -ability and learning. David, the most distinguished of the three, -was the author of a Hebrew grammar and dictionary of such excellence -that he obtained the title of the ‘Prince of Grammarians.’ In the -great struggle of those days between the supporters and opponents of -science, he ranged himself on the side of the former, and travelled -into Spain to endeavour to form a league of those who held his views; -and, though we are told he did not prosper in his errand, we cannot -doubt that his advocacy had its effect in the ultimate determination -of the question. - -Nor ought the celebrated Moses ben Nachman, generally known as -Nachmanides, to be passed over, though he belongs to a generation -later than the above. He is chiefly remarkable for the part he took -in the public disputation held at Barcelona in 1263, by order of the -King of Spain, between the Jews and the Christians. Pablo, said to be -a converted Jew, was the disputant on the side of the Christians, and -Nachmanides on that of his own people. It lasted four days, and the -reader has already been informed that both sides claimed the victory. -Nachmanides subsequently emigrated to Palestine, where he died. - -But the writer of this period with whom we are most deeply concerned -is not a divine or a philosopher, but a traveller, the well-known -Benjamin of Tudela. He is one of the earliest, if not the earliest, -of the mediæval travellers—two centuries before Maundeville and Marco -Polo. Like the first-named of those authors, he appears anxious to -record everything he has seen or heard, of what were in his day the -strange and unexplored regions of the East. He cannot match with Sir -John Maundeville for monstrous and extravagant fictions; but a very -large percentage of his statements must be accepted with doubt and -caution. Especially is this the case where the credit of his own -people is concerned. - -He was born in Tudela, a city of Navarre, somewhere near the -beginning of the twelfth century. He left Spain in 1260, and spent -about fifteen years in visiting the various Jewish colonies in -the East and West. He tells us that in Persia and the contiguous -countries he found numerous communities of his countrymen, mostly -living at their ease, and enjoying the free exercise of their -religion. Thus, at Bassorah, a city situated on an island in the -Tigris, he found a colony of four thousand Jews; at Almozal, a city -built on the site of ancient Nineveh, out of the _débris_ of its -ruins, there were as many as seven thousand, ruled over by Zacchæus, -a prince claiming descent from David. Journeying thence to Bagdad, -he passed Rehoboth, where he found two thousand, and at Elnabar, the -ancient Pumbeditha, celebrated of old as the centre of Rabbinical -learning, but now fallen from its high estate and sunk to little -better than a village, there were still a few doctors and students, -and two thousand inhabitants. - -Reaching Bagdad, at that time under the rule of Mostanged, a prince -who protected and favoured the Jews, he found as many as twenty-eight -synagogues, and ten courts, each presided over by one of the chief -men of the nation. These ten were called the ‘ten idle men,’ and -were subject to an official whom he styles, after the ancient title, -‘the Prince of the Captivity.’ He affirms that the authority of -this dignitary extended over all the Jews under the dominion of the -Caliph of Bagdad, from Syria eastward as far as India. He assures -us that he was regarded in the light of a potentate to whom even -the Mahometans were obliged to render reverence, rising up when he -entered their presence, and bowing their heads as he passed; and he -was escorted wherever he went by a hundred soldiers. It is difficult -to reconcile these statements with what we are told of the entire -suppression of the Princes of the Captivity nearly two centuries -before. - -Leaving Bagdad, he visited Resen, Hela, Cufa, and Thema, in each -of which he found large and flourishing Jewish populations, and -then passed on into Egypt. Here he found his countrymen still more -numerous. He mentions a city which he visited, called Chouts, where -there were as many as thirty thousand. But no city so called is known -to geographers; and it is plain, from the errors with which this part -of his narrative is filled, that he either picked up information at -second-hand without inquiry, or was extremely hasty and superficial -in his researches. - -He next explored the Holy Land, which, if his account is to be -trusted, had been at this time almost emptied of its Hebrew -inhabitants, those who still dwelt there having been reduced to a -condition of poverty and wretchedness. In Ascalon he found but one -hundred and fifty Jews; in Tiberias, anciently the central point -of Western Rabbinism, there were but fifty; in Jerusalem itself, -scarcely two hundred. In Tyre and Shunem they were more numerous, -five hundred in the one, and three hundred in the other. But, as a -rule, the cities of Palestine could hardly have contained ten Jews -out of every thousand inhabitants. The disappearance of the Hebrew -residents was probably owing to the exterminating swords of the -Crusaders. - -Leaving Palestine, Benjamin travelled through Greece, Constantinople, -Italy, and Germany, in all of which the Jewish population was greatly -less than we should have anticipated—due, it is to be feared, in a -great measure, to the cruel and devouring sword of persecution, which -had been at work with fatal effect for several generations past. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[113] Among his other accomplishments, he was, we are told, a skilful -chess-player. The Jews were famous for their passion for and skill at -that game. Among Aben Ezra’s writings was a poem on chess, which was -rendered into Latin, and published at Oxford in 1694. - - - - - CHAPTER XVIII. - - A.D. 1200-1300. - - THE JEWS IN FRANCE AND GERMANY. - - -In France, during the first quarter of the thirteenth century, no -persecutions of the Jews are recorded. In the south their condition -appears to have been prosperous. They were protected by Raymond, the -heretic but powerful Count of Toulouse. One of the bitterest charges -made against him by Innocent III. was, that he employed and favoured -Jews; and when, after his submission, he had to sign the conditions -on which his offences would be overlooked, one of them was, that he -should no longer employ Jewish officers. - -In 1223, Philip Augustus died, and was succeeded by Louis VIII., -called, it is to be presumed in mockery, Louis the Lion. During his -short reign of three years, we hear that he passed a decree annulling -all future interest on debts incurred to Jews, and ordering the -payment of the capital, in three separate instalments, each after the -interval of a year. - -In 1226, Louis VIII. died, and his son, the renowned Louis IX., known -to history as St. Louis, succeeded to the throne. He was at the time -a minor, and France was under the Regency of Blanche of Castile for -nearly ten years. Louis’s first act seems to have been the annulling -of one third of all debts due to Jews, and an immunity from arrest or -distraint for the two remaining portions. He also called a council at -Melun on the Seine, which forbade Christian men, for the future, to -borrow money from the Jews on any terms. He is said to have issued -this order ‘for the good of his soul.’ How this could be does not -clearly appear. Possibly he felt so strongly the power and the will -of the Jews to use their money-lending facilities in an oppressive -way that he sought in this way to prevent their injurious influence. -Or he may have regarded the scriptural prohibitions addressed to the -Jews, against lending their money on usury _to their own countrymen_, -as applying to _all_ loans on usury, though Scripture expressly -asserts otherwise (Deut. xxiii. 20). That this was so seems evident -from the fact that Louis’s enactment was levelled as much against the -Lombards and Caorsini[114] usurers as against the Jews. It would seem -that Louis wished to induce them to abandon usury for agriculture or -handicraft, as was also the desire of his contemporary Edward I. of -England. But both monarchs failed in the attempt. - -In the state to which matters had now grown, it would have been next -to impossible to abate the dislike of the people to them, so as to -induce them to permit the Jews to engage in the work either of the -artisan or the peasant. The hatred of the populace was in no way -abated by the quiet of the last forty years. In 1239 there were riots -in Paris and Orleans, and other great cities, on the old charge of -crucifying boys at the Passover, in which property was wrecked and -wholesale murders took place. At Ploermel, in Brittany, the duke -of that country summoned an assembly of the nobles and bishops, at -which it was declared that agriculture was ruined by the monstrous -exactions of the Jews; and a series of laws were passed, which for -injustice and cruelty exceed any ever put forth in any country. It -was decreed that all debts to Jews should be cancelled; that all Jews -should be banished from the country; that no person who should kill -a Jew should be liable to prosecution for it; and that no judge or -magistrate should take cognisance of any such offence. A petition was -further addressed to the King of France, requesting him to carry out -the same regulations throughout his dominions. The Council of Lyons, -held in the ensuing year, required all Christian princes, on pain -of excommunication, to force the Jews in their several territories -to refund to the Crusaders the sums they had exacted from them. The -Jews were forbidden to exact any debt from a Crusader’s family, -until he himself returned from Palestine, or until satisfactory -evidence of his death had been produced. Another Council prohibited -them from practising as physicians, ‘because, being in direct league -with Satan, if they did cure any one, it would probably be by their -master’s aid!’ Whatever evils men experienced, for which they were -unable to assign any special cause, were supposed to be due to the -secret spells and diabolical influence of the Jews, much as in a -succeeding generation the same evils were attributed to witchcraft. -The main source and centre of their evil knowledge was supposed to -be the mysterious and terrible Talmud. Edicts were issued for its -destruction, and it was burned, we are told, by cartloads in the -streets of Paris. - -A considerable exodus seems to have followed on these measures; which -was taken advantage of by the king, who seized on the goods of those -who had taken flight, and thus raised money for the crusade on which -he was about to enter. About the same time he ordered them to wear a -special badge, called the _rouelle_—a piece of blue cloth worn both -on the front and on the back of the Jewish gabardine. - -Notwithstanding these severities, it is plain that Louis was actuated -more by a desire of converting the Jews to Christ than of venting -his horror and hate of them. We read of a solemn conference held -in the year 1254 between Rabbi Jechiel and a convert from Judaism, -named Nicolas, before Blanche, who acted as regent during her son’s -absence. Both parties claimed the victory; neither, consequently, -underwent any conversion. It was probably disappointment at this -result which induced Louis to send home orders that they should now -be banished from the realm, which, we are told, the queen-mother -punctually executed. - -During Louis’s absence occurred also the first ‘rising of the -shepherds,’ as it is called. This was led by an apostate Hungarian -monk, who had originally been a Mussulman. The avowed purpose was the -rescue of King Louis from the hands of his enemies. They committed -pillage and murder wherever they went, but the Jews were the especial -objects of their violence. It is probable that if they had confined -their outrages to them, they might have escaped punishment. But -the massacre of the Christians could not be overlooked, especially -of priests and friars; and the Hungarian and his followers were -overpowered and slain. - -Philip the Hardy succeeded to the throne in 1270, and one of -his first acts was to recall the Jews to France, it having been -discovered that, however much the people might complain of their -avarice and exactions, they got on considerably worse without them. -It is said that during his reign, which lasted for twenty-five years, -they continued unmolested, and again gathered in great riches. They -were banished, however, from Gascony, in 1288, by Edward I. of -England, a preliminary measure, one might think, to his expulsion -of them from his English domains. A story is told by Walsingham of -his having taken this step in consequence of a miraculous escape -which he had from being struck dead by a flash of lightning, which -passed directly over his bed and killed two of his chamberlains -who were standing close by. As a sign of his gratitude for this -deliverance, he is said to have banished the Jews. Edward was a man -rather in advance of his day, and it is difficult to believe that -he could have thought that the merciless banishment of the Jews -would be a fit requital of mercy shown to him. We shall see more of -his motives in an ensuing chapter. But it is proper to remark that -this age, apparently beyond any other, credited the most extravagant -conceptions respecting the Satanic hatred of the Jews for the -Christian mysteries. They are continually charged with endeavouring -to possess themselves of the sacred wafer, and then offering it -the grossest insults, their sacrilege being as often exposed and -punished by some special miracle. A woman is persuaded by a Jew to -convey to him the consecrated host, which he stabs in several places, -whereupon it bleeds profusely; and some Christian customers, coming -in, see it, and indict him for the offence; or he puts the wafer -into his purse, in which are a number of silver pieces, and these -are turned into seven wafers, similar to the one he had placed among -them. Staggered by the miracle, he becomes a convert to the gospel. -Stories like these are continually to be met with. That the mass of -the people believed them is beyond dispute; but whether the more -intelligent among the clergy attached any real faith to such tales, -or simply used them as a means of accomplishing their own ends, in -exciting popular fury against the Jews, is a matter very difficult to -determine. - -In 1285, Philip IV., called the Fair, the shameless murderer of -the Knights Templars, succeeded his father. His first acts were -extremely hostile to the Church, but he showed no lenity to the -Jews. Six years after his accession, he repeated the act of several -of his predecessors, and expelled them from the kingdom. It does -not appear that the banishment was rigidly enforced, as we find a -second expulsion taking place not many years afterwards. In fact, -these repeated sentences of exile and subsequent recall read very -much as though they were simply regular stages in a prescribed system -of spoliation. After the Jews had been resident in a country a -sufficient length of time to have amassed wealth enough to be worth -seizing upon, it was discovered that they had been guilty of some -terrible wickedness, which rendered it impossible for a Christian -sovereign to tolerate them within his dominions. They had seized some -Christian boy, perhaps, and indulged their natural hate at once of -the Saviour and His worshippers, by subjecting him to death on the -cross. The fact that they had done so was made abundantly clear by -some astounding miracle, which rendered human testimony needless. -The immediate authors of the deed were executed, and their property -confiscated to the Crown, and their countrymen were condemned to -forfeit all but their movables, and with these to quit the realm. -Sometimes the charge was varied, and they were found to have poisoned -wells, or leagued with some foreign enemies, or (as we have seen) -profaned or insulted the Host. But it always came to the same result. -The Jews were driven out of the land, until they were in a condition -to pay a large sum for readmission; and then the king, in the midst -of his just anger, remembered mercy, and allowed them to return and -grow rich, until their renewed wealth brought some fresh wickedness -to light. - -In Germany, though the virulence of both clergy and people seems -to have been very nearly of the same character as in France, the -sovereigns of the country were evidently disposed to extend the -shield of their protection over this unhappy and persecuted race. -Frederick II., a monarch whose character forms a curious and -interesting study, dealt with them in a manner which contrasts -strangely with the demeanour of contemporary rulers towards them. At -Hagenau, in Lower Alsatia, three children had been found dead in the -house of a Jew. There was no evidence that the Jew had murdered them; -but the tale was instantly conveyed to the emperor with a demand for -vengeance. ‘Three children found dead! Let them be buried then,’ -was his answer. He followed up this novel mode of dealing with the -matter, by causing a judicial inquiry to be made as to whether it -was a regular Jewish custom to sacrifice Christian children at the -feast of the Passover. Of course no legal tribunal could give any -other decision than that there was no sort of evidence of such a -practice.[115] - -At the Council of Vienna, held in 1267, restrictions unheard of -even in the harshest times were proposed and ordered. The Jews were -forbidden to hold even the most ordinary intercourse of every-day -life with the Christians. They were not to be allowed to use the -public baths, or put up at the public inns, or to accept any public -contract, or employ any Christian servant. To the requirements -already exacted of them was added that of wearing a high peaked cap, -which at once and inevitably declared their nationality. A permit -must be purchased, before it could be lawful for any one to buy meat -of a Jew. - -At Munich, in 1287, an old woman having confessed that she had sold a -child to the Jews, whose blood they intended to use for some unholy -purpose, the rabble, without further inquiry, slaughtered all the -Jews on whom they could lay their hands. The city guard, unable to -quell the tumult, advised the Jews to retire for safety into their -synagogue, which being a building of solid stone, was likely to be -secure against violence. But the populace attacked and destroyed it, -and all within it, notwithstanding the efforts of the duke himself to -protect them. - -To close the horrors of this century, there was another frightful -massacre of the Jews at Nuremburg in 1292. A fanatic peasant, named -Raind Fleish, gave out, during the war raging between Nassau and -Austria, that he had been sent by Almighty God to exterminate the -whole race of Israel. The people, believing him, set upon the Jews -in Nuremburg and the other Bavarian cities, and burnt all that fell -into their hands. The others, preferring to die by their own act -rather than by the swords of their enemies, set their own houses on -fire, and perished with their wives and children in the flames. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[114] Caorsini, Italian usurers who drove a great trade in -money-lending. - -[115] As an instance of the unbounded credulity of the people as -to any accusation made against the Jews, it was affirmed that they -had entered into a league with the Mongolian Tartars, to enter and -overrun Germany. They had loaded a number of waggons, it is said, -with arms for their use, and pretended that the casks in which their -arms were conveyed contained poisoned wine, which the Mongolians -would unsuspectingly drink, and so be destroyed. The story was -generally believed. - - - - - CHAPTER XIX. - - A.D. 1200-1300—_continued_. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN. - - -Turning now to Spain, we find that the Jews, during this century, -still continued to enjoy, if not the full measure of justice to which -they were entitled, yet nevertheless an amount of it which contrasts -favourably with the treatment they underwent in other lands. The -wisdom, justice, and clemency also shown by the Spanish kings on many -occasions are so unlike the spirit manifested in after generations, -that we can hardly believe that we are writing of the same Spain -which approved the barbarities of Torquemada, or the horrors of the -Jewish exodus. - -James (or Jayme) I. of Aragon, who began his long reign early in -this century, is said to have granted especial favour to the Jews, -notwithstanding that he showed a very persecuting spirit in the -instance of the Albigenses. He often sought instruction of Jewish -Rabbins, and used their books of prayer in his private devotions, -and even, it is said, would not permit a Spanish translation of the -Old Testament to be introduced into his dominions, because of the -value he set on that made by David Kimchi. His confessor Raimond -is believed to have been in a great measure the cause of his kindly -feeling towards the Jews, being wise enough to know that if the Jews -were to be converted, the best chance of accomplishing it was by -the exercise of mildness and charity.[116] Regulations were passed -in the earlier years of the century,[117] with a view of preventing -the excessive usury exacted of Christians by Jews; but they are not -of a kind to be greatly complained of. The Jews are not to lend at -a higher rate of interest than 20 per cent., they are not to charge -compound interest, and the interest is never to exceed the sum lent. -The Jew, before advancing the loan, is to swear in a public court, -on the law of Moses and the Decalogue, that he will adhere to the -law. A Jew who lends on illegal terms is to lose the amount of the -loan. A decree made by the Cortes at Barcelona, in 1228, however, -deals a more serious blow to the Jews. It enacts that if there is no -documentary evidence of a debt, the oath of a Jew is not to be held -sufficient to establish it. We may not approve of these regulations, -but they cannot be regarded as grievously oppressive. - -It was perhaps through James’s influence with Ferdinand of Castile -that the attempt to rouse popular feeling against the Jews in -Saragossa, A.D. 1248, proved a failure. A report was circulated, that -a chorister, named Dominic, belonging to the cathedral, had been -stolen by the Jews and crucified. The crime was discovered through -the appearance of a miraculous light over the chorister’s grave. The -body was disinterred and carried into the cathedral, where it was -treated as that of a martyr and saint. The usual amount of obloquy -and insult to the Jews resulted; but no steps were taken by the -authorities, and no excesses permitted. - -In 1263, James, who in his later years is said to have been greatly -under the influence of the Dominicans, ordered a public disputation -upon the relative merits of Judaism and Christianity to be held -at Barcelona. The advocate on the side of the Christians was one -Pablo, a Jewish convert; on that of the Jews, the renowned Rabbi -Nachmanides. The inevitable result followed—both parties claimed the -victory. It was at all events so far favourable to the Jews, that -it excited the alarm of Pope Clement IV., who urged James to drive -the Jews out of his realm, as being dangerous to the faith of the -Christians. But the king took no further step than that of levying a -tax on them, to defray the expenses of the Christian advocate, Pablo, -who was sent on a kind of tour through the great Spanish cities, with -authority to hold conferences with the Jews wherever he pleased. -Nachmanides, the Jewish champion, possibly dreading Clement’s -hostility, soon afterwards migrated from Spain to the Holy Land. - -The Jews had two other protectors in Ferdinand III. of Castile -(already mentioned), commonly known as Saint Ferdinand, and his son -Alphonso, called in history ‘the Wise.’ Ferdinand, who reigned from -1217 to 1252, uniformly treated the Jews with justice and leniency. -When his son captured Seville from the Moors in 1248, he set apart, -doubtless by his father’s direction, three parishes (those of -Santa Maria, Saint Bartholomew, and Santa Cruz) for the residence -of the Jews, as well as three Mahometan mosques, which they might -convert into synagogues. Under these princes the celebrated college -at Cordova was transferred to Toledo; which henceforth became the -principal school of Jewish learning in Spain. - -Alphonso was the author of the code of laws known as _Las Siete -Partidas_, which, though it contains much that an after age must -needs condemn as unjust,[118] has also many wise and equitable -enactments, such as we could hardly have looked for in the -legislation of that age. Thus it orders ‘that no force shall be used -to make Jews turn Christians, but rather good example, kindness, -and the maxims of the Holy Scriptures.’ Again, ‘that synagogues -are buildings where God’s name is praised, therefore Christians -shall not presume to destroy or plunder them.’ ‘No Christians are -to cause molestations to Jews while engaged at their prayers.’ -Again, ‘Saturday is a day whereon Jews observe their Sabbath. As -they are bound by their religion to observe that day, no person is -to summon them, or bring them to judgment thereon. If any sentence -should be passed upon them on that day, it shall be null and void.’ -No doubt there are, as has been already remarked, many oppressive -and indefensible laws in the same code, such as those which forbid -the Jews to hold any public post, or eat and drink, or join in -merry-makings with Christians, or use the same baths with them, or -administer to them any medicine, for fear it should be poisoned, and -the like. But these are all in the prevalent temper and spirit of the -day; and our only surprise is, that the same fountain should in this -manner send forth sweet as well as bitter water. - -A few years afterwards (A.D. 1255) an equally malignant attempt -was made to destroy the Jews. Three persons belonging to Osuna, in -Andalusia, threw a corpse into the house of a Jew; then, pretending -to find it there by chance, they brought the usual charge of murder -against the owner of the house. The story was speedily circulated -through the city, and roused the populace to fury. Many Jews were -killed in the streets; many more took refuge in the houses of -Christian friends. It was the season of the Passover, during which -the Jews refuse to eat any but unleavened bread; and not finding this -in the houses of their Christian friends, many were in danger of -starvation. At Palma also the same story was circulated, and caused -a similar outbreak. The Jews held a consultation, and resolved that -the only hope of preventing the mischief from spreading further lay -in sending to King Alphonso a deputation, requesting him to make -inquiry into the matter. But the news of this intention got abroad; -the deputies were pursued by their enemies, and had a narrow escape -of being murdered on their journey. They evaded their pursuers, but -to do so were forced to quit the high road and take shelter in a -wood. The consequence was, that when they reached the capital they -found that their enemies had already arrived, and had preferred their -accusation against them. They had, however, in King Alphonso not -only a just but an extremely sagacious judge; and their case was so -strong that it hardly needed the able advocacy of their delegate, -Rabbi Joseph, to ensure success. It was brought to light that one -Juan de Vera had owed money to the owner of the house in which the -corpse had been found, and that he was extremely anxious to be quit -of his debt without the disagreeable necessity of paying the money. -His accomplices confessed that, at his instigation, they had broken -open a tomb, from which they had abstracted the corpse which had been -found in the Jew’s house. The grave was again opened by the king’s -order, and found to be empty. The acquittal of the Jew followed; and -the king sent away the deputies in friendly sort, yet not without a -recommendation to them to reduce their rate of usury and abate the -costliness and ostentation of their mode of living; for that these -things provoked the enmity of the Christians towards them. - -This is a remarkable tale, from the contrast it presents to the -numberless similar occurrences which the history of this and -succeeding centuries records. The calm judicial inquiry, in which -the evidence given on both sides was attentively listened to and -dispassionately sifted, stands out in strong relief against the -incoherent and contradictory charges, the refusal to listen to -explanation or argument, and the invincible prejudice displayed on -other occasions. But it may be doubted whether the most remarkable -fact is not the character of King Alphonso himself. It is wonderful -that a man so enlightened as he showed himself on many points[119] -could have adopted the monstrous bigotry he proclaimed on others. We -must, I suppose, conclude that, like the philosopher in Coleridge’s -‘Friend,’ he thought it better to roll in the mire of the common -prejudice of his fellow men, than remain isolated from them in -solitary cleanliness. - -Interesting evidences of the numbers and wealth of the Jews are -to be found at this period. An assessment was made in 1286 of the -Jews in the three kingdoms of Sancho, the son of Alphonso X., two -years after his accession. It appeared that there were in Leon, -Castile, and Murcia, 700,000 male Jews above the age of sixteen. -The total number, therefore, including women and children, must -have exceeded two millions. The annual dues paid by them amounted -to 2,310,021 maravedis, nearly one hundred thousand pounds of our -money. Considering the enormous difference in value of the precious -metals in those times and our own, this proves that the wealth of the -Jews must have been extraordinarily great. It is proper, however, to -add that both the numbers of the Jews and the amount paid are given -somewhat differently by other writers. - -In this century two Jewish impostors made their appearance, and -obtained great influence over their countrymen, though the falsehoods -they palmed off were different from those usually put forward by -adventurers of their class. The first of them, one Zechariah, did -not himself claim to be the Messiah, but to have discovered a new -mode of interpreting prophecy, which showed, beyond dispute, that He -was close at hand. A belief prevailed among the Jews, that if any man -could attain to a correct pronunciation of the presumedly ineffable -name of God, he would thereby acquire all knowledge and all power. -Zechariah professed to have done this, and on that ground claimed to -declare positively the day of the Messiah’s appearing. The Jews—a -large part of them, that is—credited his pretensions, and went on -the appointed day to their synagogue, clothed in white to receive -their Deliverer.[120] What became of the impostor does not seem to be -recorded. - -The second pretender professed to have obtained a complete copy of -the book Zohar,[121] of which only fragments were known to exist. -He was a Rabbi, named Moses de Leon, who, being unable to support -himself and his family by the income of his synagogue, devised this -mode of raising money. It seems to have been a considerable time -before it was discovered that the missing portions of the book were -supplied from his own imagination. The credulity of the Jews, in -general so astute, in this and similar matters, is very surprising. - -In A.D. 1291, James II. succeeded to the throne of Aragon. He was -as anxious as his predecessor had been for the conversion of the -Jews, and issued several edicts with that design. He ordered that -the Jews should attend the lectures delivered by Dominican friars on -the points of difference between the Jewish and Christian faith, and -further, be required to answer, if they could, the arguments of their -instructors. If they refused to attend; probably—though this is not -recorded—also if they refused to embark in a controversy, in which -success would be more dangerous to them than defeat, they were to -suffer such corporal punishment as the friars should adjudge. - -This, however, was all that was imposed. The young king refused to -repeal the righteous and merciful laws of his great-grandfather and -grandfather; and strict justice to the Jews remained the rule in -Spain until the thirteenth century came to its close. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[116] Raimond has been supposed by many to have been the author of -the famous _Pugio Fidei_, a severe attack on the Jews. But that book -did not appear till three centuries after his time, and was probably -the work of a Dominican of the same name. - -[117] At Tarragona, A.D. 1233 and again 1234. - -[118] There can be little doubt that Alphonso knew how far he could -venture in his efforts to uphold reason and justice, and where he -must yield to the deeply rooted prejudices of his people. Had he -attempted more, he would probably have failed to effect anything. - -[119] He was pressed at the trial at Osuna to put the accused Jews to -the torture, in order to extract evidence which would satisfactorily -prove whether they had done the deed or not. Alphonso refused. He -said that he had, two years before, allowed two Jews to be racked -in order to discover whether they had stolen two golden goblets. -Under the torture they confessed the theft, and were executed for -it. Shortly afterwards the goblets were found in the possession -of a servant. ‘Therefore,’ said the king, ‘I will have no more -examinations by torture. It is evident that the confessions extracted -by them are worth nothing.’ No conclusion could be more sound. But -before another judge it would have been urged and believed that the -Jews, or their ally Satan, had hidden the goblets in a servant’s -chest, in order that a Christian might be unrighteously charged with -the crime of a Jew. - -[120] As these occurrences were nothing in those times without a -miracle, it has been further declared that the Jews, when they -entered the synagogue, perceived that their white dresses were -covered with red crosses. This, however, is only the statement of a -monk, a convert from Judaism who wrote two hundred years afterwards. - -[121] He is even believed by some to have forged the entire book, as -it now exists. - - - - - CHAPTER XX. - - A.D. 1200-1300—_continued_. - - THE JEWS IN ENGLAND. - - -Henry III. was a minor when the death of his father, A.D. 1216, -placed him on the throne. Pembroke and his colleagues, who governed -England in his name, began by treating the Jews with greater -mildness. They were released from prison; and twenty-four of the -principal men in every town where they resided[122] were appointed -to act as the protectors of their persons and possessions. They were -declared exempt from spiritual authority, and the property of the -sovereign alone; and the excommunications pronounced by their Rabbins -were to be enforced by law. They were ordered, however, to wear the -badge previously imposed, two strips of white cloth,[123] sewn on a -conspicuous part of their dress, which may, as Milman remarks, have -been intended to mark them as the royal property, and so save them -from injury; but which was nevertheless far more likely to make them -the objects of popular contumely. - -In truth, though the kings might pretend to resent affronts and -wrongs offered to them, they were, and all men knew that they were, -unable to extend any real protection to them, even had they been -anxious to do so. All classes of men became, as time went on, more -and more determinedly set against them. The barons, on whose estates -they held heavy mortgages; the merchants, who found the trade of the -country, in spite of all their own efforts, getting into the hands -of the Jews; the common people, who resented Jewish riches, which -contrasted with their own grinding poverty; above all, the clergy, -to whose warnings and threatenings they would not listen—all these -bore a bitter grudge against them, which grew more bitter in every -succeeding generation. Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, -together with some of his suffragans, put forth a decree, A.D. 1222, -forbidding all Christian men, on pain of excommunication, to sell -the necessaries of life to the Jews.[124] The Crown then issued an -edict, which commanded all men, as loyal subjects of the king, to -refuse obedience to this order; a needless demonstration, as it -would have been impossible to enforce it. But the protection of the -king was merely nominal. When the wars in France engaged the public -attention in 1230, Henry demanded a third part of their movables to -be paid into his exchequer. Two years afterwards he claimed 18,000 -marks of them; and again, four years after that, 10,000 marks. A Jew -assured Matthew of Paris that the king had exacted from him alone -30,000 marks of silver and 200 of gold. Other Jews fared no better. -Accusations were for ever being trumped up against them. On one -occasion they were charged with coining false money, at another, -with fraudulently affixing the royal seal to documents, and the -like. The Jews seldom took the trouble to defend themselves. Like the -aristocrats in France during the Reign of Terror, they knew that they -were already condemned when they were brought up for trial. All they -could do was to bribe the judges, or the king himself, as the case -might be, to pardon their imaginary trespasses. - -In 1225, the old charge of stealing children, to crucify them at the -ensuing Passover, was again alleged. In this instance the child was -recovered before the act of crucifixion had taken place; and some -penalty—we are not told what—was inflicted. Some years afterwards, -in 1243, the Jews in London were charged with the same offence. -Though in this instance the child had not been stolen, but sold, it -was averred, by the parents, the murder had been committed, and the -corpse was (as usual) discovered by a miracle. A hue and cry was made -after the supposed murderers, but they could not be found. - -In 1256, the novel spectacle of a Jewish Parliament presented itself, -and must have caused, one would think, a good deal of amusement to -every one except the unhappy members themselves. Writs were regularly -issued by the sheriffs, requiring the Jews in all the larger towns to -elect six representatives—it being especially stipulated that they -should be the richest men in the place—and two in those towns where -they were fewer in number. The speech from the throne at the opening -had the merit—not always secured in modern times—of being at all -events directly to the purpose. No time was wasted in idle oratory -or personal explanations. They were briefly informed that the king -required a certain sum of them, which they were to agree to pay, and -then they would be straightway prorogued and sent home to fetch it. -If it was not forthcoming very speedily, they were assured that their -goods would be seized and themselves imprisoned. There is a beautiful -simplicity about the entire proceeding, which it is refreshing to -read of in these artificial days. - -It was not a very politic step, however. The nation began to consider -whether it would not be desirable to require that the Jews should be -taxed for the benefit, not of the sovereign, but of the nation. If -there was all this money to be had, why should it not go to relieve -the public burdens, which pressed so heavily on the people, rather -than into the pockets of the king only? In the ensuing years, the -sum of 8,000 marks was demanded, and taxes were exacted, not of the -Jewish men only, but of the women and children. In the three years -next following, demands were made to the amount of 60,000 marks,[125] -the king being abetted in his rapacity by some traitorous Jews, and -especially one Abraham of Wallingford. - -But these exactions did exhaust the endurance even of the Jews. An -aged Rabbi, named Elias, was deputed to wait on the Earl of Cornwall -(to whom the king had made over the Jews for the sum of 5,000 marks), -and inform him that it was wholly out of their power to meet any -further demands; and if these should be made, they would rather quit -the country than submit to them. The earl received them kindly, -accepted a very small sum, and dismissed them. Probably he was -satisfied that it really was not in their power to pay more. But King -Henry next year recommenced his importunities, alleging the enormous -amount of his debts as a reason why he must persist. - -Probably the condition of his finances explains the excessive -severity of his dealings with the Jews, who were accused at this -time of their old offence, but with circumstances of additional -horror.[126] At Lincoln a child, it was said, had been enticed into -the house of a Jew named Copin, where he had been kept on bread and -milk for ten days, and then crucified in the presence of all the -Jews in England, who had been summoned to Lincoln for this purpose! -There had been apparently a set rehearsal of our Lord’s crucifixion, -a Jew sitting in judgment as Pilate. The body had been buried, -but the earth refused to hide so hideous a crime, and cast up the -remains. The Jews thereon were obliged to throw them into a well, -where they were found by the child’s mother.[127] - -Such was the tale. Copin, when dragged before Lord Lexington, made -a full confession of all that had been alleged, adding that it was -the regular practice of the Jews so to celebrate their Passover, -whenever they were able to secure the necessary victims. So fierce an -outcry was raised when this was made public, that the king revoked -the pardon granted by Lord Lexington, and Copin was hanged in chains. -But this was far from satisfying the popular demand for vengeance. -All the Jews in the land were declared guilty of complicity in the -murder. Ninety-one persons were committed for trial, of whom eighteen -were hanged, and twenty more imprisoned in the Tower to await the -same fate, though it does not appear that the sentence was carried -out. Hugh, as the child was called, was canonized; pilgrims from all -parts of the world visited his tomb, where miracles were worked; -and the church at Lincoln to which his remains were committed was -rendered rich and famous for centuries to come. _The Prioress’s -Tale_, written by Chaucer a hundred years afterwards, shows that -in his time the story still retained its hold on the memory of the -English people. - -Earlier in Henry’s reign, attempts had been made to convert the -Jews to Christianity, and a house, called the _Domus Conversorum_, -was opened for the reception of converts, in Chancery Lane. But -it appears that few of these were made. To be sure, the condition -annexed to proselytism—that the proselyte should by that act forfeit -his whole property[128]—does not seem very well calculated to bring -about such a change. After a few years, however, even these efforts -seem to have been given up. Harder and harder measure was dealt to -the Jews. They were forbidden to have Christian nurses for their -children; they were not allowed to buy or eat meat during Lent; they -could not hold any religious disputations; their very prayers in -the synagogue must be uttered in a low tone, for fear that the ears -of Christians should be polluted by them! But, for all their harsh -usage, they were regarded as being unduly favoured by the king. When -the Barons’ War broke out, five hundred of the richest Jews in London -were seized, in order to extort a subsidy from them; the others were -pitilessly murdered. Similar scenes occurred in the other large -cities. After the battle of Lewes, their condition was in some degree -amended; but to the end of Henry’s reign the same system of merciless -pillage and cruelty continued with no real abatement. - -In 1268 an occurrence took place at Oxford, which might have caused -as furious an ebullition of popular feeling as the supposed outrage -at Lincoln. As the chancellor and other officers of the University -were on their way to the shrine of St. Frideswide, a Jew rushed up, -seized the cross that was borne in front of the procession, and -trampled it under foot. He escaped before he could be seized. It is -wonderful that the act did not provoke a massacre. The presence of -Prince Edward, who chanced to be in Oxford, perhaps prevented it. He -ordered that the Jews should, as the penalty of their countryman’s -offence, erect a cross of white marble, with the images of the -Virgin and Child, on the spot where Merton College now stands. - -The death of Henry followed a few years afterwards. It might have -been perhaps expected that Edward, one of the greatest and most -humane of our kings, would have reversed the iniquitous policy of his -father towards the Jews. But he did not. He passed a law forbidding -the Jews to lend money on usury on any pretext whatsoever. His -desire seems to have been the same as that of Louis IX. of France, -to oblige them to devote themselves to manual labour. But they, it -appears, had found a different occupation for themselves—clipping and -adulterating the current coin of the realm. Whether this accusation -was true or not, cannot be determined with any certainty. There is a -_prima facie_ likelihood about it. Ground down by exactions, unable -to pursue their own trade, or to work at any other, some of them at -all events might well be driven to such a mode of obtaining the bare -means of living. On the other hand, many were beyond question accused -and condemned who wee wholly innocent. The king was greatly disturbed -at the course things were taking. He could neither conscientiously -condemn nor defend the Jews. It is likely that he took his final -resolve of expelling them altogether from his dominions, as the most -obvious solution of a great and ever-increasing difficulty. When he -had once made up his mind on this point, he was determined enough -in his mode of carrying it out. He confiscated the whole of their -property, except such as they were able to remove, and ordered them -to quit England, on pain of death. - -It might be thought that, considering what the condition of the -Jews in England for the last fifty years had been, the prospect of -quitting for ever the scene of their sufferings would have been -welcome rather than otherwise.[129] But such was not the case. -A man’s home is his home, after all; and the effect of hardship -and trial is often to endear the scenes of their occurrence more -deeply to the sufferers. We are told that the last few days before -the departure of the Jews witnessed scenes of the most distressing -description; that they clung to their old haunts with a lingering -affection which, one would think, must have moved the compassion -of all who beheld it, however deep the prejudices of race and -creed.[130] But the stern edict was not revoked. The festival of All -Saints—that day sacred beyond all others to mutual goodwill among all -the children of the great Father above—witnessed the consummation -of the wrongs of the Jewish people. They went forth into penury and -exile from the shores of England, and for nearly four hundred years -they returned no more. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[122] Some towns, as for example Southampton and Newcastle, had -petitioned that no Jews might be allowed to reside among them. The -request was granted, though it was not found to be any benefit to the -towns in question. - -[123] This was altered by Edward I. to yellow. - -[124] At the same synod he ordered a deacon of the Church, who had -turned Jew for the love of a Jewess, to be hanged. - -[125] It appears to us that it must have been impossible for any -traders, however lucrative their business, to endure such large and -continued exactions. The enormous rate of interest levied by the -Jews, amounting to 50 per cent. and upwards, goes far to explain it. - -[126] It has already been intimated that these charges were always -made at times when the kings of England chanced to be in especial -need of money. There is no evidence, that I am aware of, to show that -the present accusation was due to that cause. But it is impossible to -divest one’s mind of the suspicion. Henry’s extreme severity, at all -events, had probably some connection with his urgent need of money. - -[127] Milman ingeniously suggests, in reference to these continually -repeated charges of kidnapping and crucifying children, that the -Jews might have brooded over the horrors imputed to them, until they -became so diseased in mind that they actually executed the acts so -persistently imputed to them. This is an ingenious suggestion, but -nothing more. The confessions wrung by torture from the miserable -Jews bear on the face of them the impress of fiction, and resemble -the acknowledgment of witchcraft obtained by similar means. - -[128] This extraordinary law, which obtained in France also, is to -be explained by the fact that by becoming a Christian a Jew was no -longer subject to the exactions of the sovereign. And it was argued -that it was not reasonable that his conversion should be at the -king’s expense. - -[129] Not long previously to their expulsion he had imprisoned every -Jew of any note, until they had paid him a subsidy of £12,000. - -[130] It is remarkable, that although the historians of those times -describe the most heartrending sufferings endured by the Jews, there -is nowhere any expression of pity or horror in their narratives. - - - - - _PART II._ - - FROM THE BEGINNING OF THE FOURTEENTH - CENTURY TO THE PRESENT TIME. - - - - - CHAPTER XXI. - - A.D. 1300-1400. - - THE JEWS IN FRANCE. - - -The history of the Jews in France, in the thirteenth century, may -be regarded as terminating with their second expulsion from that -country by Philip the Fair. That king died in 1314, and was succeeded -by Louis X., called in history Hutin, or Mutin (the Turbulent). -One of the first acts of the new king was to recall the Jews, who -not only consented to return to a land where for generations past -they had experienced nothing but harsh and contemptuous usage, but -even to pay a heavy price for the privilege. Nothing gives us a -stronger idea of the utter helplessness and friendlessness of the -Hebrew people at this period than the readiness with which they -would accept any conditions whatever that seemed to promise them -protection for the moment against violent or lawless outrage. A -semblance of justice, indeed, was shown them: their synagogues were -restored to them, and their worship again permitted; they recovered -the privilege of burying their dead in their ancient graveyards. Nay, -such debts as were still owing to them—the greater portion having -been already paid over to the king, who had condescended to make -himself their trustee—they were allowed to claim before the public -tribunals, conditionally always on their paying two-thirds of it -into the royal treasury.[131] In the reign of Philip the Long, a few -years afterwards, something like fairness and even mercy seems to -have been shown them, possibly as a set-off to the king’s exaction -of 150,000 livres from them. They were allowed to lend on usury -to certain persons and on certain conditions; they might acquire -property in houses and land; and they were not required to wear their -distinguishing badge while travelling from one town to another. - -About this time (A.D. 1319) a novel charge was preferred against -them, and which we might believe to have been at least founded on -fact, if it did not seem impossible that the Jews of those times -could have been guilty of such suicidal rashness. At Lunel they were -accused of travestying the Saviour’s passion—not (as was the ordinary -charge) by the crucifixion of a Christian boy—but by carrying a -crucifix in a public procession, reviling it as they went, dragging -it through mire and filth, and heaping reproaches upon it.[132] For -this offence they were tried, convicted, and punished. - -But in 1321 a far more serious calamity befell them. It has been -recorded that during the captivity in the East of Louis IX. a -multitude of peasants assembled, and declared themselves commissioned -from on high to rescue their beloved sovereign from bondage, and -they had evidenced their zeal in the cause of Heaven by acts of -barbarity towards the Jews. There was no king to be rescued now; -but the Holy Land itself was in bondage, and there were vague -prophecies current among them that it could be reconquered only -by the mean and lowly. They were headed by a degraded priest and -mendicant friar, who affected special sanctity of life, and claimed -to work miracles in proof of their sacred mission. They were followed -by large multitudes, who ravaged the southern provinces of France, -and especially Languedoc, everywhere breaking open the prisons, and -swelling their ranks by enlisting the criminals whom they let loose. -They spared their Christian fellow-subjects as much as they could, -but displayed the most relentless barbarity towards the Jews, whom -they everywhere pillaged, outraged, and murdered. The Jews appealed -to the Pope and to the king. The former issued an anathema against -the insurgents, but it was altogether disregarded; the latter sent -a few horsemen to their aid, who, however, were utterly powerless -to help them. They fled in despair to the shelter of any fortified -places which would refuse admittance to the Shepherds. Five hundred -found a refuge in a castle at Verdun, on the Garonne, which the -governor allowed them to occupy. Their enemies followed and besieged -them. After a stout and desperate defence, finding themselves unable -to hold out any longer, they threw some of their children over the -walls, and then (as at Masada and at York) slew each other to a man. -When the besiegers broke in, they found no living enemy! - -All over Languedoc, at Angouleme, and at Bordeaux, frightful -massacres of Jews took place. The excuse alleged for them was, that -the plunder of the Jews was necessary to the ‘armies of the Lord,’ -in order to equip them properly for the recovery of Palestine. But, -terrible as were their sufferings from the violence of the fanatics, -what ensued was even more full of horror. The outbreak was followed, -as might have been anticipated, by an epidemic pestilence—the -natural result of the scarcity of wholesome food and the corruption -of so many human carcases. But the people, possessed as they were -by the worst form of religious mania, were easily persuaded by -their leaders that the malady was caused by the poisoning of wells -and rivers, which again was the work of the Jews. The Sieur de -Parthenay wrote word to the king that ‘a great leper, seized on his -land, had confessed to him that he had received from a rich Jew a -consignment of drugs, which were to be enclosed in bags and thrown -into the wells.’[133] The king returned in alarm from Poitou, which -he had been visiting, and ordered that all lepers should be arrested -and put to the question—that is, examined by torture. This mode of -inquiry elicited the usual results. The unhappy sufferers in their -agony confessed everything of which they had been suspected, however -monstrous or incredible it might be. It appeared that there had been -a conspiracy between the infidel kings of Tunis and Granada, the -Jews, and the lepers, Satan himself presiding at the conference. Woe -and misery were to be wrought on the Christians by the poisoning of -the water which they drank. The lepers were straightway ordered to be -burned, pregnant women alone being spared, and they only until the -time of their delivery. In the instance of the Jews not even this -mercy seems to have been shown: they were burned without distinction. -At Chignon a great trench was dug, fires were kindled in it, and 160 -Jews burned alive—men and women together. Many women, with their -children in their arms, voluntarily threw themselves into the flames -to escape baptism. In the royal prison at Vitry forty Jews, who were -persuaded that no mercy would be shown them, resolved to die by their -own hands rather than by those of the uncircumcised. They therefore -fixed upon one of their own number, an aged man greatly honoured and -beloved, and requested him to become their executioner. He consented -to undertake the office, with the help of a youth whom he chose -for the purpose. When all but these two had been slain, the old man -ordered the youth to kill him also. He was obeyed; but the young man, -lacking the resolution to take his own life, attempted to escape from -the prison, when he was taken prisoner, and confessed what had taken -place. - -In the midst of these horrors Philip V. died (A.D. 1322), and his -successor, Charles IV., was pleased to pardon the hapless survivors -of this bloody persecution—conditionally, however, on the payment of -a large subsidy. When this had been received, the Jews were permitted -to leave their prisons, gather together what they could of their -effects, and leave the kingdom. It is evident, however, that the -whole Hebrew population could not have quitted the country; or, if -they did, they soon began to return unnoticed to it, for in 1348, -when a second visitation of the same terrible disease once more -desolated the land, we find that the old calumny was renewed, and -with the same merciless result, the sword of the law being let loose -to slay those whom the pestilence had spared. Indeed, it is evident -that, notwithstanding their multiplied miseries and wrongs, the Jews -were still anxious to obtain the permission of their persecutors to -reside among them, for we find them in 1360 bargaining with King John -(who had been defeated and captured by the Black Prince) to supply -him with the means of paying the ransom due from him, conditionally -on their being permitted to dwell in France without molestation for -the space of twenty years. A Jew named Manasseh (or Menecier, as he -was styled) conducted the bargain on the part of the Jews. The fee -for readmission to France was fixed at fourteen florins for each -adult; for children and servants, one florin. Similarly, the annual -fee for continued residence was seven florins and one florin. They -were to be exempted from all taxes except land-tax. They were to -be allowed to hold landed property, build synagogues, and possess -cemeteries, and to be exempted from baronial jurisdiction, being -placed directly under that of the king himself. They were also -exempted from what had been always felt by them a heavy burden—the -necessity of listening to controversial sermons, preached in the hope -of converting them. - -It was not without difficulty that the regent, afterwards Charles V., -called the Wise, enforced the observance of these conditions, as he -seems to have done in all good faith. Not long after his accession -the clergy in Languedoc published a sentence of excommunication -against all who should supply the Jews with fire or water, bread or -wine. But, on receiving an appeal against this severity, the king -issued his ordinance annulling the decree, as being alike unjust -to the Jews and dishonourable to the Church. He twice renewed -the compact with the Jews, once for six and once for ten years, -receiving for the renewal 3000 gold livres. It is evident that during -this interval of repose the wealth of the detested race had again -accumulated. In 1378 they lent Charles 20,000 livres, and engaged to -provide him with 200 more every week. But the usual result followed: -the people began to clamour at the heavy burdens laid upon them, -which they declared were imposed only for the purpose of ministering -to the greed and luxury of the usurers. In the September of 1380 -Charles V. died, and was succeeded by his son, a minor twelve years -old. Soon after, a tumultuous outbreak took place in consequence of -the regent, the Duke of Anjou, having confirmed the privilege granted -to the Jews by the late king. All classes joined in it. The nobles, -who, as usual, were deeply indebted to the Hebrew usurers, called -out for their expulsion from the country, as the readiest mode of -clearing themselves of their liabilities; the people, instigated -probably by them, pillaged and destroyed the offices where the -registers of debts were kept, and further gratified their enmity to -the hateful race by plundering their houses of such valuables as they -could lay their hands on, and by tearing their children from them and -carrying them to the churches, where the clergy were always ready to -baptize them. The regent endeavoured to suppress the disturbance; he -issued a proclamation requiring all persons, on pain of death, to -restore the spoil of which they had possessed themselves. But we are -told that very few obeyed the order. - -The regent persisted, however, in the policy he had adopted; and -during the earlier years of Charles VI.’s reign the Jews were treated -by the State with equity and mercy. But the evil lay too deep for any -legislation to remedy. The distress of the country increased, and -with it the difficulty of obtaining money. There was but one class -from which money could be obtained, the Jews—and they unwisely abused -the power thus put into their hands. Regardless of the angry passions -which they were rousing, they continued their ruinous rates of usury -until about fourteen years after the accession of Charles VI. Then -the storm burst suddenly upon them, and they were once more commanded -to quit the country. The step in question was taken in consequence -of the condition into which the unfortunate young monarch had now -sunk. His melancholy madness rendered him peculiarly liable to the -influence of the clergy, who were for ever representing to him the -guilt of standing between an accursed people and the vengeance of the -God whom they had offended. The queen was won over to side with the -persecuting party. The clergy, the nobles, and the people already -belonged to it. Nothing for a long time had stood between the Jews -and the sentence of banishment but the justice of the king. This -barrier was now removed, and the blow fell heavily and suddenly. They -were suffered to depart on milder terms than on previous occasions. -Leave was given them to recover all debts due to them, and to sell -their property as advantageously as they could. But they were allowed -only one month in which to wind up their affairs, and then they -crossed for the last time the frontiers of France.[134] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[131] It is noteworthy that this very scant and dubious measure -of justice is acknowledged by Rabbi Joshua in terms of great -thankfulness. ‘He allowed the Jews,’ says Joshua, ‘to live in his -kingdom, for they found favour in his eyes; and he accepted their -persons.’ - -[132] It may be doubted whether this was not a simple attempt to -celebrate the Feast of Purim—_the_ feast in which they took such -special delight. Possibly the supposed crucifix was the figure of -Haman on his gallows. See Appendix V. - -[133] The supposed composition of the drugs in question shows an -amount of ignorance, grossness of thought, and irreverence, which -it would be difficult to match in all history: ‘Fiebant de sanguine -humano et urinâ cum tribus herbis. Ponebatur etiam Corpus Christi, et -cum essent omnia desiccata usque ad pulverem terebantur.’ - -[134] No formal decree for their restoration was subsequently made, -but it is at least doubtful whether the exclusion was rigidly -enforced, even in the ages immediately following the decree of -banishment. In some places—as for instance Metz—they do not seem to -have been meddled with. - - - - - CHAPTER XXII. - - A.D. 1300-1400. - - THE JEWS IN ITALY. - - -The attentive reader cannot fail to have noticed how scant has been -the mention in these pages of the condition of the Jews in Italy. -Little has been recorded of them, except that under the rule of the -Lombard kings they were uniformly treated with humanity and justice, -and that some few of the popes had issued decrees, advising what in -these times we should regard as stern measures to be adopted for -their conversion, while others forbade any such severities to be -employed. But the silence of history respecting them is in itself -significant, showing that no social convulsions disturbed the order -of their daily lives, no flagrant wrongs and cruelties called out for -mention. This is, at first sight at least, surprising. Considering -that the clergy throughout what are called the Middle Ages were the -persistent adversaries of the Jews, and that Italy was the very -centre and source whence the clergy derived their inspiration, we -should certainly have expected that the Jews of that country would -experience the very extremity of intolerance and harshness. The fact -that they received milder treatment than their neighbours is due to a -variety of causes, which may be briefly touched on. - -In the first place, the condition of Italy was different, during -those ages, from that of other European countries. The feudal system, -the source, as we have seen, of so many of the wrongs and miseries -of the Jews, was never so firmly established there as in the other -European countries, and it died out much earlier. The great free -cities exercised an authority of their own, independent of any feudal -superior, and in these the rights of the Jews were maintained almost -as inflexibly as those of the Christians. The continued strife -between Pope and Emperor, Guelf and Ghibelline, so largely engaged -the attention of the Italian nation as to allow them little leisure -to trouble themselves with the affairs of a people who were contented -to live in peace, and whose aid was often found extremely serviceable -by the dominant party. It is certain again, whatever may have been -the reason, that the fanatical spirit which was so easily roused, and -in such fatal excess, in France and Germany, languished and soon died -out on the Italian side of the Alps. The cry that the Holy Sepulchre -had again fallen into the possession of the infidels found but a -feeble echo in the streets of Naples,[135] Rome, and Florence; nor -do the people seem to have argued, as they did throughout France and -Germany, and even occasionally in Spain, that the outrages charged -upon the Mahometans of Palestine were to be expiated by the Jews of -Europe. - -Again, as a rule, though doubtless with many exceptions, the popes -were more merciful to them than were the sovereigns of any other -Christian land. Some pontiffs, as, for example, Gregory I., Innocents -II. and IV., Alexander IV., Nicolases III. and V., Martin V., and -others, showed them marked favour; while others, if they evinced -no partiality, at least discouraged persecution, disregarded idle -charges, and would allow no violence. Some doubtless issued harsh -decrees and curtailed the privileges granted by their predecessors, -but such oppression as John of England, Philip Augustus, and Philip -the Fair of France exhibited in their dealings with their Hebrew -subjects may fairly be said to have been unknown among them. This was -in most instances due to the fact that the popes, however low may -have been the moral standard of many among them, were as a rule men -of cultivation and intelligence, in whose ears the popular charges -against the Jews must needs have sounded as idle calumnies.[136] Many -among them also were wise enough—if it was only worldly wisdom—to -know that conversions effected by force were many degrees worse -than unconverted obstinacy, and on that ground forbade such to be -attempted.[137] - -But there was another and a weightier reason for the immunity from -persecution enjoyed by the Jews; and that was, that they were not -the sole—in truth, not even the chief—usurers and money-lenders in -Italy. The Caorsini, as the Italian bankers were called (presumably -from their having first practised their calling in Cahors), were the -persons employed by the popes to collect their revenues, an office -almost everywhere else entrusted to the Jews. The Caorsini carried on -business, though only to a trifling extent, comparatively speaking, -in other lands, notably France and England. Henry III. would have -expelled them from England if they had not claimed the protection of -the Holy Father. It is probably to them that Bernard of Clairvaulx -refers when he speaks of usurers more exorbitant in their demands -than the Jews themselves. If indeed it is true that their practice -was to demand five per cent. per month (after the first month[138]) -for their loans, this charge is justifiable enough. These Italian -usurers drove a trade in their native land, which, if it did not -monopolize the business of the country, at all events threw all -competition into the shade. They farmed the tribute and taxes of all -kinds levied by the popes on the Christian kingdoms of Europe. They -provided subsidies for crowned heads, advanced sums on mortgage -to the nobles, and loans to merchants and small traders, and were -popularly said to be worse Jews than the Hebrews themselves. There -were doubtless many Jewish merchants—and wealthy ones—in the great -Italian cities, who carried on an extensive and profitable business -in money-lending. But they were not, as in neighbouring lands, the -universal creditors, and therefore escaped the general detestation -entertained for their brethren elsewhere. - -Indeed, the mere fact that the grandson of Peter Leonis, a converted -Jew, was not only allowed to mix in familiar intercourse with the -noblest families in Rome, but was actually raised to the papal chair -(A.D. 1130), under the title of Anacletus II., sufficiently shows -in how widely different a light the Jews were regarded in Italy and -other European countries. No doubt his Hebrew origin was continually -thrown in his teeth by his adversaries. But his election to the -pontificate is a fact beyond dispute.[139] - -We may note also the different course pursued in Naples (A.D. 1260) -by the Italian rulers from that ordinarily adopted on such occasions -in other countries. At Trani, in the Neapolitan territory, the Jews -had been protected and favoured by Frederick II., to whom they had -rendered many signal services. On his death-bed he commended them -to the protection of the States, who, however, adopted the opinion, -common enough in those times, that the greatest service they could -do the Jews was by obliging them to turn Christians. To avoid the -persecution which was imminent, they agreed to change their faith, -conditionally on being allowed to intermarry with the noblest -families in the kingdom. A good deal of indignation was excited by -this permission, and this rose to a greater height when several -relapses took place. To punish them a monk at Trani buried a cross -in a dunghill, and then accused a Jew belonging to the city of the -sacrilege. A riot was the result, in which not only the supposed -criminal, but all his countrymen in the town, were murdered. The -outbreak extended to Naples, and similar scenes of bloodshed would -have ensued, if the authorities had not intervened. Alexander IV., -the reigning pope, issued a proclamation requiring the rioters -to desist; the king and the nobles lent their authority, and the -_émeute_ was suppressed before much blood had been shed. - -In the fourteenth century, which we have now more especially under -consideration, the first thing we have to note is, the proposal of -Pope Clement V., who in 1308, three years after his accession to -office, removed the seat of papal government to Avignon, where the -popes continued to exercise undisputed authority for a period of -seventy years. Clement V. is a ruler for whom little admiration or -respect can be obtained. Nevertheless, his suggestion—if it did not -amount to an order—that a Hebrew professorship should be established -in every European university, in order that the Church might gain a -complete knowledge of the Hebrew language and literature, and so be -enabled the more effectually to promote the conversion of the Jews, -deserves our notice and respect. The words may have proceeded out of -the mouth of iniquity and falsehood, but they are nevertheless the -words of righteousness and truth. - -Clement’s successor, John XXII. (A.D. 1316), adopted a different -policy towards the Jews, having been incited to it, it is said, by -his sister, who accused them of having insulted a cross which was -being carried in a procession in which she herself, in company with -some bishops, was taking part. He straightway published an edict -banishing all Jews from the territories of the Church; but the edict -was revoked soon afterwards, Robert of Jerusalem having interceded in -their behalf, and a bribe of one hundred thousand florins paid to the -pope’s sister. - -Clement VI. (A.D. 1342) bears a character in history for luxury and -dissipation which is hardly surpassed by the vilest of the occupants -of the papal chair; but his single good point—kindness of heart—was -exhibited in his endeavours to suppress the persecution of the Jews, -and the friendly shelter which he afforded to such of the unhappy -race as sought refuge in his dominions. - -The absence from Rome of the popes during the seventy years which -elapsed between the settlement of Clement V. at Avignon, and the -appointment, in 1378, of an antipope in the person of Urban VI., -renders the history of the Jews during this century unusually meagre. -But they appear to have lived unmolested in the various Italian -towns. They must have been on good terms with the pope’s legate at -Bologna, where they presented him with a copy of the Old Testament -Scriptures, said to have been written by Ezra himself. This is still -preserved, we are told, in the library of the Dominicans in that -city. They were protected also by the Venetian government, which -allowed them to settle as bankers in their city. They were careful, -however, to maintain a strict supervision over them, and in 1385 -obliged them to live within the Ghetto, as the Jewish quarter in an -Italian city is usually styled. - -Learning flourished in Italy among the Jews during this century. The -recently founded universities were thronged with Jewish students, -and classical literature was especially studied. There were several -scholars among them of great repute. Pre-eminently conspicuous are -Immanuel ben Solomon and Moses Rieti. The former of these, regarded -by the Jews as the greatest of their poets, and said to have been -the friend of Dante, wrote a work on Paradise and Hell which is an -imitation of the _Divina Commedia_ of the great Italian. He wrote -also religious poetry and several commentaries on the Old Testament -Scriptures. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[135] In the Norman kingdom of Naples, where the feudal system had -a firmer hold than in any other part of Italy, the Jews were more -severely treated; but even there, as we shall see, persecution was -promptly and firmly checked. - -[136] The absurd charges alleged against the Jews were not confined -to the crucifying of Christian boys, poisoning of rivers, and insults -offered to the consecrated wafer. In Innocent III.’s pontificate they -were accused of selling the milk of their women as common milk, in -order that Christian children might be brought up on it, and so (it -is presumed) imbibe Jewish opinions. It was said that they trampled -the grapes in the winepresses in linen stockings, drawing out the -best wine for themselves and leaving the refuse for the Christians, -in the hope that they would use it in the administration of the Holy -Eucharist! - -[137] It is a curious fact that the Jews sometimes received the -severest treatment from pontiffs whose characters stood high for both -justice and mercy, and sometimes were equitably and leniently dealt -with by those from whose general character nothing but intolerance -and harshness might have been expected. Innocent III. (A.D. 1198) -was one of the greatest and best of those who have filled the papal -chair—wise and far-sighted, just and merciful. Yet his language -respecting the Jews is in the highest degree harsh and intolerant. -He repeats the familiar charge that they are guilty of the blood of -the Redeemer, and as such are branded with the curse of Cain. He -denounces their employment by the State, even as collectors of the -taxes, and threatens the severest chastisement to those who show -them any favour. On the other hand, Innocent IV. (A.D. 1243), who -succeeded to the papacy some fifty years afterwards, an inflexible -and haughty bigot, issued a bull in favour of the Jews which is a -perfect marvel for its humanity and justice. He denounces the cruelty -and lawless violence with which they were treated. He treats with -merited scorn the monstrous charges of sacrificing Christian boys -in order to use their blood in the Paschal rites, and forbids such -charges to be received. Nay, he adds that if the accuser cannot -sustain his charge by the evidence of three Christians and three -Jews, he must himself undergo the punishment due to a murderer. -Sometimes the pontiff and his edicts accord. Martin V.’s acts (A.D. -1417) towards the Jews bear the stamp of his generous character. He -orders that all synagogues shall be protected, the Jewish worship -permitted, all privileges, customs, and institutions maintained, -unless any of these should be found subversive of public morality, or -insulting to the Catholic faith. No compulsion is to be used to bring -any Jew to baptism. No one is to disturb them in the celebration -of their festivals. He repeals the order issued by the Dominicans, -requiring them to hear controversial sermons. He gives them full -licence to trade. The nineteenth century, in the most enlightened -countries, has done little more for them. - -[138] They charged no interest for the first month, thinking in that -way to escape the odium of usury. - -[139] Bernard of Clairvaulx, a zealous partisan of the rival pope, -Innocent V., dilates on the outrage offered to Christ through the -occupation of the seat of St. Peter by ‘Judaica Soboles.’—_Bern. -Epist._ 134. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIII. - - A.D. 1300-1400. - - THE JEWS IN GERMANY, THE LOW COUNTRIES, ETC. - - -The history of the Jews in Germany throughout the fourteenth century -is one long series of wrongs and barbarities. Almost immediately -after its commencement, the disturbances at Nuremberg, which had been -suppressed by Duke Albert some ten or twelve years previously, broke -out afresh. In the course of these the mob, seizing on Mordecai, a -Rabbi of learning and high repute, publicly hanged him. In the next -generation, a man named Armleder, a publican by trade, incited an -outbreak among the peasants of Alsatia with such fatal effect that -more than 1500 Jews were slaughtered. In Swabia also great numbers -were murdered; while at Deckendorf we are informed that the whole of -the Hebrew inhabitants of the town were massacred, and their property -pillaged or destroyed. There appear to have been no special grounds -for these enormities. The whole atmosphere was, as it were, charged -with deadly vapours, and the slightest spark of discontent was enough -to cause a disastrous explosion. The authorities in some cases -sided with the rioters; in others they stood aloof, and allowed -them to work their pleasure; while in some few they interfered to -stay the mischief if they could, generally with but little success. -Great injury was also done to the Jews all over Germany, by the -censure passed on them by Pope Clement V. for their excessive usury. -Numberless lawsuits, we are told, were in consequence instituted -against them, in which their right to recover money lent on interest -by them was challenged. A few years subsequently the whole of the -Hebrew population of Hungary was expelled from the country by Louis -I., who displayed his intemperate zeal, not by that act only, but -by his attempts, in concert with Casimir of Poland, to force the -profession of Christianity on the Lithuanians. - -But all those troubles, trying as they must have proved to the -unfortunate Jews, were as nothing when compared with the terrible -afflictions which that people were called upon to endure, in -consequence of the outbreak of the fearful pestilence known in -history by the name of the ‘Black Death.’ This appeared in Germany -1348, and was so fatal that the country was almost depopulated by it. -It was sudden and rapid in its effects. Tumours, mostly of a black -colour, made their appearance in the groin and axilla, accompanied by -spitting of blood. In three days, at longest, the crisis was reached, -and few survived it. The science of the day could not explain its -origin, any more than it could cure, or even palliate, its virulence. -In the absence of any reasonable explanation of the causes of the -outbreak, the terrified multitude caught at whatever was suggested -to them. It was first attributed to the indignation of Heaven at the -outrageous wickedness of the age; and large bodies of men banded -themselves together to make atonement for this by fasting and -penitential discipline. They formed into companies, men and women, of -all ranks and ages, naked to the waist, and marked with a red cross; -and in this state marched in procession through the chief cities, -scourging themselves as they went, and calling on all to follow them. - -But a new and much more welcome theory was presently started—that -the pestilence which was slaying its thousands and tens of thousands -was due to the Jews. It is said that the Flagellants first suggested -this; but there is little reason for supposing so. The first idea in -the minds of uneducated men, when attacked by some malady of which -they have had no previous experience, is that they have been poisoned -or bewitched; the next, to fasten upon the person by whom the drug -has been administered or the spell wrought. Now, it was argued, if -this wickedness had been devised by any one, it must have been by -some inveterate enemy of Christian men; and who were such inveterate -enemies of Christian men as the Jews? They, in truth, and they only, -were capable of malice so subtle and deadly! Again, it was clear that -these operations had been carried on in some wholesale manner. The -criminals must have infected the air or poisoned the water. The idea, -once conceived, spread like wild fire. No inquiry was made; no proofs -were called for. What need of them? It was clear as the day that the -Jews had poisoned the wells and fountains! The supposed murderers -were everywhere pursued with the most merciless barbarity. Some were -dragged before the tribunals, where a form of trial was gone through. -Some were slaughtered by the mob without any investigation at all. It -mattered little which course was pursued. The result was invariably -the same. - -The persecution seems to have commenced in the autumn of 1348, at -Chillon, in Geneva, where criminal proceedings were taken against -them, on the specific charge of having poisoned the wells. The same -inquiries took place in other towns, as Berne and Freiburg. Some -poison had been found in a well at Zoffingen—though by whom put in -there was no evidence to determine. But the usual mode of eliciting -evidence in those ages was resorted to, and with the customary -result. Balavignus, a Jewish physician resident at Thonon, having -been put on the rack, confessed that Rabbi Jacob, of Toledo, had -sent him, by a Jewish boy, some poison in the mummy of an egg. The -poison consisted of a powder, sewn up in a thin leathern pouch, -and it was accompanied by a letter commanding him, on penalty of -excommunication, to throw the powder into the principal wells of -Thonon, in order to destroy the people who lived there. In obedience -to this injunction he had distributed the poison in various places, -and more particularly had thrown it into a spring on the shore near -Thonon. He swore by the Law and the five Books of Moses that this -confession was true, and also implicated several other Jews as -accomplices. Another Jew, of Neustadt, named Banditono, was similarly -put to the torture, and confessed to having thrown a packet of -poison, given him by one of his brethren, into a well at Carulet, -and denounced other Jews, whom he named, as having done the same. -Eight others underwent the same treatment, and made confessions, all -nearly resembling the two above quoted, with the difference that some -admitted that the whole Jewish people, except those under seven years -of age, were privy to and participators in the plot. It is wonderful -that they did not implicate the infants in arms! - -The persecution soon spread to neighbouring lands. At Basle the -populace obliged their magistrates to take an oath that they would -burn all the Jews in the town, and forbid any of their countrymen to -settle in their country for two hundred years to come. In compliance -with the order, all the Jews in the place were shut up in a wooden -building and burnt alive. At Bennefeld, in Alsace, a diet was held, -at which a similar decree was made. At Spires the Jews, driven to -despair, shut themselves up, together with their wives and children, -in their houses, which they then set on fire, and all perished in -the flames. In Mentz and Eslingen similar tragedies were enacted. In -the first-named city, when the Flagellants made their entrance, the -Jews began by repelling the violence offered them; but, perceiving -the impossibility of making any effectual resistance, they too -fired their dwellings and destroyed themselves and all belonging -to them. In Eslingen it was the synagogue, with the entire Hebrew -population of the place, that was consumed; and it is related -that mothers were seen to fling their children into the burning -pile, to prevent their undergoing compulsory baptism. At Strasburg -two thousand Jews were burned on a scaffold erected in their own -burial-ground. For months the same cruelties were perpetrated along -the Rhine and the contiguous cities. The history of these times is -one unvaried repetition of horrors, which it wearies the pen to -describe and sickens the heart to peruse. Everywhere there are the -same groundless and monstrous charges, the same blind and fanatic -fury, the same merciless and exterminating hate. And, worst of all, -these atrocities are committed in the name of Christ and His Gospel! -If we could conceive that the gates of hell had been broken open, and -its inmates had overrun the earth, the deeds we might have expected -of them were just what the rabble of these German cities actually -performed. They did not, however, wholly escape the consequences of -their own lawless cruelty. In many places the Jews, before inflicting -death upon themselves, turned their swords against their persecutors, -and inflicted severe retribution on them; while in Frankfort their -despairing rage caused the destruction of the town-hall and cathedral -and a large portion of the city. - -It would not be just to omit the fact that several among the European -sovereigns condemned these proceedings, and did their best to check -them. Clement VI., a self-indulgent and easy-tempered man, whose -reign was a continued scene of slack and voluptuous living, was -nevertheless roused by the enormities of the wrongs which he saw -perpetrated on the helpless Jews, to exert himself to the best of his -power in arresting the popular frenzy and punishing the offenders. -Charles of Moravia, also, Duke Albert of Austria, and others, would -fain have saved them if they could. But the fury of the people would -not be restrained, and Albert was obliged to condemn five hundred -of them to the flames. In Lithuania alone were they permitted any -respite. Here they were protected by Casimir III., King of Poland, -known in history as the Great. He confirmed the privileges granted -them by his predecessor Boleslaus, and bestowed additional favours -on them. It is popularly believed that he was induced to show them -this consideration by his attachment to a beautiful Jewess named -Estherka.[140] It is at least certain that throughout his reign -the Jews in Poland escaped persecution, and large numbers of Jews -migrated to that country. - -The history of the Jews in the Netherlands during the fourteenth -century very nearly resembles that of their German brethren. They had -settled long before in the Low Countries, where the trade had fallen -almost entirely into their hands. Their numbers were swelled by -fugitives from England and France, from which countries, as we have -seen, they had been forcibly expelled. They were treated sometimes -kindly, sometimes harshly, according to the caprice of the rulers and -the people. They were expelled from the duchy of Brabant in 1370, on -account of a charge of sacrilege, which was very frequently made in -mediæval times. It was said that they had stolen and then stabbed the -holy wafer at Brussels, which bled profusely. A banker of Enghien, -named Jonathan, was charged as the chief offender, on the evidence -of a woman, who confessed to having been an accomplice. All the -Jews suspected were put to torture, and afterwards torn with red-hot -pincers, and then burned.[141] - -Such Jews as had taken refuge in Bohemia do not appear to have fared -much better than their brethren in other European countries. The -Emperor Wenceslaus, son of Charles IV., a lavish and dissipated -sovereign, anxious to recover the goodwill of his subjects, whom he -had alienated by his excesses, issued a decree discharging all his -nobles from any liabilities they might have incurred to the Jews. The -people thereupon, who had been afraid to meddle with them, because -they regarded them as living under royal protection, considering -that they had now lost the emperor’s favour, broke out into a riot -at Gotha, where they massacred large numbers of them. They were -presently joined by the peasants, and the outbreak extended to -other cities. At Spires the whole of the Jewish residents, with the -exception of some few small children, who were reserved for the font, -were put to the sword. - -Soon afterwards the cry was raised again that the springs and -rivers had been poisoned; and the Jews were subjected to a second -persecution all over Germany, and in parts of Italy and France. We -are informed that the emperor was fully convinced of the falsehood -of the accusation—which, indeed, it is difficult to believe that any -person of sense and education could ever have credited. But it was -in vain to attempt to reason with the multitude; and, despairing of -obtaining peace or quiet in his kingdom so long as the Jews were -allowed to reside in it, he issued an order requiring them either -to accept Christianity or depart from the empire. The observation, -already made in the instance of other lands, naturally recurs to -us when we read his sentence. What punishment could it be to them -to leave a country where they had been so persistently and so -remorselessly wronged? Nevertheless, it is evident that it _was_ a -punishment, and a severe one to them. It is to their honour that few -of them accepted the alternative offered them, but went forth into -exile, with all its sorrows and privations, rather than forsake their -ancient faith. - -The reader will not wonder that in an age of such unexampled misery, -few German Jews were distinguished for their literary success. Isaac -of Düren, Alexander Cohen of Cologne, Halevi of Mentz, Isserlein -of Marburg, and Lipman of Mulhouse, were among the most celebrated -writers of these unhappy times. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[140] _i.e._, Little Esther. Some historians have doubted this story. -They point out that Casimir’s demeanour towards the Jews was only of -a piece with his conduct towards the lower classes of his subjects -generally. He showed so great a regard for the rights of the despised -serfs that he was called ‘the Peasant King.’ Again, it is certain -that Casimir’s edict is dated 1343, and his connection with Estherka -did not begin till 1350. On the other hand, Casimir’s one weakness -was his passion for women, and the Polish historians say distinctly -that Estherka gained great privileges from him for her people. -Probably both explanations are correct. He granted the edict of 1343 -from a sense of justice, and the monopolies of the Jews, later in his -reign, at Estherka’s entreaty. - -[141] In 1820 a commemoration of this miracle took place in St. -Gudule, when eighteen pictures were painted for the church, -describing the entire action of the story, the tortures of the Jews -being minutely depicted. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIV. - - A.D. 1300-1400. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN. - - -Up to this time, as has been already remarked, the Spanish Jews -had enjoyed a freedom from persecution which presents a favourable -contrast to the monstrous wrongs and cruelties which they underwent -in other lands. The fourteenth century witnessed the gathering of the -storm which, in that which ensued, was to burst with such deadly fury -on the devoted race; nor were they even now exempt from occasional -foretastes of its visitation. At its outset Ferdinand IV., known in -Spanish history as ‘the Summoned,’[142] a youth at that time under -age, occupied the throne, but the administration of affairs was in -the hands of his mother, the queen regent. It should be noted that, -although the Jews still retained the rights and privileges accorded -them by previous generations, they were fast becoming odious in the -eyes of all classes. The _haute noblesse_ were jealous of the court -favour which the Jews had so long enjoyed, and were seeking for an -opportunity to oust them from it; the lesser nobles were deeply -in their debt, and looked to a popular outbreak as the readiest -mode of ridding themselves of their encumbrances; the priesthood -were, as a rule, though with some noble exceptions, their bitter -enemies, continually denouncing them to the people, as the causes of -every national misfortune that befell them. This was partly due to -religious bigotry, partly to their jealousy of the greater wealth -and the superior medical skill of the Jews, which prevented them -from acquiring the money and the influence over the people which a -successful exercise of that profession would have ensured. As for -the people, they were largely under the influence of the clergy, and -readily believed the stories poured into their ears. Besides, the -spectacle of the riches and luxury in which the Jews lived provoked -at once their indignation and their rapacity. The train had been -laid, and it needed nothing but the application of the spark to fire -it. - -Ferdinand’s favourite minister was a Jew named Samuel, a man of -great ability, and, it is said, of a haughty, imperious temper. His -death was mysterious. An assassin, who was never discovered, entered -his house, A.D. 1305, at Seville, and stabbed him to the heart. It -was not difficult to guess at the motives or the instigators of the -deed; but nothing was brought to light. His successor seems also to -have been a Jew, for a league was formed among the grandees against -him. They presented a petition to the Cortes, assembled at Medina -del Campo, requesting that measures might be taken to restrain the -insolence of the Jews. An order was passed, accordingly, that they -should not in future be collectors of taxes. - -This was soon followed up by other like attacks. In 1313, Rodrigo, -Bishop of St. Jago, held a provincial council at Zamora, at which -manifestoes were presented, which showed but too plainly how fast the -animosity against the Jews was ripening. Several of the constitutions -of the council breathe the same spirit. It was enacted that Jews, -henceforth, shall hold no post or dignity; and any Jews who hold them -shall resign such within thirty days. They shall not be admitted as -witnesses against Christians, nor claim, as hitherto, the benefit of -the laws. No Christian women shall be nurses to Jewish children. Jews -shall not attend Christians as physicians. They are prohibited from -inviting Christians to their feasts. They shall not associate with -Christians, lest they teach them their errors. - -Some of these decrees were re-enacted at the Councils of Burgos -and Salamanca, in 1315 and 1322, where it was also ordered that -any Christians should be excommunicated who were present at Jewish -marriages; and any Jews who called themselves by Christian names -should be punishable as heretics! - -In 1325, Alphonso XI., son of Ferdinand IV., was declared to be of -age. His first acts showed that, whatever might be the sentiments -of the nobles, the clergy, or the people, he was resolved to uphold -the Jews. He chose as his minister of finance, Joseph of Ecija, a -Jew of great administrative ability; and one of his first acts was -to declare null and void various bulls and prelates’ letters, which -had been obtained by persons owing debts to Jews, by which those -debts were cancelled. He also granted the Jews licence to acquire -landed property, though he limited the amount which they might -hold. But he could not overcome the popular animosity against them. -Don Joseph was presently accused of having, in concert with Count -Alvar Osorio, bewitched the king by giving him magical potions. -Osorio was sacrificed to these machinations; and Don Joseph, though -he escaped on that occasion, was not long afterwards charged with -keeping fraudulent accounts, and dismissed from his office. Probably, -however, the king deprived him of his situation as the only mode of -saving him from the malice of his enemies, for we find that he did -not withdraw his friendship from him.[143] - -In 1348, the king was induced to sign an order for the banishment of -all Jews from his dominions, on account of an insult which they had -offered to the Host, as it was being carried in procession through -the streets. The order was cancelled, however, on the discovery being -made that the supposed insult was a mere accident, and the person -by whom it was thought to have been offered was a Christian. The -revocation provoked a riot, which was with difficulty put down by a -determined exercise of the royal authority. - -This disturbance had hardly been quelled, when one more furious still -broke out, caused by the spread of the plague, which had originated -in Germany, into the Spanish peninsula. The cry was raised here, -too, that the Jews had poisoned the waters of the Tagus—a crime -impossible of commission! Nevertheless, on that indictment massacres -were perpetrated in several of the cities, especially in Toledo, and -15,000 Jews are said to have been murdered. - -During the reign of Pedro, called the Cruel, who succeeded in A.D. -1350, the Jews recovered all, and more than all, their former -ascendency. Notwithstanding the prohibition of the law, Samuel Levi, -a Jew, became the royal treasurer. He it was who built the famous -synagogue at Toledo, which in its own peculiar style has no rival. He -was a man of rare ability, and his administrative genius soon filled -King Pedro’s coffers; but, unhappily for himself, it filled his own -also. A charge was brought against him of mal-administration of the -revenues; and, though it does not appear that this was proved, it -brought to light another and far more grievous offence—that of being -too wealthy. He was sent to prison where he was racked, to oblige him -to disclose the full extent of his riches, and he expired under the -torture. - -But though the king sacrificed his favourite minister to his own -avarice, he did not withdraw his countenance from the Jews. They -continued, to all outward appearance, to prosper; but the public -hatred of them was ever on the increase, and the time approaching -nearer and nearer when a heavy reckoning would have to be paid. Lopes -de Ayala, the chancellor of the Count of Trastamara, afterwards -king, under the title of Henry II., expresses the general sentiment -of the Spanish people respecting them. He describes them as ‘the -blood-suckers of the afflicted people, as men who exact fifty per -cent., eighty, a hundred—.... Through them,’ he writes, ‘the land is -desolate; ... tears and groans affect not their hard hearts; their -ears are deaf to petitions for delay.’ Much of Pedro’s unpopularity -was due to the favour he showed to this people. He was himself -stigmatized as a Jew. It was affirmed that he was the child of a -Hebrew mother, who had been substituted for the true Infant of Spain. -The Jews stood bravely by him, and suffered heavily in consequence. -Many were slain for espousing his cause at Toledo, many more at -Nejara; and at Monteil, where the final struggle between Pedro and -Henry took place, the slaughter of Jews was enormous. - -But Henry, when once seated on the throne (A.D. 1369), was too -politic a ruler to alienate such useful servants of the crown as the -Jews had proved themselves to be. He pursued the traditionary policy -towards them, interposing the shield of his protection between them -and the hostile people. To the remonstrances addressed to him by the -Cortes against their occupation of posts of dignity and importance, -or possessing the same rights and advantages enjoyed by Christians, -he simply replied that he considered it right that their ancient -status should continue. - -Henry died A.D. 1379, and was succeeded by John I., who pursued -the policy of his father and grandfather, so far as the Jews were -concerned, refusing to listen to the angry remonstrances continually -addressed to him by the Cortes respecting them. Early in his reign -occurred the strange but successful plot of the Jews against their -countryman, Joseph Pichon, a man of wealth and influence, holding -the office of Crown Treasurer. They had apparently become jealous -of his favour with the king, and resolved on compassing his death. -They applied accordingly to John for a warrant to punish a convicted -unbeliever,[144] though without revealing his name. The king having -unsuspiciously signed it, they bribed the executioner to put the -sentence immediately into effect, and Pichon was seized and beheaded, -without having even been informed for what crime he was arraigned. -The king, when he discovered the trick that had been played on him, -was extremely indignant. He punished the immediate authors of the -crime with death, and deprived the Jews of the right of determining -their own causes. - -The king’s influence was to some extent successful in restraining -the popular hatred of the Jews. But when he died, A.D. 1390, and was -succeeded by his son, Henry III., a lad eleven years old, there was -another popular outbreak. Ferdinand Martinez, Archdeacon of Ecija, -had, during the reign of John, been continually in the habit of -reviling the Jews, and stirring up the populace to attack them. The -late king had discountenanced his proceedings; but he was no sooner -removed than Martinez threw aside all restraint, and by his harangues -roused the smouldering hatred towards the Jews, which had long -possessed the people, into a fierce and destructive flame. The Jews’ -quarter was attacked. Pillage, murder, violation, followed; four -thousand were slaughtered, the archdeacon heading the mob, and urging -them on to still greater atrocities. No steps were taken to punish -the perpetrators of this violence. The contagion soon spread to other -cities. In Cordova, in Valencia, in Burgos, in Toledo, in Barcelona, -in Pampeluna, and other towns of Aragon and Navarre, there were -similar massacres. As many as two hundred thousand Jews are said to -have been forced to receive baptism. Such as escaped with their lives -were stripped of all their possessions, and their houses plundered -and burned. - -King Henry III., who, like many other sovereigns, was largely -dependent on the Jews for the maintenance of his revenues, was -reduced to great straits to support his household expenses. An -anecdote is related of him which, if true, curiously illustrates the -history of those times. He is said to have found his exchequer so low -one day as to be obliged to pawn his cloak to pay for his supper. He -was informed that in the palace of the archbishop an entertainment -was in progress, at which every delicacy was provided in profuse -abundance. He repaired thither in disguise, and learned not only that -the wealth of the revellers had been truly reported, but that it had -been amassed by fraud and peculation. The next day he sent for the -grandees of the court, and among them the archbishop, and inquired -of him, ‘How many kings have you known in Spain?’ The archbishop -answered, ‘Three—your grandfather, your father, and yourself.’ ‘Nay,’ -rejoined Henry; ‘young as I am, I can remember at least twenty, -though there ought to have been only one. But it is time that I -put my rivals down, and reign alone.’ At the same moment a band of -soldiers, accompanied by an executioner, and carrying ropes and -gibbets, entered the apartment. The grandees threw themselves at his -feet, and entreated his mercy. He spared their lives, but required a -strict account of their management of his affairs, obliging them to -refund large sums which they had embezzled. - -Many Spanish Jews were eminent in literature during this century. -Rabbi Abner, the physician, known as a Jewish writer previously to -his conversion, wrote afterwards an able refutation of Kimchi’s work -against Christianity. Solomon Levi, also a convert to the Gospel, is -known in history as the Bishop of Burgos, a learned and successful -writer. This also is the age of Don Santo de Cañon, the celebrated -troubadour, who, like the two before mentioned, renounced Judaism for -Christianity. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[142] Ferdinand had condemned to death two cavaliers named Carvajal, -on a charge of murder, refusing to hear their defence. Immediately -before their execution they summoned Ferdinand to answer for his -unjust sentence before the tribunal of God within a month. He died -exactly a month afterwards. - -[143] A strange, almost incredible story is told of the fate of -Joseph. Gonzales, master of Calatrava, offered to pay 800 lbs. of -silver into the king’s treasury, conditionally on his making over to -him eight of the principal Jews of the kingdom, to be dealt with as -he pleased. The king consented. Gonzales seized Joseph, and Samuel, -the king’s physician, and put them to the torture, to compel them to -surrender the whole of their wealth. They died under the infliction; -but he obtained enormous sums from them and his other prisoners. -Gonzales was raised to great honour, and made Bishop of Alcantara. He -afterwards forfeited the king’s favour, was arrested as a traitor, -and beheaded. - -[144] The probable explanation is, that they knew Pichon was -meditating a change of religion, the scandal of which they were -anxious to prevent. - - - - - CHAPTER XXV. - - A.D. 1400-1500. - - THE JEWS IN GERMANY AND ITALY. - - -The records of the Jews in Central Europe during this century are -unusually scanty. They had been—nominally, at all events—expelled -from various parts of it; and, though it is very probable that they -were permitted, through contempt or compassion, to linger on in their -old homes, yet they would be careful, as far as possible, to avoid -notice. In Poland alone they seem to have flourished in prosperity -and peace, and to have received large accessions of members from less -kindly disposed countries. - -But we hear something, nevertheless, of them. In Guelderland they -were numerous, and lived securely under the protection of its rulers, -particularly in the cities of Zutphen, Doesborg, and Arnheim. In -the last-named city a Jew was even appointed the physician to the -town; and decrees were issued prohibiting, on severe penalties, any -ill-treatment of Jews in public or private. On the other hand, a -singular fact occurred during this century, which seems to manifest -the very opposite state of feeling. A noble lady of Guelderland -having married a Jew, was regarded as an adulteress for having so -done, and was burnt alive at Cologne for the offence. The Jews also -were driven out of the neighbouring city of Utrecht in 1444; nor were -they allowed to return to Holland until after the revolution of 1795. -Commercial jealousy was probably the cause of this expulsion. - -In 1453 there were Jewish riots in various parts of Silesia, and -particularly in Breslau, where more than forty Jews were burnt. In -the following year Ladislaus, King of Hungary, allowed his subjects -to drive the Jews out of his dominions, seize on their houses and -lands, and cancel all debts due to them. The only conditions he -required of them, in return for this permission, was their making -good to him the tribute which had been paid by the Jews. These -outbreaks appear to have been caused (as was so frequently the case, -both in previous and subsequent generations) by the influence of -fanatical monks, who made the tour of Central Europe, denouncing the -Jews as the enemies of God and man, and calling on all Christian men -to avert the displeasure of Heaven by slaying and expelling them. A -preacher named Capistran in this manner raised commotions in Silesia, -and in Southern Germany Bernard produced the same disastrous effects. -In Styria, late in the century, the people petitioned Maximilian to -be permitted to drive the Jews out, as their Hungarian neighbours -had done in the previous generation. They alleged the old charge of -kidnapping and murdering children, and offered him 30,000 florins -as a compensation for the loss of the Jewish tribute. We read that -they were expelled accordingly in 1496. Similar expulsions took place -in Mentz, Nuremberg, and Trent. In the latter place the accidental -death of a child—attributed, as usual, to the Jews—was the cause of -their banishment. But the mania for the removal of the Jews from all -the countries of Europe—either because their presence was held to -be like that of leeches fastening on the human frame and draining -its life-blood, or because it was feared that the vengeance of -Heaven would visit all those who offered shelter or kindness to its -enemies—seems now to have taken the place of the thirst for their -blood which distinguished the ages immediately preceding. The idea -was quite as unreasonable and unjust, but a shade less horrible and -revolting. - -In Italy, as in previous generations, the Jews, if they did not -receive the full rights of humanity, were at least treated with -toleration, and even some degree of kindness. The demeanour of -the popes towards them was, as before, very capricious—varying, -in fact, with the religious convictions or state policy of each -succeeding pontiff. In 1417, when the schism of the double papacy -came to an end through the unanimous election of Martin V., the -Jews marched, according to ancient custom, in the papal procession, -with lighted torches, chanting Hebrew Psalms, and presenting to the -newly-made Pope a copy of the Pentateuch. Martin V. received it with -a benediction, and a prayer that the veil might be removed from -their eyes, so that they might rightly understand the Law. He then -issued a proclamation, in which they were dealt with mercifully and -justly. Their synagogues, their form of worship, their privileges, -usages, and institutions were to be respected, so only that they -offered no affront to the Christian faith. No forcible attempts were -to be made to baptize their children, and no one was to interrupt -their festivals. With Pope Eugenius IV., who succeeded in 1431, the -condition of things was changed. The stern and inflexible character, -so forcibly exhibited in his dealings with the Council of Basle -and the Eastern Church, was evinced also in his treatment of the -Jews. By a bull, issued in 1442, he deprived them of most of the -privileges which his predecessor had bestowed on them. He excluded -them from almost every profession, forbade them to eat and drink with -Christians, or to attend them medically in sickness, compelled them -to wear their distinguishing badge, and declared void any bequests -which Christians might make to them. His successor, the beneficent -Nicolas V., who was elected A.D. 1447, pursued a wiser course. He -published a decree forbidding compulsory baptisms, and warning all -persons to abstain from offering insults or injuries to the Jews. -During the rule of the remaining popes of the century, Calixtus III., -Pius II., Paul II., Sixtus IV., Innocent VIII., and Alexander VI., -the Jews seem to have been little interfered with. Odious as is the -character of the last-named pope, it must be recorded to his credit -that he afforded shelter to the wretched exiles whom the cruelty of -Ferdinand and the Inquisition had driven out of Spain, as we shall -presently record. - -In the chief Italian cities also the Jews were, on the whole, well -treated. The Venetians, as we have seen, allowed them to open a bank -in their city; and they appear to have been the first who did so. -But it may be doubted whether any large amount of gratitude was due -to them on that account. It is tolerably clear that the Caorsini, -Lombards, and Florentines (as the native money-lenders were called), -who had hitherto engrossed the trade, exacted such enormous profits -that the change to the Jews must of necessity have been a commercial -advantage. It was doubtless on this account that their establishment -at Venice was speedily followed by their admission to Genoa, -Florence, Mantua, Verona, and Leghorn—in fact, into all the leading -Italian cities—their central seat of business being fixed at Rome. - -But if the amount of interest they demanded was not so exorbitant -as that of the Caorsini, it was still enough to be a heavy burden -on all classes.[145] Towards the end of the century the celebrated -Bernardino di Feltre was stirred up to preach publicly against their -exactions, and the terms on which Christians stood with them, at -Piacenza. It is curious to read the language he employs, which is -a strange mixture of the most truly Christian and the most utterly -unchristian sentiment. He regards the Jews simply as if they had -been wicked men, towards whom Christian charity must be felt and -shown, but whom it is the duty of all Christian men to shun and -condemn. No Christian, he says, ought to employ a Jewish physician; -no Christian ought to be a guest at a Jewish feast—the risk of moral -contamination is too great! ‘Yet,’ he adds, ‘in defiance of these -obstacles, which the law, no less than duty, enjoins, Christians -had recently resorted in crowds to a Jewish marriage feast which -lasted eight days; and it was notorious that whenever Christians -were attacked by illness they resorted to a Jewish physician!’ The -mob, as might be expected, understood very little of his refined -distinctions. They interpreted his words as an exhortation to make -an attack on the Jews. They rose accordingly, and hanged and tore in -pieces all they met with.[146] - -He employed, however, more reasonable means of rescuing his -countrymen from the clutches of the Hebrew usurer than these. He set -up banks, at which a lower rate of interest was required than that -demanded by the Jews, but at the same time sufficiently remunerative, -provided the debts contracted were faithfully discharged. These -he called Monte della Pieta. They met at first with very decided -success in the chief Italian cities, and particularly in Mantua, -Brescia, and Padua. In the last-named place they so engrossed the -money-lending business that the Jews were obliged to close their own -bank. There can be no doubt that the scheme was both commercially and -philanthropically wise. Yet, after all, it did not prosper. Possibly -the publicity of the dealings with Bernardino’s banks was not -acceptable to borrowers, who might wish the fact of their having been -obliged to borrow to be kept secret. Possibly those who would fain -have been customers were too deeply involved in debt to the Jews to -be able to break loose from them. Possibly it was the effect of long -habit, which men are ever unwilling to depart from. But, whatever may -have been the cause, the scheme, after a brief period of success, -began to languish, and in some places altogether failed. - -It was revived later still in the century by the celebrated Girolamo -Savonarola, who professed his object to be the same as that of -Bernardino—rescuing his countrymen, and especially the poor, from the -ruinous exactions of the Jew money-lenders, whom he denounces in the -most unmeasured terms, as that ‘most wicked set, the enemies of God.’ -Not contented with this harsh language, he obtained a decree of the -State, ordering them to quit Florence within the year. - -It may not be amiss, at this point of history, to inquire how far -the severe language and harsh treatment with which even really good -men among the Christians of the Middle Ages were wont to assail the -Jews, had any reasonable justification or excuse. There were some -men, as we have seen, with whom the prejudices of their brother -Christians had little or no weight; who were capable of regarding -the Jews as the children of their Father in heaven, and as such -their brethren, though, doubtless, their erring brethren. They might -rightly, in such men’s eyes, be the subjects of entreaty, warning, -perhaps punishment, but never of hate or contempt. But they who were -thus raised above the convictions of their age were very few. And -there were others—men of the highest character, whose devotion to -God’s service and love for their fellow-men cannot be questioned—men -like Louis IX. of France, Peter of Clugny, Savonarola, Martin Luther, -Cardinal Borromeo—who regarded the Jews with horror and detestation, -as persons beyond the pale of charity, who were simply to be crushed -and trampled out.[147] How are we to account for men like these so -viewing them? Was the character of the Jews in the Middle Ages such -as really to merit a condemnation so unqualified? Is the portraiture -of the Jew given by our great dramatist[148] a true one? Shylock is -depicted as sordid, vindictive, without mercy and without natural -affection. Is he the genuine Hebrew of the sixteenth century, or the -mere embodiment of blind and inveterate prejudice? - -What do travellers answer when asked whether the soil of the -Holy Land is waste and barren, unable to support even its sparse -population? They will tell us that it is naturally rich and fertile, -but has become unproductive by long neglect and abuse.[149] As it -has been with the land of the Jews, so it has been with themselves. -Their true national character is among the noblest—if it is not -the very noblest—that the world has seen. Whatever great qualities -humanity may possess, it is by men of this race that they have been -exhibited in their highest development. If we ask from what nation -has arisen the ablest legislator, the most far-seeing statesman, -the wisest philosopher, the most chivalrous warrior, the greatest -monarch, the most Heaven-inspired poet, we must answer, in every -instance, From the nation of the Jews. Nor is it to individuals -alone that this applies. What struggle for national independence was -ever more gallant than that of the Maccabees? Which among all the -countless nations, overthrown by the military genius of Rome, ever -resisted so long, or with such fatal effect, her illimitable power, -as the defenders of Jerusalem? But, no doubt, centuries of oppression -had their effect in deteriorating the nobler, and developing the -meaner, features of the Jewish character, until the Jews became at -last almost—though not quite—what their persecutors believed them to -be.[150] Shut out from every nobler pursuit, forbidden the career of -the statesman, the soldier, the artist, the author, or the physician, -except within the narrow bounds of their own despised race—they -were driven to the one sordid trade of money-getting, and compelled -even in that to practise the extremity of exaction and rigour, or -else—subject as they were to continual lawless plunder—they could -not have lived. If they were at any time disposed to show mercy, no -one believed it to be anything but a subtle scheme for securing some -worldly end. Treated systematically as the outcasts of humanity, what -wonder if they often really became so? - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[145] It is stated that the Jewish money-lenders demanded thirty-two -and a-half per cent. on their loans, together with compound interest! - -[146] The Jews were actually driven out of Ravenna in 1484, in -consequence of the agitation he stirred up against them. - -[147] Peter of Clugny wrote: ‘If the Saracens are justly to be -detested, how much more are the Jews to be execrated and regarded -with hate!’ Louis IX. charged them with being in league with evil -spirits to injure and destroy men. It has been affirmed that Luther -treated the Jews with lenity and toleration. But, if he ever really -did evince this spirit towards them, it was only at the outset of his -career. Later on he was stern and merciless in his tone towards them. -‘Burn their synagogues and schools,’ were his words; ‘break into and -destroy their houses. Forbid their Rabbins, on pain of death, to -teach,’ etc. - -[148] Shylock, it should be noted, whether a fair picture or not, -of the Jews of Shakspeare’s time, is at least a genuine character—a -real man. But the Barabbas of Marlowe’s _Jew of Malta_ and the Fagin -of Dickens’s _Oliver Twist_ are simply coarse and gross caricatures, -pandering to the vulgar taste of the day. - -[149] Palestine is a land ‘rich in its soil, boundless in its -capabilities of production, glowing in the sunshine of an almost -perpetual summer—this enchanting land was indeed (what the patriarch -had described it) a field which the Lord had blessed.... But -Mohammedan sloth and despotism have converted it into a waste -rock and desert, with the exception of some few spots, which -remain to attest the veracity of the accounts formerly given of -it.’—Bannister’s _Holy Land_, pp. 37, 38. - -[150] Every reader will remember the noble passage in _Ivanhoe_, -where Bois Guilbert taunts Rebecca with the degraded character -of her countrymen, and she answers him by appealing to their -former greatness. ‘Thou hast spoken of the Jew,’ she says, ‘as the -persecution of such as thou has made him. Read the ancient history -of the people of God, and tell me if those by whom Jehovah wrought -such marvels among the nations were then a people of misers and -usurers!’—_Ivanhoe_, chap. xvi. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVI. - - A.D. 1400-1500. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN. - - -The scenes of violence and bloodshed which had been provoked by the -fanatic zeal of the Archdeacon of Ecija were a foretaste of the -fearful tragedy which was to take place in Spain in the ensuing -century. But it can hardly be said that he occasioned it. The evil -had long been gathering, and must have broken out, sooner or later, -in Spain. He may have precipitated it, but nothing more. - -The main cause of the mischief was, beyond doubt, the improvidence -and want of steady industry among the people. In all business -transactions they were continually applying to the Jews, unable, as -it seemed, to buy or sell, to sow or reap, without resorting to them. -The result was the pauperizing of all classes of the community except -the Jews, who continued to heap up enormous wealth.[151] The people -would not believe that this was the result of their own improvidence, -and that there could be no remedy for it except in persistent -industry and prudence. They made repeated complaints of having been -overreached and defrauded; but, when the cases were inquired into in -a court of law, it was found that nothing could be proved against the -alleged offenders. This only fomented the growing discontent. To all -thoughtful observers it was evident that a popular convulsion could -not be far distant. - -Henry III. died in 1406, and was succeeded by his son John II., an -infant not two years old. Early in his reign Vincentius Ferrer, a -Dominican, made his appearance as an itinerant preacher in Castile -and Aragon, calling on the Jews to renounce their ancient faith, -and accept that of Christ. He was a man of the most ardent zeal, -indefatigable energy, and burning eloquence; and the stern asceticism -of his life caused him to be regarded as a saint. His fierce -invectives against the impiety and obstinacy of the Jews exasperated -the people against them; and it very soon became evident that there -were for them two alternatives only—conversion or destruction. -Vincent went from town to town, carrying a crucifix in one hand and a -copy of the Mosaic Law in the other, followed everywhere by an armed -rabble, who maltreated and murdered all who refused to hearken. Many -of the Jews embraced, or pretended to embrace, Christianity. Many -more abandoned all their worldly possessions, and fled to Barbary; -some also to Portugal,[152] and other Christian States. Some would -neither abjure their faith nor fly, and their descendants underwent -the terrible consequences of their parents’ constancy. Ferrer is said -to have converted 35,000, or, according to others, 50,000 Jews. Even -a Hebrew authority places it at 20,000. How many of these converts -were real believers in Christ we shall have occasion subsequently to -inquire. - -In 1406 the old charge of insulting the Host was revived, though -with some variation in the circumstances. Some Jews were accused -of having bought the consecrated wafer from the sacristan of the -cathedral at Segovia. They threw it into a caldron of boiling water, -when it rose to the surface. Alarmed at the sight, they wrapped it in -a cloth, and gave it to a Dominican friar, who informed the bishop -of the occurrence. The bishop caused the Jews to be arrested and -tortured. Among them was Don Meir, the king’s physician. The torture -not only elicited a confession of the particular crime charged on the -sufferers, but of the murder of the late king by poison. Don Meir and -the others were drawn and quartered at Segovia; soon after which it -was discovered that the whole charge was a fabrication. - -Another similar story is related about the same time. A nobleman, who -bore a bitter dislike to a bishop, bribed his cook to poison him. -The conspiracy was discovered, and the cook put on the rack; but he -would not confess the name of his suborner. By the advice of the -latter, the next time he was racked he declared it was the Jews who -had bribed him. This was instantly credited; and, as he had named no -particular persons as his accomplices, a great many Jews were put to -death on suspicion. - -In 1412 the queen-regent Catherine promulgated a series of ordinances -against the Jews, equalling in severity anything that had been issued -before. They were not to be physicians or surgeons; they were not -to sell bread, wine, or any other provisions; they were to keep -no Christian servants; were not to eat and drink with Christians, -or attend Christian marriages or funerals; they were to live in -the Jewries or ghettoes only, and these were to be surrounded with -a high wall, having only one entrance-gate; they were to wear a -carefully prescribed dress of very common material; and any Jew or -Jewess who ventured to put on costly attire was liable to have the -whole stripped off their backs. They were not permitted to change -their place of residence, and were allowed neither to shave their -beards nor cut their hair! No Christian woman was to enter the Jewish -quarter, on pain of a heavy fine, if her character was respectable, -or of being whipped out of it, if it was not! Finally, they were not -to be smiths, carpenters, tailors, shoemakers, curriers, clothiers, -or to sell any of the goods made by these, except to Jews. - -In 1413 the Antipope, Benedict XIII., convened an assembly at -Tortosa, for the purpose of presiding at a disputation between -certain chosen advocates of Judaism on one side, and of Christianity -on the other—the subjects of discussion being, whether the Messiah -had already come, and what was the value of the Jewish Talmud. -Considering who were to be the judges, it is no great wonder that -the Jews were anxious to decline the discussion. But this they were -not suffered to do. The Christian champions were Jerome of Santa Fe, -Beltran, Bishop of Barcelona, and Garcia Alvares—all of them able men -and converts from Judaism. Sixteen learned Talmudists appeared for -the Jews. Sixty-nine meetings were held; and it is almost unnecessary -once more to add that both parties claimed the victory. A bull -was issued by the Pope, commanding the burning of the Talmud, and -imposing fresh penalties on such Jews as remained unconverted. It -appears, however, that large numbers submitted to baptism. - -In 1420 the young king assumed the regal authority, and held it till -1454. During his reign the Jews seem to have been, comparatively -speaking, unmolested; and, as was always the case under such -circumstances, to have regained both their wealth and their political -influence. In 1435 the Jews at Palma were charged with the old stock -offence of crucifying children, though this time the victim was a -Moor. They confessed, as usual, under torture, and, having agreed -to accept baptism, were pardoned. In Toledo, in 1441, the Infante -Henry, who was in rebellion against his father, being greatly in -want of money to pay his troops, was advised to plunder the houses -of the Jews—both those who adhered to their old creed and those -who had recently been converted—as the surest and most popular mode -of raising funds. He greatly approved of the counsel, and proceeded -straightway to follow it, notwithstanding the opposition of the -principal citizens and the clergy. The populace, we are told, -followed his example. In 1445 the Jews of the same city were accused -of having undermined the streets through which the procession of the -Host was to pass; and one of the customary massacres would have taken -place, if the authorities had not made inquiry and ascertained that -the charge was wholly without foundation. Again, at Tavora, some -youths, after one of their feasts, sallied forth into the streets, -and slew several Jews whom they met, their excuse being that they -thought the Jews were on the point of making an attack upon _them_. -A similar story to that propagated at Palma was also fabricated at -Valladolid of some Jews at Savona. But in no case did any of the -wholesale massacres take place by which the Spanish cities were -disgraced both in previous and after times. - -In 1454 Henry IV. succeeded his father. His action at Toledo, -thirteen years before, in plundering the Jews, caused the idea to be -entertained that he would be unfavourable to them; but his conduct, -when he came to the throne, did not bear out the notion. A riot -having occurred in 1461 at Medina del Campo, in consequence of the -preaching of an enthusiastic monk; and a number of Jews having been -slain and their property pillaged, Henry put the outbreak down, and -executed due justice on the rioters. He also appointed a Jew, Gaon -by name, as his finance minister, and sent him to levy the taxes in -the Basque provinces. But this was regarded by the Basques as an -infringement of their constitutional rights. The Jew was assassinated -in the streets of Tolosa; and when the king sent to require the -surrender of the murderers, he received a defiant refusal, nor did he -venture to take any measures against them. - -It was evident that the feeling against the Jews was once more -growing to the fatal height it had attained in other lands. In 1468 -the Jews of Sepulveda, a town near Segovia, had, it was averred, -seized on a Christian infant, carried it to a sequestered spot, and -there, after barbarous ill-usage, crucified it. Their Rabbi, Solomon -Picho, was declared to have been the instigator of the deed. The -Bishop of Avila put the accused, sixteen in number, to the torture, -and having elicited the usual confession, caused some to be burned -and some hanged. But these severities did not satisfy the people of -Sepulveda, who required the extermination of the Jews. They rose -accordingly, and massacred all who did not save themselves by flight. -Similar insurrections took place in Cordova, Jaen, Toledo, Segovia, -and other cities. - -The spirit thus evoked was allayed for a time—probably because -Henry not only lent it no help, but was in his heart favourably -inclined to the Jews. A deputation, composed of converts to -Christianity and those who still professed their ancient faith, -residing in Valladolid, waited on him, to ask his protection against -the oppression and injustice of the partisans of his sister Donna -Isabella, and were kindly received. Though no satisfaction was given -them for the wrongs they had undergone, injustice for the future was -restrained. When at a Cortes, held in 1469, a petition was presented -to him, praying him to forbid the Jews thenceforward to farm or -collect tithes, he paid no heed to it. But the spirit of persecution -was checked for a time only. In 1473 it broke out again, and deluged -all Andalusia with blood. A new feature was now manifested, likely -to produce the gravest consequences. The storm of persecution had -hitherto fallen on those only who persisted in refusing to adopt the -Christian faith. But persons were now included in it who had lately -become converts to the Church, and who were known by the title of -the ‘New Christians.’ Their fidelity to their new belief was greatly -suspected; and, it cannot be denied, with a good deal of reason. And, -besides, these New Christians were, after all, guilty of that gravest -of all Jewish offences—acquiring wealth at the expense of the old -Christians. The mobs in the Andalusian cities attacked old and new -Jews alike. In Jaen, the constable of the town, Franza by name, who -interfered to protect them, was assassinated while hearing mass in -the cathedral itself, and the pillage and murder went on unchecked. -The example was soon followed in Castile. In Segovia, in 1474, Don -Juan de Pachecho, wishing to provoke a rising for the execution of a -political intrigue, thought the most likely mode of succeeding was by -exciting an armed attack on the converted Jews, it being easy then to -divert the rabble to his purpose. The insurrection was put down by -the royal forces, but not before great numbers of the Jews had been -slain. - -Henry died in the same year, 1474, and was succeeded by his sister -Isabella. Her title to the crown was doubtful, as there was a -daughter of Henry’s second queen, named Juana, who, if legitimate, -was the rightful heir. But the whole nation seemed to have concurred -in rejecting Juana’s claim; and, though her cause was taken up by -the King of Portugal, to whom she had given her hand, his complete -defeat at Toro extinguished her hopes for ever. Five years afterwards -Ferdinand succeeded to the crown of Aragon, and his union with -Isabella may be said to have created anew the long extinct monarchy -of Spain. - -In the following year a Cortes was held at Toledo, and many laws -were enacted for the government of the now united kingdoms. Among -these was an ordinance, that not only should the Jews be compelled -to reside within the bounds of their own Jewry or ghetto, but also -that any Jew who should presume to live elsewhere should forfeit -all his property, and his person be at the disposal of the king. -In other respects the regulations passed were neither oppressive -nor unreasonable. Within the bounds of their ghetto, all privileges -which of late years they had been permitted to enjoy were allowed -them. But shortly after Ferdinand’s accession to the united throne of -Castile and Aragon, he introduced into his dominions a new engine for -the oppression of the Jews, the infamous Inquisition, the working -of which produced more momentous and terrible consequences than -he himself, in all likelihood, foresaw; which culminated, indeed, -not only in the misery and ruin of the Jews, but in the decay and -degradation of Spain herself. - -This was the era of the famous Isaac Abarbanel, the favourite -minister of Alphonso V., of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, and -of Ferdinand, King of Naples. He was distinguished, not only as a -statesman, but as an author. He wrote valuable commentaries on the -Pentateuch and the Prophets, as well as many other works. Jacob -Mantenu also, physician to Paul III., and the Latin translator of -Maimonides, belongs to this century. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[151] A similar state of things exists in South Russia to-day. - -[152] Hearing, it may be, of this, Ferrer besought permission of the -King of Portugal to enter his dominions, as the messenger of Heaven. -The king replied, he was welcome to come, but he must first prove his -mission by putting on a crown of red-hot iron! Ferrer declined to -avail himself of this offer! - - - - - CHAPTER XXVII. - - A.D. 1400-1500. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN—_continued_. - - -The Inquisition, introduced into Spain by Ferdinand, with the consent -of Isabella,[153] was not a new institution. It had been established -in France early in the thirteenth century, the object then being -to compel the return of the Albigenses to the orthodox faith. It -had worked terrible woe to that unhappy people; but two hundred and -fifty years afterwards the heresy had so nearly died out, that the -Inquisition would have died along with it, if it had not been that -the outcry respecting the New Christians, as they were called—that -is the recent converts to Christianity—once more set the hateful -machinery in operation. The height to which the persecution of the -Jews had risen in the fifteenth century had left them no alternative -but apostasy or death. It is no wonder that large numbers of the -Jews preferred the former. It is said that no less than thirty-five -thousand persons had been induced to accept baptism by the preaching -of Vincent Ferrer alone. For a time the clergy felt overwhelmed with -joy at this signal triumph; but after a while grave suspicions of -the sincerity of these new converts began to be felt. Outwardly, no -doubt, they conformed to the requirements of the Church; but it was -suspected that they still continued to observe in secret the Jewish -ritual. - -Three inquisitors were appointed, Torquemada, Juglar, and D’Avila; -and their first act was to put forth an edict, in which they declared -it to be the duty of all faithful Christians, without paying any -regard to rank or condition, to accuse to the tribunal any whom they -knew to be open professors but secret enemies of Christ. Any who did -not do so became themselves amenable to the law for their criminal -silence. To facilitate such accusations, a manifesto was issued, in -which various proofs were mentioned by which a ‘secret Jew’ might -be detected. We learn from it that a man might be accounted as a -concealed Jew if, among many similar evidences, he— - -1. Put on clean clothes, or had a clean table-cloth on the Saturday, -or dispensed with a fire on the Friday night. - -2. If he washed the blood from meat, or examined the knife before -slaying an animal. - -3. If, on the Day of Atonement, he asked forgiveness of those whom he -had offended, or put his hands on his children’s heads to bless them, -without making the sign of the cross. - -4. If he gave his children Jewish names.[154] - -5. If he ate the same meat as Jews, or sat down to table with -them. If, when dying, he turned his face to the wall, or let any -one else turn it. If he washed a corpse with warm water. If he -spoke approvingly of the dead (such person being a Jew), or made -lamentation for him, or caused a body to be buried in virgin soil, -etc. - -If it were not that these enactments were followed up by the most -barbarous and insatiable cruelties, it would be difficult to read -this extraordinary catalogue of offences without a smile. But all -disposition to mirth vanishes when we remember what ensued. Great -numbers of arrests, we are told, were made—the practice of keeping -the accuser’s name a profound secret rendering it easy to indulge -malevolence without the risk of exposure. The accused, not being told -the exact nature or details of the charges against them, were unable -to disprove them; and, not being confronted with the witnesses, could -not expose their falsehood. Both witnesses and accused, again, were -frequently put to the severest tortures, under the pressure of which -they made confessions which they were not allowed to retract. In -short, it was wholly impossible for any one to escape condemnation -when it was the wish or the interest of the inquisitors to condemn -him; and it is no wonder that the list of their victims should have -extended to a length so fearful. - -Fearful indeed it is to read. During the eighteen years of -Torquemada’s inquisitorship, more than ten thousand persons were -burned alive; more than six thousand corpses, of persons found guilty -after their deaths, were dragged from their graves and fastened to -the stakes, along with the living victims; while nearly one hundred -thousand were stripped of all their possessions, and sentenced to -life-long imprisonment.[155] - -All classes of men were shocked and alarmed at these dreadful -scenes. The Cortes appealed to the Pope, who made a feeble attempt -to interfere, but soon desisted; while, in Saragossa, a conspiracy -was organized, and Arbues d’Avila, one of the three inquisitors, was -assassinated in the cathedral. But this did not benefit the unhappy -Jews. Whether guilty or not of the act, all men considered them so, -and left them to what they regarded as the just penalty of their -crime. - -Thus far the persecution had been directed entirely to the -_conversos_, or New Christians. Such of the Jews as had refused to -abandon their faith had been left uninjured; nor is it unlikely that -they considered this as being the just reward of their constancy. -But their turn was now to come. Ferdinand and Isabella, who had at -last succeeded in reducing the whole of Spain to their sovereignty, -resolved that thenceforth none should breathe the air of that land -who denied the Christian faith. In 1492 they issued the memorable -decree, commanding all Jews to renounce their creed or depart from -Spain. It was dated March 30th, and allowed them four months in which -to prepare for their departure. Any Jews who presumed to linger in -the country after the expiration of that date, or to return to it at -any future time, were to be liable to the penalty of death, and the -forfeiture of all their goods. Any persons who publicly or privately -sheltered or protected any of the proscribed race, after the 31st -of July, were to be punished by the confiscation of their entire -property. - -The blow fell like a thunderbolt on the unhappy people. It has been -several times remarked that, considering the irreconcilable enmity -entertained towards them, and the incessant wrongs they underwent, -it could have been no great privation to be exiled from lands which -contained none but bitter and merciless enemies. But they do not -understand human nature who would so argue. Man is like a creeping -plant, which puts out its tendrils to clasp the objects nearest to -it; and, though these may be rough bark or barren rock, it cannot -be torn away from them without resistance and pain. And if this was -applicable to the Jews in all countries, it was especially true as -regarded Spain. There, for centuries, they had dwelt, peaceful, -prosperous, and happy. While their brethren in other lands underwent -cruel insult and wrong, they had been protected against violence by -wise and just rulers. Only recently had the hand of violence been -raised against them; and they might surely hope that it might be -withdrawn ere long, when calmer reason again bore sway. - -An attempt was made to induce the king to forego his purpose. -The celebrated Isaac Abarbanel[156] was at the time high in his -confidence and favour. He threw himself at Ferdinand’s feet, and -offered, in the name of his people, no less than 30,000 ducats, as -the price of their continuance in Spain. So large a sum tempted -Ferdinand, who was at all times avaricious, and was at that moment -greatly in need of money. He wavered, and might perhaps have revoked -his edict, if Torquemada, who had heard of the offer, had not burst -into the presence-chamber, holding a crucifix in his hand. ‘Behold,’ -he cried, ‘Him whom Judas sold for thirty pieces of silver! Sell Him -again, if you will, and render an account of the bargain to God!’ -Isabella also took part against the Jews. It may well be, that the -notion of being bribed to forego her duty roused an indignation which -she would not otherwise have felt. Any way, the offer was rejected, -and the miserable Jews had to set about making the best provision -they could against the approaching day of exile. They were allowed -to sell their landed property and houses, but only, of course, at an -enormous disadvantage. Bernaldes states that he saw Jews give a house -in exchange for an ass, and a vineyard for a small bale of cloth, -purchasers continually holding off from completing a bargain, which -they knew they must ultimately get on their own terms. They were -forbidden to carry away with them gold or silver; but we are told -that they contrived to secrete large quantities of it in the saddles -and halters of their horses. Some even swallowed it, and it is said, -in some instances, to the amount of thirty ducats! The rich Jews paid -the expenses of their poorer brethren,[157] practising towards each -other the greatest charity. - -At the beginning of July, they set out on their mournful journey to -the seaports, old and young, rich and poor, a long and melancholy -_cortége_. The Rabbins, we are told, encouraged them, and engaged -musicians to play, and bade the boys and girls sing, so as to keep up -the spirits of the wayfarers. But the mirth must have been forced and -hollow. Their fathers could not sing the Lord’s song while compelled -to dwell in a strange land—how should they sing it when forced to -leave their own? - -There is considerable difference in the estimate made by historians -of the numbers that went into exile. Mariana reckoned it at 800,000. -Others place it much lower; but at the least calculation it must have -reached some hundreds of thousands. An immense concourse assembled at -Barcelona, Valencia, Carthagena, Port Maria, and Gibraltar. Vessels -had been provided at all those ports, whence they were transported to -Italy, or various places on the coast of Africa. The miseries endured -during the voyage, and after the landing had been effected, exceed -all power of description. Some of the vessels took fire; others were -so overloaded that they sank. Many were wrecked on barren places -along the African shore, and died of cold and hunger. Some captains -purposely prolonged their voyages, in order that the provisions might -run short, and their passengers be obliged to purchase water and -food of them at any price they might choose to exact. On board one -vessel, a pestilential disease broke out. The captain landed all the -emigrants on a desert island, where many perished of famine. Another -party was forced to go ashore at an uninhabited spot, where a large -portion of them were devoured by wild beasts. Those who reached Fez, -in Morocco, were not allowed to enter the town, but were compelled -to encamp on the sands, suffering the most grievous privations, and -exposed to the brutal insults of the natives.[158] A Sallee pirate -allured a number of boys on board his vessel, promising to bestow -some provisions on them, and then carried them off before the faces -of their parents, who stood imploring and shrieking for mercy on the -shore, to sell them as slaves at a distant port. - -Those that were conveyed to Italy were somewhat less harshly treated. -The captain of a vessel bound for Genoa, passing along the African -coast, saw a number of naked wretches, who apparently had been cast -by the sea upon it. On inquiry he found that these were a number of -Jewish exiles, who had been barbarously compelled to land there. -He took them on board, made them some clothes out of sailcloth, -and conveyed them to Genoa. There they were permitted to land; but -were met by priests carrying bread in one hand and a crucifix in -the other, nor would they bestow the former on them until they had -consented to accept the latter also. Nine crowded vessels reached the -Bay of Naples; but disease, caused by the hardships and privations -of the voyage, was raging amongst the passengers. The infection was -speedily communicated to the city, and 20,000 persons are reported -to have died in consequence. In Rome, even the selfish nature of -Alexander VI. was moved at the recital of their sufferings. He not -only gave them shelter in his own dominions, but wrote to all the -Italian States, desiring them to extend to the Jewish exiles the same -privileges which had been enjoyed by their resident brethren.[159] - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[153] It was with great difficulty that this was obtained. Isabella, -though a dutiful daughter of the Church, had a superior intellect -and a tender heart; and both revolted against the proposed measure. -Torquemada, who had been her confessor, was obliged to appeal to a -promise she had made him, years before, to extirpate heresy, if she -ever could. Even then, her assent was most reluctantly given. - -[154] By a previous law of Henry II., he had become punishable if he -gave his children _Christian_ names. It must have been a hard matter -to know what to call them. - -[155] The wholesale butchery of the Autos da Fé, as these executions -were called, is one of their most shocking features. On the 4th of -November, 1481, three hundred Jews were burned in Seville, and in -other parts of the same province two thousand more. In Saragossa -the two surviving inquisitors avenged the assassination of their -colleague by two hundred deaths at the stake. - -[156] Don Isaac Abarbanel was born at Lisbon in 1437, and early -gained the notice of Alphonso V. He was obliged to leave Portugal -suddenly in 1482, having been suspected of taking part in Bragazza’s -conspiracy against John II. He was kindly welcomed by Ferdinand and -Isabella, who made him their Minister of Finance. In 1492, he was -obliged to quit Spain along with his countrymen. He found refuge at -Naples, where he was employed by Ferdinand and Alphonso II. He shared -the exile of the latter monarch, and removed to Venice, where he died. - -[157] The charge of sordid indifference to the sufferings of others -has always been made against the mediæval Jews; nor can it be denied -that there is truth in the allegation. But it was only towards the -Christians that this was displayed. To their own countrymen they -have in all ages been generous and charitable in the extreme. Be -it remembered what kind of charity had been shown _them_ by their -Christian brethren, and that _they_ had not been taught ‘to do good -unto them that persecute you.’ When the Jews at Rome were unwilling -to receive their exiled brethren of Spain, Alexander VI. expressed -the utmost surprise. ‘This is the first time,’ he said, ‘that I ever -heard of a Jew not having compassion for a Jew.’ - -[158] Some of the stories related of the atrocities perpetrated on -these miserable wretches are too shocking for repetition. They are -related by several historians, but I think it better, for the credit -of human nature, to suppress them. - -[159] It must be noted, however, that, although Alexander showed -compassion to the fugitives, he made them pay a heavy price for his -protection of them, and also bestowed on Ferdinand the title of ‘the -Most Catholic,’ in requital of the banishment of the Jews from his -dominions. - - - - - CHAPTER XXVIII. - - A.D. 1400-1500. - - THE JEWS IN PORTUGAL. - - -No mention has hitherto been made of the Jews dwelling in Portugal. -Little is said respecting them by historians; and the idea has in -consequence been entertained that they were few in number, and -had little influence in the affairs of the country. But that is a -mistake. They settled early in various parts of Portugal, and under -the rule of the first Portuguese kings bore an important part in its -concerns. In the reign of Sancho I., in 1190, a Jew, Don Solomon -Jachia, was made a field-marshal, and commanded the Portuguese army. -In 1248, Sancho II. appointed so many Jews to public offices that the -Pope of the day, Gregory IX., remonstrated with him on the subject, -and requested that Christians might be chosen for the various posts -of receivers and farmers of the revenue, which then were generally -occupied by Jews, to the oppression and injury of Christian men. We -are told that, in requital of the royal protection granted them, the -Jews furnished an anchor and a cable of sixty fathoms’ length to -every king’s vessel which left port. - -The same favour was continued by subsequent monarchs. In 1289, the -clergy laid a complaint before Pope Nicolas IV. against King Dennis, -that he appointed Jews to the highest offices in the State; the -Chief Rabbi Judah being his High Treasurer and Minister of Finance. -The consequence was they stated, that he permitted his countrymen -to dispense with the payment of tithe due from them, and also to -lay aside their distinguishing badge. But the complaint seems to -have been without foundation. When, at Evora, in 1325 sumptuary laws -were enacted respecting dress, no exceptions were made in favour of -the Jews; and, unless a composition entered into with the Jews of -Braganza, accepting a fixed sum in lieu of the annual taxes, can be -regarded as such, no special favour was shown them. - -Alphonso IV., in 1340, remitted the extraordinary impositions which, -from time to time, had been exacted of them, commuting them for a -sum which, though _per se_ large, was a great relief to them. His -successor, Ferdinand, in 1371 ordered that all the privileges which -had been granted by his predecessors to the Jews should be confirmed. -He had a Jew, Don Judah, for his treasurer. In 1389, John I., at -the suit of Moses, his physician, gave his sanction to the bull of -Clement VI., which had been confirmed by the newly elected Pope, -Boniface IX., granting the Jews licence to celebrate their feasts, -and practise the rites of their religion without interruption from -any. In short, up to the date of the accession of John II., in -1481, though laws were passed from time to time, imposing penalties -and restrictions on the Jews, which we in the present day should -consider harsh and unfair, there was nothing which amounted to -persecution.[160] - -On the accession of John II., in 1481, he held a Cortes at Evora, -when great complaints were made of the luxury in which the Jews -indulged, and the display they made of their riches. They rode -splendidly caparisoned horses, wore silk doublets, carried -jewel-hilted swords, entered churches, where they made a mock of the -worship in progress; above all, refused to wear the badge by which -they were distinguished. Jewish artisans, too—cobblers, tinkers, and -the like—roamed about the country, making their way into houses, -while the men were engaged at work in the fields, and perverting the -women. The king replied to these various complaints, promising to -restrain the indulgence in splendid apparel, and to oblige the Jews -to wear their badge; but adding that, as regards other offences, if -it could be proved that they had committed them, the law would punish -them. - -In 1491, when the expulsion from Spain took place, large numbers of -the exiles found a refuge in Portugal. It was the most likely spot -for them to select. There was no long and perilous sea-voyage to -be encountered, and the similarity of language and customs of the -two countries made the change less harsh and painful. But though -John permitted the fugitives to find a shelter in his dominions, it -was only for a brief interval, and upon very stern conditions. He -required that all persons, excepting children at the breast, should -pay the sum of eight crusadoes (19_s._ 4_d._) each, in return for -which they received a certificate, entitling them to reside eight -months in the kingdom. At the expiration of that time, the king -engaged to provide vessels, on reasonable terms, to convey them to -any land they might select. Those who could not pay the crusadoes, or -lingered in Portugal after the prescribed time, were to become the -slaves of the king.[161] Upon these terms as many as 20,000 families, -amounting probably to more than 100,000 persons, crossed into -Portugal, with the intention probably of quitting its inhospitable -shores as speedily as possible. But the eight months passed, and -large numbers still lingered. Some were doubtless too poor to pay -for a passage, for which exorbitant prices were charged. The king -had, indeed, ordered that no more than a reasonable sum should be -asked, but his commands were slackly and carelessly carried out, and -complaint would have been worse than useless. Many were terrified by -the tales of barbarities practised on their countrymen by the savage -inhabitants of the African coast, and many had been enfeebled by the -pestilence which had broken out among them. No sooner had the eight -months expired than the penalty was enforced, and the whole of the -loiterers became the slaves of the king. Those who were young and -able-bodied were forcibly baptized, and then carried off to colonize -the island of St. Thomas, in the Gulf of Guinea, which had recently -become a Portuguese possession. - -In 1495, John was succeeded by Emmanuel, known in history as ‘the -Fortunate.’ His succession appeared at first to promise the miserable -Jews some respite from their sufferings. He revoked the edict under -which such as had remained in the kingdom became slaves. He refused -a large sum of money which had been presented to him by some wealthy -Jews, and professed his determination of treating them with equity -and mercy. - -Unhappily, the gleam of sunshine soon passed away, and was succeeded -by a fiercer tempest than any that had yet darkened their skies. -In an unhappy hour Emmanuel sued for the hand of the Infanta -Isabella, daughter of the Catholic sovereigns of Spain; and they -would not consent to the marriage, except on the condition that -their son-in-law should banish the Jews from Portugal, as they had -banished them from Spain. We may believe that there was a struggle -in his mind, for he was evidently inclined to be compassionate -towards the unfortunate race, which he had already befriended. -But what, after all, were a few thousands of wretched Jews, when -compared with the fulfilment of his hopes? Nay, he would win the -approval of his lady-love by doing even more than had been required -of him. He would win her favour at once, and that of Heaven also, -by his fulfilment of their wishes. He issued a proclamation from -Muja, ordering all the Jews still within his dominions to embrace -the Christian faith within the space of three months, or to depart -from Portugal. Three ports were at first named—Lisbon Oporto, and -Setubal—from any of which the Jews might embark; but subsequently -this order was revoked, and Lisbon was named as the only place of -embarkation. It is probable that Emmanuel expected, after the great -reluctance which the Jews had manifested, on a recent occasion, to -quit their present place of abode for unknown and unfriendly regions, -that the greater part, at all events, would choose baptism rather -than deportation. When he found that this was not the case, but that -great numbers were resolute to depart, and were making the needful -preparations for their voyage, he was greatly disconcerted. The glory -of making converts to the Church would be denied him, and he would -lose a vast number of wealthy and valuable subjects. He resolved not -to forego these advantages without at least making another effort to -secure them. He despatched a secret order that all children under -fourteen should be separated from their parents, and brought up in -the Christian faith. This was not to be carried into effect until -the day of embarkation came, so that there would be no time left for -disputing or evading the decrees. But the king’s intention was by -some error divulged; and, lest the Jews should contrive to defeat it, -it was put into immediate execution. Such scenes of horror ensued as -imagination cannot picture. It was the repetition, on a larger scale, -of the massacre at Bethlehem. Children were dragged forcibly from the -grasp of their parents; infants torn from their mothers’ breasts, -to undergo what they regarded as worse then death. Many, in the -distraction of their agony, flung their children into the wells and -rivers, or slew themselves with their own hands.[162] One miserable -mother threw herself at the feet of the king, as he was riding to -church—to _church_! Great God of Mercy, that men should dare to bring -such deeds into Thy very house, for Thine approval! She cried out -that six of her seven children had already been taken from her—would -he not spare her youngest to her? The courtiers mocked at her misery. -The king bade his attendants remove her from his path—‘the poor -bitch,’ as he expressed it, ‘robbed of her whelps!’—whether with her -petition granted or not, we are not told. But the people were not -so deaf to the common instincts of humanity as their monarch. They -assisted the Jews to conceal their children, and the inhuman command -was only partially carried out. Nevertheless, this last deadly blow -had gone further to break the hearts of the Jews than all their -previous sufferings. On condition of receiving back their children, -and that the Inquisition should not be introduced into Portugal for -twenty years to come,[163] many of those who had hitherto resisted -all attempts to proselytize them consented to receive baptism. The -more steadfast spirits, whom no amount of suffering could subdue, -were either shipped off to foreign lands or remained behind after the -appointed day, and became the slaves of Emmanuel. - -It must not be supposed that these acts of bigotry and pitiless -cruelty were done with the universal consent of the Portuguese -people. The rabble, indeed, in every land can at all times be stirred -up to hunt down and oppress those who differ from themselves on -almost any subject, without reflection and without remorse; yet, even -among them, as we have seen, the natural feelings of compassion could -not be wholly stifled. But among the more educated and thoughtful -classes there were many who not only disapproved the act of their -sovereign, but openly expressed their dissatisfaction. Bishop Osorio -has plainly recorded the view which he and others took of it. ‘Some -of the king’s counsellors,’ he says, ‘were of opinion that the Jews -ought not to be driven away, since it was notorious that the Pope -himself permitted them to reside in his dominions. Other Christian -princes in Italy, following his example—as well as some in Germany, -Hungary, and other European States,—granted them the same liberty, -and allowed them to practise various trades and professions. As for -converting them to the Church, banishment would be less likely than -any other step to bring that about. The Jews would carry with them -their perverse dispositions. _Cœlum non animum mutant qui trans mare -currunt_—a change of residence would have no effect in producing a -change of conviction. Nay, to send them over to Africa would be to -destroy what hope at present existed of their conversion. Living -among Christians, they might be influenced by the Christian example -set them [alas! what kind of Christian example _had_ been set them?] -and adopt the true faith. But, mingling with blind and superstitious -Mahometans, how could they learn any good? Again, to put the matter -on wholly different grounds, it would be most injurious to the State -to send out of the land a people possessed of abundant wealth, which -would then enrich their enemies.’ But the words of Divine and human -wisdom alike failed to produce any effect on the infatuated king and -his advisers, and the fatal policy was persisted in. - -During this century many learned and able writers belonging to the -Hebrew race have transmitted their names to posterity. Mention -has been made in the previous chapter of Isaac Abarbanel, divine, -philosopher, and historian, the most celebrated Jew of his age. -Contemporary with him were Isaac Aboab, author of commentaries, -essays, and sermons; David ben Solomon Jachia, grammarian, poet, and -Talmudist; Judah, Joseph, and Samuel Abarbanel, sons of the renowned -Isaac, the first-named also an author of repute; Solomon ben Virga, -the historian; David ben Joseph Jachia, philosopher, grammarian, and -poet; and many others. - -During this century printing-presses were introduced into Portugal by -two Jews, Eliezer and Izarba, by whom some beautiful editions of the -Pentateuch and the Targum of Onkelos were produced. Hebrew presses -were also set up about the same time in many of the great Italian -cities. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[160] Thus, the Jews were compelled to live in their Jewry; they -could not have Christian servants; they were prohibited from entering -the houses of Christians, unless they were accompanied by two -Christians; they were not allowed to wear silk dresses; they were -not allowed to collect the revenue of the Church. But no one could -do them wrong without their obtaining redress; there was no hint of -confiscating their wealth; and they were free to practise any trade -or profession. - -[161] Except smiths and armourers, who were permitted to remain in -the country if they chose. - -[162] The corpses of these were publicly burnt, as a token of the -anger of Heaven against _their_ wickedness! - -[163] The converts also stipulated that, when the Inquisition was set -up, its judicial proceedings should be so far modified that accused -persons should be confronted with the witnesses against them; and, in -case of condemnation, their entire property should not be taken from -their families. - - - - - CHAPTER XXIX. - - A.D. 1500-1600. - - THE JEWS IN ITALY. - - -The Jews had now been expelled from England, France, parts of -Germany and Central Europe, Russia, Spain, and Portugal.[164] They -were also shut out from Holland and the Low Countries, these being -subject to the control of the Empire. It does not appear that they -had ever established themselves in Sweden, Denmark, or Scotland, to -any great extent. In fact, the only European countries in which they -continued to reside in any considerable numbers, at this period, -were Italy, Poland, and Turkey. It was chiefly in the East and in -Northern Africa, under the rule of Mahometan princes, that they found -a refuge. We shall speak first of the residents in Europe during this -century, and then proceed to record the fortunes of their brethren -who had migrated to the East. - -They were received, as we have seen, with more kindness than might -have been expected in Italy. Many of the Popes were far-sighted -enough to perceive that, by expelling the Jews from their dominions, -they were simply transferring capital and intelligence to other -countries.[165] Leo X., in 1513, checked the zeal of certain -preachers, who were inveighing against the Jewish usurers in Rome. -He had no mind to have popular tumults excited, which might oblige -him to drive out men whose residence in the city was so advantageous -to him. His successor, Clement VII., adopted a similar policy. When -he heard of the persecution in Portugal, A.D. 1523, undergone by the -New Christians (as those Jews were called who were recent converts -to the Church), he not only sent an invitation to them to come and -live in his dominions, but intimated that he should not inquire what -had happened to them previously in Portugal. It need not be said -that great numbers availed themselves of his offer. Paul III., 1539, -espoused their cause still more openly. He would not permit the -Inquisition to continue its persecuting and bloody work within the -Papal States. Whatever offences might have been charged against the -Jews in their own land, when they crossed the confines of his, a full -amnesty was granted them. Especially this was the case in the rising -city of Ancona. Entire freedom of trade was permitted, no inquiries -being made as to any man’s creed. There was complete equality of -taxation. No one was compelled to wear any distinguishing badge. We -are told that, in consequence of these measures, Ancona grew rapidly -in population and wealth. It was doubtless in consequence of this -special favour that Cardinal Sadolet complained, at Avignon, of the -extraordinary favour shown to the Israelites; and we learn that, -later in his reign, Paul issued a bull, annulling the decrees he -had made in their favour, and requiring that converts to the Church -should be separated from their relatives. - -Ten years afterwards Julius III. confirmed the privileges which his -predecessors had granted; indeed, he went further. Considering that -the Reformation was making dangerous progress in Italy, he thought -it necessary to set up the Inquisition in Rome. But he especially -exempted the Jews of Ancona from its supervision. And, as regards the -other Jews in his dominions, he gave the most stringent directions -to his legates and cardinals to show the most complete toleration -to their religious opinions and observances. They were to make no -inquiry as to what they professed, or what they might formerly have -professed—this last promise being obviously intended to meet the case -of those Jewish exiles who, in their native country, had been induced -to make a nominal profession of Christianity, which they had now laid -aside. - -His tolerant treatment of them, however, was subjected to a severe -trial. A Franciscan friar, one Corneglio of Montalcino, had become -a convert to Judaism, and forthwith was possessed with a spirit -of proselytism, which drove him openly to preach the falsehood of -Christianity in the very streets of Rome! He was seized, and inquiry -made as to the cause of his apostasy. Fortunately for the Jews, this -was alleged to be the study of the Talmud, not the personal influence -of any Jew. Of the Talmud, accordingly, the penalty was exacted. It -was ordered to be publicly burned in Rome and other Italian cities. -The Jews, who had lived in terror of a furious popular outbreak or a -stern papal decree, were allowed to escape scot free—an act of mercy -which is gratefully recorded by one of their Rabbins. - -But it was different when Paul IV. succeeded to the pontificate, a -man of arrogant and impetuous character, who carried intolerance, it -might be said, to the highest pitch of which it is capable.[166] He -was as stern in his demeanour to the Jews as he was to the Reformers. -He renewed all the hostile edicts that had been in force against them -in the time of his predecessors. He prohibited them from holding -real property, and compelled them to sell what they were possessed -of within six months,—of course at a ruinous loss. He debarred them -from trading in corn, or any of the necessaries of life, though he -allowed them the privilege of dealing in old clothes, with which -traffic they have been so generally associated in the popular fancy. -He ordered all their synagogues but one to be destroyed. He was the -first to shut them up in the Ghetto, where, for centuries afterwards, -they were forced to live. He obliged them again to wear a distinctive -dress—the men yellow hats, the women yellow hoods—to abstain from -work on the Sunday, to keep from all intercourse with Christians, and -especially from attending them as physicians, and to pay a tax for -the instruction in the Christian faith of any Jews who were inclined -to embrace it. - -His rule, however, only lasted for four years, and Pius IV., who -succeeded him in 1559, somewhat, though not very greatly, relaxed -the sternness of his predecessor’s policy. He maintained the -enforced residence within the Ghetto, but he enlarged and improved -it, and forbade the exorbitant rents which the owners of houses had -hitherto exacted. He removed several restrictions on their trade, and -permitted them to hold real property up to the value of 1500 ducats. -He allowed friendly intercourse between them and their Christian -fellow-subjects, and, though he would not dispense with the cap, -which was one of their distinguishing badges, he changed its colour -from yellow to the less remarkable one of black. - -Pius V., 1566, a man of austere and sombre character, revived in a -great measure the harshness of Paul IV. He banished the Jews from -all the cities in his domains, except Rome and Ancona, and revived -most of the severities with which Pius IV. had dispensed. He seems -to have tolerated the presence of the Jews at all, only because by -that time it had come to be generally understood that to expel them -from any country was to destroy its commercial prosperity. There -was little change in their treatment when Gregory XIII. followed, -A.D. 1572. He promulgated a bull, which he caused to be fixed at the -entrance of the Ghetto, which prohibited the reading of the Talmud, -and required all Jews who were more than twelve years of age to -appear periodically, for the purpose of listening to sermons preached -for their special conversion. What effect these had in producing the -desired result, we are not informed. - -In 1585, however, Sixtus V. assumed the pontificate—a man of -far higher character and more commanding mind than any of his -predecessors during the present century. His mode of dealing with -the Jews was at once humane and statesmanlike. He swept away with a -stroke of his pen the vexatious and frivolous restrictions which had -been imposed on them; he gave them free access to, and unrestrained -residence in, all the cities of his dominions; he allowed them to -carry on whatever trade they might prefer; he ordered the full -toleration of their religion; subjected them to the same civil -tribunals and the same taxes as their Christian fellow-subjects. He -also limited the amount of usury which they were permitted to exact -to eighteen per cent. - -After his death, in 1590, there was a succession of Popes who vacated -the papal chair almost immediately after occupying it.[167] Clement -VIII., who was elected in 1592, confirmed the bull of Pius V., by -which they were banished out of all the papal cities except Rome and -Ancona; but to these he added Avignon, where they have since resided, -with full liberty of holding their religious belief and maintaining -their form of worship. - -In the other Italian States their condition during this century -appears to have been quite as good—somewhat better, indeed, than -it was at Rome. In Florence they were kindly received, and so well -protected by the laws, that we are told it was a favourite saying in -that city, that ‘a man might as well insult the Grand Duke himself as -a Jew.’[168] In Venice they were equally in favour. They had already, -in the previous century, obtained permission to set up a bank in the -city, the Senate being aware of the commercial advantages obtained by -the residence of the Jews among them. They disapproved the step taken -by the Spanish and Portuguese kings, and themselves employed Jews -on missions of importance, as for instance Abarbanel, to negotiate -a treaty with Portugal; and in 1589, another Jew, Daniel Rodriguez, -to put down some troubles in Dalmatia, which he successfully -accomplished. In Livorno (Leghorn), which the Medici in the latter -part of this century took under their special protection, designing -it to become a great mart of European trade, a quarter was especially -assigned to the Spanish and Portuguese exiles, who flocked thither in -great numbers. It was, indeed, declared to be a Jewish colony, and -it has continued to flourish from that day to the present time. The -Spanish language is still spoken by the Hebrew population, and the -Mosaic ritual is maintained, says a modern writer, in great splendour. - -At Ferrara, the Spanish and Portuguese emigrants were received with -the same favour, and the like privileges, which had been accorded by -other Italian princes. Their numbers were so great, that the duke -was induced, probably by popular clamour, to revive an old law, -requiring them to wear a small yellow circle on the breast. From the -same cause, popular pressure, he was obliged in 1551 to dismiss the -whole of the Hebrew population from his realm, in consequence of a -widespread, though it would seem unfounded, belief that they had -brought the plague into Ferrara. They were, however, soon permitted -to return. Many Jews also settled at Bologna, Cremona, Modena, -Mantua, Padua, and other large towns, where they were kindly received. - -At Naples only of the Italian cities they were not permitted to -find a home. In the first instance, as the reader has learned, -a considerable number of the Spanish exiles had found refuge in -that city, where they had been received in a friendly manner. But -the invasion of Charles VIII. of France exposed them to fresh -persecution. Wearied out by their endless trials, they lost heart -at last, and consented to embrace the Christian faith. But, as in -the other instances, the conversion was only nominal, and the danger -had no sooner passed than the pseudo-converts returned to their -former profession. A few years subsequently Gonsalvo de Cordova took -possession of Naples in the name of the King of Spain. He raised -the question as to whether they ought not to be driven out of the -country, which had now become part of the Spanish dominions. But -the idea had now got possession of most people’s minds, that to -expel the Jews from any country was to do it serious injury. He -therefore proposed to introduce the Inquisition, which would retain -the Jews in the land, but compel them to keep to their newly made -profession. This, however, did not please the Neapolitans, who rose -in insurrection, and the government were fain to compromise the -matter by expelling the Jews; though it is affirmed by some of the -Jewish writers (as, for example, Orobio de Castro) that these stern -measures were adopted only so far as the Sephardim (or Spanish Jews) -were concerned. - -In this century great numbers of Hebrew printing-presses were set up -in Italy, which were under the management of learned Jews. Among -these was the celebrated Abraham Usque, by whom the well-known Bible -of Ferrara, a Spanish version of the Old Testament, was printed. -Hebrew presses were also erected at Cremona, Leghorn, Padua, Genoa, -Rimini, and Verona, as well as the central city of Rome. The renowned -Daniel Bomberg of Antwerp established himself at Venice in 1516, -and his works attained great celebrity. He also published the first -complete edition of the Talmud, and the first Rabbinical Bible. To -this age also belongs Rabbi Joseph, the historian of the French -Crusades and the sufferings of the Jews in Castile, Asarja de Rossi, -and Abraham Portaleone. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[164] It would, however, be a mistake to suppose that they were not -to be met with in those countries. Even in England, though the law -forbade any settlement, Jews were occasionally to be found, whose -presence was tolerated. This was still more the case in France -and Germany; while in Spain and Portugal great numbers remained, -whose profession of Christianity was very widely known to be a mere -pretence. Of them we shall speak in the next chapter. - -[165] Sultan Bajazet was shrewd enough to apprehend this. When he -heard of the banishment of the Jews by Ferdinand, he exclaimed: ‘A -wise king this, who impoverishes his own kingdom to enrich mine!’ - -[166] Paul IV. was the Pope whose overbearing dealings with Queen -Elizabeth precipitated the rupture with the English Church. He was -also the author of the well-known _Index_ of prohibited books. - -[167] Urban VIII., Gregory XIV., and Innocent IX. - -[168] A remarkable instance of the esteem in which they were held in -Florence is to be found in the quarrel between Florence and Milan in -1414. The Florentines, considering that they had cause of complaint -against the Duke of Milan, sent a Jewish banker, named Valori, as an -ambassador to him. The duke refused to receive a Jew as an envoy, -which the Florentines so highly resented that they declared war -against him. - - - - - CHAPTER XXX. - - A.D. 1500-1600. - - THE JEWS IN PORTUGAL, SPAIN, AND HOLLAND. - - -The Jews having been publicly expelled from Portugal and Spain, it -might be thought that there was an end of their history, so far as -those two countries are concerned. So, doubtless, there would have -been, had the expulsion been a complete one. But it was notorious -that, though they had been nominally driven out, great numbers -remained, who, though they called themselves Christians, were in -reality Jews, and nothing but Jews. Miserable as was the condition of -those whose sufferings have been described in the previous chapters, -it may be doubted whether those who stayed behind were not more -wretched still. True, they had escaped the dreaded severance from -home and country; they might still dwell among the familiar scenes of -youth and manhood; they had not undergone the horrors of the outward -voyage, and the landing among barbarous and inhospitable strangers. -But there was the self-reproach and shame of a false profession -of faith; there was the necessity of complying with forms and -observances which in their heart they hated; there was the continued -dread of detection and ruin. They knew themselves to be the objects -of continual suspicion, that keen and merciless eyes were ever upon -them, and that on the slightest evidence of any open recurrence to -the worship which they still secretly rendered, the fearful scenes, -still fresh in their memory, would be renewed. - -It was not long before these anticipations were fulfilled. On Easter -Day, 1506, a fierce and sanguinary outbreak occurred in Lisbon, -which illustrates only too faithfully the state of public feeling -in that day towards the New Christians—which had now become the -customary designation of the Jews. Its immediate cause was an insult -offered to a famous miraculous crucifix, which had been brought out -of the cathedral into the great square. The plague had broken out -in the town, the season was unusually dry, and the pestilence was -aggravated by the want of water. It was hoped that through the aid -of the image some help might be sent from above. On a sudden, while -the eyes of all were anxiously fixed on it, the features of the -sculptured Christ were seen to smile. The people all broke out into -expressions of admiring thankfulness, except one man, who declared -that the smile had been caused by a stream of light let in by a lamp -through the back of the figure. He was one of the New Christians, -and the hollowness of his profession had already been suspected. -The Dominicans denounced him as an apostate, and he was instantly -struck down and slain. The mob followed up this deed of violence by -attacking and slaying all the countrymen of the offender whom they -encountered. The monks incited them to further excesses, promising -(it is said by a Jewish historian) that whoever should murder a Jew -would not have to pass more than one hundred days in purgatory, let -his offences be what they might. The rabble, thus incited, assailed, -gutted, and burned the houses of all the Jews in the town; men, -women, and children were everywhere massacred; those who had fled -into the churches for sanctuary were torn from the altars, dragged -out, and burned. For three days the carnage went on unchecked. -At the end of that time King Emmanuel, who had been absent at -Abrantes, returned to Lisbon. He sent a body of troops into the town -sufficient to quell the disturbance; the ringleaders of the outbreak -were arrested and hanged; and the magistrates, who had shown their -incompetency to deal with the emergency, removed from office. Such -of the New Christians as had escaped the murderous hands of the mob -again passed under the protection of the law. Yet they could not -but have felt like men dwelling near the crater of some volcanic -mountain, which might at any moment burst forth in torrents of -burning lava, and overwhelm them utterly; and it is worthy of notice -that, although the rioters were sternly punished for their lawless -violence, no reparation was made to the Jews—not even an expression -of regret was uttered for the unprovoked and cruel wrongs they had -undergone. It is passing strange that they should have still clung to -a land so unkindly, and still more strange that those who had quitted -it for other countries, where at least life and property were secure, -should have been anxious to return to it. - -Yet this did occur. When Charles V., the grandson of Ferdinand and -Isabella, succeeded in 1519 to the throne of Spain, some of the -Jewish exiles sent a deputation to him, requesting permission to -reoccupy their ancient homes, free from the perpetual and pitiless -interference of the Inquisition. In requital of this service, if -he should be inclined to render it to them, they offered no less a -sum than 800,000 crowns of gold. Charles received them favourably, -and his council advised the acceptance of their offer. But Cardinal -Ximenes, who had succeeded Torquemada as Inquisitor General, -interfered, and sternly warned Charles that he could not comply with -the request without unfaithfulness to Christ. Charles yielded, as -his grandfather had yielded to Torquemada, and the petition of the -Jews was rejected. Under the same influence he refused the Portuguese -refugees permission to continue in Holland, whither many of them had -fled. All who had not resided for six years in that country were -obliged to quit it. - -In 1521 John III. succeeded Emmanuel as King of Portugal. The -latter had promised the New Christians, on their consenting to -receive baptism, that the Inquisition should not be introduced into -Portugal.[169] But some of John’s advisers persuaded him that this -promise was not binding, for two reasons—first, because the New -Christians were notoriously unfaithful to their engagements; and -secondly, because he had no power to make such an agreement without -the consent of the Pope. To the Pope therefore John appealed for -leave to set up the Holy Tribunal. But Clement VII. and his cardinals -at once refused the petition, and ordered that all the New Christians -whom John had arrested should be set at liberty. When, in 1534, Paul -III. succeeded Clement, John renewed his petition. But Paul rejected -it as resolutely as his predecessor had done, pointing out that -Emmanuel’s promises ought in honour and good faith to be respected. - -John, however, was not to be discouraged. Learning that the Emperor -Charles V. was on his way homeward, after his military success at -Tunis, he resolved to avail himself of the opportunity. Charles -would be entitled by the exploits he had performed to a triumph, -at which custom allowed him to ask any favour he pleased from the -Pope. He besought Charles therefore to make the establishment -of the Inquisition in Portugal the privileged request. Charles -assented,[170] and the Pope, though sorely unwilling, was obliged -to grant it. At the same time, however, he stipulated that all -the Portuguese Jews who had been imprisoned up to that time should -be released from prison, and receive a free pardon. This condition -the king refused to comply with; and the Pope had to exercise his -personal authority, placarding the pardons on the doors of the -churches, and sending his own officers to release the prisoners. The -Inquisition, however, was set up in Portugal; and the same results -attended the measure as had followed from it elsewhere, on all other -occasions. Many of the secret Jews, foreseeing these, fled to other -lands; where, if not actually safe from persecution, they would be at -all events less liable to it. - -Not many years afterwards, Jews and New Christians were to be met -with in considerable numbers in various parts of the newly discovered -regions of America, both in the countries which had been taken -possession of by Spain and those which had fallen to the share of -Portugal. In Africa also, and all over Asia, they settled—sometimes a -scattered few, sometimes in larger communities. So numerous, indeed, -were the emigrants, and so injurious to the national welfare was -their departure found to be, that repeated edicts were issued by -the kings of Portugal, forbidding it on the severest penalties. The -simple method of detaining them, by making their residence in the -country agreeable, or even endurable, to them, does not seem to have -been thought of. - -In Europe their chief place of retreat was Holland. While this was -under the government of Spain, they were as sternly excluded from it -as from every other portion of his Catholic Majesty’s dominions. But -when the long struggle for independence ended in the emancipation -of the Seven United Provinces, the Spanish and Portuguese emigrants -were favourably received there. In 1590, three Portuguese Jews, the -advanced guard, so to speak, of a numerous host which was to follow, -were hospitably entertained. From Embden in 1594 came ten more, who -had borne the Portuguese names of Lopes Homen and Pereira, but who, -as soon as they had settled in the Dutch capital, resumed their -original designation of Abendana. The first synagogue was built -there, in 1598. Notwithstanding the flight, however, of so many of -the so-called New Christians from Portugal, enough of them remained -behind to form a powerful party in the capital, which more than once, -during the latter part of the century, interfered with considerable -effect in the affairs of the State. - -It remains that we say somewhat more respecting those Jews who -still continued, as we have said, to reside in Spain and Portugal. -A stranger, and at the same time a more instructive, history is -not to be found in the annals of the world. Bigotry has never been -so blind, so determined, so unscrupulous, as it was in Spain under -the iron rule of the Inquisition. Arbitrary power has never been -exercised more freely, more persistently, more pitilessly, than by -Torquemada and his successors. The eyes of the Inquisition were -everywhere—spying out men’s ways, not only in their discharge of -public duties, but following them, Argus-like, into the privacy of -their family intercourse—nay, into the solitude of their closets -and bedchambers. Their ears drank in men’s secret whispers, uttered -only in the hearing of their nearest intimates—their wives or their -children. They did not hesitate to inflict the most dreadful tortures -in order to elicit the information they desired. They spared, in -the prosecution of their task, neither the weakness of womanhood, -the tenderness of infancy, nor the infirmities of age. Yet they -could not penetrate the mystery of secret Judaism. Men obtained the -highest rank in the State, and filled the most important offices, -honoured and dreaded by all men, who nevertheless belonged to this -despised and proscribed race. The blood which was supposed so to -degrade the man in whose veins it ran was owned by the greatest and -noblest of the land—the marquis, the duke, and the prince, with their -high-sounding titles and their lengthy pedigrees. Towards the end of -the eighteenth century, it is related of the celebrated Portuguese -minister, Pombal, that the king, having proposed at a meeting of -the council that all who were of Jewish descent should be obliged -thenceforth to appear in yellow caps, attended at the next council -with three yellow caps in his hand. The king having inquired the -meaning of this procedure, he replied that it was intended to carry -out the proposition the king had made. ‘One cap,’ he observed, ‘is -for your majesty, one for the Grand Inquisitor, and the third for -myself.’ - -Stranger still, but equally certain, is the fact that secret Jews -held posts of dignity, not in the State only, but the Church also. -There were convents full of Jewish monks and Jewish nuns. Priests -said mass at the altars, and received confessions, and pronounced -absolution, who regarded all these rites as false and impious. Nay, -secret Jews wielded the powers of the Holy Office itself. They saw -men dragged before them, and tortured and condemned them to the -stake, for holding precisely the same faith as themselves—pronounced, -it may be, the sentence with their own lips, and then went to their -homes to take part in the proscribed rites themselves. If anything -could prove more clearly than has been already proved, the folly, no -less than wickedness, of religious persecution, it would surely be -this strange and startling history.[171] - -Nor ought we to quit this subject without remarking on the just and -stern retribution with which the nation has been visited that did -these things. At the beginning of the sixteenth century Spain was the -leading power in Europe, containing forty millions of inhabitants, -for which its rich and productive soil afforded ample subsistence. -The empire of the New World, which was, as it were, committed to her -care, poured wealth without limit into her lap. What is she now? -Abroad, her name carries little respect; she has sunk to a secondary -rank among the nations. Her voice is never heard in the settlement -of European interests. At home, her population has diminished to -little more than one-third of what it was four centuries before; her -commerce is paralysed; her government unsettled. The poverty and -ignorance of her people seem to be ever on the increase, and strife -and anarchy continually distract the land. Who can doubt that her -double sin—against the Indians of the New World, and the Jews of the -Old—has brought down this heavy judgment on her? - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[169] In the account given at the time of their conversion (1497), -it is said that the Inquisition was not to be introduced ‘for twenty -years,’ viz., till 1517. But it is plain that there must have been -another promise for a longer period, though no record has been -preserved of it. The Pope, indeed, Paul III., plainly said as much. - -[170] Charles, throughout his reign, was harsh and stern in his -dealings with the Jews. His private secretary, Solomon Maleho, who -had been an enforced convert to Christianity, afterwards returned to -his old belief, and tried to convert the Emperor to it. The latter -handed him over to the secular arm at Mantua, and he was burned at -the stake. - -[171] For a vivid picture of the strange condition of society in -Spain at this period, the reader should study Miss Grace D’Aguilar’s -beautiful little tale, entitled _The Vale of Cedars_. See also some -striking details in Borrow’s _Bible in Spain_. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXI. - - A.D. 1500-1600. - - THE JEWS IN GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE. - - -The condition of the Jews during the sixteenth century in those -parts of Germany and Central Europe where their presence was still -tolerated, does not materially differ from what it had been for many -previous generations. We hear of fewer outbreaks of lawless violence, -and the atrocities committed on them seem a shade less barbarous. -But the history is in the main such as the Christian chronicler must -record, and the Christian reader peruse, with feelings of shame and -sorrow. At Mecklenberg, just at the end of the previous century, -the oft-repeated, though never proved, accusation had been revived -of bribing a Christian priest to sell the consecrated Host; which -the Jews who purchased it immediately proceeded to stab, drawing -forth (it was alleged) the very blood of the Lord Jesus, whose body -it was. A grave and minute inquiry was set on foot. Thirty Jews, -together with the priest, were condemned to be burned at the stake -for the offence. Some Jewish women and children were implicated in -the charge. One of the former is related to have put two of her -daughters to death, in order to save them from the horrors that -awaited them, and to have been on the point of killing a third, -when she was snatched from her. Two years afterwards, another -charge was brought against some Hungarian Jews, or rather another -form of the same charge: this time the offence being murdering a -Christian in order to drink his blood.[172] The accused were put -to the torture—not so much, we learn, to elicit the fact whether -_they_ were guilty, as whether the whole Jewish people of Hungary -were not implicated in the crime. Monstrous as this may seem, it -was not the first time, by any means, that such a belief had been -entertained.[173] Possibly, indeed, it was hoped that under the -pressure of their agony the sufferers would confess that, or anything -else that they were required to admit, and so give a pretext for a -general massacre. If so, the attempt failed, for we find that only -those who had been accused of the crime suffered for it. - -A few years afterwards, at Nuremberg, and again at Cologne, -expulsions of the Jews took place. In both cities, though a number -of charges were alleged against them, the real offence seems to have -been their commercial success, and the heavy load of debt contracted -to them by the citizens of the two towns. The shortest mode of paying -off the liabilities, it was found, lay in finding their creditors -guilty of some offence for which they were punishable by the -confiscation of their property, including, of course, all debts owing -to them. But these expulsions, however unjust, do not appear to have -been stained by the additional guilt of bloodshed. - -In 1509, a Jew who had been converted to Christianity, Pfeffercorn -by name, filled with the zeal for which proselytes are always -remarkable, suggested to the Emperor Maximilian that all books -which upheld or set forth Jewish doctrine, and especially the -Talmud, the great repository of Jewish fable, should be everywhere -destroyed. He had already written more than one book, in which he -charged his countrymen not only with denying the truth of the New -Testament, but with departing from the commandments of the Old. He -accused them also of using imprecations against Christians, both in -public and private. These had so much effect upon Maximilian, that -he is reported to have been half inclined to grant his request. -He resolved, however, to appoint a commission of learned men to -examine and report on the matter. At the head of this was placed -Reuchlin[174] (otherwise Capnio), the most famous Hebrew scholar of -his day, and a man of large and liberal views. He advised the Emperor -that such of the Jewish books as contained blasphemies against our -Lord (as undoubtedly some of them did) had better be destroyed; but -those which simply treated of the tenets and ritual of the Jews ought -to be retained. He pointed out how impossible it was to suppress -books which a certain number of readers were resolved to preserve. -This would have been at any time difficult, but since the invention -of printing it had become morally impossible, as the Jews had now -begun to make free use of the printing-press.[175] We cannot wonder -much that a man of Pfeffercorn’s temper would not acquiesce in -a decision like this. He attacked Reuchlin in an angry pamphlet, -to which Reuchlin replied. The dispute was referred to the Pope, -and Hochstraten, a Dutch Inquisitor who had espoused Pfeffercorn’s -quarrel, repaired to Rome to advocate it; but the papal decision was -in favour of Reuchlin. The Jewish books were spared. Nevertheless, it -may be doubted whether the affair was favourable to them. The result -was to attract the attention of Christian scholars to these Jewish -attacks on Christianity, and replies were in consequence written, -which were probably more damaging to Judaism than any burning of -their books could have been. - -Out of this controversy a number of sects seem to have arisen—at -least, they are first noticed by writers about this time, and they -disappear from history soon afterwards. Among these Seidelius -of Silesia, George de Novara, and Francis David are the most -remarkable.[176] They held opinions culled, some from Judaism, some -from Christianity, and differed widely from one another. They had the -usual fate of eclectics, being rejected and despised by both parties. - -In 1516 the Jews had a narrow escape of being expelled from -Frankfort. An assembly, consisting of deputies from various -sovereigns and free towns, was held in that city, for the purpose of -organizing measures for their banishment. Fortunately for them, the -deputies could not agree among themselves. The Jews were, however, -driven out of Brandenburg. Lippold, physician to the elector of that -country, was charged with having poisoned his employer. He made a -confession under torture, and was executed; after which all his -countrymen were driven into exile. - -Towards the middle of this century the Jews were for the first time -expelled from Prague. They had dwelt unmolested in that city from -time immemorial. No one knew when they had first settled there; but -tradition said it was in times when Bohemia was yet heathen; and -inscriptions on some of the older graves in their moss-grown cemetery -are quoted in proof of the fact. The very latest date assigned for -their arrival is the tenth century of Christianity. They had built -a noble synagogue, and had opened an academy, over which a renowned -Jewish doctor presided. But in the troubled times which followed the -burning of Huss and Jerome of Prague they continually fell under -the suspicion of one, or, it might be said, both parties, the Jews -being too cautious to ally themselves with either. This feeling grew -stronger when the Reformation itself had fairly engaged men’s minds. -Among the mutual jealousies and suspicions which had taken possession -of men’s minds, that of the secret plottings of the Jews in favour of -their antagonists, was one of constant occurrence. It chanced that -terrible conflagrations broke out in some of the larger cities, and -among others, in Prague. The Jews were instantly suspected of having -caused it. Being suspected was in those times very nearly the same -thing as being convicted of it. All those that escaped the flames -were banished from the city, with the exception of ten families, who -obtained permission to remain. The Emperor was not convinced of their -guilt, but the feeling that had been provoked was too strong for -him to cope with. He saw plainly that nothing but the death or the -banishment of Jews would satisfy the people, and he chose the more -merciful of the alternatives offered him. Towards the latter end of -the year the real incendiaries were discovered, and the Jews were -then permitted to return. - -About eight years afterwards another outcry was raised, this time it -being affirmed that the Jews had been praying that disaster and ruin -might befall the Christians. Their books were seized as a punishment, -and carried off to Vienna, so that the Rabbins had to officiate in -the synagogues as well as they were able, reciting everything from -memory. We must suppose that this charge was disproved, as the other -had been, for the books were soon afterwards restored. Even this was -not the end of their troubles. Before the year was out, there came -another peremptory order for all the Jews, except the ten privileged -families, once more to leave the city and settle elsewhere in -Bohemia; and this time it does not appear that they were allowed to -return. - -Merseburg again—the capital now of one of the regencies of the -Prussian States, which consists almost entirely of cessions made by -Saxony in 1815—was another of the cities in which the Jews claimed -to have resided without interruption for nearly fourteen centuries. -Yet, so widespread had the feeling against them become, that they -were forced, in 1559, to quit this city also, notwithstanding that -the Emperor Ferdinand was willing to help them to the utmost of his -ability. He not only protected them, indeed, but granted them a -privilege which had been accorded to their ancestors in the East, -many centuries before—that of having their own special ruler, who was -known by the same title as that borne in the earliest Christian times -by the Patriarch of the East, viz., the ‘Prince of the Captivity.’ - -In Moravia, in 1574, a similar flame of persecution broke out. We -are not informed what were the precise charges, but no doubt they -were much the same that were alleged against almost all Jewish -congregations in Central Europe about this time. Many Jews, we -learn, were burnt at the stake, and many more put to death in other -ways. They appealed to the Emperor Ferdinand, who appears always to -have been willing to assist his Jewish subjects to the best of his -ability. He did interfere, and stopped the executions, but not before -many victims had been sacrificed. - -In Franconia, six years afterwards, there was something of a similar -outbreak. In this instance the Jews were accused, as they were in -many other places, of having set on fire the town of Bamberg. But -here they escaped without undergoing any further severity than having -to make good the loss which those had suffered whose property had -been destroyed. - -In Poland and the Ukraine a more merciful state of things prevailed. -In both these the Jews enjoyed entire freedom alike from pillage and -persecution. In the first-named country they were chiefly engaged -in trade, which they almost monopolized; in the latter, almost -exclusively in agriculture. - -But in Russia proper the race of Israel continued to be, as tradition -declares it always to have been, harshly treated—such Israelites, -that is to say, as were still permitted to dwell in the country, -the Jews generally having been expelled from it, as the reader has -learned (A.D. 1113). Late, however, in the previous, and early in -the present century, during the last years of the long reign of Ivan -III., a most singular apostasy to Judaism is recorded to have taken -place, the truth of which we should certainly be inclined to doubt, -if it had not been so respectably attested. A Jew named Zacharias, -about A.D. 1490, began to attempt the conversion of certain Russian -priests to Judaism, and succeeded to an extraordinary extent in -the design. The converts adopted all the Jewish rites, except that -of circumcision; which they dispensed with, because, in event of -discovery, it would be a certain proof against them. The apostasy -spread rapidly and widely. Ecclesiastics occupying the highest -positions in the Church, even the Patriarch Zosimus himself, became -perverts. The conspiracy, if it may be so called, was at last -discovered, and a great number of these ‘secret Jews’ summoned before -the council and convicted. They were punished after a more merciful -manner than that adopted towards their brethren in Spain. They were -set on horseback, with their faces towards the tails of their steeds, -dressed after a bizarre fashion to resemble devils, and paraded -through the streets amid the jeers of the rabble. Zosimus was sent -back to the monastery of which he had been archimandrite. But, though -the evil was detected, it is doubtful whether it was extirpated. It -is said to have lingered in the Russian Church long afterwards. - -Rabbi Joseph ben Meir is the great Jewish historian of this period. -He was born at Avignon in 1496, and wrote a _Universal History_, and -a _History of his own Times_. The latter, though its statements must -be taken with reserve, is regarded generally as a valuable book. -David Gans also, born 1541, was a renowned scholar and author. He -died in Prague, A.D. 1613. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[172] See Appendix V. - -[173] In the reign of Henry III. in England, at the inquest held on -Hugh of Lincoln, A.D. 1255, it was declared that the whole of the -Jews in England were privy to, and guilty of, the crime. - -[174] Johann Reuchlin was born at Pforzheim, December 28, 1455, of -poor parents. The sweetness of his voice attracted attention to -him, and he was sent to be educated at Paris. He began his career -as a teacher of classics at Basle, but soon abandoned this for the -profession of the law. In 1482 he had become known as a Hebrew -scholar, and he was noticed by the Emperor Frederick III. In 1498 -he returned to Stuttgard, where his fame continued to increase; in -consequence of which Pfeffercorn’s proposals were submitted to him -by Maximilian. The most celebrated satire of the day, the _Epistola -Obscurorum Virorum_, was written to uphold his views, and had the -effect of completely crushing his adversaries. Reuchlin died at -Stuttgard, December, 1521. - -[175] Some of the Jewish books were no doubt extremely offensive -to Christians, as, for example, the _Chisuk Emunah_ of Isaac ben -Abraham, a Polish Jew. The Portuguese Jews translated it into their -own language, and diffused it widely. The _Nitzachon_ again, ascribed -to Rabbi Lipman, of Mulhouse, was equally, if not more virulent. It -could hardly be expected that even the wisest and most far-seeing men -of the sixteenth century would tolerate these. - -[176] Seidelius taught that Messiah, when He came, would come to the -Jews only, the Gentiles having neither part nor lot in Him. Francis -David acknowledged Jesus Christ, but held that it was sinful to pray -to Him. George de Novara claimed to believe Christian doctrine, but -denied that Messiah had come. He was burnt at the stake. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXII. - - A.D. 1500-1600. - - THE JEWS IN ASIA AND AFRICA. - - -We have now recorded the fortunes of the Jews, during the sixteenth -century, in all the countries of Europe where a domicile was allowed -them, as well as in Spain and Portugal, where, though banished by -law, they were still, under a nominal profession of Christianity, -permitted to linger. We have now once again to transfer our attention -to eastern and southern lands, in which, under Mahometan rule, they -found a more merciful refuge. Before doing so, however, it is proper -to repeat the remark already made, that, although legally forbidden, -during those centuries, to enter several of the European kingdoms, it -is far from certain that they were not to be found in them, and that -in no inconsiderable numbers, though doubtless they were careful to -keep out of sight as much as possible. Reference has been made to a -Spanish historian, who says that ‘many of the Spanish exiles fled to -England, establishing themselves in three of the largest towns—Dover, -York, and London—and that they built synagogues in the last-named -city, where they afterwards carried on a thriving trade.’ ‘From -1291 to 1655,’ writes a pamphleteer in 1753, ‘the Jews have run the -hazard, as they do in another country [doubtless Spain], where so -many of them have expired, and annually still expire in the flames; -but meeting all along with lenitives [merciful usage], they have made -true one of our English proverbs of claiming an ell’s longitude for -an inch’s allowance.’[177] - -In France it is certain that they were tolerated, so long, probably, -as they did not make themselves conspicuous. Rabbi Joseph relates -that Henry II. allowed certain Jews from Mauritius to reside in the -French cities, and in 1550 granted them his protection and various -privileges. His father and his queen, Catherine de Medici, had -Jewish physicians, who were high in favour with their employers. -We are told that the Parliament of Paris condemned in severe terms -the inhuman conduct of the sovereigns of Spain and Portugal; and -that many of the Portuguese emigrants were suffered to establish -themselves at Bordeaux and Bayonne, where they have since resided -without molestation. The same, no doubt, was the case among the -German States; where, if the Jews were persecuted in one city, it was -comparatively easy to fly for shelter to another. - -So likewise in Russia. The Jews have never been readmitted to the -provinces from which they were originally driven out. But Russia has -in modern times acquired by conquest extensive territories in which -there was a large Hebrew population. She did not carry her dislike -so far as to expel them from her new dominions, and has as many as -two millions of Jewish subjects. But her feelings towards them have -undergone but little change. - -Doubtless many of the Spanish and Portuguese fugitives betook -themselves to one or other of the above-named countries. But it is -tolerably certain that the great mass chose the Mussulman kingdoms in -Asia and Africa as their future abiding-places. Whether it was due to -the scorn, the calm indifference, or the compassion, with which the -Mahometan princes regarded them, it is certain that they permitted -them the free exercise of their religion, and the full possession of -civil rights. In Persia and Media, even before the Spanish exodus, -they seem to have been very numerous, though the particulars recorded -respecting them are extremely scanty. During Timour’s wars, they -naturally suffered, among all the other inhabitants of Persia, from -the inroads of his savage soldiery, which took little account of the -difference of creed among those whom they attacked and conquered. -We are informed that their synagogues were wrecked, their schools -destroyed, and great numbers of them slain in the capture of cities. -These troubles had hardly subsided when the irruption of the fierce -Shah Ismail Sofi once more threw everything into disorder. His rapid -and signal success is said to have produced such an effect upon them, -that they were persuaded he must be the Messiah who was to come. The -idea was encouraged by the fact that Ismail had declared himself to -be a prophet sent from God to reform the corruptions of Islamism. -But he received their homage very coldly[178]—indeed, is said to -have treated them with less consideration than any others of his new -subjects. - -One of his successors, Shah Abbas, a generation or two afterwards, -brought about a severe persecution of the Jews in his dominions, -though in a very singular manner. He had issued a proclamation -granting great privileges to such strangers as should settle in -his dominions. The Jews immediately availed themselves of this, -and crowded in such numbers into the country that they speedily -engrossed the trade. This was no more than was their ordinary wont; -but Shah Abbas’s subjects were greatly aggrieved, and made bitter -complaints to the king. Thereupon he made a very minute inquiry into -their peculiar habits and opinions, possibly in order to find some -excuse for banishing them from the land. Learning that they had long -expected the arrival of their Messiah, and were still waiting for -Him, he insisted on it that they should name some time by which, if -He had not made His appearance, they should admit their belief to -be unfounded, and conform to Mahometanism. After long consultation -among themselves, they told Shah Abbas that they would agree to fix -seventy years as the prescribed limit—doubtless arguing that most -probably all concerned, but certainly Shah Abbas, would be dead -before the arrival of that day. The king received the reply with -gravity, and caused it to be formally registered, and deposited in -the archives of the kingdom. It is probable that the memory of it -died out even before the end of Shah Abbas’s reign. At all events, -when the appointed period approached, wars and commotions of one -kind or another occupied men’s minds, and no attention was paid to -the subject. But, more than a hundred years afterwards, Shah Abbas -II., in an unlucky hour, chanced to light upon his ancestor’s decree. -It was of course found that, although the seventy years had long -expired, and the expected Messiah had not made His appearance, the -Jews had not adopted the Moslem faith, nor were they disposed to do -so now. Here was a clear proof of their treachery and falsehood; and -the consequence was a massacre which is said to have lasted for three -years, those only escaping who abjured their religion, or fled into -Turkey on one side, or India on the other. After a while, however, it -was found that the supposed converts, though nominally Mahometans, -as their brethren in Spain had professed to be Christians, were in -reality Jews at heart. Wiser than Ferdinand and his successors, Shah -Abbas recalled his decree, and allowed the pretended Mussulmans to -return to their real creed. - -But little is known of the Jews in the Eastern Empire during the -period preceding the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, in -1453. But, a generation or two after that event, large numbers -were to be found both in Constantinople itself and other parts of -the Sultan’s European dominions. The Spanish exiles who resorted -thither found a large number of synagogues already in existence, -served by a priesthood in no way inferior to what their own had been -at home. They did not, however, amalgamate with these, but built -new synagogues in Constantinople, Jerusalem, Damascus, Saloniki, -and other great cities, each of which long afterwards retained the -name of the original builders, one being called the synagogue of -Toledo, another of Lisbon, another of Aragon, and the like. The -Turkish government treated them with great liberality, allowing them -unrestricted freedom in establishing manufactures and transacting -commerce, permitting them also to hold landed property. Whatever -amount of their wealth had been stripped from them by their Spanish -persecutors, we may be sure, was now speedily recovered. Nor does -it appear that they were subjected to any excessive exactions. They -paid a certain amount of taxes, no doubt, and were occasionally -liable to arbitrary demands, from which no one in the East is secure; -but, on the whole, they were mercifully dealt with. Here too, as -in all other lands where they have resided, their great financial -and diplomatic ability was utilized by the Turkish rulers. Selim I. -(A.D. 1512) trusted much to his Jewish physician, Joseph Hamon. His -son, Solyman II., called ‘the Magnificent’ (A.D. 1520), similarly -employed Moses Hamon, the son of Joseph, who, by his influence with -his royal master, on one occasion saved the whole of his people -from massacre.[179] Solomon Ashkenasi was selected as the Sultan’s -agent to conduct a negotiation with the Venetian Republic. Joseph -Nasi obtained such favour with Selim II. (A.D. 1566) that he was -made Duke of Naxos, and was even designated King of Cyprus, though -that intention was never carried out. After the disastrous battle of -Lepanto, another Jew, Solomon Rophé, was sent to arrange a treaty of -peace with the Venetians. - -The Spanish Jews, among their other effects, brought their -printing-presses into Turkey, where, by the favour of the Sultans, -they were set up. At Constantinople and at Saloniki they were soon in -active employment. The Old Testament Scriptures in Hebrew and Spanish -were printed and largely circulated, as well as many Jewish writings -which had hitherto remained in manuscript. At Saloniki a famous -college was established, at which there were said to be as many as -5000 students. There was also a valuable library, which unfortunately -was destroyed by fire in 1545. - -The Holy Land is another country to which, as we might naturally -expect, refugees from other lands resorted. It had always been -regarded as a befitting thing for Jews of an advanced age to make -a pilgrimage thither, and die among the hallowed scenes of their -cherished traditions. With every persecution in European countries -the number of these increased; and at the beginning of the sixteenth -century Palestine was filled with swarms of Israelites, who, as a -rule, were poor and destitute, and suffered greatly from the rapacity -of Turkish officials. The Jewish communities in other parts of the -world regarded it as their duty to support these needy brethren, and -in larger cities collections were regularly made in the synagogues -for this purpose. As no attempt apparently was made to provide them -with the means of supporting themselves,—and possibly none could have -been made with success,—the distress was always considerable, and -after the Spanish exodus rose to a still greater height. - -Another quarter to which large numbers of the expelled Jews migrated -was the northern coast of Africa. This was a region already familiar -to them. Egypt had, for a great length of time, been a favourite -place of abode with them, and this had more particularly been the -case since the time of Maimonides. Schools had been established in -Cairo, Damietta, and other Egyptian towns, to which great numbers of -students resorted. In the kingdom of Morocco, again, the banished -Jews settled in great numbers. This was, indeed, the nearest country -to Spain, Portugal excepted, and communications had for a long time -been kept up between the inhabitants of the two kingdoms. In Tripoli -also, Oran, Fez, Tunis, and Algiers, many Jewish families established -themselves. But they did not receive the same friendly welcome which -their brethren experienced in the East. They were allowed liberty of -conscience, no doubt, and the protection of the law; but that was all -the favour accorded them. The authorities laid heavy burdens on them, -and at times exacted large sums as subsidies, after a fashion which -greatly resembled the dealings of the English and French sovereigns -several centuries before. The lower orders looked on them with -fanatical prejudice, and they were obliged to wear black turbans, and -boots of a different colour from those of the natives of the country. -Yet their position, on the whole, was not unhappy. They were largely -employed in the iron-works among the mountains of Morocco, as well as -in building and agriculture. - -One feature in their history deserves especial mention. In 1578, when -the ill-fated expedition of Sebastian of Portugal took place, large -numbers of Portuguese nobles and gentlemen were made prisoners, and -sold as slaves in the market-places of the chief towns of Morocco. -Many of these were bought by Portuguese Jews, who must have been -sorely tempted to requite the injuries themselves and their fathers -had received on these captives, who were wholly at their mercy. But -they took a nobler revenge. They not only exacted no ransom of them, -but allowed them to return to their homes, requiring of them no other -condition than that of passing their word of honour that they would, -on arriving in Portugal, remit to their former masters the sums that -had been paid for their redemption from slavery. History has recorded -few nobler actions. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[177] _Some Observations of a London Merchant about the Bill for -the Naturalization of the Jews_, A.D. 1753. The writer had probably -conversed with persons who remembered the state of things in England -before the readmission of the Jews. As regards the assertion of the -Spanish historian, therefore, there is very reasonable likelihood of -the Jews having been allowed to live without molestation in England -during the reigns of the Tudors. Indeed, as Disraeli has remarked, -if there had been no Jews in England, Sir E. Coke would hardly have -insisted so forcibly on their not being admissible as witnesses. But -the statement respecting the building and public use of synagogues -must be taken with reservation. The expulsion from Spain occurred a -little before the close of the fifteenth century. Scarcely more than -fifty years afterwards we find Cromwell’s divines declaring that ‘for -the Jews to have synagogues, or any public meetings for worship, was -not only evil, but scandalous to Christian churches.’ Surely they -could not have said this, if synagogues had so recently existed in -London, and worship been celebrated in them! - -[178] This king seems to have had a dislike to excessive homage, -which was a rare feature in an Eastern prince. It is recorded of him -that on one occasion, after one of his great victories, his soldiers -saluted him with Oriental adulation, some declaring him to be a -prophet, others an angel, and others God Himself. Finding that he -could not dissuade them from their impiety, he ordered a deep pit to -be dug, and then, throwing one of his shoes into it, gave out that -the man who honoured him most was to fetch it out. Numbers instantly -threw themselves into the pit. He then gave orders to have the earth -thrown back again, burying the whole of his worshippers alive! -Doubtless none ever offered him adoration again. - -[179] A Turk, having reason to suspect one of his neighbours of an -attempt to seduce his wife, assassinated him, and to escape suspicion -threw the corpse into the Jewish quarter. It was found there, and -occasioned a popular insurrection, in which the Jews would have been -murdered to a man, if Moses Hamon had not prevailed on Solyman to -order an inquiry, by which the truth was elicited. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIII. - - A.D. 1600-1700. - - THE JEWS IN GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE. - - -At the commencement of the seventeenth century the Reformation -may be regarded as an accomplished fact. The great flood of -controversy which had broken up the Church had begun to subside, -and whatever countries had been gained by the new opinions, or had -been retained by the old ones, remained in both instances firm to -their allegiance. It might have been expected that the great changes -which had been worked would largely affect the condition of the -Jews, and ultimately, no doubt, they did so; but for the time the -effects were scarcely discernible. No doubt, in Protestant countries -the clergy could no longer put in force the terrible engines of -persecution which had hitherto been ready to their hand; and this -was in itself an immense relief. Again, in lands which still owned -the supremacy of Rome, much of the virulence of the priesthood -against the Jews was of necessity abated. They had graver and more -absorbing occupation for their thoughts. In the momentous struggle -which was in progress the Jews were more or less overlooked. But -the bitterness of feeling towards them was scarcely, if at all, -diminished. The leaders of the Reformed movement themselves regarded -the Jews with but little favour. They could not, indeed, but abhor -the barbarities which had been employed against them by the rulers -of the Church; but they had little idea, so far as themselves were -concerned, of showing consideration towards the obstinate and -rebellious race which persisted in rejecting Christ.[180] This, -however, was not universally the case. Frank du Jon (Franciscus -Junius), the well-known Dutch Reformer, urged on his countrymen, -in earnest and emphatic language, the duty owing by all Christian -nations to their brethren the Jews, who were to be won by the spirit -of love to the fold of Christ. So did Isaac Vossius, Professor at -Amsterdam, who addressed a letter to the Jews, strongly indicative -of this temper. The Arminians of Holland again, and their allies, -evinced a most brotherly kindness towards such Jews as had taken -refuge in their country. The celebrated Hugo Grotius was especially -remarkable for the respect he entertained for the Rabbins and their -opinions. Indeed, though some of the leading Reformers occasionally -expressed themselves in a manner which was inconsistent with the wise -principles they professed, yet the general effect of their teaching -grew and strengthened as generations went on, and resulted at last in -a widespread and enlightened toleration. - -It must also be remembered that the Jews themselves—for a long -time, at all events—showed no more inclination to embrace Gospel -truth, as set forth by the Reformers, than they had been in previous -generations to accept the tenets of the Romish Church. It was not, -indeed, to be expected that the deep mutual rancour which had been -the growth of so many generations—of savage cruelty on the one hand, -and sullen, inflexible hate on the other, could be removed by any -sudden change, even if its results had been far more beneficent. It -is far easier to provoke international animosities than to compose -them again. Let us remember how long, in this country, the bitter -dislike and contempt of the French nation, which Nelson and his -school did their best to encourage as the best safeguard of England -against successful invasion—let us remember, I say, how long it -lasted, after all possible danger of the dreaded results had passed -away. It cannot, indeed, be said to be dead even now, though three -generations have passed away since it was called forth. Remember also -that the mutual antipathy of the Englishman and the Frenchman could -not for a moment be compared, in respect of its bitterness, with that -which existed in those dark and miserable times between the Jew and -the Christian. Let us be thankful that a spirit of toleration and -mercy has been growing, however slowly, and still continues to grow, -and pray that our children may behold the ripe perfection of that -glorious harvest. - -Not much is recorded of the Jews in Germany and the other countries -of Central Europe during the earlier portion of the seventeenth -century. There was a disturbance at Frankfort in 1614, which proved -disastrous to them, though it does not seem to have arisen from -religious bitterness. It will be remembered that, as nearly as -possible one hundred years before, there had been a proposal to exile -all the Jews in the town. That originated in commercial animosity, -and nothing but the mutual jealousies of the deputies present at -the meeting had prevented its being carried out. On the present -occasion a revolt of the trade guilds against the town authorities -had been successful, and the first act of the guilds was to expel -the Hebrew traders, of whose prosperity they were jealous. But two -years afterwards the sedition was suppressed, and the leader of the -_émeute_ put to death, whereupon the Jews were permitted to return. -A similar expulsion took place in Worms, when the fugitives found a -protector in the Elector Frederick. - -In the year 1619 began the terrible ‘Thirty Years’ War,’ from which -all classes of men suffered heavily, and the Jews as much as any. -During the celebrated siege of Prague they rendered great service -to the Emperor. Rabbi Leo has written a history of the incidents -of that eventful period; in which he praises highly the conduct of -his countrymen, their zeal and courage throughout the siege, and -especially their piety, in assembling in their synagogues to implore -Heaven to grant their countrymen victory, and reciting a litany -composed expressly for the occasion by one of their Rabbins. He is -persuaded, indeed, that the preservation of the city was entirely -owing to their intercession. - -If such was the case, it is to be feared that the Emperors Ferdinand -II. and III. did not evince the gratitude which would be due from -them. We learn that in 1630 the first-named took from them their -privilege of farming the revenues of the Hungarian kingdom. His -reason for doing so does not flatter them. He says it was because -‘they had neither conscience nor honesty, and were therefore unworthy -to enjoy it.’ They must, however, have regained it, since we find -that they were again deprived of it, in 1647, by his successors. - -In 1650 a great meeting of Jews, at which three hundred Rabbins were -present, is said to have been held on the plain of Ageda, thirty -miles from Buda, to determine a question which, it appeared, was -agitating the minds of many—whether the Messiah had not already come. -The sole authority for the occurrence appears to be one Samuel Brett, -who published an account of it in London, A.D. 1655, five years after -the supposed assembly. Most historians reject the story as a mere -invention, designed partly to facilitate the conversion of the Jews, -partly to throw obloquy on the Church of Rome. Among those who refuse -it credit, is the celebrated Menasseh ben Israel, whose authority -carries great weight. Further, in the narrative itself, the imputing -by the Pharisees of the miracles of our Lord to the agency of magic, -reads like a plagiarism from Matt. xii. 24; as also their objections -to His mean origin, to a similar extract from Mark vi. 3.[181] - -On the other hand, some authorities accept Brett’s statement as -genuine; and there are circumstances in it not easy to reconcile -with the notion of imposture. Thus, the author gives his name and -the particulars of his own life and career, which it would have been -easy to disprove, if they were fictitious; and, as the publication -of the story must have provoked a good deal of angry feeling, it is -at least strange that this was not done. But when Nathaniel Holmes -republished the history, as he did eleven years afterwards, he added -no hint that its authenticity had been so much as suspected. Nor -again, still later, did the compiler of the _Harleian Miscellany_, -who also reproduced it. Further, Brett states that the Jews, when -they broke up their meeting, resolved to hold another in three -years from that time—two years, that is, after the date of Brett’s -publication. An impostor, one would think, would not have inserted -this perfectly needless addition to his narrative, which could only -lead to his detection. The idea which the entire story gives is -rather exaggeration than imposture. Such a meeting as he describes -might really have taken place; but the numbers, the character of -the speakers, and the interest felt by the Jews generally in the -proceedings, have been greatly overstated. It will be better to give -Brett’s story with this caution appended to it. - -He states that the first meeting took place at the time and for the -purpose already stated, the King of Hungary having first granted -permission. A vast number of learned Jews from all nations repaired -to the spot, and encamped in tents round a central pavilion, where -the council sat. - -The first day was employed in examining the credentials of the -various Rabbins. On the second, Rabbi Zechariah, who had been -chosen president, proposed the main question, ‘Whether the Messiah -had already come, or were they still to await His advent?’ Some, -we are told, argued that He must have come. They had now suffered, -they said, for 1600 years the heaviest woes, nor did there seem any -prospect of these coming to an end. But why should God thus delay the -coming of the Deliverer? Neither they, nor their fathers for many -generations, had been guilty of idolatry, which alone would be an -adequate cause for withholding Him. But the sense of the assembly was -against this view. It was affirmed that He had not come, and that the -sins of the people had delayed His advent. - -Next it was debated in what manner He would come; and here there was -no lack of unanimity. It was agreed that He would appear, according -to the old belief, as a conqueror, who would restore the kingdom to -Israel; that He would uphold the Mosaic law in all its integrity, and -that He would be born of a virgin. Some of those present then raised -the question whether Jesus the crucified might not be the Messiah. -But the Pharisees objected that Jesus had been a person of low birth -and condition, whereas the Messiah would appear surrounded by all -the accessories of earthly grandeur. A Rabbi named Abraham rejoined -that it was difficult to account for the miracles wrought by Jesus, -unless He was the Messiah. But Zebedee, a chief Pharisee, rejoined -that these miracles had been effected by magic. In this the Sadducees -present concurred, though they had hitherto opposed nearly all that -the Pharisees advanced. - -The congress had lasted for six days, when some priests made their -appearance, who, at the request of the King of Hungary, had been -despatched from Rome. These at first only attempted to prove that -Jesus was the Messiah, and, while discoursing on this topic, seem -to have been heard with patience. But when, digressing from this, -they began to insist on the authority of the Church, and demand the -submission of the Jews to the Pope, the whole assembly broke out -into a tumultuous cry of ‘No Christ!’ ‘No God-man!’ ‘No intercession -of saints!’ ‘No worship of images!’ ‘No prayers to the Virgin!’ The -meeting broke up in disorder, coming to no conclusion. But it was -alleged that many Jews were shaken in their belief. - -In another part of Europe—the part, indeed, in which the Jews had -hitherto enjoyed the most entire immunity from suffering—great -troubles befell them about this time, in consequence of the rebellion -of the Cossacks against the rule of the Poles. In the spring of -1648 massacres of Jews took place in the countries which lie to -the east of the Dnieper, in which thousands perished. Still larger -numbers were carried off as prisoners, and sold in Turkey. During -the interregnum following on the death of King Ladislaus, hordes of -barbarians overran the Ukraine, committing great havoc, from which -all the inhabitants suffered, but none, we are told, so much as the -Jews. - -In 1670 the Jews were banished from the Austrian dominions by the -Emperor Leopold, a weak and narrow-minded prince, who was easily -persuaded to adopt measures which he was as speedily obliged to -modify or reverse. He had granted, only a short time before, Rabbi -Zachariah permission to build a magnificent synagogue and schools for -the revival of learning. But the synagogue had hardly been finished -when it was turned into a Christian church by the Emperor, and the -whole of the Jews exiled from his dominions. The reason of this is -said to have been that the Empress attributed her barrenness to -the displeasure of Heaven at the toleration shown to the Jews. But -her death in her confinement, shortly afterwards, doubtless had a -counter-effect on the mind of the Emperor; and we are not surprised -to hear that the Jews were recalled, and re-established in their -possessions.[182] It was upon this occasion that the Jews expelled -from Vienna found a refuge in Berlin, where a thriving community grew -up. - -In this century many learned Jews and Christian Hebrew scholars -appeared, whose names are well known, even at the present day. Among -these the most distinguished were Rabbi Menasseh, of whom we shall -have occasion to speak presently, and the Christian writers Pocock, -Surenhusius, and Vitringa. But the most renowned Christian Hebraists -of this century were the two Buxtorfs. The elder, Johann, born at -Westphalia in 1564, and dying in Basle in 1629, is the author of the -famous Hebrew dictionary and grammar continually quoted by Hebrew -scholars. His son, also called Johann, born 1599, and dying in 1664, -finished the concordance which his father had commenced. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[180] It has already been observed that Martin Luther, though -sometimes he speaks of the Jews rather with considerate compassion -than anger, at other times, and especially later in his career, uses -the very bitterest language respecting them, as, for instance, in his -tract (published in 1543) on _The Jews and their Lies_, the title of -which, it may be remarked, is quite in accordance with its contents. -And again, in his exposition of Psalm xxii., written many years -earlier, he thus writes: ‘Doubt not, beloved in Christ, that after -the devil, you have no more bitter, venomous, violent enemy than the -Jew.’ He also enjoins the sternest and most violent measures to be -used against them. The great founder of Calvinism, again, though he -is less fiery and vehement in his denunciation of them, cannot be -said to regard them with any greater favour. He sees in them nothing -but the virulent, determined enemies of Christ, whom it would be -weakness, if not sin, to treat with any favour. - -[181] It may be added that the very existence of the Sadducees, as a -sect, at this period of history, is an anachronism. - -[182] A different explanation has been given of Leopold’s strange -changes in his treatment of the Jews. He is said to have shown them -favour at first, on account of his attachment to a beautiful Jewess. -But she was assassinated; and Leopold, at first believing the deed -to have been done by the Jews, banished them. Afterwards, being -convinced of his mistake, he allowed them to return. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIV. - - A.D. 1600-1700. - - THE JEWS IN HOLLAND.—DA COSTA, SPINOZA. - - -The reader has already learned that, towards the close of the -last century, many of the Portuguese exiles found a refuge from -persecution in Holland. In truth, of all the countries of Europe, at -this period of their history, none showed them such kindness as the -republic of the Low Countries. If the Reformation had done the race -of Israel no other service than that of opening to them this place -of shelter, they would still have been largely indebted to it. No -dream of the imagination could exceed the wretchedness of the Jews -in Spain and Portugal at the outset of the seventeenth century. They -had to choose between ruin, torture, and death on the one hand,—not -for themselves only, but for their wives and children also,—or the -surrender of their cherished faith, which was, in their eyes, the -surrender of all hope, here and hereafter. Their only escape from -these stern alternatives lay in a life-long duplicity and imposture, -which must needs degrade them in their own eyes to the very dust. Of -the three terrible issues thus offered them, we have seen that many -of them did choose this last; but our contempt is disarmed, and only -our pity is awakened, as we peruse their melancholy history. The -toleration, however, that prevailed in Holland afforded a means of -escape alike from the humiliation and the danger in which they were -living. As the century advanced, increasing numbers of New Christians -made their escape to the Low Countries, where they renounced the -false profession they had made, and returned openly to their ancient -worship. It has been already mentioned that in 1598 the first Jewish -synagogue was built in Amsterdam. Ten or twelve years afterwards the -numbers had so increased that a second became necessary, and in 1618 -a third. - -But it was not only the exiles from Spain and Portugal who crowded -into Holland as a harbour of refuge. From many parts of Germany -and the contiguous countries, whenever the flame of persecution -broke out, as it was ever apt to do on the slightest provocation, -the Jews, who had heard of the justice and favour shown to their -countrymen by the Dutch, came to partake of it themselves. From -Poland and Lithuania, again, thousands of Jews emigrated, driven -from their homes by the ravages committed by the Cossacks, who, -under Chelmnicki, had risen against their Polish masters. A large -proportion of these settled in the United Provinces. One company, -which consisted of three thousand, landed at Texel, and there were -many others almost as numerous. After some inquiry they were received -at Amsterdam, and permission given them to build a synagogue. - -Thus the Jews of Holland were divided into two societies which -might be called the Spanish and the German synagogues.[183] Their -religious tenets were doubtless in complete harmony. But they had -different usages and historical traditions, and they are said to have -entertained mutual jealousies and enmities. Possibly the imposture of -Rabbi Zeigler, one of the numberless adventurers who have claimed to -be the Messiah, or His forerunner, may have done something to create -this severance. Zeigler professed to have seen the promised deliverer -at Strasburg, and assured his countrymen that, as soon as they had -declared their readiness to accept him, he would appear, destroy the -kingdom of Christ (as he called the supremacy of the Gentiles), and -extend his own from one end of the world to the other. The Messiah -was also to hold a council at Constance, which would last for twelve -years, and all religious difficulties would be composed at it. As the -Messiah did not appear, Zeigler’s followers were so far undeceived; -but the mischief which his imposture had occasioned lasted long -afterwards. - -This epoch is remarkable for a demonstration of intolerant -bigotry—not, as heretofore, evinced by the Christians against the -Jews, but by the Jews against some of their own brethren. One would -certainly have thought that they had had such convincing proof of -the folly, to use no harsher term, of endeavouring to compel men -by the infliction of disgrace and suffering to adopt or renounce a -religious belief, that they would have abstained from such a course -themselves. Yet their dealings with the two celebrities of this age, -Uriel da Costa and Baruch Spinoza, exhibit an amount of harshness and -injustice which their own persecutors could hardly have exceeded. - -Both these men were of Portuguese extraction, and belonged to -families which went by the name of New Christians. Both were -remarkable for great mental activity and an unusually speculative -turn of mind. This natural tendency was doubtless fostered by their -own early experience—the truth or falsehood of every dogma of their -belief having been, as it were, forced upon them as a matter of -logical inquiry. It required little knowledge of human nature to -understand that the opinions entertained by men like these could be -influenced only by calm reasoning and reflection. Yet a course was -pursued towards them which could only have been successful in the -instance of the weakest or the most timid of men. - -Uriel da Costa had belonged to a family of Maranaos, or New -Christians, in Spain, where he had not only professed Christianity, -but had been ordained a priest. Like so many of his countrymen, he -had fled from Spain, and at Amsterdam threw off his pretended belief. -But his early experiences had taught him distrust; and he was not -disposed to acquiesce implicitly in the Rabbinical interpretation of -the Scriptures. After a protracted controversy he composed a work, -which he entitled _An Examination of Pharisaical Tradition_. The book -does not appear to have been published, or even printed, but was -circulated in manuscript among the members of the Jewish community. -An eminent Rabbi, Samuel da Silva, took up the controversy, and -published a reply to Da Costa’s work, which he called _A Treatise -on the Immortality of the Soul_. To this Uriel replied by a review -of his own essay, enlarged by a refutation of Da Silva’s argument. -This gave great offence, and severe measures were taken. He was -thrown into prison, on the charge of having denied the immortality -of the soul. He was with difficulty released, on condition of paying -a heavy fine, and suppressing the obnoxious writings. The effect of -this harshness was, not to silence, but rather to provoke him to -more determined antagonism. He was soon publicly excommunicated, -and became, both in opinion and practice, a pronounced Deist. But, -after fifteen years of suffering, wearied out by a controversy in -which he found himself forsaken by all his friends, he twice sought -a reconciliation with his synagogue. Now was the time when he might -have been won from his errors. Tenderness and mercy would probably -have had their effect on a nature which had much that was noble and -generous intermingled with its pride and virulence. But unhappily a -different course was pursued. On the second occasion he only obtained -readmission to communion by consenting to undergo a public scourging -in the synagogue,[184] the shame and degradation of which so -affected him that a few days afterwards he destroyed himself. - -Da Costa’s history has doubtless its moral lesson and its melancholy -interest. But in neither particular can it compare with that of -Spinoza. In a work like this, neither a lengthened biography of this -man nor an analysis of his philosophy can be inserted. Nevertheless, -considering the vast influence which his peculiar opinions have had -on modern thought,[185] he cannot be dismissed without some notice. - -He was born at Amsterdam in 1632. His father had emigrated from -Lisbon some years previously, driven thence by religious persecution. -Young Spinoza was instructed in Hebrew literature by Mosteira, Chief -Rabbi of his synagogue, and in Latin by Van Ende, a physician, for -whom he conceived a warm affection. He soon grew dissatisfied with -his teachers; and, his revolt from Rabbinical authority attracting -notice, remonstrances and threats followed. These failing of effect, -he was publicly excommunicated,[186] and his life attempted. -Thereupon he retired to Rhynsburg, where he supported himself by -grinding optical glasses. Afterwards he removed to Voorburg, and -again to the Hague. At all these places he led a quiet, studious, -very pure and beautiful life, keeping up a correspondence with some -of the greatest philosophers of the day, and more than once refusing -offers of advancement. No man was more highminded or unselfish. His -favourite pupil, De Vries, who knew that his own hours were numbered, -proposed to make Spinoza his heir. But De Vries had a brother living, -and Spinoza insisted that the money should be left to him. At his -father’s death his sisters claimed the whole property, on the ground -of Spinoza’s excommunication. Spinoza vindicated his right in a court -of law, but voluntarily gave up the property in dispute. He died, as -calmly as he had lived, of consumption, A.D. 1677, in the forty-fifth -year of his age. - -No man has ever been more fiercely assailed or more enthusiastically -defended. He has been denounced as an Atheist, a Pantheist, a -blasphemer, and a fatalist. He has been upheld as a man eminently -holy, a devout lover of God and of Christ.[187] Strange as it may -seem, all these statements may be said to be true, though of course -in different senses of the terms employed. For his Atheism—he seems -to have been repelled, from the first, by the anthropomorphism of -the Scriptures. It was not merely that God was there represented as -possessed of an eye, a hand, etc., but as performing human actions, -and influenced by human feelings. This was, in his view, absolute -falsehood,[188] and the result was that he entirely rejected the -God of revelation, and with Him, of course, the whole scheme of -salvation as propounded in the Bible. Thus, then, he may be styled an -Atheist. But, on the other hand, he constructed a system in which he -affirmed that there exists but one substance, though with infinite -attributes, and that this substance is God, who is either absolutely -or in some modified form everything. The man who holds this cannot, -it may be said, be an Atheist.[189] He is, again, no Pantheist, for -he distinguishes between God and the universe;[190] yet the Christian -Pantheists, as they may be called, claim him as their own, if not -their founder. For the other charges, he no doubt affirms that, as -nothing can be done, either directly or indirectly, except by God, -all human acts, however wicked, may be said to be done by Him. This, -according to our ideas, is both blasphemy and fatalism. Yet Spinoza -attributes the _act_ only, not its moral wickedness, to God. When -pressed to say whether the atrocious murder of Agrippina by Nero was -due to God, he answered that it must be so due, so far as the act was -concerned. But no act is good or evil in itself, and it was Nero’s -evil mind, not God’s, that made the crime.[191] So with his fatalism. -When he denies that man can act otherwise than as God wills, he -appears to enunciate the plainest fatalism;[192] nor do I see how -any other conclusion can logically be drawn from his premisses. But -then Spinoza also teaches the beauty, the happiness, the necessity -of holiness, of moral culture and self-discipline—things not merely -inconsistent, but irreconcilable, with fatalism. He holds language -which an apostle might endorse. ‘Justice and charity,’ he writes, -‘are the one infallible sign of the catholic faith, the genuine -fruits of the Holy Spirit. Where they are found, there is Christ. -Where they are wanting, Christ is not. For by the Spirit of Christ -are we led to justice and charity.’ We are _led_—so, too, the -Scriptures teach—_led_, if we will follow; not blindly driven, as the -fatalist must believe. - -On the whole, a wise man will hardly speak otherwise than with -respect and tenderness of Spinoza. No doubt, notwithstanding the -depth and acuteness of his intellect, in which respects he has never -probably been exceeded by any of human kind, his system is full -of inconsistencies, and has little practical value. How could it -be otherwise, when he has attempted that which Revelation itself -has with difficulty effected? But he was honest, patient, humble, -beneficent, as few men have been; and his desire to attain to truth -was earnest and unselfish. As in the case of pious heathens, like -Aurelius, we cannot be sure that Christianity was ever put before him -in its true aspect. The frivolities of the Talmud, the traditions of -the Inquisition, the Church of Roderic Borgia and his successors—were -none of them likely to lead him to Christ, as revealed in His blessed -Word. Let our sentence on him be, what every good man says of those -whom he respects, and yet from whom he is constrained to differ: ‘Cum -talis sis, utinam noster esses.’[193] - -Besides the eminent writers of this century already mentioned, Da -Costa, Spinoza, Orobio da Castro, Thomas—or, as he is called by his -countrymen, Isaac—de Pinedo, one of the most eminent Greek scholars -of the day, deserves mention not only for his classical learning, but -for the unusually mild and charitable tone he uniformly employs when -speaking of the religion of Christ. To this date also belong David -Lara, the lexicographer; Benjamin Musafia, the naturalist; and Isaac -Uziel, Emanuel Gomez, and Enrique Enriquez, the poets. - -In the earlier part of the century considerable numbers of Jews -sailed for the Brazils from the various ports of Holland, under the -leadership of two Rabbins, to found a Jewish colony. It throve and -attained a considerable amount of prosperity until, in 1654, the -Portuguese obtained possession of Brazil. Under these new masters, -free exercise of their religion was not allowed the Jews. They -therefore quitted the country, some returning to Holland, others -settling in Cayenne or Surinam. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[183] The Sephardim and the Ashkenazim, as indeed is the case in -other countries also. - -[184] It is added that he was afterwards compelled to lie on the -ground, while the whole of the congregation walked over him. - -[185] All the great modern thinkers speak with reverence of Spinoza, -with the single exception, perhaps, of Leibnitz. Lessing was one -of the first to recognise his profound ability. S. T. Coleridge -and Goethe express the greatest admiration for him, the latter -affirming that he was one of his three great teachers. Later, Herder, -Schleiermacher, Hegel, and others have spoken to the same effect. -But though his opinions have exercised a wide and most important -influence on the minds of others, he has established no school of -adherents to his own peculiar philosophy. It may be doubted whether -he ever made one genuine convert. - -[186] The sentence of excommunication against him ran thus: ‘Cursed -be he by day, and cursed be he by night; cursed in going out, and -cursed in coming in. And we warn you, that none may speak with him -by word of mouth, nor by writing, nor show any favour to him, nor -be under one roof with him, nor come within four cubits of him, nor -read anything written or composed by him.’ And this sentence was -pronounced by men who had themselves experienced the enormities of -religious persecution! - -[187] Some have declared him to have been actually a Christian. But -though certain passages in his writings may seem to favour that idea, -his unhesitating rejection of the doctrine of the Incarnation renders -it impossible. - -[188] It should be here observed that the Scriptures do not teach -anthropomorphism of any kind as actually true, but as the only mode -by which man, in the bounded and darkened condition of his intellect, -during his present state of being, can apprehend God at all. The -Scriptures contain the most distinct denials of anthropomorphism, -considered otherwise than as metaphor. Thus, Exod. xxxiii. 20: ‘Thou -canst not see My face, for there shall no man see Me, and live,’ -_i.e._, ‘He must be wholly _out of the body_, in order to apprehend -Me’—apprehend Me, that is, with the eye of the spirit, not of the -body. See the use of the two words expressing bodily and spiritual -vision (John i. 18; John xvi. 16; Rev. iv. 2, etc.). Again, ‘God is -not a man, that He should lie,’ or ‘that He should repent’ (Num. -xxiii. 19). In the anthropomorphic images of Scripture, ‘God is seen -only through a glass, _darkly_,’ as St. Paul says. - -[189] We have in more than one of his writings a distinct denial of -his Atheism. ‘His critics,’ he says, ‘do not know him, or they would -not so easily have persuaded themselves that he taught Atheism.’ See -also his Treatise, _De Deo et Homine_. - -[190] ‘Those,’ he says also in the same epistle, ‘who would identify -matter with God _totâ errant viâ_.’ - -[191] It is again proper to remark that this theory is wholly -untenable. The operations of the human will are as much acts, as the -operations of the human hand. Nero, if Spinoza’s view were correct, -could be no more free mentally to conceive wickedness, contrary to -God’s will, than he was free manually to perpetrate it. - -[192] There are, indeed, passages in his works where he denies, or -seems to deny, the free will of God Himself. - -[193] ‘In Spinoza,’ says an eminent historian of the Jews, ‘were -to be found the seeds of a Pascal, if he could only have received -Christianity, of which, indeed, he always spoke with respect.’ But he -had no faith in it, and is only one more illustration of St. Paul’s -saying: ‘Without faith it is impossible to please God.’ - - - - - CHAPTER XXXV. - - A.D. 1600-1700. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN, ENGLAND, AND ITALY. - - -Few words will suffice to relate what befell the Spanish and -Portuguese Jews during this century. Beyond the fact, already -recorded, of their oft-recurring migration from both countries to -the friendly shelter offered by Holland, there is little to tell. -Those who lingered behind, unable or unwilling to quit the land of -their birth, continued to practise the old deception, and, when -discovered or suspected, to undergo the same merciless severities as -their fathers had endured. There is no need to repeat the hideous -and monotonous tale of their sufferings. The awe and terror with -which the Inquisition was regarded were ever on the increase; until -notoriously not the common people, not the grandees and nobles -only, but the sovereigns themselves, became little better than its -instruments. Early in the century Philip III. is related to have been -present at the burning of a Jewish girl, and to have been unable to -repress some token of natural horror at the sight. This was noticed -by the Grand Inquisitor, who, not satisfied with reproving the -monarch for his weakness, ordered some of the coward blood to be -drawn from his veins, and burned by the public executioner! Later -in the century, in 1680, M. Villars, Louis XIV.’s ambassador at the -Court of Spain, describes an Auto da Fé which he witnessed at Madrid, -where twenty Jews were publicly burned, with attendant circumstances -of revolting barbarity. He relates how the king, Charles II., was -present, but occupied a lower seat than that assigned to the Grand -Inquisitor. - -If we are curious to know what were the sufferings inflicted at the -examinations held in the dungeons of the Inquisition, we may learn -them from the narrative of Orobio, an eminent Portuguese philosopher -and physician. He was suspected of Judaism, and thrown into prison. -After some preliminary inquiries, having refused to confess, he was -carried, he tells us, into a subterranean vault, dimly lighted, where -two officials were seated—the judge and secretary of the Holy Office. -He was stripped, strong cords were tied to his hands and feet, the -other ends being passed through iron rings in the walls. These were -then drawn tight, so that he remained suspended by the cords, which -the executioner kept drawing tighter and tighter, until the surgeon -certified that further pressure would destroy life. The cords cut -into the flesh and made the blood burst from under the nails. He -was then told that this was only the beginning of his sufferings, -which would be increased in intensity until he confessed. This scene -was frequently repeated during three years, at the end of which -time, perceiving that his resolution was invincible, they healed -his wounds, and permitted him to depart. He fled to Toulouse, and -afterwards to Amsterdam, where he threw off his mask, and professed -himself a Jew. - -Manasseh Ben Israel was another celebrated Portuguese Jew, who was -mainly instrumental in the restoration of the Jews to England, -from which they had been banished for more than three hundred -and fifty years. His father had escaped from the dungeons of the -Inquisition at Lisbon, and settled with his family at Amsterdam. -He was distinguished as a poet, a philosopher, a physician, and a -theologian. His high reputation doubtless was the reason why he was -chosen by the Jews at Amsterdam to proceed to England and endeavour -to obtain from Oliver Cromwell,—who at that time (A.D. 1656) swayed -the destinies of England,—permission for the Jews to return thither. -Manasseh presented an address, skilfully drawn, in which he argued -that, as regarded both the spiritual and temporal interests of -England, it would be to their advantage to grant readmission to -the Jews. He asserted that the restoration of Israel was close -at hand, and that they who showed kindness to the people of God -would be surely rewarded for it in that day. In a secular point of -view also, those nations had always been found to flourish most in -their undertakings who had sheltered the Jews. He also exploded -the calumnies, so often raised against his nation, of crucifying -children, and using Christian blood for ritual purposes.[194] - -Cromwell received him favourably; but, aware probably of the -difficulties with which the question was beset, referred the matter -to an assembly of twenty-three persons, whom he appointed to consider -the question. Of these, seven were merchants, two lawyers, and the -remaining fourteen divines. He himself presided, and opened the -debate with an address which those who heard it declared to be one -of the ablest and most eloquent he had ever delivered. They had -first to consider, he said, whether the admission of the Jews would -be legal, and secondly, whether it would be expedient. The lawyers -present having at once decided that there would be no illegality, he -proceeded to the other question. But here there was much difference -of opinion. The citizens were divided as to the alleged commercial -advantages, while the theologians disputed so long and so hotly as to -the religious aspect of the question, that Cromwell grew weary, and -adjourned the consideration of the matter, so far as the council was -concerned, _sine die_. Meanwhile he connived at their resettlement, -granting them a kind of special protection. Nearly at the same time a -piece of land was granted them as a burial-ground, on a nominal lease -of 999 years. Whether this action on the part of the Protector gave -offence, or whether it was the effect of mere gossip, the wildest -and most ridiculous rumours were circulated on the subject. It was -said that the Jews had sent a deputation to England to ascertain -whether Cromwell was not himself the Messiah, and that they went -to Huntingdon to search out his pedigree; also, that they had made -an offer of £500,000, to purchase St. Paul’s Cathedral for their -synagogue, Henry Martin and Hugh Peters being the persons who were -to conduct this negotiation. It may be mentioned, in connection with -these strange rumours, that Harrington, in his _Oceana_ (A.D. 1656), -gravely proposes to relieve the Government of the difficulties which -the management of Ireland caused them by selling that island to the -Jews. - -It does not appear that any public measures were taken respecting -the Jews during the remainder of Cromwell’s government. We have -seen that, though their residence in England was a breach of a law -still in force, it was not likely that it would be very rigidly -insisted on, unless where persons were obnoxious on other grounds; -and Cromwell’s friendly feeling towards them would of course render -their position more secure. It is likely that they came back singly -or in small numbers, and were allowed to establish themselves without -molestation during the next few years. Then, in the sixth year after -the Restoration, some agitation having been raised respecting their -presence in England, formal permission was given them by Charles II. -to reside in Great Britain, together with liberty of commerce and -worship. It is not unlikely that this concession was made to gratify -Antonio Mendez, physician to the King of Spain, and his brother -Andrea, chamberlain to the Infanta Catherine of Portugal, Charles’s -queen. It is certain that the brothers about this time came to -England, where they settled, resuming their real name of De Costa. -Some years afterwards, during the reign of James II., the Jews -obtained a remission of the alien duty, which had been imposed on -their traffic. This was, however, again exacted in the ensuing reign. - -At the accession of William III., when money was wanted for the -prosecution of the war in Ireland, it was proposed to require a -subsidy of one hundred thousand pounds from the Jews, taking a leaf -out of the book of the old Norman kings. But the times were changed. -The Jews protested, with an eye, doubtless, to similar exactions -to follow, that they would rather leave the country than comply; -and they could not now be shut up in prison, and put on the rack, -and suffer the daily extraction of their teeth until they paid it. -The statesmen of the day perceived that it was simple pillage, and -withdrew the proposal. - -The days of barbarous and cruel violence had indeed passed away, -and happily for ever. It is perhaps a fortunate circumstance,—grave -as were the injuries resulting to both parties from it,—that the -Jews were absent from England for so long a period. The tradition -of persecution had, in consequence, long been broken off. In Spain, -in Portugal, in Germany, even in Holland and Italy, people still -living had themselves witnessed,—or had heard from their fathers,—the -imprisonments, the expulsions, and the massacres of the Jews on the -occasion of some religious excitement. But the fires of persecution -had been cold for centuries in England, and no one was inclined to -rekindle them now, even had it been possible to do so.[195] - -In Italy, throughout the seventeenth century, the condition of the -Jews seems to have been fairly prosperous. Little is related of them, -and that is the best evidence that they were exempt from injustice -and persecution. Of the ten occupants of the papal chair during this -century, the only one who seems to have interfered much in their -affairs was Innocent XI., and his dealings with them, as we shall -presently see, were lenient and friendly. It is said that at the -outset of the century there were more than a hundred synagogues of -the Jews in the Italian cities. In those situated on the sea-coast -the commerce was, to a great extent, in the hands of the Hebrews, and -their wealth was continually on the increase. Jews also continued to -be employed in diplomatic missions by the Italian governments—by the -Republic of Venice, the Dukes of Ferrara, and even by the Emperor. -The same, indeed, was the case all over Europe. The kings of Denmark, -Sweden, and Prussia,—nay, even of Spain and Portugal, notwithstanding -their implacable persecution of the Jewish nation,—were in the habit -of employing Jews as their emissaries. Sir William Temple, who was -English ambassador at the Hague in 1668, expresses his astonishment -at this fact. The Baron de Belmont was the Spanish minister in -Holland during the whole of the latter half of the seventeenth -century, and Nunez da Costa held a similar office under the crown of -Portugal, though both these were notoriously Jews. - -In literary eminence the Italian Jews of this century are said to -be inferior both to the generations which preceded and those which -followed them. This is attributed to the severe censorship of the -press, which is always unfavourable to literature. The famous Leo -of Modena, head of the synagogue of Venice, and author of many -works, both in Italian and Hebrew, on antiquities and theology, is -an instance of this. He was on the point, we are told, of making a -translation of the Hebrew Scriptures into Italian, which would have -been beyond doubt a valuable work, but the Inquisition commanded him -to desist. - -But if their writings were handled with severity, the same cannot be -said of their persons. It is mentioned, indeed, that in Rome, during -the pontificate of Innocent XI., they were in such favour with the -people that their synagogues were frequented by the latter, and in -such numbers that the Pope was obliged to threaten his subjects with -excommunication, and a fine of twenty crowns every time they resorted -to a place of Jewish worship. - -The same pontiff was very earnest for their conversion. He built -seminaries where Jews might receive instruction in the Christian -faith, and houses where such as had become converts might be -maintained. He caused sermons to be preached, in which it was proved -from the Hebrew Scriptures that Jesus Christ was the Messiah whom -they expected. In order to encourage still further proselytes to -the Christian faith, some person of high rank, a nobleman or a -cardinal, stood godfather to them on the occasion of their baptism. -A handsome present in money also was made them: they were dressed -in white satin, and carried about Rome in fine coaches for a -fortnight afterwards, receiving everywhere the congratulations of the -spectators. At the same time it was very plainly intimated to them, -that if they relapsed into Judaism they would straightway be burnt -alive.[196] - -It is certainly strange that under such circumstances conversions -were not effected. Innocent evinced not only the controversial zeal -which many before and after him have shown, but also an amount of -real charity and goodwill which must, one would have thought, have -had a very potent influence with the Jews of that day. When the -Venetians, in 1685, after their successful war in the Morea, brought -back a large number both of Christian and Jewish captives, they -gave the former their freedom, but retained the latter in servitude. -Innocent, however, interfered, and insisted on their liberating -the Jews also. But we learn that, notwithstanding all his generous -exertions on their behalf, he failed in making any considerable -number of real converts. Cardinal Barberini who had spent large sums -and used great exertions in endeavouring to accomplish this work, -was compelled to own that the conversions had been for the most part -insincere. It is not, indeed, by such means as those employed that -converts can be made. - -As regards the distinguished literary men of this period, it has -already been remarked that there were fewer of these than in previous -and subsequent generations; and, in the majority of European nations, -such as there were do not contrast favourably with either their -predecessors or successors. There were, however, writers of genius -and learning; among them Solomon Norzi, of Mantua, is the author of -a celebrated Massoretic work which, though it was not published till -a century after his death, has attained a great reputation. The two -Aboabs, both residents in Venice, were celebrated for their writings: -the former, Emmanuel by name, being the author of an able work on -tradition; the latter chiefly remarkable for his exposure of the -impious impostures of the pretended prophet, Sabbathai Sevi. Judah -da Modena produced many greatly admired works, and, in particular, a -Hebrew lexicon, and a _System of Artificial Memory_. Solomon Medigo, -physician to Prince Radziwill at Wilna, and Moses Luzzato, of Venice, -should also be mentioned. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[194] Manass. _Vindiciæ Judaicæ_. See Appendix V. - -[195] Manasseh did not live to see the success of his efforts on -behalf of his countrymen. He died on his journey back to Holland, in -1657. - -[196] Throughout this and the succeeding century, and, indeed, for -fully half of the present century, however much the stern rigour of -previous ages of persecution may have been relaxed, the condition of -the Jews was miserable in the extreme. They were strictly confined -to their Ghetto, the gates of which were closed regularly every -evening at eight o’clock, and such Jews as had not returned by that -time were obliged to remain outside all night. In front of a small -church standing near the entrance of the Ghetto was fixed a large -wooden crucifix, highly coloured and gilded, with the inscription, -‘All day long have I stretched forth Mine hands to a disobedient and -gainsaying people.’ Into this church the Jews at one time were driven -with scourges, by order of the popes, to listen to sermons preached -against their obstinacy and rebellion. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVI. - - A.D. 1600-1700. - - THE JEWS IN THE EAST.—SABBATHAI SEVI. - - -The condition of the Jews in the East during this century does not -call for much remark; indeed, little has been recorded respecting -it. The treatment they received at the hands of the Mussulmans, both -princes and people, was curiously different from that which they -experienced from the Christian populations of Europe. The first named -did not regard the Jews with any particular favour or respect,—in -fact, the disdain they evinced for them was even greater than that -entertained by their Christian contemporaries,—but there was no -_active_ enmity. They looked on with scornful indifference while the -Israelites plied their busy trade, aware though they might be that -the wealth they accumulated was in a great measure drawn from their -own coffers. They would spit in contempt as they passed a Jewish -synagogue, but they would not raise a finger to cause its demolition -or prevent any number of worshippers from crowding into it. All over -Turkey, Arabia, and Persia, some Jews were to be found in every town, -where they were allowed to live and thrive, unless they broke some -law or offended some faithful Islamite. But if they did either of -these things, they were apt to experience scant ceremony and sharp -punishment. - -The reader has heard, in a previous chapter, of the massacre -perpetrated by Shah Abbas II., which appears to have occurred about -A.D. 1666. It is said to have lasted three years, and to have almost -exterminated the Jews in his dominions. It is, however, involved -in great obscurity, the dates given by different writers varying -considerably. But in this year, 1666, not the Jews of the East only, -but all over the world, were greatly excited by the appearance of the -most persistent and successful impostor that had arisen among them -from the time of Barchochebas. Sabbathai Sevi, a native of Smyrna, -and son of a poulterer in that city, was born in 1625. He was sent -to school, where he made such rapid progress that he was appointed -a Rabbi when he was only eighteen years of age. He early attracted -attention and had many followers, who believed in the pretensions -which, even then, he put forward, of being the expected Messiah. At -the age of twenty he married a woman of great beauty and rank; but -the marriage was only a nominal one, as he lived entirely apart from -her. He was compelled to give a divorce, and soon afterwards made a -second similar marriage, with the same result. He practised strict -asceticism, fasting six days in every week, and bathing continually -in the sea at midnight. At twenty-four, his reputation had increased -so greatly, that he ventured to put forth publicly his pretensions to -be thought the Messiah, and, in proof of these, ventured to pronounce -publicly the name of Jehovah, which is absolutely forbidden to the -Jews. The Rabbins were horror-struck at his impiety, and declared him -to be worthy of death. He was compelled to fly from Smyrna, and took -refuge in one city after another, until in Gaza he made an important -proselyte, the celebrated Nathan Benjamin. This man, a person of -position and influence, professed to have seen in a vision the Lord -Himself; who informed him that the promised Deliverer had come in the -person of Sabbathai Sevi, and that he, Nathan Benjamin, was the Elias -who was to herald his coming. The reader will remember that this -is the exact repetition of the imposture of Barchochebas and Rabbi -Akiba, fifteen hundred years before. Aided by this ally, Sabbathai -preached in Jerusalem, and resided for thirteen years in that city, -continuing to gain proselytes and bearing down all opposition. - -The imposture was aided by the remarkable fact that, according to the -interpretation of some eminent Cabalists of a passage in the book -of the prophet Daniel, the Messiah would make His appearance about -the year 1675. One of Nathan Benjamin’s first steps, when he felt -himself strong enough to take it, was to assemble the Jews resident -in Jerusalem, and inform them that, by virtue of the authority -committed to him from on high, he abrogated the fast which would -otherwise be observed in the ensuing June, because the time of the -coming of the Messiah was a festal one, inconsistent with mourning -of any kind. He then brought Sabbathai out to them, who, he said, in -the ensuing November would go forth in power and destroy the Ottoman -empire. He encountered determined opposition from the wiser among -his countrymen, who perceived that his pretensions were not only -without foundation, but were likely to bring the gravest calamities -on the Jews everywhere throughout the Sultan’s dominions. They even -went so far as to try him as a rebel and an impostor, and condemn him -to death. His adherents, however, were too many and too powerful to -permit of this sentence being carried into effect, and he continued -to reside without molestation in the city. - -After a period of thirteen years from the date of this announcement -of his pretensions, he made an expedition into Egypt, where he -married, for the third time, the daughter of a Polish Jew, who -professed to have received a revelation that she was the destined -bride of the Messiah. But the marriage, like the two former ones, -was only a marriage in name; and Sabbathai returned to Jerusalem, -where he resided for three years more, and then publicly proclaimed -himself in one of the synagogues as the Messiah. This once more -roused the indignation of the Rabbins, who pronounced against him the -sentence of excommunication. This sentence he found too strong for -him to struggle against, and he fled to his native city, Smyrna. - -The report of his condemnation had preceded him; but he was -nevertheless welcomed in his native city with almost regal honour. -Every evening he paraded the streets, accompanied by a train of -followers, carrying banners, and singing hymns in his praise. All -resistance offered to him proved vain. A Jew of high rank, named -Anakia, attacked him in the market-place, branding him as an -impostor. But his fate did not encourage others to pursue the same -course. He returned to his home, and had scarcely entered it, when he -suddenly fell from his chair a corpse. The reader will not require to -be told that Sabbathai’s friends declared this to be God’s judgment -on the blasphemer! - -His pretensions now rose higher.[197] He assumed the state of a -monarch. He divided the kingdoms of the earth among his partisans. -He named his two brothers sovereigns of Judah and Israel, while he -himself took the title of ‘the King of the Kings of the Earth.’ -He ordered the name of the Sultan to be removed from the prayer -offered up for the sovereign in the Jewish liturgy, and his own to -be inserted in its place. Embassies arrived from foreign communities -charged with rich presents and assurances of devoted loyalty. These -were sometimes kept waiting two or three weeks for an audience. His -picture was exhibited in public, surmounted by a golden crown; and -multitudes of prophets of both sexes thronged the streets, declaring -in the name of Heaven his approaching triumph. Some of these are said -to have acquired in a moment a miraculous knowledge of Hebrew! - -It was not in Smyrna only, or in its vicinity, that the madness -prevailed. In those European cities in which the largest number of -Jews were to be found,—Hamburg, and Frankfort, and Amsterdam,—all -other topics of interest were postponed, and business was broken -off to discuss the doings of the newly risen Prophet of Israel. The -excitement was not less in the East, where the husbandmen are related -to have refused to do their ordinary work in the fields, because the -Deliverer of Israel had come. If Sabbathai had been really a man -of ability and courage, there is no saying what he might not have -effected. It is probable, however, that the extraordinary amount -of success to which he had attained now embarrassed, rather than -gratified, him. He felt that he could neither recede nor stand still. -His partisans insisted on his passing over to Constantinople, and -advancing his pretensions in the face of the Sultan himself. He made -the voyage accordingly, attended by a vast number of his adherents, -and was received by the Jews of Constantinople with the utmost -enthusiasm. The Sultan was at the time of his arrival absent, but -Sabbathai demanded an audience of the grand vizier. The latter sent -immediately to his master for instructions, and delayed giving any -reply until he received them. The Sultan’s reply was, that Sabbathai -was to be arrested and kept in safe custody until his return. First -one, and then a second officer of janissaries were accordingly sent; -but in the presence of Sabbathai they were so overpowered by awe -that they dared not execute their office. Once more, if Sabbathai -had had boldness equal to the occasion, he might have made himself -master of Constantinople. But he surrendered himself of his own -accord, and was kept in a kind of honourable captivity in the castle -of Sestos, where, however, his followers were freely permitted to -visit him. He put out a manifesto ordering that the fast which was -always strictly observed on the anniversary of the destruction of -Jerusalem should be suspended, and the day celebrated as a festival, -it being the birthday of the Messiah. At this juncture there arrived -a learned Cabalist, Rabbi Nehemiah, the head of one of the synagogues -in Poland, who took up his abode in the castle as Sabbathai’s guest. -A few days’ intercourse satisfied him that Sabbathai was simply an -impostor, and as such he denounced him to his followers. Roused to -fury, the partisans of the prophet would have killed him on the spot; -but Nehemiah snatched a turban from the head of one of the Turks, and -declared himself a Mussulman. The janissaries instantly interfered -to protect him, and he was conveyed to Adrianople where he had an -interview with the Sultan. The latter now returned to the capital, -and summoned Sabbathai to his presence. The impostor in the hour of -trial entirely lost the hardihood which he had hitherto displayed, -and, when the Sultan demanded of him whether he was the Messiah, -could not summon courage to reply. The Sultan proposed to test his -pretensions by shooting three poisoned arrows at him. If these failed -to wound or injure him, his title should be at once acknowledged; -if the result should be different, death or the profession of -Mahometanism must be his sentence. Sabbathai did not hesitate. -Following the example of Nehemiah, he placed a turban on his head and -exclaimed—‘There is but one God, and Mahomet is His Prophet!’ - -It is most extraordinary that this apostasy, evidently the result -of mere cowardice and imposture, did not provoke the contempt alike -of the Turks and the Jews. But by the Sultan he was loaded with -honours, and the Jews did not withdraw their belief in his miraculous -pretensions. With unabated impudence he put out a declaration to the -effect that God had changed him from an Israelite to an Ishmaelite. -He quoted the example of Moses, who dwelt for a time among the -Ethiopians, and the fifty-third chapter of Isaiah, where it is said -that the Messiah was numbered among the transgressors. For a long -time he continued to maintain his double character of the deliverer -of the Jews and the devoted believer in Mahomet. Some even declared, -after the fashion of the Gnostics in the early Church, that the true -Sabbathai had been taken up into heaven, and it was only his likeness -or phantom that had undergone degradation and apostasy. Great -numbers of Jews, indeed, were induced, by his example, to become -Mahometans; and at length the injury to the Jewish community became -so great, that they exerted all the influence they could command -with the grand vizier, who caused Sabbathai to be arrested and -banished into Bosnia. There, in 1676, ten years after his apostasy to -Mahometanism, and in the fifty-first year of his age, he expired in -a castle near Belgrade. According to some, he died a natural death; -according to others, he was beheaded in prison. The latter is the -more likely supposition. Though he endeavoured to persuade the Jews -that, notwithstanding his profession of another faith, he was at -heart a Jew, they entirely distrusted him; and it is likely that the -assurances to which they would lend no credit nevertheless caused -suspicion and uneasiness among true followers of Mahomet. Thus it -would be the interest of both parties to cut short his career. - -In the long catalogue of impostors who have succeeded for a time in -blinding the eyes of those to whom they pretended a mission, the case -of Sabbathai Sevi seems the most extraordinary. - -There have been innumerable false Messiahs, from the days of Judas of -Galilee almost to our own time; and to each of these in turn the Jews -of their day accorded, for the time at least, a ready welcome, which, -in almost every instance, ultimately gave place to a total disbelief -in their pretensions. In the instance of this man alone, the faith -placed in him was not exchanged for contempt and distrust. Yet he -was certainly the one among all the pretenders to a Divine mission -who most deserved such ignominy. Judas,[198] Barchochebas, David -Alroy—however unfounded their claims to be the Messiah—at all events -persisted resolutely to the last, and died with the same watchword on -their lips that they had uttered during life. But though Sabbathai -openly avowed his own imposture, his followers continued to believe -in him. More than one prophet arose after his death, and obtained -credence by affirming that Sabbathai had been translated into heaven, -as Enoch and Elijah before him, and would, after a stated interval, -reappear on earth. Sabbathaism, as it was called, became the creed of -a powerful and numerous sect, of which we shall hear in the ensuing -century. It is said that even now it is not extinct. This example -is one proof out of many that human credulity exceeds all bounds of -calculation. - -Among those who continued to uphold Sabbathai after this fashion long -after his death, the most noted were Nehemiah Chajon and Abraham -Michael Cardoso. The plea urged by the latter in behalf of his -principal may safely be pronounced the most extravagant that has -ever been advanced. It was doubtless great wickedness, he said, to -apostatize to Islamism; but then it should be remembered that the -Messiah was not to come until mankind were all good or all bad. There -was no prospect of their all becoming good. So Sabbathai, by his -wickedness in accepting Mahomet, was helping on, like a true prophet, -the coming of the Messiah! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[197] He is said to have quoted Isaiah xiv. 14: ‘I will ascend above -the heights of the clouds,’ and to have appealed to his followers -to say whether they had not seen him so ascend; to which they made -answer that they had! It must be added, however, that, if he did -quote the passage in question as applicable to himself, he could -hardly have studied its context. - -[198] Whether Judas himself ever claimed to be the Messiah is -doubtful. But a considerable section of his followers certainly -believed him to be such. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVII. - - A.D. 1700-1800. - - THE JEWS IN SPAIN, ITALY, AND FRANCE. - - -We enter now on the eighteenth century, and are, as it were, in sight -of the history of our own times. The position in which we find the -Jews is in the main the same which they at present occupy. In Romish -countries they were still liable to sharp persecution, sometimes from -mob violence, sometimes from the action of the Church. The lands in -which the severest measures were enforced continued to be Spain and -Portugal, where the Inquisition was dominant throughout the entire -century, though its power gradually but very evidently diminished -as the years passed on. In the reign of Philip V., who succeeded -to the Spanish throne A.D. 1700, and held it till 1746, the first -direct blow was given to its authority. In the War of Succession, -which began at the outset of his reign, his French allies treated -the Inquisition with very scant respect. They broke open the prisons -of the Holy Office, released the prisoners, and even seized the -silver images in the Dominican chapels, melting them down to pay the -expenses of the campaign. The king took no part in the spoliation; -but when the Inquisitors appealed to him against the sacrilegious -violence of the French, he replied that he could not interfere with -the measures taken by his allies. He was a weak and sombre-tempered -young man, though not, it would seem, a religious bigot, and allowed -the clergy in the main to have their way. One _Auto da Fé_ was held -every year throughout his reign; and the number of victims is said -to have amounted to 14,000. There can be little doubt that the -greater part of these were ‘secret Jews.’ It is beyond dispute that -throughout this century, and long afterwards—even, it is said, to our -own times—secret Judaism continued to maintain its hold; and from -time to time discoveries were made, and executions followed. - -In 1713 the English were confirmed in the possession of Gibraltar, -which had been wrested from Spain some ten years before. But it is -a singular fact that the Spaniards, even when yielding up their -stronghold to Great Britain, could not endure that the Jews should -be allowed to live in peace there; and one clause of the treaty -stipulated that ‘no Jew should be tolerated in that city.’[199] - -Ferdinand VI. succeeded his father in 1746, and reigned till 1759. -He bears the character of a good and wise prince, and no public -_Auto da Fé_ took place in his time, though there appear to have -been a considerable number of petty local executions. Probably these -took place without his sanction, or even knowledge. He died without -issue, and was succeeded by his brother, Charles III. He again was -an able and vigorous sovereign, and the power of the Inquisition -still further diminished during his reign. Three years after his -accession he took the decided step of banishing the Grand Inquisitor -for encroaching on the privileges of the Crown. In 1770, and again -in 1784, he ordered that any procedure against offenders must be -approved by the king, and sufficient evidence adduced to justify -imprisonment. He was succeeded by his son, Charles IV., the weak -and miserable victim of Napoleon’s ambition. The Inquisition was -upheld during his reign, though it does not appear that any _Auto -da Fé_ took place. Very much the same is the history of the Jewish -persecution in Portugal, the power of the Inquisition, though greatly -limited, still subsisting to the very end of the century. - -In Italy very nearly the same state of things continued as has -been described under the history of the previous century. On the -separation of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies from that of Spain, -Charles, who succeeded to the sovereignty, reversed the policy -which had been pursued by his predecessors, and invited the Jews -to settle for sixty years in his kingdom. He offered to confer -upon them rights and privileges which would have left them little -ground of complaint. They were to be allowed to hold lands, except -such as conferred feudal rights on their possessors. They were to -be permitted to trade with all parts of the world, exempt from any -special impost—on the same terms, in fact, as his Christian subjects. -They might practise all professions, that of the physician included, -and have Christian patients, if the latter desired it. They might -also follow any handicraft; they might serve in the army; they -might freely print and circulate their literature; they might have -Christians in their service. They were to be free also to build -synagogues and celebrate their religious rites; and the authority of -their clergy was to be upheld by the State. All men, in fine, were -forbidden, under severe penalties, to insult or wrong them; and all -attempts to proselytize their children were to be discouraged. We do -not wonder at hearing that Jews in great numbers, from all parts of -Europe, accepted King Charles’s invitation; neither can it move our -surprise to hear that his subjects were not inclined to acquiesce in -their sovereign’s enlightened views. The Pope of the day, Clement -XII., and his confessor, a man of great influence in the Church, -denounced the concessions made to the Jews; the clergy preached -inflammatory sermons from their pulpits, a Capuchin friar publicly -warned the king that, as the punishment of his guilty act, he would -die childless. The Jews could not face the storm. They knew that any -attempt to open shops, or bring their merchandise into Naples, would -be the signal for a riot, not improbably for a massacre. After a -brief sojourn in the city, they withdrew from it. - -In 1775, Pius VI., the Pope whom Napoleon imprisoned and deposed, -revived some of the harsh laws against the Jews, whose condition, -for a long time past, had been growing more peaceful and assured. -He issued an edict by which Rabbinical literature was suppressed; -no Hebrew book, or even manuscript, might remain in the possession -of a Jew. He was required to keep himself rigidly within the limits -of his Ghetto; he was obliged again to wear his yellow badge; when -a corpse was buried, no funeral procession was allowed; no Jew -might employ a Christian midwife or wet-nurse; and, _vice versâ_, a -Christian might not employ Jews. The old enactment requiring Jews to -attend controversial sermons was again enforced; and the Rabbins were -obliged to draw up lists of their disciples, who were required to be -present. This seems to have been at the outset of Pius’s long reign. -The outbreak of the French Revolution, and the troubles which it -brought upon him, probably gave a new direction to his thoughts. - -Turning to France, we find that the condition of the Jews during the -eighteenth century was very peculiar. It has been mentioned in a -previous chapter that, although nominally excluded from France, they -had long been suffered to dwell there under protections granted to -them by Henry II. and others. There were, indeed, three different -sections of Jews resident in France at this time—the Portuguese -Jews, to whom charters were granted by the French Parliament A.D. -1550. These were chiefly to be found in Bayonne, Bordeaux, and its -vicinity. They appear at first to have passed under the name of New -Christians, and as such, no doubt, were obliged to submit themselves -to the ordinances of the Church; but in the fierce strife which -ensued between the Catholics and Huguenots they escaped notice. It -is said that they contracted marriages according to their own rites, -and evaded the baptism of their children. There were, again, the -Jews of Avignon, who were either Italians or native Frenchmen. These -had been tolerated by the Popes during their residence there, and -probably no great notice had been taken of them since the removal -of the papal court. Again, after the conquest of Metz and Alsace, a -considerable number of German Jews became subjects of France. It is -likely that they by no means regretted the change of masters; for -only a few years before, the Parliament at Metz had burnt a number -of Jews on the old charge of murdering infants. Louis XIV. granted -the Jews of Alsace the same privileges possessed by Bordeaux and -other cities—that of free commerce, on condition of paying a certain -poll-tax, subsequently compounded for a lump sum. Nevertheless, all -over Lorraine and Alsace the Jews, during this century, were harshly -dealt with. Their usurious exactions rendered them odious to the -people, as indeed had been the case with their ancestors for many -generations. In Strasburg only a few Jewish families were allowed to -reside. In Lorraine the laws of Duke Leopold, made in 1724, continued -long in force. By these only 180 families were permitted to reside -and to carry on trade; and even these were required to live within -the Jewish quarters. - -When the Edict of Nantes was revoked, and all the subjects of the -King of France were required to accept the ordinances of the Catholic -Church, the Jews in France were in some danger of persecution. But -the act seems never to have been carried out so far as they were -concerned. As before, the clergy were too busy in enforcing the law -against Huguenots to trouble themselves about a handful of Jews. But, -though they were kindly treated, it would be a mistake to suppose -that they were naturalized, as some writers have affirmed. It is said -that they offered the Regent Orleans two million livres in exchange -for the privilege of naturalization—a sum which that impecunious -potentate would have been well pleased to lay his hands on. But he -was afraid of the unpopularity he would incur by the act, and refused -the offer. The writer of the pamphlet respecting the Naturalization -Bill of 1753, quoted in a previous chapter, says: ‘It is a vulgar -error to suppose that the Jews in France were naturalized subjects; -and any Frenchman of whom you asked the question would laugh in your -face.’ It appears to have been only in certain cities that the Jews -were allowed to reside permanently. In Lyons they could only reside -three months consecutively. In Paris it is said their residence was -altogether prohibited. - -Louis XV. appears to have treated them with kindness, and to have -discouraged a step which was made to abridge their privileges. He -also showed much favour to the celebrated Samuel Bernard, the famous -banker of his day, who afterwards became a convert to the Church. -As the century advanced, and Voltaire and the Encyclopædists began -to exercise a wide influence in France, it might have been expected -that they would have exerted it in favour of the Jews; who, although -they were no longer exposed to the terrible sufferings they had -undergone in previous generations, were still subject to a more -modified religious persecution—a thing utterly abhorrent to the -writers in question. But the Encyclopædists disliked the Jews almost -as much as the Christians. The Hebrew race had suffered cruelly in -previous ages, as being the enemies of the Gospel. But in the eyes -of the infidel writers they were almost as objectionable, as being -the living witnesses of its truth. No Dominican persecutor of the -fifteenth century would have viewed the Jews with more contempt and -hatred than does Voltaire, the advocate of religious tolerance. - -In fact, it is obvious that the Jews had to undergo many hardships -in France during the reigns of Louis XIV. and XV. A few years after -the accession of Louis XVI., the mildness of whose temper had become -generally known, a petition was presented by the Jews to the king -and council, complaining of the heavy burdens laid upon them. -Besides the fees exacted for the royal protection, a capitation -tax was imposed upon them by the feudal superior on whose estate -they resided. The right of residence was only personal, and a fresh -sum had to be paid for every child that was born to them. Further, -a toll was paid by every Jew at the gate of every city which he -entered, as though he had been a horse or a sheep. There were besides -restrictions on their commerce, which weighed heavily upon them. - -The appeal to Louis XVI. was not in vain. The obnoxious capitation -tax was abolished in 1784; and in 1788 a commission was appointed, of -which Malesherbes was the president, and the first act of the latter -was to put an end to the toll at the city gates.[200] Malesherbes -also set on foot measures for ameliorating generally the condition -of the Jews. He proposed to give a prize for the best essay on the -subject. This was gained by the celebrated Abbé Grégoire, whose -essay was very generally approved. Steps were taken to carry out -some of the improvements suggested. But before this could be done -the Revolution had begun, and liberty, equality, and fraternity for -all men had become the general cry in France. The Jews were not slow -to avail themselves of their opportunity, and sent in their petition -to the General Assembly to be admitted to the rights of equal -citizenship. The question was discussed in the National Assembly, -and was affirmed, though not until after considerable debate. On the -17th of September, 1791, the decree was passed by which Jews, without -exception or distinction, were admitted to the rights of French -citizenship. It was ratified also by the Constitution of 1795. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[199] This was soon set aside, being contrary to the spirit of -English law. The Jews established themselves in Gibraltar, and are -now a thriving population, with four synagogues. - -[200] The tariff of tolls has been preserved, and has a curious -sound. For a Jew 12 deniers (about 1d.), a Jewess and child 9 -deniers, a Jewess 6 deniers; for a dead Jew 5 sous, a dead Jewess 30 -deniers. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXVIII. - - A.D. 1700-1800. - - THE JEWS IN GERMANY AND CENTRAL EUROPE. - - -The condition of the Jews in Germany, Prussia, and Austria, at -the outset of the eighteenth century, was, if we may believe the -historians of the time, an unusually wretched one. The accounts -given by the eminent German Jew, J. M. Jost, of the sufferings of -his countrymen at that period, cannot fail to move the reader’s -compassion.[201] ‘They were,’ to use his own phrase, ‘a heap of -suffering.’ Insult and wrong had, indeed, for many an age, been their -portion—a fact to which every history of them that has been written -bears melancholy witness. In many countries of Europe, however, -the period succeeding the Reformation had brought some amelioration -of their condition. But in the countries which we have now under -consideration, the Jews had sunk, if it was possible, to a lower -position than they had occupied before. Their miseries had, in truth, -endured so long, that they had become almost insensible to them. The -favourite German proverb, which was current for many centuries, may -by itself serve to show the light in which they were regarded. ‘Happy -is that town,’ was the saying, ‘in which there is neither a Jew, a -tyrant, nor a leper.’ - -To begin with Prussia. We have seen how, in 1670, the Jews had -been driven by Leopold I. out of Vienna, and had found a refuge in -Prussia; which the humanity of Frederick William, who, on account -of his wisdom and piety, obtained the popular title of ‘the Great -Elector,’ had accorded them. His son, Frederick I., lay under -obligations to Gompertz and Elias, two Jews who had been of great -service to him in providing him with resources in carrying on the -war in which he was engaged. When the Jews had been driven out of -Austria, they employed these two men to plead their cause; and the -result was, that a certain number of Jewish families were allowed -to establish themselves in Berlin, Potsdam, and other cities of -the Electoral State. From this permission the whole history of the -Prussian Jews may be said to date. The action of the Elector produced -considerable discontent among his subjects; but the Elector was firm, -and a few years afterwards a special body of rules for the Jews of -the electorate was drawn up and put in force. It was, on the whole, -extremely favourable to them, though they were still excluded from -all public offices, and freedom to worship according to their own -creed was not allowed them. But soon afterwards, some Jews, who were -the court jewellers, obtained permission to hold religious services -in their own private houses. This was a step towards allowing a -synagogue to be built, in which public worship was offered; but the -ritual, we are told, underwent the strictest examination, to make -sure that it did not contain anything insulting to Christianity. In -1712, the king prohibited, under severe penalties, the influx of -wandering Jews into the country—a measure which, though it might -seem to be unfriendly to the Jewish people, was in reality of the -greatest benefit to the respectable portion of them. During Frederick -William’s reign also, a splendid synagogue—the finest, it was said, -in that day in all Germany—was built and opened under the royal -sanction, notwithstanding the outcry that the concession provoked. - -In 1717, King Frederick died, and was succeeded by Frederick -William, the father and predecessor of Frederick the Great. He was a -sovereign of the most despotic character, though neither cruel nor -unjust. His characteristic qualities were displayed in his dealings -with the Jews. He continued the privileges granted to them by his -father—indeed, added some others. But, on the other hand, he imposed -upon them some rather arbitrary burdens, which, however, savour more -of eccentricity than harshness. Thus, if the king at his hunting -parties killed more wild boars or stags than he could consume at his -own table, the Jews were obliged to purchase what remained. It is -said that the Jews, unable to eat up the venison themselves, made -a present of it to the public hospitals. Again, on the occasion -of any event of importance in a family, such as succession to an -inheritance, the birth of an heir, the marriage of a son, etc., -every Jew was obliged to make purchases to the amount of three -hundred thalers at the royal porcelain factory. Towards the end of -the century, during the reign of Frederick William II., they were -released from this obligation on paying down the lump sum of four -thousand thalers. - -In 1740, Frederick William died, and his son, who bears in history -the name of ‘the Great,’ succeeded to the throne. His dealings -with the Jews were very peculiar. He had no predilection for them; -indeed, whatever personal feeling he entertained for them was of an -opposite character. The friend and pupil of Voltaire, he shared -that philosopher’s prejudice against them. They were no friends of -Christianity, to be sure; but they were the religious ancestors of -the Christians, the strongest witnesses of the truth of the Gospel, -and as such odious in his eyes. On the other hand, there was a -grim sense of justice discernible even in his strange legislation -respecting them; and, independently of this, he was shrewd enough -to see that persecution of them was by no means a profitable -policy. ‘No one ever got any good by injuring that nation,’ was -his observation on one occasion. Indeed, his legislation seems to -have been designed more for the purpose of preventing the increase -of their numbers, than for exacting severe imposts or restricting -their civil privileges. Thus, in 1750, the edict he issued for the -regulation of the Jews in his dominions draws a strict distinction -between the Jews that are tolerated by inheritance and those that -are personally tolerated—where the toleration, that is to say, does -not descend to the children of the person to whom it is granted. To -the latter class belonged all those who were not directly engaged -in trade, or did not hold any post or office in a synagogue. Among -those who were tolerated by inheritance, the privilege of domicile -descended to one child only. Subsequently, in consideration of the -payment of seventy thousand thalers, the privilege was extended to -a second child, though he could only enjoy it on producing evidence -that he was in possession of a property of one thousand thalers. A -foreign Jew could not settle in Prussia, unless he paid an exorbitant -price for his admission. If the widow of a protected Jew married -one who was not so protected, she was obliged to leave the country. -Besides these burdens, and of course the ordinary taxes paid by all -the king’s subjects, there were several imposts. There was a patent -of protection whenever a child was born, a tax upon every marriage, -and upon the election of every elder of a synagogue. The Jew was -also excluded from all civil offices, from agriculture, from keeping -an inn, a brewery, or a distillery, from setting up a manufactory -of any kind, or from practising the profession of a physician or a -surgeon. All Jewish servants who wished to marry were obliged to -leave the country. Finally, the Jews were interdicted from acquiring -house property, unless they had the express permission of the king. -In no case could a Jew possess more than forty houses. - -In 1786, Frederick William II., the nephew of Frederick the Great, -succeeded to his uncle’s throne. He was a wise and merciful -sovereign, and he endeavoured to ameliorate the condition of the -Jews, partly by mitigating the rigour of existing laws, partly by -enacting new ones. Since his time, the state of things has gradually -but surely improved. But the legislation of those times, as an -intelligent writer has remarked, ‘bears the stamp of the fearfully -degraded state of the Jewish population, and of the oppressive, -exclusive, and repressive measures which were thought needful to the -interests of that portion of the community.’[202] - -The position of the Jews in the Austrian dominions, in the early -part of the eighteenth century, was no better than in Prussia. The -Emperor Charles VII. entertained a dislike to them, which induced him -to listen readily to any enemy who traduced them. The same was the -case to perhaps a greater extent with the Empress Maria Theresa, his -daughter. A few years after her accession she decreed the banishment -of all the Jews in her dominions, amounting, it is believed, to -two hundred thousand persons. A considerable number did take their -departure; and the rest would have had to follow, if the intercession -of the English and Dutch Governments had not induced her to forego -her purpose. Subsequently she relaxed the severity of her dealings -with them. She not only permitted their residence, but allowed -them to follow certain trades, as, for example, dealing in jewels, -or opening shops as money-changers or manufacturers. They were -permitted to carry on their services in their synagogues, though they -were strictly confined to their houses on Sundays, especially during -the hours when Christian worship was going on. - -When Joseph II. came into full possession of the imperial power, by -the death of his mother in 1780, one of his first acts was to publish -an edict of toleration, by which the status of the Jews was greatly -improved. All the old prohibitive regulations were annulled. The Jews -were at liberty to take up their abode in any town throughout the -Austrian dominions, and in the country also—though, in that case, -they were required to seek the Emperor’s permission. He also opened -to them the schools and universities throughout the empire, allowing -them to take degrees as doctors in medicine, civil law, and moral -philosophy; but he obliged them to open elementary schools of their -own for the preparation of their children to enter those belonging -to the State. He allowed them to follow any trade they fancied, with -the single exception of the manufacture of gunpowder. They were -free also to attend the public markets and fairs throughout the -country, to wear what apparel they pleased, to occupy any house in -any quarter of the towns, and use the public promenades as freely as -the other inhabitants. They might also enter the army—indeed, after -a while, they became liable to the conscription—and might be made -non-commissioned officers; but as, according to the military code of -Austria, none can hold commissions who are not of noble blood, they -could rise no higher. Lastly, their children were protected against -proselytism, it being unlawful to attempt inducing them to change -their religion until they had passed their fourteenth year. This -edict may be regarded as marking a new era in Jewish history; and -whatever amelioration may have taken place in European legislation, -so far as they are concerned, in reality dates from it. - -In 1781 Councillor Dohm published his famous treatise ‘on the -amendment of the political position of the Jews.’ This writer -upholds the principle of bestowing liberty and equality of rights on -the Jews, of their free admission to schools and colleges belonging -to the State, of their unfettered practice of trades and professions, -and even of their participation in public offices of trust. But he -contends that the authority of the Rabbins over their congregations, -their infliction of discipline, and, under some circumstances, of -excommunication, must be upheld by the State. The publication of the -work excited a good deal of angry feeling among the German Jews. -The renowned Moses Mendelssohn, of whom we shall speak in the next -chapter, published a letter respecting it, in which he denounced the -spiritual tyranny of the Rabbins in indignant language, which had a -very wide and important effect on his countrymen. - -In Russia, during this century, the position of the Jews was fully -as miserable as in any European country. It has been already pointed -out, that by the strict law of the land their presence was not -permitted at all. And in Muscovy proper the exclusion was enforced -with stern inflexibility. Under Peter the Great a few Jews were -admitted into other portions of his dominions, the Czar having -declared—so at least popular rumour affirms—that ‘he did not fear -the presence of any Jews, for his Russians were a match for the -craftiest among them.’ But during the reign of Elizabeth (A.D. 1545) -their residence in Russia was again proscribed. They had contrived to -secure the property of certain Siberian exiles, and invested it in -foreign countries. Later in the century the policy of the emperors -towards the Jews seems to have been to drive them out of the towns -into the rural districts, with the idea, so often entertained by -one theorist or another, of inducing them to discard commerce for -agriculture. In the Ukraine, and there only, apparently, they have -adopted that mode of life.[203] - -Of the Jews in Poland, which for many ages has been the country in -all Europe where the Hebrew race has found the most secure home and -the most hospitable treatment, we have not yet spoken. Their history, -during the eighteenth century, is mainly the history of religious -adventurers and rival sects. It will be better to consider these in a -separate chapter. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[201] J. M. Jost, a German Jew, born A.D. 1793, died 1860, a -professor first at Berlin, and afterwards at Frankfort-on-the-Maine. -He is the author of the _History of the Israelites_, in nine volumes, -published in 1820-28, and of the _History of Judaism_, in three -volumes, which appeared later. Up to the time of the appearance of H. -Graetz’s great work, _The History of the Jews_, Jost’s was the most -trustworthy authority. ‘It is the mature work,’ writes Milman, ‘of -an indefatigable and eminently fair writer. Of course, as a Jew, he -presents the doctrines and usages of his race in a favourable light, -but he always fully deserves a respectful and candid hearing’ (Milm. -_Hist. Jews_, vol. ii. p. 476 n.). - -[202] _Israel and the Gentiles_ (Da Costa, p. 519), a work I have -often consulted with profit. - -[203] The readiness of the Jews of the Ukraine to employ themselves -in agriculture may be accounted for by the extreme fertility of the -soil. In natural productiveness no portion of Europe surpasses, and -few can be found to equal it. Wheat, oats, and barley are raised with -scarcely any exertion of labour, and the pasture-land is rich and -luxuriant. This may account for the singular difference of habits -which the Jews of these countries exhibit, as compared with their -countrymen everywhere else. It should be added that, as there is -little trade and few manufactures, many of them, at all events, must -live by agriculture or not at all. - - - - - CHAPTER XXXIX. - - A.D. 1700-1800. - - THE JEWS IN POLAND: THE CHASIDIM—FRANK—MENDELSSOHN. - - -From the times of the Maccabees, if not earlier, to those of the -impostor Sabbathai Sevi, Rabbinism had prevailed in the Jewish -Church. The only opposition had come from the Karaites, of whom we -have already spoken, and they were but a small sect, commanding -little influence. Eminent Jews, again, such as Solomon Ben Abraham -of Montpellier, in the thirteenth century, or Nathanael Tribotti -of Rome, or the more renowned Maimonides, might put forward -opinions which the Rabbins condemned, proceeding sometimes to the -excommunication of the offending writers. But either the latter -submitted, or modified their opinions, or their judges reconsidered -their decisions; and Rabbinical theology continued in the main -unaltered. But the followers of Sabbathai Sevi formed themselves into -a distinct sect, calling themselves Jews indeed, and professing the -principal doctrines of the Jewish faith, but differing from it, at -the same time, in the most essential particulars. - -His followers, as we have seen, were not alienated by his apostasy -or undeceived by his death. One prophet rose after another, who -formed his own theological system, resembling Sabbathaism in its -general outline, but having peculiar and distinctive features of its -own. Most of these secured, during their lifetime, at all events, a -large and enthusiastic following, while, in some instances, their -teaching was adopted as a rule of faith long after they had passed -away from earth. Among these prophets two of the most remarkable were -Malach and Hajun. These men were two Rabbins belonging, the one to a -Polish, the other to a German, synagogue, who, A.D. 1700, had made -a pilgrimage to Jerusalem, there to announce the immediate coming -of the Messiah. Most of their companions died of want or fatigue on -the journey; and nearly all the survivors, following the example of -Sabbathai, went over to Islamism. But the two leaders, and especially -Hajun, zealously propagated their opinions, notwithstanding the most -determined opposition of the Rabbins of Jerusalem and Constantinople. -Among the doctrines preached by Hajun was that of a Trinity of Gods, -though the Three were perfect in their unity. This dogma—very nearly -coinciding, if not identical, with the Catholic doctrine of the -Trinity—he professed to find in the Book of Zohar.[204] - -It is scarcely necessary to add that such teaching provoked the -animosity of the Rabbins to the utmost. In A.D. 1722 Hajun and his -followers were publicly excommunicated by all the synagogues, and -his influence in the East was almost entirely destroyed. In Central -Europe, however, he obtained some support. He ingratiated himself -with the Emperor Charles VI. by his denunciation of the Jews, and -many congregations in Bohemia and Moravia attached themselves to him. -Attempts were made to extend his influence into Holland, Hungary, -and other European countries, but with little success. A similar -movement was initiated shortly afterwards by Moses Luzzato; who, in -concert with a physician named Jethukiel, collected a congregation at -Wilna. He was excommunicated by the Rabbins, and repeatedly obliged -to retract his statements. He led a wandering, unsettled life, and at -last travelled to Jerusalem, where he ended his days in 1747. - -Another and more important sect, appearing at least to derive its -origin from Sabbathaism, is that of the Chasidim, which established -itself chiefly in Poland, Galicia, and Russia. This is, according to -a well-known writer of the present day, the religion of nearly all -the Jews in Galicia, Hungary, Southern Russia, and Wallachia. Its -founder was one Israel Baal Schem, who first appeared in Podolia in -1740. He claimed to be the representative of God on earth, and as -such, his commands were to be obeyed with implicit submission. His -early history is full of fable, wild, extravagant tales being told of -it, which are unworthy of repetition. The orthodox Rabbins say he was -a man of mean rank and extraction, possessed of no real ability, and -who affected sanctity and mystery in order to impress his followers. -A certain supernatural power was invariably claimed by the students -of Cabbalism, but those assumed by Israel had apparently no limit. -He could absolve from all sin; he could cure all diseases by his -simple command; he could work the most stupendous miracles; he was -endowed with all knowledge, not only of the past, but of the future -also. The main drift of his teaching, which entirely rejected the -Talmud as a Rabbinical tradition, was the necessity of learning, by -continual contemplation and self-mortification, the true nature of -God, and also of entire submission to the Tzaddikhim, or priesthood. -We are told by Dr. M’Caul that they are in the habit of spending -every Sabbath with their Tzaddik, coming in for the purpose from -many miles round, bringing with them provisions for the meals of the -day, as well as presents for the Tzaddik. They consult him in all -difficulties, accepting his replies as inspired by Heaven; arrange -their private affairs, and compose their quarrels at his bidding. At -Israel Baal Schem’s death, his disciples insist that he was taken up -to heaven, there to dwell with the holy angels, and make effectual -intercession with Almighty God in behalf of every Jew who brings -up his children in accordance with the teaching of Chasidism, and -obeys the Tzaddik. He was succeeded in his authority by his three -grandsons, who were his chief disciples. But this of necessity broke -up the community into three distinct bodies, and further divisions -have since taken place, though the various synagogues of Chasidists -spread over the countries of Eastern Europe are on the whole at unity -with one another. - -A few years later another strange development of Cabbalistic -Sabbathaism made its appearance, under the name of Zoharism. Jacob -Frank, its founder, is said to have been born in Poland, _circ._ -A.D. 1722. In his youth he was a distiller of brandy, and he first -appeared as a religious teacher in Turkey, A.D. 1760. He was then -approaching his fortieth year. He followed the Chasidists in his -attacks on the Talmud and his devotion to the Book of Zohar. Such -fierce dissensions ensued that the Polish Government,—for it was -in Poland that he first put forth his theological dogmas,—found it -necessary to interfere. But Frank found a protector in the Bishop of -Kaminiek, who perceived, or thought he perceived, in Frank’s system -the elements of Catholic Christianity. Frank himself encouraged this -by submitting to Christian baptism, and publicly burning the Talmud. -He also declared his belief that God had appeared in human form for -the expiation of man’s transgression, and that He will hereafter -appear again, also in human form, for the final deliverance from the -power of evil. This sounded orthodox enough; but Frank was careful -not to say in whose person God had thus appeared on earth, and -whether, in fact, he accepted Jesus Christ, or Sabbathai Sevi, as the -Messiah. - -But neither the Jews nor the Christians were content to leave matters -in this condition. The Rabbins, who regarded Frank with a mixture -of alarm and dislike, denounced him to the Polish Government as -an apostate to their community (and so legally liable to their -censure), and to the papal nuncio as an heretical Christian. -Neither of the parties appealed to were disposed to overlook the -accusation; and the Zoharites found themselves on the brink of a -twofold persecution. Frank himself was thrown into prison, and his -followers were scattered in all directions, most of them endeavouring -to seek a refuge in Turkey. On their way, while passing through -Moldavia, they received harsh usage from both the authorities and -the populace. Those that remained behind were obliged to profess -Christianity. Frank himself remained in prison, until the fortress -in which he was confined was captured, in 1777, by the Russians, who -set him at liberty. He then travelled through Poland, Moravia, and -Bohemia, everywhere levying large sums on the synagogues which still -continued to support him, until he reached Vienna, where he resided -for several years, under the protection of Maria Theresa. From thence -he journeyed to Brunn, in Moravia, and finally established himself at -Offenbach, in Hesse, where he resided until his death, in 1791. - -A strange mystery attended his daily life, upon which no light has -ever been thrown. He was apparently without pecuniary resources, yet -he lived for many years—ten or twelve at the least—in a style which -could only have been maintained by the most lavish expenditure. He -had a retinue which might have vied with that of an Eastern prince, -of several hundred beautiful Jewish boys and girls; carts, said to -contain gold and silver, were continually brought to his place of -residence; when he went to perform his devotions, he was conveyed -in a chariot drawn by the finest horses that could be procured, -and a guard of ten or twelve Uhlans, wearing a splendid uniform of -green, scarlet, and gold, rode on either side of it. The service -was performed with a great display of magnificence, accompanied by -various strange ceremonies, the meaning of which has never been -explained. When he died, as he did some three years after his -settlement at Offenbach, he was buried with the utmost pomp and -splendour, as many as eight hundred persons attending his funeral; -and a costly cross was set up over his grave. But the secret of his -unbounded riches was interred with him. His family, it was found, had -been left entirely destitute. They appealed to his followers, who -had shown such devotion, but wholly in vain; and they relapsed into -absolute beggary. Such of his followers as survived him joined the -Roman Catholic Church of Poland. It is believed, however, that they -still cherish in secret some of their founder’s peculiar tenets. - -Nearly about the same time another Jew appeared, very different in -character and opinions from Jacob Frank, but destined to exercise a -far wider and more permanent influence. Moses Mendelssohn was born of -humble parents in Dessau, A.D. 1729. His thirst for learning showed -itself from his childhood, and his early application to study is -said to have permanently injured his health. At the age of thirteen -he followed his favourite teacher, Rabbi Frankels, to Berlin, where, -after many years of labour, he obtained a tutorship in the family -of Herr Bernhardt, a silk manufacturer. Soon after he formed an -acquaintance with the philosopher Lessing,[205] and became known in -the literary world by the publication of his philosophical works, and -especially of _Phædon, or the Immortality of the Soul_, in imitation -of Plato. Other works followed, which increased his celebrity. -Having obtained the prize of the Berlin Academy for an essay on -the Evidence of Metaphysical Science, he was elected a member of -that society; but Frederick the Great struck his name off the list, -considering that a Jew was not worthy to belong to so august a body. -His writings nevertheless continued to attract popular admiration; -and the entire emancipation from the fetters of Rabbinism which they -displayed encouraged many of his friends to hope that he was already -a Christian in principle, and was on the high road to adopting it -as his profession. The celebrated Lavater addressed a letter to -him, urgently entreating him to take this step. But Mendelssohn -courteously but firmly refused, remaining nominally a member of -the Jewish synagogue to the day of his death, though he absolutely -refused to allow his spiritual pastors to impose any restrictions -on his private judgment. It seems to have been his principle to -minimize the differences between Christianity and Judaism, and, while -remaining a Jew in name, to be a Christian in spirit. - -Mendelssohn’s name is greatly honoured and admired, but it may -be gravely questioned whether the course he pursued was either -defensible in itself or beneficial in its results. None of -his followers have been able to maintain the position he took -up. Some have adopted the genuine faith of Christ, some have -renounced distinctive religion altogether. It was remarkable -that all Mendelssohn’s descendants, including the famous -Mendelssohn-Bartholdy, the composer, became Christians. So did Louis -Borne, and Neander, the historian and the renowned poet, Heinrich -Heine. - -We must not pass over Mendelssohn’s three celebrated friends—Wessely, -the father of modern Hebrew poetry, David Friedlander, the founder -of the Jews’ Free School at Berlin, and Isaac Euchel, the translator -of the Jewish prayer-book. These men, though less distinguished than -their great contemporary, have exercised so large an influence on -their countrymen and co-religionists that they may be said to have -almost entirely changed the tone of Jewish thought and feeling.[206] -The synagogue service has also undergone considerable alteration. -The prayers and sacred poems have been abridged, and preaching very -generally introduced. Even the use of organs is not unusual. Indeed, -the old stereotyped service seems to have been exchanged for a ritual -according in minor matters with the sentiments and inclination of -each congregation. - -In Russia, during this century, the condition of the Jews seems to -have varied according to the caprices alike of the rulers and the -people. They were admitted within the Muscovite kingdom by Peter the -Great; but in the reign of Elizabeth, A.D. 1745, their residence -was again forbidden, on the ground that they had been maintaining a -treasonable correspondence with some Siberian exiles. The expulsion -could not have been general, since only a few years later, in 1753, -the old charge of sacrificing children was again alleged against -them; an appeal was made to the reigning pope, Benedict XIV., and -his successor (Clement XIII.) undertook to make an investigation. -He accordingly commissioned Count Bruhl to inquire into the matter, -adding, to his honour, that he was to disregard all hearsay evidence, -and be satisfied with nothing short of proof. It needs not to add -that he did not obtain that. But the popular fury rose to such a -height that an imperial ukase was found necessary to control it. The -same charge has been repeated since, with the same total absence of -evidence, even in our time. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[204] ‘There be Three Lights in God: the Ancient Light, the Pure -Light, the Purified Light. These three make one God.’ For Book of -Zohar, see Appendix. - -[205] Nathan the Jew, the hero of Lessing’s famous play, _Nathan der -Weiss_, was designed as a portrait of Mendelssohn. - -[206] There were other distinguished men belonging to this age, -which, indeed, was unusually rife in literary talent. Joel Lowe, -professor at Breslau; Herr Homberg, superintendent of Jewish -education in Galicia; Aaron Wolfsohn, also professor at Breslau; and -Solomon Maimon, author of several philosophical works and his own -autobiography. - - - - - CHAPTER XL. - - A.D. 1700-1800. - - THE JEWS IN ENGLAND. - - -During this century no marked change of any kind took place in the -position of the English Jews, though their affairs several times -came before the notice of the legislature. They had obtained under -the Stuarts liberty to carry on their public worship, to practise -all trades and professions, and hold all property, except such as -was not permitted to aliens. None of these privileges were withdrawn -or modified during the eighteenth century. On the other hand, the -Jews were not naturalized, could not possess land, could not hold -any public office of whatsoever kind—were not, in any real sense, -English citizens. Yet it was evident they regarded themselves as -permanent settlers in the country. They began to build synagogues, -and to establish schools, hospitals, and other charitable foundations -for the benefit of their community. It should be noted that, as in -Holland, so in England also, there were two classes of Jews—the -German and Polish (called the Ashkenazim), and the Spanish and -Portuguese (the Sephardim).[207] These agree in their religious -opinions, but in other matters differ considerably from each other, -and it is said that intermarriages between them were for a long time -rare. The last-named were the first to erect a synagogue, which was -opened in 1662, in King Street, Aldgate. In 1676, a larger synagogue -had to be provided, and a third was built three years later. This -stands in Bevis Marks, and remains to this day, but little changed -in appearance. In 1703 the Jews’ Hospital was opened, which now -stands in Mile End Road. In 1730 a girls’ school was built by Isaac -da Costa, and called after his name; and in 1735 another school for -general education was set up and endowed by Ruez Lamego. - -The German and Polish Jews did not settle in England for a generation -later. They were, on the whole, inferior in respect of culture and -education, as well as less wealthy, than their Spanish brethren. -They provided themselves with a place of worship about the beginning -of the last century. It was enlarged in 1722. The present Hamburg -synagogue was erected in 1726; and the Great Synagogue, in Duke -Street, in 1763. - -The first legislation of the century respecting the Jews was in -1703, when an Act was carried obliging the Jews to make provision -for any members of their family who might become converts to -Christianity. This was passed in consequence of the action of a -wealthy Jew, whose daughter had been baptized; immediately after -which he turned her out of doors in a state of entire destitution. -Not long afterwards, the question of their naturalization began for -the first time to be agitated. A proposal was made to the Treasurer -Godolphin, in Queen Anne’s time, to purchase the town of Brentford -for their occupation, the purchase carrying with it the full rights -of citizenship. Godolphin was urged by influential persons to accept -it. But he foresaw the opposition which both the merchants and the -clergy would offer to it, and declined the proposal. A few years -afterwards a pamphlet was issued by the notorious John Toland,[208] -who has very generally been branded as an infidel, but who appears -to have been really guilty of nothing worse than eccentricity. He -urged the wisdom and justice of naturalizing the Jews. But John -Toland, one of whose works had been ordered to be burnt by the public -hangman, was not a very likely person to be listened to on such a -subject. It appears to have drawn forth a pamphlet, written in 1715, -deprecating in strong language the proposed naturalization. It is -curious to read this pamphlet, which may be seen at the British -Museum. The writer repeats with unabated acrimony the charges which -had been made for centuries against the Jews, but which the English -people had now happily ceased to act upon. It says the reasons why -Edward I. expelled them from England were, first, their crucifying -and torturing Christian children; secondly, their betraying the -secrets of the State to foreign enemies; thirdly, their tampering -with and debasing the coinage; fourthly, the hatred which they bore -to Christian men; and, lastly, their extortionate usuries. Of these, -the first two could hardly be expected to obtain any credit, and -must have been repeated merely for form’s sake, like the preamble of -a deed. The fourth, too, almost all men at that day would reject -as absurd in itself; because, if the Jews really entertained this -bitter hate against Englishmen, why should they be so anxious to -dwell among them? The third and fifth undoubtedly have some truth, -though the charge of debasing the coinage was never satisfactorily -proved, and at all events could not reasonably be charged on the Jews -of the eighteenth century. With the last we have more than once dealt -in this history. The idea, again, that the Jews are the enemies of -Heaven, and that showing favour to them is disloyalty to Almighty -God, already belonged only to the past. The writer’s real ground for -objecting is, no doubt, the injury supposed to be done to English -trade by the competition of the Jews, whose presence in England he -is anxious to prove does not increase the wealth of the community. -No Naturalization Bill was introduced, but in 1723 another step was -taken towards improving their condition. It was then enacted that -when any one of His Majesty’s subjects professing the Jewish religion -shall present himself to take the customary oath of abjuration of the -Pretender’s supposed rights in England, he shall be permitted to omit -the words ‘On the true faith of a Christian.’ This is the first time -that any regard for a Jew’s conscience or feelings was manifested -in any public document. In 1740 another Act of Parliament conceded -to foreign Jews who had served for two years on board a British -man-of-war the privilege of British citizenship. - -In 1753 Mr. Pelham, at that time Premier, brought forward his -famous Act for the naturalization of the Jews. One reason for it is -said to have been the loyal services rendered by the Jews to the -Crown during the attempt of Charles Edward, in 1745, to regain the -throne.[209] The Bill was introduced into the House of Lords early -in the session, and passed without opposition,[210] almost without -remark. It provided for the naturalization of all Jews who had -resided in England for three years consecutively. But it should be -noted that it did not permit them to hold any public offices, not -even of the most petty character. They could not even be excisemen -or custom-house officers. Nevertheless, notwithstanding the extreme -moderation of the Bill, when it was brought into the Commons, an -angry debate ensued. Some members declared that to admit Jews to -the privilege of citizenship was an insult to the Christian faith. -The inspired Word, it was said, had declared that they should be -scattered over the face of the earth, having nowhere any fixed -abode; to give them a permanent home, therefore, was to fly in the -face of God and of prophecy. It would deluge the kingdom with Jew -usurers, brokers, and beggars. The Jews would buy up advowsons, and -so ruin the Church! Pelham answered, that the fears expressed were -idle and chimerical, that the Jews were too few and uninfluential -to work any of the mischief that had been predicted; and, as they -could not take any part in our religious services, or even enter -our churches, it was impossible they could injure the Church. As -for any supposed opposition to the will of God, if there had been -any such Divine decree as was represented, it would be impossible -for man to overthrow or even to modify it. The Bill passed by a -majority of ninety-five, only sixteen being found to vote against -it. But the Bill, though accepted by Parliament, excited out of -doors a perfect storm of indignation. The peers, and especially the -bishops,[211] were pursued by mobs with insult and rancour. The -common people filled the streets with cries of ‘No Jews—no wooden -shoes!’ ‘The wooden shoes’ were typical of the French peasants, who -ordinarily wore them. The popular _brocard_ ‘No wooden shoes’ thus -meant ‘Nothing French.’ There was no kind of connection between the -Jews and the French, but the rhyme between ‘Jews’ and ‘shoes’ hit the -popular fancy, and so the two cries were combined in one. - -The members of the House of Commons were threatened with the loss -of their seats; and, as Parliament was near its last session, this -was no idle menace. As the autumn advanced, the agitation increased. -A clergyman named Tucker, who had written a pamphlet in defence of -the measure, was attacked and maltreated by the mob. The Bishop of -Norwich, Thomas Gooch, also an advocate of the measure, when he went -down to his diocese on his confirmation circuit, was everywhere -insulted. At Ipswich the boys whom he was about to confirm shouted -out to him that they wished to be circumcised; and on the door of one -of the churches a paper was found, announcing that the bishop would -confirm the Jews on the Saturday, and the Christians on the Sunday -next ensuing. - -It was not by the mob only that these clamours were raised. The Lord -Mayor and Corporation of London, actuated, it is to be feared, by -commercial jealousy, publicly denounced the measure as an inroad on -the Constitution and an insult to the Christian religion, and the -country clergy everywhere preached the same from their pulpits. - -The ministry found that they could not withstand the popular fury. -On the very first day of the ensuing session, immediately after the -Peers had agreed to the usual address to the Crown, the Duke of -Newcastle made an harangue, declaring that disaffected persons had -made use of the Act passed last session in favour of the Jews to -raise discontent among His Majesty’s subjects. As the Act itself was -of little importance, it had better be repealed. As little opposition -was offered to this proposal as to the original Bill. Some few did -indeed protest against this concession to mob clamour; amongst them -the Bishop of St. Asaph and Lord Temple. But in the Lower House both -parties seemed to vie with each other in expressing their aversion to -this unfortunate measure. - -Even this ready compliance with the popular will did not allay the -ferment that had been excited. There was, it appeared, an Act in -existence, by virtue of which any Jew who had resided for seven years -in any of His Majesty’s American plantations might become a free -denizen of Great Britain. It was discovered that this was fraught -with almost as much danger to the interests of the English people as -the obnoxious measure which had just been removed from the statute -book. A member of the Lower House moved that a list of the Jews who -had availed themselves of the benefit of this Act since 1740 should -be laid on the table for the perusal of the members of the House. It -was found that, as claiming the privilege in question was attended -by a good deal of expense and trouble, very few Jews had availed -themselves of it. Nevertheless, as the _possibility_ still remained -that Jews in great numbers would at some future time take advantage -of the Act in question, and so deluge England with Jews, whose -presence would be in the highest degree prejudicial to the interests -and even the safety of Great Britain, Lord Harley asked for leave to -bring in a Bill to strike out of the Act its obnoxious clauses. But -at this point Government refused to concede any further to out-door -clamour. Lord Harley’s motion was seconded by Sir James Dashwood, -and supported by other influential persons. But Mr. Pitt made one -of his great speeches against it, and it was rejected by a decisive -majority. The whole affair is a curious instance of how easily the -English people may be stirred up to loud and clamorous indignation -upon the most trivial subjects, in which neither their safety nor -their convenience are in any way concerned;[212] though they cannot, -like their Continental neighbours, be induced to proceed to acts -of violence, unless where some real danger threatens them or some -important interest is at stake. - -During the remainder of the century, and indeed for a large part -of that which followed, no new attempt was made to accomplish the -naturalization of the Jews. It was probably felt by their friends -that the angry and unreasonable prejudice which had been roused -by the proposed measure of 1753 would in all likelihood break out -as virulent as ever,[213] if a similar Bill should be brought -into Parliament. It is also a singular fact that many of the Jews -themselves were not anxious for the measure to pass, as they feared -that the conversion of many of their communion to the Christian faith -might follow from it. - -But there were not wanting signs that the feeling towards the Jews -was gradually growing more considerate and kindly. In 1781, when the -island of St. Eustatia was captured by Rodney, a complaint was made -in Parliament that undue severity had been shown the Jews in seizing -their property, and transporting them from the island. General -Vaughan, who commanded the land forces, represented that he had shown -the Jews the greatest consideration, had caused their persons to be -respected, and, on finding that their property had been seized by -mistake, had immediately ordered it to be restored to them. No more -had been done for them than justice required; but the tone of both -parties, when speaking of the Jews, was strikingly different from -what it probably would have been had the occurrence taken place some -generations earlier. - -Towards the close of the century, a body known as the Board of -Deputies was formed, which gave the Jews the means of expressing in -an official manner the wants and sentiments of the Jewish residents -in Great Britain. It was originally appointed for the purpose of -conveying to George III. the congratulations of the Jews in England -on his accession to the throne. Once established, it renewed its -meeting when occasion required, and has frequently played an -important part in Jewish affairs. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[207] Ashkenaz, the son of Gomer (Gen. x. 3), is traditionally -reported to have settled in Germany. Zarephath and Sephared (Obad. -20) in France and Spain. Hence the German and Spanish Jews have -been styled Ashkenazim and Sephardim. These being at one time the -principal countries in which the European Jews were found, have -caused the whole of the nation to be classed under one head or the -other. - -[208] John Toland, as he was called, though his true baptismal names -were James Julius, was born in Londonderry in 1669. His parents were -Roman Catholics, but he seems early to have rejected Romish teaching. -He studied successively at Glasgow, Leyden, and Oxford. At the -last-named university he seems to have obtained the reputation of a -freethinker; and his book, _Christianity not Mysterious_, excited a -ferment which there is little or nothing to justify. It was condemned -by the Irish Parliament, and burnt by the hangman. Leland ranks him -among Deistical writers; but he hardly seems to deserve, and is -certainly not worth, Leland’s censures. - -[209] The Jews had given the Government valuable help. They lent a -large sum on very liberal terms, and agreed to take the Government -paper as long as gold continued to be scarce. Two Jews fitted out -vessels at their own cost, which they placed at the service of the -king. Great numbers of Jews also enrolled themselves in the volunteer -troops hastily raised by the ministry. - -[210] Lord Lyttelton, the author of the _Life of Henry II._, is said -to have declared on this occasion that ‘the man who hated another -because he was not a Christian, was no Christian himself’—a sentiment -worthy of him. - -[211] It is a singular fact that, although the bishops had nothing -to do with the promotion of this Bill, the principal odium of it was -cast upon them. It was held that they were bound in conscience to -prevent its passing, or at all events to do their best to prevent -it. William Romaine affirmed, in a pamphlet which attracted much -attention, that ‘the set of bishops then on the bench were the -only ones from the time of Christ who would have countenanced so -anti-Christian a measure.’ The general charge made against bishops is -that of intolerance. It is curious to observe that, if they ever are -in advance of the laity in tolerance, it is at once made the subject -of bitter reproach to them. - -[212] It is a most curious illustration of this that, up to the -middle of the present century, although all bequests made by Jews to -their countrymen for charitable purposes, such as building hospitals, -endowing almshouses, etc., were held valid, and would be enforced, if -necessary, by the Court of Chancery, any provision for the education -of their children in their own faith was accounted void. A bequest -made about the middle of the century, by a Jew named De Pass, of -£1,200 for the purpose of building a college for Jews, was similarly -declared void by the Law Courts, because it tended to propagate a -false belief, and the money was given to the Foundling Hospital. - -[213] During the No Popery riots of 1780, the Jews in Houndsditch, -fearing that the violence of the mob would be attracted to them, as -it had so often been on occasions of popular tumult, wrote up each -on his door front: ‘This is the house of a true Protestant.’ The -father of Grimaldi, the clown, is said to have exercised a still more -comprehensive caution, and to have inscribed on _his_ door, not ‘No -Popery,’ but ‘No Religion.’ Lord George Gordon, the leader of the -riots, consummated his erratic career by professing the Jewish faith, -in which he died. - - - - - CHAPTER XLI. - - A.D. 1800-1885. - - THE JEWS IN ENGLAND—_continued_. - - -It does not surprise us, as was remarked in the last chapter, that -no step was taken to amend the position of the Jews during the -latter half of the eighteenth or the first quarter of the nineteenth -century. For many years after the struggle of 1753 its memory was -fresh in men’s minds; and to have attempted its renewal would only -have called forth a more bitter expression of hostility. Then -the struggle with America, the horrors of the French Revolution, -the excitement of Napoleon’s wars, the trade riots and domestic -disturbances of the later years of the Regency engrossed men’s -minds, and they had neither leisure nor inclination to attend to the -grievances of the Jews. Even when, in George the Fourth’s reign, -questions of internal policy again became the topic of the day, the -disabilities of the Roman Catholics, a numerous and influential -portion of the nation, naturally took precedence of those of the -Jews. But when these had been removed, and the Test and Corporation -Act had, in 1829, been repealed, the Board of Deputies, already -referred to, felt that their opportunity had arrived. They applied -to the leading statesmen of the day, and among others to the Duke of -Wellington, pointing out that, as he had recently carried through -Parliament a Bill for the relief of the Roman Catholics, he was in -consistency bound to do the like for the relief of the Jews. But the -duke answered that such an attempt would raise so angry an outcry as -to render the success of the measure hopeless. - -Nevertheless, something was done. The first step was taken in 1828, -when the restrictions were removed which had been imposed on the -admission of the Jews to the Stock Exchange. Up to that time only -twelve Jewish brokers had been allowed there, and the privilege of -entry had to be purchased by the payment of a large sum to the Lord -Mayor.[214] This was now abolished; and in 1830 Mr. Robert Grant, -afterwards Lord Advocate in the Grey Ministry, introduced into the -House of Commons a Bill for the removal of Jewish Disabilities. It -was rejected by the large majority of 163. The Reformed House of -Commons passed it three years afterwards, but it was thrown out in -the House of Lords. - -Still the cause of the Jews progressed. In 1830 an Act was passed, -legalizing Jewish marriages, which the law, up to that time, had not -recognised. In 1832 they were admitted to the franchise, and became -free of the City. They were now allowed to open shops there, which -they had hitherto been prohibited from doing. In 1833 a Jew, Mr. -Goldsmid, was admitted as a barrister by the Society of Lincoln’s -Inn. In 1835 Mr. Salomons, also a Jew, was made Sheriff of Middlesex. -In 1837 Mr. Montefiore was knighted by the Queen; and in 1844 the -Jews were declared eligible to all municipal offices. Mr. Salomons -was made an Alderman in 1847, and Lord Mayor in 1856. - -About this time a movement was set on foot in London for the -reformation of the Jewish Church there. It is stated that during the -first half of the present century the services in the synagogues -were ill-conducted and poorly attended. Attempts were made by some -zealous members of the community to bring about an improvement, -but for a long time with little success, until, in 1841, matters -came to a crisis. The reformers, among whom Sir Isaac Goldsmid was -conspicuous, withdrew from their brethren, and built what was called -the Reformed Synagogue, now situated in Upper Berkeley Street. The -object of the seceders was mainly to improve the existing liturgy, -partly by shortening it, partly by the removal of certain expressions -in the prayers which do not harmonize with the feelings of educated -Jews in the present day.[215] A good deal of angry feeling was called -forth on the occasion, and the excommunications of the seceders were -freely pronounced. After a few years, however, this began to subside, -and has now, we are told, vanished altogether. Both the Sephardim -and Ashkenazim, indeed, have made considerable alteration in their -liturgies in the course of the present century. - -In 1847 an important step was taken by the leaders of the Jewish -emancipationists. At the general election in that year Baron Lionel -Rothschild offered himself as a candidate for the city of London, and -was returned. When the session of 1849 opened, Lord John Russell, -then Premier, brought in a Bill to omit from the Parliamentary oath -the words, ‘on the true faith of a Christian,’ which rendered it -impossible for a Jew to take it. The Bill was carried by a majority -of 66. It was then introduced into the House of Lords by the Earl of -Carlisle, who urged that the Jews were now the only persons excluded -from Parliament on account of their religious opinions. As uniformity -of belief on religious subjects had ceased to be required as the -condition of admission to the legislature, it was obviously unjust to -exclude Jews on that ground. The Bill was opposed by the Archbishop -of Canterbury, who argued that the measure was inconsistent with the -national profession of Christianity; also by the Bishop of Exeter, -who declared it to be a breach of the contract made between the -sovereign and the nation—that ‘the Crown should maintain the laws -of God, and the true profession of the Gospel.’ On the other side, -Archbishop Whately argued that the spirit of Christianity forbids us -to require the imposition of civil penalties on those who differ from -it. On a division the Bill was lost by a majority of 25. - -An attempt of a different character was now made to obtain the object -desired. On the 26th of July, 1850, Baron Rothschild presented -himself before the Speaker to take the necessary oath; and when the -Clerk presented the New Testament, he said, ‘I desire to be sworn on -the Old Testament.’ Sir R. Inglis rose to oppose this suggestion; -the baron was ordered to withdraw, and a long debate ensued. The -opinion of the law officers of the Crown having been taken, the House -resolved that Baron Rothschild could not take the oath, except in the -ordinary manner prescribed by the law. It was agreed, however, that -another Bill should be introduced for the relief of the Jews in the -ensuing session. - -This was accordingly done. The Bill was brought in and carried, -though by a reduced majority, and was then sent up to the Lords, by -whom it was, as before, thrown out. Its rejection was followed by a -second attempt, similar to that of Baron Rothschild in the preceding -year. Alderman Salomons, who had been returned for the borough of -Greenwich, presented himself at the table, and demanded to be sworn -on the Old Testament. He was ordered to withdraw, but refused to -do so, until given into the custody of the Serjeant-at-Arms. He -also voted in two or three divisions, although he had not taken the -oath. The House declared this procedure to be illegal, and an action -was brought against Alderman Salomons in the Court of Exchequer -to recover of him the penalty of £500, which he was said to have -incurred by voting in the House of Commons without having previously -taken the oath. Judgment was given for the plaintiff. Mr. Salomons -appealed, and the case was again heard before six of the judges, but -they confirmed the decision of the previous court. - -From that time until 1858 Bills were repeatedly brought into the -Lower House, and passed by majorities, sometimes larger and sometimes -smaller, until the year above named, when, under a Conservative -Government, the Commons admitted the Jews by a resolution setting -aside the standing order of the House, and Baron Rothschild took his -seat as the first Jewish member. In 1860 a Bill was passed through -both Houses, allowing the Jews to omit from the Parliamentary oath -the words, ‘on the true faith of a Christian.’ To complete the -history of Jewish emancipation, it should here be added that in 1873 -Sir George Jessel was made Master of the Rolls, being the first Jew -admitted to the English Bench; and in 1885 Sir N. Rothschild was -created a peer, the first who has entered the English House of Lords. -No Jew has as yet been a Cabinet Minister; but it is obvious that, -whenever it shall serve the interest of the party which has for the -time a predominance in the country to make a Jew Lord Chancellor, or -one of the Secretaries of State, or even Premier, there will be no -legal obstacle, and probably no opposition offered to such a measure. -The struggle, in fact, is over. The Jews are fully emancipated. - -The history of this protracted strife is full of interest to -the student of Jewish history, because it illustrates in the -most forcible manner the difference of opinion in men’s minds -respecting the Jews, which has existed from the earliest ages of the -Church—which, indeed, still exists, notwithstanding the great change -in their condition which this present century has brought about. Many -sincere Christians still think that the nation, in admitting Jews -to the legislature, has been guilty of a breach of its duty in the -sight of God. There is, first of all, the belief that the Jews are -a people lying under the curse of God, and that to show any favour -to them is to rebel against this decree. We have seen what revolting -barbarities this idea led to during the Dark and Middle Ages. Its -nineteenth-century form—of standing aloof, and withholding civil -rights from them—is less shocking in its results, but equally false -in principle. God has doubtless His own purposes towards them, and -they are a standing miracle, an enduring evidence of the truth of His -prophetic word. But He has not commanded us to be the instruments of -what we may suppose to be His pleasure, and can do His work without -our help. Every faithful follower of St. Paul will regard the Jews -in the same light in which he regards them.[216] Every sincere -believer in the Lord will echo the same prayer[217] that He offered -for them. Again, there are those who, though they would repudiate -the notion above suggested, still think, with Archbishop Sumner, -that the admission of the Jew to the legislature is a repudiation -of our national Christianity; or, with Bishop Philpotts, that it -is a breach of the sovereign’s coronation oath. If this were so, -no faithful believer, no loyal citizen could uphold the measure. -But let us consider what this ‘admission to the legislature’ really -amounts to. A Jew who enters Parliament cannot, in consequence of -his entry, himself make or alter laws. He has only one voice out of -a thousand in any legislative enactment. It will be said that he -ought not to have any voice at all. But if so, he must not have the -elective suffrage; or he may help to return a member who represents -his opinions. Nay, even if he has not the suffrage, he may, by the -use of his money, his station, his personal character, his tongue as -a public speaker, his pen as a writer, exercise a powerful influence -in the settlement of public affairs, which is, in fact, legislation. -The only mode of preventing him from doing this would be to do as our -forefathers did in England, as Torquemada did in Spain—to forbid him -to dwell in the land at all. They were at least consistent, and could -be so in no other way. - -Again, does the sovereign, by giving the royal assent to a Bill -for the removal of Jewish disabilities, violate the undertaking of -the coronation oath, ‘to maintain the laws of God, and the true -profession of the Gospel’? By the ‘laws of God’ we must, I presume, -understand ‘the _commandments_ of God’ to be meant. The phrase occurs -continually in Scripture in that, and no other, sense. But how is the -maintenance of these impaired by the admission to the legislature -of the Jew, who acknowledges these commandments as religiously as -does the Christian? Again, there is ‘the true profession of the -Gospel’—that is, I conclude, the profession of the Gospel, untainted -by heresy or falsehood. But the Jew would have no power of tainting -this, though he _were_ to become a member of Parliament. Parliament -does not determine theological controversies, sit in judgment on -heresies, does not admit candidates for orders, does not ordain or -consecrate. If the Jew were to be allowed, through his election to -the House of Commons, to meddle with any of these things, that would, -no doubt, be a very different matter, which all loyal Churchmen would -resist to the utmost. But notoriously the Jewish member of Parliament -neither possesses nor desires anything of the kind.[218] - -There is, in truth, a confusion in some men’s minds between -‘God’s laws’ and Christian dogmas, which misleads them. As Head -of the State, the sovereign upholds the ‘laws of God’—of public -morality, that is to say—which are rightly so called, because -they are primarily of God’s ordering. These, all men, whatever be -their distinctive creed, are bound to support. As the Head of the -Church, again, the sovereign maintains Christian dogmas through the -ministrations of those who hold offices in that Church, and takes -cognisance of denials and perversions of the Faith. To these offices -there never has been any proposal to admit the Jews, nor is there the -least likelihood that such ever will be made. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[214] Sir Moses Montefiore paid £1,200 for his admission to the Stock -Exchange. - -[215] In the twelfth prayer, used by the Jews for many centuries, -in their public worship, occurred the words: ‘Let there be no hope -for those who apostatize from the true religion, and let heretics, -however so many they be, perish in a moment. And let the kingdom of -pride (the Roman empire) be speedily rooted out and broken in our -days.’ In the liturgy of the Ashkenazim this prayer (which tradition -attributes to Gamaliel) now stands thus: ‘Let the slanderers have -no hope, all the wicked be annihilated speedily, and all tyrants be -cut off quickly.’ In that of the Sephardim the prayer runs: ‘Let -slanderers have no hope, and let all presumptuous apostates perish in -a moment. May Thine enemies and those that hate Thee be suddenly cut -off, and all those that act wickedly be suddenly consumed, broken, -and rooted out; and humble Thou them speedily in our days.’—Horne’s -_Introduction_, iii. 474. - -[216] Romans x. 1. - -[217] Luke xxiii. 34. - -[218] Sir G. Jessel would not present to a living, which was in -his patronage as Master of the Rolls, on the very grounds here -alleged—that he had nothing to do, and ought to have nothing to do, -with the Christian Church. No doubt, in the present anomalous state -of things, questions relative to the Church might be brought before -Parliament with which no Jew could with any propriety interfere. But -if he is to be excluded on that ground, then all but genuine members -of the Church ought to be excluded also. - - - - - CHAPTER XLII. - - A.D. 1800-1885. - - THE JEWS IN FRANCE, ITALY, AND GERMANY. - - -We hear no more of the Jews in France, after the relief granted them -by the Republican Government, until 1806; when Napoleon, who by his -victory at Austerlitz had obtained almost undisputed supremacy in -Europe, was arranging his schemes for carrying out that darling dream -of his imagination, the Continental system. Few men were keener or -more far-sighted than Napoleon. It cannot be doubted that he saw the -great value which the cordial co-operation of the Jews would be to -him, if he could only obtain it. Their secret but widespread system -of mutual intercommunication,[219] their wealth, their intelligence, -their perfect mastery of the principles of commerce, would greatly -facilitate the designs he contemplated. It is probable that even -then he meditated the resuscitation of the Kingdom of Poland, as -a formidable opponent to Russia; and the vast number of Jews to -be found in those countries rendered their goodwill of the utmost -importance to the success of such a scheme. He convoked a meeting -of Jews in Paris, which, to gratify their national sentiment, he -called a Sanhedrin, and submitted to it twelve questions,[220] -mainly relating to their social life and position in France. It -had the effect, as he doubtless had anticipated, of drawing forth -an assurance of their appreciation of the privileges of French -citizenship, and their warm affection for their native land, as they -designated France. The Imperial Government professed itself satisfied -with the reply. A second Sanhedrin was summoned, at which foreign -Jews were invited to attend, and a kind of constitution framed, by -which it was hoped that the Jews everywhere throughout Europe would -be bound. It was ratified by an imperial edict, and was, on the -whole, extremely favourable to them. It took effect in France and -all countries to which Napoleon’s authority extended, though in some -parts, as Alsace, concessions were made to popular prejudice, and the -privileges of the Jews curtailed. The effect was soon seen in the -purchase of estates by Jewish proprietors, the employment of Jewish -capital in manufactures, and the participation of the Jews generally -in national schemes of foreign and domestic policy.[221] At the -Revolution of 1830 the most complete equality of citizenship was -granted them; and since that time there has been no alteration in the -laws of France, so far as they are concerned. - -In Italy the condition of the Jews has varied very little during this -century, though public attention has been once or twice directed to -them. In most of the large cities, though they are regarded with a -species of tacit dislike, no open wrong is done them. In some, as, -for example, Florence, they are treated with strict justice, indeed, -it might be said with favour. Their rights are protected, and they -are allowed to pursue all trades and professions, except that of the -physician. At Rome, on the accession of Pio Nono, among the various -liberal measures adopted by him was one in favour of the Jews. At -that time they were strictly confined within the precincts of their -Ghetto; they were obliged every year to send a deputation of four -elders to ask permission to reside during that year at Rome, and they -were required to attend periodically to listen to sermons preached -for their conversion. All these obligations were annulled by the new -pontiff. On the 17th April, 1847, he went in solemn procession to the -Ghetto, and ordered the wall of partition between it and the rest of -the city to be thrown down.[222] He rescinded the regulations whereby -the Jews were compelled to sue for permission to dwell in Rome, and -to attend controversial sermons. He even substituted a star for a -cross, in an order of merit which he instituted, that he might not -offend their feelings. After the Revolution of 1848, however, the old -regulations were again enforced. - -In the summer of the year 1858 public attention was again drawn to -the condition of the Jews in the Papal States. On the 23rd of June -in that year Signor Mortara, a cloth merchant of Bologna, received -a visit from the police; who, it appeared, had been sent by Padre -Felletti, Chief Inquisitor of Bologna. It was night, and Signor -Mortara’s seven children were all in bed. They were awakened; an -inquiry was made as to the names and ages of each; and the parents -were then informed that a maid-servant, who had been in their -service, had given evidence to the effect that six years before, -when one of their children, Edgar by name, had been dangerously ill, -she had secretly baptized him. The child was therefore a Christian, -and must be given up to the Catholic Church, to be bred up in that -faith. The mother screamed and fainted. The father appealed to the -Archbishop of Bologna and the Governor, but without effect. The child -was forcibly seized by the Carabineers, and sent to Rome. - -Signor Mortara followed, and had an interview with Cardinal -Antonelli. The line he took does not seem to have been the one which -would naturally have suggested itself to an Englishman. He did not -represent that, even assuming the girl’s statement to be correct, -it would be a most monstrous perversion, alike of natural right and -Christian doctrine, to suppose that her act could be any sufficient -ground for removing a child from the care of its parents, to which -the Providence of God had entrusted it. Probably he knew, however, -that any such plea would be urged in vain, and that his only chance -of success lay in disproving that any such baptism as the servant -alleged had ever taken place. He therefore brought forward evidence -that the child had not had the dangerous illness which she declared -it to have had, and further, that the servant girl’s character -was so bad that her evidence was of no value. Antonelli was not -to be convinced. He did, indeed, so far relent as to allow the -parents occasionally to see their son; but the priests continually -interfered; and at last, finding probably that they made no progress -in reconciling the child to his new life as long as the father and -mother had access to him, they conveyed him away altogether. - -The story excited a profound sensation throughout Europe. Several of -the Great Powers remonstrated with the Vatican, urging that the boy -ought to be restored to his parents. Their representations failing, -Sir Moses Montefiore, the well-known champion of Jewish rights, -undertook a journey to Rome, where he had an interview with Cardinal -Antonelli, and asked to be allowed to plead his suit personally with -the pope. His efforts were zealously seconded by Mr. Odo Russell, -the British Agent, but they proved futile nevertheless. Sir Moses -was informed that Pio Nono regarded the affair as one which had been -finally settled, and which he declined to reopen. The boy’s mother is -said to have died of grief. However that may be, it is certain that -no more shameful tale of persecution ever disgraced the annals of the -Papacy. It is a consolation to know that the establishment of the -Italian monarchy brought freedom and civil equality at last to the -Jewish people.[223] - -In Germany, their history during this century is full of interest, -partly on account of the remarkable variations of policy exhibited -from time to time in the dealings of the German Government with -them, and partly from the conflict of opinion between the ancient -Rabbinical schools and what may be called the neology of modern -Judaism, which, originating as we have seen with Mendelssohn and -his contemporaries, derived afterwards much of its inspiration from -Strauss and other kindred writers. - -After the fall of Napoleon, when Germany was reconstructed -professedly as nearly as possible on its ancient basis, one article -of the Federal Act of the Germanic States, promulgated in June, 1815, -secured to the Jews the possession of equal rights of citizenship -throughout Germany, conditionally only on their compliance with -the laws of the State in which they resided. But it is always -easier to frame a law than to ensure its observance, and this was -especially the case in Germany, which consisted of a great number of -federal States, in which there was a great difference of opinion on -many subjects, and especially as regarded the status of the Jews. -The principle of Jewish equality, social and political, with the -Christian inhabitants of every country, did make its way, but very -slowly, and several generations passed before it came to be fully -acknowledged. - -Nor was it only the _vis inertiæ_, so to speak, of public opinion -that had to be overcome. In some countries, at all events, there -was a positive reaction against the favour which had been shown by -Diets and Governments to the Jews. Even as early as 1815, Frankfort, -Lubeck, and Bremen made several enactments, revoking the civil -privileges which had been granted to the Jews. Commercial jealousy -does not seem to have been the main, or at all events the sole, -occasion of this change of policy. The Jews were attacked by men of -learning and ability, whom we might have expected to be superior to -the prejudices they displayed. The faults of their national character -were alleged against them—their exclusiveness, their inveterate -obstinacy, their greed of gain, and especially the bigotry of their -religious belief. This was no doubt offensive to the rationalizing -school, which was rising into eminence. Some of the German professors -insisted on their being regarded as always and everywhere aliens, who -could not be made to amalgamate with any other nation—who might exist -in great numbers _in_ any land, but would never be of it. The effect -of this agitation was, for the time, at all events, to throw back -the question of Jewish emancipation. They were excluded from holding -magisterial offices, professorships in the Universities, commissions -in the army. In some States the question of their expatriation -was mooted; it was even carried out at Lubeck, so far as the city -itself was concerned. In other places something of the old mediæval -outrages were renewed. At Hamburg and other towns the houses of the -Jews were pillaged and demolished. It is even said that in some -places the old cry of the monk Rodolph, ‘Hep, Hep,’ was again heard. - -The revolutionary outbreak of 1830 in France spread into Germany; but -the extreme Liberal party did not now advocate, as before, the entire -social and political equality of the Jews with their fellow-citizens. -Hatred of dogmatic teaching seems to have overpowered every other -consideration; and as the dogmatism of the Jews has always been one -of their most marked characteristics, the Rationalist leaders, among -whom Bruno Bauer was conspicuous, clamoured for their suppression -as a religious community, and the withdrawal of civil rights and -privileges from them. The orthodox Jews did not lack able and -zealous champions; but, as has been already intimated, it was not -from Christians only that they encountered opposition. As some -nominal Christians in Germany, and certain others who could hardly -claim the title of Christian at all, had dealt with the historical -records and theological dogmas of the Gospel, so did nominal Jews -deal with those of Judaism. ‘In the Synagogue, as in the Church,’ -says Da Costa,[224] ‘everything that was national and Israelitish, -all that was supernatural and beyond the reach of unassisted human -reason, was furiously attacked and rejected.’ It was not merely -that novelties were introduced into the ancient Hebrew liturgy and -synagogue service, that organs and music were imported, and sermons -preached in the German language, and new prayers interpolated, and -old prayers excluded, but the fundamental doctrines of their faith -were questioned and discredited. One party proposed to abolish the -Jewish Sabbath, substituting the Christian Sunday for it. Another -openly declared that they looked for and desired no Messiah to come. -Another more insidiously averred that they did indeed believe in -the future advent of the Hope of Israel, but He was not a Person, -but simply the representative of ever-advancing enlightenment and -benediction—one who always had been and ever would be coming, but who -would never come until the perfection of humanity had been reached. -But a theory like this would be more embarrassing to the Jew than -its counterpart was to the Christian. Rationalists might declare the -Incarnate God to have been a personified myth, an ideal Being, in -whose reputed words and acts Christian ideology found embodiment. -But there were His words, which no man could have spoken; and there -were His acts, which no man could have performed; there were His -predictions, which the history of the world since His day had made -good, and which nothing but Divine Wisdom could have uttered. The -Jews had nothing of this to sustain them, and it cannot surprise -us that many among them found no shelter in such a sea of doubt, -except in embracing the Christian creed. Hence, in all likelihood, -the number of conversions which are reported to have taken place in -Germany at this period. Da Costa reports them as having amounted to -five thousand in twenty years. - -But orthodox Judaism made a resolute stand against the evil. Schools -and colleges were established in the great German cities, presided -over by learned and zealous teachers: nor is there any lack of -distinguished writers and able preachers among them. Among scholars, -Raport and Leopold Zunz were pre-eminent;[225] among historians, -Geiger and Graetz, the last-named the author of the most copious and -learned History of the Jews which has yet appeared. The German Jews -have also distinguished themselves in every department of science and -literature—in politics, in music, in metaphysics, in medicine, in the -_belles lettres_. Their free admission to all public offices, and the -full rights of citizenship, dates only from the reconstruction of the -German empire; but it is now fully, and we may hope finally, secured. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[219] Baron Rothschild, by his private agencies, was enabled to -inform the British Government of the escape of Napoleon from Elba, -and Wellington’s victory at Waterloo. - -[220] These questions were: 1, 2, 3. Are polygamy, divorce, and -intermarriage with Christians allowed by Jewish law? 4, 5, 6. In what -light are Frenchmen regarded by Jews, and do the Jews feel themselves -bound by the laws of France? 7, 8, 9. In what manner, and by whom, -are the Rabbins elected, and what are their powers? 10, 11, 12. Are -there any professions forbidden to Jews? Is usury, with their own -people, and with strangers, permissible? The Jews answered: that -polygamy was forbidden; divorce allowed, if in accordance with the -law of the land; intermarriage legal, but not celebrated by any -religious rite; that the Jews regarded Frenchmen as their brethren, -and acknowledged French law; that any profession was lawful; that -the Rabbins were elected according to custom, and had no judicial -authority; that legal interest was permitted, but usury forbidden. - -[221] In a return made in 1808, scarcely more than a year after -Napoleon’s edict, it is declared that there were then 80,000 -Jews in France, of whom 1,232 were landed proprietors, 250 were -manufacturers, and 797 military men, among whom were officers of all -ranks, up to field-marshals. - -[222] The Ghetto had been thrown open during the French possession of -Rome; but in 1815, when Italy returned to its old masters, the former -state of things was resumed. - -[223] Since the complete consolidation of the Italian kingdom under -Victor Emmanuel, the Jews in all parts of Italy have enjoyed the -rights of citizenship without any restriction. They are free to -live wherever they like, follow any trades or professions, and are -entitled to hold the same offices and perform the same duties as all -other Italian citizens. The Ghettoes are everywhere abolished—that -is, every one who chooses is permitted to live in them, and no one -who does not choose is required to reside there. - -[224] _Israel and the Gentiles_, p. 597. - -[225] Zunz is the author of a masterly review of Jewish ethics, and -two works on the poetry of the mediæval Jews. He also wrote a notice -of the celebrated Rashi, and other works. - - - - - CHAPTER XLIII. - - A.D. 1800-1885. - - THE JEWS IN OTHER EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. - - -In Spain, until quite within the last few years, there was no -material change in the condition of the Jews from what it had been -during the eighteenth century. In 1808, when Spain fell under the -authority of Napoleon, the Inquisition was suppressed. It was revived -again when the country returned, in 1814, to the dominion of its -native sovereigns, but only to last for a few years, being finally -put down by the Cortes in 1820. The old intolerance, however, the -iron legislation of Ferdinand and Isabella, still continued virtually -in force. Jews, as such, could not reside with any safety in Spain, -until—as it has been before observed—quite recently, when the example -shown everywhere in civilized Europe has at last had its effect, -and the Jews have been permitted to return to a country for which, -notwithstanding the persecutions of many generations, they have ever -cherished a warm attachment. In 1881, the Spanish Ambassador at -Constantinople so far reversed the traditional policy of his country, -as to offer a shelter in Spain for some Jewish fugitives from -Russia; and in some of the principal Spanish towns Jewish worship is -now publicly celebrated. - -The same is the case in Portugal. In 1821 the Cortes abolished the -Inquisition, restored the ancient rights possessed by the Jews -previously to the reign of King Emmanuel, and decreed that Jews might -everywhere settle in Portugal. - -In Holland and Belgium there is perfect freedom and equality. This -dates from 1796, when the French gained possession of the country, -and introduced the same regulations which existed among themselves. -These were not at first entirely acceptable to the Jewish residents, -because, while on the one hand they removed many restrictions -hitherto imposed upon them, they also restrained the power of the -Rabbins, and required Jews to take part in all public duties and -burdens. But the rights of citizenship were found to be a boon more -than compensating these drawbacks; and there is now no distinction -between them and the native inhabitants of the countries in question. - -In Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, the number of Jews is insignificant, -and but little attention appears to be paid to them. In Switzerland -they were long treated with extreme harshness. French influence, so -efficient in other contiguous countries, did very little for them. -It is only within the last ten years that religious freedom has been -conceded to them by the State. - -To pass to a more important country, Austria, the Jews, early in -this century, were somewhat severely dealt with. The successors of -their great patron and friend, Joseph II., annulled many of the -privileges he had granted them. Indeed, for the greater part of the -present century they have been subject to what must be regarded as -unreasonable restrictions. They were not allowed to rent or purchase -land, nor could they remove from one place to another without the -special permission of the Government, and a heavy capitation tax was -exacted of them. This, however, was reduced in 1848, and twenty years -afterwards they obtained from the Government the entire freedom -which they now enjoy. Several Jews, we are told, are now members of -the legislature. - -These regulations have the force of law in Hungary as well as in -Austria proper; but neither the Government nor the people accord -them the perfect liberty and equality which the law professes to -secure. The antipathy to them all over Central Europe is well known. -In Hungary, within the last few years, this has been painfully -illustrated by the trial at Nyireghyaza, which for many weeks -attracted the attention of all Europe. As it illustrates, more -forcibly than any comment could do, the true status of the Hungarian -Jews, it will be proper to give an outline of the occurrence here. - -In March, 1882, a young girl named Esther Solymosi suddenly -disappeared. She was discontented with her situation, and had -quarrelled with her mistress. A few weeks afterwards, a Jew named -Scharf, together with one or two other of his countrymen, was -charged with having murdered her, in order to use her blood for -ritual purposes. At first, the sole evidence was a Jewish child, -five years old, who said that he had seen his father and brother cut -the girl’s throat, and catch her blood in a basin. The brother, a -boy of fourteen, at first denied any knowledge of the transaction, -but afterwards retracted the denial. He now said that he had not -been present when the deed was done, but he had seen it through the -key-hole of the door of the tabernacle. There was no corroborative -evidence of his tale, and, in addition to the fact that it was in the -teeth of his first evidence, it was proved that it was impossible to -see through the key-hole of the door in the way he had described. - -Six weeks afterwards a body, which was sworn to be that of Esther -Solymosi, was found in the river Theiss. It was dressed in her -clothes, and identified by means of a peculiar scar. It was pretended -that the body of another person had been dressed in Esther’s clothes, -in order to frustrate inquiry. But the case broke down, and the Jews -were fully acquitted. The verdict was accompanied by an official -declaration that the oft-repeated charge made against the Jews, -of using Christian blood in their services, is a baseless calumny. -But the popular outcry with which the acquittal was received shows -how deeply seated the prejudice of the Hungarian people on this -subject still is. The inquiry, in fact, revealed a mass of ignorance, -prejudice, and uncharity which would have been bad enough in the -twelfth century, but which in the nineteenth is almost incredible. -The lower classes, indeed, are, in most European countries, -still steeped in ignorance. But what are we to think of men of -education—mayors, commissioners of police, lawyers holding high -offices—who could believe that the Jews made use of Christian blood -in the performance of their religious rites? What are we to think of -a public prosecutor who could declare that the Jews wanted Christian -blood, and could not have wanted it except for ritual purposes? It is -an astonishing instance of how far inveterate prejudice can influence -the minds of even educated men.[226] - -In Russia, as has been before remarked, the number of the Jews is -greater, and the treatment they experience more harsh, than in any -other country in the world. From Russia proper—‘Holy Russia,’ as it -is styled—they have been for many generations excluded, nor are they -by the law allowed to remain there now. The law is often evaded, -and great misery frequently results from it. Some idle or malicious -story gains currency, and stirs the populace to a fierce fanatical -outbreak, in which pillage, outrage, and massacre are perpetrated on -a large scale; or else the authorities are suddenly stirred up to a -real or pretended zeal for the vindication of the law, and thousands -of Jewish families are all at a moment required to emigrate from the -country. In 1846, the Czar Nicholas issued a new ukase, requiring -all Jews who dwelt within five-and-thirty miles of the German and -Austrian frontier to remove into the interior. The ground alleged -for this edict was, that large quantities of goods had been smuggled -across the frontier. The English Board of Deputies, among whom were -Montefiore and Rothschild, laid a statement before Lord Aberdeen, -then Foreign Minister, pointing out the terrible suffering and ruin -which this measure would occasion. Lord Aberdeen pleaded their cause -with the emperor, who was induced to suspend his ukase, at first for -three years, and after that again for four more. Finding that he -could not succeed in obtaining its entire revocation, Montefiore made -a personal expedition to St. Petersburg, where he was kindly received -by the Czar, and succeeded in inducing him to cancel the edict. Under -Alexander II. the grievances were in some degree alleviated. A few -have been allowed to leave the old over-crowded settlements, and -establish new commercial centres in other provinces of the empire. -But their condition is still extremely miserable. They are loaded -with special imposts, and subject to all manner of restrictions: they -are excluded from many professions, or are only enabled to follow -them by paying bribes to officials, who have them completely at -their mercy. Fanatical risings against them also are frequent, being -connived at, if not actually encouraged, by the authorities. - -In Servia, their condition is somewhat better. Forcible emigrations -have occasionally occurred, but not to the same extent as in -neighbouring countries. Much the same is the case in Moldavia, where -they were allowed to follow most handicrafts. It is said that the -roofs and pinnacles and churches throughout the country are the work -of Jews, and almost every inn has a Jewish landlord. Of late years, -however, their privileges have been abridged, and they have been -subjected to a good deal of harsh usage. - -In Roumania their treatment has been even worse. It may be doubted -whether even in Russia the Jews have undergone so many and such -undeserved wrongs. It will be remembered that Roumania is the most -recently established of all the European kingdoms, having been -recognised as an independent State by the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. -One of the conditions of their admission to the list of European -sovereignties was embodied in Article 44 of the Treaty:— - -‘In Roumania the difference of religious creeds shall not be alleged -against any person as a ground of exclusion from civil and political -rights, admission to public employments, and the exercise of -professions and industries in any locality whatsoever.’ - -But the congress had hardly been broken up, when the Roumanians -endeavoured to escape from the obligation thus laid upon them. -Instead of conferring the privilege of naturalization on the whole of -the Jews throughout the country by one sweeping measure, they granted -it only to such individuals as applied for it, and required of those -certain conditions with which it would be difficult for many Jews, -and impossible for many more, to comply.[227] The consequence has -been that although there are said to be more than two hundred and -fifty thousand Jews in Roumania, who have been for many generations -past resident in that country,[228] little more than a thousand -have been naturalized; and even in the instance of these, the -naturalization is only personal, the children of such persons being -reckoned as aliens. In 1884 no single Jew obtained the privilege. In -short, the condition on which Roumania was admitted by the Congress -of Berlin to rank as a sovereign State has been deliberately and -systematically evaded. This has, indeed, been pointed out to the -Roumanian Government by some of the Signatory Powers, but without -effect. - -It must not be supposed that the withholding of naturalization is -merely a sentimental grievance. It entails disabilities of the -gravest character, debarring them from most professions and trades, -and hampering the Jews seriously in such as they are allowed to -follow. No Jew can be a government, a railway, or a sanitary -official, a director of a bank, a broker, a clerk, or a chemist. They -are excluded from all places of public education; in many places -the right of keeping inns has been withdrawn from them; there is -a continual agitation in progress to deprive them of the power of -carrying on the few trades still allowed them. Only in the year 1884 -what was called the ‘Hawking Law’ was passed, by which hawkers were -liable to prosecution if they traded without a licence, and this -licence is invariably refused to Jews. Nor does the tale of their -wrongs end with their exclusion from all privileges of citizenship. -They are exposed to insults and wrongs of all kinds, for which there -is practically no redress; no court of law would venture to give an -impartial judgment in any suit between a Christian and a Jew.[229] -Any attempts to bring the question of their rights before the Senate -inevitably fail, permission even to discuss the question being -refused. The press, in most countries the advocate of toleration and -freedom, is here the bitterest and loudest supporter of injustice -and oppression. In fact, the worst intolerance of the worst periods -in France, Spain, and Germany is displayed in the Roumania of the -present day. It is surprising that the European Powers who imposed -their conditions on the Roumanian Government at the Berlin Congress -have not felt themselves bound in honour to see them loyally carried -out. It may surely be hoped that they will before long awake so far -to a sense of their responsibility as to do so. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[226] See Appendix V., Blood Accusation. - -[227] They were required to present petitions, in which the applicant -stated the amount of the capital he possessed, and the profession or -calling which he followed. After the presentation, he was obliged to -reside for _ten years_ in the country, during which he must prove -himself a useful member of society. It is obvious that in these -stipulations there is ample opportunity for refusing naturalization -to any Jew whom the Government might dislike. - -[228] They are chiefly Sephardim fugitives from Spain in the -fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. - -[229] At Botouschani, in 1885, five Roumanians were charged with -murdering a Jew. The evidence was clear, but the defence was, -that a Christian could not be punished for killing a Jew; and a -verdict of acquittal was given, but coupled with an order to pay a -thousand francs to the Jew’s family for the murder. Quite recently -an illustrated newspaper issued a large engraving, of which the -murder of a Christian child by Jews—the old, shameless, worn-out, a -thousand-times-disproved, calumny—was the subject. It is impossible -to believe that the proprietors of the paper knew perfectly the -falsehood and calumny which they were circulating; but they knew that -the bitter hate entertained towards the Jews would ensure them a -remunerative sale. - - - - - CHAPTER XLIV. - - A.D. 1800-1885. - - THE JEWS IN AFRICA, AMERICA, AND ASIA.—CONCLUSION. - - -The position of the Jews in Morocco is less secure than in most -Mahometan countries. They suffer from the fanaticism of the -Mahometans, who are a less humanized race than their Asiatic -brethren. Robbery and murder are perpetrated almost with impunity, -the protection of the law being almost a dead letter, so far as they -are concerned. As an evidence of their abject condition, it is said -that they are compelled to go bare-foot in most of the principal -cities. Beyond the bounds of Morocco large numbers of Jews lead -a nomad life, dwelling in tents, keeping flocks and herds, and -cultivating the land in their vicinity. Their condition in Cairo -and Alexandria is somewhat better, and there are many wealthy Jews -in these cities. But everywhere they are liable to the outbreaks -of blind fanatical fury to which reference has so often been made. -An instance of this occurred in 1863, which it is important to -notice, as showing only too plainly the condition of things in those -countries. A Spaniard had died suddenly at Saffi, and the Spanish -authorities required an examination into the circumstances of his -death. To avert suspicion from themselves, the Moors accused a Jewish -boy, who was in the dead man’s service, of poisoning him. He denied -the crime, but was scourged until he confessed it, and implicated -several other persons. A popular outbreak would have ensued if the -Morocco Jews had not appealed to Sir Moses Montefiore. He requested -the intervention of our Government, and made an expedition to -Morocco, where he not only succeeded in releasing several Jews, who -had been detained in prison on charges which could not be proved, -but obtained an audience of the Sultan of Morocco, who received -him with great distinction. He pointed out to the Sultan that the -Jews of Morocco were without any legal protection, and were in -consequence frequently subject to outrages for which they could -obtain no redress; and he entreated that equal justice might be -secured to them as to other inhabitants of the country. In a few days -an edict was issued, commanding that in future Jews, Christians, -and Mahometans should be treated with equal justice throughout the -Sultan’s dominions. Experience has shown that it is more easy to -obtain these concessions from Moslem sovereigns than to ensure their -due observance by subordinate officers. Still, there can be no doubt -that this is a great advance in the social condition of the Jews of -Morocco. - -There are a good many Jews in Brazil and in the United States of -America. In the last-named country it needs not to be said that -they enjoy the most entire toleration. Jewish hospitals, Jewish -orphanages, free schools, almshouses, benevolent institutions of -all kinds, exist in the principal cities, in which also magnificent -synagogues are to be found. The authority of the Rabbins, however, is -not so great, as a rule, as it is in European countries. It is said -that there is great laxity in their ritual—some discarding Hebrew -altogether in their liturgies, some making the Sunday instead of -the Saturday their day of religious observance. Their increase of -population during the last few generations has been extraordinarily -rapid. Jews are found scattered in Mexico and in the great South -American cities, but not in any great numbers. - -In the dominions of the Sultan, both the European and the Asiatic, -the position of the Jews during the present century has varied little -from what it was in those which preceded it. As has been already -remarked, they are more kindly and fairly treated than in other -Mahometan countries—the result, probably, of freer communication -with Europe. But here, too, they are liable to sudden outbursts of -religious fanaticism or commercial jealousy, and on these occasions -they suffer great injustice and cruelty. Two signal instances of this -occurred A.D. 1840. - -In that year, a Greek boy in the island of Rhodes having suddenly -disappeared, a woman affirmed that she had seen him, shortly before, -in company with a Jew. It chanced to be near the time of the -Passover, and, strange as it may seem, some of the European consuls, -on no better evidence than this, raised the old slander that the boy -had been murdered, in order that his blood might be used for ritual -purposes. The Jew was arrested, and denied any knowledge of the boy. -He was thereupon put to the torture, under which his reason gave way, -and he uttered the names of several Jews, who were at once assumed to -be his accomplices. They were seized, and in their turn put on the -rack; the Jewish quarter was closed, and no food allowed to enter it; -and it is even said that an attempt was made to convey a dead body -into one of the houses, in order that it might be found there. The -story spread in all directions, and popular risings and outrages on -the Jews ensued. - -The affair at Damascus was even more serious. Father Tomaso, a monk, -who for many years had practised medicine, suddenly disappeared. A -report was spread that he had been last seen in the Jewish quarter, -which was instantly invaded by a mob of Christians, who denounced the -Jews as his murderers. Count Menton, the French Consul, actuated, it -is believed, by political motives, took up the matter and insisted -on the punishment of the offenders, as he chose to consider the -Jews. He produced persons who swore that the monk had been seen to -enter the shop of a Jewish barber, from which he had never issued -forth again. The barber was seized and bastinadoed, until in his -agony he accused several of the richest Jews in the city as having -been concerned in the murder. They were subjected in their turn to -tortures, under which two of them died, and several more confessed -their complicity in the crime. A young Jew, who swore that he had -seen Father Tomaso enter the house of a Turkish merchant, on the -evening of his disappearance, was bastinadoed to death, in order to -induce him to retract his statement. The French Consul now laid the -confessions which had been extracted from the prisoners before the -Turkish Pacha, and insisted on their being immediately put to death. - -Fortunately the Pacha thought it his safer course to apply to head -quarters for instructions, and thus sufficient time was given for -the report of what had occurred to reach England. There it created -a profound sensation. A large meeting of influential Jews was held -in London, at the house of Sir Moses Montefiore, who was deputed -to seek an interview with Lord Palmerston, at that time Foreign -Secretary. From him Sir Moses received all possible help; but it was -thought advisable that a special mission should be sent to the East -to represent the matter in its true light to the Turkish authorities. -Sir Moses himself undertook the office, and proceeded to Syria, -accompanied by M. Cremieux, a Jewish member of the French Chamber, -and several others. They learned that at Rhodes the prisoners had -been liberated, and the governor who had sanctioned the proceedings -dismissed from his office; but the Damascus affair was still -undetermined. Sir Moses obtained an interview with the Pacha of -Egypt, who endeavoured to compromise the matter by offering to pardon -all the prisoners who had been accused. But he was answered that -it was not justice to pardon innocent men. What was demanded was a -complete and honourable acquittal of the accused. This was presently -granted, and the prisoners discharged from custody. Subsequently -Sir Moses had an interview with the Sultan himself, on the 6th of -November in the same year, 1840, when he obtained from him—as he had -formerly done from the Sultan of Morocco—the celebrated firman, which -granted to the Jews, everywhere throughout the Turkish dominions, the -most complete protection. - -In Persia, Bokhara, Yemen, and Central Asia, numerous colonies -of Jews exist, engaged as a rule in trade, but also occasionally -employed in agriculture. They are not as wealthy, apparently, -as their Western brethren. Many of them, indeed, are extremely -poor, earning their subsistence as day labourers. They speak and -write their own language only, though able to converse with the -inhabitants of the country. They live very much among themselves, -never intermarrying with strangers, and carry their differences to -the Rabbi of their synagogue, who, indeed, is the judge authorized -by the law for the settlement of their disputes. One cause of -their isolation is their fear of allowing their children to study -secular subjects, which they think would be likely to undermine the -foundations of their faith. - -In the Holy Land, it was reported in 1881 that there were about -15,000 Jews in Jerusalem, about half its population. Whether that -is correct or not, it is certain that the number of Jews in that -city is steadily, though not rapidly, increasing, and has been on -the increase ever since the Crimean War. Whatever may be thought -about that war, one of its consequences was to open Palestine to -European settlers; and, as might have been expected, the Jews -availed themselves of the opportunity of obtaining for themselves -a home in the ancient land of their fathers. But very few of -those who have attempted this possessed the means of comfortably -establishing themselves. It has been remarked by one who knows the -Jews well, that they are contented to live elsewhere so long as -life goes prosperously with them. It is the poor, the unfortunate, -the persecuted, who seek a refuge there. Old people again, whose -children are out in the world, come to spend the remainder of their -days in religious exercises. A few Rabbins also devote themselves to -the work of looking after the various communities thus established. -The Montefiore Testimonial Committee has done something to assist -this immigration. It has established agricultural communities in -various places, notably beyond the western walls of Jerusalem, where -four thousand Jews are lodged in comfortable houses, especially built -for them. The population has trebled itself, according to trustworthy -information, since 1860. - -But there are great drawbacks. The Jews are not naturally disposed to -manual labour, preferring, as they themselves say, to work with their -brains rather than their hands. There is also the temptation—which -always besets those who live, to some extent, on the charity of -others—to abuse the generosity of their benefactors, by doing no -work at all themselves. There is also the competition of the native -labourer, the fellah, who is used to the climate, and hard labour and -poor food, and who can live at about one-third of what is necessary -for the Jew. On the whole, it cannot be said that the lower classes -of Jews are prospering in the Holy Land. - -There are, however, many synagogues both of Ashkenazim and Sephardim -Jews in Jerusalem, and Talmudical schools supported by large -contributions levied on Jews throughout the world. Schools also exist -at Hebron, Tiberias, Safed, Jaffa, and other towns. There are also -three Jewish hospitals in Jerusalem, as well as numerous almshouses. -All sects of Jews are represented in Jerusalem, Chasidim and -Karaites, as well as the orthodox adherents of the Rabbins. On the -whole, though there is no doubt that the condition of the Palestinian -Jews has been ameliorated of late years, it is still doubtful whether -any permanent improvement can be effected while the country continues -to be subject to Turkish misrule. - -Here, then, we bring to an end this strangely varied, yet still more -strangely monotonous, narrative—not, as in the case of any other -ancient people, because its national history has come to an end, but -simply because we cannot read the future. Eighteen centuries have, -in all other instances, effected so vast a change in the condition -of a nation, that it is difficult to trace any identity between its -earlier and its later generations. Eighteen centuries ago our own -ancestors were savage tribes, living in wattled huts, staining their -naked bodies with woad, and practising barbarous and bloody rites. -In language, in religion, in mental and moral culture, in social -organization, they were so wholly different from ourselves that it -is difficult to discover any point of resemblance between the two. -But in all these respects, the Jew of the first century differs but -little from his descendant eighteen hundred years afterwards. He -speaks the same tongue, he holds the same creed, he observes the same -habits, or nearly the same habits, of life as his forefathers did -all that long period ago. And yet that long period is not half the -life of the Jewish people. It began in an age when the tradition of -the Flood was still fresh on earth; it is still in the fulness of -its life, when the eye of faith can distinguish, not very far off, -the dawning of the Judgment Day. How is this strange tale to end? -What is to be the last act of this amazing drama? Jerusalem has been -long trodden down of the Gentiles; the times of the Gentiles are -nearly fulfilled. What is to follow? Are the Jews to be restored, -as a distinct people, to the Land of Promise, and there accept Him -whom their fathers rejected as their King? There is no subject on -which speculation is more busy, or on which more confident judgments -are pronounced. But it is the voice of man that speaks, not of God. -One thing alone is sure. God has not cast away His people. Who can -read their history, and doubt that? But when, where, or how, He may -be pleased to take them again into favour, no man can foretell. Our -children will behold the solution of the riddle, and bless God for -His mercy. Let us, too, bless God, and wait in faith. - - - THE END. - - - - - _APPENDIX I._ - - STATISTICS OF JEWISH POPULATION. - - -It is always difficult to determine the number of Jews resident -either in the Holy Land or in any other country of the world. The -remark applies to ancient, even more than modern, times. It is not -only that the information afforded by writers is scanty, but that -the statements made by some historians differ greatly from those -supplied by others; while a good deal must be rejected as wholly -incredible. To take an instance, we are informed by the author of -the Book of Samuel,[230] that the military population of David’s -kingdom was 1,300,000. But in the parallel passage in the Book of -Chronicles[231] the number is stated to be nearly 300,000 more. -‘To attempt reconciling these discrepancies,’ says an intelligent -writer,[232] ‘would be wasted labour.’ During the reign of Rehoboam, -B.C. 975, the number of the men of Judah who drew the sword is -rated at 180,000.[233] But at the accession of his son, not twenty -years afterwards, it is 400,000.[234] Whether we are to attribute -these contradictions to corruptions of the text or to different -modes of calculation, signifies little to us. The two statements -are quite irreconcilable with one another. Josephus’s numbers, -again, are wholly untrustworthy. He reckons the sum of those who -returned with Zorobabel from Babylon, at the enormous figure of -4,628,000 and 47,000 women.[235] This is, of course, an absolute -impossibility; and we know, from the books of Ezra and Nehemiah, -that the real amount was 42,000.[236] It has been suggested that -Josephus’s text is corrupt in this passage. But if so, it may well be -assumed to be corrupt in other similar places also. Thus he affirms -that the numbers shut up in Jerusalem during the siege by Titus -was 2,700,000,[237] while the estimate of Tacitus is 600,000.[238] -Here again, though the reckoning of the Roman historian is probably -below the mark, he having omitted to allow for the unusual number -of residents at the time of the siege, yet that of Josephus must -be rejected as incredible.[239] The circumference of the walls of -Jerusalem is generally admitted to have been about four miles. The -space thus enclosed within the walls would be about equal to that -part of the area of London which extends from Tyburn Gate to the -British Museum in one direction, and from the Regent’s Park to -Whitehall in the other, drawing an imaginary circle, of which the -Regent’s Circus would be the centre. The portion thus enclosed—hardly -one tenth part of what lies within the bills of mortality—may contain -half a million persons. Allowing for the narrow streets of old -Jerusalem, we may reckon that the same area in that city would hold -100,000 more, thus very nearly verifying the statement of Tacitus. No -doubt, at the time of the Passover, vast numbers came from foreign -lands, and these found accommodation, as well as they could, in -Jerusalem itself, or in the environs. Many probably were lodged in -outlying villages, and many more, according to the common practice -in the East, slept in the open air. These would, of course, be -driven into Jerusalem by the approach of the Roman armies, and thus -the numbers at the beginning of the siege might have amounted to a -million or thereabouts. But the notion of nearly three millions being -crowded into the area above described is simply preposterous. - -But if Josephus’s statistics on these two important points are to be -rejected as wholly untrustworthy, how are we to credit his assertions -in matters of very nearly the same kind? He tells us that Galilee in -his time contained more than two hundred towns and villages, no one -of which held less than 15,000 inhabitants.[240] If this were indeed -the case, that province, scarcely larger than one of the largest -of our English counties, must have had a population of fully three -millions, while that of the whole of Palestine would approach ten -millions. Few readers will be found to credit this. - -At the same time more than one trustworthy writer affirms that -Palestine was a thickly populated country. The population to the -square mile is said to have been larger in it than in any other -portion of the Roman dominions. Diodorus,[241] Strabo,[242] -Tacitus,[243] and Dion Cassius[244] all concur in this; and -therefore, though we cannot accept Josephus’s statements as being -even approximately accurate, they may be admitted so far, as -establishing the numerous population of Palestine at the time of the -siege. Nor are we wholly without means of forming an estimate as to -its amount, independently altogether of the above-named writers. Thus -Hecatæus of Abdera (quoted by Joseph. Ap. i. 21) says that Jerusalem -in his time (A.D. 312) contained 120,000 inhabitants. Presuming the -average increase of population to have taken place, according to -this reckoning, Jerusalem at the time of the siege would contain -about 600,000—agreeing closely with Tacitus’s estimate. According -to Maccab. II., the city at the date of Antiochus Epiphanes, A.D. -180, had 160,000, or, according to others, 180,000. This would make -the number of residents at the outbreak of the civil war somewhat -less; but there would be no material difference. On the whole, we -may assume that, by dividing Josephus’s estimates by three, we -approximate to the real number. According to this, the census of the -Holy Land, A.D. 71, would be about three and a half millions, and -the total of persons besieged in the Holy City something under one -million. - -It is still more difficult to estimate the total of the Jews in -other countries of the world at this time. We may safely assume that -they could not have been fewer than the inhabitants of Palestine. We -have reason to believe that the bulk of the nation did not return -with Zorobabel. Those who remained behind in the foreign countries -to which they had been conveyed throve and multiplied in their -new homes. There are grounds for supposing that, at subsequent -periods, large emigrations from the Holy Land took place, probably -at the date of King Ahasuerus’s edict, more certainly during the -persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes and the Roman invasion. We have -the clearest testimony of contemporaneous writers as to the extent -to which the Jews in our Lord’s time had spread into foreign lands, -forming everywhere a distinct people, as they do at the present day. -Mommsen quotes the statement of a writer of Julius Cæsar’s date, to -the effect that it would be dangerous for the Roman governor of his -province to offend the Jews, because, on his return to Rome, he might -encounter contumely from their countrymen there. Agrippa I. wrote -to the Emperor Caligula to the same effect, but more explicitly. -‘Jerusalem,’ he says, ‘is the metropolis, not of Judæa only, but of -very many lands, on account of the colonies which from time to time -it has sent out into the adjoining countries—Egypt, Phœnicia, Syria, -Cœlo-Syria, Pamphylia, Cilicia, Asia Minor, as far as Bithynia, and -the remotest parts of Pontus; likewise into Europe—Thessaly, Bœotia, -Macedonia, Ætolia, Attica, Argos, Corinth, and the Peloponnesus. Nor -are the Jewish settlements confined to the mainland. They are to be -found also in the more important islands, Eubœa, Cyprus, Crete. I -do not insist on the countries beyond the Euphrates; for with few -exceptions all of them, Babylon and the fertile regions round it, -have Jewish inhabitants.’[245] This testimony is confirmed by St. -Luke’s narrative of what occurred on the day of Pentecost immediately -following the crucifixion (Acts ii. 9, 10). It can hardly be doubted -that at the date of the commencement of this history, there were -fully as many Jews in other lands as there were in Palestine—the -whole nation numbering, at the lowest computation, not less than -seven millions. - -Eighteen centuries have elapsed since that time, and the Jews are -still a distinct and peculiar people, intermarrying with other races -less than any other nation in the world. According to the rate[246] -at which population ordinarily increases, they ought to have doubled -their number more than seven times over, and to amount at the present -time to many hundreds of millions. The inherent vigour of the race -does not seem to be either intellectually or physically impaired. -It is reported by those who have studied the question, that their -health, in the various lands where they are sojourners, is at least -as good, indeed, distinctly better, than that of the populations -among which they reside. It becomes, then, an interesting and curious -question—what the amount of their numbers is in the present day. -Nor does the same difficulty we have experienced in endeavouring to -ascertain the exact sum of their population at the time of the fall -of Jerusalem, meet us when we enter on that. Statistics have been -given by trustworthy authorities, which are found, on examination, to -agree very nearly with one another. I propose to give them here in -detail. - -To begin with Europe. Here the country in which they are most -numerous is Russia. In that, the official return for 1876 was -2,612,179. In Austria and Hungary it was 1,372,333; in the German -Empire, 520,575. In France their total does not exceed 60,000 or -80,000.[247] In England, the number is nearly the same. In Italy -the total is 53,000; in Holland, 68,000; in Moldavia, Servia, and -Roumania, about 300,000. In the remaining countries of Europe there -may be 20,000. These returns show a total of some hundreds of -thousands over 5,000,000 of Jews in Europe. - -Proceeding to Asia, the Jews in the Turkish dominions (including -both Turkey in Europe and Turkey in Asia) amount to about 200,000. -In Persia, Bokhara, Samarcand, Central and Eastern Asia, it is more -difficult to ascertain their real numbers; but it is generally agreed -that these may be approximately estimated at 50,000. In Arabia, there -is a great difference of opinion, some affirming them to amount to -as many as 200,000, while more trustworthy authorities place the -total at one tenth that number. There are also the Jews of Syria and -the Holy Land, of which the census has already been given. On the -whole, the Asiatic Jews may be considered as amounting to 300,000, or -perhaps 400,000. - -Turning next to Africa, the Jews of Egypt are estimated at 80,000; -those of Tripoli, 100,000; of Tunis, 50,000; of Algiers, 70,000; of -Morocco, 300,000. Thus the total of African Jews in the Northern -kingdoms somewhat exceeds half a million. If to these are added such -as are to be found in Central and Southern Africa, the entire sum may -amount to 600,000. - -Lastly, in America and Australia there is said to be a Jewish -population somewhat exceeding that of Asia. Here their chief centres -are the United States, Canada, and Brazil. - -From these returns, which, it may be assumed, are neither much in -excess nor much short of the actual amount, the total number of -professing Jews at the present time appears to be somewhat less -than seven millions—the very number which, so far as it is possible -to determine, was that of the Jewish people when the Lord became -incarnate upon earth. Can any man realize this astonishing fact, and -yet doubt the living miracle which the history of the Jews presents? - - ‘How many generations of mankind - Have risen and fallen asleep, - Yet it remains the same!’ - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[230] 2 Sam. xxiv. 9. - -[231] 1 Chron. xxi. 5. - -[232] Adam Clarke. - -[233] 1 Kings xii. 21. - -[234] 2 Chron. xiii. 3. - -[235] Joseph., _Ant._ xi. 3, § 10. - -[236] Ezra ii. 64; Nehem. vii. 66. - -[237] Joseph., _Bell. Jud._ vi. 9, § 3. - -[238] Tac. _Hist._ v. 13. - -[239] This is the most probable explanation of the smallness of his -estimate of the numbers in the city during the siege. The ordinary -population would probably be about the amount he gives. - -[240] Joseph., _Bell. Jud._ iii. 3, § 2. - -[241] Diodor. Sic. xl. _Eclog._ 1. - -[242] Strabo xvi. 2, § 28. - -[243] Tacitus, _Hist._ v. 8. - -[244] Dion Cass. lxix. 14. Dion makes the astonishing assertion that -Adrian destroyed nearly 1000 towns κῶμαι ὀνομαστοτόται in Palestine, -besides fortresses. - -[245] Philo, _Legat. ad Gaium_, § 36. - -[246] The increase of population is said by those who have made the -subject their study, to be 1/227 annually, or according to others, -1/223. - -[247] This is probably too low an estimate. In a census taken in -1808, there were 80,000 Jews in France; and there has been nothing to -check their increase. Their number is more probably 100,000. - - - - - _APPENDIX II._ - - THE TALMUDS. - - -The word Talmud has several meanings, which are most nearly rendered -by ‘study,’ or ‘learning.’ There are two books so called—the -Jerusalem and the Babylonian. Each of these is made up of two -parts—the Mishna, or repetition,—it being, as it were, a reissue of -the Mosaic law,—and the Gemara, or complement, the critical expansion -of the Mishna. The Mishna of both Talmuds is the same, the Gemaras -different: that of the Babylonian being the larger as well as the -more diversified. They are encyclopædias of the Jewish knowledge of -their day, and deal with civil and criminal, as well as moral and -religious questions, law, science, metaphysics, history, and general -literature. - -The Mishna was compiled by Rabbi Judah, called Hakkadosh, or ‘the -Holy,’ who lived in the reign of Antoninus Pius. It is written in -very pure Hebrew. But as many things are introduced into it which -have foreign names, there is a frequent occurrence of Latin and Greek -phrases. The Gemara of the Jerusalem Talmud, which is believed to -have been completed about the end of the fourth century, is written -in what is called the Eastern Aramæan: that of the Babylonian, which -is at the least a century, and probably two centuries, later, in -Western Aramæan. - -The origin of the Mishna is declared to be as follows. While Moses -was with God in Sinai, He communicated to him a twofold law, written -and oral.[248] The latter Moses repeated to Aaron, who delivered -it to Eleazar and Ithamar; they to the Seventy Elders; they to the -prophets; and the prophets to the synagogues. In this manner it -was passed on from generation to generation, to the time of the -great Jewish doctor Hillel, who lived shortly before the birth of -Christ. He digested the great mass of precepts under six heads, -still, however, without committing them to writing; which, it was -believed, would have been contrary to the intention of the Divine -Giver. Under the more formal shape which it had now assumed, the -Oral Law was passed on till the time of the destruction of Bethor, -and the final dispersion of the Hebrew people. Then, as we have -seen, Rabbi Judah Hakkadosh, perceiving that the restoration of the -Jews to their ancient status was not to be looked for, and fearing -that the consequence of this would be the total loss of the ‘Law -of the Mouth,’ as it was called,—conceiving also that the peculiar -circumstances of the case justified him in breaking the rule that -had been so long observed,—embodied the traditions in a volume which -might be preserved for ever, secure from addition or change. - -His countrymen endorsed this belief, and accepted the Mishna with the -most profound respect. It had scarcely been issued, when commentaries -began to be written upon it by learned Rabbins; which, about the end -of the third century, were collected into a volume by Rabbi Jochanan -Ben Eliezer, and called the Gemara. The style in which this is -written is harsh, much inferior to that of the Mishna; and even the -best Hebraists are unable to expound satisfactorily some portions of -it. This obscurity was probably the reason why another Gemara was set -on foot by the Mesopotamian Jews, about a century after the issue of -the Jerusalem Talmud. The work was begun by Rabbi Asa or Asche, and -carried on to the time of Rabbi Jose, about A.D. 500. There is some -variety of opinion as to the date of its completion; but Laurence is -generally thought to have proved satisfactorily that it cannot be -later than the beginning of the sixth century. Christian commentators -commonly prefer the Jerusalem Talmud,[249] as containing less of -fabulous and frivolous matter; but the preference of the Jews is for -that of Babylon. - -The Mishna is divided into six principal heads, or Orders, as they -are called. Each Order is divided into a variety of titles or -treatises, and these again into chapters and sections. The six Orders -are: I. Zeraim, or Seeds; II. Moed, or Festivals; III. Nashim, or -Women; IV. Nezikin, or Injuries; V. Kodashim, or Holy Things; and VI. -Taharoth, or Purifications. - -The First Order is subdivided into eleven treatises:— - - 1. Treats of the prayers and benedictions which are to precede and - follow meals. - - 2. Of the gleanings of vine and olive yards, alms, and first-fruits - to be given to the poor. - - 3. Of the purchased fruits of the earth, which may be lawfully used, - if they have paid tithe, but are illegal if they have not paid. - - 4. Of mixtures of various kinds of grain, and the wool of animals. - - 5. Of the laws relating to the Sabbatic, or seventh, year. - - 6. Of the first-fruits, given to the Priests. - - 7. Of the tithes, given to the Levites. - - 8. Of the second tithe, to be sent up to Jerusalem. - - 9. Of the cake offered as a heave offering. - - 10. Of the fruits of trees to be counted as uncircumcised for three - years. - - 11. Of first-fruits generally. - -The Second Order contains thirteen treatises:— - - 1. Of the Sabbath day. - - 2. Of various Sabbatical rules. - - 3. Of the Passover. - - 4. Of the half shekel paid as tribute to the Sanctuary. - - 5. Of the great Day of Atonement. - - 6. Of the Feast of Tabernacles. - - 7. Of Pentecost. - - 8. Of certain things forbidden on Feast Days. - - 9. Of the New Year. - - 10. Of the Fasts and Days of Humiliation. - - 11. Of the Feast of Purim. 12. Of the lesser Jewish Festivals. - - 13. Of the three great Festivals. - -The Third Order has seven titles:— - - 1. Of the Law of Levitical Marriage. - - 2. Of Marriage Contracts. - - 3. Of Women’s Vows. - - 4. Of the Vows of Nazarites. - - 5. Of Writings of Divorcement. - - 6. Of the Putting away of Wives. - - 7. Of the Ceremony of Espousal. - -The Fourth Order has nine sections:— - - 1. Injuries inflicted by Violence, Wounds, etc. - - 2. Leases, Hirings, Loans, Exchanges, etc. - - 3. Succession to Property, Partnerships, Contracts, etc. - - 4. The Sanhedrin. - - 5. Stripes. - - 6. Oaths. - - 7. Witnesses, Evidence, also Idolatry.[250] - - 8. Decrees of Judges and Apothegms of Wise Men. - - 9. Record of Errors in the Decisions of Judges. - -The Fifth runs to eleven treatises, which deal with:— - - 1. Sacrifices. - - 2. Oblations and Offerings. - - 3. Things Profane. - - 4. The First Born. - - 5. Valuations of Males and Females. - - 6. Exchange and Redemption. - - 7. Atoning Sacrifices. - - 8. Trespass Offerings. - - 9. The Daily Sacrifice. - - 10. Dimensions, Form, and Structure of the Sanctuary. - - 11. Offerings of Birds. - -The Sixth and last Order contains twelve heads, relating to:— - - 1. Purifying of Vessels. - - 2. Tents and Tabernacles, and Pollution by Corpses. - - 3. Vestments and Uncleanness by Leprosy. - - 4. The Ashes of the Heifer Purifying the Unclean. - - 5. Purifications generally. - - 6. Vessels containing Water. - - 7. Separation for Legal Impurity. - - 8. Legal Impurity generally. - - 9. Regulations concerning Uncleanness. - - 10. The Washing of Lepers. - - 11. The Washing of Hands. - - 12. Supplementary matters. - -The Gemaras, it should be noted, are not so much commentaries on the -Mishna, as a series of disquisitions on passages in Holy Scripture, -or on the text of the Mishna, or possibly on some question of Jewish -law. Great subtlety of thought is displayed in these discussions. -Points of similarity are discovered between things which are, to -ordinary observation, wholly diverse, and points of difference -between things apparently quite identical. The ruling principle -of the writers seems to be, that in the sacred writings, and more -particularly in the Pentateuch, there is not a word, not a letter, -that has not its special use and significance. Where this is not -patent or easy of discovery, they hold that it is nevertheless -latent in the text, and will be brought out when events have taken -place, or opinions have been propounded, which were necessary to its -development—as what appears to be a mere speck in a photograph may -be enlarged until it is found to be in itself a complete picture. -These lengthy and abstruse speculations are frequently varied by -incidental anecdotes (called Haggadoth), which serve to illustrate -the writer’s meaning, by allegories, proverbs and parables, or -sometimes by the wildest Oriental legends, myths, and romantic tales. -Some of these are extremely touching and beautiful; others absurd, -frivolous, and extravagant, bordering occasionally on the profane, -if not the blasphemous. There is, in fact, a strange and bizarre -mixture of heterogeneous subjects. Eastern fancies are intermingled -with the speculations of the Greek and Roman moralists. A celebrated -writer has described the Talmud as ‘an extraordinary monument of -human industry, human wisdom, and human folly.’[251] The probable -explanation of this perversion of high intellect and patient study -is to be found in the fact that the writers, being excluded by the -peculiarity of their social and political position from handling the -topics on which literary men ordinarily employ their pens, they were -driven to busy themselves with the only subjects open to them. Hence -too, probably, the extraordinary respect paid to the Talmuds by the -Jewish people. They have ever regarded these books, and especially -the Babylonian Talmud, with the profoundest reverence and affection. -Indeed, they have been charged with bestowing more of their regard on -them than on their own inspired Scriptures. They have a proverb, that -‘They who study the Scriptures do a virtuous, but not an unmixedly -virtuous, act. They who study the Mishna perform a wholly virtuous -act, and merit a reward. But they who study the Gemara perform the -most virtuous of all acts.’ And again, ‘The Scriptures are water, the -Mishna wine, the Gemara spiced wine.’[252] - -As regards the history of the Talmuds, it is a singular fact -that no notice is taken of either Mishna or Gemara by any of the -Fathers belonging to the first four centuries of Church history, -notwithstanding that they frequently handle the subject of Jewish -tradition. Even Tertullian, when specially writing on this subject, -while he speaks of the primal law given to Adam, and the laws of -the Two Tables committed to Moses, makes no mention of the Mishna. -Augustine, in the fifth century, does name the δευτέρωσις, or -Second Law; but even he speaks of it as containing the _unwritten_ -traditions of the Jews, transmitted from one generation to another -by word of mouth. We can only suppose that, although the Mishna was -indeed completed before the end of the second century, the knowledge -of it was for a long time confined to the learned among the Jews, -and for a still longer time to the Hebrew nation generally. The same -was the case as regards the completed Jerusalem Talmud. There was, -in fact, no recognition of the work by Christians until the time of -the Emperor Justinian, who, about the middle of the sixth century, -issued a Novella, or edict, against it. He allowed the reading of -Scripture in the synagogues, but prohibited that of the Mishna, as -being ‘the mere invention of earthly men, who had nothing of Heaven -in them.’ From his time to the sixteenth century of Christianity, -popes and kings have put forth one manifesto after another, warning -men against its perusal, and ordering the book itself to be -suppressed, and even publicly destroyed. In 1286 Pope Honorius IV. -wrote to Archbishop Peckham, requiring him to forbid the perusal of -the Talmud as a ‘liber damnabilis,’ from which all of manner of evil -was certain to arise. Nor were the popes content with prescribing -it. In 1230 Gregory IX., following the example of his predecessor -Innocent, burned twenty cartloads of it. In 1553, during the Feast -of Tabernacles, all the copies that could anywhere be found were -committed to the flames by order of Julius III.; and a few years -subsequently, 12,000 volumes underwent the same fate by command of -Paul IV. During the last half of the sixteenth century the Talmud was -in this manner brought to the stake no less than six times, and was -burned, not by the single copy, but by the waggonload. The Hebrew -copyists of those times must have laboured hard to prevent the total -disappearance of the book. But the establishment of the printing -presses, and the declaration of Reuchlin, early in the sixteenth -century,[253] in its favour, in the course of a generation or two put -an end to the attempts to root out all traces of it. - -The celebrated Maimonides, in the twelfth century, made an epitome -of the laws of the Talmud, which many prefer to the Talmud itself, -forasmuch as he omits the strange fables with which the original work -abounds, and preserves the really valuable matter. The name of his -book is Yad-ha-chazzak, or _The Strong Hand_. It is of great use to -those who wish to gain a knowledge of Jewish laws and ceremonies. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[248] The meaning of this is, that the development of the Law is -contained in the Law itself. There must have been from the first -difficulties in the interpretation of the Law. These were referred -to Moses. His decisions were traditionally preserved, and called the -Oral Law, this is figured by God’s delivering the Oral Law to Moses. -A Rabbinical fable further declares that God committed the Written -Law to Moses by day, and the Oral by night. This symbolizes, first, -that God’s law is the true measure of time, and secondly, that the -Written Law is to the Oral as the light to the darkness. - -[249] The Jerusalem Talmud contains only four of the six Orders which -make up that of Babylon, and a portion of the fifth. Whenever, it -should be noted, ‘The Talmud’ is spoken of, without any intimation -_which_ Talmud is referred to, the expression must be understood to -mean that of Babylon. - -[250] Here introduced because idolatry is sometimes the subject of -judicial proceedings. - -[251] Against this, however, may be set the opinion of the -celebrated Buxtorf. He says, that ‘it contains excellent lessons in -jurisprudence, medicine, physics, ethics, politics, and astronomy; -admirable proverbs, and apothegms and shining gems of eloquence, -not less ornamental to the Hebrew tongue than are the flowers of -eloquence to the Greek and Latin languages. Nor would the knowledge -of Hebrew and Chaldee be complete without them.’ - -[252] Some persons might be inclined to remark on this saying, that -it is a great deal truer than its authors were aware of. Yet its -meaning has probably been misunderstood, and there is no intention -of disparaging Scripture. It may only mean, that the Mishna is the -knowledge of Scripture with more knowledge added, and the Gemara is -the knowledge of Scripture and Mishna combined with a yet further -addition of knowledge. - -[253] See p. 269. - - - - - _APPENDIX III._ - - THE TARGUMS, MASSORA, CABBALA, SEPHER-YETZIRA, AND ZOHAR. - - - THE TARGUMS. - -The Targums are expository paraphrases of the Books of the Old -Testament. They are written in Chaldee, which was more familiar to -the Jews after Ezra’s time than the Hebrew. It would appear that -after the return from Captivity it was the habit in the synagogue -worship to read out some portion of Scripture in the Hebrew, and then -give orally a Targum on the passage in question. But the _written_ -Targums—viz., those of Jonathan, Onkelos, Jonathan son of Uzziel, -Jerusalem, and Joseph the Blind—were none of them composed, or at all -events committed to writing, much before the era of our Lord. They -come therefore within the scope of the present work. - -The Targum of Jonathan is the most ancient, and is generally thought -to have been drawn up in its present form about thirty years before -the birth of Christ. That of Onkelos is somewhat later, and is -concerned with the Books of Moses only. It is greatly superior to -its predecessor in simplicity of language and purity of style. It is -quoted in the Mishna, but does not seem to have been known to the -early Christian Fathers. - -The Targum of the younger Jonathan comments on the Books of the -Prophets only. It resembles that of Onkelos in purity of style, but -is less simple, and runs occasionally into allegory. It is believed -that additions have been made to it by doctors who lived long -subsequently to its author. - -The Targum of Jerusalem deals with the Books of Moses, or rather with -a portion of them. It is little better than a fragment of an ancient -paraphrase of the Pentateuch. - -The Targum of Joseph the Blind is on the Hagiographa, viz., the -Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Solomon, Esther, Job, and -Ruth. The style is very corrupt Chaldee, containing many foreign -words. - -There is no Targum on Daniel, Ezra, or Nehemiah, because these books -were already written in Aramaic. The Targums are of much value in -establishing the genuineness of the present Hebrew text, proving it -to be the same as it was when the Targums were written. They are -also useful in Jewish controversy, as showing the manner in which -the Jews, previously to the Christian era, interpreted the great -prophecies respecting the Messiah. - - - MASSORA. - -This word properly denotes tradition; and those persons are called -Massorites who determined the meaning of the Hebrew text by adding -pointed vowels to it. There are in the Hebrew language four vowels, -but these were found insufficient; and further, it was a frequent -practice in early times to omit these vowels, writing the consonants -only of the words. The consequence of this was, that the meaning of -a word was often ambiguous, its sense becoming different according -to the vowels inserted. Thus there is said to have been a dispute -between David and Joab as to the meaning of the word זנר (Deut. -xxv. 19). In one of his raids against the Amalekites, Joab slew the -men, but spared the women and children. David rebuked him for this, -alleging that the command was ‘to blot out the memory of,’ _i.e._, -to exterminate (זֵנֶר) the Amalekites. But Joab answered that the word -was זׇנׇר, ordering the slaughter of the males only.[254] In order to -put a stop to perplexities so caused, the Massorites[255] are said -to have added the points, or pointed vowels, of which there are -fourteen. These are placed below or above the consonants, supplying -the place of vowels, where these are wanting, and determining the -pronunciation, when present. - -The Massorites not only added the vowel points, but numbered the -chapters, sections, verses, words, and even the letters of the sacred -text. Thus they have noted the fact that there are in the Book of -Genesis 1,534 verses, 20,713 words, and 78,100 letters. They have -also marked the central verse, word, and letter of the book. They -have done the same also in the instance of all the other Books of -the Old Testament. The object is to preserve the inspired text from -interpolation, mutilation, in fact, change of any kind, and also to -give facilities for reference. Much of their work has been censured -as ‘laborious trifling;’ but it has been of service to scholars -nevertheless. - -The age to be assigned to the Massorites is a matter of doubt. Some -have affirmed that Moses himself communicated to the elders this -method of elucidating and preserving inviolate the Sacred Writings. -Others ascribe the invention of the Massoretic vowels to Ezra, and -the Great Synagogue of his time. But neither of these opinions has -much to support it; and the most trustworthy authorities place them -in the fifth or sixth century of Christianity. The fact that there -were many variations in the sacred text long subsequently to the time -of Ezra, is clearly enough proved by the versions of the Septuagint -writers, Aquila, Symmachus and Theodotion, none of which are in -entire accordance with one another. This could not have been the -case if, previously to the date of these translators, the Massorites -had completed their labours. Jerome states that the text was not -determined even in his time. The most approved view seems to be that -of Walton. He thinks that the work was begun early in the fifth -century, and came gradually more into notice, until it was completed, -_circa_ 1030 A.D. Maimonides appears to say that the final revision -was made by the famous scholar Rabbi Ben Asher. The Massorites, it -should be noted, have been charged with endeavouring to pass off -erroneous readings favourable to their own views, and, in order to -secure this object, preventing any recurrence to the original and -genuine text. - - - CABBALA. - -This word also denotes tradition, and originally included all the -interpretations of Scripture, which the Jews professed to have -received, in the first instance, from Moses, and in the second, from -Ezra. But subsequently it came to be used for an abstruse species -of science, by which certain passages of Holy Writ are mystically -explained. The Cabbala, in this sense, has many processes, of which -the three best known are Gematria, Notaricon, and Themurah.[256] The -first mentioned of these consists in assuming the letters of a Hebrew -word to denote ciphers, or arithmetical numbers, and then explaining -every word by the arithmetical value of the letters composing it. -Thus, for example, the letters of the word Jabo-Shiloh (Gen. xlix. -10), that is, ‘Shiloh shall come,’ when reckoned according to their -arithmetical valuation, make up the same number as does the Hebrew -word ‘Messiah.’ Hence the Cabbalists infer that Shiloh signifies the -same as Messiah. - -Notaricon consists in taking every letter of a word as being in -itself a complete word, and the letters, when put together, as a -complete sentence. Thus, the first word of the Book of Genesis, -Bereshith, resolved into its component letters, is understood to mean -Bara, Rakia, Arez, Shamaion, Iam, Tehomoth, _i.e._, ‘He created the -firmament, the earth, the heavens, the sea, and the deep.’ Or again, -the initial letters of every word in a sentence may be formed into a -word, possessing, of course, a mystical meaning. - -Themurah, is where the letters are transposed so as to form a new -word—sometimes by the process known to us as anagram, sometimes by -the substitution of one letter for another. The Cabbalists believed -that the Scriptures contained endless recondite meanings, which might -be brought to light by patient investigation. They were persuaded -that the sacred writers had some special secret reason for their -choice of every word they employed, and for its place in the verse, -chapter, and book in which it is found. - - - BOOK OF YETZIRA. - -Though some of the Chasidim professed a reverence for the Talmud, -their system of theology is in reality antagonistic to it.[257] The -basis of their confession of faith is, not the Talmud, but the Book -of Zohar. This, together with the Yetzira, contains the fullest -exposition of their views. - -The age of the Sepher-Yetzira, Book of Creation, is a matter of -dispute. By many it has been assigned to the seventh or eighth -century. More trustworthy authorities consider it to have been -composed greatly earlier. In the Talmud there is the mention of a -Sepher-Yetzira, a book older, apparently, than the Mishna itself. -If this is the same work as that now under consideration, it must -be referred to the first, or at latest the second, century of -Christianity. The language and style of the book are in accordance -with this notion, being those of the Apostolic age; and though there -are passages suggesting a later date than this, scholars are inclined -to coincide in the view of M. Adolph. Francke,[258] that the book -belongs to the Apostolic age. - - - BOOK OF ZOHAR. - -The Sepher-Zohar, Book of Light,[259] is of the more importance, -because it is accounted the code and text-book of the theological -system, as adopted by the Chasidim. It takes the form of a commentary -on the Mosaic Books, and is extremely mystical and full of allegory. -Its contents are thus described by Surenhusius: ‘Veteris Ecclesiæ -judaicæ fundamenta, prout Templo Hierosolymano stante secundo -erant, non ex opere Talmudico, vel ab alio quodam auctore antiquo, -sed ex Zohare tantum sunt quærenda. Cum in opere Talmudico, leges -Ecclesiasticæ, forenses et politicæ exponantur, in Zohare autem -loca scripturæ sacræ ad Theologiæ capita reducantur, in quibus de -Existentiâ, de Attributis, de Epithetis, ac Nominibus Dei, itemque de -Messiâ, de Angelis, tam bonis quam malis, de animâ humanâ, ejusdemque -origine ac statu, atque, ut uno verbo dicam, de cognitione Dei nostri -per Messiam genuinum Filium, agitur.’ - -Its authorship and date are even more a matter of dispute than -those of the Yetzira. It is said by many to be the composition -of Simeon Jochaides (Simeon ben Yochai), who is believed to have -lived somewhere about the time of our Lord. Others, though they do -not consider Simeon to be the actual author, yet are of opinion -that it was written by one of his scholars, who embodied in it his -master’s teaching. The language in which it is written is that of the -Palestinian Jews in the times immediately preceding the composition -of the Talmud. ‘The ideas and expressions also,’ writes Etheridge, -‘belong to that date.’ It would be possible, however, perhaps not -very difficult, to simulate that style, if it was the object of the -composer to pass it off as the production of an early age; and it is -difficult to believe that some of the contents of the book could be -the work of any Jew of the date assigned. M. Francke’s opinion here -also is the safest to follow. He places it in the seventh century. -The notion, however, that the Zohar is simply the composition of -Moses de Léon, fully six hundred years afterwards, finds supporters -even at the present day. - -It is in form, as has already been intimated, a commentary on the -Pentateuch; but in reality a heterogeneous mass of doctrine—the -Aristotelian, Neo-Platonic, and Rabbinical conceptions being -inextricably blended together. It professes to reveal great -mysteries; but the revelation is conveyed in language so enigmatical -and obscure that it is often difficult to arrive at any definite -meaning. It recognises God as the Infinite, having no beginning, -and no end of existence; and declares that He has revealed Himself -under ten forms, or rather emanations, to which the Zohar gives the -name of Sephiroth. These ten are Transcendency (the crown), Wisdom, -Knowledge, Mercy, Justice, Beauty, Triumph, Glory, Basis, Dominion. -In all these representations the Triune character of the Godhead is -exhibited.[260] Hence, in the confession of faith adopted by the -Zoharites, as the followers of Jacob Frank and others were called, -the doctrine of the Blessed Trinity, as held by the Church Catholic, -was distinctly professed. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[254] This story may, or may not, be historical; but any way it -illustrates the use of the Massoretic points. - -[255] The Massorites were an inferior description of Scribes, whose -profession it was to write out copies of the Hebrew Scriptures; also -to teach the people the true readings, as well as to comment on them. -They called their work ‘Massora,’ or tradition, because they believed -that God gave the Law on Sinai, imparting to Moses, at the same time, -the true interpretation. - -[256] Graetz says of the Cabbala, that it is a fungous growth, which -since the thirteenth century has crept over the body of the Law. - -[257] The Talmud is said to have been publicly burnt in Podolia, -A.D. 1755, by some Sabbathain Cabbalists. On the other side, the -Rabbinical Talmudists have repeatedly condemned the Cabbalism of the -Chasidim. - -[258] _La Cabbale_, par Adolph. Francke, Paris, 1843; a work of -extensive research and profound learning. - -[259] Daniel xii. 3. The word is there rendered by our translators, -as ‘brightness.’ - -[260] It is proper to remark that Jewish controversialists deny -the existence of Trinitarian doctrine in the Book of Zohar. On the -contrary, they affirm that they were wont to twit the Cabbalists -with ‘believing in ten gods, whereas (said they) even the Christians -believed in only three.’ - - - - - _APPENDIX IV._ - - THE ATTEMPT UNDER JULIAN TO REBUILD THE TEMPLE. - - -Grave doubts have been advanced, by one writer or another, of what -may be called the ancient belief on this subject. It has been -questioned: I. Whether the attempt to rebuild the Temple ever was -really made; and II. whether, allowing the work to have been begun -and interrupted, its interruption was not due to natural causes only. - -I. It is argued, chiefly by Lardner,[261] that Julian did no more -than project such an undertaking, which he never attempted to carry -into effect. In his letter addressed to the Jewish people, he tells -them, ‘_if_ he returned from his Persian expedition, he would rebuild -and inhabit with them the holy city of Jerusalem.’ But, as he never -returned, Lardner argues that he never made the promised attempt. -The same appears to be the tradition of the Jews.[262] Thus, David -Gans, in the fifteenth century, writes, ‘The work was prevented from -being accomplished, _for_ Julian never returned, but perished in -the Persian War;’ and similarly Cassel: ‘He made preparations for -restoring the Temple, but, after a brief reign, fell in battle.’ A -passage from one of Julian’s orations is, further, quoted by Lardner, -in which he says that, ‘he conceived the design of rebuilding the -Temple.’ But, as he does not add that he executed it, Lardner reasons -that he probably did not. - -It is almost needless to say that these arguments carry very little -weight. The reader should note that Julian did not promise to rebuild -the _Temple_, on his return from Persia, but _Jerusalem_. As that -city was then standing, his meaning must have been, that he would -restore it to its pristine magnificence. This would be a long and -costly work, which might well require his personal presence. But he -might commit the rebuilding of the Temple, the design of which was -well known, to a deputy—an instalment, so to speak, of the greater -work to follow. Nor can it be reasonably argued, that, because a man -does not say that he put in force a design, _therefore_ he _did_ not -put it in force.[263] - -Whatever weight Lardner’s reasoning might carry is lost altogether, -when we take into consideration the testimony of the contemporaneous -historians, and those of the age immediately following. The first -include Gregory Nazianzen, Bishop of Constantinople, John Chrysostom, -Cyril of Jerusalem, Ambrose, and Ammianus Marcellinus; the second, -Socrates, Sozomen, and Theodoret. All these record the main facts, -viz., the repeated bursting forth of the fire, until the work was -abandoned from the impossibility of persisting. Each adds some minor -details, which do not affect the credibility of the occurrence -itself.[264] The most important witness is Ammianus Marcellinus, a -heathen and a personal friend of the Emperor. It will be better to -give his account of the matter in his own words. ‘The Emperor was -meditating,’ he writes,[265] ‘the restoration, at an unlimited -expense, of the Jewish Temple, and had committed the care of the -matter to Alypius of Antioch. When, then, Alypius was vigorously -prosecuting the work, and the governor of the province was rendering -him his help, frightful balls of fire breaking forth with continued -outbursts near the foundations, again and again consumed the workmen, -and rendered it impossible to approach the spot; and in this manner -the element more obstinately (_i.e._, more obstinately than even -the pertinacious persistence of the workmen) driving them away, the -attempt was abandoned.’ - -In the face of evidence like this, he must be a hardy advocate who -would maintain that the occurrence never took place. - -But it may be contended that although it did take place, there was -nothing in it of a miraculous character. It may be alleged,— - -(1) That there was simply an earthquake, to which the whole was due. - -(2) That there may have been an explosion of foul air, caused by -the sudden opening of the vaults under the Temple. These had long -been closed, and the noxious vapours, coming into contact with the -workmen’s fires, exploded. - -(3) That it is improbable that such a miracle _would_ be worked, -there being nothing in the rebuilding of the Temple which _called -for_ a miracle. Our Lord, no doubt, had declared that the Temple -should be utterly destroyed, but not that it should never be rebuilt. -Nor had Daniel (rightly understood), or any other prophet, ever said -so. - -(4) That the age in which the miracle is related to have taken place -is one in which miracles are spoken of as having been of almost daily -occurrence—some of them frivolous and childish to the last degree. In -these no reasonable man can place any faith; and there is nothing to -separate this miracle from them. - -Let us consider these objections. - -1. Earthquakes have always been of common occurrence in Palestine. -Nor is it denied that an earthquake took place on the present -occasion. But a simple earthquake will not account for the bursting -forth of the fiery balls, _as often as the labourers attempted to -resume the work_. No other earthquake ever exhibited these phenomena. - -2. This explanation was, I believe, unknown to Warburton, Basnage, -Lardner, or Gibbon. It appears to have been first suggested in a -German magazine,[266] by the celebrated Michaelis, in the latter -half of the eighteenth century. But, on inquiry, it appears more -ingenious than probable. Who knows that the caverns under the Temple -_had_ been hermetically sealed for a long time previously to Julian’s -attempt? They were constantly opened at other times (as the story -told by Benjamin of Tudela evidences), and no such result followed. -The present was but one out of many occasions when foundations had -been dug and buildings erected in the same spot; but without any -explosion or fiery outburst. How was it that Solomon’s workmen, and -Zorobabel’s, and Adrian’s, and I know not how many more—how was it -that they escaped the fatal injuries that befell those of Julian? - -Again, the phenomena related by Marcellinus and others do not accord -with the idea of an explosion of mephitic gases. These ignite -instantaneously, and burn till exhausted. They could not be described -by any writer as ‘_balls_ of fire’ breaking forth with continual -outbursts, as often as the labourers attempted to resume the work. -It is also evident that the fire did not break forth the moment the -ground was opened, but only when the whole foundation had been laid -and the masons had begun to build; for Chrysostom says that some of -the stones already laid were thrown down. - -3. In dealing with this objection, we enter on new and more difficult -ground. It may be true, and I incline to believe it is so, that -the truth of Holy Writ was not, so to speak, imperilled by this -enterprise. If it had succeeded, I do not see that any saying of -Inspiration would have been thereby contravened.[267] But such -an occurrence would surely have been at variance with the Divine -purpose in setting up the Christian Church. Type and shadow were -to vanish when the reality and the substance came. The rebuilding -of the Jewish Temple would have been an unmeaning renewal of them. -Further, such strange anomalies as the reconstruction of the Holy -of Holies, with its veil unrent, and the renewal of the Temple -sacrifices, foreshadowing an event long past, would have disturbed -the faith of large numbers of professing members of the Church, as -well as deterred equally large numbers from entering its pale. It -is a difficult—it may be thought a presumptuous—thing to attempt -determining what would be a sufficient reason for expecting a -miracle. But if there ever has been an instance in the history of the -Christian Church when a miracle was, so to speak, demanded, it was -the one we have under consideration. Almighty God had been directly -challenged by the supreme human ruler of the earth, and in the sight -of all Christendom, to show the right. Do we wonder that, as at Mount -Carmel, He answered by fire? - -4. These considerations make it easy to deal with the last of the -four objections. It may freely be granted that the age of Julian was -signalized by the endless recurrence of reported miracles—most of -which must be regarded with grave suspicion, while many others are -wholly unworthy of credit. Thus Gregory relates of Julian, that one -day when he was sacrificing, the entrails of the victim were found -to be impressed with the emblem of a cross within a circle.[268] On -another occasion, when he attempted to build a heathen temple over -the spot where a Christian had been buried, it fell down again as -soon as it was put up.[269] These are two instances, out of many, of -the idle tales current in that day. If the occurrence we have now -under consideration is to be classed with these, no one could wonder -at the unwillingness of men to lend it credit. But it stands entirely -apart from them. It was not worked at the command or through the -entreaty of any man. It was not manifested to prove the truth of any -disputed dogma, or the sanctity of any theological leader, or the -orthodoxy of any party in the Church. It was wrought by the finger of -God directly and visibly; and, unless we are prepared to affirm that -since the Apostolic age He has never openly interfered in the affairs -of men, we may reasonably believe that He interfered here. - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[261] Lardner, V. iii. p. 603 ff. - -[262] Cassel, I. § 53. Other Jewish writers, as Jost, admit the -occurrence, but deny the miracle. - -[263] Lardner also insists much on the silence of Jerome, Prudentius, -and Orosius. If facts of history are to be doubted because some -historians of the time do not mention them how many would remain -which could be regarded as certain? - -[264] Thus, Gregory says that the doors of a church were miraculously -closed against the fugitives, and a fiery flame issuing from it -destroyed them; that a circle and cross of fire were visible in the -heavens, and crosses of fire seen on the garments of the spectators. -Chrysostom states that the workmen had dug out the foundation, and -begun to build, when the flames burst forth. Socrates, that the -building tools and implements were consumed by fire, and were a -whole day burning, He adds, what is important, that the earthquake -occurred during the night, and the fires broke out on the following -day. Theodoret says that the earthquake threw down some of the stones -of the newly laid foundations, and shook some of the excavated earth -back into the hole out of which it had been dug. Chrysostom confirms -him in this. - -[265] Ammian. Marcellin. XXIII. 1. It has been suggested that he took -his account without inquiry from Christian writers. So Gibbon, ch. -XXXIII. But that a heathen historian and devoted friend of Julian -should in this manner have recorded what was at once unfavourable to -his creed and painful to his feelings as a friend, is too improbable -to need refutation. - -[266] _Magazin von Lichtenberg._ Quoted by the editor of Ammian. -Marcell. in his notes. - -[267] Warburton argues that not only did our Lord never declare that -the Jewish Temple should not be rebuilt, but that He even implied -that it would be, when He said (St. Luke xxi. 24), ‘Jerusalem shall -be trodden down of the Gentiles, _until_ the times of the Gentiles be -fulfilled.’ But this is to mistake the meaning of the Greek phrase -Ἄχρις οὗ, ἔως οὗ. These denote a state of things up to a given point, -but determine nothing as to what will follow. See Chrysostom on St. -Matt. i. 25 etc. - -[268] Greg. Naz. Orat. III. - -[269] Chrysost. in Matth. Hom. IV. - - - - - _APPENDIX V._ - - THE BLOOD ACCUSATIONS. - - -Among the many accusations which have been advanced against the Jews, -there are three, which may be distinguished from the others as ‘Blood -Accusations,’ and which have been the causes of terrible suffering to -them. The first of these is the charge of crucifying boys, in parody -of the Saviour’s death upon the cross; the second, that of using -Christian blood in the preparation of the Paschal cakes; the third, -that of possessing themselves, by underhand means, of the consecrated -Host, for the purpose of insulting and stabbing it. It might seem -that this last was not a _blood_ accusation. But, as it was believed -that they cut and pierced the wafer, as being the very body of the -Lord, which indeed bled like any human body under their knives, it -may be classed with the other two. The first is the most ancient, and -the one which has been most pertinaciously adhered to; though the -other two have been continually repeated and accredited. Our present -object is to inquire when these charges were first made, and what -could have given rise to them. - -As regards the time and origin of the notion respecting their -crucifixion of boys, I have at p. 73 suggested the probable source -of that accusation. Of all the Jewish feasts, the most mirthful, -or rather the most riotous, was the Feast of Purim; of which it -was said that ‘the Jews were wont to drink, until they could not -distinguish between the blessings pronounced on Mordecai and the -curses imprecated on Haman.’ At this feast, in the earlier centuries -of Christianity, it was customary to introduce the effigy of Haman -suspended on his gibbet; and the resemblance of this figure to a -crucified malefactor soon engaged the notice of the Jews. Hence jests -and innuendos against our Blessed Lord came to be a common topic -among the revellers; on which ground the Jews were forbidden by the -Christian emperors to celebrate this feast. Nor did the Jews confine -their insolence to words. On one occasion, at Inmestar, they seized a -Christian youth, whom they fastened to Haman’s gibbet, and scourged -so mercilessly that he died under their hands. This, of course, -provoked a fierce outburst of indignation and horror; and we can well -understand that the tradition of the outrage would spread far and -endure for many generations. - -The second accusation—that of mixing Christian blood with the -Passover cakes, or, as some said, with the Paschal sacrifice itself, -does not appear to have been advanced until some time in the 13th -century, though the exact date cannot be determined. Now, it is at -least remarkable in connection with this charge, that it was first -made just about the time when the doctrine of Transubstantiation -was beginning to take forcible hold on men’s minds.[270] That -was declared for the first time to be a doctrine of the Catholic -faith, by a Lateran Council A.D. 1215. According to that belief, -the eucharistic wafer became, after consecration, the actual body -and blood of the Lord, so that men actually ate His flesh and drank -His blood. It may be assumed as tolerably certain that the Jews -would mock and deride this doctrine; which great numbers of pious -Christians found themselves unable to accept. Even if the Jews did -not openly satirize the Christians who upheld this extravagant -conception, their opinion about it would be notorious enough; nor -could the knowledge of what the Jews thought about it fail to -exasperate still further the bitterness with which the extreme -zealots of Ultramontanism already regarded them. It was an easy and -obvious addition to the old charge of crucifying a Christian in -mockery of the Saviour’s passion, to say that the Jews further mixed -the blood of their victim with the Paschal bread, in order to deride -the holy rite whereby Christians became partakers of His very body -and blood. - -The Jews themselves allege other reasons for the circulation of -this slander. They declare the charge to have been first made in the -earliest ages of the Church, and to have been levelled, nominally -indeed at the Jews, but really at the Christians. A vague rumour of -the words spoken by Jesus at the Paschal Supper, when He delivered -the cup to the Apostles, ‘This is My blood,’ had spread among the -heathen, and given the idea that the Christians actually drank human -blood at their religious celebrations. It is true that the authors of -these accusations attribute the offence to the Israelites; but (say -the Jews, and so far certainly truly) the earlier heathen writers -continually confound the Christians with Jews, regarding the former -as simply an heretical Jewish sect. Further, it is alleged that the -calumny derived some support from the known practice of certain -heretical Christian sects, notably the Cataphrygians, who mixed with -the consecrated bread the blood of infants, which they extracted from -them by puncturing a vein. This, however, is nothing more than a -plausible theory. Granting that such reports gained currency in the -first or second century of Christianity, the Christians, against whom -they were really circulated, would know their monstrous falsehood, -and entirely disregard them. It is impossible to conceive that they -would have retorted such a charge on the Jews, or even countenanced -its circulation. - -Again, it is said that there is an imperative order in the -Talmud,[271] that the Jews shall, at the Passover, drink a certain -quantity of ‘red wine,’ and that this ‘red wine’ was supposed to -mean really human blood, though the command was disguised under -a metaphor. But independently of the extravagance of such an -interpretation of very plain and simple words, the charge made -against the Jews was not that of _drinking_ Christian blood, but of -mixing it with the Passover bread. No one ever supposed that for any -of the four cups drunk at the Paschal Feast a cup of human blood was -substituted. - -If the idea above named has nothing but its likelihood to support it, -at all events it has that. And the third charge, brought not long -afterwards, of getting surreptitious possession of the consecrated -wafer in order to treat it with indignity, tends to strengthen -the likelihood. It is alleged that, not content with deriding the -doctrine of Transubstantiation, they were eager to insult the body of -the Lord itself. They would bribe with a large sum some official to -purloin the Host, and hand it over to them—when they would stab it -with their knives, and it would bleed, like any human body—they, it -was assumed, remaining wholly unmoved by the sight of so tremendous a -miracle, nay, only anxious, by multiplied evidence of it, to increase -their own condemnation in the sight of Heaven! It is beyond dispute -that these alleged marvels were quoted in support of the doctrine -of the Corporal Presence in the Eucharist. It is hardly too much -to assume that the charges against the Jews were coined—partly, -no doubt, in consequence of the bitter hate with which they were -regarded, but partly also to establish the certainty of the popular -dogma of the day. - -I have not thought it necessary to advance any arguments to prove -the falsehood of these accusations. No competent tribunal by which -they have been tried has ever failed to declare them groundless. -Indeed, no person who has the most ordinary acquaintance with the -Mosaic ritual, but must be aware, not only of the falsehood, but of -the absurdity and the impossibility of the charges. The touch, nay -the mere contiguity, of a dead body, according to the Jewish law, -rendered all persons in its vicinity unclean, so that they could not -partake in, much less celebrate, religious rites until they were -purged from the pollution. How then could the blood of a murdered -person be used in the consecration of victims and offerings, which -its very presence would _ipso facto_ desecrate? If nothing short of -the most distinct statement on the subject will satisfy some minds, -they have even that. The words of Moses, Levit. vii. 26, 27, are, ‘Ye -shall eat _no manner_ of blood’ (πᾶν αἷμα σὐκ ἔδεσθε)—no blood, not -even of beast or bird, how much less, of man! - - -FOOTNOTES: - -[270] ‘These accusations began only 600 years ago,’ writes De Virga -in the _Shebet Yehuda_ published in Amsterdam A.D. 1651. ‘They -commenced in the reign of Alphonso X. of Castile. In his time there -was a priest in Spain who in his sermons declared that the Israelites -could not sacrifice their Passover unless they had Christian blood to -use in the performance of the rite.’ - -[271] Hierosolym. Talmudis, Fol. II. 1. ‘Quæritur de mensurâ -poculorum, quæ ebiberunt ad Pascha, aliaque convivia sacra; et -qualitate vini. Præceptum est. ut vino rubido præstat officium. -Vinum rubrum requiritur in sacris.’ See Lightfoot, _Index Talmud. -Hierosolym._ Vol. X. p. 509 of his works. - - - - - INDEX. - - - A. - - Abarbanel (Isaac), 234, 239, 249, 256. - - Abarbanel (the brothers), 249. - - Abasside Caliphs, 137. - - Abba-bar-Huna, 64 _n._ - - Abbas I., Shah, 278. - - ” II. ” 279, 309. - - Abdalla, Caliph, 130. - - ” father of Mahomet, 89. - - Abdebrahim, 158. - - Abdel-Muman, Caliph, 144. - - Abderachman I., _or_ Abderraman, Caliph, 111, 127. - - Abderachman II., Caliph, 129. - - Abendana, 264. - - Aben-Ezra, 157. - - Aberdeen, Lord, 368. - - Abner, Rabbi, 218. - - Aboab, Emmanuel, 307. - - ” Isaac, 307. - - Abraham, the Patriarch, 17, 59, 91. - - Abraham, Rabbi, 288. - - ” Usque, 258. - - ” of Wallingford, 182. - - Abrantes, 261. - - Abu Beker, Caliph, 94, 95 _n._ - - ” Giafar, 108. - - Abul Abbas, Caliph, 112. - - Acra, Mount, 29. - - Adonis, Worship of, 51. - - Adrian, Emperor, 42, 43, 47, 51. - - Adrianople, 313. - - Ælia Capitolina, 51. - - Æthiopia, 92, 115. - - Ætius, 92. - - Africa, 96. - - Ageda, Plain of, 286. - - Agobard, Bishop, 125. - - Agrippa I., King, 21. - - ” II. ” 25. - - Agrippina, 297. - - Ahmed Kader, Caliph, 130. - - Aila, 94. - - Aizhadin, 95. - - Akiba, Rabbi, 44-50. - - Alarcos, 145. - - Albert, D., of Austria, 203, 207. - - Albigenses, 171, 235. - - Albinus, Procurator, 24. - - Alcantara, Bishop of, 214 _n._ - - Alexander, Tiber., Procur., 23, 26. - - Alexander II., Czar, 368. - - ” II., Pope, 132. - - ” IV. ” 197, 201. - - ” VI. ” 222, 240 _n._, 242. - - Alexandria, 22 _n._, 42, 76, 81, 96, 372. - - Alexandria, Library at, 95. - - Algiers, 281. - - Alkihoran, 128. - - All Saints’ Day, 186. - - Almamon, Caliph, 107 _n._ - - Almohades, The, 144. - - Almozal, 161. - - Alphonso II., King of Naples, 239. - - Alphonso IV., King of Portugal, 244. - - Alphonso V., King of Portugal, 239 _n._ - - Alphonso V., King of Spain, 234. - - ” VI. ” ” 133. - - ” VII. ” ” 145. - - ” VIII. ” ” 145. - - ” IX. ” ” 145. - - ” X. ” ” 173, 176 _n._ - - Alphonso XI., King of Spain, 213. - - Alroy, El David, 155, 314. - - Alsatia, 168, 203, 206, 320, 357. - - Alvarez, Father, 119 _n._ - - ” Garcia, 230. - - Al Wathek, Caliph, 110. - - Alypius, 68. - - Amaria, 155. - - Ambivius, Procurator, 20. - - Ambrose, Bishop, 72. - - Amina, 89. - - Ammianus Marcellinus, App. IV. - - Amru, 96. - - Amsterdam, 119, 292, 294, 301, 312. - - Anakia, 311. - - Ananus, High Priest, 30, 31 _n._ - - ” of Babylon, 109. - - Anastasius, Emperor, 83. - - Ancona, 252, 255. - - Andalusia, 174, 232. - - Anencletus II., Pope, 200. - - Angoulême, 191. - - Anjou, Duke of, 194. - - Antioch, 26, 72 _n._ - - Antiochus Epiphanes, 118. - - ” King of Commagene, 34 _n._ - - Antipas, Herod, 21. - - Antipatris, 28. - - Antonelli, Cardinal, 359, 360. - - Antonia, Tower of, 30, 35. - - Antoninus, Emperor, 54. - - Antwerp, 258. - - Appollonius Tyaneus, 59. - - Aquitaine, 122. - - Arabia, 92, 98, 155. - - Arabian Nights, 115. - - Aragon, 171, 177, 217, 228, 233. - - Arbues D’Avila, 238. - - Arch of Titus, 39. - - Archelaus, 19. - - Arianism, 100. - - Arians, 73, 92, 100 _n._ - - Aristobulus, 21. - - Aristotle, 159. - - Arles, 126. - - Armleder, 203. - - Arnheim, 219. - - Arnold, Archbishop, 142 _n._ - - Artaxerxes, King, 85. - - Asa _or_ Asche, Rabbi, 85. - - Asaph, St., Bishop (Drummond), 345. - - Ascalon, 44, 162. - - Ashkenaz, 340 _n._ - - Ashkenazim, 292 _n._, 340 _n._ - - Assassins, 31. - - Augustus, Emperor, 20, 55. - - Aurelian, Emperor, 60. - - Aurelius, Emperor, 54, 298. - - Austerlitz, Battle of, 356. - - Austria, 169, 365. - - Averroes, 158. - - Avignon, 201, 252, 255, 274, 320. - - Avila, Bishop of, 232. - - Ayala, Lopes de, 215. - - Azores, 121. - - Azotus, 54. - - - B - - Baalbek, 95. - - Babylon, 40, 128. - - Babylonian Schools, 129. - - Baechoo, 116. - - Bagdad, 161, 162. - - Bajazet, Sultan, 252 _n._ - - Balavignus, 205. - - Balsora, 116. - - Bamberg, 273. - - Banditono, 206. - - Bannister’s ‘Holy Land,’ 225 _n._ - - Barabbas (Jew of Malta), 225 _n._ - - Barbarini, Cardinal, 307. - - Barbary, 228. - - Barcelona, 138, 160, 217, 240. - - ” Cortes at, 172. - - Barchochebas, 44-50. - - Barons’ War, 184. - - Basle, Council at, 206. - - Basnage, 112, 123. - - Basques, The, 231. - - Bassorah, 161. - - Bauer, Bruno, 362. - - Bavaria, 141. - - Bayonne, 276, 319. - - Beausobre, 65 _n._ - - Belgium, 365. - - Belgrade, 314. - - Belisarius, 84 _n._, 92, 94 _n._ - - Belmont, Baron de, 305. - - Beltran, Bishop, 230. - - Benedict XIII., Pope, 230. - - ” XIV. ” 338. - - ” the Jew, 150. - - Beni Israel, The, 120. - - Benjamin of Tudela, 112, 115, 155 _n._, 157, 161. - - Bennefeld, 206. - - Berlin, 324, 336. - - ” Treaty of, 369. - - Bernaldes, 239. - - Bernard of Clairvaulx, 136 _n._, 142, 199, 200 _n._ - - Bernard the Banker, 321. - - ” the Monk, 220. - - Bernardino di Feltre, 222. - - Berne, 205. - - Bernhardt, Herr, 336. - - Bethlehem, 51, 247. - - Bethor, _or_ Bither, 44, 49. - - Bezetha, 29, 30. - - Beziers, Jews of, 122 _n._, 127. - - Black Death, 204. - - Blanche of Castile, 164, 166. - - Blood Accusations, 73 _n._, 142, 183, 366, App. V. - - Bohemia, 146, 209. - - Bokhara, 376. - - Boleslaus of Poland, 208. - - Bologna, 202, 257, 358, 359. - - Bomberg, 258. - - Boniface IX., Pope, 244. - - Bordeaux, 191, 276, 319. - - Borgia, Roderic, 298. - - Borne, Louis, 337. - - Borromeo, Cardinal, 224. - - Borrow’s ‘Bible in Spain,’ 265 _n._ - - Bosnia, 314. - - Bosra, 95. - - Botouschani, 370 _n._ - - Brabant, 208. - - Braganza, 244. - - Bragaza, 239 _n._ - - Brandenburgh, 271. - - Brazil, 299, 373. - - Bremen, 361. - - Brentford, 341. - - Brescia, 223. - - Breslau, 220, 337 _n._ - - Brett, Samuel, 286, 287. - - Bristol, Jew of, 154. - - Brokers, Jewish, 349. - - Bruhl, Count, 338. - - Brunn, 335. - - Brussels, 208. - - Buda, 286. - - Bular, King, 111. - - Burgos, 217. - - ” Bishop of, 218. - - ” Council of, 213. - - Buxtorf, 200, App. II. - - - C. - - Cabbala, Appendix III. - - Cabbalists, 109, 157. - - Cæsarea, 20, 24, 26, 44, 84. - - Cairo, 281, 372. - - Caligula, Emperor, 21, 22. - - Calixtus III., Pope, 222. - - Canon, Don Santo de, 218. - - Canterbury, Archb. of (Sumner), 351, 353. - - Canton, 116. - - Caorsini, The, 199. - - Capistran, 220. - - Capnio. _See_ Reuchlin. - - Cappadocia, 114. - - Captivity, Princes of, 41, 114. - - Caracalla, Emperor, 58. - - Cardoso, 315. - - Carlisle, Earl of, 351. - - Carthagena, 240. - - Carulet, 206. - - Carvajal, 211 _n._ - - Casimir III., King of Poland, 204, 208. - - Cassius, Avidius, 54. - - Castile, 228. - - Catherine, Regent of Spain, 229. - - ” of Portugal, 303. - - Cavades, King of Persia, 85. - - Cayenne, 299. - - Census of Spanish Jews, 176. - - Chajon, Nehemiah, 315. - - Chanina, 85. - - Charlemagne, Emperor, 123. - - Charles the Bald, Emperor, 126. - - ” V., ” 261. - - ” VI., ” 332. - - ” VII., ” 327. - - ” II., King of England, 303. - - ” II., King of France, 127. - - ” III., ” ” 127. - - ” IV., ” ” 193. - - ” V., ” ” 194. - - ” VI., ” ” 195. - - ” VIII., ” ” 257. - - ” II., King of Spain, 301. - - ” III., ” ” 317. - - ” IV., ” ” 318. - - - Charles Edward, 342. - - ” of Moravia, 207. - - Chasidim, 377. - - Chaucer, 183. - - Chelmnicki, 292. - - Chignon, 192. - - Chillon, 205. - - Chilperic, 83, 105. - - China, Jews of, 116. - - ” Cochin, Jews of, 119, 120. - - Chisuk Emuna, 270 _n._ - - Chosroes, King of Persia, 91, 93, 115, 118. - - Chouts, 162. - - Claudius, Emperor, 23, 55. - - Clement IV., Pope. - - ” V., ” 201, 204. - - ” VI., ” 201, 207, 244. - - ” VII., ” 252. - - ” VIII., ” 255. - - ” XII., ” 318. - - ” XIII., ” 338. - - Clotaire I., King of France, 83. - - ” II., ” ” 105. - - Clugny, Peter of, 224. - - Cohen, Alexander, 210. - - ” Esther, 129. - - Coke, Sir E., 276 _n._ - - Coleridge, S. T., 176, 295 _n._ - - Cologne, 141, 220. - - Coloman, King of Hungary, 146. - - Colossus of Rhodes, 108 _n._ - - Constans, Emperor, 67. - - Constantine, Copronymus, 107 _n._ - - ” Emperor, 54, 66. - - Constantinople, 81, 107, 162, 279, 312, 332. - - Copin, 183. - - Coponius, Procurator, 20. - - Cordova, 105, 111, 112, 127, 158, 217, 232. - - Cordova, Gonsalvo de, 257. - - Corneglio, Father, 253. - - Cornwall, Earl of, 182. - - Cossacks, Rebellion of, 289. - - Costa Da, Historian, 362, 363. - - ” ” Isaac, 340. - - ” ” Uriel, 293. - - Cremieux, M., 375. - - Cremona, 257, 258. - - Crete, 76. - - Crimean War, 376. - - Cromwell, Oliver, 302, 303. - - Crusades, Causes of, 137. - - Ctesiphon, 94. - - Cufa, 94, 162. - - Cumanus, V., Procurator, 23. - - Cush, Land of, 115. - - Cuspius Fadus, Procurator, 23. - - Cyprus, 42. - - Cyrene, 40. - - Cyril of Alexandria, 76. - - - D. - - Dagobert, King of France, 105. - - D’Aguilar, Miss, 265 _n._ - - Damascus, 44, 95, 112, 279, 374. - - Damietta, 281. - - Daniel, 310. - - Dashwood, Sir J., 345. - - Da Silva, 294. - - David, Francis, 270. - - D’Avila, Arbues, 236. - - Decius, Emperor, 59. - - Deckendorf, 203. - - D’Enghien, Duke of, 143. - - Denmark, 365. - - Dennis, King of Portugal, 244. - - De Pass, 346 _n._ - - Dessau, 336. - - De Vries, 296. - - Dickens, Charles, 225 _n._ - - Dion Cassius, 50. - - Diospolis, 54. - - D’Israeli, Benjamin, 155. - - ” Isaac, 276 _n._ - - Dnieper, River, 289 - - Doesborg, 219. - - Dohm, Counsellor, 328. - - Domenge, Father, 117. - - Dominic, 172. - - Domitian, Emperor, 41. - - Domus, Conversorum, 183. - - Dover, 275. - - Dublin, Abp. of (Whately), 351. - - Du Jon, 284. - - Dunaan, King of Homer, 92. - - - E. - - Ecbatana, 94. - - Ecija, Archdeacon of, 227. - - Edessa, 108 _n._ - - Edward the Confessor, 133. - - ” I., King of England, 164, 166, 184, 185, 341. - - Egbert of York, 133. - - Egeria, 55. - - Egica, King of Goths, 10. - - Egypt, 40, 76, 94, 96. - - Egyptian Jew, 24. - - Elam, 114. - - Eleazar, 25, 30. - - Elias (Prussian Jew), 324. - - ” Rabbi, 182. - - Eliezer, 49. - - ” the Printer, 250. - - Elizabeth, Empress of Russia, 329, 338. - - Elnabar, 161. - - Elvira, Council of, 100. - - Embden, 263. - - Emesa, 95. - - Emmanuel, King of Portugal, 246, 261. - - Emmanuel, Victor, King of Italy, 360 _n._ - - Encyclopædists, 321. - - Ende, Van. Physician, 295. - - Enghien, 208. - - Enriquez, 299. - - Epistola Obsc. Vir., 269 _n._ - - Eslingen, 206. - - Esther, Book of, 118. - - Estherka, 208. - - Euchel, Isaac, 337. - - Eugenius III., Pope, 142. - - ” IV., ” 221. - - Eusebius, 52, 54, 58. - - Evora, 244. - - Exeter, Bishop of (Philpotts), 351, 353. - - Expulsion of Jews from Empire, 209. - - Expulsion of Jews from England, 186. - - Expulsion of Jews from France, 195. - - Expulsion of Jews from Portugal, 248. - - Expulsion of Jews from Russia, 147. - - Expulsion of Jews from Spain, 240. - - Ezra, 56, 57 _n._ - - ” Book of, 118. - - - F. - - Fadai, 93. - - Fadus, Cuspius, Procurator, 23. - - Farwah, 96. - - Felix, Procurator, 24. - - Felletti, Padre, 359. - - Ferdinand I., King of Spain, 132. - - ” III. ” ” 173. - - ” IV. ” ” 211. - - ” VI. ” ” 317. - - ” I., Emperor, 272. - - ” II. ” 286. - - ” III. ” 286. - - ” King of Aragon, 233. - - ” King of Portugal, 244. - - Fermosa, Rachel, 145. - - Ferrara, 256, 258. - - ” Duke of, 305. - - Ferrer, Vincentius, 228, 236. - - Festus, P., Procurator, 24. - - Feudal System, The, 134, 135. - - Fez, 281. - - Flaccus, Aquilius, 22 _n._ - - Flagellants, The, 205. - - Fleisch, Raind, 169. - - Florence, 197, 222, 256. - - Florinda, 104 _n._ - - Florus, Gessius, Procurator, 24, 25 _n._ - - Fouché, 143. - - Franchise, Jews admitted to, 349. - - Franconia, 146. - - Frank, Jacob, 334, 335, 336. - - Frankels, Rabbi, 336. - - Frankfort, 285, 312, 361. - - Franza, 233. - - Frederick II., Emperor, 200, 286. - - ” III. ” 269 _n._ - - ” William, Elector, 286, 324. - - Frederick William I., King of Prussia, 325. - - Frederick William II., King of Prussia, 325. - - Frederick (the Great) III., King of Prussia, 325, 336. - - Freiburg, 205. - - Frideswide, St., 184. - - Friedlander, David, 337. - - Fulvia, 20. - - - G. - - Gabriol, Solomon, 138. - - Gadara, 28, 44 _n._ - - Galba, Emperor, 29. - - Galicia, 333. - - Gallio, 57. - - Gallus, Cest., Prefect, 25, 27, 31 _n._ - - Gamala, 20 _n._, 44 _n._ - - Gamaliel I., II., III., IV., Presidents of Sanhedrin, 57 _n._ - - Gamaliel IV., 77. - - Gans, David, 274. - - Gaon, _or_ Geon, 86 _n._ - - Garcia, Alvares, 230. - - Garonne, 191. - - Gaubil, Father, 117. - - Gaulonitis, 20 _n._ - - Gaza, 309. - - Geiger, 363. - - Geneva, 205. - - Gennath (Gate of Jerusalem), 30. - - Genoa, 82, 222, 241, 258. - - Geonim, 86. - - George III., King of England, 347. - - George IV., King of England, 348. - - Georgius, Prefect, 98. - - Gerasa, 31, _n._ - - Germany, 146, 360, 370. - - Ghetto, 202, 229, 255, 306 _n._ - - Ghibellines, 197. - - Giaffir, 110. - - Gibbon, Historian, 107, 159, 244 _n._, 255, 358. - - Gibraltar, 240, 317. - - Giles, St., Cripplegate, 134. - - Gischala, 28, 30. - - Godolphin, Lord, 340. - - Goethe, 295 _n._ - - Golden Age of Judaism, 106. - - Goldsmid, Mr., 349. - - ” Sir Isaac, 350. - - Gomez, Emmanuel, 299. - - Gompertz, 324. - - Gonsalez of Calatrava, 214 _n._ - - Gonsalvo de Cordova, 257. - - Gooch, Bishop of Norwich, 344. - - Gordon, Lord G., 346 _n._ - - Goshen, 156. - - Gotesel, Priest, 146. - - Gozani, Father, 117. - - Graetz, Historian, 324, 363, App. III. - - Granada, 128, 132. - - ” King of, 192. - - Grant, Mr. R., 349. - - Gratus, Valer., Procurator, 20. - - Greece, 162. - - Grégoire, Abbé, 322. - - Gregory I., Pope, 82, 197. - - ” VII. ”, 145. - - ” IX. ”, 243. - - ” XIII. ”, 255. - - Grimaldi, 346 _n._ - - Grotius, 284. - - Guadelete, River, 104. - - Gudule, St., 209. - - Guelderland, 219. - - Guelf, 197. - - Guinea, Gulf of, 246. - - - H. - - Habenicht, Walter von, 140. - - Hachacham, 157. - - Hagenau, 168. - - Hague, The, 295, 305. - - Hai, 130. - - Hajun, 332. - - Halevi, 138, 210. - - Hallam, Historian, 123 _n._ - - Hamadan, 94. - - Haman, 73, 118. - - Hamburgh, 312, 362. - - Hamon, Joseph, 280. - - Hanoch, Rabbi, 128, 129. - - Harleian Miscellany, 287. - - Harley, Lord, 346. - - Haroun Al Raschid, Caliph, 108. - - Harrington, 303. - - Heber, 17 _n._ - - Hebron, 159, 377. - - Hegel, 295 _n._ - - Hegesippus, 41. - - Heine, 337. - - Hela, 162. - - Heliogabalus, Emperor, 58. - - Henry IV., Emperor, 141. - - ” I., King of England, 148. - - ” II. ” ”, 148. - - ” III. ” ”, 199. - - ” II., King of France, 319. - - ” II., King of Spain, 215 (of Transtamara). - - ” III., King of Spain, 216, 217. - - ” IV., King of Spain, 231. - - Hep, Hep, 141, 362. - - Heracleonas, 99 _n._ - - Heraclius, Emperor, 91, 93, 98, 101. - - Herder, 295 _n._ - - Herodias, 21. - - Herodion, 38. - - Hierax of Alexandria, 77. - - Hillel I., II., III., 57 _n._ - - Hippicus, Tower of, 29, 43. - - Hira, 94. - - Hiskiah, 130. - - Hochstraten, 270. - - Holland, 291, 300, 332, 365. - - Holmes, Nathaniel, 287. - - Holy Land, 162, 225, 281, 376. - - Homberg, Herr, 337 _n._ - - Homen Lopes, 263. - - Homeritis, 92. - - Honorius, Emperor, 71, 81. - - Hormisdas, King of Persia, 65. - - Hosdai, Rabbi, 111. - - Hoshiel, Rabbi, 128. - - Hugh of Lincoln, 183. - - Huguenots, 320. - - Hungary, 146, 332, 333, 366. - - Huntingdon, 303. - - Huss, John, 271. - - Hypatia, 77. - - - I. - - Idumeans, 28, 31. - - Immanuel Ben Solomon, 202. - - Impostors, Jewish, 154. - - India, 116. - - Inglis, Sir R., 351. - - Inmestar, 73. - - Innocent II., Pope, 197. - - ” III., ”, 198 _n._ - - ” IV., ”, 197, 198. - - ” VIII., ”, 222. - - ” XI., ”, 305. - - Inquisition, 235, 301, 317, 318, 365. - - Ionia, 114. - - Irak, 94. - - Ireland, 303. - - Isaac of Duren, Rabbi, 210. - - ” The Five, 138. - - Isabella of Castile, 232, 238. - - ” Infanta, 246. - - Isidore, Bishop of Seville, 101. - - Ismail, Shah Sofi, 277. - - Israel, Baal Schem, 334. - - Isserlein, 210. - - Istakan, 94. - - Italy, 358. - - Ivan III., of Russia, 273. - - Izarba, 250. - - - J. - - Jachia, Don David, 250. - - ” ” Solomon, 243. - - Jacob, Rabbi, 206. - - Jacob Hall, Oxford, 134. - - Jaen, 232, 233. - - Jaffa, 377. - - James I., King of Aragon, 171. - - ” II., ” ”, 177. - - ” II., King of England, 304. - - Jamnia, 41, 54, 56. - - Jarchi. _See_ Rashi. - - Jechiel, Rabbi, 166. - - Jerome, 52. - - ” of Prague, 271. - - ” of Santa Fé, 230. - - Jerusalem described, 29. - - ” present state, 376, 377. - - ” siege by Titus, 32-36. - - ” rebuilt by Adrian, 51. - - ” taken by Omar, 95. - - Jerusalem taken by Persians, 87. - - ” retaken by Heraclius, 87. - - Jessel, Sir G., 352, 354 _n._ - - Jesuits in China, 116. - - JESUS CHRIST, 91. - - ” son of Hanani, 32. - - ” son of Sirach, 117. - - Jethukiel, Phys., 333. - - Jochaides, Simon, 54. - - Jochanan, Rabbi, 57 _n._ - - Jonathan, High Priest, 24. - - ” of Enghien, 208. - - John, King of England, 153, 198. - - ” ” France, 193. - - ” I., ” Spain, 216. - - ” II., ” ”, 228. - - ” I., ” Portugal, 244. - - ” II., ” ”, 245. - - ” XXII., Pope, 201. - - ” of Gischala, 30 _n._, 33, 37, 39. - - Joppa, 44 _n._ - - Joseph II., Emperor of Austria, 328, 365. - - Joseph, King of Khozar, 111. - - ” Historian, 146 _n._ - - ” of Ecija, 213. - - ” of Granada, 132. - - ” of Osuna, 175. - - ” Rabbi, 129. - - ” Spanish Minister, 132. - - Josephus, 17, 25 _n._, 28 _n._, 33, 39, 55, App. I. - - Joshua, Rabbi, 190. - - Jost, Historian, 64 _n._, 323. - - Jotapata, 28, 44 _n._ - - Jovian, Emperor, 70. - - Judah, Hakkadosh II. and III., 57 _n._ - - Judah, Chief Rabbi, 244. - - ” Don, 244. - - ” of Modena, 307. - - Judas, Gaulonite, 19, 25, 314. - - ” Maccabæus, 56. - - Jude, St., 41. - - Juglar, Inquisitor, 236. - - Julian, Count, 104. - - ” Emperor, 67, 68, 69. - - ” Samaritan, 83. - - Julius III., Pope, 253. - - Justin Emperor, 83. - - ” Martyr, 52 _n._ - - Justinian, Emperor, 83, 84. - - Juvenal, 55. - - - K. - - Kaaba, 89. - - Kadijah, 90. - - Kainoka, 93. - - Kalba Sabua, 46. - - Kaminiek, Bishop of, 334. - - Karaites, The, 109, 110 _n._, 331, 377. - - Kashgar, 116. - - Kenana, 93. - - Khaibar, 93. - - Khaled, 94. - - Khozar, 111, 112. - - Kimchi, David, 160, 172. - - Kimchis, The, 160. - - Kobad (Cavades), 85. - - Koraidha, 93. - - Koran, The, 91 _n._ - - Koreish, The, 89. - - - L. - - Lacedæmonians, 56. - - Ladislaus I., King of Hungary, 146. - - Ladislaus II., King of Hungary, 220. - - Lamego, Ruez, 340. - - Langton, Archbishop, 180. - - Languedoc, 105, 127, 191, 194. - - Lara, David, 299. - - Lavater, 337. - - Leghorn (Livorno), 222, 256, 258. - - Leibnitz, 295 _n._ - - Leinengen, Landgrave of, 146. - - Leo X., Pope, 252. - - ” Rabbi, 286. - - ” of Modena, 305. - - ” the Isaurian, Emperor, 83, 99, 100. - - Leonis, Peter, 200. - - Leopold I., Emperor, 289, 324. - - ” Duke, 320. - - Lepanto, Battle of, 280. - - Lessing, 295 _n._, 336 _n._ - - Levi, Samuel, 214. - - ” Solomon, Bishop of Burgos, 218. - - Lexington, Lord, 183. - - Lincoln, 150, 184. - - Lipman of Mulhouse, 210. - - Lippold, Physician, 271. - - Lisbon, 247, 260, 301. - - Lithuanians, 204. - - Lombard Hall, Oxford, 134. - - London, 157, 275. - - Loraine, 320. - - Lothair, King of France, 127. - - Louis le Deb., King of France, 124. - - ” II., III., IV., Kings of France, 127. - - Louis VIII., King of France, 163. - - ” IX., ” ” 224. - - ” XIV., ” ” 301, 320. - - Louis XV., XVI., ” ” 321. - - Lowe, Joel, 337 _n._ - - Lubeck, 361. - - Lucena, 138. - - Luke, St., 40. - - Lunel, 190. - - Luther, 224, 284. - - Luzzato, Moses, 307, 333. - - Lyons, 125, 321. - - ” Council at, 165. - - ” Jews of, 165. - - Lysanias, 21. - - Lysias, Claudius, 57. - - Lyttelton, Lord, 343 _n._ - - - M. - - Maccabees, 118, 226, 331. - - McCaul, Dr., 333. - - Machærus, 38. - - Macon, Council at, 82. - - Madrid, 301. - - Magi, Religion of, 69 _n._, 90, 96. - - Magona, 75. - - Mahomet, 89-94. - - Mahrattas, 120. - - Maimon, Solomon, 337 _n._ - - Maimonides, 157, 158, 159. - - Malabar, Jews of, 115 _n._, 119. - - Malach, 332. - - Malaga, 138. - - Malcho, 262 _n._ - - Malesherbes, 322. - - Mammæa, 59. - - Mamun, 110. - - Manasseh (_or_ Menasseh) ben Israel, 287, 290, 301, 304 _n._ - - Manasseh, Menecier, 193. - - Manes or Mani, 65. - - Mantenu, Jacob, 234. - - Mantua, 157, 222, 223, 257. - - Marcian, Emperor, 83. - - Marco Polo, 161. - - Mariana, Historian, 240. - - Maria Theresa, 327, 335. - - Marlowe, 225 _n._ - - Martel, Charles, 122 _n._ - - Martial, 55. - - Martin V., Pope, 197, 221. - - Martin, Henry, 303. - - Martina, 99 _n._ - - Martinez, Ferdinand, 216, 217. - - Masada, 31 _n._, 38, 152. - - Massorites, 109, Appendix III. - - Master of Jews, 124. - - Matthew of Paris, 180. - - Matthias, High Priest, 31 _n._, 35. - - ” St., 115. - - Maundeville, Sir J., 161. - - Mauritius, Emperor, 86. - - ” Island, 276. - - Maximilian, Emperor, 220, 269. - - Maximus, Emperor, 72. - - Mayence _or_ Mentz, 141, 206, 220. - - Mecca, 90, 91. - - Mechlenberg, 267. - - Media, 114. - - Medici, Catherine de, 276. - - Medina, 91. - - ” del Campo, 212, 231. - - Meir, Impostor, 85. - - ” Physician, 229. - - ” Rabbi, 274. - - Melun, Council at, 164. - - Menahem, 25. - - Mendelssohn, Bartholdy, 337. - - ” Moses, 329, 336, 360. - - Mendez, Andrea, 303. - - ” Antonio, 303. - - Menton, Count, 374. - - Merseburg, 272. - - Mesopotamia, 42, 114. - - Metz, 320. - - Mexico, 374. - - Michael, Emperor, 107. - - ” St., Island, 121. - - Milan, 82. - - Milman, 75, 106, 115, 179, 324 _n._ - - Minorca, 74. - - Mishna, 84. - - Modayne, 94. - - Modena, 257. - - Moldavia, 335, 368. - - Montalcino, 253. - - Montanists, 100. - - Montefiori, Sir Moses, 340, 360, 368, 373, 375. - - Montiel, 215. - - Moravia, 332. - - Moravian Impostor, 154. - - Mordecai, Rabbi, 203. - - Morea, The, 306. - - Moriah, Mount, 29, 43. - - Morocco, Jews in, 158, 281, 372, 376. - - Mortara, Signor, 358, 359. - - Moselle, River, 140. - - Moses of Crete, 76. - - ” Hall, Oxford, 134. - - ” Hamon, 280. - - ” Lawgiver, 91. - - ” de Leon, 177. - - ” Luzzato, 307, 333. - - ” Rabbi, 128. - - ” Rieti, 202. - - Mossey, of Wallingford, 134 _n._ - - Mostanged, 161. - - Mosteira, Rabbi, 295. - - Motokavel, Sultan, 110. - - Muja, 247. - - Mulhouse, 210. - - Munich, 169. - - Muza, 104. - - ” Battle of, 94. - - Muzafia, Benjamin, 299. - - - N. - - Nachmanides, 160. - - Nadir, 93. - - Nagra, 92. - - Nantes, Edict of, 320. - - Naples, 84 _n._, 197, 200. - - Napoleon, 319, 356, 357, 360, 364. - - Narbonne, Archbishop of, 127. - - ” Jews in, 124. - - Narses, 92. - - Nasi, Joseph, 280. - - Nathan, Benjamin, 309. - - ” Rabbi, 129. - - Navarre, 217. - - Neander, Historian, 337. - - Neapolitanus, Tribune, 25. - - Nehemiah, Rabbi, 313. - - Nejara, 215. - - Nelson, 285. - - Nerva, Emperor, 41, 42. - - Neustadt, 206. - - Newcastle, Duke of, 345. - - Nicephorus, Emperor, 107. - - Nicolas Czar, 367. - - ” a Jew, 166. - - ” III., Pope, 197. - - ” IV., ” 244. - - ” V., ” 221. - - Niger, 58. - - Nineveh, 161. - - Nitzachon, The, 270 _n._ - - Noah, 91. - - Northampton, 148 _n._ - - Norway, 365. - - Norwich, 149, 150. - - ” Bishop of (Gooch), 344. - - Norzi, Solomon, 307. - - Novara, G., 270. - - Nuremburg, 203, 220, 268. - - Nyireghyaza, 366. - - - O. - - Oceana, 303. - - Offenbach, 335, 336. - - Omar, Caliph, 95, 108, 112. - - Ommiades, 95 _n._, 112. - - Onkelos, Targum of, 250, App. III. - - Oporto, 247. - - Oran, 281. - - Orestes, Prefect, 77. - - Origen, 56, 59. - - Orleans, 164. - - ” Regent, 320. - - Orobio di Castro, 299, 301. - - Orpheus, 59. - - Osorio, Bishop, 249. - - ” Count, 213. - - Osrhoene, 72. - - Osuna, 174, 176. - - Otho, Emperor, 29. - - Oxford, 123, 134, 184. - - - P - - Pablo, 160, 173. - - Pachecho, Juan de, 233. - - Padua, 223, 258. - - Palestine, 96, 157, 281. - - Pallas, 24. - - Palma, 230. - - Pampeluna, 217. - - Pamphylia, 114. - - - Paris, Riots in, 164. - - Parker, Lord, 345. - - Parliament, Jewish, 181. - - Parthenay, Sieur de, 192. - - Parthia, 114. - - Patriarch of the West, 41. - - Patriarchs of Tiberias, 62, 77. - - ” ” suppressed, 78. - - Paul, St., 25 _n._, 55, 353. - - Paul II., Pope, 222. - - ” III., ”, 234, 262. - - ” IV., ”, 253. - - ” of Samosata, 60. - - Pedro III., King of Spain, 214. - - Pelham. Mr., 342, 343. - - Pella, 27 _n._ - - Pelusium, 96. - - Peræa, 28. - - Pereira, 263. - - Persepolis, 94. - - Persia, 94, 116, 308, 376. - - Peru, Strange Building in, 121. - - Peter, Emperor of Russia, 329, 338. - - Peter the Hermit, 138, 140. - - Peters, Hugh, 303. - - Petronius, Prefect, 22. - - Pfeffercorn, 268. - - Pfortzheim, 269 _n._ - - Phasaelus, Tower of, 43. - - Philip, the Arabian, Emperor, 59. - - ” Agrippa’s General, 26. - - ” II. (Augustus), King of France, 142, 163, 198. - - Philip III. (the Hardy), King of France, 166. - - Philip IV. (the Fair), King of France, 167. - - Philip V. (the Long), King of France, 190, 193, 198. - - Philip III., King of Spain, 300. - - ” V., ” ”, 316. - - Philo Judæus, 22 _n._, 55. - - Philpotts, Bishop of Exeter, 353. - - Phocas, Emperor, 98. - - Phrygia, 114. - - Piacenza, 222. - - Pichon, Joseph, 216. - - ” Solomon, 232. - - Pilatus, P., Procurator, 20. - - Pinedo, De, 298. - - Pitt, Mr., 346. - - Pius II., Pope, 222. - - ” IV., ”, 255. - - ” V., ”, 255. - - ” VI., ”, 319. - - ” IX., ”, 358, 360. - - Plato, 159. - - Ploermel, 164. - - Pocock, 290. - - Podolia, 33. - - Poitou, 192. - - Poland, 330, 333, 334, 335. - - Polycarp, 55 _n._ - - Pombal, Don, 264. - - Pompey, 55. - - Pontoise, 142. - - Pontus, 114. - - Portaleoni, 258. - - Port Maria, 240. - - Portugal, 365. - - Potsdam, 324. - - Prague, 271, 286. - - Prester, John, 112. - - Princes of the Captivity, 63. - - Prioress’s Tale, 183. - - Prussia, 324, 326. - - ” Rhenish, 140. - - Psephinus, Tower of, 43. - - Pumbeditha, 64 _n._, 161. - - Purim, Feast of, 73, 190 _n._ - - Pyrenees, 122. - - - Q. - - Quietus, Lucius, 42. - - - R. - - Rachel Fermosa, 145. - - Radziwill, Prince, 307. - - Raport, 363. - - Rashi, Rabbi, 147. - - Ravenna, 223 _n._ - - Raymond, Count of Toulouse, 163. - - Raymond, Monk, 172. - - Reccared, King of Goths, 100. - - Rehoboth, 161. - - Remigius, Bishop, 126. - - Resch-Glutha, 115. - - Resen, 162. - - Reuchlin, J., 269 _n._ - - Rhodes, 108 _n._, 374. - - Rhynsberg, 295. - - Ricci, Father, 116. - - Richard I., King of England, 149, 152, 159. - - Richard of Pontoise, 142. - - Rieti, Rabbi Moses, 202. - - Rimini, 258. - - Robert of Jerusalem, 201. - - Roderic, King of the Goths, 104. - - Rodney, Admiral, 346. - - Rodolph, Monk, 141, 142. - - Rodrigo, Bishop, 212. - - Rodriguez, Daniel, 256. - - Romaine, W., 343 _n._ - - Rome, 82, 197, 222, 258, 305. - - Rossi, Asarja, 258. - - Rothschild, Baron, 350, 356 _n._, 368. - - Rothschild, Sir N., 352. - - Rouen, 133. - - Roumania, 368, 369. - - Rufus, Procurator, 20. - - ” Ticinius, _or_ Turnus, 48. - - Russell, Lord J., 350. - - ” Mr. Odo, 360. - - Russia, 147, 277, 329, 333, 365. - - - S. - - Saadi ben Joseph, 130. - - Sabbathai Sevi, 309-314. - - Sadoc, 20 _n._ - - Sadolet, Cardinal, 252. - - Saladin, 158. - - Salamanca, Council at, 213. - - Salamons, Alderman, 349, 352. - - Saloniki, 280, 281. - - Samaritan Version, 117. - - Samuel, Levi, 214. - - ” Rabbi, 132. - - ” Spanish Minister, 212. - - Sancha, Donna, 132. - - Sancho, King of Castile, 176. - - ” I., King of Portugal, 245. - - ” II., ” ”, 243. - - Sanhedrin, 35, 41, 55, 57. - - ” President of, 57. - - ” in Paris, 357. - - Sapor, King of Persia, 64, 65, 67. - - Saragossa, 172, 237 _n._ - - Sassanian Dynasty, 94. - - Savona, 231. - - Savonarola, 224. - - Scharf, 366. - - Scherira, 130. - - Schleirmacher, 295 _n._ - - Scholastica, St., 123. - - Scott, Sir W., 152 _n._, 226 _n._ - - Sebastian, King of Portugal, 282. - - Sebastople, 115 _n._ - - Segovia, 229. - - Seidelius, 270. - - Seine, River, 144. - - Sejanus, 20. - - Selim I., II., 280. - - Sephardim, 292 _n._, 377. - - Sepphoris, 56. - - Septuagint Version, 117. - - Sepulveda, 232. - - Serenus, 112. - - Servia, 368. - - Sestos, 312. - - Setubal, 247. - - Severus, Alexander, Emperor, 59. - - ” Septimius, ”, 58. - - ” Bishop of Minorca, 74. - - ” Julius, 48. - - Seville, 101, 173, 237 _n._ - - Shalmanesar, 109. - - Shemariah, Rabbi, 128. - - Shepherds, Rising of, 166, 190. - - Shunem, 162. - - Silesia, 320. - - Silva, 38. - - Simeon, Bishop of Ctesiphon, 67. - - ” Patriarch, 62, 57 _n._ - - ” the son of Gamaliel, 57 _n._ - - ” Stylites, 72 _n._ - - Simon, Son of Gioras, 31 _n._ 33, 35, 37, 39. - - Simon, the Just, 57 _n._ - - ” Zelotes, St., 115. - - Sisibut, King of Goths, 101. - - Sixtus, IV., Pope, 222. - - ” V., 255. - - Smyrna, 309, 312. - - Socrates, Historian, 76 _n._ - - Solomon, Ashkenazim, 280. - - ” ben Abraham, 331. - - ” Medigo, 307. - - ” Rophe, 280. - - Solymosi, Esther, 366. - - Southampton, 179 _n._ - - Spinoza, 293-298. - - Spires, 141, 206, 209. - - Stamford, 150. - - Stephen, King of England, 148, 149. - - Strasburg, 141, 293, 320. - - Strauss, 360. - - Stuttgard, 269 _n._ - - Suabia, 203. - - Succession, War of, 316. - - Suetonius, 25 _n._ - - Surenhusius, 290. - - Surinam, 299. - - Sweden, 365. - - Switzerland, 365. - - Sylvester, Pope, 65 _n._ - - Syria, 94. - - - T. - - Tabuc, 94. - - Tacitus, 55. - - Tagus, 214. - - Talmud, 84, 165, 255, 258, 269, App. II. - - Talmud, the Babylonian, 85. - - ” ” Jerusalem, 57. - - Tarichæa, 28. - - Tavora, 231. - - Temple burnt, 36. - - ” Attempt to Rebuild, 68, 69, App. IV. - - ” Lord, 345. - - ” Sir W., 305. - - Tertullian, 52 _n._ - - Texel, 292. - - Theiss, River, 366. - - Thema, 162. - - Theodoric I., 82. - - Theodorus, 74. - - Theodosius I., Emperor, 72. - - ” II., ”, 72 _n._, 76, 83. - - Theresa Maria, 327, 335. - - Theudas, 23 _n._ - - Thirty Years’ War, 286. - - Thomas, Father, 374. - - ” Island of, 246. - - ” St., 115. - - Thonon (Thun), 205. - - Tiberias, 56, 157, 162, 377. - - Tiberius, Emperor, 20. - - Tigris, River, 161. - - Timour, the Tartar, 277. - - Titus, Emperor, 26-41. - - Toland, John, 341. - - Toledo, 101, 206, 128, 145. - - ” Council at, 101, 102. - - Toro, 233. - - Torquemada, Thomas, 235 _n._, 264, 354. - - Tortosa, 230. - - Toulouse, 123, 301. - - ” Count of, 122. - - Tours, Battle of, 122. - - Trajan, Emperor, 42. - - Trani, 200. - - Trent, 220. - - Treves, 140. - - ” Bishop of, 141. - - Tribotti, Nathan, 331. - - Tripoli, 281. - - Tucker, Rev. Mr., 344. - - Tudela, Benjamin of. _See_ Benjamin. - - Tunis, 281. - - Turcomans, 111. - - Turkestan, 116. - - Turkey, 289, 334, 308. - - Turks, 137. - - Tyaneus, Apollonius, 59. - - Tyre, 162. - - Tyropæon, 29. - - Tzaddik, 325, 334. - - - U. - - Ukraine, 289. - - United States, 373. - - Urban VI., Pope, 202. - - Ustazades, 67. - - Utrecht, 220. - - Uziel, Isaac, 299. - - - V. - - Valencia, 217, 240. - - Valens, Emperor, 71. - - Valentinian, Emperor, 71. - - Valladolid, 231, 232. - - Valori, 256 _n._ - - Vandals, 96. - - Van Ende, Physician, 295. - - Varanes (Behram), King of Persia, 86. - - Varus, 26. - - Vaughan, General, 347. - - Venice, 222, 258, 305. - - Vera, Juan de, 175. - - Verdun, 191. - - Verona, 222, 258. - - Vespasian, Emperor, 28, 29, 39. - - Vienna, 272, 290. - - ” Council at, 169. - - Villars, M., 301. - - Virga, Solomon ben, 250. - - Virgin Mary, 116. - - Visigoths, 100. - - Vitellius, Emperor, 29. - - ” Prefect, 21. - - Vitringa, 290. - - Vitry, 192. - - Voltaire, 321, 326. - - Vorburg, 295. - - Vossius, T., 284. - - - W. - - Wallachia, 333. - - Walsingham, 166. - - Wamba, King of Goths, 103. - - ” ”, Languedoc, 105. - - Wathek, Al, 110. - - Wellington, Duke of, 349. - - Wenceslaus, Emperor, 209. - - Wessely, 337. - - Westphalia, 290. - - Whately, Archbishop, 351. - - William I., King of England, 133. - - ” II. ” ”, 133, 148. - - William III., King of England, 304. - - Wilna, 333. - - Witiza, King of Goths, 103, 104. - - Wolfsohn, 337 _n._ - - Worms, 141, 286. - - - X. - - Ximenes, Cardinal, 261. - - - Y. - - Yemen, 92, 376. - - Yermouk, 95. - - Yezdegird, King of Persia, 91, 94. - - York, 134, 150, 275. - - Yusef, Emir, 112. - - ” King, 133 _n._ - - - Z. - - Zacchæus, 161. - - Zacchai, David, 129. - - Zacharias, Bishop of Jerusalem, 87. - - ” False Messiah, 177. - - ” Rabbi, 288. - - ” Russian Jew, 273. - - Zamora, Council at, 212. - - Zarephath, 340 _n._ - - Zealots, 26, 30, 31. - - Zebedee, Pharisee, 288. - - Zedekias, Physician, 126. - - Zeigler, Rabbi, 292. - - Zenobia, Queen of Palmyra, 60. - - Zion, Mount, 29. - - Zoffingen, 205. - - Zohar, Book of, 54, 332 _n._, Appendix III. - - Zonaras, 72. - - Zoroaster, 69 _n._ - - Zosimus, 273. - - Zunz, Leopold, 363. - - Zutia, 85 _n._ - - Zutphen, 219. - - - - - Transcriber’s Notes - - pg 1 Changed spelling of Chrosroes 79 to: Chosroes - pg 2 Changed spelling of Sepher-Yetsira to: Yetzira - pg 392 Changed spelling of Sepher-Yetsira to: Sepher-Yetzira - pg 19 Added word intelligent not be: not to be - pg 19 Added period to: evasion of her claims - pg 49 Combined words strong and holds to: into their strongholds - pg 50 Changed comma to period at: tenanted the streets - pg 57 Added period to: A.D 429 - pg 63 Changed comma to period after: demand his submission - pg 71 Changed chapter heading dates from 365-429 to: 363-429 - pg 89 Changed spelling of illustrous to: illustrious tribe of the - Koreish - pg 109 Removed repeated word of from: Gospels, of of the length - pg 110 Changed one of the Abbasside Caliphs to: Abasside - pg 126 Added comma to: refused an audience - pg 133 Changed Yusef, king of the Almorarides to: Almoravides - pg 146 Added period to: with by the government - pg 153 Changed conciliate their good-will to: goodwill - pg 155 Changed comma to period after: Tale of Alroy - pg 162 Fixed spacing for: difficult tor econcile to: to reconcile - pg 172 Removed unnecessary comma from: A.D. 1233 - pg 200 Changed word eat to seat at: occupation of the eat - pg 203 Added The Jews in to chapter heading - pg 206 Changed privy to and articipators to: participators - pg 207 Added period to: punishing the offenders - pg 228 Added period to: other Christian States - pg 238 Changed spelling of considering the irreconcileable to: - irreconcilable - pg 262 Changed spelling of: aterwards returned to his to: afterwards - pg 291 Changed lay in a lifelong to: life-long - pg 300 Changed spelling of: already rcorded to: recorded - pg 302 Changed advantage to grant re-admission to: readmission - pg 307 Added period to: attained a great reputation - pg 314 Added period to: among the transgressors - pg 337 Changed , to semicolon at: professor at Breslau - pg 345 Added period to: this unfortunate measure - pg 347 Added period to: part in Jewish affairs - pg 357 Changed scarcely more that a year to: than - pg 363 Changed spelling full rights of citzenship to: citizenship - pg 367 Changed wanted it except or to: for - pg 373 Changed free schools, alms-houses to: almshouses - pg 383 Added period to: amount to 600,000 - pg 404 Changed spelling of: On one occassion to: occasion - pg 407 Changed spelling of Bokkara to: Bokhara to match pg 376 - pg 407 Changed spelling of Alkikoran, 128 to: Alkihoran - Added missing punctuation where needed in the Index - Various accented and non-accented words left as written - Added word The to various chapter headings - -*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE HISTORY OF THE JEWS *** - -Updated editions will replace the previous one--the old editions will -be renamed. - -Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S. copyright -law means that no one owns a United States copyright in these works, -so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and distribute it in the -United States without permission and without paying copyright -royalties. 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